LIBRARY 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

SANTA  BARBARA 


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PRESENTED  BY 

MRS;  DONALD  KELLOGG 


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CHAMBERS'S 

ENCYCLOPEDIA 


BALTa  ORE    ORIOLE 


CHAMBERS'S 


ENCYCLOPiEDIA: 


A   DICTIONARY 


UNIVERSAL  KNOWLEDGE   FOR  THE   PEOPLE. 


ILLUSTRATED. 


I3sr  TEisr  "v^oxjUtmies. 


Vol.  L 


PHILADELPHIA: 

J.     B.     LiPPINCOTT     &     Co, 

EDINBURGH  :    W.    &    R.    CHAAIBEES, 

1871. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  tha  year  1870,  by 

J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT   &   CO., 

In  the  Clerk's  Offlco  of  the  District  Court  of  tUo  Dnited  States  for  the  Eastern  District  of  Pinnsjlvania. 


NOTICE. 


TT  is  now  considerably  more  than  a  hundred  years  since  Ephraim  Chambers  gave 
to  the  world  his  Cyclopmdia^  or  Universal  Dictionary  of  Knowledge — the 
prototype,  as  it  proved  to  be,  of  a  number  of  similar  works  in  Britain  as  well  as 
in  other  countries,  which  must  have  contributed  in  no  small  measure  to  increase 
the  sum  of  general  intelligence.  In  nearly  all  these  works  there  has  been  a  ten- 
dency to  depart  from  the  plan  of  their  celebrated  original,  as  concerns  some  of  the 
great  departments  of  science,  literature,  and  histoiy ;  these  being  usually  presented, 
not  under  a  variety  of  specific  heads,  as  they  commonly  occur  to  our  minds  when 
information  is  required,  but  aggregated  in  large  and  formal  treatises,  such  as  would 
in  themselves  form  books  of  considerable  bulk.  By  such  a  course  it  is  manifest  that 
the  serviceableness  of  an  Encyclopaedia  as  a  dictionary  for  reference  -  is  greatly 
impaired,  whatever  may  be  the  advantages  which  on  other  points  are  gained. 

With  a  view  to  bring  back  the  Encyclopaedia  to  its  original  purpose  of  a  Dic- 
tionary of  Knowledge^  even  down  to  matters  of  familiar  conversation,  the  Germans 
formed  the  plan  of  their  Conversations-Lexicon^  a  work  which,  extending  to  a  long 
series  of  volumes,  has  passed  through  ten  editions,  and  obtained  a  world-wide 
celebrity.  Believing  that  a  translation  of  the  latest  edition  of  that  well-conceived 
and  laboriously  executed  work  would  be  generally  acceptable,  the  Editors  made  an 
arrangement  for  that  purpose  with  the  proprietor,  Mr.  Brockhaus  of  Leipsic.  After 
some  time,  however,  had  been  spent  in  translating,  the  task  of  adapting  the  infor- 
mation to  English  requirements  was  found  so  difficult,  that  the  resolution  was  taken 
to  bring  out  a  substantially  new  work,  following  in  its  construction  the  admirable 
plan  of  the  Conversations-Lexicon^  but  making  use  of  its  valuable  matter,  only  so 
far  as  it  might  be  found  suitable. 

Chambers's  Encyclopedia,  therefore,  although  constructed  on  the  basis  of  the 
latest  edition  of  the  Conversations-Lexicon^  is,  in  no  part,  a  mere  translation  of  that 
work.  All  that  specially  relates  to  Great  Britain  and  her  colonies,  as  well  as  to  the 
states  of  North  and  South  America,  is  collected  from  new  and  more  direct  sources. 
The  articles  also  on  the  physical  sciences  and  practical  arts  receive  greater  promi- 


NOTICE. 

nence  than  in  the  German  work,  and  are  nearly  all  original,  being  mostly  the  work 
of  contributors  having  special  knowledge  of  the  subjects.  Even  in  the  articles  of 
the  Conversations-Lexicon  relating  to  Germany  and  other  continental  countries,  as 
well  as  to  subjects  of  a  universal  interest,  the  lapse  of  time  (now  ten  years)  since  the 
publication  of  that  work  began,  as  well  as  the  difference  in  the  relative  importance 
of  the  same  subject  in  different  countries,  has  rendered  great  alterations  necessary 
in  order  to  adapt  the  information  to  the  present  time  and  to  Great  Britain.  The 
employment  of  illustrative  engravings  and  maps,  is  another  feature  in  which  the 
present  work  differs  from  the  German. 

The  general  character  of  the  work,  now  thus  far  advanced,  is  indicated  by  its 
title — A  Dictionary  of  Universal  Knowledge  for  the  People.  The  several  topics 
are  not  handled  with  a  view  to  the  technical  instruction  of  those  who  have  to  make 
a  special  study  of  particular  branches  of  knowledge  or  art.  The  information  given 
may  be  characterised  as  non-professional,  embracing  those  points  of  the  several 
subjects  which  every  intelligent  man  or  woman  may  have  occasion  to  speak  or  think 
about.  At  the  same  time,  every  effort  is  made  that  the  statements,  so  far  as  they 
go,  shall  be  precise  and  scientifically  accurate.  One  great  aim  in  the  arrangement 
of  the  work  has  been  to  render  it  easy  of  consultation.  It  is  expressly  a  Dictionary, 
in  one  alphabet,  as  distinguished  on  the  one  hand  from  a  collection  of  exhaustive 
treatises,  and,  on  the  other,  from  a  set  of  Dictionaries  of  special  branches  of 
knowledge.  To  save  the  necessity  of  wading  through  a  long  treatise  in  order  to 
find,  perhaps,  a  single  fact,  the  various  masses  of  systematic  knowledge  have  been 
broken  down,  as  it  were,  to  as  great  a  degree  as  is  consistent  with  the  separate 
explanation  of  the  several  fragments.  In  the  greater  number  of  articles,  however, 
there  will  be  found  copious  references  to  other  heads  with  which  they  stand  in 
natural  connection  ;  and  thus,  while  a  single  fact  is  readily  found,  its  relation  to 
other  facts  is  not  lost  sight  of.  It  will  be  observed,  that  by  means  of  accentuation, 
some  assistance  is  given  in  the  pronouncing  of  the  proper  names  which  form  the 
heads  of  the  articles.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  work,  it  is  intended  to  give  a  copious 
General  Index,  referring  not  only  to  the  distinct  articles,  but  to  subjects  casually 
noticed — an  arrangement  which  cannot  fail  to  be  of  considerable  use  to  those  who 
wish  to  consult  the  work  on  many  matters  of  interest. 

W.  &  R.  CHAMBERS. 

Edinburgh,  March  31,  1860. 


MAPS    AND    PLATES    FOR  VOL.  L 


PAGB 

AFRICA .  65 

CENTRAL  AMERICA 200 

NORTH  AMERICA 204 

SOUTH  AMERICA          .....  196 

ASIA 473 

AUSTRALIA          .            .            .            .            •            •  561 

AUSTRIA 568 

BALTIMORE  ORIOLE   ....  Frontispiece. 

ACALEPH^    .......  23 

SEA  ANEMONES  (from  Hamburg  Aqoarium)    .  .  250 

ANTS  (nest  of  Formica  Rufa)  .....         283 

APTERYX  (from  specimens  in  London  Zoological  Gardens)  837 

PAPER  NAUTILUS  (Argonauta  Argo)       .  .  .390 

ARGUS  PHEASANT 392 

DOG-FACED  BABOON  .  .  .  •  .598 

JAPANESE  BEARS  (from  living  animals  in  the  Zoological 

Gardens  at  Rotterdam)      ....  774 

GREAT  BEAVER  DAM  (from  photograph)  .  .         784 


A  DICTIONARY  OF 


UNIVERSAL  KNOWLEDGE  FOR  THE  PEOPLE. 


eound  ; 


is  the  first  letter  in  almost  all 
alphabets  ;  the  only  exceptions, 
perhaps,    are     the     Ethiopian, 

1'/^  /#^PP^'^  where  it  takes  the  thirteenth 
ri^)M&FSMy^  place,  and  the  Runic,  where  it 
stands  tenth.  This  letter  repre- 
sents in  English  at  least  four 
distinct  sounds,  as  heard  in  ale, 
man,  father,  all.  Of  these,  the  third  may 
be  considered  its  primitive  and  proper 
it  is  its  name-sound  in  perhaps  all  lan- 
guages except  English,  and  is  that  which  is 
assigned  to  it  in  comparative  grammar.  This 
sound  is  the  purest  and  fullest  in  human  speech  ; 
it  is  that  which  the  child  learns  first  and  most 
easily  to  produce,  and  its  sign  stands  as  if  by 
right  at  the  head  of  the  alphabet.  In  the  oldest 
languages  it  is  the  predominating  vowel,  and  gives 
them  their  peculiar  fulness  and  strength.  Philolo- 
gists consider  it  the  heaviest  of  the  three  fundamental 
vowels ;  the  other  two,  i  and  ?t  (whose  primitive  and 
proper  sounds  are  heard  in  me  and  do),  seem  to 
have  arisen  out  of  a,  by  lightening  or  weakening  it 
(Lat.  cadence — incidence,  calco — incwlco).  By  com- 
bining with  these,  a  gives  rise  to  ai,  au,  which  in 
tlieir  turn  coalesce  into  e  and  d. — In  the  Phoenician 
alphabet,  the  letter  A  bears  the  name  of  aleph  ;  i.  e., 
'  ox,'  with  reference  to  its  most  ancient  form,  which 
rudely  represented  an  ox's  head.  From  this  came 
the  Greek  name  alpha.  For  engraving  or  tracing 
on  stone  or  other  hard  materials,  characters  com- 
posed of  straight  lines  are  best  adapted,  and  such 
was  naturally  the  earliest  form  of  A  and  the  other 
letters.  It  is  easy  to  trace  the  growth  of  our  small 
a  or  a  out  of  the  monumental  A.  In  Greek  and 
Roman   inscriptions   executed  hastily  or  carelessly, 


the  form     /^    is  often  found ;  and   this,  written 
with  a  flexible  reed,  became  rounded  into 


A 


—For  A  and  the  other  letters  as  abbreviations,  see 
Abbreviations. 


A,  as  a  note  in  Music,  is  the  major  sixth  of  the  snalo 
of  G,  major.  When  perfectsly  in  tune  to  0,  it  sta.ads 
in  the  proportion  of  |  of  1.  But  in  this  statii.  it 
would  not  be  a  fifth  to  D,  the  second  note  of  Ihe 
scale  of  C,  being  a  comma  too  flat,  which  differetice 
is  as  80  to  81.  The  ear  being  sensibly  offended  with 
this  deficiency,  the  note  A  is  therefore  made  the  least 
degree  higher  than  perfect — namely,  yW,  by  which 
the  advantage  is  gained,  that  A  is  a  fifth  above  D 
(y^l),  or  only  deficient  in  the  proportion  of  -J-f^l 
— a  deficiency  so  trifling  that  the  ear  accepts  ths 
fifth,  D,  A,  and  the  sixth,  C,  A,  as  perfect,  although, 
mathematically  calculated,  the  one  is  too  great  and 
the  other  too  small. — For  A  Major  and  A  Minor, 
see  Key. 

A 1,  a  symbol  by  which  first-class  vessels  are 
known  in  Lloyd's  Register  of  British  and  Foreign 
Shipping  (q.  v.),  and  by  which  the  operations  of 
shippers  of  goods  and  insurers  are  governed.  Sur 
veyors  appointed  by  the  society  examine  all  vessels 
in  course  of  building,  with  a  view  to  ascertaining 
their  character,  and  inscribing  them  accordingly  in 
the  register.  A  designates  the  character  of  the  hull 
of  the  vessel;  the  figure  1,  the  efficient  state  of  her 
anchors,  cables,  and  stores ;  when  these  are  insuffi- 
cient, in  quantity  or  quality,  the  figure  2  is  used. 
The  character  A  is  assigned  to  a  new  ship  for  a 
certain  number  of  years,  varying  from  four  to 
fifteen,  according  to  the  material  and  mode  of 
building,  but  on  condition  of  the  vessel  being 
statedly  surveyed,  to  see  that  the  efficiency  is 
maintained.  A  vessel  built  under  a  roof  is  allowed 
an  additional  year  on  that  account.  An  additional 
period  of  one  year,  and,  in  certain  cases,  of  two 
years,  is  also  allowed  to  vessels  whose  decks,  outside 
planking,  <tc.,  are  fastened  in  a  specified  way.  After 
the  original  period  has  elapsed,  the  character  A  may 
be  '  continvid''  or  '  restored''  for  a  time  (1 — 8  years), 
on  condition  of  certain  specified  repairs. — When 
a  vessel  has  passed  the  age  for  the  character  A, 
but  is  still  found  fit  for  conveying  perishable 
goods  to  all  parts  of  the  world,  it  is  registered  A 
in  red.     (The  symbol  for  this  class  was  i'oi  merly  M 

1 


A  CAPELLA— ABANDON. 


asterisk  in  red). — Ships  M  in  black  form  the  third 
class,  and  consist  of  such  as  are  still  found,  on  sur- 
vey, fit  to  carry  perishable  goods  on  uliorter  voyages. 
— Classes  E  and  I  comprise  ships  sufficient  to  con- 
vey goods  not  liable  to  sea-damage ;  the  one  class, 
for  voyages  of  any  length,  the  other,  for  shorter 
voyages. 

A  CAPELLA,  or  A  LA  CAPELLA,  in  Mus., 
means,  in  the  church  style  ;  it  is  equivalent  to  Alia 
Breve  (q.  v.),  a  time-signature  which  frequently 
appears  in  church-music.  It  also  denotes  that  the 
instruments  ai'e  to  play  in  unison  with  the  voices, 
or  that  one  part  is  to  be  played  by  a  number  of 
instrum(;nts. 

AA,  the  name  of  a  number  of  rivers  and  streams 
in  the  north  of  France,  Holland,  Germany,  and 
Switzerland.  As  many  as  forty  have  been  enume- 
rated. The  word  is  said  to  be  of  Celtic  origin,  but 
it  is  allied  to  the  Old  German  aha,  Gothic  aAya, 
identical  with  the  Latin  aqua,  '  water.'  Acli  or 
Aach  is  another  form  of  the  same  word.  Four 
streams  of  the  name  of  Ach  fall  into  the  Lake  of 
Constance.  The  word,  in  both  forms,  occurs  as  final 
syllable  in  many  names  of  places,  as,  Fulda  (for- 
merly Fuldaha),  Biberach,  Biberich,  &c.  In  the 
plural,  it  is  Aachen  (waters,  springs),  which  is  the 
German  name  of  Aix-la-chapelle  (q.  v.).  Aix,  the 
French  name  of  so  many  places  connected  with 
springs,  is  derived  from  Lat.  Aquce,  which  became 
in  old  French  Aigues,  and  then  Aix.  Compare  the 
Celtic  Esk,  Ex,  Axe,  Ouse. 

AALBORG  (meaning  Eel-town),  a  seaport  in  the 
north  of  Jutland,  with  considerable  trade  ;  pop.  8000. 

AAR,  next  to  the  IWiine  and  Phone,  the  largest 
river  in  Switzerland,  rises  in  the  glaciers  near  the 
(Trinisel  in  Berne,  forms  the  Falls  of  Haudeck, 
200  feet  high,  flows  through  Lakes  Brienz  and 
Thun,  and  passing  the  towns  of  Iiiterlachen,  Thun, 
Berne,  Solothurn,  Aarau,  Brugg,  and  Klingenau, 
joins  the  Rhine  at  the  village  of  Coblenz,  in  Aargau, 
after  a  course  of  nearly  200  miles.  It  is  a  beautiful 
crystal  stream,  and,  though  rapid,  is  navigable  for 
small-craft  from  Lake  Tium.  There  are  several 
small  rivers  of  the  same  name  in  Germany. 

AARGAU  (ARGOVIE),  a  canton  of  Switzerland, 
on  the  lower  course  of  the  Aar,  and  having  the  Rhine 
for  its  north  boundary.  Its  surface  is  diversified 
with  hills  and  valleys,  is  well  wooded,  and  generally 
fertile.  The  area  is  about  530  sq.  miles,  and  the 
population  in  1860  was  about  194,200,  rather  more 
than  half  being  Protestants.  Besides  agriculture,  con- 
siderable manufacturing  industry  in  cotton  and  silk 
is  carried  on  both  in  the  towns  and  country,  and  the 
prosperity  of  the  population  has  of  late  markedly 
increased.  In  this  canton  is  the  castle  of  Habsburg 
or  Hapsburg,  the  original  seat  of  the  imperial 
family  of  Austria.  The  chief  town  is  Aarau, 
situated  on  the  Aar;  pop.  4657. 

AARHUUS,  a  seaport  on  the  east  coast  of 
Jutland;  pop.  6800. 

AARON,  the  elder  brother  of  Moses,  was  ap- 
pointed his  assistant  and  spokesman,  and  at  the 
giving  of  the  Mosaic  law  received  for  himself  and 
his  descendants  the  hereditary  dignity  of  the  priest- 
hood. Aaron  assisted  his  brother  in  the  admin- 
istration of  public  affairs.  He  died  in  the  ISod 
year  of  his  age,  on  Mount  Hor,  on  the  borders  of 
Idumea.  His  third  son,  Eleazar,  succeeded  him  in 
the  office  of  high-priest. 

ABACA,  or  MANILLA  HEMP,  is  the  fibre  of  a 
species  of  plantain  or  Ijanana  {3Iusa  troglodi/tarum), 
a  native  of  the  Philip]Hue  Isles,  where  it  is  exten- 
sively cultivated.  The  leaf-stalks  are  split  into  long 
Stripes,  and  the  fibrous  part  is  then  separated  from 


the  fleshy  pulp.  A  labourer  can  in  this  way  produce 
daily  50  lbs.  of  hemp.  Before  1825,  the  quantity  pro- 
duced was  insignificant,  but  now  it  amounts  to  nearly 
31,000  tons  annually.  In  1868,  17,390  tons  were  im- 
ported into  the  United  States  at  an  average  cost  of 
$159  per  ton.  The  ropes  are  very  durable,  but  not  very 
flexible.  The  fibi-e  of  a  number  of  species  of  Jliisa 
is  used  in  tropical  countries.     See  PLAJSfTAlN. 

A'BACUS,  an  instrument  seldom  seen  except  io 
infant-schools,  where  it 
is  used  to  make  the  ele- 
mentary operations  of 
arithmetic  palpable.  It 
consists  of  a  frame  with 
a  number  of  parallel 
wires,  on  which  beads  ^'"°'^^«  ^'^'"*'^"*-  _ 

or  counters  are  strung.  In  ancient  times,  it  was 
used  in  practical  reckoning,  and  is  said  to  be  so 
still  in  China  and  elsewhere. — Abacus  P ijthagoricus 
meant  the  nmltiplication-table. — Auacus,  in  arch., 
is  a  square  or  oblong  level  tablet  on  the  capital  of  a 
column,  and  supporting  the  entablature.  In  the 
Doric,  old  Ionic,  and  Tuscan  orders,  the  abacus  is 


Doric  Abacus. 


a  regular  oblong;  but  in  the  new  Ionic,  Corinthian, 
and  Roman  orders,  the  abacus  has  concave  sides, 
with  truncated  angles.     Square    marble  tablets  let 


'^i^l 


Corinthian  Abacus. 


into  walls,  and  fields  with  figures  in  them  inserted 
in  mosaic  floors,  were  also  included  under  the 
term  abacus  in  ancient  architecture. 

ABAD  (allied  both  in  etymology  and  meaning  to 
the  Eng.  abode),  an  affix  to  names  of  Persian  origin, 
as  llydzrabad,  the  '  dwelling'  or  city  of  Hyder. 

ABAISSE  (lowered),  a  term  used  in  Heraldry, 
When  the  fesse,  or  any  other  armorial  figure  is 
depressed,  or  situated  below  the  centre  of  the  shield, 
it  is  said  to  be  ahaisw.  Adosse  (back  to  back), 
affronte  or  confronte  (facing  or  fronting  one  another), 
aiguisse  (sharpened  at  the  point),  aile  (winged),  are 
other  heraldic  terms  borrowed,  like  abaixxe,  from 
the  French,  and  used  by  English  heralds  in  senses 
not  differing  essentially  from  their  ordinary  signifi- 
cations in  that  language. 

ABANDON  (Abandoning,  Abandonment).  This 
term,  in  its  different  grammatical  and  etymological 
forms,  has  various  applications  in  legal  phraseology, 
but  all  more  or  less  corresponding  to  its  popular 
meaning.     The  following  are  examples  : 

Abandoning  an  Action  is  a  technical  expression 
in  Scotch  legal  procedure,  signifying  the  act  by 
which  a  plaintiff — or  '  pursuer,'  as  he  is  called  in 
Scotland — abandons  or  withdraws  from  his  action  on 
the  payment  of  the  costs  incurred,  and  with  the 
approval  of  the  judge  before  whom  the  action  had  pre- 
viously been  conducted.  The  same  purpose  is  effected 
in  England  by  the  plaintiff  in  a  Court  of  Common 


ABANDONMElSiT— ABAUZIT  FIRMIN. 


Law  eithor  entering  a  Xolle  Prosequi,  or  at  the 
trial  witJuh-awing  the  record.  In  the  Courts  of  Equity, 
tlie  plaintifl  may  move  the  dismissal  of  his  own  bill, 
or  the  defendant  may  move  to  dismiss  the  suit  for 
want  of  pro-femdion  by  the  plaintiff.  Suits  may  also 
abate  "by  the  death  or  supervening  incapacity  of  the 
parties.     See  Action. 

Aeandonmkxt,  in  Marine  Insurance,  signifies  the 
relinquishment  to  the  insurer  or  underwriter  of 
goods  or  property  saved  from  a  shipwreck,  and  of 
all  interest  in  the  same,  previous  to  the  owners' 
demanding  payment  in  terms  of  the  policy.  See 
Insurance. 

Abandonment  of  Railvtats.  By  the  act  of 
parliament  la  and  14  Vict.  c.  S3,  f;icilities  are 
aHbrded  for  the  A.  of  Railways,  and  the  dissolution 
of  railway  companies  by  consent  of  the  holders  of 
three-fifths  of  the  shares  or  stock,  and  by  warrant  of 
the  'Commissioners  of  Railways,'  or,  as  it  now  is  by 
the  14  and  15  Vict.  c.  64,  by  warrant  of  the  Board  of 
Trade,  who,  in  this  respect,  as  well  as  in  other 
matters  regarding  the  regulation  of  railways,  have 
superseded  the  former  body.     See  Railway. 

Abandoning  or  deserting  seamen,  by  masters 
of  merchant  vessels,  is,  by  9  Geo.  IV.  c.  31,  s.  30,  a 
misdemeanour,  and  punishable  by  imprisonment. 
See  Seamen. 

ABATEMENT.  This  is  a  term  used  in  various 
senses  in  the  law  of  England,  as  follows:  1.  A.  of 
Freehold,  where  a  stranger  without  right  enters  and 
gets  possession.  See  Fkeehold.  2.  A.  of  Nuis- 
ances, which  is  a  remedy  against  injury  by  nuisance. 
See  XuiSANCE.  3.  Pica  in  A.  by  means  of  which 
a  defendant,  on  some  formal  and  technical  ground, 
seeks  to   abate  or  quash  the   action.     See    Action. 

4.  A.  of  Legacies  and  Debts,  where  the  estate  is 
insufficient   for    payment   in    full.       See    Legacies. 

5.  A.  by  the  death  of  parties  to  actions  at  law  and 
suits  in  equity,  which  are  in  consequence  stopped 
till  revived.  The  marriage  of  a  plaintiff,  the  change 
or  loss  of  interest  and  right,  and  other  similar  con- 
siderations, have  also  the  effect  of  abating  legal  pro- 
ceedings. See  Action.  6.  A.  or  discount,  in 
Commercial  Law.  See  Commekcial  Law.  7.  A. 
or  deduction  of  duties  levied  by  the  Custom-house. 
See  Custom-house. 

ABATEMENT,  in  Heraldry,  is  a  mark  placed 
over  a  portion  of  the  paternal  coat-of-arms  of  a 
family,  significative  of  some  base  or  ungentleman-like 
act  on  the  part  of  the  bearer.  The  coat  is  then  said 
to  be  abated,  or  lowered  in  dignity.  Guillim  gives 
nine  such  nuiiks,  all  of  which  are  of  either  one  or  the 
other  of  tlic  two  disgraceful  colours,  tenne  (tawney) 
and  sanguine.  Such  are  the  delf  tenne,  assigned 
to  him  who  revokes  his  challenge;  the  escutcheon 
reversed  sanguine,  proper  to  him  who  offends  the 
chastity  of  virgin,  wife,  or  widow,  or  flies  from  his 
sovereign's  banner ;  the  point-dexter  tenne,  due  to 
him  who  overmuch  boasteth  himself  of  his  martial 
acts ;  and  the  like.  Marks  of  abatement  are  gener- 
ally repudiated  by  the  best 
heraldic  authorities.  Menestrier 
calls  them  sottises  Anglaiscs,  and 
Montagu  is  of  opinion  that  we 
shall  seek  in  vain  for  a  more 
appropriate  designation.  Abate- 
ments are  carefully  to  be  distin- 
guished from  such  subtractive 
alterations  in  coats-of-arms  as 
signify  juniority  of  birth,  or 
Abatiinent.  removal  from  the  principal  house 
or  senior  branch  of  the  family. 
These  are  commonly  called  marks  of  cadency, 
distinctions,    difterences,    or   brisures.       The    latter 


which  might  with  less  impropriety  be  classed  with 
abatements. 

ABATTIS,  a  species  of  intrenchment,  and  one 
of  the  oldest.  It  consists  of  trees  felled  (abattu), 
and  laid  side  by  side,  with  the  branches  directed 
towards  the  enemy,  the  softer  twigs  being  cut  off.  It 
thus  forms  a  breastwork  to  fire  over,  and  is  very 
useful  in  field-works  and  in  the  out-works  of  regular 
fortifications,  for  retarding  the  enemy's  advance. 

ABATTOIR  (Fr.  abattre,  to  fell  or  destroy),  a 
slaughter-house.  The  use  of  this  term  has  passed 
into  England  from  France,  where  the  example  was 
first  given  of  public  establishments  for  the  slaughter 
of  animals  used  as  food,  on  such  a  scale  and  with 
such  sanitary  arrangements  as  to  obviate  the  injuri- 
ous effects  that  are  found  to  result  from  the  existence 
of  private  slaughter-houses  in  the  midst  of  a  crowded 
population.  This  great  public  improvement  origi- 
nated with  Napoleon,  who  passed  a  decree  in  1807 
for  the  erection  of  public  abattoirs.  The  extensive 
works  connected  with  this  design  were  nearly  com- 
pleted before  the  fall  of  the  Empire;  but  it  was 
not  till  the  close  of  1818,  that  the  Parisian  butchers 
ceased  to  slaughter  in  their  private  establishments. 
There  are  now  five  of  these  abattoirs  iu  Paris — three 
on  the  right  and  two  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Seine, 
containing  240  slaughter-houses  in  all — which,  both 
in  architectural  propriety  and  completeness  of 
internal  arrangement,  may  be  regarded  as  models  of 
their  kind.  The  charge  per  head  is,  for  an  ox  6 
francs,  a  cow  4  fr.,  a  calf  2  fr.,  and  a  sheep  50  cents. 
Of  the  appearance  and  management  of  one  of  the 
great  Parisian  abattoirs,  a  good  account  is  given  by 
Sir  Francis  Head,  in  his  amusing  work,  A  Faggot 
of  French  Sticks.  Other  towns  in  France  have  simi- 
lar abattoirs  ;  and  so  have  Mantua  and  Brussels. 

The  erection  of  similar  estabhshraents  in  Britain 
is  of  comparatively  recent  date.  Public  slaughter- 
houses formed  part  of  the  plan  in  the  establishment 
of  the  new  cattle-market  in  the  Metropolis  in 
Copenhagen  Fields.  Those  built  are  well  arranged  ; 
but  they  are  few  in  number,  and  the  old  system  is 
still  in  full  operation,  to  the  great  detriment  of  the 
public  health.  In  Edinburgh,  an  establishment  of 
this  kind,  excellent  in  its  construction  and  arrange- 
ments, was  erected  by  the  town-council  in  18.51. 

A  BATTUTA  (Ital.),  in  Music,  in  strict  or  meas- 
ured time. 

ABAUZIT,  FIRMIN,  a  French  savant,  was  born 
at  Uzes,  in  Langucdoc,  167'.*,  and  died  at  Geneva 
17C)7.  His  parents  were  Protestant,  and  at  the 
revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  being  only  six 
vears  of  age,  he  escaped  with  difficulty,  by  his 
mother's  contrivance,  from  the  hands  of  the  authori- 
ties who  wished  to  educate  him  into  Catholicism,  and 
was  sent  to  Geneva.  Here  he  prosecuted  his  studies 
with  such  intense  ardour  and  diligence,  that  he  became 
versed  in  almost  all  the  sciences.  He  travelled  in 
England  and  Holland  in  1698,  where  he  made  the 
acquaintance  of  Newton,  Bayle,  and  other  eminent 
writers.  Newton,  in  sending  him  one  of  his  contro- 
versial works,  paid  him  the  distinguished  compli- 
ment of  saying  :  '  You  are  worthy  to  decide  between 
Leibnitz  and  me.'  King  William  wished  to  retain 
him  permanently  in  England,  and  to  that  end  made 
him  several  adviintageous  offers ;  but  his  affection 
for  his  mother  induced  him  to  return  to  Geneva.  He 
translated  the  New  Testament  into  French  in  1726  ; 
and  for  his  lucid  investigations  into  the  ancient 
history  of  Geneva,  he  received  from  its  authori- 
ties the  rights  of  citizenship.  He  likewise  wrote 
numerous  theological  and  archaeological  treatises, 
besides  leaving  one  or  two  scientific  and  artistic 
dissertations  iu  manuscript,  but  the  greater  portion  of 

who  were  Catholics. 


leTm   is   generally   applied    to   marks   of    bastardy,  i  these  were  burned  by  his  heirs, 

3 


ABBADIE— ABBOT. 


His  oithodoxy  has  Vieen  disputed.  From  some  of  his 
•works  we  gain  the  impression  that  he  was  a  Unitarian. 
His  personal  qualities  secured  him  universal  esteem. 
Roussea-u,  who  could  not  bear  to  praise  a  contem- 
porar}',  penned  his  solitary  panegyric  on  A. 

ABBADIE,  Antoine  and  Arxould-Michel  d', 
two  brothers,  French  travellers,  known  for  their 
researclies  in  Abyssinia,  from  1837  to  1845.  Accord- 
ing to  their  own  account,  their  objects  were  purely 
ethnological  and  geographical ;  but  they  were 
reg'Jrded  by  certain  English  travellers  and  mission- 
aries as  agents  employed  by  the  French  government 
for  religious  and  political  purposes  ;  and  were  accused 
of  inducing  Prince  Ubie  to  expel  the  Lutheran 
missionaries  from  Adoa.  Arnould  returned  a  second 
time  to  Abyssinia  in  185.3,  and  continued  his  explo- 
rations fov  a  year.  The  results  of  their  travels 
appeared  from  time  to  time  in  the  French  geographical 
journals.  They  are  chiefly  valuable  in  a  philological 
and  ethnological  point  of  view. 

ABBANDONAMENTE  (Ital),  in  Music,  with  self- 
abandonment  ;   despondingly. 

ABBAS,  the  uncle  of  Mohammed,  the  Arabian 
prophet,  and  the  chief  promoter  of  his  religion  (d.  t)52), 
was  the  founder  of  the  family  of  the  AisHASinKS, 
who  ruled  as  califs  of  Bagdad  from  749  to  1'258, 
and  afterwards  exercised  the  spiritual  functions  of 
the  califate  in  Egypt,  under  the  protection  of  the 
Mamelukes,  till  1517,  when  that  dignity  passed 
to  the  Turkish  sultan.  Descendants  of  this  family 
still  live  in  Turkey  and  India. — The  Abhasidks  in 
Persia  were  descended  from  the  race  of  the  Sofi,  who 
ascribed  their  origin  to  the  calif  Ali.  This  race 
acquired  dominion  in  15IH),  and  became  extinct  in 
1736.  Among  them,  Abbas  I.,  surnamed  tlie  Great, 
was  the  most  eminent  ruler.  He  came  to  the  throne 
1586,  and  died  1628.  His  reign  was  marked  by 
a  series  of  victories  over  the  Turks.  In  alliance  with 
England,  he  destroyed,  in  1621,  the  Portuguese 
colony  at  Ormuz. 

ABBAS-MIRZA,    a   Persian   prince,    well   known 
by  his  wars  against  Russia,  was  the  son  of  the  Shah 
Feth-Ali,  and  was   born  in    1783.     Abbas   possessed 
great   talents   and  acquirements,  and  a  love   for  the 
manners  and  culture  of  the  West.     When  he  was 
yet    young,  his   father   made    him    governor  of  the 
province  Azerbijan,  where,  by  the  help  of  English 
officers,  he   applied  himself  to    the   reform    of  the 
army.     When  Persia,  in  1811,  influenced  by  France, 
declared    war     against     Russia,    Abbas    was    com- 
niandcr-in-chicf  of  the   main    body   of  the    Persian 
army,   but   was    unsuccessful.       Persia   lost,    at    the 
peace  of  Gulistan,  in  1813,  its  remaining  possessions 
in  the  Caucasus,  and  was  forced  to  acknowledge  the 
flag  of  Russia  on  the  Caspian  Sea.     At  the   instiga- 
tion of  Abbas,  a  new  war  broke  out  in  1826, between 
Feth  Ali  and  Russia.     The   prince   fought  a   second 
time  with  extraordinary  bravery  at  the  head  of  the 
army,  but   was    again  obliged    to  yield  to  the  supe- 
riority of  the  Russian  arms,  and  to  conclude  a  peace, 
on   February  22,   1828,  at  Turkmantschai,  by   which 
Persia    lost    all  share  in  Armenia.     In    this    treaty, 
Russia   had   guaranteed  to  Abbas  the   succession  to 
the  Persian  tlirone,   the   consequence  of  which  was 
that    he    became    dependent    on    Russia,    and    was 
obliged    to    give    up    his  connection    with   England. 
When,  in  1829,  the   Russian  ambassador  at  Teheran 
was    murdered  in  a  popular  tumult,  which  he  had 
provoked  by  imprudence.  Abbas  went  in   person  to 
St.  Petersburg,  to  prevent  any  ill  consequences,  and 
to  maintain    the   peace.      He  was   received  by   the 
eni.peror    with    kindness,   and   went    back  to  Persia 
loaded  with  presents.     He  died  in  1833.     His  death 
was  a  great  loss  to  his  country,  although   he  could 
not   have   prevented  the  encroachments  of  Russia. 


His  eldest  son,  Mohammed  Mirza,  mounted  the 
throne  in  1834,  on  the  death  of  Feth  Ali,  under  the 
united  protection  of  England  and  Russia. 

ABBATE,  NiccoLO  Dell,  or  Niccolo  Abati, 
was  born  at  Modena  in  1509  or  1512,  and  died  at 
Paris  in  1571.  He  was  an  able  and  skilful  artist  in 
fresco-painting,  and  w;is  a  follower  both  of  Ra|)hael 
and  Correggio ;  yet  he  rather  blent  the  two  styles  in 
one  than  imitated  cither  separately.  His  influence  is 
traceable  in  the  art  which  prevailed  during  the 
second  half  of  the  16th  century.  His  earlier  works 
are  to  be  seen  at  Modena ;  his  later  ones  at  Bologna, 
among  which  is  his  '  Adoration  of  the  Shepherd-^,' 
considered  his  finest;  but  he  is  best  known  by  the 
frescoes  which  he  executed  for  the  Castle  of  Fontain- 
bleau,  from  the  designs  of  Primaticcio.  These,  how- 
ever, with  the  exception  of  the  tableaux  representing 
the  histoiy  of  Alexander  the  Great,  were  unfortu- 
nately destroyed  in  1738,  at  the  barbarous  suggestion 
of  an  architect  who  wished  to  enlarge  the  building. 

ABBE,  the  general  title  in  France  for  a  clergy- 
man, applied  at  one  time,  in  a  wide  sense,  to  any 
one  who  had  laid  himself  out  for  the  sacred  profes- 
sion, or  had  merely  studied  at  a  theological  seminary. 
Before  the  Revolution,  the  king  had  the  power  of 
nominating  225  Abbes  Commendatairex  (see  Abbot',, 
who,  without  having  any  duty  to  do,  drew  a  third  o.!' 
the  revenues  of  the  convents.  It  was  not  even  neces- 
sary to  tidvc  priests'  orders,  the  pope  in  most  cases 
granting  dispensation.  The  temptation  of  such  sine- 
cures made  the  number  of  abbes  so  great,  that  they 
formed  a  considerable  and  influential  class  in  society, 
and  an  abbe  was  found,  as  friend  or  ghostly  adviser, 
in  almost  every  family  of  consequence.  In  those 
times,  the  title  of  abbe  was  little  more  than  equiva- 
lent to  our  modern  title  of  '  literary  man '  or 
'  scholar;'  but  in  costume  the  abbe  was  distinguished 
by  a  black  or  violet-colotned  coat,  and  a  peculiar 
style  of  wearing  the  hair.  Since  the  Revolution,  few 
abbes  are  to  be  seen  in  France ;  but  the  class  is  still 
numerous  in  Italy,  where  a  young  clergyman  wlio 
has  received  the  tonsure,  but  has  not  taken  holy 
orders,  is  styled  Abbate. 

ABBESS,  the  superior  of  a  religious  community  of 
women,  corresponding  in  rank  and  authority  to 
an  abbot  (q.  v.),  except  in  not  being  allowed  to 
exercise  the  spiritual  functions  of  the  priesthood — 
such  as  preaching,  confession,  &c. 

ABBEVILLE  {Abbatis  Villa),  in  France,  next  to 
Amiens,  the  most  considerable  town  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Somme,  is  situated  on  the  river  Sonnne  ;  pop. 
18,U00.  The  town  is  well  built,  and  is  the  seat  of 
considerable  woollen  manufactures.  Here  a  factory, 
founded  in  1669,  under  the  patronage  of  the  ministei 
Colbert,  still  employs  above  500  hands. 

ABBEY.     See  Monastery. 

ABBEY  is  used  in  a  legal  sense  in  Scotland, 
and  signifies  the  sanctuary  or  protection  to  a  debtor 
against  legal  process  aflbrded  by  the  A.  of  Holyrood. 
See  Sanctuary. 

ABBOT  ('father').  This  name,  originally  given 
to  any  aged  monk,  was  afterwards  more  strictly 
applied  to  the  superior  of  a  monastery  or  abbey. 
Since  the  6th  c,  abbots  have  belonged  to  the 
clerical  orders,  but  at  first  they  were  not  neces- 
sarily priests.  After  the  second  Nicene  Council 
(787),  abbots  were  empowered  to  consecrate  monks 
for  the  lower  sacred  orders ;  but  they  remained 
in  subordination  under  their  diocesan  bishops 
until  the  11th  c.  As  abbeys  became  wealthy, 
abbots  increased  in  power  and  influence  ;  many 
received  episcopal  titles ;  and  all  were  ranked  as 
prelates  of  the  church  next  to  the  bishops,  and  had 
the     right    of    voting    iu    church-councils.      Even 


ABBOT— ABBREVIATIONS. 


abbesses  contended  for  the  same  honours  and  privi- 
leges, but  without  success.  In  the  8th  and  9th 
c,  abbej'S  began  to  come  into  the  hands  of  lay- 
men, as  rewards  for  military  service.  In  the  10th 
c,  many  of  the  chief  abbeys  in  Christendom  were 
under  lay-abbots  (^Ablates  Milites,  or  Abha-coniiten), 
while  subordinate  deans  or  priors  had  the  spiritual 
oversight.  The  members  of  the  royal  household 
received  grants  cf  abbeys  as  their  maintenance, 
and  the  king  kept  the  richest  for  himself  Thus, 
Hugo  Capet  of  France  was  lay-abbot  of  St.  Denis, 
near  Paris.  Sometimes  convents  of  nuns  were 
granted  to  men,  and  monasteries  to  women  of 
rank.  These  abuses  were,  in  a  great  measure, 
reformed  during  the  10th  c.  After  the  reformation 
of  the  order  of  Benedictines,  monasteries  arose 
that  were  dependent  upon  the  mother-monastery 
of  Clugny  and  without  abbots,  being  presided  over 
by  priors  or  pro-abbates.  Of  the  orders  founded  after 
tlie  11th  c.,  only  some  named  the  superiors  of 
tlieir  convents  abbots ;  most,  from  humility  or  other 
cause,  used  the  titles  of  prior,  major,  guardian, 
rector.  Abbesses  have  almost  always  remained  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  their  diocesan  bishop;  but  the 
abbots  of  independent  or  liberated  abbeys  acknow- 
ledged no  lord  but  the  pope.  In  the  middle  ages,  the 
so-called  Insulated  Abbots  frequently  enjoyed  epis- 
copal titles,  but  only  a  few  had  dioceses.  Before 
the  period  of  secularisation  in  Germany,  several  of 
the  abbots  in  that  country  had  princely  titles  and 
powers.  In  England  there  were  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  Mitred  Abbots  who  sat  and  voted  in  the  House 
of  Lords.  The  election  of  an  abbot  belongs,  as  a  rule, 
to  tlie  chapter  or  assembly  of  the  monks,  and  is 
afterwards  confirmed  by  the  pope  or  by  the  bishop, 
according  as  the  monastery  is  independent  or  under 
episcopal  jurisdiction.  But  from  early  times,  the 
pope  in  Italy  has  claimed  the  right  of  confei-ring 
many  abbacies,  and  the  concordat  of  1516  gave  a 
shnilar  right  to  the  king  of  France.  Laymen  who 
possessed  monasteries  were  styled  Secular  Abbots; 
while  their  vicars,  who  discharged  the  duties,  as 
well  as  all  abbots  who  belonged  to  the  monastic 
order,  were  styled  Rcgidar  Abbots.  In  France,  the 
abuse  of  appointing  secular  abbots  was  carried  to 
a  great  extent  previous  to  the  time  of  the  Revolu- 
tion. (See  Abbe.)  Often  monasteries  themselves 
chose  some  powerful  person  as  their  secular  abbot, 
with  a  view  of  'commending'  or  committing  their 
abbey  to  his  protection  {Abbes  Commendataires).  In 
countries  which  joined  in  the  Reformation,  the 
possessions  of  abbeys  were  mostly  confiscated  by 
the  crown ;  but  in  Hanover,  Brunswick,  and  Wiir- 
temberg,  several  monasteries  and  convents  were 
retained  as  educational  establishments.  In  the 
,  Greek  Chui'ch,  the  superiors  of  convents  are  called 
Herjwncni  or  Mandrlteit,  and  general  abbots,  Archi- 
mandrites. 

ABBOT,  Charles.     See  Tenterden,  Lord. 

ABBOT,  Georre,  an  English  prelate  under  the 
Stuarts — chiefly  remarkable  for  the  position  he  held, 
and  the  part  he  acted,  as  the  opponent  of  the  policy 
of  Land  and  a  despotic  court — was  the  son  of  a 
cloth-manufacturer  in  Guilford,  and  was  born  15G2. 
After  studying  at  Oxford,  he  was  appointed  chaplain 
to  the  Earl  of  Dunbar  (101)8),  with  whom  he  went 
to  Scotland.  This  appointment  was  the  basis  of 
A.'s  subsequent  promotion.  For  a  short  time 
he  held  the  see  of  Lichfield  and  Coventry,  and  in 
1610  was  made  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  As  a 
learned  and  able  man,  but  more  especially  as  a 
friend  of  toleration,  he  gained  the  esteem  of  all 
parties  in  an  age  of  religious  animosities.  James  I. 
employed  the  advice  of  A.  in  the  most  important 
affairs  of  state,  and  the   prelate  often  opposed  the 


arbitrary  principles  of  the  king.  A.'s  intolerance 
of  Arininian  doctrines  was  an  exception  to  his  gene- 
ral rule  of  conduct.  His  independent  and  liberal 
spirit  incurred  the  displeasure  of  Charles  I.  A. 
was  employed  on  the  authorised  translation  of  the 
Bible  under  James  I.  His  other  literary  productions 
are  not  important.  He  died  at  Croydon,  1033,  and 
a  monument  was  erected  to  his  memory  in  his  native 
town,  Guilford.  His  brother,  Robert  A.,  Bishop 
of  Salisbury  (b.  loGO — d.  1G17),  was  a  learned  theo- 
logian, and  the  author  of  a  treatise  De  ISuprema 
Potestate  Regia  (1(516),  written  to  controvert  the 
doctrines  of  IJellarmine  and  Suarez. 

ABBOT,  Rev.  Jacob,  a  native  of  Maine,  U.S., 
was  born  in  1803,  and  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College 
in  1820.  He  is  a  remarkably  voluminous  writer, 
and  has  acquired  a  large  measure  of  popularity  from 
the  simplicity  and  earnestness  of  his  thought.  He 
has  addressed  himself  principally  to  the  young, 
and  it  is  peihaps  not  too  much  to  say,  that  of 
all  works  intended  for  the  juvenile  mind,  his  are 
the  best  in  the  English  language.  So  thoughtful  an 
instructor  of  youth  even  as  Dr.  Arnold,  speaks  in 
high  terms  of  The  Way  to  do  Good.  Nearly  all  his 
books  have  been  repeatedly  republished  in  England, 
and  some  have  been  translated  into  various  European 
and  Asiatic  languages.  His  most  popular  work  is 
The  Young  Christian.  Besides  this,  he  has  written 
The  Franconia  Stories,  10  vols. ;  Histories  for  the 
Young,  19  vols.  ;  Marco  PauVs  Adventures,  6  vols.  ; 
Harper^s  Story-books,  36  vols. ;  &c. 

ABBOTSFORD,  the  seat  of  Sir  Walter  Scott,  is 
situated  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Tweed,  a  little 
above  its  confluence  with  the  Gala,  and  about 
three  miles  from  the  town  of  Melrose.  Before  it 
became,  in  1811,  the  property  of  Sir  Walter,  the 
site  of  the  house  and  grounds  of  A.  formed  a  small 
farm  known  by  the  name  of  Cartley  Hole.  The 
new  name  was  the  invention  of  the  poet,  who 
loved  thus  to  connect  himself  with  the  days  when 
Melrose  abbots  passed  over  the  fords  of  the  Tweed. 
On  this  spot,  a  sloping  bank  overhanging  the  river, 
with  the  Selkirk  Hills  behind,  he  built  at  first  a 
small  villa,  now  the  western  wing  of  the  castle. 
Afterwards,  as  his  fortune  increased,  he  added  the 
remaining  portions  of  the  building,  on  no  uniform 
plan,  but  with  the  desire  of  combining  in  it  some 
of  the  features  (and  even  actual  remains)  of  those 
ancient  works  of  Scottish  architecture  which  he 
most  venerated.  The  result  was  that  singularly 
picturesque  and  irregular  pile,  which  has  been  aptly 
characterised  as  '  a  romance  in  stone  and  lime.' 
The  present  proprietor  of  A.  is  Mr.  Hope  Scott,  who 
married  the  granddaughter  of  Sir  W.  Scott.  A 
considerable  addition  has  recently  been  made  to  the 
building. 

ABBREVIATIONS  are  contrivances  in  writing 
for  saving  time  and  space.  They  are  of  two  kinds, 
consisting  either  in  the  omission  of  some  letters  or 
words,  or  in  the  substitution  of  some  arbitrary  sign. 
In  the  earliest  times,  when  uncial  or  lapidary  charac- 
ters were  used,  abbreviations  by  omission  prevailei, 
such  as  we  find  in  the  inscrii)tions  on  monuments, 
coins,  &c.  In  these,  the  initial  letter  is  often  put 
instead  of  the  whole  word,  as  M.  for  Marcus,  F.  for 
FiHus.  It  was  after  the  small  Greek  and  Roman 
letters  had  been  invented  by  transcribers  for  facili- 
tating their  work,  that  signs  of  abbreviation,  or  charac- 
ters representing  double  consonants,  syllables,  and 
whole  words,  came  into  use.  Greek  manuscripts 
abound  with  such  signs,  and  often  only  one  that  has 
expressly  studied  Greek  palaeography  can  make  them 
out.  From  the  manuscripts,  they  passed  into  the 
early  printed  editions  of  Greek  books,  and  it  is  only 
recently  that  they  have  quite  disappeared.     Among 

.5 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


the  Romans,  signs  of  abbreviation  were  called  notce^ 
and  professed  scribes  who  employed  them  ^yere 
notari  To  such  an  extent  was  the  system  carried, 
that  L.  Annai'iis  Seneca  collected  and  classified  5<jOo 
abbreviations.  The  same  practice  has  prevailed  in 
all  language.',  but  nowhere  more  than  in  the 
Rabbinical  writings. — The  abbreviations  used  by  the 
ancient  Romans  were  continued  and  increased  in  the 
middle  ages.  They  occur  in  inscriptions,  manuscripts, 
and  legal  documents ;  and  the  practice  continued  in 
these  last  long  after  the  invention  of  printing  had 
made  it  unnecessary  in  books.  An  act  of  parliament 
was  passed  in  the  reign  of  George  II.,  forbidding  tlie 
use  of  abbreviations  in  legal  documents.  Owing  to 
these  abbreviations,  the  deciphering  of  old  writ- 
ings requires  special  study  and  training,  and  forms 
a  separate  science  called  Diplomatic  (q.  v.),  on  which 
numerous  treaties  have  been  written.  Tassin's 
Nouveau  7'raite  de  Diplomatique  (6  vols.,  Par. 
1750-65)  contains,  in  the  third  volume,  an  exposi- 
tion of  Roman  abbreviations.  Other  works  on 
the  subject  are — Gatterer's  Abriss  der  Diplomatik 
(2  vols.,  Gott.  1798) ;  Pertz's  Schrifttaflcn  (4  Xos., 
Hannov.  18-tfi)  ;  and  Kopp's  Paheograpldca  Crltica 
(4  vols.,  Manh.  1817-29). — In  ordinary  writing  and 
printing,  few  abbreviations  are  now  employed.  The 
sign  (t,  originally  an  abbreviation  for  the  Lat.  et, 
'  and,'  is  perhaps  the  Gnly  one  of  the  arbitrary  kind 
still  to  be  met  with.  It  does  not  stand  properly 
for  a  word,  for  it  is  used  in  different  languages,  but 
for  an  idea,  and  is  as  much  a  symbol  as  +.  The 
abbreviations  by  using  the  initials  of  Latin  words 
that  are  still  in  use,  are  chiefly  confinea  to  titles, 
dates,  and  a  few  phrases ;  as,  M.A.  (maglsfer  artium), 
Master  of  Arts;  A.D.  {cmno  domi/ii),  in  the  year 
of  our  Lord ;  e.//.  {exempli  gratid),  for  example. 
Many  are  now  formed  from  English  words  in 
the  same  way ;  as,  F.G.S.,  Fellow  of  the  Geo- 
logical Society;  B.C.,  before  Christ. — Most  of  the 
sciences  and  arts  have  sets  of  signs  of  abbreviation, 
or  symbols,  peculiar  to  themselves.  These  are  of 
great  use  both  for  brevity  and  clearness.  See 
GnEMiCAL  Symbols,  &c. 

The   following   is   a   list   of   the   more   important 
Abbreviations  in  general  use  ; 
Abp.,  Archbishop. 

A.C.  {Ante  Christum),  Before  Christ. 
A.D.  {Anno  Domini),  In  the  year  of  our  Lord. 
A.H.  {Anno  Hcgirce),  In  the  year  of  the  Hegira. 
A.M.  {Ante  3Icridlem),  Before  noon;  {Anno  Mundi), 

In  the  year  of  the  world. 
A.R.A.,  Associate  of  the  Royal  Academy  (London). 
A.R.S.A.,  Associate  of  the  Royal  Scottish  Academy. 
A.U.C.  {Ah  Urhe  Condita),  From  the  building  of  the 

city — that  is,  Rome. 
B.A  or  A.B.  {Artium   Baccalaureus),  Bachelor    of 

Arts. 
Bart,  or  Bt.,  Baronet. 
B.C.,  Before  Christ. 
B.C.L.,  Bachelor  of  Civil  Law. 
B.D.,  Bachelor  of  Divinity. 
B.M.,  Bachelor  of  Medicine. 
Bp.,  Bishop. 

C.  {Centum),  A  hundred;  chapter. 
C.A.,  Chartered  Accountant. 
C.B.,  Companion  of  the  Bath. 
C.C,  Caius  College. 
C.E.,  Civil  Engineer, 
Clk.,  Clerk. 
C.M.G.,  Companion  of  the  Order  of  St.  Michael  and 

St.  George. 
Crim.  Con.,  Criminal  conversation. 
Ct.,  Count, 
cwt..  Hundredweight. 
D.C.L.,  Doctor  of  Civil  Law. 
6 


D.D.,  Doctor  of  Di^inity  ;  Bono  dedit. 

D.G.  {Dei  O ratio),  By  the  grace  of  God. 

Do.  (Ital.  ditto,  '  said'),  The  said  ;  the  same. 

Dr.  Doctor,  or  Debtor. 

D.V.  (^Deo  Volente),  God  'ivilling. 

dwt.,  penny- weight. 

e.g.,  or  ex.  gi\  {Exempli  Gratid.),  For  example. 

Etc.   {Et  ccetera),  And  the  rest;  and  so  on. 

F.A.S.,  Fellow  of  the  Antiquarian  Society. 

F.B.S.,  Fellow  of  the  Botanical  Societv. 

F.D.  {Fidei  Defensor),  Defender  of  the  Faith. 

F.G.S.,  Fellow  of  the  Geological  Society. 

F.L.S.,  Fellow  of  the  Linnaean  Society. 

F.M.,  Field-marshal. 

F.R.A.S.,  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Astronomical,  or  of 

the  Roval  Asiatic  SocietJ^ 
F.R.C.P.,"  Fellow  of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians. 
F.R.C.S.,  Fellow  of  the  Eoyal  College  of  Sm-geons. 

E.,  of  England. 
F.R.G.S.,  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Geogi-aphical  Society. 
F.R.S.,  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Societ3\     L.,  Lomlon ; 

E.,  Edinburgh. 
F.R.S.S.A.,  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Scottish  Society  of 

Arts. 
F.S.A.,    Fellow    of     the    Society    of     Antiquaries. 

F.S.A.Scot.,  do.  of  Scotland. 
F.S.S.,  Fellow  of  the  Statistical  Society. 
F.Z.S.,  Fellow  of  the  Zoological  Society. 
G.C.B.,  (Knight)  Grand  Cross  of  the  Bath. 
G.C.IL,  (Knight)  Grand  Cross  of  Hanover. 
G.C.M.G.,  (Knight)  Grand  Cross  of  St.  Michael  .uid 

St.  George. 
Gr.,  Greek;  Lat.,  Latin;  Ital.,  Italian;  &c. 
H.E.I.C.S.,  Hon.  East  India  Company's  Service. 
H.M.S.,  His  or  Her  Majesty's  Service,  or  Ship. 
H.R.IL,  His  or  Her  Royal  Highness, 
lb.  or  II lid.  {Ibidem),  In  the  same  place. 
I.e. TH. U.S.  (iX'S"'),   lesous  Christos,    Theou   Hv'os, 

Soter — Jesus  Christ,  the  Son  of  God,  the  Saviour. 
Id.  {Tdetn),  The  same ;  {fdus),  The  Ides, 
i.e.  {Id  est).  That  is. 
I.H.S,*  Jesus  Hominum  Salvator,  Jesus  the  Saviour 

of  men;    In  hde  {Cruee)  Salus,   In  this   (cross) 

salvation. 
Incog.  {Incognito,  Ital.),  Unknown. 
I. X.R.I.  {lesus  Nazarcnns  Rex  Iiidceorum),  Jesus  of 

Nazareth,  king  of  the  Jews. 
Inst.   {Instante — mense  understood),  Instant,  of  the 

present  (month) :  Institute. 
I.P.D.  (/;i  Prcesentid  Dominorum),  In  presence  of 

the  Lords  (of  Session). 
J.C.  {Juris  Constdtns),  Juris-consult. 
J.P.,  Justice  of  the  Peace. 
J.V.  (or   U.)   D.   {Juris   Utrinsqice  Doctor),   Doctor 

both  of  Civil  and  of  Canon  Law. 
Kal.  {Kalendce  or  Kalendis),  the  Kalends. 
K.B.,  Knight  of  the  Bath. 
K.C.B.,  Knight  Commander  of  the  Bath. 
K.C.H,  Knight   Commander   of  the   Order  of  Han- 

over. 
K.C.M.G.,  Knight  Commander  of  St.  Michael  and  St. 

George. 
K.G.,  Knight  of  the  Garter. 
K.H.,  Knight  of  Hanover. 
K.M.,  Knight  of  Malta. 
K.P.,  Kniijht  of  St.  Patrick. 
K.T.,  Knight  of  the  Thistle. 
K.  T.  \.,  Ka.1  ra  Kenroixfva  {Kai  ta  leij)omena),  same  as 

'  Et  cffitera.' 

*  This  was  originally  IH2,  the  first  three  Greek  letters  of 
the  name  Jesus;  but  its  origin  having  been  lost  si^ht  of,  by 
substituting  S  for  5,  and  then  mistalcing  the  Gr.  II  {eta)  for 
Lat.  H,  a  signification  was  subsequently  found  out  for  e.ich 
letter.  The  symbol  was  still  further  altered  by  converting  tho 
horizontal  stroke,  which  was  the  usual  sisn  of  abbreviation, 
into  a  cross,  as  it  now  generally  appears,  lAS. 


ABBRE  VI  ATI  ONS— ABD-EL-K  ACER. 


Lb.  {libra),  Pound. 

L.D.,  Lady  Day. 

LL.B.  {Legum  B ace al aureus),  Bachelor  of  Laws  (the 

phiral  being  denoted  by  the  double  L.) 
LL.D.  {Ler/um  Doctor),  Doctor  of  Law^;. 
LR.C.S.,  Licentiate  of  the  Royal  College    of    Sur- 
geons. 
L.S.A.,  Licentiate  of  the  Society  of  Apotiiecarics. 
L.S.D.  {Librcc,  Solldi,   Denarii),  Pounds,  shillings, 

pence. 
M.  {Mille),  A  thousand. 

M.A.  or  A.  M.  (Artium  Magiater),  blaster  of  Arts. 
Mass.,   Massachusetts;  Vt.,  Vermont ;   Pa.,  Pennsyl- 
vania, &c.     See  LTnitki)  States 
M.D.  (McdiciiKc  Doctor),  Doctor  of  Medicine. 
M.P.,  Member  of  Parliament. 

M.R.C.S.,  Mcml)er  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons. 
M.K.I. A,,  Member  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy. 
MS.,  Manuscript;  MSS.,  Manuscripts. 
Mus.  D.  {Musicce  Doctor),  Doctor  of  Music. 
M.W.S.,  Member  of  the  Wcrnerian  Society. 
N.B.  {i\\)ta  bene),  Mark  well ;  observe. 
Nem.    con.   [Nemiiie  contradicente),    or   Nera.    diss. 
{Neinine  dismlente).  No  one  contradicting  or  dis- 
senting; unanimously. 
N.P.,  Notary  Public. 
N.S.,  New  Stvle. 
O.S.,  Old  Style. 

Oxon.  {Oxoniensis),  Of  Oxford. 
oz.,  Ounce. 

P.,  President;  professor;  &c. 
P.O.,  Privy  Councillor. 
P.C.S.,  Principal  Clerk  of  Session. 
Per  ann.  ( Per  annum).  By  the  year. 
Per  cent.  {Per  ccntwn),  By  the  hundred. 
Ph.D.  {PJnlosojMce  Doctor),  Doctor  of  Philosophy. 
P.M.  {Post  Meridiem),  After  noon. 
P.P.,  Parish  priest. 
pp.,  Pages. 

Pro  tein.  [Pro  tempore),  For  the  time. 
Prox.  {Proximo),  in  the  next  (month). 
P.S.  {Post  scripttmi).  Postscript. 
Q.,  Query  or  Question. 
Q.C.,  Queen's  Counsel. 
Q.E.D.  {Quod  erat  demonstrandum).  Which  was  to  be 

demonstrated. 
Q.E. F.  ( Q?<ocZ  erat  faciendnm).  Which  was  to  be  done. 
Q.  S.  {Quantum  sutficit),  Enough. 
q.  V.  {Quod  vide).  Which  see. 
R.  {Rex  or  Rcgina),  King  or  Queen. 
R.A.,  Royal  Academician;  Royal  Artillery. 
R.E.,  Royal  Engineers. 
R.M.,  Royal  Marines. 
R.N.,  Royal  Navy. 
R.S.A.,  Royal  Scottish  Academician. 
S.,  South  ;  saint;  seconds. 
Sc,  Scilicet,  same  as  viz. 
S.L.,  Solicitor  at  Law. 
S.M.  {Sa  Majeste),  His  or  Her  Majesty. 
S.P.Q.R.  {Se7iatus  Popuhisque  Romanns),  the  Roman 

senate  and  people. 
Sq.,  {Sequens),  the  following  ;  Sqq.,  do.  in  the  plural. 
S.S.C.,  Solicitor  Itefore  the  Supreme  Courts. 
S.T.P.  {.Sanctce   Theologice   Professor),   Professor  of 

Theology. 
T.C.D.,  Trinity  College,  Dublin. 
Ult.     ( Ultimo  —  viense    understood).    In    the    last 

(month). 
D.P.,  United  Presbyterian. 
U.S.,  United  States  ;  United  Service. 
V.D.M.    {Vcrbi    Dei    Minister),    Preacher    of   the 

Word. 
Viz.  (  Videlicet),  To  wit ;  namely. 
W.S.,  Writer  to  the  Signet. 
Xmas.,  Christmas.     Xtian.,  Christian,  &c 
Y^  Yt ;  The,  That.     (This  use  of  Y  originated  in  the 


Anglo-Saxon  character  ]>,  which  was  equivalent  to 
the    modern    th.     In  manuscripts,  this  character 
degenerates    into    a   form    like    a  black  letter  t/. 
which  was  retained  in  these  contractions  after  its 
origin  and  real  sound  had  been  lost  sight  of) 
Besides  the  generally  current  abbreviations  given 
above,   other  short  methods  of   statement  are  fre- 
quently employed  in  particular    circumstances.     In 
the  present   work,  for  instance,  in  which  the  saving 
of  space  is  of  great  moment,  when  the  title  or  head- 
ing of  a   subject  recurs  in  the  body  of  the  article,  it 
is   generally — especially  if  a  proper    name — repre- 
sented   by    its    initial   letter:    e.g.,  A.  for  Abd-el 
Kader.     two  dates  thus  (1215 — 1250),  fohowing  the 
name    of   a    king,  a  pope,  &c.,  indicate  briefly  the 
beginning  and  end  of  his  reign  or  term  of  ofiicc  ;  or 
thus  (b.  1215— d.  1250),  the  dates  of  his  birth  and 
death.     The  meaning  of  these  and  similar  contrac- 
tions  is   in   general   sufficiently    obvious   from    the 
connection  in  which  they  stand. 

ABD  signifies  in  Arabic    '  slave '  or  '  servant,'  and 

enters,  along  with  the  name  of  God,  into  the  com- 
position of  many  proper  names ;  as,  Abd-Allah, 
'servant  of  God ; '  Abd-el-Kader,  'servant  of  the 
mighty  God  ; '  Abd-ul-Latif,  '  servant  of  the  gracious 
God,'  &c. 

ABD  -  EL  -  KADER,     properly      El-Hadji- Abd-el- 
Kader  -  Ulid  -  Mahiddin,    is    the    descendant    of    a 
Marabout  family  of  the  race  of  Haschem,  who  trace 
their  pedigree  to  the  califs  of  the  lineage  of  Fatima. 
He  was  born  at  Ghetna,  an  educational  institution  of 
the  MaraDouts,    near   Mascara,    which   belonged   to 
his   fannly.      His   father,  who    died    in  1834,  being 
esteemed    a    very    holy    man,  had    exercised    groat 
influence  over  his  countrymen,  which   influence  he 
bequeathed  to  his  son.     In  his  eighth  yeai-,  A.  made 
a  pilgrimage  to  Mecca  with  his  father;  and  in  1827, 
he  %'isitcdEgypt,  where,  in  Cairo  and  Alexandria, 
he  first   came    in  contact  with  western  civilisation. 
Religious    enthusiasm    and    melancholy    were    the 
most    prominent    features    of    his   character.       He 
early  shewed  an  uncommonly  gifted    mind,  and  at 
the    chief  school   of  Fez   he   acquired   such  know- 
ledge   as  composes  Arabian   science.      A.  was  free 
from    the    savage    cruelty,    as    well    as    from  the 
sensuality,   of  the  Arabs;    he  maintained  purity  of 
manners,   and   did  not  suffer  himself  to   be   misled 
by  anger  or  passion.     Although  he  firmly  adhered 
to  the  faith  of  his  nation,  and  used  their  fanaticism 
as  one  of  his  most  important  sources  of  influence, 
yet  he  had  no  sympathy  with  the  fanatical  intoler- 
ance  of    the   majority   among   them.      His    public 
career  began  at  the  time  of  the  conquest  of  Algiers 
by  the  French.     No  sooner  was  the  power  of  the 
Turks    broken,    than    the    Arabian    tribes     of    the 
province  of    Oran  seized  the  opiiortunity  to    make 
themselves    independent.       Having    got   possession 
of  Mascara,    thoy     elected   A.    as    their    emir,  who 
soon    succeeded  "in    establishing    his  authority  over 
a    number    of    the    neighbouring  tribes.     He  now- 
attacked   the   French ;    and   some   bloody    battles, 
fought  on  December  3,  1833,  and  January  6,  1834, 
against   General   Desmichels,    then   commanding   in 
Oran,    obliged    the    latter    to    enter   into    a    treaty 
with   him.      In    the   interior   of    the   country,    the 
power   of  A.  now  spread  in  an  alarming  way.     In 
consequence  of  victories  over  neighbouring  chiefs, 
he   became   master   of  MiHana   and   Medeah.      All 
the  cities  and  tribes  of  the  provinces  of  Oran  and 
Titferi  ilcknowlcdged  A.  as  their  sidtan;  the  more 
distant   tribes  sent   him   ambassadors  with  presents 
It  was  not  long  before  ho.stilities  broke  out  between 
him   and   the   French.       The    commencement    was 
favourable    to    him,     for    the    first    operations    of 
General    Tretzcl    led  to  that    fatal    retreat,    during 

7 


ABDICATION— ABDOMEN. 


Mhicli  the  French  army  was  attacked  at  Makta, 
<  11  June  28,  1835,  by  the  whole  assembled  forces  of 
A.,  amounthig  to  nearly  20,000  cavalry,  and  suffered 
a  disgraceful  defeat. 

After  a  protractea  struggle  of  six  years,  A.  found 
himself  obliged  (1841)  to  take  refuge  in  Marocco. 
Here  lie  succeeded  in  getting  up  a  sort  of  crusade 
against  the  enemies  of  Islam ;  and  the  arms  of 
France  were  now  turned  against  Marocco  for  the 
countenance  given  to  A.  After  the  decisive  battle 
of  Isly  (1844)  the  sultan  was  obliged  to  give  up  A.'s 
cause,  but  soon  found  that  the  latter  was  at  least 
his  equal  in  power,  and  tliat  he  could  not  even  pre- 
vent him  from  marching  out  of  Nedem  to  attack  the 
French  again,  both  in  October  1845,  and  in  March 
1847.  But  the  star  of  A.  was  now  about  to  set.  In 
the  night  of  the  11th  December,  he  made  a  bold  attack 
on  the  Moorish  camp,  in  which  he  was  defeated,  and 
had  to  resolve  on  flight.  He  might  easily  have 
secured  his  own  safety,  but  he  would  not  abandon 
his  attached  followers,  men,  women,  and  children, 
to  the  plunder  and  massacre  of  the  Maroccans. 
After  a  heroic  combat  on  the  21st  December,  he 
effected  their  retreat  across  the  Muluia  into  the 
territory  of  Algerie,  where  they  mostly  surrendered 
to  the  French.  He  himself,  with  a  few  horsemen, 
resolved  to  light  his  way  through  to  the  south  ;  but 
coming  to  the  Pass  of  Kerbous,  he  found  the 
way  closed,  and  was  received  with  musketry.  Dis- 
pirited at  length,  A.  surrendered,  on  December 
22,  1847,  to  General  Lamoriciere,  and  the  Due 
d'Auraale,  upon  condition  that  he  should  be  per- 
mitted to  withdraw  either  to  Egypt  or  to  St.  Jean 
d'Acre.  The  French  government,  wlio  at  last  saw 
the  man  in  their  power  who  had  given  them  so 
much  trouble  for  fifteen  years,  refused  to  ratify  this 
agreement.  A.  was  embarked  with  his  family  and 
sent  to  Toulon,  whence  he  was  removed,  on  January 
7,  1848,  to  Fort  Lamalgue,  afterwards  to  Pan,  and 
finally  to  the  Chateau  d'Amboise.  He  was  liberated 
in  1852  by  Louis  Napoleon,  and  has  since  resided 
chiefly  at  Brussa  and  Damascus.  In  1860,  when  the 
Christians  of  Syria  were  threatened  with  massacre, 
A.  pi-otected,  with  sleepless  vigilance,  many  thou- 
sands of  them  until  the  danger  was  past.  See  Dela- 
croix, Histoiye  PrivSe  et  Politique  d' Abd^el-Kader 
(Paris,  1845);  ClmrchiW,  Life  of  Abd-el-Kade7;vrritr 
ten  from  his  own  dictation  (London,  1867). 

ABDICATION  is  the  act  of  giving  up  an  office, 
generally  the  office  of  ruler  or  sovereign.  It  is 
rarely  done  out  of  pure  pre'ference  of  a  private  station, 
but  is  generally  the  result  of  vexation  and  disappoint- 
ment. It  was  perhaps  voluntarily,  and  from  being 
wearied  with  dominion,  that  Diocletian,  and  along 
with  him  Maximian,  abdicated  (305).  Christina  of 
Sweden  retired  from  the  throne  (1654)  out  of  prefer- 
ence for  the  freedom  of  private  life,  but  wished  still 
to  exercise  the  rights  of  a  sovereign.  Charles  V.  laid 
down  the  crown  (1556)  because  his  great  schemes 
had  failed.  Phihp  V.  of  Spain  did  so  (1724)  in  a  fit 
of  melancholy,  but  resumed  it  on  the  death  of  his 
son.  Amadeus  of  Savoy  abdicated  (1494)  to  become 
a  priest.  Victor  Amadeus  of  Sardinia,  who  abdi- 
cated in  1730,  wished  to  recall  the  step,  but  was  not 
allowed.  Louis  Bonaparte  resigned  the  crown  of 
Holland,  because  he  would  not  consent  to  treat  that 
country  as  a  province  of  France.  Charles  Emanuel 
of  Sardinia  retired  from  the  throne  in  1802,  not 
finding  himself  equal  to  the  crisis ;  and  the  same 
was  the  case  with  Victor  Emanuel  in  1819.  William 
I.  of  the  Netherlands  resigned  (1840),  as  his* policy 
had  become  impossible  from  the  turn  of  affliirs  in 
Belgium.  Foreign  force  compelled  the  abdication 
of  Augustus  of  Poland  (1707),  and  later,  that  of 
Stanislaus  Leszczynski  (1735)  and  of  Poniatowski 
(1795) ;  as  well  as  that  of  Charles  IV.  of  Spain 
8 


(1808),  and  of  Napoleon  (1814  and  1815).  Insurrec- 
tions have  been  the  most  frequent  cause  of  forced 
abdications.  The  early  history  of  the  Scandinavian 
kingdoms  abounds  in  instances.  In  Eng'and,  the 
compulsory  abdication  of  Richard  II.  (1399)  is  an 
early  example.  In  the  case  of  James  II.,  it  was 
disputed  whether  the  king  had  '  abdicated '  or 
'  deserted.'  More  recent  times  saw  Charles  X. 
(1830)  and  Louis-Philippe  (1848)  retire  before  the 
storm  of  revolution,  without  the  conditions  they 
made  being  regarded.  The  abdication  of  Ferdinand 
of  Austria  (1848)  was  an  indirect  consequence  of  the 
events  of  the  year  of  revolutions ;  that  of  Charles 
Albert  of  Sardinia  (1840),  of  the  battle  of  Novara. 
Of  several  recent  cases  among  German  princes,  the 
chief  is  that  of  Ludwig  of  Bavaria  (1848).  The  latest 
instance  is  that  of  Soulouque,  Emperor  of  Haiti,  who 
has  (.Jan.  1859)  rather  been  driven  from  his  doniin 
ions  than  abdicated. 

In  some  countries,  the  king  can  abdicate  whenever 
he  pleases  ;  but  in  England,  the  constitutional  relation 
between  the  crown  and  the  nation  being  of  the  nature 
of  a  contract,  the  king  or  queen,  it  is  considered,  can 
not  abdicate  without  the  consent  of  parliament.  It 
is,  however,  said  that  the  king  does  abdicate,  or,  to 
speak  perhaps  more  correctly,  an  A.  may  be  pre- 
sumed, and  acted  on  by  the  people,  if  his  conduct 
politically  and  overtly  is  inconsistent  with,  and  sub- 
versive of,  the  system  of  constitutional  government, 
of  which  the  qualified  monarchy  of  his  office  forms 
part. 

At  the  conference  between  the  two  houses  of 
Parliament  previous  to  the  passing  of  the  statute 
which  settled  the  crown  on  William  III.,  it  would 
appear  that  the  word  '  abdicated '  with  reference 
to  King  James  II.  was  advisedly  used  instead  of 
'  deserted ' — the  meaning,  it  is  presumed,  being 
that  King  James  had  not  only  deserted  his  office, 
but  that  by  his  acts  and  deeds,  of  which  the  said 
desertion  formed  part,  he  had,  in  view  of  the  con- 
stitution, ceased  to  have  right  to  the  throne.  From 
this  it  may  be  inferred  that  A.  was  considered  to 
have  a  twofold  political  signification,  involving 
maladministration  as  well  as  desertion.  The  Scotch 
Convention,  however,  more  vigorously  and  dis- 
tinctly resolved  that  King  James  '  had  forefaulted 
[forfeited]  the  crown,  and  the  throne  was  become 
vacant.' 

ABDO'MEN.  The  trunk  of  the  human  body  is 
divided  by  the  diaphragm  into  two  cavities — the 
upper  being  the  thorax  or  chest,  and  the  under,  tlie 
abdomen  or  belly.     Both  the  cavity  and  the  viscera 


Organs  of  the  Chest  and  Abdomen. 

1.  Diaphragm.  2.  Gall-bladder.  8.  Pyloric  end  of  Stomach. 
4.  Eisht  Lobe  of  Liver.  5.  Duodenum.  6.  Gi-eat  end  of 
Stomach.  7.  Spleen.  S.  Piece  of  Ca\il.  or  Omentum.  9.  Pan- 
creas (Sweetbread).  10.  Small  Intestine  (.lejunumj.  11.  Great 
Intestine  (Colon).    12.  Small  Intestine  (Iliumi. 


ABDOMEN— ABDUCTION. 


it  coutains  are  included  in  tlie  term  A.  It  con- 
tains the  liver,  pancreas,  spleen,  and  kidneys,  as 
well  as  the  stomach,  small  intestine,  and  the  colon. 
Tiie  lower  bowel,  the  bladder,  and  internal  organs 
of  generation  lie  in  the  lowest  part  of  the  cavity, 
which  is  called  the  pelvis.  The  A.  is  lined  by  a 
serous  membrane,  the  peritoneum,  which  is  folded 
over  the  viscera,  allowing  them  a  certain  freedom  of 
motion,  but  keeping  them  in  their  j)roper  relations 
to  each  other.  The  A.  is  divided  externally  by 
two  liorizontal  lines  into  three  principal  regions— 
the  upper  or  epigastric,  the  middle  or  umbilical, 
and  the  lower  or  hypogastric.  These  are  again 
subdivided  by  two  vertical  lines — the  side-divisions 
being  called  the  hypochondriac,  lumbar,  and  iliac 
regions  respectively ;  the  names  epigastric  and 
umbilical  are  then  applied  in  a  restricted  sense  to 
the  middle  divisions  of  the  two  upper  principal 
regions ;  while  the  middle  division  of  the  lower  is 
called  the  region  of  the  pubis.  Diseases  of  the 
abdominal  viscera  are  frequent,  and  chiefly  consist 
eitiier  of  chronic  disorders  of  the  digestive  organs, 
or  of  derangements  of  the  nerve-plexuses  and  ganglia 
there  situated.  These  disorders  announce  themselves 
partly  in  bodily  pain,  and  partly  in  mental  affections, 
such  as  hypochondria  and  hysterics. 

AnnoMEN,  in  Entomology,  the  last  of  the  three 
parts  into  which  the  body  of  an  insect  is  divided. 
It  is  composed  of  a  number  of  rings  or  segments, 
frequently  nine,  more  or  less  distinct  from  each 
other.  It  contains  a  portion  of  the  intestines  and 
the  sexual  organs.  In  the  perfect  insect,  its  seg- 
ments bear  no  legs  nor  wings ;  but  the  hind-legs 
of  larv;c  or  caterpillars,  which  afterwards  disappear, 
are  attached  to  them.  In  many  insects,  its  last  seg- 
ments bear  appendages  of  various  uses  and  forms, 
as  pineci-s,  stings,  borers  or  ovipositors,  &c. 

_  ABDOMINALES,  or  Abdominal  Fishes,  in  the 
Linnajan  arrangement,  an  order  of  Fishes  including 
all  the  Osseous  Fishes  of  which  the  ventral  fins  are 
placed  upon  and  beneath  the  abdomen,  and  so 
behind  the  pectoral  fins.  Subsequent  naturalists 
have  thought  it  rigjit  in  classifying  Fishes  to  give  a 
higher  place  to  other  characters  ;  and  in  the  system 
of  Cuvier,  the  name  A.  is  given  to  an  order  of 
much  more  limited  extent,  a  subdivision  of  the 
Malacopterygii  or  Soft-rayed  Osseous  Fishes,  dis- 
tinguished by  having  the  ventral  fins  placed  beneath 
the  abdomen  and  not  attached  to  the  bones  of  the 
slioulder.  It  includes  the  Cyprinidm  (Carp,  Jlin- 
now,  &c.),  Esocidm  (Pike,  &c.),  SUuriche,  Sal- 
monulce  (Trout,  Salmon,  &c.),  and  Clupeid<e  (Her- 
ring, &c.). 

ABDUCTION,  in  the  criminal  law  of  England, 
signifies  the  unlawful  taking  away  of  the  person  of 
a  female.  Such  is  the  usual  limitation  of  the  word  ; 
although,  under  the  Jewish  law,  and  subsequently 
according  to  the  principles  of  the  Civil  law,  the 
A.  or  '  stealing '  of  the  person  was  applied  to  the 
male  sex,  as  well  as  to  women,  coming  more  nearly 
to  what  we  now  understand  by  Kidnapping  (q.  v.). 
In  the  Civil  law,  the  offence  was  caWed  plaqinm, 
or  crimen  plagii,  under  which  name  it  still  'has  a 
place  in  the  Scotch  criminal  law,  and,  in  practice 
is  applied  to  the  A.  of  children  of  either  sex,  or 
of  women  generally.  The  A.  may  be  accomplished 
either  by  force  or  by  any  fraudulent  or  sinister  means  ; 
and  t;his  latter  quality  seems  more  appropriate  to  the 
Strict  meaning  of  the  term,  as  derived  from  the  Latin 
verb  abducere,  to  lead  off,  or  induce,  or  persuade 
away. 

Tills   subject   will  be   best    explained   under    the 
heaus  to  whicn  we  have  already  referred. 

i.  Anr.ucTioN  of  Child.— It   is    provided   by  the 
9  Geo.   lY.   c.  SI,  s.    21,  that  if   any  person  "shall 


maliciously,  either  by  force  or  fraud,  lead  or  take 
away,  or  decoy  or  entice  away,  or  detain  any  child 
under  tlie  age  of  ten  years,  with  intent  to  deprive 
the  parent  or  parents,  or  other  person  having  the 
lawful  charge  of  such  child,  of  the  possession  of  such 
child,  or  with  intent  to  steal  any  article  on  its  per- 
son;  or  shall  with  any  such  intent  as  aforesaid 
receive  or  harbour  such  child,  knowing  the  same  to 
have  been  so  stolen  or  enticed,  every  such  oflTeuder 
shall  be  guilty  of  felony,  and  shall  be  liable  to  be 
transported  for  seven  years,  or  imprisoned,  with  or 
without  hard  labour,  for  any  term  not  more  than 
two  years,  and  also,  if  a  male,  to  be  whipped,  if  the 
court  .shall  so  think  fit. 

The  Scotch  law  on  this  subject  is  more  severe 
than  the  English,  and  there  also  a  distinction  is 
taken  between  stcallnfj  a  child,  and  enticing  it  away. 
The  stealing  a  child  is  in  that  legal  system  a  capital 
crime.  Sir  Archiliald  Alison,  in  his"  work  on  the 
Principles  of  the  Criminal  Law  of  Scotland  (p.  280), 
says  :  '  This  [stealing  a  child]  is  obviously  a  crime 
of  the  very  greatest  atrocity,  from  the  unequalled 
agony  and  distress  which  it  necessarily  inflicts  on  the 
unfortunate    parents  who  are  in  this  cruel    manner 

bereaved  of  their   offspring From    the 

earliest  times,  accordingly,  this  atrocious  offence  has 
been  punished  with  death  by  the  Scotch  law.  Nor 
is  it  any  defence  that  the  child  is  taken  away  for 
affection  to  itself,  or  from  any  other  motive,  and  not 
for  the  sake  of  lucre,  taken  in  its  ordinary  sense,  for 
the  detainer  has  at  least  that  advantage  "and  benefit 
which  he  coveted  in  taking  away  the  child  ;  and  this 
is  sufficient  to  constitute  theft  in  the  estimation  of 
the  law.'  The  same  principle  is  recognised  by  the 
law  of  England,  which  holds  that  as  the  offence 
of  A.  is  positively  prohibited,  the  absence  of  a 
corrupt  motive  will  not  be  a  defence  to  the  charge. 
Further  on,  in  the  same  work  (p.  630),  Sir  Archibald 
lays  it  down  that  'The  wickedly  and  feloniously 
enticing  or  inducing  an  infant  child  to  leave  its 
parents  or  guardians  without  their  knowledge  or 
consent  is  a  crime  at  common  law ;'  and  in  support 
of  this  he  refers  to  a  case  where  the  prisoner,  who 
was  a  teacher  of  elocution,  and  was  desirous  to  get 
a  little  child  to  recite  poetry  to  his  audience,  ap- 
plied to  a  girl,  an  infant  of  nine  years  of  age,  in 
the  Orphan  Hospital,  and  prevailed  on  her,  by  pro- 
mises of  fine  clothes,  and  making  a  lady  of  her,  to 
leave  the  hospital,  and  come  to  him,  where  she  was 
soon  found  after  in  his  custody.  This  was  done  at  clan- 
destine interviews  with  the  child,  and  without  the 
knowledge  or  concurrence  of  her  relations  who  had 
placed  her  in  the  hospital.  The  flight  of  the  accused, 
who  was  out  on  bail,  prevented  any  further  proce- 
dure in  the  case,  beyond  his  outlawry. 

2.  Abduction  of  Wifk.— Blackst"one  and  Stephen 
both  lay  down  that  this  species  of  A.  may  be 
either  by  fraud  and  persuasion  or  open  violence ; 
though  the  law  supposes  force  and  constraint 
in  the  former  case  as  well  as  in  the  latter,  the 
wife  having  no  legal  power  te  consent.  The 
remedy  to  the  husband  is  an  action  by  which  he 
recove-rs  not  the  possession  of  his  wife,  but  damages 
for  the  A.  of  her  ;  and  by  statute  3  Edw.  I.  c. 
13,  the  offender  shall  also  be  imprisoned  two  years, 
and  be  fined  at  the  pleasure  of  the  crown.  Both  the 
crown  and  the  husband  may  therefore  have  thia 
action.  The  husband  is  also  entitled  to  recover 
damages  against  such  as  persuade  and  entice  the 
wife  to  live  separate  from  him  without  a  suflScient 
cause.  But,  although  such  appears  to  be  the  existing 
law  of  England,  it  is  too  antiquated,  and  is  quite 
unsuited  to  the  present  state  of  society.  The  remedy 
for  the  offence,  or  rather  injury  in  question,  will  be 
more  appropriately  found  in  the  recent  act  20  snid 
21  Vict.  c.  85,  to  amend  the  law  relating  to  divorce 


ABDUCTION— ABD-UR-RAHMAK 


and  matrimonial  causes,  and  under  which  the  mar- 
riage may  be  either  annulled,  with,  in  the  case  of 
the  adultery  of  the  wife,  the  punishment  of  the 
adulterers;  or  the  parties  maybe  'judicially  sepa- 
rated.' 

8.  Abduction  of  Ward,  or  Popil. — By  the  law 
of  England,  a  guardian  was  always,  and  is  still, 
entitled  to  an  action,  if  his  ward  or  pupil  be  taken 
from  him ;  but  the  proper  remedy  now  is  by  an 
application  to  the  Court  of  Chancery,  which  is  the 
supreme  guardian  of,  and  has  independent  jurisdic- 
tion over,  all  the  infants  in  the  kingdom.  In  Scot- 
land, a  similar  jtirisdiction  as  to  the  charge  and 
custody  of  all  Scotch  pupils  is  exercised  by  the  Court 
of  Session. 

4.  Abduction  of  Hphress. — The  law  on  this  sub- 
ject is  very  distinct.  By  9  Geo.  lY.  c.  31,  it  is 
enacted  that  where  any  woman  shall  have  interest, 
present  or  future,  in  any  real  or  personal  estate,  or 
shall  be  heiress  presumptive,  or  next  of  kin,  to  any 
one  having  such  interest,  if  any  person  shall,  from 
motives  of  lucre,  take  away  or  detain  such  woman 
against  her  will,  with  intent  to  marry  or  defile  her, 
or  to  cause  her  to  be  married  or  defiled  by  any  other 
person;  every  such  offender,  and  every  ])erson  coun- 
selling, aiding,  or  abetting  him,  shall  be  guilty  of 
felony,  subject  to  transportation  for  life,  or  for  any 
term  not  less  than  seven  years,  or  to  imprisonment, 
with  or  without  hard  labour,  for  any  term  not  exceed- 
ing four  years. 

By  section  20  of  the  same  statute,  it  is  enacted 
that  if  any  person  shall  unlawfully  take,  or  cause  to 
be  taken,  any  unmarried  girl  under  sixteen  years 
of  age,  out  of  the  possession  and  against  the  will  of 
her  father,  or  mother,  or  other  person  having  the 
lawful  charge  of  her;  every  such  offender  shall  be 
guilty  of  a  misdemeanour,  subject  to  fine  or  impris- 
onment, or  both,  as  the  court  shall  award. 

It  is  an  offence  within  the  statute  to  take  away 
from  the  custody  of  her  putative  father  a  natural 
child  under  sixteen  years  of  age. 

By  the  lOtli  Geo.  IV.  c.  34,  the  same  law  is 
extended  to  Ireland,  with  this  difference  in  the  case 
of  heiresses,  that  while  the  English  act  applies  to 
'any  woman,'  the  Irish  act  provides  for  the  offence 
against  '  any  unmarried  girl  under  eighteen  years  of 
age.' 

The  marriage  of  an  heiress  under  sixteen  years  of 
age,  when  obtained  by  means  of  force,  may  be  set 
aside  on  that  ground.  And  the  force  may  be  actual 
or  constructive.  Thus,  in  law,  fraud  is  here  held 
equivalent  to  force  ;  and  accordingly  where  (Gibbon 
Wakefield's  case)  both  the  A.  and  marriage  were 
voluntary  in  fact,  they  were  held  in  law  to  be  forci- 
ble, the  consent  to  both  having  been  obtained  by 
fraud. 

5.  Abduction  of  Women  generally. — The  A. 
and  forcible  or  fraudulent  marriage  of  women  and 
girls  is  a  felony  ;  and  by  5  and  6  Vict.  c.  38,  s.  11, 
must  be  tried  by  a  superior  court. 

Abduction  of  Voters.  See  Voters,  Abduction 
OF,  Election,  Parliamentary. 

ABD-UL-LATIF,  a  celebrated  Arabian  wTiter  of 
multifarious  acquirements,  was  born  at  Bagdad  in 
1161.  During  his  youth,  he  underwent  an  amazing 
amount  of  mental  drudgery,  in  accordance  with  the 
eastern  fashion  of  his  time,  in  order  to  fit  himself  for 
becoming  a  scholar.  The  ordeal  consisted  i;i  his 
committing  to  memory  a  large  number  of  standard 
works,  such  as  the  Koran,  the  novels  of  Hariri,  and 
not  a  few  grammatical  treatises.  To  complete  his 
culture  in  the  various  1  tranches  of  Mohammedan 
lore,  he  betook  himself  to  Damascus,  where  the 
famous  Saladin  had  gathered  round  him  the  most 
learned  men  of  the  time.  Through  the  liberality  of 
10 


the  sultan,  and  the  kindness  of  the  Vizir  Fadliel,  he 
was  enabled  to  proceed  to  Egypt,  where  he  delivered 
lectures  while  Saladin  was  fighting  the  Lion-heart 
at  St.  Jean  d'Acre.  Here  he  became  intimate  with 
Moses  Maimonides,  the  great  Jewish  writer.  He 
now  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  the  study  of  medicine, 
although  while  at  Cairo,  he  also  wrote  his  excellen, 
and  accurate  work  on  Egypt,  which  was  translated 
into  Latin  by  Professor  White  of  Oxford  in  ISOd, 
and  into  French  by  Baron  de  Sacy  in  1810.  He 
died  at  Bagdad  in  1231,  on  his  way  to  Mecca,  in 
the  70th  year  of  his  age. 

ABD-UI^MEDJID-KHAN,  late  Grand  Sultan  of 
Turkey,  was  born  May  6, 1822,  and  succeeded  his  fa- 
ther, Mahmud  II.,  July  1 ,  1 839.  The  Turkish  Empire 
was  then  in  a  very  dangerous  position.  The  army 
had  been  defeated  and  dispersed  by  the  Egyptians 
in  the  battle  of  Nisib  (June  29,  1839),  and  there 
was  nothing  to  hinder  the  victorious  Ibrahim  Pacha 
from  advancing  on  Constantinoijle,  where  a  large 
party  were  favourable  to  the  Egyptian  power.  This 
party  wished  to  make  the  viceroy  of  Egypt,  Mehemct 
Ali,  Chakan  (the  ancient  title  of  the  Grand  Sultan)  of 
both  seas.  He  was  the  only  man,  they  maintained, 
capable  of  uplioldiug  the  banner  of  Islam  against 
the  unbelievers  both  within  and  without.  Had  it 
not  been  for  the  intervention  of  the  Christian  powers, 
the  House  of  Osman  was  lost.  The  treaty  of  July 
1840,  from  which  France  kept  aloof,  rescued  the 
young  Padishah  from  sure  destruction.  Mehemet 
Ali  had  to  submit  (November  27,  1840);  and  the 
treaty  of  July  1841,  to  which  France  subsequently 
adhered,  settled  tne  future  dependent  relation  of 
Egypt  to  Tm'key.  The  sultan,  though  not  V(!iry 
energetic  in  body  or  mind,  proceeded  in  the  path  of 
reform  begun  by  Sclim  III.  and  Mahmud  II.  In 
this  he  had  for  his  chief  adviser  Reshid  Pacha,  an 
intelligent  and  humane  Mussulman,  educated  in 
France.  The  aim  of  all  his  measures  was  to  pin  se 
the  Osman  population  on  a  footing  with  the  civilisi?d 
inhabitants  of  the  west.  A.  wished  the  haj)pini)S3 
of  all  his  subjects,  without  respect  of  creed.  A  sort 
of  proclamation  of  their  rights  was  issued  in  fitie 
hatti-sherif  of  November  1839.  This  was  followed 
by  numerous  reforms  in  all  departments ;  and  in 
1850,  the  professors  of  all  religions  were  decreed 
equal  in  the  eye  of  the  law.  That  these  decrees 
have  in  a  great  measure  remained  a  dead  letter,  is 
not  attributable  to  the  will  of  the  sultan.  The 
chivalrous  part  acted  by  A.  (1850)  in  refusing,  at  the 
risk  of  losing  his  throne,  to  give  up  Kossuth  and 
the  other  political  refugees  to  the  menaces  of  Russia 
and  Austria,  will  make  his  name  remembered  in  the 
annals  of  humanity. 

The  sovereigns  of  Turkey  have  long  been  in  an 
anomalous  position.  The  ambassadors  of  the  great 
powers  have  ruled  the  divan  ;  and  the  late  sultan  had 
a  specially  difficult  part  to  play  during  the  war  with 
Russia  (1854-56),  and  the  diplomatic  negotiations 
consequent  to  it.  A.  was  the  thirty-first  sovereign 
of  the  race  of  Osman,  and  the  twenty-eighth  since  the 
taking  of  Constantinople.  His  eldest  son,  JSIoham- 
meJ  Murad,  was  born  September  22,  1840.  A.  died 
June  25,  1861,  and  accortUng  to  the  law  of  the  empire, 
his  brother,  Abdul-Aziz  (b.  1830),  succeeded  to  the 
throne. 

ABD-UR-RAHMAN,  the  sultan  of  Fez  and  Ma- 
rocco,  born  1778,  was  the  rightful  heir  to  the 
throne  when  his  father  died,  1794;  but  was  super- 
seded by  an  uncle,  after  whose  death  he  ascended 
the  throne,  1823.  His  first  four  years  of  rule  were 
occupied  in  quelling  insurrections.  Next,  some 
danger  to  the  state  of  Marocco  was  threatened  by 
the  refusal  of  Austria  to  pay  the  tribute  for  safety 
against  pirates;  but  the  sultan  wisely  adjusted   the 


ABEL— ABENCERRAGES. 


dispute  hy  relinquishing  this  sort  of  '  blaciv-niail,'  for- 
merly levied  by  Marocco  on  European  sliips  in  tlie 
Mediterranean.  The  religious  war  under  Abd-el- 
Kader  against  the  Frcncli  in  Algeric  involved  the 
Biiltan  in  its  movements ;  but  was  concluded  by  the 
battle  of  Isly,  1844,  and  the  subsequent  mediation  of 
England,  the  piratical  habits  of  his  subjects  have 
since  brought  A.  to  the  brink  of  war  with  more  than 
one  European  state.  The  sultan  was  u  zealous 
Mussulman,  without  the  wild  fanaticism  common 
among  his  countrymen ;  as  a  ruler,  he  is  strict,  and 
often  cruel.  His  eldest  son,  Sidi-Mohammed  (b. 
1803),  succeeded  him  in  1859. 

ABEL  appears  in  the  book  of  Genesis  as  the 
second  son  of  Adam,  and  a  shepherd.  He  was  slain 
by  his  cider  brother  Cain,  under  the  influence  of 
jealousy,  because  the  oftcring  of  the  latter  had  been 
rejected  by  Jehovah,  and  that  of  the  former  accepted. 
It  is  not  said  in  Genesis,  why  Jehovah  accepted 
the  sacrifice  of  Abel;  but  the  Saviour,  in  the  New 
Testament,  speaks  of  '  righteous  Abel,'  from  which 
it  is  concluded  that  there  dwelt  in  him  a  spirit  of 
faith  or  trust  in  the  unseen  God,  of  which  his 
brother  was  destitute.  The  writer  of  the  Epistle  to 
the  Hebrews  opens  his  enumeration  of  the  'faitliful' 
in  the  11th  chapter  of  Hebrews,  with  these  words: 
'  By  faith  Abel  offered  unto  God  a  more  excellent 
sacrifice  than  Cain.'  Such,  also,  has  jeen  in  all  ages 
the  universal  opinion  of  the  Christian  Church,  whTch 
has  regarded  Abel  as  a  type  of  innocence  and  faith. 
ABEL,  Charles  Frederick,  a  native  of  Coethen, 
in  Germany,  born  in  1719,  was  a  distinguished  musi- 
cian. He  was  a  pupil  of  Sebastian  Bach,  and  for 
some  years  a  member  of  the  famous  Dresden  band  of 
the  Elector  of  Saxony,  king  of  Poland.  In  1758, 
when  nearly  forty  years  of  age,  he  came  to  England 
in  a  state  of  great  destitution  ;  but  his  talents  were 
quickly  recognised.  He  was  appointed  chamber- 
musician  to  the  queen  of  George  III.  His  peculiar 
instrument  the  viola  da  gambu,  a  small  violoncello, 
with  six  strings,  was  never  played  by  any  one  in 
equal  perfection.  He  also  obtained"  considerable 
reputation  as  a  composer,  though  his  pieces  are  not 
novr  held  in  very  great  estimation.  He  died  in  1787, 
having  shortened  his  life  by  his  intemperate  habits.  ' 

ABELARD,  Peter,  a  scholastic  philosopher  and 
theologian,  unquestionably  the   boldest   thinker  of 
the  12th  c,  was  born  in  France,  in  1079,  at  Paletz  or 
Pallet,  not  far  from  Nantes,  a  village  which  belonged 
to  his  parents,  Berangcr  and    Lucie.     An  irrepres- 
sible   thirst  for  knowledge,    and  a  special   pleasure 
in  scholastic  logic,  moved  him  to   resign  his  rights 
of  primogeniture  in  favour  of  his  younger  brotirers^ 
He  Jeft  Bretagne  for  Paris,  in  order  to  hear  the  pre- 
lections of  William  of  Champeaux,  but  soon  incurred 
the  hatred  of  his  master,  whom  he  puzzled  by  his 
wonderful  subtlety.     He  fled  to   Melun,   and  after- 
wards to  Corbeil,  persecuted  and  admired  wherever 
he  went.     He  then  returned  home  foj  the  restoration 
of  his  health.     With  renewed  strength,  he  returned 
to  Paris,  reconciled  himself  with  his  opponents,  and 
moulded,  by  his  influence  as  a  lecturer,  some  of  the 
most   distinguished  men  of  his  age,  amongst  whom 
were  the  future  Pope  Celestine  II. ;  Peter  Lombard  • 
Berengar,   his    future    apologist;    and    Arnold    of 
Brescia.     At  this  time,  there  lived  in  Paris,  Heloise 
the  niece  of  the  Canon  Fulbert,  then  seventeen  years 
of  age,  and  already  remarkable  for  her  beauty,  talents 
and  knowledge.     She  soon  kindled  in  the  breast  of 
A     then   thirty-eiglit  years  old,  a  violent  and  over- 
whelnnng    passion,  which  was   returned    bv  Heloise 
with   no   less    fervour.     By   means   of   Fulbert     A 
became  teacher  and  companion  of  Heloise,  and  the 
lo\'ers  were  happy  together  until  A.'s  ardent  poetical 
effusions  reached  the  ears  of  the  canon.     He  sou"-ht 


to  separate  the   lovers;  but  it  was  too  late.     Thfv 
fled  together  to  the  country,  where  Heloise  bore  a 
son,    and   was   privately    married    to   A.,    with    the 
consent   of    her   uncle.      Not    long  .after,    Heloise 
returned  to  Fulbert's  house,  and  "(lenied  the  mar- 
riage, that  her  love  might  bo  no  hinderance  to  A.'s 
advancement  in  the  church.     Enraged  at  this,  and  at 
a    second    flight    which   she    took    with    her    lover, 
Fulbert,  in  order  to  make  him  canonically  incapable 
of  ecclesiastical  preferment,  caused  A.  to  bo  euuiscu- 
lated.     In  deep  humihation,  A.  entered  as  a  monk  tlio 
abbey  of  St.  Denis,  and  induced  Heloise  to  take  the 
veil  at  Argenteuil.     But  the  lectures  which  he  began 
to  give  soon  after  exposed  him  to  new  persecutions. 
The  synod  of  Soissons  (1121)  declared  his  opinions  on 
the  Trinity  to  be  heretical.     He  left  St.  Denis,  and 
built  at  Nogent-on-the-Seine  a  chapel  and  hermitage 
called  Paraclete,  which,  after  being  enlarged  by  hi^ 
scholars  to  a  monastic  foundation,  he,  on  his  appoint- 
ment asabbotofSt-Gildas-de-Iluys,  in  Bretagne,  gave 
over  to  Heloise  and  her  sisterhood  for  a  dwelling.     His 
residence  in  St-Gildas  was  imbittered  by  a  continued 
struggle  against  his  love,  and  by  the  "hatred  of  the 
monks;  till   at  last,  in  1140,  his  doctrine  was  con- 
demned by  Pope  Innocent  III.,  and  he  was  ordered 
to  be  imprisoned.     But  Peter  the  "Venerable,  abbot 
of  Clugiiy,  after  A.  had  retracted  his  opinions  on 
the  Trinity  and   Redemption,  reconciled  him  to   his 
enemies.     A.  died  with  the  reputation  of  a  model  of 
monastic  propriety,  on  April  21,  1142,  in  the  abl>ev 
of   St.  Marcel,  not  far  from    Clialons-on-the-Saone. 
Heloise  had  him  interred  at  the  Paraclete,  hoping  one 
day  to  lie  by  his  side.     She  survived  A.  tweni  v  years. 
The  ashes  of  both  were  taken  to  Paris  in  180S,  and 
in  1828  were  buried  in  one  sepulchre  inPferela  Chaise. 
— The  doctrines  advanced  by  A.  in  his  controversy 
with  St.  Bernhard,  have  a  decidedly  rationalist  tend- 
ency; and   he,  and    his    predecessor    Erigena,    may 
be  looked  upon  as  the  first  avowed  representatives 
of  that   school.     A.  laid  down   the   principle,  that 
nothing    is    to    be   believed    but   what    has    been 
first  understood ;    while   the   church    held   that  we 
must  believe  in  order  to  understand ;    and  Bernhard 
was  for  banishing  inquiry  altogether  from   the  pro- 
vince of  religion.     In  judgii:g  of  A.'s    merits,   we 
are  not  to  look  so  much  to  his  writings,  as  to  the 
influence  which  his  wonderful  power  of  public  dis- 
putation enabled  him  to  exercise  on  his  age.     Hig 
character,    no   less   than   his  doctrine,    gave   great 
offence.     Until   recently,  it   is  chiefly  the  romantic 
history   of   his   love    that   has   occupied   attention. 
The  chief  biography  that  has   appeared  is  that  by 
R6musat,  under  the  title  of  A.  (2  vols..  Par.  1845) 
containing  his  life,   character,    writings,    and    opin- 
ions.^    The   Latin    writings   and  letters   of  A.   and 
Heloise  were  collected  by  Amboise,  and  published 
by  Duchesne  (Par.  1616).     Some  works  of  A.  have 
been    recently    discovered  ;    among   others    Sic  et 
Non,  a  collection   of   doctrinal  contradictions  from 
the  Fathers;    they  have  been  published   partly  by 
Cousin    (Par.    1836),    partlv    by   Rheinwald    (JBerl. 
1831).  '  ^ 

ABELE.     See  Poplar. 

ABELITES,  a  Christian  sect  of  the  4th  c, 
found  chiefly  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Hippo,  in 
North  Africa.  Their  chief  distinction  consisted  iu 
marrying  but  abstaining  from  matrimonial  inter- 
course, in  order  not  to  propagate  original  sin.  They 
held  that  Abel  so  lived,  because  the"  Bible  mentions 
no  children  of  his. 

ABELMOSCHUS.     See  Hidiscus. 

ABENCERRAGES,  a  noble  Moorish  race  whose 
struggles  with  the  family  of  the  Zegris,  and  tragical 
destruction  in  the  royal  palace  of  the  Alhambra, 
in  Granada,  in  the  time  of  Abu-Hassan  (14(;n-84), 

11 


ABENDBERG— ABERDEEN^. 


the  last  but  one  of  the  kings  of  Granada,  furnish  the 
materials  for  a  charming  Spanish  work  of  fiction, 
Hisloria  de  las  Chcerras  Civiles  de  Granada  (Madrid, 
1694).  From .  this  Chateaubriand  composed  Les 
Avcnf.urcs  die  Dernier  Abenccrrar/e,  and  furnished 
the  text  of  an  opera  of  Cherubini's.  The  work, 
however,  seems  to  be  destitute  of  historical  founda- 
tion ;  at  least  Conde  is  perfectly  silent  on  the 
subject  in  his  Historia  de  la  Doininacion  de  los 
Arafjes  en  Enpana  (3  vols.,  Madrid,  18'29). 

A'BENDBERG,  a  hill  in  the  canton  of  Berne, 
rising  abruptly  out  of  the  waters  of  Lake  Than,  on 
the  south  side.  It  is  interesting  as  the  site  of  an  insti- 
tution, established  by  Dr.  Guggenbiihl,  for  the  cure 
of  Cretins  (q.  v.),  and  supported  by  contributions 
from  far  and  near.  The  sanguine  hopes  raised  as 
to  the  good  to  be  effected  by  the  healthiness  of  the 
situation,  and  the  mode  of  treatment  followed, 
have  been  greatly  disappointed,  little  alleviation 
being  perceptible.  The  establishment  still  exists 
as  an  asylum  for  these  unfortunate  beings. 

ABEN-ESRA,  properly  Abraham-Ben-Meir-Ben- 
Esra,  born  1098  in  Spain,  died  116S  in  Rome,  was  one 
of  the  most  learned  Jews  of  his  times.  He  under- 
stood the  Hebrew,  Arabic,  and  Aramaic  languages ; 
had  considerable  knowledge  of  mathematics,  astro- 
nomy, and  medicine  ;  was  a  scientific  observer  ;  and 
generally  distinguished  himself  as  a  sagacious  thinker. 
Having  left  his  native  land,  he  visited  Lombardy, 
Provence,  France,  Egypt,  and  England,  and  passed 
the  later  years  of  his  life  in  Rome ;  everywhere 
giving  lectures  on  grammar,  theology,  astronomy, 
&c.,  besides  writing  and  translating  several  works  in 
Hebrew  and  Arabic.  His  Commentaries  on  the  Old 
Testament  are  the  most  important  of  his  works, 
which  include  some  treatises  on  astrology,  since 
published  in  Latin.  The  scholastic  writers  mention 
Aben-Esra  as  Adenare  or  Atenard. 

ABER  is  a  Celtic  word  which  enters  into  the 
composition  of  several  names  of  places,  chiefly  in 
vV'ales  and  Scotland.  It  indicates  the  mouth  or 
embouchure  of  a  stream,  either  into  the  sea, "or  into 
another  river — as  Aberbrothock,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Brotliock,  in  Forfarshire  ;  Abergavenny,  at  the 
'unction  of  the  Usk  and  Gavenny,  in  Wales. 

ABERCROMBIE,  John,  M.D.,  in  his  own  day 
the  most  eminent  of  Scottish  pliysicians,  and  still 
worthy  of  remembrance  for  his  professional  and 
moral  excellence,  was  born  in  1*781,  at  Aberdeen, 
where  his  fatlier  was  long  a  parish  minister.  He 
Studied  medicine  in  Edinburgh,  taking  his  degree  in 
1801,  and  thenceforth  devoted  himself  to  the  practice 
of  his  profession  in  the  Scottish  capital.  At  a  com- 
paratively early  age,  he  attained  a  high  reputation  ; 
and  after  the  death  (in  1821)  of  the  celebrated  Dr. 
Gregory,  he  became  recognised  as  the  first  consulting 
physician  in  Scotland.  His  professional  writings 
contributed  to  his  celebrity,  which  was  still  further 
extended  by  the  pubhcation,  in  1830  and  1833,  of 
his  works  on  Tlie  Intellectual  Powers  and  The  Moral 
Feelings.  These  works  have  no  pretensions  to 
originality  or  depth  of  thought,  but  acquired,  from 
the  high  personal  character  of  the  author,  a  reputa- 
tion during  his  life,  which  a  few  years  have  sufficed  to 
impair.  They  possess,  however,  the  merit  of  being 
more  readable  than  many  works  of  the  same  class, 
and  are  pervaded  by  a  moral  and  religious  feeling, 
which,  in  the  case  of  their  pious  and  benevolent 
author,  was  perfectly  genuine.  Dr.  A.  died 
suddenly,  Nov.  14,  1844.  Among  the  honours 
bestowed  upon  him  during  his  life  were  the 
degree  of  M.D.  from  Oxford,  the  rectorship  of 
Marisehal  College,  the  vice-presidency  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Edinburgh  and  the  office  of  Physician  in 
Ordinar;-  to  Her  Majesty  ^or  Scotland. 
I'i 


ABERCROifBY,  Sir  Ralph,  was  born  at  Menstry, 
in  Clackmannanshire,  in  1734.  He  was  designed 
by  his  fatlier  for  the  Scottish  bar ;  and  studied 
from  1752  to  1755  at  the  universities  of  Edinburgh 
and  Leipsic.  His  natural  inclination,  however, 
pointed  to  a  military  life;  and  in  1758,  he  went 
to  Gernumy  as  a  cornet  in  the  Sd  Dragoon  Guards. 
In  1780,  he  raised  a  regiment  in  Ireland,  which 
was  called  the  103d,  or  King's  Irish.  It  was  dis- 
banded in  1783;  and  the  next  ten  years  were  spent 
by  Sir  Ralph  in  the  retirement  of  a  country  life.  He 
had  married  in  17G7.  In  1793,  he  accompanied  the 
Dvd<e  of  York  to  Holland.  His  conduct  throughout 
that  unfortunate  campaign,  especially  during  the  dis- 
astrous retreat  in  the  winter  of  1794-5,  won  him  the 
love  and  admiration  of  the  whole  arni}'.  On  his  return 
to  England,  he  was  appointed  to  the  chief  command 
of  the  expedition  to  the  West  Indies,  which,  not- 
withstanding the  vexatious  obstruction  of  his  designs, 
he  conducted  with  distinguished  success,  taking 
Grenada,  Demerara,  Essequibo,  St.  Lucia,  St.  Vincent, 
and  Trinidad.  Soon  after,  he  was  appointed  com- 
mander of  the  forces  in  Ireland  ;  but  his  enlightened 
and  manly  remonstrances  against  the  policy  of 
government  towards  that  country  occasioned  his 
removal  to  a  similar  command  in  Scotland.  lu 
1799,  he  was  appointed  second  in  command  to  the 
Duke  of  York  in  the  expedition  to  Holland,  still 
more  unhappy  and  ignominious  in  its  results  than 
the  former.  A.  alone  acquitted  himself  on  all 
occasions  with  entire  credit.  On  his  return,  he 
was  appointed  to  command  the  expedition  to  the 
Mediterranean.  The  fleet  anchored  in  Aboukir  Bay 
on  the  2d  of  March.  On  the  7th,  A.  reconnoitred 
the  shore  in  person.  Before  mid-day  of  the  8th, 
the  British  troops  were  in  possession  of  the  sand* 
hills  that  commanded  the  shore,  having  landed  in 
the  face  of  a  storm  of  shot  that  ploughed  the 
water  around  ihem.  On  the  13th,  the  enemy  were 
driven  within  the  lines  of  Alexandria.  On  the 
morning  of  the  21st,  Menou  attempted  to  surprise 
the  British  camp.  He  found  them  ready,  under 
arms.  In  the  glorious  action  that  ensued,  the 
British  commander  was  struck  by  a  musket-ball  in 
the  thigh;  but  not  till  the  battle  was  won,  and  he 
saw  the  enemy  retreating,  did  he  shew  any  sign 
of  pain.  He  was  borne  from  the  field  in  a  ham- 
mock, cheered  by  the  blessings  of  the  soldiers  as 
he  passed,  and  conveyed  on  board  Lord  Keith's 
ship.  The  ball  could  not  be  extracted ;  mortifica- 
tion ensued;  and  on  the  28th  he  died,  in  the  sixty- 
eighth  year  of  his  age.  In  the  character  of  A. 
were  combined  the  qualities  that  seem  pecuharly 
characteristic  of  a  true  British  soldier.  He  was  at 
once  gentle  and  brave,  clear-sighted  and  cool  in 
deliberation,  in  action  prompt  and  daring,  even  to 
hardihood.  Apai't  from  his  qualities  as  a  soldier, 
he  was  a  man  of  liberal  accomplishments,  free  from 
prejudices,  and  of  sound  practical  judgment. — The 
national  gratitude  to  this  eminent  man  took  the 
form  of  a  peerage  conferred  on  his  widow,  afterwards 
enjoyed  by  his  eldest  son,  with  the  title  of  Baron 
Abercromby. — His  third  son,  James  Ahercromby, 
after  being  M.  P.  for  Edinburgh  and  Speaker  of  the 
reformed  House  of  Commons,  was  raised  to  the 
British  peerage  in  1839,  with  the  title  Baron  Dun- 
fermline, and  died  in  March  1858. 

ABERDEEN,  the  principal  city  in  the  north  of 
Scotland,  is  situated  in  the  S.  E.  angle  of  the  county 
of  the  same  name,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Dee, 
which  forms  its  harbour.  This  city  is  of  high 
antiquity,  its  privileges  as  a  royal  burgh  being  sup- 
posed to  have  been  conferred  by  William  the  Lion 
as  early  as  the  year  1179.  In  1336,  it  was  burned 
by  the  EngUsh ;  the  city  erected  on  the  old  site 
was   thenceforth   locally   designated    New  A.     The 


ABERDEENSHIRE— ABERDEEN". 


present  town  of  Old  A.  included  within  the 
parliamentary  boundaries  of  the  city,  is  situated 
about  a  mile  distant  to  the  north.  In  1494,  Kinj^'s 
College  and  University  was  founded  in  Old 
A.  Marischal  College  and  University  was  estab- 
lished in  the  new  town  in  1.598.  In  the  17  th  v., 
A.  had  become  a  place  of  considerable  import- 
ance, but  it  sufl'ered  severely  from  both  parties 
during  the  civil  wars.  It  is  now  a  tlourisbing  seat 
of  trade  and  manufactures ;  and  its  handsome 
granite  architecture  excites  the  admiration  of  all 
visitors.  The  harbour  has  l)een  greatly  improved. 
The  number  of  vessels  belonging  to  the  port  in 
1856  was,  sailing-vessels,  231 — tonnage,  o6,8G7  ; 
steamers,  14 — tonnage,  4679.  The  principal  exports 
are,  fine  cotton  and  woollen  fabrics,  granite,  cattle, 
grain,  preserved  meat,  and  fish.  The  granite  quar- 
ries and  polishing-woiks  afford  occupation  to  a  large 
number  of  people.  The  manufacture  of  combs  is  a 
chief  branch  of  industry.  There  are  also  consider- 
able ironworks,  and  ship-building  is  extensively 
carried  on.  The  A.  clippers  are  celebrated  as  fast 
sailers.  As  a  seat  of  learning,  A.  has  always  main- 
tained a  high  place.  Connected  with  it,  ecclesiasti- 
cally or  academically,  are  the  names  of  Barbour  and 
Boece ;  Bishops  Elpliinstone,  Dunbar,  and  Forbes  ; 
Arthur  Johnston,  James  Gregory,  Arbuthnot,  Reid, 
Beattie,  Gerard,  and  Campbell.  The  average  num- 
ber of  students  annually  attending  both  univer- 
sities is  nearly  600.  The  burgh  of  A.  is  governed 
by  a  provost,  four  bailies,  and  fourteen  councillors. 
Pop.,  in  18.51,  of  municipal  burgh,  53,808;  parha- 
mentary  burgh,  in  1861,  73,794 

ABERDEEX.'^IIIRE,  an  extensive  maritime 
county  in  the  E.  of  Scotland,  bounded,  N.,  by  Banff 
and  the  North  Sea ;  S.,  by  Kincardine,  Forfar,  and 
Perth  ;  W.,  by  Inverness  and  Banff".  Its  greatest 
length  is  about  90  miles  ;  its  greatest  breadth 
about  40 ;  its  extent  of  sea-coast  about  60.  It  is 
the  fifth  in  size  of  the  Scottish  counties.  Estimated 
area,  1970  square  miles;  pop.  in  1851,  212,032.  It 
is  still  described  under  the  five  ancient  divisions 
(proceeding  from  south-west  to  north-east)  of  Mar, 
Strathbogie,  Garioch,  Formartin,  and  Buchan.  The 
Eouth-western  parts  of  the  county  are  entirely  moun- 
tainous, the  principal  range  of  the  Grampians  miming 
along  the  southern  boundary,  from  which  a  lesser  chain 
branches  to  the  north  and  north-east.  The  highest 
peaks  are,  Ben-Maedhui,  4390  feet ;  Cairntoul,  4095  ; 
Cairngorm,  4060;  Ben-na-Buird,  3940  ;  and  Loch-na- 
gar,  3815.  The  predominant  rock-formation  is  mica 
slate  ;  and,  in  tlie  mountain  district  of  Braemar, 
granite,  which  also  underlies  the  whole  neighbour- 
hood of  the  city  of  Aberdeen,  yielding  large  supplies 
of  a  valuable  building-stone.  The  principal  river  is 
the  Dee,  rising  in  the  mountains  of  the  south-west, 
and  falling,  after  an  eastward  course  of  96  miles,  into 
the  German  Ocean.  In  its  upper  course  are  several 
falls  ;  and  on  its  banks,  in  the  parish  of  Crathie, 
amid  wild  mountain  scenery,  is  Her  Majesty's 
favourite  residence,  Balmoral.  Next  in  size  to  the 
Dee  is  the  Don,  rising  in  the  west,  and  flowing  into 
the  German  Ocean,  after  a  course  of  about  80  miles. 
The  Ythan  rises  in  the  north-west,  and  flows,  with 
slight  variation,  south-eastward.  Its  pearl-fishery 
was  once  reckoned  of  some  importance  ;  the  pearl- 
mussel  still  inhabits  its  bed,  but  few  pearls  of  any 
value  are  found.  The  Deveron  rises  on  the  borders 
of  Aberdeen  and  P>anft",  and  flows  to  the  north-east, 
into  the  Moray  Firth,  at  Banff,  after  a  course  of 
about  50  nnles,  chiefly  within  the  boundaries  of 
Banflshire,  but  partly  in  A.  The  arable  land 
of  the  county  lies  chiefly  in  the  districts  between 
the  Don  and  Ythan,  in  the  centre  of  the  county, 
and  in  its  north-eastern  angle.  Breeding  more 
tattle    than    any    other    county    in     Scotland,    A. 


also  raises  about  three  times  as  much  oats  and  turnips 
as  any  other.  The  estimated  gross  produce  of  the 
former,  in  1855,  was  5,347,118  bushels ;  of  the 
latter,  1,232,007  tons.  Clay  predominates  in  the 
lower  coast-lands;  in  the  upper  districts,  there  is  a 
considerable  extent  of  light  sandy  loam.  Agri- 
culture has  made  great  progress ;  and  in  no  part  of 
the  kingdom  have  natural  disadvantages  of  soil  and 
climate  been  more  successfully  overcome.  The  piin- 
cipal  towns  and  villages  are  Aberdeen,  Peterhead, 
Huntly,  Fraserburgh,  Kintore,  and  luverury.  The 
county  returns  one  member  to  parlian)ent ;  the  city, 
one;  and  the  burghs  of  Peterhead,  Kintore,  and 
Inverurv,  in  conjunction  with  Elgin,  Cullen,  and 
Banff,  one.  Pop.'in  1861,  223,344  ;  day-schools,  543, 
with  30,271  pupils;  places  of  worship,  237  (7n  of  the 
Established,  and  76  of  the  Free  Church).  Enjoying 
the  advantage  of  the  munificent  Dick  and  Mill 
bequests  for  the  benefit  of  parochial  schoolmasters, 
A.  holds  a  high  place  in  the  statistics  of  education. 

ABERDEEN,  George  Hamilton  Gordon,  Earl 
OF,  was  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1784.  He  was 
educated  at  Harrow  and  at  St.  John's  College, 
Cambridge,  where  he  took  his  degree  of  M.A.  in 
1804.  Before  this,  on  succeeding  to  the  earldom  in 
1801,  he  made  a  tour  through  Greece,  the  record 
of  which  is  preserved  in  Byron's  well-known 
line — 

'The  travelled  thane,  Athenian  Aberdeen.' 

In  his  twenty-second  year,  he  was  elected  one 
of  the  sixteen  Scottish  representative  peers,  and 
entered  public  life  as  a  Tory.  In  IS  13,  he 
was  appointed  ambassador  to  the  Austrian  court, 
and  conducted  the  negotiations  which  terminated 
in  the  alliance  of  that  power  with  Britain.  At 
this  time  he  formed  that  close  friendship  with 
Prince  Mettcrnich  which  so  decidedly  influenced 
his  subsequent  policy  as  a  statesman.  On  the 
conclusion  of  the  war,  he  was  elevated  to  the 
British  peerage  as  Viscount  Gordon.  From  this 
time  till  the  year  1828,  his  lordship  made  no  promi- 
nent appearance  in  public  life.  In  that  year  he  took 
office  in  the  new  ministry  formed  under  the  Duke  of 
WcUington.  The  general  principle  which  guided  his 
policy,  as  Secretary  of  State  for  Foreign  Ajfairs,  was 
that  of  non-interference  in  the  internal  afiairs  of 
foreign  states,  which,  joined  to  his  well-known 
sympathy  v.'ith  such  statesmen  as  Mettcrnich,  has 
exposed  him — not  always  justly — to  the  suspicion  of 
being  ininiical  to  the  cause  of  popular  liberty.  His 
gradual  abandonment  of  high  Tory  principles  was 
evinced  by  his  support  of  the  bill  for  the  repeal  of 
the  Test  and  Corporation  Acts,  and  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Emancipation  Act.  v  From  the  fall  of  the 
WeUington  ministry  till  the  Peel  administration  in 
1841,  his  lordship  was  out  of  office,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  his  brief  administration  of  the  Colonial  Office 
in  the  Tory  ministry  of  1834-5.  In  1841,  he  again 
received  the  seals  of  the  Foreign  Office.  M.  Guizot 
was  at  that  time  foreign  minister  in  France,  and 
the  two  statesmen  acted  in  cordial  alliance.  The 
conclusion  of  the  Chinese  War,  the  Ashburton  Treaty, 
and  the  Oregon  Treaty,  were  the  principal  service.-; 
rendered  to  the  country  during  his  administration 
of  foreign  affairs.  His  act  in  1843  for  removing 
doubts  regarding  the  admission  of  ministers  to  bene- 
fices in  Scotland,  was  too  late  to  save  the  disruption 
of  the  Church,  and  in  working  it  does  not  seem  to  have 
proved  very  satisfactory.  He  had  long  been  in  favour 
of  the  repeal  of  the  corn-laws,  and  from  the  time  that 
that  question  became  the  rallying-point  of  the  Peel 
party,  he  became  identified  with  their  policy.  In 
1846,  he  resigned  with  Sir  Robert  Peel.  In  1853,  on 
the  resignation  of  Lord  Derby,  the  extraordinary 
state  of  parties  necessitated  a  coalition,  and  Lord  A. 

13 


ABERDEVINE— ABINGDON'. 


was  selected  as  the  fittest  man  to  head  the  ncu- 
ininistiy,  which  for  some  time  was  extremely  popu- 
lar. The  feeble  and  vacillating  policy  displayed  in 
the  conduct  of  the  war  with  Russia,  gradually  under- 
mined its  stability,  and  the  disastrous  mismanage- 
ment brought  to  light  in  the  winter  of  1854,  in  all 
departments  of  the  public  business  connected  with 
the  war,  filled  up  the  measure  of  the  popular  discon- 
tent. On  the  1st  of  Feb.,  1855,  Lord  A.  resigned  otfice. 
He  died  Dec.  13,  1860.  His  lordship  is  author  of  an 
Essay  on  Grecian  Architecture,  published  in  1822. 

A'BERDEVINE,  or  SISKIN  {Fringilla  Spinus), 
a  song-bird,  nearly  allie(]  to  the  goldfinch,  with  which 
it  is  placed  by  Cuvier  and  others  in  the  new  genus 
Garduclis.  It  is  rather  smaller  than  the  goldfinch, 
and  less  elongated  in  form.  The  crown  of  the  head 
and  the  throat  are  black,  the  nape,  dusky  green,  and 
there  is  a  broad  yellow  streak  above  and  behind  each 
eye.  It  is  only  a  winter  visitant  of  Britain,  and 
breeds  in  the  north  of  Europe,  building  its  nest  in 
high  trees.  It  is  frequently  kept  as  a  cnge-bird,  being 
easily  tamed  ;  and  breeds  freely  witli  the  canary.  It 
feeds  on  the  seeds  of  the  thistle,  alder,  birch,  and 
elm,  and  occasionally  does  great  damage  to  the  hop 
plantations  in  Germany.  In  France  it  injures  the 
blossoms  of  the  apple-trees.  The  nest  of  the  A. 
is  rarely  found. 

ABERN'ETHY,  John,  a  very  eminent  English 
surgeon,  was  born  in  London  in  17<54.  His  grand- 
father was  the  Rev.  John  Abernothy,  an  Irish 
Presbyterian  clergyman,  who  acquired  distinction 
by  his  writings,  and  his  bold  adoption  of  Bishop 
Hoadly's  views  on  the  right  of  private  judgment  and 
the  subscription  of  Confessions.  A.'s  early  tastes 
disposed  him  to  the  bar;  but  in  1780  he  was 
apprenticed  to  Mr.  (afterwards  Sir  Charles)  Blicks, 
surgeon  of  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital.  He  attended 
at  the  same  time  the  lectures  of  John  Hunter  and 
Sir  W.  Blizard.  In  1787,  A.  was  elected  assistant- 
surgeon  to  St.  Bartholomew's,  an  office  which  he 
filled  for  twenty-eight  years;  at  the  end  of  which 
time  he  was  appointed  surgeon,  with  a  salary. 
Soon  after  his  election,  he  began  to  lecture  in  the 
hosjiital  on  anatomy  and  surgery,  and  may  be  said 
to  have  laid  the  foucdation  of  its  character  as  a 
school  of  surgery.  At  first,  he  manifested  extraor- 
dinary diffidence,  but  his  power  soon  developed 
itself;  and  his  lectures  at  last  attracted  such  crowds, 
that,  in  17 HO,  it  was  found  necessary  to  build  a 
lecture-theatre  in  the  hospital  for  liis  use.  His  clear, 
simple,  and  positive  style,  illustrated  by  an  inex- 
haustilile  variety  of  apt  anecdotes,  made  him  the 
most  popular  medical  teacher  of  his  day.  In  1813, 
he  was  appointed  surgeon  to  Christ's  Hospital,  and 
in  1814,  Professor  of  Anatomy  and  Surgery  to  the 
('Ollege  of  Surgeons.  His  practice  increased  with 
his  celebrity,  which  the  singular  eccentricity  and 
occasional  rudeness  of  his  manners  contributed  to 
heighten.  Notwithstanding,  however,  the  irritability 
and  harshness  which  he  so  often  exhibited,  those 
who  knew  him  best  bear  unanimous  testimony  to 
the  generosity  and  kindliness  of  his  character.  He 
married  in  1800,  and  had  several  children.  He  died 
at  Enfield,  in  18S1.  Of  his  works,  the  most  original 
and  important  is  his  Observations  on  the  Constitu- 
tional Origin  and  Treatment  of  Local  Diseases,  first 
published  in  1806,  in  which  a  simple  principle,  till 
then  little  attended  to,  was  made  the  foundation  of 
much  important  and  ingenious  observation.  His 
Lectures  on  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Surgery  were 
published  in  1830. 

ABERRATION  OF  LIGHT  is  an  apparent  alter- 
ation in  the  place  of  a  star,  arising  from  the  motion 
of  the  earth  in  its  orbit  combined  with  the  progres- 
sive passage  of  Ught.  When  rain  is  falling  perpen- 
14 


dicularly,  a  drop  entering  at  the  top  of  an  upright 
tube  at  rest,  will  go  through  ;  but  if  the  tube  be 
carried  forward  horizontally,  a  drop  entering  the  top 
will  strike  against  the  side  before  it  goes  far;  and  to 
make  the  drop  go  through  the  tube  in  motion,  we 
must  incline  the  top  of  it  forward  in  the  direction  of 
the  motion.  The  amount  of  this  inclination  will  be 
the  greater,  the  more  rapid  the  motion  of  the  tube  is 
compared  with  that  of  the  falling  drops.  If  in 
the   time   that  a  drop  takes  to  ,  , 

fall  through  the  height  AB  of        .  • 

the  parallelogram  in  the  annexed 
cut,  the  inclined  tube  BC  is 
moved  horizontally  over  a  space 
equal  to  its  breadth,  AC,  a  drop 
entering  the  top  of  the  tube  will 
descend  without  touching  the 
sides.  For  in  half  the  time,  the 
tube  will  be  in  the  position,  B'C, 
and  the  drop  in  the  position  d\ 
and  so  for  any  other  portion  of 
the  time.  This  exactly  illus- 
trates the  astronomical  pheno- 
mcnon  in  question.  The  tube 
is  a  telescope  directed  to  receive  the  light  of  a 
star ;  this  tube,  and  the  person  looking  through 
it,  are  moving  along  with  the  earth  in  its  orbit, 
and  tlie  light  may  be  conceived  as  particles  coming 
from  the  star  like  drops  of  rain,  moving  much 
faster,  no  doubt,  still  requiring  time.  That  a 
particle  or  ray  of  light  from  the  star  may  pass 
through  the  tube,  it  must  be  directed,  not  straight 
to  the  star,  but  at  a  slight  angle  in  the  direction  of 
the  earth's  motion.  Thus  the  place  where  we  see 
the  star  is  not  its  true  place.  As  the  earth's  motion, 
however,  is  slow  compared  with  the  velocity  of 
light,  the  angle  of  inclination  is  small — never  exceed- 
ing about  20".  The  result  is,  that,  if  we  conceive  the 
true  place  of  a  star  as  a  fixed  point,  the  apparent 
place  of  the  star  describes  about  this  true  place,  in 
the  course  of  a  year,  an  ellipse  whose  greater  axis  is 
about  40".  The  aberration  of  light  was  discovered 
by  the  English  astronomer  Bradley,  in  1727,  while 
seeking  to  determine  the  parallax  of  certain  fixed 
stars. 

ABERY'STWITH,  a  seaport  and  municipal  and 
parliamentary  borough,  in  Cardiganshire,  Wales 
There  are  about  280  vessels  belonging  to  the  port, 
with  a  tonnage  of  29,000.  A.  is  much  resorted  to 
for  sea-bathing,  and  is  well  provided  with  good 
hotels  and  lodging-houses.     Pop.  5189. 

ABEYANCE,  a  legal  term  importing  that  a  free- 
hold inheritance,  dignity,  or  office  is  not  vested  in 
any  one,  but  is  in  expectation,  or  suspended,  tmtil 
the  true  owner  appears,  or  the  right  thereto  is 
determined.  Titles  of  honour  are  said  to  be  in 
A.  when  it  is  uncertain  who  shall  enjoy  them.  A 
parsonage  remaining  void  is  al-so  said  to  be  in  A. 
This  A.  or  suspense,  being  repugnant  to  the  general 
principles  of  the  tenure  of  land,  is  never  allowed 
except  when  it  is  unavoidable.  It  finds  no  place 
in  the  law  of  Scotland,  where  it  is  a  maxim  that 
the  fee  of  an  inheritance,  or  the  right  of  properly, 
cannot  be  in  pendente,  but  must  be  somewhere,  for 
this,  among  other  reasons,  that  creditors  must  know 
with  whom  the  right  of  property  is.  Titles  of  honour 
and  office  stand  on  a  difterent  footing  in  Scotland, 
where,  however,  the  general  provisions  of  the  law  are 
so  comprehensive  as  almost  to  exclude  a  case  of  A. 

ABIES.     See  Fir. 

ABINGDON,  the  county  town  of  Berks,  in 
England,  situated  at-the  junction  of  the  Ock  and  the 
Thames.  The  name  was  originally  Abbendon  (town 
of  the  Abbey).  It  sends  a  member  to  parliament. 
Pop.  of  parfiamentary  borough,  5680. 


ABJURATION— ABOLITIONISTS. 


ABJURATION,  Oath  of.  Foruici-ly  there  were 
three  oaths,  called  the  Oaths  of  Allegiance,  Supre- 
macy, and  Abjuration,  required  of  all  persons  before 
adniisMon  to  any  public  office ;  but  now,  by  the  21 
and  Tl  Vict.  c.  48,  one  oath  is  substituted  for  the 
three  referred  to,  and  is  as  follows  : 

'1,  A.  B.,  do  swear.  That  I  will  be  faithful, 
and  bear  true  allegiance  to  her  Majesty  Queen 
Victoria,  and  will  defend  her  to  the  utmost  of  my 
power  against  all  conspiracies  and  attempts  what- 
ever which  shall  be  made  against  her  person.  Crown, 
or  dignity,  and  I  will  do  my  utmost  endeavour  to 
disclose  and  make  known  to  her  Majesty,  her  heirs 
and  successors,  all  treasons  and  traitorous  conspira- 
cies which  may  be  formed  against  her  or  them;  and 
I  do  laithfully  promise  to  maintain,  support,  and 
defend  to  the  utmost  of  my  power,  the  succession 
of  the  Crown,  which  succession,  by  an  Act,  intituled 
An  Act  for  the  further  limitation  of  the  Crown,  and 
better  securing  the  rights  and  liberties  of  the  Sub- 
ject, is  and  stands  limited  to  the  Princess  Sophia, 
Eleetrcss  of  Hanover,  and  the  heirs  of  her  body, 
being  Urotestants  ;  hereby  utterly  renouncing  and 
abjuring  any  obedience  or  allegiance  unto  any 
other  person  claiming  or  pretending  a  right  to  the 
Crown  of  this  realm ;  and  I  do  declare,  that  no 
foreign  prince,  person,  prelate,  state,  or  potentate, 
hath  or  ought  to  have  any  jurisdiction,  power, 
superiority,  pre-eminence,  or  authority,  ecclesias- 
tical or  spiritual,  within  this  realm :  And  I  make 
this  declaration  upon  the  true  faith  ol  a  Christian. 
So  help  me  God.' 

The  act  provides  for  a  form  of  affirmation  by 
Quakers  and  other  persons  permitted  to  decline  tak- 
ing an  oath. 

By  another  act  passed  at  the  same  time,  the  21  and 
22  Vict.  c.  49,  it  is  permitted  to  either  house  of 
parliament  to  resolve  that  thenceforth  any  person 
professing  the  Jewish  religion,  in  taking  the  above 
oath  to  entitle  him  to  sit  and  vote  in  parliament, 
may  omit  the  words,  '  And  I  make  this  declaration 
upon  the  true  feith  of  a  Christian ;'  but  on  the  occa- 
sion of  two  members  professing  the  Jewish  religion 
recently  taking  their  seats  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, according  to  a  resolution  by  the  House, 
urder  the  powers  of  this  act,  it  was  decided  by  the 
Speaker  that  such  resolution  could  only  remain  in 
force  during  the  continuance  of  the  session  when  it 
was  adopted ;  and  it  would  therefore  appear  that 
the  resolution  must  be  renewed,  and  of  course  at 
the  pleasure  and  discretion  of  the  House  during 
every  subsequent  session  of  the  parliament  in  whicli 
any  Jew  or  Jews  may  have  been  elected  to  sit.  An 
effective  modification  on  this  point  has  been  proposed. 
The  act  further  provides,  that  in  all  other  cases 
except  for  sitting  in  parliament,  or  in  qualifying  to 
exercise  the  right  of  presentation  to  any  ecclesias- 
tical benefice  in  Scotland,  whenever  any  Jew  shall 
be  required  to  take  the  above  oath,  he  may  omit 
the  words  already  quoted. 

The  oath  to  be  taken  by  Roman  Catholics,  instead 
of  the  oaths  of  Allegiance,  Supremacy,  and  Abjiu-a- 
tion,  is  prescribed  by  the  10  Geo.  IV.  c.  7,  com- 
monly called  the  Roman  Catholic  Rehef  Act,  and 
IS  in  the  following  terms : 

_'I,  A.  B.,  do  sincerely  promise  and  swear,  That  I 
will  be  faithful  and  bear  true  allegiance  to  her 
Majesty,  Queen  Victoria,  and  will  defend  her  to  the 
utmost  of  my  power  against  all  conspiracies  and 
attempts  whatever,  which  shall  be  made  against  her 
person.  Crown,  or  dignity  ;  and  I  will  do  my  utmost 
endeavour  to  disclose  and  make  known  to  her 
Majesty,  her  heirs  and  successors,  all  treasons  and 
traitorous  conspiracies  which  may  be  formed  against 
her  or  them :  And  I  do  faithfully  promise  to  main- 
tain, support,    and    defend,  to   the    utmost  of   my 


power,  the  succession  of  the  Crown,  which  succession, 
by  an  Act,  intituled  An  Act  for  the  further  limitation 
of  the  Crown,  andbetter  securing  the  rights  and  liberties 
of  the  Subject,  is  and  stands  limited  to  the  Princess 
Sophia,  Electress  of  Hanover,  and  the  heirs  of  her 
body,  being  Protestants;  hereby  utterly  renouncing 
and  abjuring  any  obedience  or  allegiance  unto  any 
other  person  claiming  or  pretending  a  right  to  the 
Crown  of  this  realm  :  And  I  do  further  declare.  That 
it  is  not  an  article  of  my  Faith,  and  that  I  do 
renounce,  reject,  and  abjure  the  opinion,  that 
princes  excommunicated  or  deprived  by  the  Pope,  or 
any  other  authority  of  the  See  of  Rome,  may  be 
deposed  or  murdered  by  their  subjects,  or  by  any 
person  whatsocA-er  :  And  I  do  declare.  That  I  do  not 
believe  that  the  Pope  of  Rome,  or  any  other  foreign 
prince,  prelate,  person,  state,  or  potentate,  hath,  or 
OTight  to  have,  any  temporal  or  civil  jurisdiction, 
power,  superiority,  or  pre-eminence,  directlv  or 
indirectly,  within  this  realm.  I  do  swear,  That  I 
will  defend,  to  the  utmost  of  my  power,  the  settle- 
ment of  property  within  this  realm,  as  established 
by  the  laws ;  and  I  do  hereby  disclaim,  disavow, 
and  solemnly  abjure  any  intention  to  .subvert  the 
present  church  establishment,  as  settled  by  law 
within  tliis  realm  :  And  I  do  solemnly  swear.  That  I 
never  will  exercise  any  privilege  to  which  ^  am  or 
may  become  entitled,  to  disturb  or  weaken  the 
Protestant  Beligion  or  Protestant  Government  in 
the  United  Kingdom  :  And  I  do  solemnly,  in  the 
presence  of  God,  profess,  testify,  and  declare,  that  I 
do  make  this  Declaration,  and  every  part  thereof,  in 
the  plain  and  ordinary  sense  of  the  words  of  this 
oath,  without  any  evasion,  equivocation,  or  mental 
reservation  whatsoever.     So  help  me  God.' 

This  oath  itself,  however,  has  been  considered 
objectionable,  as  covertly  imputing  disloyalty  and 
insincerity  to  the  Roman"  Catholic  body,  and'a  Bill 
has  been  introduced  into  parliament  for  the  purpose 
of  modifying  its  terms  still  further. 
ABLATIVE  CASE.  See  Declkxsion. 
ABLUTION.  See  Purification. 
ABO  (pronounced  Obo),  the  chief  town  of  tlie 
government  of  Abo,  in  Finland,  now  belonging  to 
the  Russian  Empire,  is  situated  on  the  river  Aura- 
jokki,  near  its  embouchure  in  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia ; 
pop.  14,000.  The  town  was  founded  by  the  Swedes 
in  1157,  and  remained  the  capital  of  Finland  until 
1819.  In  the  year  1827,  a  great  part  of  the  town, 
including  the  university  buildings,  was  destroyed  bv 
fire,  and  consequently  the  university  was  removed 
to  Helsingfors,  now  the  capital. — The  Peace  of 
Abo,  concluded  August  17,  1743,  between  Sweden 
and  Russia,  put  an  end  to  the  war  commenced 
by  Sweden,  under  French  instigation,  in  1741.  In 
this  war,  Russia  had  gained  possession  of  the  whole 
of  Finland  through  the  misconduct  of  the  two 
Swedish  generals,  Lowcnhaupt  and  Buddenbrock, 
who  were  beheaded.  In  this  treaty,  the  river 
Kymene  was  made  the  boundary  between  the  terri- 
tories of  Sweden  and  Russia  ;  but  by  another  peace, 
concluded  in  1809,  the  whole  of  Finland,  as  far  as 
the  Tornea,  was  ceded  to  Russia. 

ABOLITIONISTS,  a  party  in  the  U.  S.,  which  on 
moral  and  religious  gi-ouuds,  sought  the  overthrow  of 
slavery,  lliis  party  was  at  first  composed  laigelj'  of 
members  of  the  Religious  Society  of  Friends ;  but  the 
term  was  not  connnonly  used  until  a  radical  and  aggres- 
sive party  ai'ose  in  the  New  England  States,  and  spread 
throughout  the  North  and  AVest,  demanding  immediate 
and  unconditional  emanci]5ation.  After  about  30  years 
of  agitation,  the  Abolitionists  became  so  powerful  as  to 
secure  the  incorporation  of  some  of  then-  doctrines  in 
tlic  platform  of  the  Republican  party,  which  elected 
Abraham  Lincoln  to  the  Presidency.     Under  his  ad- 

15 


ABORIGINES— ABRAHAM-MEN. 


ministration,  during  the  great  rebellion,  slavery  was 
abolished  Jan.  1,  1863. 

ABORIGINES  (Lat.),  properly  the  earliest  inhabi- 
tants of  a  country.  The  corresponding  term  used 
by  the  Greeks  was  Autochthones.  The  Roman  and 
Greel-:  historians,  however,  apply  the  name  to  a 
special  people,  who,  according  to  tradition,  had 
their  original  seats  in  the  mountains  about  Reate, 
now  Rieti ;  but,  being  driven  out  by  the  Sabines, 
descended  into  Latinm.  and  in  conjunction  with  a 
tribe  of  PelasE^i,  subdued  or  expelled  thence  the 
Siculi,  and  occupied  the  country.  The  A.  then  dis- 
appear as  a  distinct  people,  they  and  their  allies  the 
Pelasgi  having  taken  the  name  of  Latini.  The  non- 
Pelasgic  element  of  the  Roman  population  is  supposed 
to  represent  these  A.,  who  would  thus  belong  to  the 
Oscans  or  Ausonians. 

ABORTION,  in  Criminal  Law.  Neither  in  the  law 
of  England  nor  of  Scotland  is  it  murder  to  kill  a  child 
in  the  mother's  womb  (although  perhaps  it  would 
be  different  where  the  mother  herself  dies  in  conse- 
quence of  the  treatment).  But  the  offence  in  question 
falls  under  the  name  A.,  which  may  be  defined 
as  the  crime  of  administering  to  a  pregnant  woman 
any  medicine,  poison,  or  noxious  drug,  or  of  using 
any  surgical  instrument  or  other  means,  with  the 
intent  of  procuring  miscarriage.  The  English  law  on 
the  subject  is  now  regulated  by  the  7  Will.  IV.  and  1 
Vict,  c'  85,  s.  ('),  which  makes  the  offence  felony,  and 
subjects  offenders  to  transportation  ibr  life,  or  for 
not  less  than  fifteen  years,  or  to  be  imprisoned  for 
any  term  not  more  than  three  years.  In  the  law 
of  Scotland,  the  procuring  of  A.  is  an  oflfence  at 
common  law,  punishable  with  'an  arbitrary  pain,' 
and  that  equally  whether  the  desired  effects  be  pro- 
duced or  not.  In  England,  trausportarion  or  im- 
prisonment is  tire  punishment  usually  awarded.  See 
Supplement,  Vol.  X.,  p.  .'^00,  article,  Abortion. 

ABOUKI'R,  the  ancient  Canopus,  is  now  an 
insignificant  village  on  the  coast  of  Egypt,  about  13 
miles  north-east  of  Alexandria.  The  castle  of 
Aboukir  stands  on  the  west  side  of  the  bay  of  the 
same  name.  This  bay  is  celebrated  on  account  of 
Nelson's  victory  here  gained  over  the  French  fleet, 
August  1,  1798.  The  French  fleet  was  stationed  in 
a  curved  line  near  a  small  island  guarded  by  a 
battery ;  but  Nelson,  with  his  usual  intrepidity, 
forced  a  passage  with  half  of  his  fleet  of  fifteen 
vessels  between  the  island  and  the  French  line  of 
battle,  while  the  other  half  attacked  the  enemy  in 
front.  The  French  admiral  De  Brueys  was  killed 
by  a  cannon-ball,  and  his  flag-ship,  P  Orient,  was 
destroyed  by  fire.  Only  sixty  or  seventy  men  were 
saved  out  of  a  crew  of  1000.  The  French  fleet 
was  completely  defeated,  and  only  two  vessels 
escaped. 

ABOUSA'MBUL,  or  IPSAMBUL,  a  place  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Nile,  in  Nubia,  lat.  22°  22',  the  site 
of  two  very  remarkable  rock-cut  temples,  perhaps 
the  oldest  existing  specimens  of  architecture  in  the 
world.  The  larger  temple  contains  fourteen  apart- 
ments, hewn  out  of  the  solid  rock.  The  first  and 
largest  of  these  is  57  feet  long,  and  52  broad,  and  is 
supported  by  two  rows  of  massy  square  pillars  (four 
in  each  row),  30  feet  high.  To  each  of  the  pillars  is 
attached  a  standing  colossus,  reaching  to  the  roof, 
overlaid  with  a  kind  of  stucco,  and  painted  with 
gaudy  colours.  In  front  of  the  temple  are  four 
colossal  seated  figures — the  largest  pieces  of  Egyptian 
sculpture  yet  discovered.  Reproductions  of  two 
of  these,  on  the  scale  of  the  original  (65  feet  in 
height),  form  very  striking  objects  in  the  Crystal 
Palace  at  Sydenham,  where  also  may  be  seen  a  fac- 
simile, on  a  small  scale,  of  the  temple  itself.  These 
figures  are  supposed  to  represent  Rameses  the  Great 
16 


(or  Sesostris),  whose  achievements  are  described  on 
the  painted  walls  of  the  temple. 

ABRACADABRA,  a  word  said  to  be  of  Persian 
origin,  and  to  designate  in  that  language  Mithra, 
the  sun-god.  It  was,  in  former  times,  the  most 
venerated  of  those  magical  formulas  that  were 
constructed  out  of  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  and 
was  supposed  to  be  highly  efficacious  for  the  cure  of 
fevers,  and  especially  quartan  and  semi-tertian  agues. 
Serenus  Sammonicus  gives  the  following  directions 
for  its  use :  Write  the  letters  of  the  word  so  as  to 
form  a  triangle,  capable  of  being  read  many  ways, 
on  a  square  piece  of  paper.  Fold  the  paper  so  as  to 
conceal  the  writing,  and  stitch  it  into  the  form  of  a 
cross    with  white    thread. 


ABRACADA 


BRA 
L    B    R 


B    R    A    C    A 

4.    B    R    A    C    J 

A    B    R    A    C 

A    B    R    A    ( 

A    B    R    A 

A    B    R    J 


This  amulet   wear   in  the 

bosom,    suspended    by    a 

linen  ribbon  for  nine  days. 

Then  go  in  dead  silence, 

before     sunrise,     to     the 

banks   of    a   stream    that 

flows  eastward,    take   the 

amulet  from  off  the  neck, 

and     fling    it    backwards  '^ 

into    the    water.      If  you 

open  or  read  it,  the  charm 

is  destroyed.     The  adjoining  is  one  of  the  principle 

forms  of  arranging  this  mystic  word. 

ABRAHAM,  the  progenitor  of  the  Israelitish 
nation.  He  was  a  native  of  Chalda^a,  but  migrated, 
with  his  wife  Sarah  and  his  nephew  Lot,  to  Canaan, 
where  he  lived  a  nomadic  life,  and  worshipped  the 
one  God,  Jehovah,  in  the  midst  of  the  polytheistic 
Canaanites.  The  details  of  the  narrative,  as  given 
in  the  book  of  Genesis,  are  familiar  to  every 
one.  A.  died  at  the  age  of  175  (about  1800  u.  c). 
Of  his  two  sons,  Isaac  was  the  ancestor  of  the 
Israelites ;  and  the  Arabs  claim  to  be  descended 
from  Ishmael,  whose  mother  was  Hagar,  a  bond- 
woman. Later  tradition  ascribed  to  A.  a  complete 
knowledge  of  astronomy  and  philosophy,  the  inven- 
tion of  alphabetic  writing,  the  art  of  interpreting 
dreams,  &c.  Even  among  Mohammedans,  A.  is 
reckoned  a  prophet  and  the  friend  of  God ;  and 
they  attribute  to  him  the  building  of  the  sacred 
Kaaba  at  Mecca. 

ABRAHAM-A-SANCTA-CLARA,  a  very  eccen- 
trie  but  popidar  and  useful  German  preacher,  was 
born  lG-i2,  and  died  in  Vienna  1709.  His  real  name 
was  Ulrich  Megerle,  but  he  is  generally  known 
by  the  name  given  to  him  in  his  monastery. 
Uncouth  puns,  coarse  expressions,  and  strange 
freaks  of  humour,  marked  his  sermons;  but  beneath 
their  fantastic  shells  they  had  good  kernels.  A. 
was  an  honest,  faithful,  and  devoted  priest,  as  was 
proved  by  his  self-sacriflcing  conduct  during  the 
plague  in  ltJ79.  Though  very  severe  in  his  reproof 
of  vice,  h-e  was  highly  esteemed.  The  singular  style 
of  hl-s  writings  is  indicated  by  their  very  titles,  e.g., 
Gack  Gack,  i.  e.,  Wallfarth  Maria  Stern  in  Texa; 
Heihames  Gemisch-Gcinasch  (Wholesome  Hodge- 
podge). His  collected  works  amount  to  twenty  vols. 
(1835).  A  selection  was  published  in  2  vols.  (Vieu. 
1846.) 

ABRAHAM-MEN,  a  class  of  sturdy  beggars  who 
simulated  lunacy,  and  wandered  about  the  country  in 
a  disorderly  manner  ;  at  one  time  working  on  the 
sympathy,  and  at  another  on  the  fears  of  women, 
children,"  and  domestics.  They  were  common  in 
Shakspeare's  time,  and,  it  would  seem,  existed  even 
as  late  as  the  period  of  the  civil  wars.  The  term  is 
a  cant  one.  '  An  Abram  cove,'  as  Decker,  in  his 
English  ViUanies,  calls  one  of  these  mendicants, 
meant  one  who  personated  a  '  Tom  o'  Bedlam.'  He 
would  '  disguise  himself   in    grotesque    rags,    with 


ABRAHAMITES— ABSCESS. 


knotted  hair,  long  staff,  and  with  many  more  dis- 
gusting fontrivanccs  to  excite  pity,'  but  he  did 
not  hesitate  to  live  by  thieving  too,  and  when 
detected  pilfering  or  in  any  species  of  depredation, 
he  pleaded  the  immunities  of  the  real  Bedlamite, 
who  was  foi'mally  permitted  to  roam  about  the 
country  when  discharged  from  '  Bethlem  Hospital.' 
A  verbal  relic  of  this  class  is  still  preserved  in  the 
slang  phrase,  'to  sham  Abraham.' 

A'BRAHAMITES,  or  Bohemian  deists.  Under 
this  name,  a  number  of  residents  in  Bohemia, 
trusting  in  the  edict  of  toleration  issued  by  Joseph 
II.,  avowed  themselves  (1782)  as  believers  of  the 
doctrine  alleged  to  have  been  held  by  Abraham 
before  his  circumcision.  As  early  as  the  9th  c., 
a  sect  of  the  same  name  had  arisen  in  Syria,  and 
had  denied  the  divinity  of  Christ.  But  the  Bohe- 
mian deists  professed  to  be  followers  of  John 
Huss,  though  the}'  held  no  Christian  doctiinc 
beyond  that  of  the  unity  of  God,  and  accepted 
nothing  of  the  Bible  save  the  Lord's  Prayer.  As 
they  would  join  neither  Jewish  nor  Christian  sects, 
the  emperor  refused  to  tolerate  them;  and  in  1783, 
expelled  them  from  their  native  land,  and  scattered 
them  in  various  parts  of  Hungary,  Transylvania, 
and  Slavonia,  where  many  were  nuide  converts  to 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  while  others  died  as 
martvrs  to  their  simple  creed. 

ABRANTES,  Dukk  of.     See  Juxot. 

ABRA'XAS  STONES  are  so  called  from  having 
the  word  abraxas  or  abrasax  engraved  on  them. 
They  are  cut  in  various  forms,  and  bear  a  variety 
of  capricious  symbols,  mostly  composed  of  human 
limbs,  a  foul's  head,  and  serpent's  body.  These 
gems,  whose  value  and  significance  have  been 
greatly  exaggerated,  are  common  in  collections,  and 
are  represented  as  coming  from  Syria,  Egypt,  and 
Spain.  It  is  certain  that  the  use  of  the  name 
abraxas  was  at  first  peculiar  to  the  Gnostic  sect  of 
the  Basilidians  (q.  v.);  and  probably  the  word,  by 
taking  the  numerical  value  of  its  Greek  letters,  may 
signify  the  number  305,  so  that  there  is  no  need  to 
have  recourse  to  old  Persian  or  Egyptian,  as  is 
sometimes  done.  The  Basilidians,  however,  did  not 
designate  by  this  name  the  highest  deity,  but  the 
spirits  of  the  world  collectively.  At  a  later  period, 
the  doctrines  and  practices  of  the  sect  were  carried 
by  the  Priscellianists  to  Spain,  whence  many  of 
these  stones  are  got.  Gnostic  symbols  were  after- 
wards adopted  by  all  sects  given  to  magic  and 
alchemy;  and  thus  there  is  little  doubt  that  the 
greater  part  of  the  abraxas-stones  were  made  in  the 
middle  ages  as  talismans. 

ABROGA'TION  of  laws  is  the  repealing  or  recall- 
ing of  them — as  where  a  statute  repeals  a  previous 
one.  Generally,  in  England,  all  statutes,  no  matter 
how  old,  or  how  unsuited  soever  to  the  times,  remain 
in  force  until  they  are  expressly  repealed.  But  in 
Scotland  a  statute  may  become  obsolete  and  virtually 
repealed,  so  that  it  may  not  owing  to  the  lapse  of 
time  be  founded  on.     Sec  Statute. 

A'BRUS,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Legnminosce,  sub-order  Fapilionaccte,  of  which  the 
only  known  species,  A.  precator'ms,  is  a  shrub,  origin- 
ally belonging  to  India,  where  it  is  chiefly  found  in 
clayey  soils,  but  now  not  uncommon  in  the  West 
Indies  and  other  tropical  regions.  The  roots  possess 
properties  exactly  similar  to  those  of  the  common 
liquorice.  The  seeds  are  nearly  spherical,  as  large 
as  small  peas,  of  a  scarlet  colour,  with  a  black  sear, 
and  are  familiar  enough  to  most  people  in  Britain, 
being  used  as  beads.     They  are  narcotic. 

ABRU'ZZO,  the  north-east  corner  of  the  kingdom 
of  Naples,  lies  between  the   States  of  the  Church  on 
the  west,  and  the  Adriatic  on  the  east,  and  is  divided 
2 


into  three  parts — Abruzzo  Ulterioro  1st  and  2d,  and 
Abruzzo  Citeriore,  so  called  in  relation  to  the  rest  of 
Naples.  The  whole  district  contains  about  5iHM) 
square  miles,  and  800,000  inhabitants.  Its  chief 
towns  are  Chieti,  Tcramo,  Aquila,  Stdmona.  It 
forms  the  wildest  and  loftiest  portion  of  the  Apen- 
nines. The  streams  are  numerous,  but  the  onlv 
river  of  any  consequence  is  the  Pescara,  which  flows 
into  the  Adriatic.  The  rent  and  jagged  mountain- 
groups  arrange  themselves  in  picturesque  shapes, 
reaching  in  II  Gran  Sasso  d'ltalia,  or  'the  great 
rock  of  Italy,'  which  is  the  highest  of  the  chain,  the 
elevation  of  10,000  feet.  The  highlands  slope  pre- 
cipitously on  all  sides,  but  especially  tow-ards  the 
north-eastern  shore.  The  climate  of  A.  is  raw  in 
the  higher  regions;  snow  rests  on  the  hills  from 
October  to  April,  and  on  some  of  the  peaks  all  the 
year  round ;  but  the  valleys  are  extremely  fertile, 
though  husbandry  is  in  a  wretched  condition,  and 
the  low  open  plains  are  left  without  the  slightest 
protection  from  inundations  of  the  rivers  in  spring, 
or  means  for  irrigation  in  the  arid  summer. 
Dense  forests  of  oak  and  fir  clothe  the  sides  of 
the  mountains ;  at  the  base,  almond,  walnut,  and 
other  fruit-trees  grow  abundantly  ;  olives,  in  the 
deep-lying  valleys.  Fine  cattle  pasture  in  these 
regions ;  herds  of  swine  roam  through  the  lofty 
pine-woods ;  and  the  remoter  fastnesses  are  the 
haunt  of  bears,  wolves,  and  wild  boars.  The  chief 
importance  of  A.  is  its  military  position  as  a  de- 
fence of  the  kingdom  of  Naples.  There  are  few 
roads  into  it,  so  that  it  is  very  difficult  for  an  enemy 
to  reach  Naples  from  the  north.  It  is  admirably 
suited  for  the  purposes  of  guerilla  Avarfare.  But  the 
people  have  ceased  to  possess  a  reputation  as  banditti. 
No  trace  of  the  old  spirit  which  made  their  ancestors, 
the  Marsi,  Sabines,  and  Samnites,  so  terrible  to  the 
Romans,  and  which  in  modern  times  manifested 
itself  in  a  love  of  petty  plundering,  is  to  be  found. 
They  have  become  a  race  of  rude  and  simple  shep- 
herds, fondly  attached  to  their  mountain  homes, 
musical,  superstitious,  and  hospitable ;  but  they  are 
robust  and  powerful,  and  during  the  French  invasion 
of  Naples,  in  1799,  displayed  a  vigorous  courage  in 
opposing  the  soldiers  of  the  Revolution. 

A'BSALOII,  the  third  son  of  David,  king  of 
Israel,  remarkable  for  his  beauty,  and  for  his  un- 
natural rebellion  against  his  father.  By  popular 
acts,  he  contrived  to  win  the  affections  of  the  people, 
and  then  stirred  up  a  formidable  rebellion.  The 
adherents  of  the  king  having  rallied  round  him,  a 
battle  was  ibnght  in  the  forest  of  Ephraim,  in  which 
the  rebels  were  defeated.  In  the  flight,  as  A.  was 
riding  under  a  tree,  his  hair  caught  in  the  branches, 
and  he  was  left  suspended ;  in  which  position  Joab, 
the  commander  of  David's  army,  thrust  him  through, 
contrary  to  the  king's  express  orders  that  he  should 
be  spared.  The  grief  of  David  for  his  loss  was 
excessive.     See  2  Sam.  c.  IS. 

ABSALOM,  Archbishop  of  Lund.     See  Axel. 

A'BSCESS  (Aposfcma),  a  collection  of  purulent 
matter  formed  by  disease  within  some  tissue  or  organ 
of  the  body.  The  process  by  which  an  abscess  is 
formed  is  the  following:  First,  the  capillary  vessels 
become  overcharged  with  blood,  in  consequence  of 
inflammation.  From  the  blood  thus  made  stagnant, 
or  flowing  very  feebly,  a  fluid  exudes  through  the 
walls  of  the  capillary  vessels,  and,  containing  a  large 
portion  of  albumen,  becomes  pus  or  purulent  matter. 
This  matter,  at  first  contained  in  the  minute  interstices 
of  the  tissues,  gradually  dissolves  them,  and  so  makes 
for  itself  a  larger  cavity ;  and  frequently,  by  gradual 
dissolution  of  the  adjacent  parts,  works  its  way 
either  to  the  surface  or  to  some  natural  cavity  of  the 
bodv.     Pus   thus   makes   its   appearance  often   in  a 

17 


ABSCISSA— ABSORPTION. 


different  part  of  the  body  from  where  it  was  formed. 
It  also  occurs,  that  when  the  purulent  matter  does 
not  find  any  outlet  either  naturally  or  artificially,  it 
is  gradually  dried  up  or  absorbed.  In  abscesses 
superficially  seated— either  in  or  close  under  the 
skin — the  early  treatment  consists  chiefly  in  pro- 
moting the  formation  of  pus  by  the  application  of 
moist  and  warm  bandages  or  poultices.  The  next 
step  is  the  removal  of  the  pus.  When  this  is  too 
long,  delayed,  serious  disturbance  of  the  organ,  or 
even  poisoning  of  the  blood,  may  ensue.  An  abscess 
must  be  regarded  not  as  a  distinct,  original  disease 
in  itself,  but  as  the  result  of  another  disease— inflam- 
mation ;  or  as  an  effort  of  nature  for  the  removal 
of  injurious  matters  from  the  system. 
ABSCrSSA.     Sec  Paeabola. 

ABSENTEE',  a  term  applied,  by  way  of  reproach, 
to  capitalists  who  derive  tlieir  income  from  one 
country,  and  spend  it  in  another.  It  has  been  espe- 
cially used  in  discussions  on  the  social  condition  of 
Ireland.  As  long  as  Ireland  had  its  own  pailiament, 
a  great  portion  of  the  large  landed  proprietors  lived 
chiefly  in  the  country  during  summer,  and  passed  their 
winters  in  Dublin;  thus  spending  a  large  portion 
of  their  incomes  among  their  dependents,  or  at  least 
among  their  countrymen.  The  Union  changed  the 
habits  of  the  Irish  nobility  and  gentry,  who  were 
attracted  to  London  as  the  political  metropolis,  or 
were  induced,  by  the  disturbed  condition  of  Ireland, 
to  choose  residences  on  the  continent.  Such  Irish 
landed  proprietors  were  styled  'absentees;'  and 
it  was  argued  that  their  conduct  was  the  great 
source  of  Irish  poverty,  as  it  drained  the  resources 
of  the  land,  or,  in  other  words,  sent  money  out  of 
Ireland.  One  class  of  political  economists — among 
them  M'CuUoch — maintain  that,  economically  viewed, 
absenteeism  has  no  injurious  effect  on  the  country 
from  which  the  absentee  draws  his  revenue.  An 
Irish  landlord  living  in  France,  it  is  argued,  receives 
his  remittances  of  rent,  not  in  bullion,  but  in  bills  of 
exchange;  and  bills  of  exchange  represent,  in  the 
end,  the  value  of  British  commodities  imported  into 
France.  The  remittance  could  not  be  made  unless 
goods  to  the  same  amount  were  also  drawn  from 
Britain.  Thus,  although  the  landlord  may  consume, 
for  the  most  part,  French  productions,  he  causes, 
indirectly,  a  demand  for  as  much  of  British  produc- 
tions; and  his  income  goes,  in  the  end,  to  pay  for 
them.  His  residence  abroad,  then,  does  no  harm  to 
the  industry  and  resources  of  the  country  at  large, 
although  it  is  admitted  that  it  may  be  felt  as  an 
evil  in  a  particular  locality.  The  truth  of  this 
doctrine,  however,  in  its  full  extent,  is  disputed. 
Among  other  objections  to  it,  it  is  argued,  that 
whatever  may  be  true  of  the  amount  actually  con- 
sumed, all  the  tradesmen  and  others  who  supply  the 
absentee's  wants  have  their  profits,  and  have  thus 
the  means  of  accumulating ;  and  that  these  accumu- 
lations which  are  thus  added  to  the  national  wealth 
of  a  foreign  country,  would  have  been  added  to  the 
wealth  of  his  native  country  had  he  been  living  at 
home.  The  result  of  the  controversy  would  seem  to 
be,  that  absenteeism  does,  to  some  extent,  act  injuri- 
ously on  the  wealth  of  a  country,  though  it  is  not  true 
that  the  whole  revenues  thus  spent  are  so  much 
clear  loss,  there  being  several  indirect  compensa- 
tions.— On  the  evil  of  absenteeism,  in  a  moral  point 
of  view,  all  are  agreed  ;  especially  in  a  country  in  the 
condition  of  Ireland,  where  nearly  the  whole  wealth 
is  in  the  hands  of  extensive  landed  proprietors,  with 
almost  no  middle  class.  The  possessors  of  land 
have  duties  to  perform  which  cannot  be  deputed ; 
the  very  least  of  these  obligations  being  that  of 
setting  a  good  example  in  a  neighbourhood,  and  one 
not  less  important  being  that  of  giving  personal  aid 
18 


in  efFecting  local  improvements.  It  is  a  bad  sign  of 
the  social  condition  of  a  country  when  its  pro- 
prietors systematically  live  abroad,  or  in  great 
cities  away  from  their  estates.  The  relations  be- 
tween landlord  and  tenant  then  become  more 
and  more  cold  and  distant ;  while,  too  often,  the 
agents  of  the  landlords  have  no  good  feeling 
towards  tenants,  but  strive  only  to  raise  as  large 
sums  as  possible  for  their  principals,  and  to  enrich 
themselves.  But  though  the  evils  of  such  a  state  of 
society  are  evident,  it  is  not  easy  to  propose  a  sound 
remedy.  Forced  residence  is  opposed  to  all  British 
ideas  of  personal  liberty.  The  most  desirable  object 
is  to  make  Ireland  a  more  pleasant  home  for  landed 
proprietors. 

ABSOLUTE  stands  opposed  to  relative,  and 
means  that  the  thing  is  considered  in  itself,  and 
without  reference  to  other  things.  In  physics,  we 
speak  of  the  absolute  velocity  of  a  body — i.  e.,  the 
rate  of  its  motion  through  space;  and  of  the  relative 
velocity  of  two  bodies — i.  e.,  the  rate  at  which  they 
approach  or  recede  from  one  another,  one  or  both 
being  in  motion.  In  the  language  of  modern  meta- 
physics, the  Absolute  is  tlie  unconditioned,  unalter- 
able original — that  which  is  the  ultimate  cause  and 
ground  of  the  phenomena  of  the  visible  world. 
Absolute,  in  politics,  is  applied  to  a  rule  whose 
authority  is  unrestricted  by  constitutional  checks. 

ABSOLUTION,  originally  a  term  of  Roman  law, 
signifying  acfpiittal,  is  now  used  in  an  ecclesiastical 
sense.  In  the  primitive  Christian  Church,  its  form 
was  this :  Members  that  had  given  scandal  by  gross 
and  open  sins,  were  excluded  from  the  Lord's  Supper 
or  from  the  congregation  altogether,  and  could  be 
readmitted  only  if  tiiey  repented  and  underwent  the 
penance  laid  upon  them  by  the  church.  When  they 
had  done  so,  the  Presbyter,  along  with  the  elders, 
pronounced  the  absolution  in  presence  of  the  con- 
gregation— meaning,  that  the  congregation  forgave 
the  offence,  on  their  part,  and  received  the  sinner 
again  into  their  number.  Down  to  the  3d  c,  the 
concurrence  of  the  congregation  continued  to  be 
necessary  to  absolution.  But  by  the  4th  c,  it  had 
become  a  right  of  bishops  to  absolve,  and  the  public 
confession  had  gradually  turned  into  a  private 
confession  before  the  priest,  who  now  imposed  the 
penance  of  himself,  modified  or  remitted  it,  and  then 
absolved.  Absolution  had  not,  as  yet,  been  extended 
to  any  but  open  and  gross  sins;  but  when  the 
dominion  of  the  hierarchy  over  men's  minds  had 
reached  its  height,  and  the  fourth  Lateran  Council 
(1215)  had  made  auricular  confession,  at  least  once 
a  year,  obligatory,  confession  and  its  attendant 
absolutions  were  extended  to  all  sins  whatever ;  and 
the  absolution  was  made  to  convey,  not  merely,  as 
l^efore,  forgiveness  on  the  part  of  the  church,  but 
forgiveness  in  the  sight  of  God.  The  formula,  Dens 
or  Christios  abnolvit  te,  which  was  used  till  the  12th 
c,  was  changed  into  JSc/o  ahsolvo  te;  thus  ascribing 
to  the  priest  the  power  to  forgive  sins  in  the  sight 
of  God.  This  is  still  the  received  theory  of  abso- 
lution in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  sanctioned 
by  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  grounded  on  John  xx. 
21. — The  Protestant  churches  ascribe  to  the  absolu- 
tion of  the  clergy  only  a  declarative,  and  not  an 
exhibitive  power ;  on  the  ground  of  repentance,  it 
announces  and  assures  forgiveness  on  the  part  of 
God,  but  does  not  impart  it. 

ABSORBENTS.      See    Lagteals    and    I^ympha- 

TICS. 

ABSORPTION  (in  Botany).— It  is  believed  that 
plants  absorb  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  also  to 
some  extent  fluids,  by  their  leaves  and  other  aerial 
organs ;  and  it  is  supposed  that  this  absorption 
takes  place  principally  through  the   slomata  of  the 


ABSTINENCE— ABUTMENT. 


leaves  (sec  Leaves),  and  both  by  the  upper  and 
under  surface  of  the  leaf,  in  some  plants  by  both 
surfaces  indifferently,  in  others  much  more  power- 
fully by  the  one  surface  or  the  other.  But  plants 
principally  depend  upon  their  roots  for  nourishment, 
and  it  is  at  the  extremities  of  their  fibrils  that  ab- 
sorption takes  place  most  rapidly,  according  to  a 
peculiar  process  to  which  has  been  given  the  name 
of  Endos.mose  (q.  v.). 

ABSTINENCE.     See  Fasting. 

ABSTINENCE  SOCIETIES,  associations  for  the 
promotion  of  abstinence  from  all  kinds  of  alcoholic 
liquors,  and  the  members  of  which  usually  receive 
the  designation  of  abstainers  or  teetotalers — this 
last  phrase  inferring  an  utter  and  uncompromising 
abstinence ;  or  at  least  that  the  only  exception  shall 
be  for  sacramental  and  medical  purposes.  Abstain- 
ers usually  take  a  pledge  or  vow  to  that  effect ;  the 
ground  of  their  abstinence  from  alcoholic  liquors 
being  that  they  are  injurious  to,  or  at  least  no  way 
promotive  of,  health,  and  that  from  the  great  social 
evils  of  iutemperance  it  is  important  to  set  an  exam- 
ple of  entire  abstinence.  A.  S.  exist  in  great  num- 
bers in  North  America  and  the  United  Kingdom.  In 
the  early  growth  of  this  remarkable  social  movement, 
A.  S.  were  called  Temperance  Societies,  and  under 
that  head  the  subject  will  be  treated  in  its  various 
forms  of  development. 

ABSTRACTION  is  that  intellectual  process  by 
which  the  mind  withdraws  {ahstraho)  some  of  the 
attributes  of  objects  from  the  others,  and  thinks  of 
them  to  the  exclusion  of  the  rest.  The  abstract  is 
opposed  to  the  concrete.  John,  William,  my  brother, 
form  concrete  images  in  my  mind,  each  with  a  mul- 
titude of  attributes  peculiar  to  himself.  But  they 
have  also  certain  attributes  common  to  them  and  to 
all  individuals  of  the  race ;  I  can  overlook  the  others, 
and  attend  to  these,  and  thus  form  a  notion  or  con- 
ception, which  is  called  a  man.  Man  is,  therefore, 
an  abstract  notion,  the  word  connoting,  as  it  is 
called,  a  certain  though  not  very  well-defined  num- 
ber of  attributes.  With  the  exception  of  proper 
names,  all  nouns  are  thus  abstract.  There  are 
degrees,  however,  in  abstraction.  The  abstract 
notion  anuiial  rises  above  that  of  wan,  embracing 
all  men  and  innumerable  organized  beings  besides. 
An  organized  beimi,  again,  is  a  still  higher  stage,  and 
embraces  both  animals  and  plants.  Being,  time, 
space,  are  among  the  highest  abstractions.  The 
higher  abstractions  rise,  the  fewer  attributes  are 
implied  or  connoted  in  the  name ;  hence  the  pro- 
priety of  the  phrase,  empty  abstractions.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  number  of  objects  to  which  the 
name  is  applicable,  increases ;  and  thus  reasoning 
in  abstract  terms  has  the  advantage  of  being  general, 
or  extensive  in  its  application.  But  such  reasoning 
is  apt  to  become  vague  and  fallacious,  unless  constant 
regard  is  had  to  concrete  instances.  Abstract  lan- 
guage is  best  adapted  for  scientific  exposition ;  con- 
crete, for  graphic  and  poetical  effect. — Abstract  in 
Arith.  is  applied  to  numbers  considered  in  them- 
selves, and  without  reference  to  any  objects  num- 
bered; thus  7,  20,  are  abstract  numbers;  but  7  feet, 
20  horses  are  concrete  numbers. 

ABSURDUM,  Redcctio  ad,  the  method  of  prov- 
ing a  truth  by  shewing  that  to  suppose  the  propo- 
sition untrue  would  lead  to  a  contradiction  or  ab- 
surdity. 

ABSYNTHIUM.     See  Wormwood. 

ABU  or  BU  (Arab,  for  '  father ')  is  prefixed  to  many 
Arabic  proper  names,  as  the  equivalent  syllable  Ab 
is  prefixed  to  Hebrew  names  :  ex.,  Abu-bekr,  '  Father 
of  the  virgin'  (Aysha).  But  Abii,  like  Ab,  often 
signifies  merely  possessor ;  as  in  Abulfeda  (possessor 


of  fidelity),  'the  Trusty;'  Abner,  'the  Brilliant'— 
literally,  '  father  or  possessor  of  light.' 

ABU-BEKR  ('Father  of  the  virgin'  Aysha,  the 
wife  of  Mohammed),  was  a  man  of  great  influence  in 
the  Koreish  tribe ;  and  in  632,  when  Mohammed 
died,  was  made  the  fir.st  calif  or  successor  of  the 
Prophet.  After  defeating  his  enemies  in  Arabia, 
and  warring  successfully  against  Babylonia,  Syria, 
and  the  Byzantine  emperor  Herachus,  Abubckr  died 
Go.5  A.  D.,  aged  (;;>,  and  was  l)uried  at  Medina,  near 
the  remains  of  Mohammed  and  his  wife  Aysha. 

ABULFARA'J  (Lat.  Abiilfaragiuft\  called  also 
Barhebraeus — i.  e..  Son  of  the  Hebrew,  as  being  by 
birth  a  Jew,  though  afterwards  a  Christian — was 
born  at  Malatia,  in  Armenia,  1226,  and  became  so 
distinguished  for  his  knowledge  of  the  Syriac,. 
Arabic,  and  Greek  languages,  and  of  philosophy, 
theology,  and  medicine,  that  he  was  called  the 
phrt-nix  of  the  age.  At  the  age  of  twenty,  he  was 
made  bishop  of  Gnba,  and  afterwards  of  Aleppo ; 
and  rose  to  the  rank  of  Maphrian,  the  highest 
dignity  among  the  Jacobite  Christians  next  to 
Patriarch.  Of  his  numerous  Syriac  and  Arabic 
writings,  most  of  which  yet  lie  buried  in  the  library 
of  the  Vatican,  the  best  known  is  a  Chronicle,  in 
Syriac,  of  universal  history  from  Adam  down  to  his 
own  time.  Only  the  first  part  has  been  published, 
by  Bruns  and  Kirsch  (Leipz.  1789).  A.  himself 
abridged  this  work  in  Arabic,  under  the  title  of 
History  of  the  Dynasties  (edited  by  Pococke,  Arab, 
and  Lat.,  Oxf.  1663).  Among  his  writings  of  a 
theological  kind  may  be  mentioned  his  Magazine 
of  Mysteries,  being  a  Commentary  on  the  Syriac 
Version  of  the  Bible. 

ABU'LFEDA,  a  Moslem  prince,  known  as  a  writer 
of  history,  M'as  born  1273  a.  d.,  at  Damascus;  and 
during  his  youth,  distinguished  himself  in  several 
campaigns  against  the  Christian  kingdom  founded 
by  the  crusaders.  From  1310  to  his  death,  -with  the 
exception  of  a  few  years,  he  was  Prince  of  Hamath,  in 
Syria,  was  a  true  ally  of  the  sultan,  visited  Egypt 
and  Arabia,  patronized  literature  and  science,  and 
died  in  1331.  He  left  several  important  works  in 
Arabic,  among  which  are  his  Annals,  the  earlier  por- 
tion of  which  has  been  edited  by  Heischer,  under  the 
title  of  Historia  A7it.eislamiea'(Le\p.  1831,)  and  the 
rest  by  Reiske,  in  his  Annales  Moslemici  (Copenh. 
1789-94).  This  work  was  in  great  part  compiled  by 
A.  from  earlier  Arabic  authors,  and  is  a  valuable 
source  of  history,  especially  of  the  Arabic  Empire. 
He  also  wrote  a  Geography,  from  which  extracts  are 
given  in  Kohler's  Tabula  Syriee,  Michaelis's  Descrip- 
tio  Egypti,  and  Rommel's  Arabiee  Descriptio.  The 
whole"  work  has  been  edited,  with  a  French  transla- 
tion, by  Reinaud  and  De  Slane,  under  the  title  Geo- 
graphic (T Abulfeda  (Paris,  1848). 

ABUSHE'HR  (variously  written  Bushehr,  Bushire, 
in  Pers.  Bendershehr)  is  the  name  of  a  seaport  on 
the  east  coast  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  It  is  situated  at 
the  extremity  of  a  peninsula.  The  district  is  liable 
to  be  devastated  by  earthquakes,  swarms  of  locusts, 
and  the  simoom,  and  is  deficient  in  water;  but  the 
situation,  so  favourable  for  commerce,  has  raised  the 
town  to  importance,  so  that  it  numbers  about  15,000 
inhabitants.  It  is  the  emporium  of  the  Indian  trade 
with  Persia ;  and  the  East  India  government  has  a 
factory  here.  The  exports  are  horses,  fruits,  shawls, 
pearls,  silk,  rose-water,  asafoetida,  &c. ;  imports,  sugar, 
indigo,  iron,  cotton  goods,  &c. 

ABUTMENT,  in  Arch.,  is  the  part  of  a  pier 
or  wall  from  which  an  arch  springs,  and  which 
resists  the  outward  thrust.  The  term  impost  is 
used  when  the  arch  is  a  semicircle,  so  that  the 
pressure  is  vertical.     In  reference  to  a  bridge,  the 

19 


ABYDOS— ABYSSINIA. 


ahutiiicnts  arc  the  walls  adjoining  the  hind,  which 
Buppoit  the  ends  of  the  roadway,  or  the  extremities 
of  the  arch  or  arches. 

ABY'DOS,  a  town  in  Asia  Minor,  situated  at  the 
narrowest  point  of  the  Hellespont,  opposite  Sestos. 
It  is  celebratod  as  the  place  whence  Xerxes  and  his 
vast  army  passed  into  Europe  in  48<  i  it.  c. ;  also  as 
the  scene  of  the  story  of  Hero  (q.  v.)  and  Leander. 
In  the  later  times  of  antiquity,  the  people  of  A.  were 
reproached  for  their  elleminate  and  dissolute  man- 
ners.— There  was  another  Abydos,  in  Upper  Egypt 
(Thebais),  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Nile,  and  on  the 
main  route  of  connnerce  with  Libya.  Even  in  the 
time  of  Strabo,  this  town  was  in  ruins.  Here  the  re- 
mains of  the  Mcmnonium  and  of  a  temple  of  Osiris 
are  still  remarkable.  In  the  former,  W.  J.  Bankes, 
in  1818,  discovered  the  celebrated  Tablet  of  A.,  bear- 
ing, in  hieroglyphics,  a  genealogy  of  the  eighteenth 
dynasty  of  the  Pliaraolis.  It  is  now  in  Paris,  and 
copies  have  been  published. 

ABYSSrXIA,  called  Habesh  by  the  Arabs,  is  the 
large  tract  of  highlands  in  the  cast  of  Africa.  From 
the  Red  Sea  on  the  north-east,  it  rises  in  a  succes- 
sion of  terraces  towards  the  south-west.  BetwiM-n 
the  highlands  and  the  Ked  Sea  lies  a  flat  tract  called 
Adal,  narrow  at  the  north  (in  hit.  1.5°  31)'),  and 
widening  to  the  south.  The  plains  of  Nubia  and 
Kordofan  form  the  boundaries  on  the  north  and 
west,  while  the  southern  limits  are  not  well  known. 
The  country  consists  of  high  tal)le-Iands,  intersected 
by  deep  ravines  formed  by  the  rivers,  and  steep 
sandstone  terraces.  Numerous  mountain-chains, 
mostly  of  volcanic  origin,  rise  above  the  table-lands; 
the  highest  are  the  mountains  of  Samen  or  Samicn, 
rising  to  about  15,000  feet  above  the  sea-level.  Some 
of  the  plains  have  an  elevation  of  from  7  to  10,0(iu 
feet.  A.  gives  birth  to  numerous  rivers,  the  largest 
of  which  are  the  Abai  or  Nile  (Bahr-el-Azrek  or 
Blue  River),  and  the  Takkazie,  an  alHuent  of  the  I 
Nile.  In  the  south  is  the  Hawash — from  which 
the  country  takes  its  name — which  flows  eastward 
into  the  salt-lake  of  Assal  in  Adal.  The  largest 
lake  is  that  of  Tzana  or  Dembea,  through  which  the 
Abai  or  Blue  Nile  flows.  The  chmate  in  the  elevated 
tracts  of  Abyssinia  is  temperate  and  salubrious  ;  in 
the  low  tracts  along  the  coast,  and  in  the  north  and 
north-west,  the  heat  is  excessive,  and  the  climate 
noxious.  On  the  whole,  A.  is  a  country  of  great 
fertility;  but,  like  the  climate,  the  productions  of 
the  soil  vary  greatly  with  the  difl'erent  degrees  of 
elevation.  Wheat  and  barley  are  cultivated,  also 
maize,  the  grain  called  Tcff {Poa Abi/.sshdca) snidTo- 
cusso  {Elcasine  Tocusso),  various  leguminous  plants, 
cotton,  coffee,  sugar-cane,  tobacco,  &c.  The  coffee- 
plant  grows  wild.  Among  carnivorous  animals,  the 
lion,  leopard,  hyena,  wolf,  and  jaclcal,  are  found. 
There  are  also  elephants,  buflaloes,  rhinoceroses, 
zebras,  &c. 

The  people  of  A.  belong  mostly  to  the  Shemitic 
race,  and  resemble  the  Arabs  both  in  physical 
characteristics  and  structure  of  language.  See 
^THiopic  Language  AND  Literature.  The  ethno- 
logy of  the  country  is  variously  given  by  different 
authorities.  According  to  Riippell,  there  are  three 
principal  races.  The  aboriginal  Abyssinians,  inha- 
biting the  greater  part  of  Amhara,  and  nunn'rous 
also  in  Tigre,  are  of  middle  size,  with  oval  faces, 
lips  not  thicker  than  those  of  Europeans,  pointed 
noses,  and  straight  or  slightly  curled  hair.  In  this 
race  he  includes  the  Falashas,  or  Jews,  the  Gamant, 
and  the  Agows.  A  second  race,  abounding  most  in 
the  north  of  Tigre,  have  thick  lips,  noses  blunt  and 
somewhat  curved,  and  thick  hair,  verging  on  woolli- 
ness.  The  third  are  the  Gallas,  inhabiting  the  south 
of  Shoa  and  the  regions  west  of  Lake  Dembea  and 
2( 


the  Abai ;  a  large-bodied  race,  round-faced,  short 
nosed,  with  a  de[)ression  between  the  nose  and  brow, 
deep-set  lively  eyes,  and  thickish  lii)s.  The  colour 
of  these  races  is  i)rown  of  various  shades.  The  only 
negroes  in  A.  are  slaves  from  the  country  of  the 
Shangallas,  to  the  west. 

The  oldest  accounts  of  the  Abyssinians  are  full  of 
fables,  but  seem  sufficient  to  prove  that  they  attaine<l 
some  degree  of  civilization  even  in  remote  antiquity. 
Christianity  was  intro<luced  about  the  middle  of 
the  4th  c.,  and  soon  prevailed  extensively.  Axum 
was  at  that  time  the  capital.  Two  centuries 
later,  the  Abyssinians  were  powerful  enough  to 
invade  Arabia,  and  conquer  a  part  of  Yemen.  In 
the  subsequent  struggles  against  the  invading 
Moslem,  the  coast-land  Samhara  and  the  country 
of  Adal  were  lost.  In  the  Huh  c.,  a  Jewish  princess 
overthrew  the  reigning  dynasty,  the  surviving 
representative  of  which  fled  to  Shoa.  After  three 
centuries  of  confusion,  the  empire  was  restored 
under  Icon  Andac,  and  some  progress  was  made 
in  improvement.  Early  in  the  l.^ili  c,  the  Abys- 
sinians entered  into  close  relations  with  the 
Portuguese,  by  whose  assistance  the  empire  was 
saved,  in  j.540,  from  falling  into  the  hands  of  the 
invader  (Jranie,  sultan  of  Adal.  The  southern  pro- 
vinces, however,  were  lost,  and  the  seat  of  empire 
was  removed  from  Shoa  to  Gondar.  L'nder  the; 
influence  of  the  Portuguese  missionaries,  the  royal 
family  adopted  the  Roman  Catholic  faith ;  and  the 
old  Coptic  Church  was  formally  united  to  the  see  of 
Rome.  The  people  and  ecclesiastics  obstinately 
resisted  the  innovation;  the  emperor  gave  way; 
and  ultimately,  in  1032,  the  R(jmish  priests  were 
expelled  or  put  to  death.  In  consequence  of  the 
commotions  thus  excited,  the  monarchical  power 
declined,  while  that  of  the  governors  of  provinces 
greatly  increased,  and,  indeed,  became  almost  abso- 
lute. The  governor  {liax')  of  Gondar  now  nominates 
the  emperor  {Xer/us).  The  political  divisions  of  the 
coinitry  are  suViject  to  continual  alterations.  Of  the 
existing  states,  the  following  are  the  most  import- 
ant: — 1.  The  kingdom  of  Tigre,  extending  between 
the  river  Takkazie  or  Bahr-el-Aswad  (Black  River), 
and  the  moimtains  of  ■Samen  on  one  side,  and  the 
district  of  Samhara  on  the  other.  Its  chief  towns 
are  Antalo  and  Adowa.  2.  The  kingdom  of  Goruhr 
or  Amhnra,  extending  on  the  west  of  the  Takkazie 
and  the  Samcn  Mountains.  The  capital,  Gondar,  is 
situated  in  the  north-cast  of  the  plain  of  Dembea  or 
Gondar,  at  an  elevation  of  742<t  feet.  3.  The  king- 
dom of  *S/(oa  (including  ^/"cf/),  lying  south  of  Amhara, 
and  separated  from  the  Galla  tribes  by  the  Hawash. 
This  is,  by  all  accounts,  the  best  organized  and  most 
powerful  state  now  existing  in  A.  The  capital, 
Ankobar,  at  an  elevation  of  8198  feet,  contains 
from  8000  to  10,000  inhabitants,  and  enjoys  a 
delightful  climate.  The  Gallas,  a  savage  but  enter- 
prising race,  effected  a  settlement  in  the  south  of 
A.  in  the  10th  c.  They  inhabit  the  whole  of  the 
eastern  part  of  tropical  Africa.  Several  of  their 
tribes  have  beei:  modified  in  character  and  customs 
by  conversion  to  Mohammedanism,  and  have 
founded  kingdoms — such  as  Enarea,  one  of  the 
highest  mountain  countries  of  Africa,  and  rich  in 
produce ;  A'nsha,  on  the  river  Goshob,  where  the 
slave-trade  is  actively  carried  on  by  the  Portuguese; 
and  several  smaller  independent  states  of  which  Httle 
is  known. 

The  church  was  formerly  national  and  independent, 
the  visible  head,  or  ^16?«««  ('our  father'),  being  or- 
dained by  the  Coptic  patriarch  of  Alexandria,  but  re- 
cently, tiie  Roman  Catholic  Mission  has  usurped  the 
fimciions  of  the  Abuna  and  the  Abyssinian  clergy. 

A.  is  ruled  l)y  emperors  who  claim  descent  from 
King  Solomon  and  the  queen  of  Sheba.     Tlicir  au- 


ACACIA— ACADEMY. 


thority  was  nominal  until  Kasai,  who  was  cro^vned 
in  18:55  under  the  name  and  title  of  Theodorus,  King 
of  Kings  of  Ethiopia,  united  all  northern  A.  under 
his  autiiority.  This  remarkable  man  having  made  a 
treaty  with  Great  Britain  in  1849-52,  desired  to  carry 
out  its  terms,  and  Avi-ote  an  autograph  letter  to  the 
Queen,  asking  permission  to  send  an  embassy  to 
England.  To  this  reasonable  request  no  reply  was 
vouched.  Having  quarrelled  with  a  Christian  mis- 
sionary, and  incensed  at  the  imagined  insult  by  the 
British  Government,  in  1863  he  seized  the  persons 
of  the  missionaries  in  A.  together  with  the  British 
Consul  and  his  assistants,  in  all  49  adults  and  22 
children,  put  them  in  chains  and  cast  them  into 
prison,  lliis  outrage  on  British  subjects  excited 
great  indignation,  and  many  attempts  were  made  to 
obtain  their  release  through  diplomacy,  but  without 
success.  To  effect  this  by  force,  in  1867  an  army 
under  command  of  Sir  Robert  Napier,  composed  of 
12,000  British  troops  from  India  and  10,000  Eg}^^- 
tians,  witli  a  supply  train  of  21,000  mules  and  5000 
camels,  lauded  on  the  coast  and  marched  without  re- 
sistance upon  Magdala,  the  ])rison  of  the  captives. 
On  the  lOth  of  April,  Theodorus  was  repulsed,  and 
soon  after  the  prisoners  were  sent  into  the  British 
camp  ;  but  unconditional  surrender  being  demanded 
and  refused,  the  fortress  was  taken  by  assault.  The 
emperor  is  said  to  have  destroyed  himself,  but  one 
of  his  sons  was  taken  and  sent  to  England  to  be  edu- 
cated. Since  the  fall  of  Theodorus,  A.  has  lapsed 
into  anarchy,  and  Gobazie,  the  lord  of  Amhara,  has 
declared  liimself  Emperor,  under  the  name  of  Hazie 
Tecla  Giorghis.  See  Article  Theodoee  in  Supj^lemejit 
Vol.  X,  also  British  " Bhie  Book"  on  A.,  Dec.  1867. 
Marlvham,  ITisi.  of  A.  Exped.  (London,  1 869).  Beke, 
British  Captives  in  A.  (London,  1865).  Through  the 
labours  of  the  S\viss  missionaries  and  English  and 
German  scientific  explorers  our  acquaintance  with 
the  literature,  geography  and  productions  of  A.  has 
been  greatly  enlarged.  See  travels,  &c.,  of  Bruce, 
Lord  Valentia,  Salt,  Ritter,  Gobat,  Isenberg  and 
Krapf,  d'Hericourt,  Riippell,  Parkyns,  Beke,  Mun- 
zinger,  Baker,  Dufton,  Heuglin  and  Hotten. 

ACA'CIA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Leffuminosce,  sub-order  Mimosece.  The  genus  A. 
dift'ers  from  llimosa  in 
the  greater  number  of 
its  stamens  (10 — 200), 
and  in  the  want  of 
transverse  partitions  in 
its  bivalvular  legnmes. 
The  acacias  are  diffused 
over  all  quarters  of  the 
globe  except  Europe. 
The  greater  number  of 
them  have  a  singular 
appearance,  because  of 
the  leaf-stalks  spread- 
ing out  in  a  leaf- 
like  form  (pJu/Uodinm) ; 
while  the  leaflets  are 
more  or  less  stunted 
.       .     .     ,■'.'       ._,  ,  .     in  appearance,  and  fre- 

Acacia  Arabica  (Gum-arabic  „„„„\V     nr»   nltno-.tl.or 


Tree). 


quently  are   altogether 
absent.     Other   species 


have  bipinnate  leaves,  with  a  great  number  of 
leaflets,  and  are  extremely  beautiful.  Many  are 
of  great  importance  in  an  economical  point  of 
view,  because  of  the  juice  which  Hows  from  them, 
which,  when  inspissated,  becomes  an  article  of 
commerce  under  the  name  of  Gum  (q.  v.).  The 
species  called  A.  ffuu'anifera,  A.  Sei/al,  A.  Ehrcn- 
bergii,  A.  tortilis,  A.  Nilotica,  and  A.  vera,  natives 
of  Africa,  produce  gum-arabic,  also  A.  spcciosa, 
and  A.  Arabica,  natives  of  the  south  of  Asia.  A. 
Arabica,  is  called  the  Babul-tree  in  India,  and  its 


gum,  babul.  A  gum  similar  to  gum-arabic  is  pro- 
duced by  A.  dccurrens,  A.  mollismna  (the  Silver 
Wattle),  and  A.  affinis  (the  Black  Wattle),  in  New 
IloUaud,  and  by  A.  karroo,  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope- 
Gum  Senegal  is  the  produce  of  A.  Vcrek,  and  A. 
Adansonii,  natives  of  the  western  coast  of  Africa. 
Yet  A.  Vcrek  is  also  said  to  yield  true  white  gum- 
arabic.  Catechu  (q.  v.)  is  obtained  from  the  wood 
of  A.  catechu.  The  astringent  bark  and  pods  of 
some  species  are  used  for  tanning.  The  bark  of  A. 
Arabica  is  administered  in  India  as  a  powerful  tonic 
medicine.  The  pods  of  A.  concinna  form  an  article 
of  commerce  in  India,  its  seeds  being  saponaceous 
and  used  in  washing.  A  decoction  of  the  pods  of 
A.  Arabica  is  sometimes  used  in  the  same  way.  A 
considerable  number  of  species  afford  useful  timber. 
The  flowers  of  many  species  are  fragrant.  A  number 
of  species  from  New  Holland  and  other  countries 
have  been  introduced  into  the  south  of  Europe. 
Some  are  of  freiiuent  occurrence  in  green-houses  in 
Britain  ;  and  a  few  of  the  Australian  species  succeed 
tolerably  in  the  open  air  in  the  south  of  Eng- 
land. The  foliage  of  the  acacias  with  bipinnate 
leaves  shews  a  peculiar  sensitiveness  to  changes  of 
weather ;  when  a  thick  cloud  obscures  the  sun,  the 
opposite  leaflets  close  together,  and  so  remain  till 
the  sun  reappears.  The  Locust-tree  of  North 
America  [Robinia  pseud-acacia)  is  often  called 
A.  both  in  Britain  and  upon  the  continent  of 
Europe.  Other  species  of  Robinia  also  receive  the 
same  name.  See  Loccst-tree  and  Rose  A.  Flores 
Acacice  (A.  Flowers)  is  an  old  medical  name  for  Sloe 
flowers. 

ACA'DEMTf',  a  name  originally  applied  to  the 
philosophical  school  of  Plato,  and  derived  from  the 
place  in  which  that  philo30i)her  was  accustomed 
to  meet  and  converse  witli  his  pupils.  This  was  a 
garden  or  grove  in  the  suburbs  of  Athens,  said  to 
have  once  belonged  to  the  hero  Academus,  and  by 
him  to  have  been  presented  to  the  citizens  for  a 
gymnasium.  The  spot  is  at  this  day  known  under 
the  name  of  Akadimia.  The  variations  of  doctrine 
among  the  successors  of  Plato  gave  rise  to  the 
distinctive  titles  of  Old,  Middle,  and  New  A. 
The  first  is  applied  to  the  philosophic  teaching  of 
Plato  himself  and  his  immediate  followers ;  the 
second,  to  that  modification  of  the  Platonic  phi- 
losophy taught  by  Arccsilaus  (q.  v.) ;  and  the  third, 
to  the  half-sceptical  school  founded  by  Carneades 
(q.  v.). 

In  its  common  English  acceptation,  the  word 
academy  is  loosely  applied  to  any  species  of  school 
which  professes  to  communicate  more  than  the  mere 
elements  of  instruction.  This,  however,  though 
perhaps  more  in  affinity  with  the  original  application 
of  the  term,  must  be  regarded  as  an  abuse  of  its 
more  general  and  strict  acceptation  in  modern  usage, 
as  signifying  a  society  of  savans  or  artists,  established 
for  the  promotion  of  literature,  science,  or  art.  The 
first  institution  in  ancient  times  that  seems  to  merit 
the  name,  in  this  sense,  of  academy,  was  the  cele- 
brated Museum,  founded  at  Alexandria  in  the  3d 
century  b.  c.  by  Ptolemy  Sotcr,  which  concentrated 
in  that  intehectual  capital  all  that  was  most  eminent 
in  science,  philosophy,  poetry,  and  criticism.  After 
this  model,  the  Jews,  and  at  a  later  period,  the 
Arabians,  founded  numerous  institutions  for  the 
promotion  of  learning.  During  the  middle  ages,  with 
the  exception  of  the  Moorish  institutions  at  Granada 
and  Cordova,  in  which  poetry  and  music  formed 
prominent  subjects  of  study,  we  find  nothing  corre- 
sponding to  the  modern  idea  of  an  academy,  save 
the  learned  society  established  in  his  own  palace,  at 
the  suggestion  of  his  teacher  Alcuin,  by  Charle- 
magne. This  association  was  dissolved  by  the 
monarch's   death;  and  not   till  the   middle   of  the 

21 


ACADEMY. 


15Lh  c,  when  tlio  conquest  of  Constantinople  drove 
many  learned  Greeks  to  seek  an  asylum  in  Italy,  do 
we  find  any  trace  of  a  similar  institution.  Under  the 
enlir^htened  patronage  of  Lorenzo  and  Cosmo  de' 
Medici,  the  lovers  of  Greek  learning  and  philosophy 
were  united  in  the  bond  of  a  common  pursuit,  and 
zealously  laboured  to  revive  the  long  extinguished 
light  of  classic  literature.  After  the  decline  of  the 
Greek  and  Platonic  Academies  of  Florence,  there 
arose  institutions  of  a  more  comprehensive  character, 
the  example  of  which  spread  from  Italy  throughout 
all  the  states  of  Europe. 

Academies  may  be  divided  into  those  established 
for  general  ends,  and  such  as  contemplate  specific 
objects.  The  members  are  usually  classified  as 
Ordinarily  Honorary,  and  Correspondhiff.  The  re- 
sults of  their  labours  in  their  various  departments 
are  reported  at  the  periodic  meetings,  and  printed 
in  the  records  of  the  academy.  Prizes  are  gen- 
erally established  as  the  rewards  of  distinguished 
merit  in  original  discovery,  or  excellence  in  the 
treatment  of  subjects  proposed  for  competition. 
Among  general  academies,  deserving  of  mention 
in  the  first  place  is  the  A.  of  Sciences,  at 
Paris,  established  by  Colbert  in  lOfifi,  and  now 
entitled  the  Institut  de  France  (see  Ixstitut).  The 
first  scientific  academy  founded  in  modern  times 
was  the  Academia  Secrctoriim  'Naturae,  established 
at  Naples  in  1560,  and  afterwards  put  down  by  a 
papal  interdict.  It  was  succeeded  by  the  A.  of  the 
Lincei,  founded  at  Rome  by  Prince  Ceci,  which 
attained  distinguished  success.  Galileo  was  one  of  its 
members.  Subsecjuently  arose  the  A.  del  Cimcnto,  at 
Fk)rence,  and  the  A.  degV  Inqnieti,  of  Bologna,  after- 
wards incorporated  into  the  Accad.  della  Tracea,  and 
finally,  in  1711,  merged  in  the  Institute  of  Bologna, 
or  Clementine  A. — The  Berlin  A.  of  Arts  and  Sciences, 
founded  in  1700  by  Frederick  I.,  was  in  1710 
divided  into  four  sections :  1.  Physics,  Medicine, 
and  Chemistry ;  2.  Mathematics,  Astronomy,  and 
Mechanics ;  3.  German  Language  and  History  ; 
4.  Oriental  Literature,  in  special  connection  with 
missions.  The  first  president  was  Leibnitz,  whose 
extraordinary  versatility  of  genius  quaUfied  him  for 
a  leading  place  in  all  its  departments.  Under  the 
Great  Frederick,  new  life  was  infused  into  the 
academy  by  the  encouragement  oft'ered  to  learned 
men  of  all  countries  to  settle  at  Berlin.  Maupertuis 
was  now  appointed  president,  and  the  academy  was 
re-organised  under  the  four  classes  of  Physics, 
Mathematics,  Philosophy,  History  and  Philology. 
The  public  meetings  are  held  twice  a  year.  The 
transactions  did  not  appear  regularly  till  after 
1811.  They  were  formerly  pviblished  in  French, 
but  now  in  German. — The  Imperial  A.  of  Sciences 
of  St.  Petersbitrff  was  planned  in  17  "2 -4  by  Peter 
the  Great,  with  the  advice  of  Leibnitz  and  Wolf. 
It  was  established  in  the  following  year  by  Cathe- 
rine I.,  and  liberally  supported  by  the  empress ; 
fifteen  members  received  pensions  as  professors  of 
various  branches.  Of  these  were  Wolf,  Biilfinger, 
Nicolas  and  Daniel  Bernouilli,  and  the  two  De 
Lisles.  After  various  fluctuations,  the  academy 
attained  a  position  of  high  eminence  and  utility 
under  the  patronage  of  Catherine  II.  Among  the 
most  important  results  of  her  liberality  are  the 
travels  and  researches  of  such  men  as  Pallas  and 
Klaproth.  The  academy  is  still  composed  of  fifteen 
salaried  members,  besides  a  president  and  director, 
and  four  pensioned  supernumeraries  who  attend  the 
meetings  and  succeed  to  the  vacant  chairs.  It  pos- 
sesses an  extensive  library  and  a  very  valuable 
museum.  The  first  series  of  its  transactions  (1725- 
47)  bears  the  name  of  Coinntentarii ;  the  second 
(1748-77),  of  jVoi'j  Commentarii ;  the  third  (1777- 
82),  of  Acta.  Up  to  this  date  they  were  written  in 
22 


Latin;  thenceforth  in  Latin  or  French.  From  178;> 
to  nO-j,  they  are  called  Xova  Acta  ;  from  that  li:nc 
to  the  present  they  arc  entitled  Memoires. — The 
A.  of  Sciences  at  Stockholm,  founded  in  1739, 
consisted  at  first  of  six  members,  one  of  whom  was 
the  celebrated  Linnauis.  It  received  a  royal  charter 
in  1741,  but  no  endowment.  Its  publications,  since 
1770,  arc  distinguished  as  Xew  Traiinactions.  Papers 
on  agriculture  are  separately  published,  under  the 
title  of  (Economica  Acta.  In  1700,  it  was  divided 
into  six  classes:  1.  Political  and  Rural  Economy,  1.5 
members;  2.  Commerce  and  Mechanical  Arts,   15; 

3.  Swedish     Physics     and     Natural     History,     15; 

4.  Foreign     Physics     and     Natural     History,     15 ; 

5.  Mathematics,  18;  6.  History,  Philology,  and  Fine 
Arts,  12.  The  resident  members  preside  in  rotation, 
during  a  term  of  three  months ;  the  transactions 
appear  quarterly.  At  the  annual  meeting  in 
April,  prizes  are  distributed. — The  Royal  A.  of 
Sciences  at  Copenhagen  owes  its  origin,  like  the 
last  mentioned  to  six  learned  men,  employed  by 
Christian  YI.  in  1742  to  arrange  his  cabinet  of 
medals.  In  1743,  the  king,  on  the  recommendation 
of  Count  Holstein,  their  first  president,  took  the 
academy  under  his  protection,  endowed  it,  and 
ordered  that  natural  history,  physics,  and  mathe- 
matics should  be  embraced  within  the  sphere  of  its 
operations,  at  first  limited  to  the  national  history 
and  antiquities.  The  academy's  transactions  arc  in 
Danish ;  some  of  them  are  translated  into  Latin. 
— The  A.  of  Sciences  of  Jfa7uili(iin  was  founded 
in  1755  by  the  Elector-palatine  Karl  Theodor,  and 
divided  into  the  sections  of  history  and  physical 
science ;  the  latter  was  subdivided  in  17^0  into 
physics  proper  and  meteorology.  The  transactions 
under  the  two  former  heads  are  published  under  the 
title  of  Acta;  the  meteorological  memoirs  arc 
entitled  Ephemeridcs. — The  A.  of  Sciences  of  Munich 
was  founded  in  1759.  Soon  after  the  erection 
of  Bavaria  into  a  kingdom,  it  was  reorganised  on 
a  very  extensive  footing,  under  the  presidency  of 
Jacobi.  Its  memoirs  are  published  under  the  title 
of  Abhandlungen  der  Baierischen  Akademie. — The 
A.  of  Lisbon,  established  by  Queen  Maria  in  1779, 
numbers  60  members ;  viz.,  24  ordinary,  and  36 
honorary  and  foreign ;  and  is  divided  into  three 
sections:  1.  Natural  Science;  2.  Mathematics; 
3.  Portuguese  Literature.  It  is  liberally  endowed 
by  government,  and  has  a  library,  museum,  obser- 
vatory, and  printing-office.  Its  Meviorias  have 
appeared  since  1787. — The  Royal  Irish  A.  dates  its 
origin  from  1782,  when  a  number  of  gentlemen, 
chiefly  connected  with  the  university  of  Dublin, 
associated  themselves  for  the  pursuit  of  science, 
history,  and  literature.  The  plan  of  the  society 
was  afterwards  extended.  The  first  volume  of  its 
transactions  appeared  in  1788. — The  American  A. 
of  Arts  and  Sciences  was  established  at  Boston  in 
1780  ;  it  had  previously  existed  in  another  form, 
the  original  institution  being  due  to  Franklin.  The 
first   volume    of  its   transactions   was   published  in 

1785.  The  A.  of  Natural  Sciences  v,'as  founded  at 
Philadelphia  in  1812,  and  commenced  its  Journal  in 
1817.  In  1841  its  proceedings  were  issued,  and  contain 
numerous  valuable  papers.  The  library  of  the  A.  is  the 
finest  of  its  kind  in  America.  See  Origin  of  A.  of  N.  S. 
ofPhila.,  by  W.  S.  W.  Ruschenberger  (Phila.  1852). 
Among  the  academies  established  for  the  cultiva- 
tion of  particular  departments  of  knowledge,  are  the 
following: — 1.  Laxgcagks.  The  Academia  delta 
Crusca,  or  Academia  Furfuratorum  was  founded  at 
Florence  in  1582,  chiefly  for  the  purpose  of  promoting 
the  purity  of  the  Italian  language  ;  whence  its  some- 
what fantastic  designation — erusca  signifying  chaff 
or  bran.  It  first  drew  attention  by  its  attacks  on 
Tasso.     Its  principal  service  has  been  the  compilation 


ACAI.Kl>II.E. 

:Fn.rii  the  Mcditcrr.-itiHHri  t!ea.| 


ACALEPH^. 


of  an  excellent  dictionary,  and  the  publication  of 
corrt'ct  editions  of  the  older  Italian  poets.     A  new 
edition  of  this  dictionary  is  at  present  in  preparation, 
but  from  the  slow  rate  of  its  progress,  it  is  calculated 
that  many  centuries  must  elapse  before  its  comple- 
tion.    For  an   account  of  the  Acadhnie  Francaifse, 
instituted  in  1629,  as  a  private  society,  see  Institut. 
The  Jioi/al  Spanish  A.  was  founded  at   Madrid  in 
1714,  by  the  Duke  of  Escalona,  for  the  cultivation 
and  improvement  of  the  national  language,  in  which 
it  has  done  good  service  particularly  by  the  com- 
pilation   of  a   Spanish   dictionary.     A   similar  insti- 
tution was  founded  at  St.  Petersburg  in  1783,  and 
afterwards   united  to   the   Imperial   A.     At   Stock- 
holm, a  similar  academy  was  estabhshed  in  1786; 
and   at   Pcsth   (for   the  cultivation   of  the   Magyar 
language)  in  1830. — 2.  Archeology.     At  the  head 
of  antiquarian  institutions  stands  the  Acadhnie  den 
Inscriptions,  founded  at  Paris  in  1663,  by  Colbert. 
See  Institut.     For  the  elucidation  of  northern  lan- 
guages and  antiquities,  an  academy  was  founded  in 
1710  at  Upsala,  in  Sweden;  a  similar  institution  was 
established   at   Cortona,    in   Italy,   in    1727.      Both 
have  issued  valuable  works.     The  A.  of  Hercidaneuni 
was  founded  at  Naples  in  1755,  by  the  Marquis  of 
Tanucci,    for    the    elucidation    of    Herculanean    and 
Pompeian  antiquities.     Its  publications,  commencing 
in  1775,  bear  the  title  of  Antichitd  di  Ercolano.     An 
academy  for  the  investigation  of  Tuscan  anticptities 
was  established  at  Florence  in  1807  ;  and  at  Paris,  in 
1805,  a  Celtic  A.  for  the  elucidation  of  the  language, 
history,   and   antiquities  of  the   Celts,   especially   in 
France.     This  society  changed  its   name,  in   1814, 
to  Societe  dcs  Antiquaircs  de  France. — 3.  History. 
The  Royal  A.  of  Porturpuse  History  was  founded 
at  Lisbon,  in  1720,  by  John  V.     At  Madrid,  in  1730, 
a  learned  association  was  formed  for  the  elucidation 
of  Spanish  history.     It  was  constituted  an  academy 
in  1738,  by  Philip  y.     It  has  published  editions  of 
Mariana,    Scpulveda,    Solis,    and    the    ancient    Cas- 
tilian  chronicles,  some  of  which  had  never  before 
been   printed.      A   historical   academy   has   existed 
for  some   time   at   Tiibingen. — 4.    Medicine.      The 
Acadeuiia   Naturce    Curiosorum   was    established    at 
Vienna,  in  1652,  by  the  physician  Bauschius,  for  the 
investigation  of  remarkable  phenomena  in  the  animal, 
vegetable,   and   mineral   kingdoms.     In   honour  of 
Leopold  I.,  who  patronised  it  liberally,  it  took  the 
additional  name  of  C'cesareo-Leopoldina ;   and,  since 
1808,  has  had  its  chief  seat  at  Bonn.     Its  valuable 
memoirs  have  appeared  at  irregular  intervals  under 
the   title    of    Miscellanea,    Fphctneridcs,    and   Acta. 
The  Academic  Lnpcriale  de  Medecine  of  Paris,  was 
founded  in  1820,  for  the  prosecution  of  researches 
into  all  matters  connected  with  the  public  health, 
such  as  epidemics,   &c.     The   Surgical  A.   of  Paris 
(whose    functions    have    partly    descended    to    the 
preceding)  was  founded  hi  1731.     It  was  dissolved 
during   the   troubles   of  the   first   revolution.     The 
Vienna  A.  of  Surgery,  established  in  1783,  is,  pro- 
perly   speaking,    a    college. — 5.    Fine    Arts.      The 
academies  of  painting  and  sculpture  of  St.  Peters- 
burg (connected  with   the   Imperial  A.)  and  Paris, 
are  institutions   for  the   education   of  pupils.     The 
French    Academic    des    Beaux    Arts    is    a    branch 
of  the  Institut  (q.  v.).      The  Royal  A.  of  Arts  in 
London  was  founded  in  1768,  for  the  promotion  of 
the   arts   of  design,    painting,    sculpture,    &c.     The 
number   of    academicians   is   40.      Connected   with 
it  is  a  school,  with  professors  selected  from  among 
the   academicians.      The   annual   exhibition   of  the 
academy  is  open  to  all  artists  of  merit.     The  Royal 
Scottish  A.  of  Painting,  Sculpture,  and  Architecture, 
was  founded  at  Edinburgh  in   1825,  and  received  a 
royal  charter  in  1838.     The  number  of  academicians 
is  15;  the  general  plan  of  the  institution  is  similar 


to  that  of  the  London  A.  Simihir  to  these  also  is 
the  Royal  Hihervian  A.  incorporated  at  Dublin 
in  18ti3.  Numerous  academies  of  the  tine  arts  have 
been  established  in  Italy — at  Rome,  Milan,  Turin. 
Florence,  Mantua,  and  Modena;  as  also  at  Madrid, 
Vienna,  Philadelphia  and  Stockholm. 

Many  learned  Societies  differ  from  Academies  only 
in  name ;  such  are  The  Royal  Society  of  London, 
The  Society  of  Antiquaries  of  London",  The  Asiatic 
Society,  The  British  Association,  The  Royal  Society 
of  Knowledge  at  Giittingen,  The  Washington 
Smithsonian  Institution,  &c.,  &c.     See  Societies. 

ACALETH.E  (Gr.  signifying  nettles),  one  of 
the  classes  of  the  Radiata  or  Radiated  Animals, 
in  the  system  of  Cuvier.  They  are  commonly  known 
by  such  names  as  Jelly-fish,  Sea-blubber,  ho,.,  and  arc 
sometimes  called  Sea-nettles,  on  account  of  the 
stinging  power  which  many  of  them  possess.  Most 
of  them  were  included  in  the  Linnajan  genus  Medusa, 
and  the  name  Mcdusce  is  still  very  frequently  applied 
to  them.  They  are  all  inhabitants  of  the  ocean,  in 
which  they  swim  or  float  singly  and  freely.  They 
abound  in  all  parts  of  it,  although  some  are  tropical, 
and  others  belong  to  high  latitudes.  Some  of 
them  are  of  a  large  size,  reaching  to  two  feet  in 
diameter,  others  are  very  small,  and  the  phosphor- 
escence of  the  sea  is  caused  by  multitudes  of  minute 
A.  They  consist  of  an  extremely  soft  gelatinous 
tissue,  which  in  most  of  them,  and  in  all  the  true 
Medusae,  is  unsupported  by  any  harder  substance. 
The  quantity  of  soUd  matter  even  in  a  large  Medusa 


'^ 


Medusa. 


A,  under  surface,  shewinsc  the  month  in  the  centre,  suiTounded 
by  the  tentacula,  and  the  ovai-ial  chambers  exterior  to  the 
origin.s  of  these;  B,  side-view,  showing  the  tentacula  hanging 
down  in  their  natural  position. 

is  very  small,  and  the  appearance  of  muscular  fibre 
can  only  be  detected  by  a  microscope  near  the 
margin  of  the  disk  or  umbrella-like  body,  which 
in  most  of  the  genera  constitutes  the  principal 
part  of  the  animal,  by  alternate  contractions  and 
expansions  of  which  it  moves  in  the  water,  and  on 
the  under  side  of  which  is  its  mouth.  The  margin 
of  the  disk  is  generally  provided  with  tentacular 
appendages,  which  are  of  very  various  forms,  often 
thread-like,  sometimes  foliaceous ;  and  many  have 
also  tentacular  appendages,  presenting  a  similar 
variety  of  form,  but  often  much  larger  in  proportion, 
connected  with  the  mouth,  or  attached  to  a  probos- 
cidean prolongation  of  it.  There  is  no  appearance  of 
teeth.  From  the  gastric  cavity,  a  system  of  vessels 
proceeds  through  the  body.  No  appearance  of  blood 
has  been  detected ;  nor  is  it  certain  that  the  A. 
possess  any  of  the  senses  except  that  of  touch; 
the  nature  of  the  organs  sometimes  called  eyes  or 
ocelli  being  by  no  means  satisfactorily  determined. 
These  organs  are  situated  on  the  margin,  and  in 
some  are  protected  by  membranous  hoods  or  cover- 
ings; in  others,  are  unprotected;  those  which 
have  them  protected,  having  also  a  much  ramified 
and  anastomosing  system  of  vessels;  the  others,  an 
extremely  simple  vascular  system.     The  A.  feed  on 

23 


ACANTHOPTERYGII— ACARNANIA. 


small  murine  animals,  olteii  of  much  higher  organ- 
isation than  themselves.  Small  lishcs  are  amongst 
the  prey  of  the  large  Medusa}.  In  the  class  A.,  as 
at  present  constituted,  there  are  included  animals 
differing  much  from  the  typical  form  and  charac- 
ters, as  the  genera  Beroe,  C'e.ituni,  &c.,  having  two 
orifices  to  the  alimentary  canal  ;  and  others,  as 
P/n/salia    (the    Portnr/uesc    Man-of-war),    in    which 


a  o,  tent.acula;  /;,  mouth; 
c,  teniiinatiou  of  intestine. 


Phvsalia. 


there  is  no  proper  mouth,  but  the  food  is  conveyed 
to  the  digestive  cavity  through  a  number  of  tiask- 
like  appendages,  which  hang  down  beneath,  each 
having  an  orifice  and  a  sort  of  sucker.  The  stinging 
power  seems  to  be  used  to  benumb  the  prey.  Repro- 
duction takes  place  in  the  A.  both  by  means  of 
ova  and  by  germination.  The  organs  of  the  two 
sexes  appear  generally  to  exist  in  each  individual. 
The  young  Medusje  differ  very  much  in  appearance 
from  the  mature  animal,  and  in  the  process  of  their 
development,  assume  forms  resembhng  those  of 
hydralbrm  polypes,  and  like  them  are  attached  by 
the  base;  -whilst  a  still  more  wonderful  fact  has 
been  discovered  of  the  formation  of  a  number  of 
Mcdusffi  from  a  single  polype-like  individual  of  this 
kind,  which  become  detached,  and  swim  off  in  the 
water. — The  A.  have  of  late  been  diligently  studied 
by  a  number  of  eminent  naturalists,  of  whom 
may  be  mentioned  Eschscholtz,  De  Blainville,  Sars 
of  Norway,  and  the  late  Professor  E.  Forbes. 

ACANTHOPTERY'GII,  in  Zoology,  one  of  the 
two  primary  divisions  of  the  Osseous  Fishes  in 
the  system  of  Cuvier,  distinguished  by  having 
spinous   rays   in    the    first    portion    of    the    dorsal 


fin,  or  in  the  first  dorsal,  if  there  are  two.  The 
name  is  derived  from  the  Greek  akantha,  a 
thorn,  and  pter}ix,  a  wing.  The  A.  are  divided 
by  Cuvier  into  fifteen  families,  amongst  which  are 
Percidce  (Perch,  Bass,  «tc.),  Tririlidce  (Gurnard, 
Flying-fish,  &c.),  and  ScomberiJce  (Mackerel, 
Tunny,  &c.). 

ACA'aSTTIIUS,  the  name  given  by  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  to  the  plants  sometimes  called  Brancursine, 
of  which  it  is  also  the  botanical  generic  name.     A. 
24 


mollis  and  A.  spinosa,  natives  of  the  south  of  J^urope, 
are  the  species  best  known.  The  twining  habit  of 
the  plants,  their  large  white  flowers,  and,  above  all, 


A.  spiuosus,  natural. 


Ornamental  A.  Leaf. 


the  beautiful  form  of  their  dark  and  shining  leaves, 
have  led  to  their  artistical  application,  especially 
in  the  capitals  of  Corinthian  columns.  See  Orders 
OK  ARCHiTECTcnE.  Rouian  drinking-cups  have 
been  found  whose  handles  are  twined  with  A. 
leaves. — The  ancients  made  the  A.  inollis  chiefly 
their  pattern ;  but  in  Gothic  ornaments,  more  use 
is  made  of  the  smaller  and  less  beautiful  leaves  of 
A.  spinosa. 

The  genus  A.  is  the  type  of  the  natural  order 
AcANTHACE.^,  which  contains  nearly  1400  known 
species.  They  are  herbaceous  plants  or  shrubs, 
chiefly  tropical;  dicotyledonous.  The  greater  part 
are  mere  weeds,  but  the  genera  Jusiicia,  Aphelandra, 
ami  liuellin  contain  some  of  our  finest  hot-house 
flowers.  The  leaves  are  opposite,  rarely  in  fours, 
simple ;  two  or  three  bracts,  which  are  often  large 
and  leafy,  accompany  each  flower.  The  calyx  is 
persistent,  usually  5-leaved,  occasionally  cut  into 
many  pieces,  sometimes  obsolete.  The  corolla  is 
monopetalous,  liypogynous,  usually  irregular,  decid- 
uous. The  stamens  arc  generally  two ;  sometimes 
four,  didynamous,  the  shorter  ones  sometimes  sterile ; 
the  anthers  1-2-celled,  opening  lengthwise.  The 
disk  is  glandular;  the  ovary  free,  '2-celled,  with  two 
or  more  ovules  in  each  cell ;  placentae  adhering  in 
the  axis;  style  one.  The  fruit  is  a  capsule  bursting 
elastically  with  two  valves,  the  dissepiment  also 
separating  into  two  pieces  through  the  axis.  The 
seeds  are  roundish,  hanging  by  hard,  usually  hooked 
processes  of  the  placenta ;  testa  loose ;  albumen 
wanting;  embryo  curved  or  straight;  cotyledons 
large ;  radicle  subcylindricnl,  next  the  hilura. — Some 
of  the  Acanthacece  are  used  in  their  native  countries 
as  medicines.  A  valuable  deep-blue  dye,  called 
Room,  is  obtained  in  Assam  from  a  species  of 
liucllia. 

ACAPU'LCO,  the  best  harbour  belonging  to 
Mexico  in  the  Pacific,  and  a  place  of  considerable 
commercial  importance;  situated  in  lat.  16°  50'  N. ; 
long.  99°  48'  W.  The  harbour  is  so  well  sheltered 
that  deeply  laden  vessels  may  lie  safely  at  anchor 
close  to  the  granite  rocks.  The  town,  defended 
by  Fort  Diego,  on  an  eminence,  has  a  very  unhealthy 
site,  and  is  one  of  the  places  most  frequently  visited 
by  cholera,  which  proves  especially  fatal  to  new 
settlers.  Since  the  discovery  of  the  California  gold- 
mines, it  has  become  the  most  important  j)ort  in 
Mexico,  and  the  principal  point  for  the  embarkation 
of  passengers  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  ports 
of  the  United  States.     Pop.  5000. 

ACARNA'NIA,  a  country  of  ancient  Greece, 
separated  from  Epirus  on  the  north  by  the  Ambra- 
cian  Gulf,  now  the  Gulf  of  Arta ;  from  ^Etolia  on 
the  cast  by  the  river  Acheluus;  and  washed  south 
and  west  by  the  Ionian  Sea.  Along  with  vEtolia,  it 
forms  one  of  the  nomes  or  departments  of  the  modcru 


ACARUS— ACCEPTANCE. 


kingdom  of  Greece.  The  western  part  of  A. — from 
the  mouth  of  the  Acliel6us  or  Aspropotamo  to  Cape 
Actium  in  the  noith-west — is  occupied  by  a  mass 
of  rocky  and  thickly-wooded  mountains,  rising  ab- 
ruptly from  the  indented  coast,  and  culminating  in 
the  summit  of  Bergand.  A  considerable  part  of  A. 
is  overgrown  with  wood — a  rare  feature  in  modern 
Greece.  There  is  no  town  of  importance  in  the 
whole  district,  though  naturally  it  is  not  destitute  of 
resources. 

A'CARUS,  a  genus  of  Arachnicks  (q.  v.),  of  the 
order  Trac/iearia;  the  type  of  a  tribe  called  Acar- 
ides,  which  corresponds  with  the  genus  Acarus  as 
defined  by  Linnaeus.  The  species  of  the  Acarides 
are  very  numerous.  All  of  them  are  small ;  many 
microscopical.  Some  are  tamiliar  to  us  under  the 
names  of  Mites  (q.  v.),  Ticks  (q.  v.),  &c.  Borne  live 
upon  the  juices  of  plants ;  some  in  the  dung  of 
animals;  many  species  are  found  in  the  vegetable 
and  animal  substances  used  for  human  food,  espe- 
cially when  these  have  been  kept  for  a  considerable 
time,  as  in  cheese,  flour,  sugar,  on  the  surface  of 
preserves,  of  dried  fruits,  &c. ;  others  are  parasites 
upon  the  bodies  of  animals,  particularly  in  diseased 
conditions,  as  in  cases  of  itch.  A  minute  species 
has  been  detected  in  the  follicles  of  the  human 
skin,  and  others  even  in  the  human  brain  and 
eyes.  Some  insects,  particularly  beetles,  are  often 
covered  with  Acarides.  A  species  {Trombidium 
holosericenvi)  common  in  gardens  in  spring,  is  re- 
markable for  its  blood-red  colour  ;  and  a  nearly  allied 
but  much  larger  species  (7'.  ihictornin),  found  in  the 
East  Indies,  yields  a  fine  dye. 
A  Persian  species  {Arr/ns  Pcrai- 
cHs)  is  poisonous,  and  causes 
sores.  The  bite  of  many  species 
S^^i^  is  annoying,  as  of  the  common 
rVi  \  ^  Uiivvest-bug  (^Leptiis  autwiina/is). 
The  Acarides  have  eyes.  Some 
of  them  have  the  mouth  furnish- 
ed with  mandibles,  others  with  a  sucker.  They  are 
oviparous,  and  extremely  prolific.  They  have  gener- 
ally eight  legs;  but,  when  young,  many  of  them 
have  only  six,  and  in  some  genera  the  additional 
pair  seems  never  to  be  acquired.  A  few  are  aquatic, 
and  have  legs  covered  with  hairs  to  adapt  them  for 
swimming. 

ACATHISTrS,  a  hymn  sung  in  the  ancient  Greek 
Church  in  honour  of  the  Virgin. 

ACCELERANDO  (Ital.),  in  Music,  with  gradually 
increasing  velocity  of  movement. 

ACCELERATED  MOTION,  in  mechanics,  is  mo- 
tion in  which  the  velocity  is  continually  increas- 
ing. When  the  increments  of  velocity  are  equal 
in  equal  times,  the  motion  is  said  to  be  uniformly 
accelerated.  The  best  example  of  such  a  motion  is 
that  of  a  falling  body.  It  is  found  that  near  the 
earth's  surface  a  body,  descending  from  a  state  of 
rest,  fiills  l(i'/i2  feet  in  the  first  second.  Now,  a 
little  consideration  will  show  that  at  the  end  of  the 
first  second,  it  ia  moving  at  the  rate  of  Si'/e  feet 
per  second.  For,  since  the  velocity  was  nothing  at 
fiist  and  increased  uniformly,  lii'/ia  feet  must  have 
been  the  mean  velocity,  i.  e.,  the  velocity  at  the 
middle  of  the  time ;  and  therefore  the  velocity  at 
the  end  must  be  double,  or  ?,-l^U  feet :  32V6  feet  is 
thus  the  measure  of  tlie  accelerative  force  of  grav- 
ity. At  the  end  of  the  second  and  third  seconds, 
the  velocity  is  found  to  be  doubled,  trebled,  &c.,  or 
C4V3  9tiV3  feet. 

AccELEKATiON  OF  THE  Moox.  It  was  first  Ob- 
served by  Ilalley,  that  the  time  of  the  moon's  rev- 
olution round  the  earth  has  for  several  thousand 
years  been  jdecreasing,  or  her  velocity  has  been 
uicreasing.     This  i^henomenon  remained  for  a  con- 


Acarus  (Mitcv- 


sidcrable  time  inexplicable;  at  last,  Laplace, in  1787. 
discovered  the  cause  in  the  varying  eccentricity  of 
the  earth's  orbit,  which  has  been  on  the  decrease 
since  about  12,000  years  b.  c.  Since  that  time,  the 
moon  has  been  gradually  coming  nearer  to  the  earth  ; 
and  this  will  go  on  till  80,1100  after  Christ,  when  the 
eccentricity  of  the  earth's  orbit  will  begin  again  to 
increase. — Accelkration  of  the  Fixed  Stars  is 
the  excess  of  a  mean  solar  day  over  a  sidereal  day  ; 
i.  e.,  a  day  measured  by  the  transits  of  a  star  over 
the  meridian  ;  the  excess  is  about  3'  50 V^"  sidereal 
time. 

A'CCENT,  in  Grammar,  is  a  special  stress  of  voice 
laid  upon  one  syllable  of  a  word,  by  which  it  is  made 
more  prominent  than  the  rest ;  the  accented  syllable 
is  sometimes  indicated  by  a  mark,  as  aiva'i/,  fdrtifij. 
Every  word  in  English  has  one  syllable  thus  brought 
markedly  into  notice.  When  the  accented  syllable 
falls  near  the  end  of  a  long  word,  there  may  be  one 
or  more  secondary  accents,  as  in  re' comme  nd^  snb- 
ordbta'tion.  A.  depends  upon  force  of  vocal  or 
articulative  effort,  not  upon  highness  or  lowness  of 
pitch.  Variations  of  pitch  produce  what  elocution- 
ists call  infection.  It  is  the  confounding  of  A.  with 
a  rise  of  tone,  and  the  contrasting  of  it  with  a  sink- 
ing of  tone,  that  has  produced  so  much  confusion  on 
this  subject,  especially  as  regards  the  accents  of  the 
ancients.  In  English,  many  nouns  are  converted 
into  verbs  simply  by  transposing  the  A.,  as  object — 
object.  It  is  A.,  and  not  quauiity,  that  determines 
English  measures  or  metres  in  versification.  No 
rule  can  be  given  as  to  what  syllable  of  a  word  shall 
be  accented.  There  seems  to  be  an  increasing  ten- 
dency in  our  language  to  throw  the  A.  towards  the 
beginning  of  words.  In  the  Finnish  language,  the 
A.  is  said  to  be  invariably  on  the  first  syllable. — Em- 
phasis is  to  sentences  what  A.  is  to  words ;  it  is  a 
stress  laid  upon  one  M'ord  of  a  sentence  to  make  it 
prominent.  If  A.  is  syllabic  emphasis,  emphasis  is 
logical  A. 

A'CCENT,  in  Music,  is  analogous  with  A.  in  lan- 
guage. It  consists  of  a  stress  or  empiiasis  given  to 
certain  notes  or  parts  of  bars  in  a  composition,  and 
may  be  divided  into  two  kinds — grammatical,  and 
rhetorical  or  resthetic.  The  first  kind  of  A.  is  per- 
fectly regular  in  its  occurrence — always  falling  on 
the  first  part  of  a  bar.  It  is  true  that  long  or  com- 
pound measures  of  time  have,  besides  the  chief  A.  in 
every  bar,  some  suljordinate  accents ;  but  these  are 
only  slightly  marked.  As  a  general  rule,  we  may 
oliserve,  that  the  grammatical  or  regular  A.  must 
not  be  exaggerated.  It  should  be  marked  only  so 
far  as  to  give  a  clear  sense  of  rhythm.  The  sesthet- 
ical  A.  is  irregular,  and  depends  on  taste  and  feel- 
ing, exactly  as  does  the  A.  and  emphasis  used  in 
oratory.  In  vocal  music  well  adapted  to  words,  the 
words  serve  as  a  guide  to  the  right  use  of  resthetical 
accents. 

ACCE'PTANCE  is  the  act  whereby  the  drawee 
engages  to  pay  a  bill  according  to  the  terms  of  the 
A.  It  may  be  said  to  consist  in  the  drawee  writing 
the  word  'accejiled'  on  the  bill  and  subscribing  his 
name  ;  or  wriiing,  as  has  been  decided  in  England, 
the  word  'accepted'  only  (although  it  is  not  so  iu 
Scotland,  where  the  act  of  A.  must  be  shewn  by 
the  actual  signatiu-e  of  the  acceptor);  or  merely 
subscribing  his  name  at  the  bottom  or  across  the 
bill.  But  there  are  other  and  various  forms  of  A., 
in  England  and  Scotland,  as  to  which,  and  gener- 
ally, see  Bill  of  Exchange.  In  common  parlance, 
the  accepted  bill  is  called  an  A.,  and  the  drawee, 
or  party  who  engages  to  pay  the  bill,  is  called  the 
acceptor. 

A.  is  also  a  term  in  the  Scotch  law  of  contracts. 
A  mutual  contract  may  commence  by  an  offer,  and 

25 


ACCESSARY— ACCLIMATISE. 


be  completed  by.  A.  The  offer  is  viewed  as  an 
obligation  provisional  on  the  A.,  but  may,  before 
A.,  be  recalled,  on  condition  of  making  reparation 
for  any  loss  fairly  occasioned  by  the  offer.  The 
olfer  may  be  verbal,  by  letter,  or  even  tacit,  as 
vhen  goods  are  sent  without  an  order,  or  contrary 
to  Older,  in  which  case,  acquiescence  is  A.  The  A. 
may  be  either  tacit  or  express.  The  word  is  not  a 
technical  one  in  the  law  of  England,  but  the  matter 
to  which  it  relates  in  that  system  will  be  found  under 
Contract. 

ACCESSARY  or  ACCESSORY.  In  the  criminal 
law  of  Eiigland,  an  A.  is  a  person  who  is  not  the 
chief  actor  iu  a  felony,  nor  even  present  at  its  per- 
petration, but  who  is  in  some  way  concerned,  either 
before  or  after  the  fact  connnitted.  An  A.  before 
the  lact  is  one  who  procures  or  counsels  another  to 
commit  a  crime,  he  himself  being  absent.  An  A. 
after  the  fact  is  a  person  who,  knowing  a  felony  to 
have  been  connnitted,  receives,  protects,  or  assists 
the  felon.  In  sudden  and  unpremeditated  offences, 
there  can  be  no  accessaries  before  the  fact ;  and  in 
all  crimes  under  the  degree  o\  felon;/  ih{.'Tc  are  no 
accessaries  at  all,  either  before  or  after  the  fiict,  but 
all  persons  concerned  therein  are  held  to  be  equally 
guilty  as  principals. 

There  are  no  accessaries  in  treason,  but  all  are 
principals,  on  account  of  the  heinousness  of  the 
criuie. 

In  the  Scotch  law,  'art  and  part'  in  the  indict- 
ment, or  formal  accusation,  is  the  phrase  by  which 
accession  to  a  crime  is  signified  ;  and  it  applies  to 
all  offences  against  the  criminal  law,  there  being,  ac- 
cordiug  to  the  practice  of  the  Scotch  courts,  no  dis- 
tinction in  this  respect  between  felonies,  properly  so 
called,  and  misdemeanours. 

ACCESSORY  ACTIONS,  in  the  practice  of  the 
Scotch  law,  are  those  which  are,  in  some  degree, 
subservient  or  ancillary  to  other  actions.  For 
example,  actions  for  reviving  a  cause,  or  prosecuting 
it  against  the  heir  of  a  deceased  defendant,  or  for 
restoring  lost  deeds  or  other  documents,  are  of  the 
nature  of  A.  A. 

ACCESSORY  OBLIGATIOX  is  a  technical 
terra  in  the  Scotch  law  signifying  an  obligation 
annexed  to  another  obligation  wliich  is  antecedent 
or  primary.  Thus,  an  obligation  for  the  regular 
payment  of  interest,  or  by  way  of  further  security, 
is  an  A.  0. 

ACCE'SSIOX.  In  the  law  both  of  England  and 
Scotland,  property  may  be  acquired  by  A.,  and  this 
A.  may  be  either  natural  or  artificial.  The  young 
of  cattle  and  other  animals,  for  example,  belong  to 
the  person  who  is  the  owner  of  the  mother,  and  the 
fruits  and  produce  of  the  earth  to  the  proprietor  of 
the  soil ;  and  for  the  same  reason,  the  gradual  addi- 
tion to  lands  on  the  bank  of  a  river  belongs  to  the 
proprietor  of  the  land  receiving  the  addition.  These 
are  instances  of  natural  A.  Property,  again,  is  said 
to  be  acquired  by  artificial  A.  when  it  is  the  result 
of  human  industry  ;  thus  trees  planted,  or  buildings 
erected,  on  the  ground  of  another,  belong  to  the 
owner  of  the  ground  itself,  and  not  to  the  planter  or 
builder ;  and  so  with  regard  to  the  conversion  of 
wood  or  metal,  which,  in  whatever  form,  remain  the 
property  of  the  original  owner. 

ACCESSION  TO  THE  THRONE  signifies  the  com- 
mencement of  the  sovereign's  reign. 

ACCESSION,  Deed  of  In  the  practice  of  Scotch 
conveyancing,  this  is  a  deed  by  which  the  creditors 
of  a  bankrupt  or  insolvent  debtor  approve  of  a  trust- 
settlement  executed  by  the  debtor  for  the  general 
behoof,  and  consent  to  the  arrangement  proposed. 
The  corresponding  deed  in  English  practice  is  a  deed 
26 


of  trust  for  creditors,  or,  under  the  Bankrupt  Law 
Consolidation  Act,  12  and  13  Vict.  c.  lUO,  a  deed  of 
arrangement  for  creditors. 

ACCIDENTAL  COLOURS.     See  Light. 

A'CCIDENTS,  in  >Ius.,  occasional  sharps,  flats,  and 
naturals  placed  before  notes  in  the  course  of  a 
piece. 

ACCIDENTS,  in  Log.,  are  opposed  to  Essentials, 
or  to  Substance.  An  Accident  is  a  property  of  an 
object  which  may  be  modified,  or  even  fje  altogether 
abstracted,  without  the  object  ceasing  to  be  essen- 
tially what  it  is.  But  many  of  the  distinctions  made 
by  the  older  philosophers  between  accidental  and  es- 
sential are  fallacious. 

ACCITITRES  (plural  of  the  Lat.  accipiter,  a 
hawk),  the  name  given  by  Linnaeus  to  an  order  of 
Birds,  including,  according  to  his  system,  the  genera 
Vidtur  (Vultures),  Falco  (Eagles,   Falcons,   Ilawks, 


Head  and  Foot  of  Golden  Eagle. 

&c.),  Strix  (Owls),  and  Laninx  (Shrikes),  and  princi- 
pally distinguished  by  a  hooked  bill,  short  strong 
feet,  and  sharp  hooked  claws.  Tiie  name  has  not 
generally  been  adopted  by  subsequent  ornithologists, 
but  the  Older,  as  a  truly  natural  one,  has  been 
retained  under  the  names  Jiapacex,  Raptores,  &c. ; 
the  Shrikes,  however,  being  generally  excluded 
from  it. 

ACCLIMATISE,  to  accustom  an  animal  or  plant 
to  a  climate  not  natural  to  it.  The  process,  of  course, 
varies  widely,  according  to  the  amount  of  difference 
between  the  old  and  the  new  climate.  In  cases  where 
the  difference  is  extreme,  important  changes  take 
place  in  the  constitution,  and  are  often  attended 
with  certain  diseases  described  as  'diseases  of  accli- 
matisation.' Thus,  Europeans  settling  in  tropical 
piirts,  are  liable  to  disease  of  the  liver,  while  natives 
of  tropical  lands,  when  resident  in  England,  are 
exposed  to  pulmonar}'  disease.  The  power  of  bear- 
ing changes  of  climate,  or  the  capability  of  acclima- 
tisation, is  remarkable  in  mankind,  but  especially  in 
the  Anglo-German  race,  now  so  widely  spread  over 
the  globe.  Among  animals,  we  find  great  powers  of 
adaptation  to  various  climates  in  the  horse,  dog,  cat, 
rat,  &e.  ;  and  among  plants,  in  the  various  cereals, 
in  potatoes,  and  several  weeds  common  to  almost  all 
climates.  Intelligence,  of  course,  assists  the  physi- 
cal power  of  man  in  bearing  changes  of  climate ; 
but  there  seems  to  be  a  limit  to  the  power,  at  least 
as  seen  in  the  individual.  To  A.  beyond  a 
certain  point  is  the  work  of  some  few  generations. 
— The  Acefiniatisiiiff  of  domestic  anhnah  is  one  of 
the  most  important  triumphs  of  human  enterprise. 
Almost  all  the  domestic  animals  now  commonly 
spread  over  Europe,  and  even  in  high  northern 
latitudes,  were  originally  natives  of  warm  climates. 
The  change  produced  by  the  acclimatising  of  animals 
may  be  either  an  improvement  or  a  deterioration; 
of  the  latter,  we  have  an  instance  in  the  Shetland 
pony ;   of  the  forme*-,  we   see  an    example  in   the 


-ACCOLADE— ACETIC  ACID. 


merino  sheep  of  Spain.  As  an  instance  of  want  of 
the  faculty  of  beiiij?  accHmatiscd,  the  reindeer  may 
Bcrve.  Removed  from  the  mosses  and  Hchcns  of  the 
cold  north  to  the  fertile  valleys  of  a  temperate  clime, 
the  reindeer  degenerates  and  dies.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  horse,  whose  native  land  is  the  East,  arrives  at 
its  highest  development  in  England  ;  and  the  Syrian 
sheep  brought  northwards  as  far  as  Spain,  becomes 
remarkable  for  its  fine  fleece.  Spain,  on  the  whole, 
has  a  climate  much  warmer  than  that  of  Silesia  and 
Pomerania ;  and  yet  the  merino  slieop,  bred  in  these 
countries,  have  become  superior  to  their  ancestors 
imported  from  Spain.  This  is  a  proof  that  art  may 
do  very  much  in  modifying  the  influences  of  climate. 
Sillv-worms,  brought  from  China  first  into  Italy, 
have  been  acclimatised  not  only  in  the  south  of 
France,  but  even  on  the  coast  of  the  Baltic. 
Recently,  attempts  have  been  made  to  A.  in  France 
the  llama,  the  vicugna,  and  the  alpaca  of  Peru, 
and  with  some  success  in  the  last  instance,  as 
alpacas  have  been  found  to  thrive  pretty  well  in  the 
Pyrenees. — Acclimatising  of  Plants.  It  has  been 
very  generally  believed  that  plants  may  become 
gradually  inured  to  a  climate  so  different  from  that 
to  which  they  have  been  accustomed,  that  if  they 
had  been  at  once  transferred  to  it,  they  would  have 
perished ;  and  that  their  adaptation  to  it  becomes 
more  perfect  when  successive  generations  are  raised 
by  seed.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  maintained  by 
some  of  the  most  distinguished  botanists  of  the 
present  time,  that  each  species  of  plant  has  certain 
limits  of  temperature,  within  whicli  it  will  succeed, 
and  that  alleged  instances  of  acclimatising  have 
been  merely  instances  of  plants  formerly  supposed 
to  be  more  delicate  than  they  really  were.  But  as  it 
is  certain  that  different  varieties  of  the  same  species 
are  often  more  or  less  hardy,  it  would  seem  that  in 
the  production  of  new  varieties  by  seed,  there  is  still 
a  prospect  of  the  acclimatising,  to  a  certain  extent, 
of  species  of  which  the  existing  varieties  are  too 
delicate  to  grow  well  in  the  open  air. 

ACCOLA'DE,  the  term  applied  to  the  ceremony 
with  which  a  knight  was  admitted  into  the  order 
of  chivalry.  The  grand-master,  in  receiving  the 
neophyte,  embraced  him  by  folding  the  arms  round 
the  neck  {ad  collinn). — In  music,  the  A.  is  the  couplet 
uniting  several  staves,  as  in  jsart-music  or  pianoforte- 
music. 

ACCO'MPAXIMEXT,  in  Music,  is  the  assisting 
or  aiding  of  a  solo  p;irt  by  other  parts,  which  may 
consist  of  a  whole  orchestra,  or  a  single  instrument, 
or  even  subservient  vocal  parts.  It  serves  to  elevate 
and  beautify  the  solo  part,  and  is  subject  to  certain 
rules  for  composition  as  well  as  for  performance. 
It  must  be  subservient,  and  therefore  should  not 
predominate,  but  merely  assist  to  place  the  solo 
part  in  its  brightest  light.  In  this  point  of  view, 
modern  composers  have  often  erred  by  making  the 
A.  too  full,  and  causing  it  to  stand  out  so  inde- 
pendent and  engrossing,  that  the  solo  part  is  often, 
ap  it  were,  entirely  lost.  This  abuse  takes  place 
mostly  in  vocal  music ;  and  not  only  is  the  effect 
destroyed,  but  the  vocal  organ  of  the  singer  is 
frequently  ruined.  Were  it  not  too  true  that  this 
bad  practice  has  become  the  fashion,  it  -would  be 
difficult  to  believe  that  a  composer  would  lend  him- 
self to  it.  In  proper  A.,  after  faithfully  fulfilling  its 
duty  to  the  solo  part,  there  always  remains  oppor- 
tunity enough  for  display  in  the  ritornells  and 
symphonies.  The  Italians  in  their  best  period  were 
celebrated  for  the  simplicity  and  effectiveness  of  their 
A.  Now,  they  have  entirely  lost  this  claim.  In  A., 
the  composer  must  keep  three  principal  points  in  view 
— namely,  harmony,  rhythmical  figure,  and  suitable 
choice  of  instrumentation,  in  respect  to  number  and 


character  of  tone  ;  but  all  must  be  subservient  to 
the  ruling  character  of  the  solo  part.  Right  or 
proper  harmony  is,  or  should  be,  easily  found 
by  every  experienced  composer.  It  is,  as  it  were, 
born  at  the  same  time  with  the  melody,  and  only 
requires  to  be  here  and  there  adjusted  with  care. 
When  this  is  not  the  case,  there  arises  a  double 
character,  which  interrupts  and  totally  destroys 
the  melody.  The  figure  of  the  A.  should  be  chosen 
so  as  to  be  conformable  to  the  solo  part,  having 
to  express  what  the  solo  part  cannot  be  expected 
to  do,  and  may  also,  by  a  succession  of  secondary 
ideas,  render  clear  and  certain  the  individuality 
of  the  principal  solo  part,  such  as  the  blustering 
of  the  poltroon,  the  daring  of  the  courageous,  or 
the  fear  of  the  timid.  The  necessity  of  a  judicious 
choice  of  instrumentation  for  the  proper  support  of 
the  solo  part  is  evident.  The  A.  should,  above  all 
things,  by  its  certainty  and  firmness,  prevent  waver- 
ing. Good  A.  is  as  creditable  as  solo  playing  ;  and 
all  qualified  orciiestras  view  it  as  of  great  import- 
ance.— The  word  also  means  the  art  of  playing 
harmony  from  a  figured  bass  ;  this,  though  more  in 
use  formerly,  is  still  a  necessary  study  for  the  A.  of 
recitative.     See  Figured  Bass. 

ACCO'RDION,  a  simple  musical  instrument,  but 
little  better  than  a  toy,  which  produces  its  tones  by 
the  vibration  of  metallic  tongues  of  various  sizes, 
while  wind  is  supplied  by  the  action  of  bellows. 
The  concertina  and  the  harmoninm  are  superior 
instruments,  constructed  on  the  same  principle — the 
action  of  a  gust  of  air  on  metallic  tongues. 

ACCUM,  Frederick,  a  native  of  Westphalia, 
came  to  London  in  1803.  He  is  known  in  this 
country  chiefly  on  account  of  his  work,  A  Practical 
Treatise  on  Gas-liff/it,  which  had  the  effect  of  intro- 
ducing that  method  of  illumination  into  London  and 
all  the  large  towns  of  England.  It  was  translated 
into  several  langmiges,  and  became  very  popular.  He 
also  wi'ote  other  works  on  Chemistry  and  ]Mineralogy, 
180.3-5,  Essay  on  Chemical  Reagents  (London,  1816), 
and  On  Adulteration  of  Food  (1822).  Ultimately, 
he  quitted  England,  and  went  to  Berlin,  where  he 
obtained  employment.    He  died  in  Berlin  in  1838. 

ACCUSATIVE  CASE.     See  Declension. 

ACE'PHALA.     See  Mollusca. 

A'CER  and  ACERACE^E.     See  Maple. 

ACETIC  ACID,  the  sour  principle  in  vinegar,  is 
the  most  common  of  the  vegetable  acids.  If  alcohol, 
diluted  with  water,  be  mixed  with  a  ferment,  such 
as  yeast,  and  exposed  to  the  air  at,  or  a  little  above, 
its  ordinary  tcnqicrature,  it  is  rapidly  converted  into 
vinegar  or  A.  A.  The  change  is  accompanied  by 
the  absorption  of  oxyceu  and  the  development 
of  aldehyde  (C2HiO)" ''and  water  (H2O).  The 
aldehyde,  by  combining  with  one  equivalent  of 
oxygen,  is  converted  into  acetic  acid,  represented 
by  the  formula  C2H1O2;  thus,  alchohol  C2H6O+ 
O  =  aldehyde  C2H6O+H2O ;  and  aldehyde  C2H4O 
-\-0  =  acetic  acid  C2H4O2.  The  efficient  conver- 
sion of  alcohol  into  acetic  acid  depends  upon 
the  perfection  of  the  oxidation ;  and  by  the  qtcick 
vinegar  method  the  alcoholic  liquor  is  distributed 
over  beecli  shavings  in  a  large  vessel,  w-hilst  a  cur- 
rent of  air  is  forced  througli  by  steam  power.  A 
striking  experiment  may  be  made  illustrating  the 
mode  in  which  alcohol  is  converted  into  A.  A.  If 
slightly  diluted  alcohol  be  dropped  upon  plalinvm- 
blaclc,  the  oxygen  condensed  in  that  substance  acts 
with  great  energy  on  the  spirit,  and  A.  A.  is  evolved 
in  vapour.  Here  the  whole  office  of  the  platinum  is 
to  aid  the  production  of  aldehyde  and  induce  it  to 
combine  with  oxygen.     In.  the  commercial  processes 

27 


ACHAIA— ACHILLEA. 


tor  nuuiiifucturiiig  vinegar,  some  vegetable  substance 
containing  nitrogen  (one  of  the  albuminous  prin- 
ciples) takes  the  place  of  the  platinum-black,  and 
determines  the  same  change.  A.  A.  is  not  known  in 
the  anhydrous  form.  In  its  most  concentrated  state 
it  contains  an  equivalent  of  water,  C2  Hi  O2  +  Ha  O. 
When  it  combines  with  nietalic  oxides,  they  take  the 
j)Iace  of  the  water  ;  acetate  of  sodium  for  example, 
consisting  of  atdiydrous  sodium  and  anhydrous  A. A., 
C2  H3  O2  Na.  The  salts  of  A.  A.,  called  A'cetates, 
are  numerous  and  important  in  the  arts.  The  most 
important  is  acetate  or  sugsir  of  lead.  Sec  Lkad. 
Sec  ACETIFICATION  iu  SUPriiEMENT,  vol.  X.,  p.  372  ; 
also  VlNEGAH, 

ACHA'IA,  a  small  district  in  the  north  of  the 
Peloponnesus,  was  divided  into  twelve  little  states  ; 
and  was  bounded  E.  Ijy  the  Saronic  Gulf;  N.  and 
W.  by  the  Bay  of  Corinth ;  and  S.  by  Arcadia 
and  Elis.  The  land,  rising  gradually  from  the 
coast  to  the  hills  of  the  interior,  was  famed, 
in  ancient  times,  for  fertility  in  the  produce  of 
oil,  wine,  and  fruits.  AVhen  the  Komaiis  divided 
the  whole  of  Greece  into  Macedonia  and  A.,  the 
latter  included  all  Greece  exce|)ting  Thcssnly.  In 
the  modern  kingdom  of  Greece,  A.  forms,  along 
with  Elis,  a  nome  or  department,  in  the  extreme 
north-west  of  the  Morea,  and  its  chief  town  is 
Patras  (q.  v.).  Excepting  the  west  coast,  the  land 
is  fertile,  and  produces  corn,  wine,  and  oil. — The 
ancient  Aclueans  were,  in  a  great  measure,  separ- 
ated from  the  other  people  of  (ireece.  Their  twelve 
little  towns,  of  which  yEgium  was  the  chief, 
formed  a  confederacy  which  was  dissolved  in  the 
Macedonian  times;  but  was  renewed  in  280  n.c  , 
and  subsequently  extended  itself,  under  the  name  of 
the  Achiian  Liatjiie,  throughout  Greece,  inilil  14(5 
n.c,  when  Grecian  liberty  fell  under  the  power  of 
Rome. 

ACHARD,  Franz  Karl,  a  meritorious  naturalist 
and  chemist,  born  April  "28,  1754,  in  Berlin,  chietly 
distinguished  himself  by  his  improvements  in  the 
process  of  preparing  sugar  from  beet-root.  In  tliese 
laboui-s  he  was  supported  by  the  king  of  Prussia. 
The  results  of  his  experiments  were  acknowledged 
as  partly  successful  in  1799  and  1800;  but  were 
not  carried  into  extensive  application  until  the 
king  gave  to  A.  a  farm  in  Lower  Lusatia,  where  he 
founded  a  model  manufactory  of  beet-root  sugar. 
Here,  after  six  years  of  experiments,  conducted 
with  the  aid  of  Neubeck,  a  medical  man,  A.  found 
out  the  true  method  of  extracting  beet-sugar ;  and 
in  1812,  when  the  factory  had  become  a  very  pro- 
fitable investment,  the  king  annexed  to  it  a  school 
for  teaching  the  process  of  manufacture.  A.  was 
called  to  Berlin  as  director  of  the  physical  class  in 
the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  died  April  20,  1821. 
He  wrote,  among  other  similar  essays,  one  on  the 
European  Maimfacture  of  Sugar  from  Beet  (Leip. 
1809). 

ACHELO'US,  now  called  ASPROPOTAMO  (i.  e.. 
White  River,  from  the  cream-colour  of  its  waters), 
the  largest  river  in  Greece,  rises  in  Mount  Piiidus, 
flows  through  the  land  of  the  Dolopians,  divides 
yEtolia  from  Acarnania,  and  falls  into  the  Ionian 
Sea.  The  extensive  alluvial  deposits  at  the  mouth 
of  this  river  have  been  observed  from  ancient  times. 
It  is  said  that  the  banks  of  the  A.  were  anciently  the 
haunt  of  lions. 

ACHE'NIUM,  ACHCENIUM,  or  AKEXIUM,  a 
term  now  very  fre<iuently  employed  by  botanists,  to 
designate  a  dry,  hard,  one-seeded,  indehiscent  fruit, 
in  wliich  the  integuments  of  the  seed  are  closely 
applied  to  it,  but  distinct  from  it.  Such  are  what 
are  j.op-ilar'.y  called  the  aecda  of  borage,  and  other 
j^lants  of  the  same  natural  order.  They  were  termed 
23 


nuts  by  Linnaeus.  Sometimes  the  achenia  are  aggre- 
gated upon  a  common  receptacle,  forming  what  is 
called  an  ctacrio,  as  in  the  ranunculus,  in  which  they 
are  placed  upon  a  dry  receptacle,  or  in  the  straw- 
berry, in  which  the  receptacle  is  fleshy.  Sometimes 
the  aggregated  achenia  are  enclosed  within  the  fleshy 
tube  of  the  calyx,  as  in  the  rose.  The  fruit  of  the 
Compositce  is  also  sometimes  called  an  A. ;  but  a 
different  appellation  (ci/pscla)  has  been  given  to  it, 
because  the  tube  of  the  calyx  coheres  with  the 
fruit,  the  name  A.  being  limited  to  superior 
fruits. 

A'CHEROX,  the  same  given  to  several  rivers  by 
the  ancients,  always  with  reference  to  some  peculi- 
arity, such  as  black  or  bitter  waters,  or  mc]'hitic 
gases.  The  A.  in  Thesprotia,  which  flows  through 
the  lake  Achcrusia,  and  pours  itself  into  the  Ionian 
Sea;  another  river  of  the  same  name  in  Elis, 
now  called  Sacuto ;  and  several  streams  in  Egypt, 
were  supposed  to  have  some  connmmicalion  with 
the  infernal  world.  According  to  Pausanias,  Homer 
borrowed  from  the  river  in  Thesprotia  the  name  of 
his  infernal  A.,  which  the  later  poets  surrounded 
with  many  imaginary  horrors.  Other  lakes  besides 
that  above  mentioned,  bore  the  name  of  Acherusia', 
e.  g.,  the  lake  near  Hermione  in  Argolis. 

A--CHEVA'L  POSITION.  When  troops  are 
arranged  so  that  a  river  or  highway  passes  through 
the  centre  and  forms  a  perpendicular  to  the  front, 
they  are  said  to  be  drawn  up  in  A.  P.  Wellington's 
army  at  Wateiloo  was  a-cheval  on  the  road  from 
Charleroi  to  Brussels.  In  cases  where  a  river  forms 
the  perpendicular  to  the  front,  secure  possession  of 
a  bridge  is  necessary;  otherwise  one-half  of  the 
troops  might  be  routed,  while  the  remainder  stood 
idly  as  spectators. 

A'CHILL,  or  'Eagle'  Isle,  off  the  west  coast 
of  Ireland,  is  reckoned  within  the  county  of  Mayo. 
It  is  15^^  miles  long  by  12^  miles  broad,  and  has  a 
very  iri-egular  coast-line,  though  its  general  shape  is 
almost  that  of  a  right-angled  triangle.  It  has  a  wild 
and  desolate  appearance ;  most  of  the  surface  is 
boggy  ;  of  the  US, 000  acres  which  the  island  con- 
tains, not  half  a  thousand  are  cultivated.  There  are 
three  villages  in  A.,  and  a  number  of  hovels  or  huts 
scattered  over  its  barren  moors,  sometimes  in  small 
clusters,  forming  hamlets,  but  so  wretched  as  hardly 
to  be  fit  for  beasts.  A.  rises  towards  the  north  and 
west  coast,  where  the  mountains  attain  an  elevation 
of  2000  feet.  One  of  them,  composed,  like  the 
rest  of  the  island,  wholly  of  mica-slate,  presents, 
towards  the  sea,  a  sheer  precipice  from  its  peak  to 
its  base,  a  height  of  2208  feet.  There  is  a  mission- 
station  in  the  island,  which  forms  an  exception  to 
the  general  wretchedness  of  the  houses.  It  pos- 
sesses, amongst  other  agencies  of  civilisation,  a 
printing-press.  The  population  is  decreasing,  from 
emigration  and  other  causes  ;  in  1841  it  amounted  to 
5000;  in  1861,  to  5776. 

ACHILL.(E'A,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Compositce  (q.  v.),  having  small  flowers  (heads 
of  flowers)  disposed  in  corymbs,  and  the  receptacle 
covered  with  chaffy  scales  (small  bractete).  The 
florets  of  the  ray  are  female,  and  have  a  short, 
roundish  tongue  or  lip ;  the  florets  of  the  disk  are 
hermaphrodite,  the  tube  of  the  corolla  flatly  com- 
pressed and  two-winged;  the  involucre  is  imbricated. 
— The  common  Yarrow  or  Milfoil  (^1,  millefolium) 
abounds  in  all  parts  of  Europe  and  in  some  parts  of 
North  America — into  which,  however,  it  has  perhaps 
been  carried  from  Europe — growing  in  meadows, 
pastures,  &c.  It  is  about  a  foot  in  height :  its  leaves 
bipinnate,  the  pinnae  deeply  divided,  the  segments 
narrow  and  crowded.  It  has  white  or  rose-coloured 
flowers.      The   leaves    have    a    bitterish   aromatic, 


ACHILLES— ACHROMATIC. 


somewhat  austere  taste,  and  little  smell;  the  flowers  I 
have  a  strong  aromatic  smell,  with  an  aromatic  l)iitcr 
taste,  and  contain  an  e.ssential  oil,  a  resin,  bitter 
e.%:tractive,  gum,  several  salts,  and  traces  of  sulphur. 
Both  leaves  and  flowers  are  used  in  medicine  as  a 
powerful  stimulant  and  tonic.  The  leaves  were  for- 
merly much  used  for  healing  wounds,  and  arc  still 
so  employed  by  the  common  people  in  the  High- 
lands of  Scotland  and  in  some  parts  of  the  conti- 
nent. The  expressed  juice  is  a  |)opular  spring  med- 
icine in  Gernuuiy.  Yarrow  is  often  sown  along  with 
grasses  intended  io  form'  permanent  pasture  for 
sheep ;  and  A.  mosc/iata,  sometimes  called  JlcsK 
Milfoil,  is  cultivated  as  food  for  cattle  in  Switzer- 
land. A.  vioschata,  A.  atrata,  A.  nana — all  natives 
of  the  Alps — are  very  aromatic,  and  bear  the  name 
of  Genipi  or  Genipp.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Alps 
value  them  very  highly,  and  use  them  for  making 
what  is  called  Swian  Tea.  They  arc  very  stimulat- 
ing and  tonic;  as  are  also  A.  scfacca  and  A.  no- 
bilis,  both  natives  of  Switzerland  and  other  middle 
parts  of  Europe,  and  A.  ar/erafimt,  a  native  of  the 
south  of  Europe,  used  by  the  French  as  a  vulnerary, 
and  called  Hcrbe  an  C/iarpentier. — Snekzkavout  (^A. 
PtGrmica')  is  a  native  of  Britain  and  other  parts  of 
Europe,  1 — 3  feet  high,  with  lanceolate  leaves,  and 
much  larger  flowers  than  the  common  Milfoil.  It 
grows  in  meadows  and  damp  ])laces.  The  root, 
which  is  aromatic,  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  Pelli- 
tory  of  Spain  {q.  v.),  and  the  whole  plant  is  pungent 
and  provokes  a  flow  of  saliva. 

ACHILLES,  the  hero  of  Homer's  Iliad,  was  the 
son  of  King  Peleas  and  Thetis,  a  sea-goddess,  be- 
longing to  a  line  descended  from  Jove.  Of  his  life 
before  the  Trojan  -war,  and  of  his  death  after  the 
fall  of  Troy,  the  poets  after  Homer  first  profess  to 
give  accounts.  "We  are  told  that  he  was  dipped  in 
the  river  Styx  by  his  mother,  and  was  thus  made 
invulneral)le,  except  in  the  heel,  by  which  he  was 
held  during  the  process ;  hence  '  the  heel  of  A.' 
became  a  proverbial  phrase  to  denote  any  vulnera- 
ble point  in  a  man's  character.  It  had  been  prophe- 
sied at  his  birth  that  his  life  would  be  short ;  and, 
therefore,  when  the  serr  Culchas  announced  that 
without  A.  Troy  could  not  be  taken,  his  mother,  to 
keep  him  from  the  dangers  of  the  expedition,  con- 
cealed him  at  the  court  of  King  Lycomedes,  among 
■whose  daughters  the  boy  lived  disguised  as  a  girl. 
But  Ulysses  discovered  him  by  a  stratagem.  He  of- 
fered to  the  young  ladies  a  number  of  articles,  some 
of  ffminiiie  attire  and  others  of  arms;  and  the  young 
warrior  was  betrayed  by  his  choice.  A.,  in  the 
Greek  campaign  against  Troy,  appeared  with  fifty 
vessels  manned  by  his  followers,  the  Myrmidons ;  but 
remained  sullen  and  inactive  during  a  great  part  of 
the  contest.  When  the  city  of  Lyrnessus  was  taken, 
he  had  seized  and  carried  away  the  beautiful  Briseis, 
the  daughter  of  Chryses,  a  priest  of  Apollo.  As 
soon  afterwards  a  pestilence  raged  in  the  Greek 
army,  and  was  ascribed  to  the  v.rath  of  the  god 
Apollo,  Agamemnon  caused  BriseTs  to  be  restored 
to  her  father,  which  greatly  offended  A.  With  this 
incident,  the  Iliad  begins.  Neither  the  splendid  of- 
fers made  by  Agamemnon,  nor  the  disa'sters  of  the 
Greeks,  could  afterwards  move  A.  to  take  any  part 
in  the  contest,  until  his  friend,  Patroclus  was  slain 
by  Hector.  The  hero  then  buckled  on  his  armour, 
which  had  been  made  for  him  by  Yulcan,  and  of 
which  the  shield  is  described  at  great  length  by  Ho- 
mer as  a  master-piece  of  workmanship.  The  for- 
tunes of  the  field  were  now  suddenly  changed  in 
favour  of  the  Greeks ;  and  the  vengeance  of  A.  was 
not  satiated  until  he  had  slain  a  great  number  of 
the  Trojan  heroes,  and  lastly.  Hector,  whose  body 
he  fastened  to  his  chariot,  and  dragged  into  the 
Grecian  camp.     He  then  buried  his  friend  Patroclus 


f  Sigetmi,  where,  after  L^/f^^^J 

I  of  Troy,  the  princess  fW^ Z 

}na,  who  had  been  made  ' 


with  great  funereal  honours.  King  Priam,  the  father 
of  Hector,  came  by  night  to  the  tent  of  A.,  and 
prayed  that  the  body  of  his  , 

son  might  be  given  back  to 
the  Trojans.  A.  consented ; 
and  with  the  burial  of  Hector 
the  Iliad  closes.  We  are 
told,  that  soon  after  the  fall 
of  Hector,  A.  made  a  contract 
of  marriage  with  Polyxcna, 
the  daughter  of  the  Trojan 
king,  but  was  slain  by  her 
brother  Paris,  in  the  temple 
of  Apollo,  where  the  marriage 
should  have  been  'celebrated. 
According  to  other  accounts, 
he  was  slain  by  Apollo,  who 
assumed  the  likeness  of  Paris 
as  a  disguise.  His  ashes  were 
placed  in  an  urn,  with  those 
of  his  friend  Patroclus,  and 
were  buried  on  the  promon- 
tory of  Sigetmi,  where,  after 
the  flill 
Polyxer 

a  [irisoner,  was    offered  as  a      Achilles,  from  an 
propitiatory  sacrifice.  ancient  statue. 

ACHILLES'  TENDON  {Tendo  Achillis),  attaches 
the  soleus  and  gastrocnemius  muscles  of  the  calf  of 
the  leg  to  the  heel-bone.  It  is  capable  of  resisting 
a  force  equal  to  a  luOO  lbs.  weight;  and  yet  is  fre- 
quently ruptured  by  the  contraction  of  these  muscles 
in  sudden  extension  of  the  foot.  The  name  was 
given  with  reference  to  the  death  of  the  Grecian  he- 
ro Achilles,  by  a  wound  in  the  heel.  Ancient  sur- 
geons regarded  wounds  or  serious  bruises  of  the  A. 
T.  as  fatal. 

ACHIME'NES,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Gesneraccce  (q.  v.),  much  cultivated  in  stoves 
and  greenhouses  for  the  beauty  of  their  flowers. 
The  species  are  numerous — natives  of  the  warm 
parts  of  America. 

ACHROMATIC  (without  colour),  the  name  ap- 
plied to  lenses  and  telescopes  throtigh  which  objects 
are  seen  without  false  colours,  or,  in  other  words, 
free  from  that  coloured  fringe  which,  in  the  old  tel- 
escope, surrounded  the  object  and  diminished  its 
distinctness.  The  white,  or  rather  colourless  ray  of 
light,  is  composed  of  several  coloured  rays  which 
have  various  degrees  of  refrangibility.  See  Refrac- 
tion, Light,  Colour.  When  the  direct  ray  is  re- 
fracted, it  divides  itself  into  coloured  rays,  deviating 
in  various  degrees  from  the  right  line  of  the  primi- 
tive ray.  The  rays  thus  refracted  by  the  convex 
object-glass  do  not  meet  exactly  in  one  point,  the 
focus  of  the  glass,  but  rather  at  several  points,  so 
as  to  produce  the  various  colours,  red,  blue,  and 
yellow,  which  stn-round  the  object.  Newton,  misled 
by  imperfect  experiments,  believed  it  impossible  to 
find  any  remedy  for  this  defect ;  but  Euler,  in 
1747,  expres-ed  his  conviction  that  the  desired  A. 
improvement  was  practicable,  and  this  belief  was 
confirmed  by  the  researches  of  the  Swedish  mathe- 
matician Klingenslierna.  The  practical  solution  of 
the  difficulty  was  reserved  for  John  Dollond ; 
though,  when  he  obtained  a  patent  for  his  A.  teles- 
cope, a  priority  of  invention  was  claimed  for  a  gen- 
tleman of  the  name  of  Hall.  Dollond  succeeded  in 
forming  an  A.  object-glass  by  a  combination  of 
crown-glass  and  flint-glass,  which  follow  one  law 
as  to  their  relative  refractive  powers,  and  another 
as  to  their  powers  of  dispersing  the  colours.  By 
uniting  a  convex  lens  of  crown-glass  with  a  con- 
cave one  of  flint-glass,  in  certain  relative  dimensions, 
a  reunion  of  the  coloured  rays  may  be  effected,  and 

29 


ACI  REALE— ACONITE. 


the  object  will  be  seen  without  false  colours.  In  the 
construction  of  A.  telescopes,  Dollond  was  followed 
by  his  son  Peter,  and  also  by  the  optician  Rauisden. 
A  further  improvement  was  made  by  Fraunhofer 
of  Munich,  who  succeeded  in  ])roducing  perfectly 
pure  glass — a  very  difficult  achiev(;mcnt  in  the  case 
of  flint-glass.  We  owe  an  important  improvement 
of  tlie  A.  telescope  to  the  Viennese  optician  Pliissl, 
wlio  has  lately  invented  what  he  calls  the  dialytic 
telescope,  in  which  the  several  kinds  of  glass 
composing  the  compound  object-glass  are  not 
placed  close  together,  but  at  regulated  distances 
apart.  This  arrangement  allows  a  shortening  of  the 
tube. 

A'CI  REA'Lie,  a  town  of  Sicily,  in  the  district  of 
Catania.  It  hes  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Etna,  on  the 
coast,  where  the  small  river  Aci,  flowing  from  Etna, 
enters  the  sea.  The  town  is  built  of  lava,  is  defend- 
ed by  a  fortress,  and  contains  19,()fiO  inhabitants, 
who  are  employed  chiefly  in  the  manufacture  of  linen 
and  silk;  it  also  carries  on  a  not  inconsiderable  trade 
in  flax  and  grain.  Many  of  the  edifices  are  very 
handsome.  A.  R.  is  famed  for  its  mineral  waters, 
and  for  the  cave  of  Polyphemus  and  the  grotto  of 
Galatea  in  its  vicinity. 

A'CIDS.  An  acid  is  a  chemical  compound  dis- 
tinguished by  the  property  of  combining  with  bases 
in  definite  proportions  to  form  salts  (q.  v.).  The  most 
striking  characteristics  of  A.  are  a  sour  taste,  and 
the  property  of  reddening  vegetable  blues.  They 
are  also  mostly  oxidised  bodies ;  and  at  one  time 
oxygen  was  thought  to  be  essential  to  an  acid,  as  the 
name  o.r>/(/en  (the  acid-producer)  indicates.  Subse- 
quent experience  has  extended  the  definition.  There 
is  an  important  class  of  undouI)tcd  A.  that  con- 
tain no  oxygen;  and  silox,  or  flint,  which,  being 
insoluble,  neither  tastes  sour  nor  reddens  litmus- 
paper,  is  held  to  be  an  acid  because  it  combines  with 
bases,  and  forms  compounds  like  acknowledged 
A.  The  oxygen  A.,  wliich  are  V)y  far  the  most 
numerous  class,  are  formed  of  elements  (sulphur, 
nitrogen,  chromium,  &c.),  with  two  or  more  equiva- 
lents of  oxygen.  The  elements  that  form  the 
strongest  A.  with  oxygen  are  the  non-metallic,  and 
most  of  them  have  more  than  one  stage  of  acid 
oxidation.  Thus  sulphur,  with  two  equivalents  of 
oxygen,  forms  sulphurous  o.xide,  and  formerly  termed 
sulphurous  acid,  symbol  SO2 ;  with  three  equivalents 
it  forms  sulphuric  oxide,  or  formerly  termed  sulphu- 
ric acid,  symbol  SO3.  Similarly,  arsenic  gives  rise  to 
arsenious  oxide  (AS2O3),  arsenic  oxide  (AsOs).  These 
compounds  in  theu-  hydrated  state,  or  when  united 
with  hydrogen,  become  their  respective  acids.  To 
these  must  be  added  the  organic  A.,  composed  of  car- 
bon, hydrogen,  and  oxygen  in  very  various  projwrtions, 
such  as  carbonic  acid  (CO2),  formic  acid  (CH2O2), 
oxalic  acid  (C2H204),  acetic  acid  (C2H4O2),  etc.  There 
are  also  A.  found  in  aninuil  fluids  which  contain  nitro- 
gen in  addition  to  the  three  elements  above  named ; 
such  as  uric  or  lithic  acid  (C5N4H4O3).  A  new  theory 
of  the  constitution  of  acids  now  prevails,  which  con- 
siders hydrogen  the  real  acidifying  element,  thus  ren- 
dering them  analogous  to  hydrochloric  acid  (CIH).  It 
is  now  clear  that  acids  are  not  a  class  essentially  differ- 
ent in  nature  from  other  substances,  but  that  they  are 
nothing  more  than  a  jiarticular  class  of  salts.  "  The 
definition  of  acids  as  salts  of  hydrogen  was  first  clearly 
enunciated  by  Gerhardt.  The  mode  in  which  acids 
most  frequently  react  with  other  substances  is  by 
double  decomposition  in  which  they  exchange  their 
hydrogen  for  metals,  or  for  radicals  possessing  metalic 
functions.  When  acetic  acid  is  converted  into  an 
acetate  by  acting  upon  it  with  an  oxide,  metal,  &c.,  it 
loses  hydrogen,  the  j)lace  being  supplied  by  the  ele- 
ments of  the  metal,  or  oxitle.  The  term  anhydride  is 
30 


frequently  used  to  distinguish  certiun  oxides  or  an- 
hydrous  acids,  which  when  hydrated  become  truly 
acids  ;  thus  "dry  sulphuric  acid,"  or  sulphuric  oxide, 
or  sulphuric  anhydride  (SO3),  when  combined  with  hy- 
drogen becomes  sulphuric  acid  (II2SO4).     ISee  Salts 

ACKERMANN,  Rudoi>ph,  a  native  of  Saxony  in 
Germapy  (b.  1'7(J4 — d.  ISIJi),  came  to  London,  where 
he  opened  a  repository  of  the  fine  arts  in  the  Strand, 
which  succeeded  well.  He  introduced  tht;  art  of 
lithography  into  England,  and  was  the  originator  of 
the  'Annuals'  ((j.  v.),  which  he  commenced  by  his 
J'hrf/ct-me-not,  published  in  1823  an<l  following  years. 
Among  his  numerous  illustrated  puljlications  may  be 
mentioned  his  Jiepositori/  of  Arts,  Litiratnre,  and 
Fdxhions ;  Microcosm  of  London  ;  Westndnnter  A  bhey ; 
and  UniversiticH  of  Oxford  and  Cniiihridf/c.  English 
wood-engraving,  the  art  of  water-proofing,  and  the 
introduction  of  gas-light  into  shops,  were  greatly 
promoted  by  tliis  enterprising  German.  His  kind- 
ness to  the  poor  relatives  whom  he  had  left  in  Sax- 
ony ought  not  to  be  left  unmentioned. 

A'COLYTES,  a  name  occurring  first  about  the 
od  c,  and  applied  to  functionaries  who  assisted 
the  bishops  and  priests  in  the  performance  of  relig- 
ious rites,  lighting  the  candles,  presenting  the 
wine  and  water  at  the  comnnmion,  &c.  They 
were  considered  as  in  holy  orders,  and  ranked 
next  to  sub-deacons.  These  services  have,  since  the 
7th  c,  been  pcrfoiined  by  laymen  and  boys,  who 
are  improperly  called  A. ;  but  in  the  Romish 
Church,  aspirants  to  the  priesthood  are  still  at  one 
stage  consecrated  as  A.,  receiving  candles  and  cups 
as  the  symbols  of  the  office. 

A'CONITE  (Aconitum),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  liaiiunculacece  (q.  v.),  having  five 
petaloid  sepals,  of  which  the  u]iper  one  is  helmet- 
shaped,  and  two  hammer-headed  jietals  concealed 
witliin  the  helmet-shaped  sepal.  The  fruit  consists 
of  o — 5  follicles.  A.  is'apellns,  the  common  WoLv's- 
nANE  or  Monk's-hood,  often  cultivated  in  flower- 
gardens  for  the  sake  of  its  erect  racemes  of  blue 


Chinese  Aconite. 

flowers,  is  a  somewhat  doubtful  native  of  England, 
but  common  in  some  parts  of  Europe.  The  roots  are 
fusiform  and  clustered.  The  root  and  whole  plant 
are  very  poisonous,  containing  an  alkaloid,  called 
Acnnita,  or  Aconitine,  one  of  the  most  virulent  of 
all  known  poisons;  but  an  extract  of  the  leaves 
is  a  valuable  medicine,  administered  in  small  doses 
for  nervous  and  other  diseases.  An  A.,  sometimes 
called  A.  StoercManum,  but  generally  regarded  as  a 


ACORN-SHELL— ACOUSTICS. 


variety  of  A.  Cammarmn  (also  known  as  A.  pani- 
cidatum),  was  brought  into  great  repute  on  the 
continent  durin<^  last  century  by  Dr.  Stocrck,  an 
Austrian  imperial  physician,  and  is  still  much 
cultivated  for  medicinal  use.  The  same  properties 
seem  in  greater  or  less  degree  to  belong  to  a 
number,  if  not  to  all,  of  the  species  of  this  genus, 
and  they  contain  the  same  alkaloid.  The  virulent 
bikh  poison  of  India,  equally  fatal  in  its  effects 
whether  introduced  into  wounds  or  taken  into  the 
stomach,  is  prepared  from  the  roots  of  several 
species.  The  A.  ferox  of  Xcpaul,  from  which 
much  of  it  is  obtained,  has  been  identified  by  Drs. 
Hooker  and  Thomson  with  A.  Napellus.  Two  other 
Himalayan  species,  A.  palmatniii  and  A.  lurichmi, 
are  equally  employed  in  its  preparation.  A.  album, 
or  white-flowered  monk's-hood,  a  native  of  the 
Levant,  and  A.  hicoctonnm,  yellow-flowered  monk's- 
hood,  or  wolf's-bane,  a  native  of  the  Alps,  are  not 
unfrequent  in  our  flower-gardens. 

ACORN-SHELL.     See  Balaxus. 

A'CORUS,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Aroidece  (see  Arum),  or  according  to  other  botanists, 
of  the  natural  order  Orontiaccie,  which  is  regarded 
as  a  connecting-link  between  Aroidece  and  Juncecv. 
The  plants  of  this  genus  have  a  leaf-like  scape, 
which  bears  upon  its  side  a  dense,  cyhndrical, 
greenish  spike  of  flowers  with  O-partite  herbaceous 
perianth  and  six  stamina  in  each  flower.  To  this 
genus  belongs  the  Sweet  Flag  (^4.  cd/rt?/i«.s),  which 
was  long  ago  brought  from  Asia,  and  in  the  15th 
c.  was  planted  in  the  gardens  of  princes  and 
rich  men,  but  has  now  become  naturalized  in 
England,  Germany,  &c.,  growing  in  marshes  and 
ditches.  Its  root  (rhizome)  is  perennial,  divided  into 
long  joints  about  the  thickness  of  the  thumb,  has  a 
bitterish  acrid  taste,  and  is  very  aromatic.  It  is  a 
powerful  medicine  of  transient  tonic  effect,  occasion- 
ally used,  especially  in  cases  of  weak  digestion.  In 
many  places  of  the  continent,  it  is  to  be  found  in 
every  confectioner's,  cut  into  slices,  and  prepared  with 
sugar.  It  is  also  used  to  correct  the  empyreumatic 
odour  of  spirits,  and  to  give  them  a  peculiar  flavour. 
It  is  called  Calamus  Root.  In  Britain  it  is  chiefly 
employed  by  perfumers  in  the  manufacture  of 
liair-powder. — The  other  species  of  A.  are  likewise 
aromatic,  and  are  applied  to  the  same  uses.  A. 
gramineus  is  cultivated  in  China. 

ACOSTA,  Gabriel,  a  Portuguese  nobleman,  de- 
scended from  a  Jewish  family,  born  at  Oporto  in 
1587.  After  being  educated  in  the  doctrines  of  the 
Ro7uan  Catholic  Church,  he  became  sceptical,  and 
leaving  Portugal,  went  to  Amsterdam,  where  he 
adopted  the  Jewish  faith.  He  did  not  remain  long 
contented  with  his  new  creed ;  but  wrote  against 
the  Pentateuch,  disputed  the  doctrine  of  the  soul's 
immortality,  and  became  involved  in  controversy 
with  his  rabbinical  teachers.  On  account  of  his 
work,  entitled  Examen  de  Tradigoens  Phariscas  con- 
ferldas  con  d  ley  Escrijyta  (Examination  of  Pharisaic 
Traditions  compared  with  the  Scriptures),  1624, 
he  was  charged  with  atheism  by  the  Jews  before  a 
Christian  magistracy.  Having  lost  his  property, 
and  being  sentenced  to  a  seven  years'  excommuni- 
cation, he  sought  reconciliation  with  the  synagogue, 
and  submitted  to  very  ignominious  chastisements, 
which  were  repeatedly  inflicted  as  often  as  his  reli- 
gious doubts  arose  again ;  until,  in  a  state  of  insanity, 
he  ended  his  career  by  suicide  in  1640,  or,  as  others 
say,  in  164Y.  His  autobiography  was  published  in 
Latin  and  German  (Leip.  1847). 

ACOTYLE'DONOUS  PLANTS  {Acotylcdones  of 
Jussieu),  one  of  the  great  primary  classes  into  which 
the  vegetable  kingdom  is  divided,  according  to 
the   struciure  of  the  seed  and  whole  development 


therewith  connected.  See  Cotyledon.  The  class  of 
Acotylcdones  contains  those  plants  which,  in  the 
Linniean  system,  form  the  class  Cryptogamia  (q.  v.). 
It  consists  partly  of  Acrogejious  Plants,  (q.  v.),  as 
Ferns  and  Mosses,  and  partly  of  Thallogcnous  Plants 
(q.  v.),  as  Lichens,  Fungi,  and  Algae.  It  thus  in- 
cludes the  vegetable  tribes  of  lowest  organization, 
whose  embryo  exhibits  no  distinct  seed-lobes  (cotyle- 
dons), but  is  a  mere  cell  or  spore,  with  granular  mat- 
ter in  its  interior,  and  germinates  indifferently  from 
any  point  of  its  surface. 

ACOU'STICS  (Gr.  aJcouo,  I  hear)  is  the  science 
of  sound.  Tliis  part  of  physics  is  often  treated  in 
connection  with  the  atmosphere — an  arrangement 
that  seems  inappropriate ;  for  the  atmosphere  is  only 
the  most  common  conductor  of  sound;  and  every 
substance,  whether  solid  or  fluid,  is  capable,  as 
w^ell  as  air,  of  sounding  itself,  or  of  conveying  the 
sound  of  other  bodies.  A.  is  rather  a  part  of 
the  science  of  motion.  All  motion  is  either  recti- 
lineal, circular,  or  vibratory  ;  and  when  a  vibratory 
motion  is  cjuick  enough  to  affect  the  sense  of  hearing 
— for  which  at  least  thirty  vibrations  in  a  second 
are  required — it.  constitutes  a  sound.  A  definable, 
uniform  sound  is  a  note  or  tone,  and  the  rapidity  of 
the  vibrations  is  its  pitch  ;  a  confused  indeterminate 
sound  is  a  noise.  The  chief  subjects  treated  of  in 
A.  are:  1.  Musical  sounds,  or  Notes  (q.  v.).  Here 
the  question  is  concerning  the  absolute  and  relative 
velocities  of  the  vibrations,  and  those  modifications, 
called  temperament,  to  which  their  original  propor- 
tions are  subjected  for  the  practical  purposes  of 
music.  2.  The  origin  of  Sound  (q.  v.),  and  the  laws 
which  guide  the  vibrations  of  sounding  bodies,  and 
which  give  rise  to  different  phenomena  in  different 
substances.  In  all  sounding  bodies,  it  is  elasticity 
that  is  to  be  looked  upon  as  the  moving  power.  The 
elasticity  of  a  sounding  body  may  ai-ise  from  stretch- 
ing, as  in  the  strings  of  a  violin  or  the  head  of  a 
drum  ;  or  from  its  own  stiffness,  as  in  rods,  bells,  &c. 
8.  The  propagation  of  sound,  as  well  through  the  air 
and  other  gases  as  through  solids  and  liquids ;  and 
the  reflection  of  sounds  or  echoes.  All  clastic  bodies 
conduct  sound,  many  much  more  powerfully  than 
air.  In  water  the  conducting  power  is  four  times 
stronger  than  it  is  in  air;  in  tin,  seven  times;  in  sil- 
ver, nine  times ;  in  iron,  ten  times ;  in  glass,  seven- 
teen times.  4.  Perception  of  sound,  or  the  structure 
and  functions  of  the  Ear  (q.  v.). 

The  ancients  had  made  attempts  to  cultivate 
A.  Pythagoras  and  Aristotle  were  aware  of  the 
way  that  sound  is  pro]iagated  through  the  air, 
but  as  a  science  independent  of  its  application  to 
music,  it  belongs  almost  entirely  to  modern  times. 
Bacon  and  Galileo  laid  the  foundation  of  this  new 
mathematical  science ;  Newton  shewed  by  calcula- 
tion how  the  propagation  of  sound  depends  upon  the 
elasticity  of  the  atmosphere  or  other  conducting 
medium.  He  observed  that  a  sounding  body  acts  by 
condensing  the  portions  of  air  that  lie  next  it,  and 
in  the  direction  of  the  impulse.  These  condensed 
portions  then  spring  back  by  their  elasticity,  and  at 
the  same  time  impel  forward  the  portions  lying  next 
them.  Each  separate  portion  of  air  is  thus  driven 
forwards  and  backwards ;  and  thus  all  round  the 
sounding  body  there  is  an  alternate  condensation 
and  rarefaction  of  air,  constituting,  as  it  were, 
waves  of  sound.  In  determining  the  velocity  of 
sound,  Newton,  Lagrange,  and  Euler  erred  in  their 
calculations ;  the  best  researches  on  this  subject  are 
those  of  Laplace.  Chladni  first  raised  A.  to  an 
independent  science.  In  recent  times,  compara- 
tively little  has  been  done  in  this  branch  of  physics. 
Savart  has  determined  more  exact. y  the  number  of 
vibrations  in  a  second  necessary  to  produce  an  audible 
sound ;  and  Cagniard  de  Latour  invented  the  svrene, 

31 


ACQUI— ACROGENOUS  PLANTS. 


and  discovered  many  of  the  conditions  under  which 
botli  solids  and  Ouids  sound.  The  founding  of  heated 
metals,  when  laid  on  cold  metallic  supports,  has 
occasioned  much  discussion.  Sec  Edvib.  Phil. 
Journal.  Faraday  and  Marx  have  examined  the 
figures  of  souiul;  Wheatstono,  the  phenomena  of 
sympathetic  sounds;  and  Willis,  the  formation  of 
vowel-sounds  by  the  human  voice. 

While  the  [)rinciplos  of  A.  are  well  known  in 
theory,  they  are  seldom  carried  out  to  a  satisfactory 
result  in  practice.  We  allude  more  particularly  to 
tho  many  instances  in  which  costly  assembly  halls  and 
churches  are  defective  as  regards  public  speaking  ; 
it  being  seemingly  a  mere  chance  that  new  edifices 
of  this  kind  exhibit  proper  acoustic  qualities.  In 
some  cases,  the  sounds  uttered  cause  echoes  and 
reverberations,  perplexing  alike  to  a  speaker  and  his 
auditory,  and  in  otliers  the  sounds  are  dispersed  at 
a  high  elevation  and  are  lost.  This  subject  urgently 
demands  consideration  in  connection  with  architec- 
ture. As  a  general  rule,  the  ceilings  of  halls  should 
be  at  a  moderate  elevation ;  the  lowering  of  a  ceil- 
ing and  the  removal  of  chandeliers,  have  been  known 
to  improve  the  speaking  and  hearing  properties; 
and  the  hanging  up  of  flags  and  draperies  has,  in  a 
variety  of  instances,  had  a  similarly  good  effect.  The 
•whispering  gallery  of  St.  Paul's,  London  (q.  v.),  offers 
an  interesting  example  of  one  of  the  phenomena  in 
A.     Sec  Sound  by  John  Tyndall  (London,  1867). 

A'CQUI  (Lat.  Aqua?  Statielk-e),  a  walled  town  of 
Piedmont,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Bornuda,  and  dis- 
tant 18  miles  from  Alessandria.  It  derives  its  name 
from  its  hot  sidphur  springs,  which  were  known  to  the 
Romans,  and  which  arc  much  frequented  by  invalids 
from  the  north  of  Italy.  The  town  is  of  great  anti- 
quity, and  contains  many  remarkable  buildings,  es- 
pecially of  an  ecclesiastical  character.  It  has  some 
silk-factories,  &c.     Pop.,  8000. 

ACRE.  The  word  is  identical  with  Lat.  agcr,  Gr. 
agros^  a  '  a  field ; '  the  Ger.  acker  means  both  '  a  field ' 
and  a  'measure  of  laud.'  Most  nations  have  some 
measure  nearly  corresponding;  originally,  perhaps, 
the  quantity  which  one  plough  could  plough  in  a 
day;  uniformity,  therefore,  is  not  to  be  looked  for. 

The  English  statute  A.  consists  of  4840  square 
yards.  The  chain  with  which  land  is  measured  is  2-2 
yards  long,  and  a  square  chain  will  contain  22  x  22, 
or  484  yards  ;  so  that  10  square  chains  make  an  acre. 
The  acre  is  divided  into  4  roods,  a  rood  into  40 
perches,  and  a  perch  contains  SO^-  square  yards. 
The  Scotch  A.  is  larger  than  the  EngUsh,  and  the 
Irish  than  the  Scotch.  121  Ir.  ac.  =  196  Eng.,  near- 
ly; 48  Sc.  ac.  =  61  Eng.  The  following  table  shews 
the  values  of  the  more  important  corresponding 
measures  compared  with  the  EngHsh  A. : 


Ensrlish  acre,       .......  1-00 

Scotch      '' 1-27 

Irish         " 1-62 

Austria,  .Toch, 1'42 

Baden,  Morgen  or  Acre,  ....  0-&9 

Belgium,  Hectare  (French),  ....  2-47 

Denmark,  Tuende,     ......  5"5 

•r,  J  Hectare  (=100  ares),    .        .        .  2-47 

i?  ranee    -j  Arpent  (common),    ....  0-99 

Hamburg,  Murgen, 2'3S 

Hanover,  " 0'64 

Holkind,  "  2-10 

Naples,  Moggia, 0-83 

Poland,  Morgen, 1'38 

Portugal,  Geira, 1'43 

T,        ■      (  Little  Morsen,       ....  0-63 

rrussia  -^  ^^^^^^^  Morgen,  .        .         ,      .  1-40 

Enssia,  Deciatina, 2'70 

Sardinia,  Giornate, 0-93 

Saxony.  Morgen, 1'36 

Spain,  Fanegada,         ...         •       .        .  1"06 

Sweden,  Tuuneland,       .        .         •       .        .  1'13 

Switzerland,  Faux, 1'62 

"  Geneva,  Arpent,        .        .        .  1'27 

Tuscany,  Saccata,       .       ^       .       ,       .       .  1'22 
32 


I         T'nited  States,  English  acre, 
Wiirtemberg,  Morgen, 
Roman  .Iiigerum  (ancient),    , 
Greek  Plethron  (ancient). 


l-no 
2-10 
O-flO 
0-23 


A'CRE,  St.  Jean  n',  the  ancient  Al-ko^  known  as 
Ptolemois  in  the  middle  ages,  is  a  seaport  town  situ- 
ated on  the  coast  of  Syria,  not  far  from  the  base  of 
Mount  Carmel,  and  contains  10 — 15,0(i0  inhabitants. 
The  harbour  is  [)artly  choked  with  sand,  yet  is  one 
of  the  best  on  this  coast.  A.  has  often  been  the 
arena  of  warfare,  and  has  suffered  many  changes  of 
fortune.  In  lnti4,  it  was  taken  by  the  Genoese;  in 
1187,  by  the  Sultan  Saladin;  afterwards,  it  became- 
the  chief  landing-place  of  the  Crusaders,  the  seat  of 
a  bishop  and  of  tlic  Order  of  St.  John  ;  next,  it  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Egyptians;  and  in  1.517  was 
captured  by  the  Turks;  in  1799,  it  was  besieged  by 
the  French  for  sixty-one  days,  but  was  successfully . 
defended  by  the  garrison,  aided  by  a  body  of  Engli>li 
sailors  and  marines  under  Sidney  Smith.  In  18H2, 
it  was  stormed  by  Ibrahim  Pacha,  son  of  the  viceroy 
of  Egypt,  and  continued  in  his  possession  till  it  was 
bombarded  and  taken,  in  184(»,  by  a  combined  Eng- 
lish, Austrian,  and  Turkish  fleet.     See  Egvi>t. 

A'CROBAT,  a  word  derived  from  the  Greek,  and 
nearly  synonymous  with  rope-dancer.  It  literally 
signifies  one  who  walks  on  tip-toe  {akro»,  an  ex- 
tremity, and  haino,  I  go);  and  is  employed  to 
designate  those  who  perform  difficidt  feats,  vaulting, 
sliding,  tumbling,  and  dancing  on  a  slack  or  tight, 
rope,  stretched  either  horizontally  or  obli(|uely. 
These  feats  require  great  skill,  suppleness,  and 
steadiness.  For  a  long  time,  acrobats  were  con- 
tented to  divert  and  astonish  only  children  or  th(! 
most  ignorant  of  the  populace;  but  the  extraordi- 
nary skill  of  some  recent  performers  has  given  this 
perilous  art  a  great  celebrity.  Within  tlie  present 
century,  Farioso,  Madame  Saqui,  and  Signor  Diavolo 
have  excited  the  admiration  of  all  Paiis  by  their 
marvellous  agility.  The  acrobats  of  an(iquit)- 
appear  to  have  closely  resembled  those  of  our  own 
day. 

ACRO'GEXOUS  PLANTS  (Gr.,  growing  at  tho 
summit)  are  plants  in  which  the  structure  of  the 
stem  is  acrogenons — that  is,  in  which  the  vascular 
bundles  are  developed  simultaneously,  and  not  in 
succession,  the   stem  increasing  by  the   coherence 


Section  of  Acrogeuous 
stem. 


of  the  bases  of  the  leaves  and  by  elongation  at 
the  summit.  In  a  transverse  section  of  the  stem, 
a  circle  of  vascular  tissue  is  found  near  the  cir- 
cumference, and  the  centre  is  composed  of  cellular 
tissue,  some  portion  of  which  frequently  disappears, 
so  that  the  stem,  although  solid  when  young, 
becomes  hollow  in  a  more  advanced  stage  of  its 
growth.  Tree-ferns  afford  the  finest  specimens  of 
the  acrogenous  stem.  All  A.  P.  have  stoi/iata,  or 
breathing-pores,  on  the  surface.  In  general,  they 
have    a   distinct   stem    and    leaves    arranged   with 


ACROLITIIS— ACT. 


most  perfect  symmetry.  Some  plants,  in  which  the 
distinct  stem  is  absent,  are  ranked  with  A.  P.,  be- 
cause the  thalhts  lias  the  texture  of  leaves,  and 
exhibits  a  higher  organisation  than  in  Thalloyenous 
Plants  (q.  v.).  A.  P.  are  all  Acotyledonous  (q.  v.)  ; 
and  under  this  designation  are  included  Ferns, 
Equisetacecv,  Zycopodiaccce,  Marsilcacece,  Mosses, 
and  Hepaticee. 

A'CROLITIIS  CGr.  acron,  extremity;  lithos,  a 
stone),  the  name  given  to  the  oldest  works  of  Greek 
plastic  art,  in  which  wood-carving  is  seen  in  transi- 
tion into  marble  statuary.  The  trunk  of  the  figure 
is  still,  in  the  old  style,  of  wood,  covered  with  the 
usual  temple-vestments;  but  the  extremities — head, 
arms,  feet — which  are  meant  to  appear  naked  frona 
below  the  drapery,  are  of  stone. 

ACRO'POLIS,  'the  highest  point  of  the  city.' 
Many  of  the  important  cities  of  Greece  and  Asia 
Minor  were  protected  by  strongholds,  so  named. 
The  A.  occupied  a  lofty  position,  commanding  the 
city  and  its  environs ;  inaccessible  on  all  sides 
except  one,  which  had,  for  the  most  part,  artificial 
defences.     It  contained  some  of  the  most  important 


Acropolis  at  Athens. 


public  buildings,  especially  temples,  besides  afford- 
ing a  last  refuge  in  c;!se  of  a  hostile  attack.  The 
A.,  like  the  castle  of  the  middle  ages,  had  formed 
the  centre  or  nucleus  around  which  the  town  gradu- 
ally grew.  Among  the  most  celebrated  of  the 
ancient  Acropolises  was  that  of  Argos,  whose  name, 
Larissa,  indicates  its  Pelasgic  origin  ;  that  of  Mes- 
senia,  which  bore  the  name  of  Ithome ;  that  of 
Thebes,  called  Cadmea  ;  that  of  Corinth,  known  as 
Acro-Corinthus;  but  especially  that  of  Athens,  which 
was  styled  pre-eminently  the  A.     See  Athens. 

ACRO'STIC  is  a  Greek  term  for  a  number  of 
verses,  the  first  letters  of  which  follow  some  prede- 
termined order,  usually  forming  a  word — most  coui- 
nionly  a  name — or  a  phrase  or  sentence.  Sometimes 
the  final  letters  spell  words  as  well  as  the  initial,  and 
the  peculiarity  will  even  run  down  the  middle  of  the 
poem  like  a  seam.  Sir  John  Davies  composed 
twenty-four  H)jmns  to  Astrea  (Queen  EHzabeth),  in 
every  one  of  which  the  initial  letters  of  the  lines 
form  the  words  Eltsaketha  Regina.  Thefollowin"- 
is  one  of  the  twenty-four:  ° 


E  v'ry  nicrlit  from  ov'n  to  morn, 
L  ore's  chorister  amid  the  thorn 
I    s  now  so  sweet  a  singer ; 
8    o  sweet,  as  for  her  song  I  scorn 
A  polio's  voice  and  finger. 


r>  nt,  nightingale,  sith  you  delight 
E  ver  to  watch  the  starry  night, 
T  ell  all  the  stars  of  heaven, 
II  eaven  never  had  a  star  so  bright 
A  s  now  to  earth  is  given. 

E  oy.al  Astrea  makes  onr  day 

K  ternal  with  her  beams,  nor  may 

0  ross  darkness  overcome  her  ; 

1  now  perceive  why  some  do  write 
N  o  country  hath  so  short  a  night 
A  8  England  hath  in  summer. 

In  the  A.  poetry  of  the  Hebrews,  the  initial  letters 
of  the  lines  or  of  the  stanzas  were  made  to  run  over 
the  letters  of  the  alphabet  in  their  order.  Twelve  of 
the  psahns  of  the  Old  Testament  are  written  on  this 
plan.  The  119th  Psalm  is  the  most  remarkable.  It 
is  composed  of  twenty-two  divisions  or  stanzas  (cor- 
responding to  the  twenty-two  letters  of  the  Hebrew 
alphabet),  each  stanza  consisting  of  eight  couplets  ; 
and  the  first  line  of  each  couplet  in  the  first  stanza 
begins,  in  the  original  Hebrew,  with  the  letter  akph, 
in  the  second  stanza  with  beth,  &c.  The  divisions  of 
the  psalm  are  named  each  after  the  letter  that  be- 
gins the  couplets,  and  these  names  have  been  re- 
tained in  the  English  translation.  With  a  view  to 
aid  the  memory,  it  was  customary  at  one  time  to 
compose  verses  on  sacred  subjects  after  the  fashion 
of  those  Hebrew  acrostics,  the  successive  verses  or 
lines  beginning  with  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  in 
their  order.  Such  pieces  were  called  Abecedarian 
Hymns.     See  Hoolc's  Church  Dictionary. 

ACROTE'RIOy  (Gr.,  the  summit  or  extremity),  a 
term  in  Arch,  for  a  statue  or  other  ornament  placed 
on  the  apex  or  at  one  of  the  lower  angles  of  a  pedi- 
ment. Some  understand  by  A.,  the  pedestal  on 
which  such  ornament  stands. 

ACT,  in  the  Drama,  is  a  distinct  part  of  the 
general  plot  or  action,  and  its  conclusion  is  usually 
marked  by  a  fall  of  the  curtain.  An  act  should  be, 
in  a  certain  sense,  complete  in  itself,  and  at  the 
same  time  should  form  a  necessary  part  of  the  whole 
drama.  As  every  dramatic  plot  naturally  divides  it- 
self into  three  parts — the  exposition,  the  develop- 
ment, and  the  conclusion  or  catastrophe — a  division 
into  three  acts  would  seem  most  natural ;  but  in 
practice  it  has  been  found  inconvenient  to  enclose 
extended  plots  in  such  limits,  and  since  the  time  of 
the  ancient  Greek  tragedy, /i-e  acts  have  generally 
been  considered  necessary.  In  the  first  act,,  the 
general  nature  of  the  drama  is  indicated,  the  char* 
acters  are  introduced,  and  the  action  commences. 
The  plot  should  rise  in  interest  in  the  second,  and 
reach  its  climax  in  the  third  act.  In  the  fourth  act, 
the  conclusion  or  catastrophe  should  be  prepared, 
but  should  by  no  means  be  anticipated  so  as  to 
weaken  the  effect  of  the  denouement,  Avhich  must  oc- 
cupy the  fifth  act.  This  is  a  rather  difficult  task  ; 
and,  accordingly,  many  dramas  fail  in  the  fourth  act. 

ACT,  in  the  University  sense,  is  an  exercise  pre- 
paratory to  receiving  a  degree.  The  student  who 
'  keeps  the  Act,'  and  who  is  called  the  '  Respondent,' 
reads  a  Latin  thesis  upon  some  proposition  which  he 
has  announced  that  he  is  to  maintain.  Three  other 
students,  who  have  been  named  by  the  Proctor  as 
'  Opponents,'  then  try,  one  after  another,  to  refute 
his  arguments  syllogistically  in  Latin.  The  practice 
of  keeping  Acts  is  still  adhered  to,  as  a  form  at  bast, 
at  Cambridge. 

ACT,  in  Law,  has  various  meanings.  Iti  its 
more  general  acceptation  it  is  used  to  denote  the 
solemn  accomplishment  of  f^ome  distinctive  pro- 
ceeding, as  when  a  person  in  England,  when  execut- 
ing a  legal  instrument,  declares  it  tu  be  his  act  and 
deed.  Formerly,  jn  Scotland,  the  "n'ord  A.  was  fre- 
quently   applied  :  to    the  procedure    in    a.  litigated 

33 


ACT  OF  BANKRUPTCY— ACT  OF  PARLIAMENT. 


cause;  anil  to  this  dav  the  technical  term  to  signify  I 
a  plaintiff  in  Scotch  pleading  is  Actor — hence  also 
Acts  of  Sederunt  (q.  v.).  By  an  A.  is  sometimes 
meant  an  act  or  proceeding,  or  rather  the  record 
of  an  act  or  proceeding,  of  a  public  nature — and 
in  this  sense  it  is  used  when  we  speak  of  an  ^.  of 
Parliament  (q.  v.).  This  use  of  the  word  appears 
to  be  derived  from  the  Romans,  who  employed  Acta 
to  signify  specially  public  official  transactions,  and 
oftener  perhaps  the  records  of  such  transactions. 
The  Acta  Diurna  was  a  kind  of  official  Roman 
gazette,  giving  an  account  of  the  public  transactions 
and  events  of  the  day.  The  Germans  use  Acten, 
and  the  French  ^lc<e.s-,  to  signify  official  or  legal 
documents,  or  papers  generally.  The  title  Acta  has 
been  applied  in  modern  times  to  journals  or  records 
of  learned  societies :  Acta  Socictatis  J\'c(jue — the 
Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society.  Acta  Eriidi- 
torum,  the  oldest  journal  of  erudition  in  Germany, 
was  begun  at  Leipsic  in  1680,  and  ceased  publication 
in  1T82,  when  it  had  extended  to  117  quarto  volumes. 
To  these  may  be  added  (shewing  the  close  con- 
nection between  the  Roman  and  Scotch  legal  insti- 
tutions and  their  phraseology)  the  Ada  Aitditorum, 
or  the  records  of  the  proceedings  of  the  Lords 
Auditors,  who  were  a  committee  of  the  old  Scotch 
Parliament,  appointed  to  hear  causes,  by  w\ay  of 
appeal,  and  otlierwise  to  exercise  supreme  jurisdic- 
tion. Also  the  Acta  J)o7ni7iorum  Concilii,  or  ancient 
records  of  the  supreme  court  in  Scotland. 

But  the  word  A.  has  at  the  present  day  several 
precise  legal  applications,  the  principal  of  which  wo 
now  proceed  to  mention  and  explain: 

Act  of  Bankruptcy,  by  wliich  is  meant  a  certain 
ostensible  indication  of  insolvency  on  the  part  of  a 
debtor,  sufficient  to  bring  him  within  the  operation 
of  the  bankrupt  laws.  Section  67  of  the  existing 
Bankrupt  Law  Consolidation  Act,  12  and  13  Vict, 
c.  106,  defines  Acts  of  B.  in  the  following  terms: 
'  That  if  any  trader,  liable  to  become  bankrupt, 
shall  depart  this  realm,  or  being  out  of  this  realm, 
shall  remain  abroad,  or  shall  depart  from  his  dwell- 
ing-house, or  otherwise  absent  himself,  or  begin  to 
keep  his  house,  or  sutfer  himself  to  be  arrested  or 
taken  in  execution  for  any  debt  not  due,  or  yield 
himself  to  prison,  or  suffer  himself  to  be  outlawed, 
or  procure  him-elf  to  be  arrested  or  taken  in  execu- 
tion, or  his  goods,  money,  or  chattels  to  be  attached, 
sequestered,  or  taken  in  execution,  or  make  or  causse 
to  be  made,  either  within  this  realm  or  elsewhere, 
any  fraudulent  grant  or  conveyance  of  any  of  his 
lands,  tenements,  goods,  or  chattels,  or  make  or 
cause  to  be  made  any  fraudulent  surrender  of  any 
of  his  copyhold  lacds  or  tenements,  or  make  or 
cause  to  be  made  any  fraudulent  gift,  delivery,  or 
transfer  of  any  of  his  goods  or  cluittels,  every  such 
trader  doing,  sutfering,  jjrocuring,  executing,  permit- 
ting, making,  or  causing  to  be  made  any  of  the  acts, 
deeds,  or  matters  aforesaid,  with  intent  to  defeat  or 
delay  his  creditors,  shall  be  deemed  to  have  thereby 
committed  an  A.  of  B.' — The  expression,  A.  ofB.,  is 
u-uknown  in  the  phraseology  of  the  Scotch  Law;  but 
in  the  definition  of  notour  bankriiptc)t,  and  of  mercan- 
tile bankruptcy  in  the  Scotch  sequestrariou  statutes, 
there  will  be  found  an  enumeration  of  the  evidences 
of  insolvency  analogous  to  the  English  Acts  of  B. 

Act  of  Go3  is  a  legal  expression,  and  signifies 
any  natural  or  accidental  occurrence,  not  caused 
by  human  negligence  or  intervention  ;  such  as  the 
consequences  arising  from  storms,  lightning,  tem- 
pests, &c.,  and  which  are  deemed  fotalities  and  losses 
such  as  no  party  under  any  circumstances  (indejiend- 
ently  of  special  coi\tract)  is  bound  to  make  good  to 
another.  It  has  been  ruled  in  England  that  the 
loss  must  be  immediate,  and  the  necessary  conse- 
quence of  the  accident. 
34 


Act  of  Grace  is  the  name  given  to  an  old  Scotch 
act  (1G96,  c.  8"i)  for  the  maintenance  of  poor  per- 
sons imprisoned  for  debt.  It  is  usually  applied  in 
England  to  insolvent  acts,  and  general  pardons,  at 
the  beginning  of  a  new  reign  or  on  other  great  oc- 
casions. 

Act  of  Ixremsity  is  an  annual  act  of  parliament 
passed  for  omissions  in  taking  the  oaths  and  assur- 
ances required  by  law  of  persons  admitted  to  any 
public  office  or  employment.     See  Aiuuration. 

ACT  OF  PARLIAMENT  is  a  resolution  or  law 
passed  by  all  the  three  Ijranches  of  the  legislature — 
the  King  [or  Queen],  Lords,  and  Connnons.  The 
expression  is  generally  used  to  signify  the  record  of 
an  A.  of  P.,  and  such  records  are  strictly  synonymous 
with  the  term  'statutes'  or  'statutes  of  the  realm.' 
An  A.  of  P.  thus  made  is  the  highest  legal  authority 
acknowledged  by  the  constitution.  It  binds  every 
subject  in  the  land,  and  even  the  sovereign  himself, 
if  named  therein.  And  in  England  it  cannot  be 
altered,  amended,  dispensed  with,  suspended,  or 
repealed,  but  in  the  same  forms  and  by  the  same 
authority  of  parliament.  In  Scotland,  however,  a 
long  course  of  contrai-y  usage  or  of  disuse  may  have 
the  effect  of  depriving  a  statute  of  its  obligation,  for, 
by  the  Scotch  law,  a  statute  may  become  obsolete 
by  disuse,  and  cease  to  be  legally  binding.  It  was 
formerly  held  in  England  that  the  king  might  in 
many  cases  dispense  with  penal  statutes;  but  by  the 
statute  1  W.  and  M.  st.  2,  c.  2,  it  is  declared  that  the 
suspending  or  dispensing  with  laws  by  royal  autho- 
rity, without  consent  of  parliament,  is  illegal. 

An  A.  of  ]'.  or  statute  is  either  public  or  private. 
A  public  act  regards  the  whole  community,  but  the 
operation  of  a  private  act  is  confined  to  particular 
persons  and  private  concerns,  atid  some  private  acts 
are  local,  as  affecting  certain  places  only.  As  the 
law  till  lately  stood,  the  courts  of  law  were  bound 
ex  officio  to  take  judicial  notice,  as  it  is  called,  of 
public  acts,  that  is,  to  recognise  these  acts  as  known 
and  published  by  law,  w-ithout  the  necessity  of  their 
being  specially  pleaded  and  proved ;  but  it  was 
otherwise  in  regard  to  private  acts ;  so  that  in  order 
to  claim  any  advantage  under  a  private  act,  it  was 
necessary  to  plead  it,  and  set  it  forth  particularly. 
But  now,  Ijy  the  13  and  14  Vict.  c.  21,  s.  7,  every  act 
made  after  the  then  next  session  of  parliament  i.s 
to  be  taken  to  be  a  public  one,  and  judicially  noticed 
as  such,  unless  the  contrary  be  expressly  declared. 

Acts  of  P.  are  also  sometimes  described  as  declara- 
tor'/, or  penal,  or  remedial,  according  to  the  nature  of 
their  object  or  provisions.  Declaratory  statutes  are 
where  the  old  custom  of  the  kingdom  has  almost 
fallen  into  disuse,  or  become  disputable,  in  which 
case  the  parliament  has  thought  proixir  (in perpetuutn 
rfii  testimonium,  and  for  avoiding  all  doubts  and 
difficulties)  to  declare  what  the  common  law  is  and 
ever  has  been.  Penal  acts  are  those  which  merely 
impose  penalties  or  punishments  for  an  offence,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  statutes  relative  to  game.  Remedial 
acts  are  such  as  supply  some  defect  in  the  existing 
law,  and  redress  some  abuse  or  inconvenience  w  iih 
which  it  is  found  to  be  attended,  without  introducing 
any  provision  of  a  penal  character.  There  is  also  a 
distinction  of  Acts  of  P.  as  being  either  eularying 
or  restrainin(j,  enahlinrj  or  dlfiabling  acts. 

An  A.  of  P.  begins  to  operate  from  the  time  -when 
it  receives  the  royal  assent,  unless  some  other  time 
be  fixed  for  the  purpose  by  the  act  itself.  The  rule 
on  this  subject,  in  England,  was  formerly  different ; 
for  at  common  law,  every  A.  of  P.,  whicli  had  no 
provision  to  the  contrary,  was  considered,  us  soon  as 
it  passed  (i.  e.,  received  the  royal  assent),  as  having 
been  in  force,  retrospectively,  from  the  first  day  of 
the  session  of  parliament  in  which  it  passed,  though, 
in  fact,  it  might  not  have  received  the  royal  assent, 


ACTS  OF  SEDERUNT— ACT  OF  TOLERATION. 


or  even  been  introduced  into  parliament,  until  long 
after  that  day  ;  and  this  strange  principle  was  rigidly 
observed  for  centuries.  The  ancient  acts  of  the 
Scotch  parliament  were  proclaimed  in  all  the  county 
towns,  burghs,  and  even  in  the  b.iroa  courts.  This 
mode  of  promulgation  was,  however,  gradually 
dropped  as  the  u.-e  of  printing  became  common  ; 
and  in  1.581,  an  act  was  passed  dtclaring  publication 
at  the  Market  Cross  of  Edinburgh  to  be  sufheient. 
British  statutes  require  no  lornial  promulgation ; 
and  in  order  to  fix  the  time  from  which  they  shall 
become  binding,  it  was  enacted  by  the  33  Geo.  III. 
c.  13,  that  every  A.  of  P.  to  be  passed  after  8th 
April  1793  shall  commence  from  the  date  of  the 
endorsenient  by  the  clerk  of  parliament,  stating  the 
day,  month,  and  year  when  the  act  was  i)assed  and 
received  the  royal  assent,  unless  the  commencement 
shall,  in  the  act  itself,  be  otherwise  provided  for. 

An  A.  of  P.  consists  of  various  parts — such  as  the 
title,  the  preamble,  the  enacting  sections  and  clauses, 
and  sometimes  certain  forms  or  schedules  added  by 
way  of  appendix — and  ii;  is  referred  to  by  the  year 
of  the  sovereign's  reign,  and  the  chapter  of  the 
statutes  for  that  year.  The  old  acts  of  the  Scotch 
parliament,  before  the  union  with  England,  are 
cited  by  the  year  in  which  they  were  passed,  and 
the  order  of  the  number  or  chapter.  See  Statutes, 
Scotch  Statutes,  and  Bill  in  Parliament. 

ACTS  OF  SEDE'RUNT  are  ordinances  of  the 
Court  of  Session  or  supreme  civil  court  in  Scotland, 
made  originally  under  authority  of  the  Scotch  Act 
1540,  c.  93,  whereby  the  judges  are  empowered  to 
make  such  rules  or  ordinances  as  may  be  necessary 
for  the  regulation  of  legal  procedure  and  the  expedit- 
ing of  justice.  The  power  thus  conferred  was 
exceeded,  and  it  became  necessary  to  ratify  several 
of  the  A.  of  S.  in  the  Scotch  Parliament.  In  so  far, 
l)Owever,  as  A.  of  S.  are  confined  to  declarations  of 
the  purposes  of  the  court  to  decide  in  a  particular 
way,  on  an  occurrence  of  similar  circumstances,  they 
seem  to  amount  to  little  more  than  authoritative 
announcements  of  the  intention  of  the  court  to  adhere 
judicially  to  certain  precedents;  and  for  upwards  of 
a  century  and  a  half,  they  have  been  almost  exclusive- 
ly confined  to  the  regulation  of  judicial  procedure, 
and  to  matters  therewith  connected.  In  several 
recent  statutes,  express  power  is  given  to  the  Court 
of  Session  to  pass  A.  of  S.,  for  carrying  the  purpose 
of  the  legislature  into  more  complete  effect;  and  it 
is  usually  provided  that  the  A.  of  S.  made  in 
virtue  of  such  power  shall  be  laid  before  parliament 
within  a  limited  time.  The  old  quorum  of  nine 
judges  is  requisite  in  passing  an  Act  of  S.,  4S  Geo. 
111.  c.  lul,  s.  11. 

ACT  OF  SETTLEMENT,  a  name  given  to  the 
statute  12  and  13  Will.  IIL  c.  2,  by  which  the 
crown  was  limited  to  the  family  of  her  present 
Majesty,  Queen  Victoria.  It  was  towards  the  end 
of  King  William  III.'s  reign,  when  all  hopes  of  other 
issue  died  with  the  iJul.e  of  Gloucester,  that,  as 
we  arc  told  by  Blackstone,  the  king  and  parlia- 
ment thought  it  necessary  again  to  exert  their 
power  of  hniiting  and  appointing  the  succession, 
in  order  to  prevent  another  vacancy  of  the  throne, 
which  mus't  have  ensued  upon  their  deaths,  as  no 
further  provision  was  made  at  the  Revolution  than 
for  the  issue  of  Queen  Mary,  Queen  Anne,  and  King 
William.  The  parliamenl,  had  previously,  by  the 
statute  of  1  W.  and  M.  st.  2,  c.  2,  enacted,  that  every 
person  who  should  be  reconciled  to,  or  hold  com- 
munion with,  the  see  of  Rome,  should  profess  the 
Roman  Catholic  religion,  or  should  marry  a  Roman 
Catholic,  should  be  excluded  from  succession  to,  and 
he  forever  incapable  to  inherit,  possess,  or  enjoy, 
the  crown;  and  that  in  such  case  the  people  should 


I  be  absolved  from  their  allegiance,  and  the  crown 
I  should  descend  to  such  persons,  being  Protestants, 
j  as  would  have  inherited  the  same,  as  if  the  person 
I  so  lecoiiciled,  holding  communion,  professing  or 
'  mairying,  were  naturally  dead.  To  act,  therefore, 
consistently  with  themselves,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
pay  as  much  regard  to  the  old  hereditary  line  as  their 
ibrmer  resolutions  would  admit,  they  turned  their 
eyes  on  the  Princess  Sophia,  Electress  and  Duchess- 
dowager  of  Hanover;  for  upon  the  impending  extinc- 
tion of  the  Protestant  posterity  of  Charles  I.,  the  old 
law  of  regal  descent  directed  them  to  recur  to  the 
descendants  of  James  I. ;  and  the  Princess  Sophia, 
being  the  youngest  daughter  of  Elizabeth,  Queen  of 
Bohemia,  who  was  the  daughter  of  James  I.,  was 
the  nearest  of  the  ancient  blood-royal  who  was 
not  incapacitated  by  professing  the  Roman  Catholic 
religion.  On  her,  therefore,  and  the  heirs  of  her 
body,  being  Protestants,  the  remainder  of  the 
crown  expectant  on  the  death  of  King  William  and 
Queen  Anne  without  issue,  was  settled  by  statute 
12  and  13  Will.  III.  c.  2.  And  at  the  same  time 
it  was  enacted,  that  whosoever  should  thereafter 
come  to  the  possession  of  the  crown,  should  join  in 
the  communion  of  the  Church  of  England  as  by  law 
established. 

This  is  the  last  limitation  of  the  crown  that  has 
been  made  by  parliament ;  and  the  several  actual 
limitations,  from  the  time  of  Henry  IT.  to  the 
jiresent,  clearly  prove  the  power  of  the  king  and 
parliament  to  remodel  or  alter  the  succession.  It  is 
even  made  highly  penal  to  dispute  such  power,  for 
by  the  statute  6  Anne,  c.  7,  it  is  enacted,  that  if 
any  person  maliciously,  advisedly,  and  directly,  shall 
maintain,  by  writing  or  printing,  that  the  kings  of 
this  realm,  with  the  authority  of  parliament,  are 
not  able  to  make  laws  to  bind  the  crown  and  the 
descent  thereof,  he  shall  be  guilty  of  high  treason  ; 
or  if  he  maintains  the  same  by  oidy  preaching  or 
advised  speaking,  he  shall  incur  the  penalties  of 
prcem7i7ii.re. 

The  Princess  Sopliia  dying  before  Queen  Anne, 
the  inheritance,  thus  limited,  descended  on  her 
son  and  heir.  King  George  I.;  and  having,  on  the 
death  of  the  queen,  taken  effect  in  his  person,  from 
him  it  descended  to  King  George  II.;  from  him  to 
his  grandson  and  heir,  King  George  III. ;  from  him 
to  his  son,  George  IV.,  who  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother,  William  IV. ;  and  from  the  monarch  last 
mentioned  tlie  crown  descended  to  his  heiress,  the 
daughter  of  his  biother  Edward,  Duke  of  Kent,  our 
present  gracious  sovereign.  Queen  Victoria. 

'  Ilcnce,'  Blackstone  remarks,  '  it  is  easy  to  collect 
that  the  title  to  the  crown  is  at  present  hereditarv, 
though  not  quite  so  absolutely  hereditary  as  for- 
meily;  and  the  common  stock  or  ancestor  from 
whom  the  descent  must  be  derived,  is  also  different. 
Formerly,  the  common  stock  was  King  Egbert, 
afterwards  Y\'illiam  tlie  Conqueror,  and  now  it  is 
Princess  Sophia,  in  whom  the  inheritance  was  vest-'d 
by  the  new  king  and  parliament.  Formerly  the 
descent  was  absolute,  and  the  crown  went  to  the 
next  heir  without  any  restriction;  but  now,  upon 
the  new  settlement,  the  inheritance  is  conditional ; 
iK-ing  limited  to  such  lieirs  otdy  of  the  body  of  the 
Princess  Sophia  as  are  Protestants,  members  of  the 
Church  of  England,  and  are  married  to  none  but 
Protestants.' 

ACT  OF  TOLERATION  is  the  name  commonly 
given  to  the  act  of  parliament  1  Wihiam  and  Mary, 
statute  1,  c.  18,  confirmed  by  10  Anne,  c.  2,  by 
which  all  persons  dissenting  fiom  the  Chureh  of 
England  (except  Roman  Catholics  and  persons  deny- 
ing the  Trinity)  v  ere  relieved  from  such  of  the  acts 
against  nonconformists  as  prevented  their  assem- 
bling for  religious  worship  according  to  their  own 

35 


ACT  OF  UXIFORMITY— ACTIXIA. 


forms,  or  otlierwise  restrained  their  religious  liberty, 
on  condition  of  their  takinjr  the  oaths  of  allegiance 
and  supreniaiJY,  and  subscribing  a  declaration  against 
transubstantiation ;  and  in  the  case  of  dissenting 
ministers,  subscribing  also  to  certain  of  the  Thirty- 
nine  Articles.  The  clause  of  this  act  which  excepted 
persons  denying  the  Trinity  from  the  benefits  of  its 
enactments,  was  repealed  by  53  Geo.  III.  c.  16<t. 

The  Protestant  dissenters,  however,  still  remained, 
notwithstanding  tliese  provisions,  subject  to  the 
obligation  imposed  by  the  Test  and  Corporation 
Acts  (q.  V.)  on  all  those  who  were  admitted  to 
any  office,  of  taking  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's 
Supper  according  to  the  rites  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land; but  this  disability  was  at  length  removed  by 
the  9  Geo.  IV.  c.  17.  And  to  this  list  of  conces- 
sions we  are  now  to  add  the  act  of  1.5  and  \6  Vict, 
c.  36,  allowing  the  dissenters  to  certify  their  places 
of  worship  to,  and  register  them  with,  the  Registrar- 
general  of  Births,  Deaths,  and  Mariiagcs,  instead  of 
the  Archbishop,  Bishop,  or  Court  of  Quarter-sessions. 

These  various  acts  of  T.  operated,  however,  to 
the  exclusive  benefit  of  Protcxtnnt  di.ssenters,  and 
afibrdcd  no  relief  to  Roman  Catholics.  With  respect 
to  the  latter,  the  progress  of  emancipation  was 
slower  and  more  reluctant.  By  statutes,  however, 
of  18  Geo.  III.  c.  60,  31  Geo.  III.  e.  32,  and  43  Geo. 
III.  c.  30,  most  of  the  severer  penalties  and  disabili- 
ties to  which  they  were  formerly  subject,  were 
removed;  and  by  10  Geo.  IV.  c.  7,  commonly  called 
the  Catholic  Emancipation  Act,  Roman  Catholics 
were  restored  in  general  to  the  full  enjoyments  of  all 
civil  rights,  being  only  excluded  from  holding  cccle>i- 
astical  offices,  and  certain  high  ajjpointmeiits  in  the 
state.  By  another  act  of  the  2  and  3  Will.  IV.  c. 
115,  it  was  provided  that  Roman  Catholics  should  be 
subject  in  this  particular  to  the  same  laws  as  were 
applicable  to  Protestant  dissenters ;  the  effect  of 
which  provision  is  to  empower  them  to  acr|uire  and 
hold  property  for  such  purposes.  Aim!  now,  by  the 
acts  of  7  and  8  Vict.  c.  102,  9  and  10  Vict.  c.  59,  and 
21  and  22  Vict.  c.  48,  Roman  Catholics  and  Jews 
are  relieved  from  all  enactments  calculated  to 
oppress  them,  and  are  thus  practically  admitted  to 
all  the  privileges  of  the  constitution. 

In  Scotland,  toleration  in  religious  matters  is 
secured  by  various  old  Scotch  statutes  passed  before 
the  Union  with  England,  particularly  by  the  act 
1690,  c.  27;  and  this  was  followed  up  after  the 
Union  by  the  British  statute  10  Anne,  c.  7,  s.  5,  which 
declares  that  '  it  shall  be  free  and  lawful  for  all  the 
subjects  in  that  part  of  Great  Britain  called  Scotland 
to  assemble  and  meet  together  for  divine  service 
without  any  disturbance ;  and  to  settle  their  con- 
gregations in  what  forms  or  jjlaces  they  shall  think 
tit  to  choose,  except  parish  churches;'  an  enactment 
which  amounts  to  a  legal  recognition  of  dissenters, 
if,  indeed,  it  may  not  be  called  their  charter  in 
Scotland. 

ACT  OF  UNIFORMITY  is  the  name  l)y  which 
the  statute  13  and  14  Car.  c.  4,  is  usually  described. 
By  that  statute  it  was  enacted,  that  the  Book  of 
Common  Prayc,  as  then  recently  revised,  should  be 
used  in  every  paiish  church  and  other  place  of  public 
worship  in  Englaml,  and  that  every  schoolmaster  and 
person  instructing  youth  should  subscribe  a  declara- 
tion of  conformity  to  the  Liturgy,  and  also  to  the 
ett'ect  of  the  oath  and  declaration  mentioned  in  the 
act  of  13  Car.  IL  St.  2,  c.  1.  It  further  enacted  that 
no  person  should  thenceforth  be  capable  of  holding 
any  eccles'astical  pronioiion  or  dignity,  or  of  conse- 
crating or  administering  the  sacrament,  till  he  should 
be  ordained  priest  according  to  episcopal  ordination, 
and  with  respect  to  all  ministers  who  then  enjoyed 
any  ecclesiastical  benefice,  it  directed  that  tiiey 
should,  within  a  certain  period,  openly  read  morning 
36 


and  evening  service,  according  to  the  Book  of 
Common  Prayer,  and  declare  before  the  congregation 
their  unfeigned  assent  and  consent  to  the  use  of  all 
things  therein  contained,  upon  pain  of  being  ipso 
facto  deprived  of  their  spiritual  promotions.  By  this 
statute,  two  thousand  of  the  clei-gy,  who  refused  to 
comply  with  its  provisions,  were  deprived  of  their 
preferments.  The  statute  also  contained  a  regula- 
tion that  no  schoolmaster  in  a  private  house  should 
instruct  youth  without  having  obtained  a  licence 
from  the  Ordinary  ;  but  this  regulation  was  repealed 
by  9  and  lo  Vict.  c.  59. 

ACTS,  Test  and  Corporation.  See  Test  a.vd 
Corporation  Acts. 

ACTA  SANCTORUM  or  MA'RTYRUM  (Acts 
of  Saints  and  Martyrs),  the  collective  title  given  to 
several  old  writings,  respecting  saints  and  martyrs, 
in  the  Greek  and  Ronuin  Citholic  churches,  but 
now  applied  especially  to  one  extensive  collection 
begun  by  the  Jesuits  in  the  17th  c,  and  intended 
to  serve  as  a  better  arrangement  of  the  niaterials 
found  in  ancient  works.  This  great  undertaking, 
which  was  commenced  by  the  Jesuit,  Ileribcrt 
Rosweyd  of  Antweip,  has  considerable  importance, 
not  only  in  a  religious  and  ecclesiastical  point  of 
view,  but  also  with  regard  to  liistory  and  archa;- 
ology.  After  Rosweyd's  death,  in  1620,  J.  Bolland 
was  commissioned  by  the  order  of  Jesuits  to  continue 
the  work ;  and  with  the  assistance  of  G.  Ilenschen, 
he  prepared  two  volumes,  which  appeared  in  1643. 
After  the  death  of  this  editor  (106.5),  the  work  wag 
carried  on  by  a  society  of  learned  Jesuits,  who  were 
styled  'Bollandists,'  until  1794,  when  its  further 
progress  was  prevented  through  the  invasion  of 
IloUand  by  the  French.  In  recent  times,  the 
undertaking  has  been  resumed;  and  in  1846  the 
fifty-fourth  volume  was  publislu'd  at  Brussels.  Three 
or  four  additioiuil  A'olunK'S  have  appeared  since. 
The  lives  are  airanged  in  the  order  of  the  calendar. 
The  first  two  volumes,  published  in  16!.^,  contained 
the  lives  of  the  saints  for  January.  The  volumes 
last  published  are  for  October.  For  notices  of  otlicr 
collections  of  the  same  kind,  see  the  articles  Saint 
and  Martyr. 

ACT^E'A,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
RanHnculace(e  (q.  v.),  the  type  of  the  sub-order 
Actaece,  distinguished  by  the  coloured  iinbricatid 
calyx  and  indehiscent  succulent  fruit.  The  genus 
Aclaea  has  four  deciduous  sepals,  four  petals,  and  a 
single  baccate  carpel. — A.  npicata,  the  Baneberry  or 
Herb  Christopher,  is  a  native  of  the  north  of  Europe, 
found  in  bushy  places  in  some  i)arts  of  England.  It 
is  a  perennial  herbaceous  plant,  about  1 — 2  feet 
high,  with  triternate  leaves,  and  the  leaflets  deeply 
cut  and  serrated,  the  flowers  in  racemes,  the  berries 
b'.ack  and  poisonous.  The  root  is  anti-spasmodic, 
expectorant,  and  astringent,  and  is  sometimes  useful 
in  catarrh.  Cimicifugn  racemosa  (^Actcea  racemona 
of  Linnaius)  is  a  native  of  the  United  States,  whose 
roots  are  said  to  possess  similar  qualities,  and 
are  also  reputed  as  a  remedy  for  the  bite  of  the 
rattlesnake. 

ACT^E'OX,  a  mythical  personage,  a  grandson  of 
Cadmus.  He  was  trained  as  a  hunter  by  Chiron. 
Having  once  surprised  Diana  while  bathing  in  a 
fountain,  he  was  changed  by  the  offended  goddess 
into  a  stag,  and  his  own  dogs,  not  knowing  him, 
tore  him  in  pieces.  According  to  Euripides,  Diana 
was  jealous  because  Actaeon  had  boasted  that  he  ex- 
celled her  in  hunting. 

ACTINIA,  a  genus  of  marine  animals  closely 
allied  to  the  Ilydraform  Polypi,  but  of  much  greater 
size,  and  always  living  separately,  very  generally 
affixed  by  the  base  to  rocks  or  shells.  The  old 
genus  Actinia  has  been  subdivided  into  a  number 


ACTION— ACTON. 


of  genera,  and  is  now  the  typo  of  a  family,  ActiniadcB. 
They  consist  of  a  fleshy  sac  with  one  oiitice,  around 
which  are  numerovis  tontacnia,  and  when  these  are 
expanded,  much  resemble  tiowers,  and  have  there- 
fore been  called  Animal  F/owers  and  Sea  Anemones. 
They  are    found   on    all   shores;    those   of   Britain 


Actinia  seen  'irom  ibc 


Section  of  Actinia: 

a.  cavity  of  stomncli ;  h,  svir- 
rounding  chambers. 


possess  a  number  of  very  beautiful  species,  but  they 
are  most  abundant,  and  attain  their  greatest  size 
and  beauty  in  tropical  seas.  They  are  capable  of 
moving  by  alternate  contractions  and  expansions  of 
the  fleshy  base,  and  can  also  niaUe  use  of  their 
tentacula  for  locomotion.  The  tentacula  appear  to 
act  as  suckers  in  capturing  prey,  which  they  promptly 
convey  to  the  mouth,  and  which  consists  of  small 
fishes,"  moUnsks,  Crustacea,  &c.  They  produce  living 
young,  the  germs  of  which  are  formed  in  ovarian 
chambers,  divided  by  radiating  vertical  partitions  in 
the  fleshy  substance  around  the  stomach  cavity,  and 
which  pass  into  the  stomach  cavity,  and  are  ejected 
from  the  mouth ;  but  simple  gemmulos,  furnished 
with  cilia,  are  also  discharged  through  the  tenta- 
cula. The  Actiniadffi  possess  a  remarkable  power  of 
reproducing  parts  which  have  been  cut  away,  and 
may  be  multiphed  by  division.  They  are  very  sensi- 
tive to  light.  In  many  parts  of  the  world  they  are 
eaten,  and  are  esteemed  a  delicacy.  A  small  A.  was 
kept  by  Sir  John  (i.  DalycU  for  twenty-six  years, 
and  continued  for  some  years  after  his  death  in  the 
possession  of  Professor  Fleming. 

ACTION,  in  its  large  and  general  sense,  means  a 
judicial  proceeding  before  a  competent  tribunal  for 
the  attainment  of  justice;  and  in  this  sense  it  is 
applied  to  procedure,  whether  cnininal  or  civil.  In 
its  more  limited  acceptation,  it  is  used  to  signify 
proceedings  in  the  cii<il  courts,  where  it  means  the 
form  prescribed  by  law  for  the  recovery  of  a  right, 
or  what  is  one's  due.  And  it  is  in  this  sense  that  it 
is  regarded  by  the  Roman  law,  which  defines  an 
action  a.^  jus pcrsei^iiendi  in  jndicio  quod  sibi  dcbetur. 
In  the  law  of  England,  the  term  A.  is  usually 
applied  to  proceedings  in  the  courts  of  common  law, 
as  distinguished  from  those  of  equifif,  where  the 
word  .mit  is  commonly  used  to  denote  litigation. 
Thus,  in  the  courts  of  Queen's  Bench,  Common  Pleas, 
and  Exchequer,  we  speak  of  an  A.-at-law  ;  whereas 
in  the  coui-ts  of  Chancery,  the  forensic  controversy 
is  described  as  a  suit  in  equity. 

In  the  Scotch  law,  which  recognises  no  distinction 
in  legal  administration  between  law  and  equity,  the 
word  A.  is  defined  comprehensively  as  a  demand 
regularly  made  and  insisted  on  before  the  judge 
competent  for  the  recovery  of  a  right.  Accord- 
ingly, while  in  Scotland  there  is,  as  in  England, 
a  remedy  for  every  wrong,  the  law  recognises 
and  gives  effect  to  the  right  of  a  party  to  claim 
and  to  have  declared  a  particular  interest  or  right, 
even  although  that  interest  or  right  may  not  be 
withheld,  or  calleil  in  question.  It  is  sufficient  that 
it  is  doubtful,  and  that  the  ascertainment  of  it  is 
necessary  for  the  jjositiou  and  purposes  of  the 
j;laintitf,   or  pursuer,   as   the  Scotch   law   calls   the 


active  party.  This  procedure  is  known  by  the  name 
of  an  A.  of  declarator,  which  has  been  described  as  a 
suit  in  which  something  is  prayed  to  be  decreed  in 
favour  of  the  plaintifl',  but  nothing  sought  to  be 
])aid,  i)erformed,  or  done  by  the  defendant.  Lord 
Stair,  in  his  Institutes  of  the  Law  of  Scotland,  says 
'such  actions  may  be  pursued  for  instructing  or 
clearing  any  kind  of  right  relating  to  liberty, 
dominion,  or  obligation;'  and  he  further  observes, 
'there  is  no  rigiit  but  is  capable  of  declarator.' 
Various  attempts  have  been  made  to  introduce  this 
mode  of  proceeding  into  the  practice  of  the  law  in 
Englaiid,  but  as  yet  without  success.  The  idea  of 
the  declarator  has  been  said  to  have  been  derived  by 
the  Scotch  lawyers  from  the  French  legal  system, 
according  to  whose  forms  the  existing  administration 
of  the  Scotch  law  was  originally  moulded.  In  the 
institutes  of  Justinian  there  are,  however,  indications 
of  the  partial  use  of  this  form  of  A.  by  the  Roman 
lawyers. 

We  may  add  that  the  word  A.  is  derived  from 
the  Latin  actio  {agere),  and  that  the  plaintiff  in  a 
suit  or  action  was  originally  said  to  be  the  actor, 
which,  indeed,  in  the  recorded  pleadings  of  the 
Scotch  courts,  his  counsel  or  advocate  still  is  called. 

A'CTIUM  (now  Azio),  a  town  and  promontory  on 
the  west  coast  of  Greece,  at  the  entrance  of  the 
Ambraciot  Bay,  now  the  Gulf  of  Arta,  is  memorable 
for  the  sea-fight  which  took  place  near  it,  2d  Sep- 
tember, 31  B.  c,  between  Octavianus  (afterwards 
the  Emperor  Augustus)  and  Marcus  Antonius.  These 
two  had  for  some  time  ruled  the  Roman  world 
between  them — the  former  in  the  west,  the  latter  in 
the  east ;  it  now  came  to  a  struggle  for  the  sole 
sovereignty.  The  two  armies  were  encamped  on 
the  opposite  shores  of  the  gulf:  Octavian  had  80,000 
infantry,  12,000  cavalry,  and  2G0  ships  of  war; 
Antony,  100,000  infantry,  12,000  cavalry,  and  220 
ships.  Antony's  ships  were  large,  and  well  provided 
with  engines  for  throwing  missiles,  but  clumsy  in 
their  movements ;  Octavian's  were  smnller  and 
more  agile.  Antony  was  supported  by  Cleopatra, 
Queen  of  Egypt,  with  sixty  vessels,  who  induced 
him,  against  the  opinion  of  his  most  experienced 
generals,  to  determine  upon  a  naval  engagement. 
The  battle  continued  for  some  hours  undecided ;  at 
last,  Agrippa,  who  commanded  Octavian's  fleet,  suc- 
ceeded, by  a  skilful  manoeuvre,  in  compelling  Antony 
to  extend  his  lino  of  battle,  whose  compactness  had 
hitherto  resisted  all  attempts  of  the  enemy  to  break 
through.  Cleopatra,  wdiose  ships  were  stationed 
behind  Antony's  line,  apprehensive  of  that  line 
being  broken,  took  to  flight  with  her  auxiliary  fleet, 
and  Antony  recklessly  followed  her  with  a  few  of 
his  ships.  The  deserted  fleet  continued  to  resist 
bravely  for  some  time,  but  was  finally  vanquished ; 
the  laiid-army,  after  waiting  in  vain  seven  days  for 
Antony's  return,  surrendered  to  Octavian.  As  a 
memorial  of  the  victory  that  had  given  him  the 
empire  of  the  world,  and  out  of  gratitude  to  the 
gods,  Octavian  enlarged  the  temple  of  Apollo  at 
A.,  dedicated  the  trophies  he  had  taken,  and  insti- 
tuted games  to  be  celebrated  every  five  years,  lie 
also  built,  on  the  spot  where  his  army  had  been 
encamped,  the  splendid  city  of  Nicopolis  (city  of 
victory),  where  Prevesa  now  stands. 

ACTON,  Joseph,  Prince,  prime-minister  of 
Ferdinand  IV.  of  Naples,  was  the  son  of  an  Irish 
physician,  and  was  born  at  Besaneon  in  1737.  After 
acquiring  distinction  in  the  naval  service  of  France 
and  Tuscany,  he  gained  a  po-ition  in  the  Neapolitan 
government,  and  became  the  favourite  of  Queen 
Caroline.  His  measures,  prompted  by  his  extreme 
hatred  of  France,  were  cruel  and  intolerant,  and 
ultimately  caused  a  reaction  against  the  royal  familj 

37 


ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES— ADAM  AND  EVE. 


of  Naples,  and  in  favour  of  tlie  French  party  and  the 
Carbonari.  When  left  unaided  by  English  influence, 
A.  lost  the  power  he  had  so  often  abused,  and  died 
in  1808,  deservedly  contemned  by  all  parties. 

ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES,  the  fifth  book  of 
the  New  Testament,  the  authorship  of  which  is 
ascribed  by  tradition,  and  with  the  iiishest  i)roba- 
bihty,  to  the  Evangehst  Luke.  Beginning  with  the 
ascension  of  Christ,  it  gives  an  account  of  the  st)read 
i-f  the  Christian  Church;  confined,  however,  chiefly 
to  the  part  taken  therein  by  the  Apostle  Paul. 
Notwithstanding  its  title,  little  is  said  of  the  other 
apostles,  with  the  exception  of  Peter.  The  narrative 
closes  with  the  year  62  a.  d.,  Paul  being  then  a 
prisoner  at  Rome.  The  book  has  always  been 
received  as  canonical,  except  by  a  few  Manicluean 
heretics.  Li  the  early  centuries,  numerous  sjjurious 
Acts  of  the  Apostles  were  put  in  circulation  by 
various  sects. 

A'CTUARY.  The  Arfnarii,  in  ancient  Kome, 
were  clerks  who  recorded  the  Acta  of  the  senate 
and  other  public  bodies.  The  term  might  therefore, 
so  far  as  its  etymology  is  concerned,  be  applied  to 
men  of  business  in  general.  But  in  the  constantly 
increasing  tendency  to  subdivide  labour  and  spe- 
ciaHze  functions,  there  has  arisen,  in  recent  times,  a 
distinct  branch  of  business,  embracing  all  monetary 
questions  that  involve  a  consideration  of  the  separate 
or  combined  effect  of  Interest  and  Probability, 
especially  as  connected  with  the  duration  of  human 
life ;  and  it  is  to  one  who  devotes  himself  to  this 
department  of  business  that  the  name  of  A.  has  been 
Fpecially  assigned.  The  investigations  and  calcula- 
tions of  the  A.  supply  the  principles  of  operation  for 
the  numerous  institutions  now  engaged  in  the  trans- 
action of  Life-assurance,  Annuity,  and  Reversionary 
business.  His  functions  might  be  briefly  defined  as 
the  application  of  the  doctrine  of  probabilities  to  the 
affairs  of  life.  There  are  two  Societies  of  Actuaries 
in  this  country  :  'The  Listitute  of  Actuaries  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,'  established  in  London  in  18-18; 
and  the  'Faculty  of  Actuaries  in  Scotland,'  estab- 
lished in  Edinburgh  in  185(5. 

ACU'LEUS,  in  Botany.     See  Prickle. 

ACUPU'NCTURE,  (Lat.,  puncturing  or  pricking 
•with  a  needle  [af/w]),  is  a  very  ancient  remedy, 
and  one  practised  extensively  in  the  East,  for 
the  cure  of  headaches,  lethargies,  &c.  In  Europe 
it  is  principally  employed  to  relieve  neuralgic 
pains,  and  those  of  chronic  rheumatism.  Steel 
needles  are  made  use  of,  about  three  inches  long, 
and  set  in  handles.  The  surgeon,  by  a  rotary 
movement,  passes  one  or  more  to  the  desired  depth 
in  the  tissues,  and  leaves  them  there  from  a  lew- 
minutes  to  an  hour.  Their  insertion  is  accompanied 
by  no  pain,  except  the  first  prick — a  fact  the 
quacks  of  the  l(5th  c.  did  not  f^iil  to  take  advan- 
'tage  of.  According  to  Jerome  Cardan,  thev  travelled 
from  place  to  place  practising  A.,  and  befoie  insert- 
ing the  needle,  they  rubbed  it  with  a  peculiar  kind 
of  magnet,  either  believing,  or  pretending,  that  this 
made  the  operation  painless.  The  relief  to  pain 
aiforded  by  this  simple  operation  is  sometimes 
astonishin.g,  and  the  wounds  are  so  minute  as  to  be 
perfectly  harmless. — The  needles  are  sometimes  used 
as  conductors  of  the  galvanic  current  to  deep-seated 
parts,  and  are  sometimes  made  hollow — on  the 
suggestion  of  Dr.  Alexander  Wood  of  Edinburgh — 
to  allow  of  a  small  quantity  of  some  sedative  so.ution 
being  injected  into  the  tissues,  by  which  even  the 
terrible  pain  of  Tic  Douloureux  may  be  almost 
immediately  relieved. 

ADA'GIO,  a  slow  movement  or  measure  of  time 
in  Music,  between  largo,  r/rave,  and  andante.  In 
our  more  extended  compositions  of  instrumental  or 
38 


chamber  music,  the  second  or  third  movement  \3 
generally  marked  adagio,  and  serves  as  a  contrast 
with  the  rapid  and  energetic  movement  of  tha 
preceding  and  following  parts  of  the  sonata  or 
symphony.  The  A.  must  be  written  in  a  measure 
of  time  which  will  aflbrd  scope  for  a  flowing  and 
expressive  slow  melody  with  a  gracefully  varied 
accomi)animent.  Without  contrasted  movement 
and  a  lively  variety  in  the  accompaniment,  the  slow 
air  would  have  a  monotonous  or  dull  effect.  A  clear 
and  expressive  execution  of  the  A.  is  a  sure  test 
of  abihty  and  good  taste  in  the  player  or  singer,  as 
it  demands  a  pure  and  beautiful  intonation,  a  true 
reading  and  phrasing  of  the  cantilena,  even  in  its 
most  minute  details,  and  a  careful  attention  to  all 
points  of  effect.  The  finest  specimens  of  the  A. 
are  found  in  the  works  of  the  old  masters,  Haydn, 
Mozart,  and  Beethoven,  and  are  as  distinct  in  their 
features  as  were  the  composers  in  their  personal 
characteristics.  In  recent  works,  our  composers 
have  generally  succeded  better  in  their  rapid  move- 
ments than  in  the  A. 

ADA'L  and  ADE'L.  The  name  Adal  is  applied 
by  geographers  to  the  flat  country  lying  between 
Abvssinia  and  the  Red  Sea,  from  Massowa  in  N.  lat. 
15°  41)',  to  the  Bay  of  Tajurra,  lat.  11°  3o'.  Adel 
would  seem  to  designate  the  coast-country  from 
Tajurra  to  Cape  (iuardafui,  part  of  which  is  known 
as  the  country  of  the  Somauli. 

ADA'LIA,  a  seaport  of  Anatolia,  Asiatic  Turkey, 
on  the  gulf  of  the  same  name,  in  N.  lat.  30°  52' ;  E. 
long.  30°  45'.  The  streets  rise  like  the  seats  of  a 
theatre,  up  the  slope  of  the  hill  behind  the  harbour. 
Pop.  8000. 

ADAM  and  EVE.  The  narrative  of  the  creation 
and  fall  of  A.  and  E.  is  given  in  (Jenesis.  To  the 
Scriptural  account,  the  later  Jewish  writers  in  the 
Tahnud  have  made  many  tasteless  additions.  They 
tell  us  that  the  stature  of  A.,  when  first  created, 
reached  to  the  heavens,  while  the  splendour  of  his 
countenance  surpassed  that  of  the  sun.  The  very 
angels  stood  in  awe  of  him,  and  all  creatures 
hastened  to  worship  him.  Then  the  Lord,  in  order 
to  shew  the  angels  his  jjower,  caused  a  sleep  to  fall 
on  A ,  and  removed  a  portion  of  every  limb.  A. 
thus  lost  his  vast  stature,  but  remained  perfect  and 
complete.  His  first  wife  was  Zilith,  the  mother  of 
demons ;  but  she  fled  from  him,  and  afterwards  E. 
was  created  for  him.  At  the  marriage  of  A.  and  E., 
angels  were  present,  some  playing  on  musical  instru- 
ments, others  serving  up  delicious  viands;  while  the 
sun,  moon,  and  stars  danced  together.  The  happi- 
ness of  the  human  pair  excited  envy  among  the 
angels,  and  the  seraph  Sammael  tempted  them,  and 
succeeded  in  leading  them  to  their  fall  from  inno- 
cence.— According  to  the  Koran,  all  the  angels  paid 
homage  to  A.,  excepting  Eblis,  who,  on  account  of 
his  refusal,  was  expelled  from  paradise.  To  gratify 
his  revenge,  Ebhs  seduced  A.  and  E.,  and  they 
were  separated.  Adam  was  penitent,  and  lived  in 
a  tent  on  the  site  of  the  temple  of  Mecca,  where 
he  was  instructed  in  the  divine  commandments 
by  the  archangel  Gabriel.  After  200  years  of 
separation,  he  again  found  E.  on  Mount  Arafat. 
Many  other  traditions  of  the  Jews  and  the  Moham- 
medans respecting  A.  and  E.  may  be  found  in  Her- 
belot's  Bibliotheque  Orientalc. — In  the  system  of 
the  Christian  Gnostics  and  Manichaans,  A.  is  one 
of  the  highest  .(Eons. — According  to  the  C-.dvinistic 
theology,  A.  was  the  covenant  head  or  federal 
representative  of  the  whole  human  race,  who  were 
thus  involved  in  the  consequences  of  hi.-i  breach 
of  the  Covenant  (q.  v.)  which  God  made  with  liiiu 
at  his  creation.  This  view  is  supported  by  reference 
to  the  parallel  drawn  between  A.  and  Christ  in  Rom> 


ADAM— ADAM'S  PEAK. 


V.  and  1  Cor.  xv.,  in  the  hitter  of  which  chapters 
Clirist  is  called,  in  contradiditinction  to  A.,  '  the  sec- 
ond man,'  and  '  the  last  A.' 

ADAM  (of  Bremen),  an  old  historical  writer, 
whose  work  enti;led  Geftta  Ilammenbiar/enfiix  Eccle- 
sice  Po7itij!cutn,  gives  a  history  of  the  archbishopric 
of  Hamburg  from  788  A.  d.  to  the  death  of  the 
Archbisiiop  Adalbert  in  10*72.  This  work  has  great 
historical  value ;  in  addition  to  its  notices  of  eccle- 
siastical affairs,  it  gives  accounts  of  the  northern 
Slavonic  tribes,  which  the  author  collected  during  a 
visit  to  tlie  Danish  king  Svend-Estrithson.  A.  was 
canon  and  magixter  scholarum  at  Bremen  from  1067 
to  the  time  of  his  death,  which  took  place  in  1076. 

ADAM,  Alexander,  LL.D.,  an  eminent  scholar 
and  teacher,  was  born  in  the  parish  of  llallbrd,  near 
Forres,  in  1741.  His  father  was  a  snuill  farmer, 
with  limited  means  and  a  numerous  family,  so  that 
young  Adam  had  to  struggle  through  much  hardship 
in  the  pursuit  of  the  learning  for  which  he  thirsted. 
While  studying  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  he 
had  to  support  himself  by  giving  private  lessons,  for 
which  he  was  paid  at  the  rate  of  one  guinea  a 
quarter.  He  breakfasted  and  supped  on  porridge 
and  sniall  beer  ;  a  penny  loaf  served  him  for  dinner. 
Such  was  the  stern  initiation — not,  indeed,  a  singuhir 
case  in  Scotland — of  the  brave  young  scholar.  His 
patient  merits,  however,  soon  gained  recognition. 
A.'s  first  public  office  was  that  of  classical  master 
in  Watson's  Hospital,  Edinburgh  ;  and  not  long  after 
(1701),  he  succeeded  to  the  head-mastership  of  the 
institution.  In  1768  he  was  appointed  rector  of  the 
High  School ;  and  this  situation  he  filled  for  nearly 
forty  years  with  distinguished  ability  and  success, 
giving  himself  to  its  duties  with  singular  devotion, 
and  raising  the  reputation  of  the  school  beyond 
what  it  had  ever  been  before.  In  some  of  his 
efforts  to  that  end  he  encountered  such  opposition 
as  now  seems  almost  fabulous.  He  composed  a  new 
Latin  grammar  (1772),  in  which  he  ahned  at  com- 
bining the  study  of  English  and  Latin ;  but  the 
town-council  prohibited  him  from  teaching  it.  In 
1791  he  published  his  Roman  Antiquities,  the  work 
which  did  most  to  promote  his  reputation,  and 
which,  though  now  generally  superseded  by  more 
accurate  and  comprehensive  dictionaries,  was  for 
many  years  the  best  manual  of  the  kind  in  existence. 
His  Summary  of  Geography  and  History  appeared 
in  17 'J4,  his  Classical  Biograjihy  in  1800,  and  his 
Latin  Dictionary — an  abridgment  of  a  larger  work 
unfinished  at  his  death — in  1805.  On  the  18th  of 
December  1809,  Dr.  A.  died  of  a  fit  of  apoplexy,  the 
effect  of  intense  study,  by  which  he  had  been  seized 
in  his  class-room  five  days  before.  '  Amidst  the 
wanderings  of  mind  that  accompanied  it,'  says  the 
writer  of  the  biography  in  the  Encyclopccdia  Britan- 
nica — who  afterwards  filled  his  chair — '  he  was 
constantly  reverting  to  the  business  of  the  class, 
and  addressing  his  boys  ;  and  in  the  last  hour  of  his 
life,  as  he  fancied  himself  examining  on  the  lesson 
of  the  day,  he  stopped  short  and  said:  "But  it 
grows  dark  ;  you  may  go,"  and  almost  immediately 
expired.' 

ADAM,  Robert,  a  distinguished  architect,  was 
born  at  Edinburgh  in  1728.  His  father,  William 
Adam  of  Maryburgh,  in  Fifeshire,  was  also  an 
architect  of  no  mean  repute.  After  receiving  a 
university  education,  Robert  A.  proceeded  in  1754 
to  Italy,  and  thence  to  Dalmatia,  where  he  devoted 
some  time,  in  conjunction  with  Clerisseau,  a  French 
architect,  to  exploring  and  making  drawings  of  the 
ruins  of  Diocletian's  palace  at  Spalatro.  On  his 
return  to  Britain  he  rapidly  rose  to  distinction,  was 
appointed  architect  to  the  king,  and  obtained  exten- 
sive employment.     The  publication,  in  1764,  of  tlie 


results  of  his  labours  at  Spalatro,  contributed  to  his 
reputation.  In  opposition  to  the  heavy  style  of 
architecture  prevalent  at  the  time,  A.  introduced  a 
taste  for  lightness  and  decoration,  which,  however, 
tended  to  the  opposite  extreme  of  weakness  and 
triviahty.  Those,  however,  who  form  the  lowest 
estimate  of  the  general  character  of  his  designs, 
grant  him  the  merit  of  having  effected  great  reforms 
in  British  domestic  arcliitecture  generally.  In  1768 
A.  was  elected  M.P.  for  tlie  county  of  Kinross. 
During  upwards  of  twenty-five  years,  his  practice, 
in  partnership  witli  his  brother  James,  was  more 
extensive  than  that  of  any  other  architect  of  the 
time.  In  1773,  the  brothers  commenced  to  publish 
a  series  of  engravings  of  their  chief  designs,  which 
was  continued  for  some  years.  Robert  died  in  1792, 
and  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey.  The  most 
generally  adnnred  of  his  works  is  the  Register 
House,  Edinburgh.  Reddleston  Hall,  near  Derby,  is 
regarded  by  some  as  his  greatest  work.  Among  his 
other  principal  works  are  the  University  buildings 
and  St.  George's  Church,  Edinburgh  (both  altered 
from  the  original  design),  the  Glasgow  Infirmary, 
the  Adelphi  buildings,  London,  the  screen  to  the  Ad- 
miralty, Caen  Wood  House,  Luton  House  (altered), 
Lansdowne  House,  &c. 

ADAMA'NTINE  SPAR.     See  Corundum. 

A'DAMITES,  a  sect  of  fanatics  who  spread  them- 
selves in  Bohemia  and  Moravia  in  the  15th  and  16th 
centuries,  but  had  no  connection  with  the  Hussites. 
One  Picard  is  said  to  have  been  the  founder  of  the 
sect  about  1400.  He  styled  himself  Adam,  the  son 
of  God,  rejected  the  sacrament  of  the  supper  and 
the  priesthood,  and  advocated  the  community  of 
women.  After  his  death,  his  followers  spread  them- 
selves in  Bohemia  under  several  leaders.  They  even 
fortified  themselves  on  an  island  in  a  tributary  of 
the  Moldau,  and  committed  depredations  around. 
They  were  detested  as  much  by  the  followers  of 
Huss  as  by  the  Catholics.  Ziska  (q.  v.)  made  war 
against  them,  and  slew  great  numbers  ;  but  they 
were  never  entirely  rooted  out.  Even  as  recently  as 
1849,  when  the  Austrian  government  declared  reli- 
gious liberty  for  all  its  subjects,  certain  members  of 
this  sect  appeared  and  endeavoured  to  gain  prose- 
lytes. The  official  investigation  into  their  character 
which  has  recently  taken  place,  represents  their 
creed  as  a  mixture  of  frecthinking,  quietism,  and 
communism.  The  members  belong  to  the  peasant 
or  labouring  class  ;  and  both  men  and  women  are 
generally  industrious,  temperate,  and  discreet  in 
their  ordinary  course  of  life ;  but  at  their  nightly 
meetings,  at  which  they  dispense  with  clothes,  the 
utmost  licentiousness  is  said  to  prevail. — As  early 
as  the  2d  c,  there  was  a  sect  of  Gnostic  tendency, 
called  Adamites,  who  sought,  by  abstaining  from  all 
indulgence  of  the  senses,  to  recall  the  state  of  inno- 
cence men  were  in  before  the  fall.  They  therefore 
rejected  marriage,  and  in  order  to  exercise  the  virtue 
of  continence,  went  naked.  They  held  that  for 
those  who  had  once  attained  the  state  of  innocence, 
all  actions  were  alike  indifferent — neither  good  nor 
evil.  This  doctrine  led  directly  to  the  greatest 
licentiousness.  Aberrations  of  this  kind,  under 
various  disguises  and  modifications,  have  made  their 
appearance  from  time  to  time  in  all  ages  of  the 
world. 

ADAM'S  BRIDGE,  a  chain  of  shoals  extending 
across  the  Gulf  of  Jlanaar,  between  Ceylon  and  the 
peninsula  of  Ilindostan.  It  forms  a  great  obstruc- 
tion to  vessels  proceeding  through  the  channel 

ADAM'S  PEAK  is  the  name  given  by  the  Arabs, 
and  after  them  by  Europeans,  to  the  highest 
summit  of  the  island  of  Ceylon,  rising  7000  feet 
above  the  sea-level.     The  native  name  was  formerly 

39 


ADAMS. 


X 


Suinanokuta,  nioiintaiii  of  tlie  gods  ;  its  present 
name  is  Samanella,  the  rock  of  Saincn  (a  mountain- 
god).  By  the  Buddhists  it  is  tailed  Seipada — i.  e., 
'  footstep  of  fortune  '  (felieity),  fVoin  the  print  of 
Buddh's  foot  still  believed  to  be  visible  upon  it.  The 
footprint  consists  of  a  depression  in  the  roek,  five 
feet  long  and  two  broad,  and  bounded  by  a  ring  of 
brass  with  a  few  gems  of  little  value.  The  moun- 
tain is  aseended  partly  by  steps  cut  artitieially,  and 
partly  by  iron  chains  fastened  in  the  rocks.  An 
Arabic  legen(i  relates  that  Adam  here  bewailed  his 
expulsion  from  paradise,  and  stood  on  one  foot  till 
God  forgave  him. 


ADAMS,  John,  the  second  president  of  the 
United  States  of  North  Americ.i,  was  Vjorn  at  Brain- 
tree,  in  Massachusetts,  on  the  19th  of  October  1735. 
His  parents  were  descended  from  a  Puritan  family 
which  had  emigrated  from  England  to  Massachusetts 
in  1630.  Before  the  revolution,  A.  had  distinguished 
himself  as  a  jurist,  and  wrote  in  the  Boston  Journal 
an  essay  on  Canon  Law  and  Feudal  Law  (17C.5). 
He  was  sent  by  Massachusetts  to  the  congress  which 
commenced  its  sittings  in  Philadeli)hia  in  1774. 
With  Lee  and  Jefferson,  he  boldly  argued  for  a 
separation  from  the  mother-country ;  and  Lee's 
proposition  of  a  declaration  of  independence  was 
carried  on  the  4th  of  July  1770.  A.  and  Jefferson 
had  been  appointed  to  draw  up  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  but  it  appears  that  Jefferson  is  the 
fole  author  of  it.  In  succeeding  years,  A.  was  em- 
ployed on  many  important  negotiations  with  Euro- 
p  an  ]jowers;  among  others,  he  assisted  Franklin, 
Jay,  Jefferson,  and  Laurens,  in  1782,  in  set- 
tling the  conditions  of  peace  with  England.  In 
1786  he  came  to  London  as  the  first  ambassador 
from  the  Union.  George  III.  expressed  his  pleasure 
in  receiving  an  ambassador  who  had  no  prejudices 
in  favour  of  France,  the  natural  enemy  of  the 
English  crown,  and  A.  replied :  '  I  have  no  preju- 
dices but  in  favour  of  my  native  land.'  He  pub- 
lished in  London  his  Defence  of  the  Constitution 
and  Government  of  the  United  States  (3  vols.  1787). 
On  his  return  to  America,  in  the  same  year,  he  was 
elected  as  vice-president  of  the  United  States,  and 
on  the  retirement  of  Washington  (in  1797)  became 
president.  The  enmity  of  the  democratic  party, 
which  had  already  been  excited  against  him,  was 
now  increased  by  the  measures  which  he  judged 
necessary  to  uphold  the  national  honour  against 
the  pretensions  of  France,  and  by  the  Alien  and  Se- 
dition laws  ascribed  to,  but  never  recommended  by 
nim.  In  1801,  when  his  term  of  four  years  of  office 
had  expired,  liis  adversary  Jefferson  was  elected  by  a 
majority  of  one  vote.  A.  now  retired  to  his  estate  of 
Quincy,  near  Boston,  where  he  occupied  himself  with 
agricultural  pursuits.  After  this  retirement,  he  re- 
ceived many  proofs  of  respect  and  confidence  from  his 
countrymen.  When  8.5  years  old,  we  find  him  still  in 
his  place  as  member  of  the  convention  appointed  ( 1 820) 
to  revise  the  constitution  of  ^Massachusetts.  He  died 
on  the  4th  of  July  1826,  on  the  fiftieth  anniversary 
of  the  daj'  when  he  had  proclaimed  in  Congress  the 
independence  of  the  United  States.  Life  and  Works 
of  John  Adams  (10  vols.  18.50-56). 

ADA^IS,  JonN  Couch,  discoverer,  simultaneously 
with  Le  Verrier,  of  the  planet  Neptune,  w-as  born 
near  Bodmin  in  Cornwall,  1816.  He  early  mani- 
fested an  aptitude  for  mathematics;  and  after  the 
usual  amount  of  school-training,  he  was  sent  to  St. 
John's  College,  Cambridge,  were  he  attained  the 
honour  of  senior  wrangler,  and  became  a  mathe- 
matical tutor.  In  1,S41,  he  undertook  to  find  out;  the 
cause  of  the  irregularities  in  the  motion  of  Uranus, 
anticipating,  indeed,  his  own  and  Le  Yerrier's  dis- 
covery— namely,  that  they  are  due  to  the  influence 
40 


of  an  unknown  planet.  Le  Verrier  did  not  com- 
mence his  researches  till  the  summer  of  1845;  but 
on  the  l(ith  of  November  published  the  results  of 
his  calculations,  demonstrating  the  existence  of  an 
unknown  planet,  declaring  it  to  be  the  cause  of  the 
known  disturbance,  and  assigning  to  it  almost  the 
same  place  as  A.  had  done  in  a  paper  which  he  left 
with  the  Astronomer  Royal  at  Greenwich  Obser- 
vatory in  the  previous  October,  but  which  he 
neglected  to  publish.  Le  Terrier  has  thus  acquired, 
naturally,  the  whole  honour  of  the  discovery  ;  but 
the  merit  of  A.  is  not  kss.  The  researches  of  the 
latter  commenced  earlier ;  his  discovery,  too,  was 
earlier;  and  it  was  only  unfortunate  for  the  reputa- 
tion of  the  young  astronomer  that  he  omitted  to 
publish  the  results  he  had  obtained.  The  council  of 
the  lioyal  Astronomical  Society  shewed  that  they 
appreciated  the  value  of  A.'s  labours,  by  awarding 
equal  honours  to  both.  In  1858,  A.  was  appointed 
to  the  chair  of  mathematics  in  St.  Andrews,  which, 
however,  he  vacated  within  a  few  mouths,  on  being 
nominated  to  the  Lowndeau  Professorship  of  Astron- 
omy, Cambridge.  "» 

ADAMS,   John  Qimnct,    the    sixth  president   of 
■^the  United  States  of  North  America,  and  son  of  the 
second  president,  was  bom  in  Braintree,  ilass.,  July 
11,  17G7.     In  his  boyhood  he  accompanied  his  father 
on  an  embassy  to  Europe,  and  passed  a  considerable 
part  of  his  youth   in   Paris,  at  the  Hague,  and  lastly 
in  London.     When  his  father  was  elected  president, 
the    younger   Adam.s   was   sent   on   an  embassy  to 
Berlin,    and    travelled    through    Silesia.       Of    this 
country  he  gave  a  description  in  his  letters,  which 
were  first  published  in  the  J-'ortfolio,  a  I'liiladelphia 
joiu-nal,  and  afterwards  translated  into  French  and 
German.     In  his  i)olitical  views,  A.  perfectly  agreed 
with  his  father,  and,  consequently,  he  was  recalled 
from    Berlin   when    Jefferson  was  elected  president 
in  1801.     On  his  return  to  America,  he  was  engaged 
as    professor    of    rlietoric,    at    Harvard    University, 
in  Massachusetts,  the  stronghold  of  the  federalists  ; 
but  he  soon  left  his  academical  post  to  engage  again 
in  politics,  and    was  chosen  as   senator  for    Mass. 
in  1803.      He  soon   became   prominent  as  a  leader 
of  the  federal  party ;  but  in  later  years  he  adroitly 
changed  his  course,  and    seemed    inclined  towards 
the  party  of  Madison.     By  Madison  he  was  sent  as 
plenipotentiary  to  Ru-ssia,   and   afterwards  to  Eng- 
land.    On  this   endjassy  he  took  a  part  in  the  nego- 
tiation of  peace  with  England,  and  assisted  with  his 
counsel  the  deputies  sent  from  America  to  Ghent. 
When  Monroe    was    elected  president,    he    recalled 
A.  from  Europe,  and  made  him  secretary  of  state. 
On  the  retirement  of  Monroe  from  office,  A.  gained 
the  presidency,  after  a  hard  contest  against  Jackson 
— being  elected  by  the  House  of  Representatives  in 
February  1825.     He  had  now  to  strive  against  Dem- 
ocratic   majorities,   and   a  coalition  of   his  enemies, 
who  ^\■ilh  bitter  hostility  brought  against  him  the  un- 
sustained  chai-ge  of  corrupt  collusion  with  Henry  Clay. 
In  March  1829  he  was  superseded  by  General  Jack- 
son   as   president.     Adams  retired   to  his   estate  of 
Quincy,  near  Boston;    but  in   1830  was  chosen   as 
representative  of  his  district.     He  now  joined  the 
party    of    abolitionists,    and    frequently    raised   the 
whole   House  of  Representatives  against  himself  by 
his  incessant  petitions  on  the  slavery  question.     On 
one  occasion  (in  1842),  in  order  to  assert  strongly  in 
the  abstract  the  right  of  petition,  he  went  so  far  as 
to  present  a  petition  for  the  dissolution  of  the  union ! 
This  was  misunderstood,  and  turned  against  lum.    He 
died  at  Washington  during  the  session  of  congress, 
Februarv    23,    1848.     Among    American    statesmen 
of  the  old  school,  he  was  one  of  the  most  able,  and, 
as  a  di|ilomatist,  was  well  acquainted  with  fortiga 
relations.     See  Seward,  Life  of  J.  Q.  A. 


ADAMS— ADDISOX. 


ADAMS,  Samuel,  one  of  the  leading;  men  of  tlie 
American  revolution,  was  born  at  Boston,  U.  S., 
September  27,  1722.  His  political  leanings  were 
early  manifested;  on  taliinq  the  degree  of  A.  M.  at 
Harvard  College,  1743,  he  maintained  the  affirmative 
of  the  question:  Whether  it  be  lawful  to  resist  the 
supreme  magistrate,  if  the  commonwealth  cannot  be 
otherwise  preserved?  He  intended  at  first  to  become 
a  clergyman,  but  afterwards  comnienced  a  small 
business,  and  was  made  a  collector  of  taxes.  He 
displayed  on  all  occasions  an  unflinching  zeal  for 
popular  rights,  and  was,  by  the  patriotic  party,  placed 
in  the  legislature  in  17G6.  A.  was  a  member  of 
the  first  congress,  and  signed  the  declaration  of 
independence  in  1776.  He  took  an  active  part  in 
franuMg  the  constitution  of  Massachusetts,  and  was 
Ibr  several  years  jirisident  of  the  senate  of  that 
state.  He  held  the  office  of  its  lieutenant-governor 
from  17S'J  to  1794,  and  of  governor  from  that  time 
till  1797.  He  then  retired  from  public  life,  and 
died  at  Boston,  October  2,  1803,  poor  as  he.  had 
lived.  A.'s  character  was  one  of  great  courage 
and  determination.  He  was,  at  the  same  time, 
somewhat  narrow-minded  and  bigoted,  both  in 
religion  and  politics.  He  was  prejudiced  against 
Washington,  whose  conduct  of  the  war  liis  ignorance 
of  military  matters  led  him  to  think  weak  and  dila- 
tory; and  the  confidence  reposed  in  Washington, 
as  first  president  of  the  republic,  seemed  to  A.  to 
savour  of  aristocracy. 

ADA'XA,  a  Turkish  cjalet  or  province  in  the 
south-east  of  Asia  Minor,  derives  its  natne  from  its 
chief  city  Adana,  containing  25,000  inhabitants.  The 
city  is  distant  almost  thirty  miles  from  Tarsus,  on 
the  way  to  Aleppo,  connnands  the  pass  of  the  Taurus 
motuitains,  and  carries  on  a  considerable  trade 
between  Syria  and  Asia  Minor.  I'ompey  peopled 
the  territory  of  Adana  with  pirates.  The  Syrian 
kings  made  the  place  a  city,  under  the  name  of 
Antiochia  ad  Sarwn,  and  on  the  ruins  of  Antiochia 
the  caliph  Haroun  al  Raschid  built  Adana.  The 
present  inhabitants  are  mostly  Turks,  mixed  with 
some  Greeks  and  Armenians. 

ADAXSON',  Michel,  a  celebrated  French  bot- 
anist, born  at  Aix,  Apiil  7,  1727.  He  soon  left  the 
clerical  profession,  for  which  he  was  educated,  and 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  natural  history. 
In  his  early  career,  he  entertained  the  ambition 
of  superseditig  the  Liimffiau  system  by  a  clearer 
and  more  comprehensive  method  of  arrangement. 
When  about  twenty-one  years  old,  he  went  to 
Senegal  in  Africa,  and,  fearless  of  the  unwholesome 
climate,  stayed  there  five  years,  afterwards  returning 
to  France,  with  a  large  collection  of  specimens  in 
natural  history.  Soon  after  his  return,  he  laid  before 
the  French  East  India  Company  his  plan  of  a  colony 
on  the  African  coast,  in  which  all  colonial  produce 
was  to  be  raised  without  slave-labour.  But  his 
plan  was  neglected.  He  published,  in  1757,  his 
Jlistoire  Naturelle  du  Sener/al,  and,  in  1763,  his 
Families  dcs  Plantrx,  in  which  he  endeavoured  to 
give  a  new  form  to  botany  ;  but  he  could  not  prevail 
against  the  established  Liiuia^an  system.  His  next 
undertaking  was  one  on  a  vast  scale — nothing  less 
than  a  complete  Encyclopajdia,  for  which  he  hoped  to 
gain  the  jiatronage  of  Louis  XV.  and  the  Academy  ; 
but  though  his  bold  i)lan  was  regarded  with  admi- 
ration, he  received  little  substantial  encouragement. 
This,  however,  did  not  check  his  enthusiasm ;  he 
proceeded  with  the  work  until  he  exhausted  his 
means.  During  the  Kevolution  he  fell  into  very 
indigent  circumstances.  When  invited  to  become 
a  member  of  the  Xational  Institute,  he  answered 
that  he  was  unable  to  attend  for  want  of  a  pair  of 
shoes.     Afterwards  he  received  a  pension,  and  until 


the  time  of  his  death,  August  3,  1S(I6,  he  was 
earnestly  devoted  to  the  prosecution  of  his  plan,  too 
vast  to  be  carried  out  by  an  individual. 

ADAXSO'XIA,  a  genus  of  the  natural  order 
Sk-rcnliavew  (q.  v.),  sub-order  Boiiihacea\  luiined  by 
Linna'us  in  honour  of  the  botanist  Adanson  (q.  v.), 
and  distinguished  by  a  simple  deciduous  calyx,  a 
very  long  style,  with  numerous  stigmas,  and  a  woody 
capsule  containing  a  farinaceous  pulp.  There  are 
two  species,  the  A.  grcgorii,  in  Australia,  ami  ,4.  diyi- 
tata  (the  JJaobah,  also  called  IMonkey  Bread),  a 
nati^-e  of  the  tropical  jiarts  of  Western  and  also 
Southern  Africa.  It  is  the  largest  known  tree — not 
indeed  rising  to  a  very  great  height,  hut  exceeding 
most  others  in  the  thickness  of  its  trunk  (2U — 30 
feet).  Even  its  branches  (60 — 70  feet  long)  are  often 
as  thick  as  the  stems  of  large  trees,  and  they  form  a 
hemispherical  head  of  120 — 150  feet  in  diameter; 
their  outermost  boughs  drooping  to  the  ground. 
The  leaves  are  digitate  or  7-fid ;  the  flowers  are 
W'hite  and  extremely  large,  on  drooping  peduncles  of 
a  yard  in  length.  The  fruit  {Mo7ike;/-hrci  d)  is  of  the 
size  of  a  citron.  The  bruised  leaves  {Lalo)  are  mixed 
with  the  daily  food  of  the  iidiabitants  of  tropical 
Africa;  and  Europeans  in  that  country  cm[)loy  them 
as  a  ri'uuHly  for  diarrho-a,  fevers,  and  diseases  of  the 
urinary  organs.  The  pulp  of  the  fruit,  which  is 
slightly  acid  and  pleasant  to  the  taste,  is  eaten  with 
or  without  sugar;  and  the  expressed  juice  mixed 
with  sugar  is  much  esteemed  as  a  beverage,  being 
very  refreshing,  effectual  in  quenching  thirst,  and 
regarded  as  a  specific  in  putrid  and  pestilential 
fevers.     The  bark  is  said  to  be  powerfully  febiifugal. 

ADDA,  the  Latin  Addna,  a  river  of  Lombardy, 
rising  in  the  Rha'tian  Alps  above  Bormio.  It 
flows  into  the  Lake  of  Conio,  issuing  from  which 
below  Lecco,  it  traverses  the  jilain  of  Lombardy  in 
a  direction  S.S.E.,  passing  Lodi  and  Pizzighetone, 
and  falls  into  the  Po  about  8  miles  above  Cremona. 
It  formerly  bounded  the  republic  of  Venice  and  the 
duchy  of  Milan. 

ADDER,  a  common  English  name  of  the  Viper 
(q.  v.),  but  also  often  more  vaguely  used  ibr  poison- 
ous serpents  of  the  iamily  Viperidce.  Where  the 
name  occurs  in  the  authorised  version  of  the 
Scriptures,  it  appears  to  be  always  in  this  vague 
sense  ;  altliough  the  terms  in  the  same  [daces  of 
the  original  may  probaldy  be  more  precise.  A  very 
venomous  serpent  of  Xew  Sovith  Wales  {Acanthopis 
tortor)  is  sometimes  called  the  Death  A.  It  is  also 
known  as  the  Black  Snake. 

ADDISOX,  Joseph,  the  son  of  an  eminent  clergy- 
man of  the  Church  of  England,  was  born  at  Milston, 
near  Amesbury,  in  Wiltshire,  on  the  1st  May  1672. 
After  a  preliminary  education  at  various  schools,  be 
entered  the  university  of  Oxford  when  oidy  fifteen 
years  of  age,  where  he  greatly  distinguished  himself, 
especially  by  the  facility  with  which  he  wrote  Latin 
verse.  He  was  originally  intended  for  the  church, 
but  various  circumstances  conspired  to  draw  him 
aside  into  literature  and  politics ;  the  principal  of 
which  were,  his  acquaintance  with  Drydcn,  who 
honoured  the  young  poet  with  his  patronage,  and  his 
intinuicy  with  Lord  Somers,  whose  favour  he  gained 
by  dedicating  a  poem  to  him  on  one  of  King 
William's  campaigns.  In  169'.)  he  received  a  pension 
of  £300  a  year,  and  then  set  out  on  a  continental  tour. 
While  in  France,  he  perfected  himself  in  the  language 
of  the  country.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Spanish 
war  of  succession,  he  departed  to  Italy,  where 
he  penned  his  charming  'Letter'  to  Lord  Halifax. 
Towards  the  end  of  17u3,  he  returned  home  by  way 
of  Switzerland  and  Germany;  but  his  expectations 
of  a  '  place  '  were  disappointed,  for  the  Whigs  were 
out   of  office.     The   battle   of  Blenheim,    however, 

41 


ADDISON. 


which  occuncd  in  the  next  jear,  presented  a  bril- 
liant opportunity  to  him,  which  he  did  not  fail  to 
make  the  most  of.  The  niinistr)'  wiijlicd  the  victory 
commemorated  in  vert>c,  and  A.  was  appointed 
to  do  it.  Lord  (jodolpliin,  tlie  treasurer,  was  so 
excessively  delighted  \\ith  the  first  half  of  the 
triumphal  poem,  that  before  the  rest  was  finished,  he 
made  A.  a  Commissioner  of  Appeals.  The  poet  was 
now  fairly  involved  in  politics.  He  accompanied 
Halifax  to  Hanover;  became  under-secretary  of 
state  in  1706,  and  in  1709  went  to  Ireland  in  the 
capacity  of  secretary  to  the  Lord-lieutenant,  where 
he  also  obtained  the  olfice  of  Keeper  of  the  Records, 
Morth  £000  a  year.  In  the  same  year,  his  friend 
Steele  commenced  The  Taller,  to  which  A.  soon 
became  a  frequent  contributor.  He  also  wrote  a 
number  of  political  articles  in  the  Whi'i  Exandner. 
Ou  the   1st  of  March  1711,  appeared  21i,e  Spectator, 


V^ 


1)  ^ 


cj^     ^-/c/i2^^^c^C, 


the  most  popular  and  elegant  miscellany  in  Enjrlish 
literature.  It  ceased  to  appear  on  the  6th  of  Decem- 
ber 1712.  A.'s  fame  is  inseparably  associated  with 
this  periodical.  The  quality  of  his  genius  is  now 
determined  by  it,  rather  than  by  the  cold,  sonorous, 
artificial  rhetoric  of  his  Trafiedy  of  Caio,  which  was 
extravagantly  admired  in  his  own  day,  and  even 
later.  lie  was  the  animating  spirit  of  the  magazine, 
and  by  far  the  most  exquisite  essays  and  criticisms 
which  appeared  in  it  are  the  work  of  his  hand.  Next 
followed  a  similar  work,  entitled  llie  Vuardian.  In 
1713  appeared  The  Tragedy  of  Cato,  the  popvdarity 
of  which,  considering  its  total  absence  of  dramatic 
power,  was  amazing.  It  was  generally  understood  to 
have  a  political  as  well  as  a  poetical  inspiration  ;  but 
60  prudently  had  A.  expressed  himself,  that  both 
parties.  Whig  and  Tory,  received  its  frigid  declama- 
tion with  rapture.  It  was  translated  into  various 
European  languages ;  and  even  the  monarch  of 
French  criticism,  Voltaire,  held  Shakspeare  a  bar- 
barian in  tragedy  compared  with  our  author.  '  All 
the  laurels  of  Europe,'  says  Thackeray,  'were 
scarcely  sufficient  for  the  author  of  this  "prodigi- 
ous "  poem.'  Every  one  in  England  praised  it  except 
Dennis.  A.  was  called  the  '  great  Mr.  A.'  after  that 
wonderful  night  in  the  theatre,  when,  as  Pope  says, 
'the  immerous  and  violent  claps  of  the  Whig  party 
on  the  one  side,  were  echoed  back  by  the  Tories 
on  the  other.'  Tliis  enthusiasm  was  a  delusion 
which  time  has  effectually  dispelled.  In  1716,  A. 
42 


married  the  Dowager-countess  of  Warwick,  and  in 
the  following  year  was  appointed  secretary  of  state. 
For  neither  of  his  new  situations  was  he  at  all 
suited.  Lady  Mary  Wortley  Montague,  in  a  letter 
to  Pope,  expressed  her  fear  that  'a  day  might  come 
when  he  would  l)e  heartily  glad  to  re.-ign  both.'  He 
was  so  extremely  timid  and  awkward  in  large  com- 
panies, that  it  was  out  of  the  question  for  him  to 
attempt  debating  in  parliament — a  thing  indispens- 
able to  one  in  his  position.  He  consp(piently 
resigned  in  1718.  Then  as  to  the  other  nuitter,  Dr. 
Johnson  sarcastically  remarks,  that  '  the  lady  was 
persuaded  to  marry  him  on  terms  miu'h  like  those 
on  which  a  Turkisli  princess  is  espouscil — to  whom 
the  sultan  is  reported  to  pronounce :  "  Daughter,  I 
give  thee  this  man  for  thy  slave." '  No  one  can 
doubt  that  this  marriage  was  a  mistake  on  the 
part  of  A.  His  health  had  been  for  some  time  in  a 
very  precarious  state  ;  and  at  Icngih,  after  an  illness 
of  a  few  mouths,  he  died  at  Holland  House,  Ken- 
sington, on  the  17th  June  17 H',  in  the  48th  year  of 
his  age,  three  years  after  what  Thackeray  calls  '  his 
splendid  but  dismal  union.'  A.  had  appointed  Mr. 
Tickell  his  literary  executor,  who  fuiblished  his 
works  shortly  after  in  4  vols,  quarto.  Hesides  those 
to  which  we  have  incidentally  alluded,  he  wrote 
A  Treatise  on  the  Usefulvcxs  of  Aiicievt  Medah, 
Especialhi  in  Iielation  to  the  Latiii  and  Greek 
Poets,  which,  however,  excited  little  interest.  He 
also  left  an  unfinisluid  work  on  The  Evidences  of  the 
Christian  lieligion.  But  the  most  delightful  and 
original  of  all  his  productions  is  that  series  of 
sketches  in  llie  Spectator  of  which  Sir  Roger  de 
Coverley  is  the  central  figure,  and  Sir  Andrew  Free- 
port  and  Will  Honeycomb  the  side  ones.  Sir  Roger 
himself  is  an  absolute  creation  ;  the  gentle  yet  vivid 
imagination,  the  gay  and  checrfid  spirit  of  humour, 
the  keen  shrewd  observation,  and  fine  raillery  of 
foibles  which  A.  has  displayed  in  this  felicitous 
characterisation,  render  it  a  work  of  pure  genius. 
But  A.  in  prose  is  always  excellent.  He  has  given  a 
delicacy  to  English  sentiment,  and  a  modesty  to 
English  wit  which  it  never  knew  before.  Elegance, 
which  in  his  predecessors  had  been  the  companion  of 
immorality,  now  appeared  as  the  advocate  of  virtue. 
Every  grace  was  enHsted  in  the  cause  of  a  benign 
and  beautiful  piety.  His  style,  too,  is  perfect  after 
its  fashion.  There  are  many  nobler  and  grander 
forms  of  expression  in  English  literature  than  A.'s, 
but  there  are  none  comparable  to  it  in  sweetness, 
propriety,  and  natural  dignity.  'Whoever  wishes,' 
says  Dr.  Johnson,  '  to  attain  an  English  style,  familiar 
but  not  coarse,  and  elegant  but  not  ostentatious, 
nnist  give  his  days  and  nights  to  the  volumes  of  A.' 
His  various  writings,  but  especially  his  essays,  fully 
realised  the  purpose  which  he  constantly  had  in  view  ; 
'  to  enliven  morality  with  w  it,  and  to  temper  w  it 
with  morality.'  They  materially  heljied  to  reform 
the  manners  of  their  time,  and  created,  in  addition, 
that  class  of  readers,  which  has  now  become  so 
prodigious  in  numbers,  and  on  which  all  literature 
now  depends  for  its  sup[)ort — the  middle  class.  It 
must,  however,  be  admitted,  that  since  the  beginning 
of  the  present  century,  their  popularity  has  under- 
gone a  considerable  decline.  The  chief  cause  of 
this  is,  that  much  in  them  relates  to  temporary 
fashions,  vices,  rudenesses,  and  absurdities  which  .are 
now  out  of  date.  Yet,  alter  making  every  abatement, 
it  is  certain  that  there  are  in  the  collected  works  of 
A.  so  many  admirably  written  essays  on  subjects  of 
abiding  interest  and  importance,  on  characters, 
virtues,  vices,  and  manners,  which  will  chequer 
society  while  the  human  race  endures,  that  a 
judicious  selection  can  never  fail  to  present 
indescribable  charms  to  the  man  of  taste,  piety, 
philanthropy,  and  refinement. 


ADELAAR— ADHESION. 


A'DELAAIl,  Cord  fc^ivKHTSEX,  one  of  the  gicutest 
naval  coniinundcrs  of  tlie  ITtli  c,  was  born  iit 
BrevifT,  in  Norway,  in  1022,  and  ia  liis  twcntiotli 
3-ear  was  cmployt'd  in  the  naval  SL'rvice  of  Venice 
against  the  Turlcs.  Courage  and  good-fortune  con- 
spired ill  his  favour.  On  one  occasion,  he  brol^e 
through  a  Hue  of  sixty-seven  Turkisli  galleys 
which  surrounded  his  ship,  sunk  fifteen,  burned 
several  otlicrs,  and  destroyed  about  50u0  of  the 
enemy.  The  various  naval  ])0weis  now  coulendtd 
for  his  seivices.  Frederic  III.,  by  the  ofter  of  the 
then  unheard-of  sahiry  of  7200  dollars  per  annum, 
cngngcd  him  as  admiral  of  the  Danish  fleet;  and,  in 
1G75,  under  Christian  V.,  he  commanded  the  whole 
of  tiie  Danish  naval  force  in  the  war  with  Sweden. 
He  died  at  Copenhagen  in  1675. 

ADEIiAI'DE,  the  capital  of  the  colony  of  South 
Australia,  is  situated  on  the  Gulf  of  St.  Vincent, 
where  the  first  settlers  arrived  on  the  27th  July 
183G,  Avithout  knowing  where  they  were  to  locate 
themselves.  It  Avas  not  till  March  1837  that  the  site 
of  the  capital  was  fixed,  and  the  town-lands  surveyed, 
the  settlers  living  in  the  meantime  in  tents  or  in  huts 
of  nmd,  reeds,  and  biushwood.  The  town  stands  on 
both  sides  of  the  river  Torrens,  but  at  some  distance 
from  the  sea.  It  is  connected  by  a  good  macadam- 
ised road,  and  a  railway  Avith  Port  Adelaide,  Avhich 
stands  on  a  creek  about  seven  miles  distant,  and  has 
a  very  fair  harbour.  The  plan  of  the  town  is  exten- 
sive, and  the  streets  are  broad,  and  intersect  at  right 
angles.  Water  is  abundantly  supplied  by  the  river 
and  by  sinking  wells.  Around  the  city,  a  public 
demesne  has  been  reserved,  called  the  Parklands. 
Pop.  20,000. 

A'DELSDERG,  a  district  .nnd  market-town  in 
Carniola,  in  the  vicinity  of  w  liich  is  a  large  stalactite 
cavern  called  the  A.  Orotto,  thiough  which  Hows 
a  rapid  stream.  This  cavern,  the  largest  in  Europe, 
is  divided  into  the  Old  and  the  New  Grotto:  the 
former  is  858  feet  in  length ;  the  latter,  8550  feet 
in  length,  contains  some  most  remarkable  stalactites, 
among  which  is  'the  cm-tain'  {vorhunff),  a  white 
semi-transparent  wall.  The  grotto  ends  in  two  paths, 
one  of  wiiicli  leads  to  a  lake,  beyond  Avhicli  more 
wonders  of  nature  are  likely  to  be  discovered.  The 
cavern  is  shut,  and  can  only  be  entered  in  company 
with  an  appointed  guide.  The  town  of  A.  is  22 
miles  N.E.  of  Trieste. 

A'DELUNG,  Joit.  CiiniSTOPir,  a  distinguished 
linguist  and  lexicographer,  was  born,  l7o2,  in  Pome- 
rania,  and  die(i,  ISoti,  at  Dresden,  where  he  had  held 
the  office  of  chief-librarian.  His  chief  works  are  his 
WiJrtcrbuch  dcr  Jloc/ulciif.tckcu  Mmidart  (Dictionary 
of  High  German),  in  wliich  he  took  Dr.  Johnson  as 
his  model ;  and  his  Ilithridntcs  oder  allgenieine 
tSpraclienkundc,  a  work  on  general  philoloey. 

A'DEN,  a  peninsula  and  town  on  the  south-west 
coast  of  Arabia.  The  most  southern  promontory  of 
the  peninsula,  Cape  Aden,  is  in  N.  hit.  12°  47',  and  E. 
long.  45°  iV.  This  peninsula,  the  area  of  Avhich  is 
18 — 20  square  miles,  is  doubtless  of  volcanic  origin, 
and  consists  chiefly  of  a  range  of  hills  not  exceeding 
177G  feet  in  height.  It  is  joined  to  the  mainland  by  a 
narrow,  level,  and  sandy  isthmus.  In  a  valley  which 
forms  the  crater  of  a  submarine  volcano,  staiuls 
tlie  town  of  A.,  Avhich  is  also  named  from  the  neigh- 
bouring promontory,  Bab-el-Mandcb,  or  the  Gate  of 
Mandeb.  It  was  styled  by  the  native  Arabs  Aden  or 
Eden  (Paradise),  on  account  of  Its  fine  climate  and 
great  commerce,  for  which  it  Avas  celebrated  from  the 
oldest  times.  It  enjoys  almost  perjietual  sunshine  ; 
a  cloudy  day  is  of  rare  occurrence ;  the  heat  is 
pleasantly  tempered  by  the  sea-breezes ;  and  the 
inhabitants  are  generally  healthy.  Pliny  the  Elder 
eceius    to   have    known    the    native    name   of    the 


place,  which  he  Avrites  'Athana.'  It  Avas  also 
known  by  the  name  of  '  Emporium  Romanum.' 
Up  to  the  time  of  the  circumnavigation  of  Africa, 
A.,  so  favourably  situated  at  the  entiance  of  the 
Red  Sea,  was  the  chief  mart  of  all  Asiatic  produce 
and  manufactures,  and  even  the  Chinese  traded 
here.  Marco  Polo  and  other  voyagers  of  the  middle 
ages  told  wonders  of  the  riches  and  splendour  of 
the  place.  In  tlie  course  of  time,  hoAvever,  it  was 
reduced  to  a  small  village,  Avliich  in  1838  contained 
oidy  about  tiOO  iidiabitants,  including  some  250 
Jews  and  about  50  Indian  merchants.  The  Anglo- 
Indian  governujcnt  had  long  been  on  the  outlook 
for  a  speedy  route  by  steam  from  India  to  Europe. 
The  explorations  on  the  river  Euphrates  aflbriled 
no  satisfactory  restdts,  and  ultimately  the  old  com- 
mercial route  by  tlie  Red  Sea  Avas  chosen.  This,  of 
course,  {^xwe  to  the  shores  and  harbours  of  that  sea 
a  new  importance,  and  the  English  soon  saw  the 
advantages  of  a  position  like  that  of  A.  About 
this  time,  a  British  vessel  suffered  shipAvreck  olf  the 
coast  of  A.,  Avhere  the  passengers  Avere  plundered 
and  in  other  Avays  ill  treated  by  the  natives.  A 
vessel   Avas    therefore   despatched  from    Bombay,  in 

1838,  to  compel  the  suhan  of  the  country  to  make 
restitution,  and  also  to  learn  on  Avhat  terms  the 
Arabs  Avould  be  Avilling  to  cede  A.  to  the  English. 
Captain  Ilaynes,  by  fair  promises,  succeeded  in 
gaining  a  cession  of  the  country  from  the  sultan,  a 
weak  and  covetous  old  man.  Afterwards,  fearing 
the  displeasure  of  some  neighbouring  tribes,  and 
partly  moved  by  the  suggestiiins  of  religious  sheiks, 
the  sultiin  repented  of  the  transaction,  but  was  held 
to  his  contract  by  force  of  arms ;  and  on  January  11, 

1839,  after  a  few  hours'  contest,  A.  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  British.  Here  they  have  now  a  strong 
garrison  and  fortifications.  In  its  medieval  pros- 
perity, A.  had  had  a  magnificent  system  of  cisterns 
for  collecting  the  rain-water  from  the  circle  of 
hills  that  surround  it.  Who  built  them  is  unknoAvn; 
but  it  is  conjectured  that  they  had  been  begun  about 
the  Otli  or  7th  century.  They  had  been  allowed 
to  fall  into  disuse,  and  were  filled  Avith  rubbish,  and 
in  ruins;  but  recently  a  considerable  numl>er  have 
been  excavated  and  restored  by  the  British  govern- 
ment. If  all  restored,  they  seem  capable  of  con- 
taining 80  million  gallons.  Owing  to  the  hard  and 
naked  character  of  the  rocks,  there  is  little  absorp- 
tion, and  a  few  hours  of  rain  send  torrents  down 
the  ravines,  which  soon  fill  the  cisterns.  A.  is  of 
great  importance  in  a  mercantile  and  nautical  jioint 
of  view,  having  a  position  between  Asia  and  Africa 
like  that  of  Gibraltar  between  Europe  and  Africa. 
The  ])opulation  and  resources  of  the  place  have 
rapidly  increased  since  1838.  It  has  now  a  busy 
population  of  50,ooo,  gathered  from  every  nation 
under  heaven ;  and  its  exports  and  imports  amount 
in  1868  to  about  £80,000. 

A'DERSBACH  ROCKS,  a  remarkable  labyrinth- 
ine group  of  sandstone  rocks  situated  near  the  village 
of  Adersbach,  in  Bohemia.  Tiie  aspect  of  some  parts 
of  the  group  has  been  compared  to  that  of  a  city 
ruined  by  a  conflagration.  One  of  the  pinnacles 
rises  to  a  height  of  218  feet.  The  structure  of  the 
rocks  has  been  produced,  not  by  any  commotion  of 
the  earth,  but  by  the  influences  of  rain,  frost,  and 
other  atmospheric  changes,  Avearing  down  the  soft 
sandstone  into  many  fantastic  forms.  During  the 
Thirty  Years'  War,  the  miserable  people  of  Bohemia 
often  found  refuge  in  this  locality. 

ADHE'SION  is  the  species  of  attraction  that  is 
manifested  l)etwcen  two  separate  bodies  Avhen  their 
surfaces  are  brought  to  a  considerable  extent  into 
close  contact.  It  is  nearly  allied  to  Cohesion  (q.  v.). 
Adhesion  is  seen  in  the  ca.se  of  two  sohd  iiodies 

43 


ADIANTUM— ADJUDICATION. 


when  their  polished  surfaces  are  hiid  on  one 
another;  but  it  acts  more  i)owerrully  between  solids 
and  fluids,  owing  to  their  iutiniate  contact.  We 
have  instances  of  this  in  the  film  of  water  adhering 
to  any  body  dipped  in  that  fluid,  and  in  water 
running  down  the  side  of  an  inclined  vessel  from 
which  it  is  being  poured.  All  solids  and  liquids 
do  not  exhibit  this  mutual  attraction.  Thus,  though 
bright  metals  are  wetted  by  mercury,  glass  and 
wood  are  not ;  nor  does  water  adhere  to  fat.  Capil- 
lary attraction  (q.  v.)  is  a  special  manifestation  of 
adhesion. — The  adhesion  of  gases  to  the  surface  of 
solids  is  described  by  Liebig  as  playing  an  important 
part  in  many  processes.  A  more  or  less  condensed 
atmosphere  of  gases  surrounds  every  body,  and  every 
particle  of  a  powdered  or  porous  body  ;  and  gases, 
such  as  oxygen,  have  in  this  condition  an  intensified 
chemical  action.  Platinum  in  the  state  of  powder 
condenses  800  times  its  volume  of  oxygen ;  and 
when  hydrogen  comes  in  contact  with  the  oxygen 
in  this  state,  the  two  gases  combine,  though,  when 
free,  they  require  the  application  of  flame  before 
they  will  combine. 

Adiiksion',  in  Pathology,  is  when  two  surfaces  of  a 
living  body  become  united.  If  they  have  been  separ- 
ated by  the  cut  of  a  sharp  instrument,  and  are  inmie- 
diately  and  accurately  placed  in  apposition  to  each 
other,  they  may  adhere  at  once  without  any  apparent 
bond  of  union.  But,  generally,  the  blood-vessels  of 
the  part  pour  out,  between  the  surfaces,  a  fluid, 
consisting  of  the  watery  part  of  the  blood  holding 
fibrine  in  solution.  The  liquid  part  of  this  is 
reabsoi-bed  or  escapes  from  the  wound,  leaving  the 
fibrine,  in  which  first  cells  are  developed,  and  then 
blood-vessels :  it  is  now  a  living  tissue,  and  forms  a 
uniling  medium  between  the  sides  o.f  the  wound. 

Serous  membranes,  as  the  plevira,  poe.r  out  this 
fluid  when  inflamed ;  and  hence  the  adhesions  so 
olten  the  result  of  pleurisies. — If  two  granulating 
(see  Granulation)  surfaces  be  kept  in  contact,  the 
opposite  granulations  may  fuse  together,  and  the 
wound  unite  by  secondary  adhesion. 

ADIA'NTUM.     See  Maidenhair. 

A'DIGE,  after  the  Po,  the  most  important  river 
in  Italy,  rises  in  the  Rhajtian  Alps.  Various  stream- 
lets descend  from  these  mountains,  and,  uniting  at 
Glarus,  form  the  Etsch,  which  is,  properly  speaking, 
the  beginning  of  the  A.,  and  the  name  by  which  the 
entire  river  is  known  in  Germany.  From  Glarus  it 
flows  east  into  the  Tyrol,  then,  after  a  slight 
detour  to  the  south-east,  it  flows  due  south  past 
Trent  and  Roveredo,  into  Lombardy,  and,  passing 
Verona,  takes  a  south-eastern  sweep,  discharging  its 
waters  into  the  Adriatic,  between  the  mouths  of  the 
Po  and  the  Brenta.  In  ancient  times  (when  it  was 
called  the  Athesis),  it  had  a  more  northerly  embou- 
chure. It  is  very  rapid,  and  subject  to  sudden  swell- 
ings and  overdowings,  which  cause  great  damage  to 
the  surrounding  country.  The  two  most  remarkable 
inundations  on  record  are  those  which  occurred  in 
1721  and  1724.  During  the  Italian  wars,  its  banks 
were  repeatedly  the  scenes  of  bloody  engagements. 
Its  length  is  about  250  miles;  its  breadth  in  the 
plain  of  Lombardy,  650  feet;  its  depth,  from  10  to 
16  feet.  It  is  navigable  as  f^ir  as  Trent,  but  the 
navigation  is  rendered  extremely  arduous,  on  account 
of  the  swiftness  of  the  current.  The  A.  is  a  transit- 
river  for  the  trade  of  Germany  and  Italy. 

ADIPOCE'RE  (Lat.  adeps,  fat,  and  cera,  wax),  a 
substance  resembling  a  mixture  of  fat  and  wax,  and 
resulting  from  the  decomposition  of  animal  bodies 
in  moist  places  or  under  water.  Human  bodies 
have  been  found,  on  disinterment,  reduced  to  this 
state.  Lean  beef  kei)t  under  running  water  for 
three  weeks,  was  found  reduced  to  a  fatty  sub- 
44 


Adipose  Tissue, 
niairnitied. 


Stance.  A  piece  of  a  liver  that  has  suffered  what 
is  called  fatty  degeneration,  if  immersed  for  some 
time  in  water,  is  said  to  become  exactly  like  A. 

A'DIPOSE  TISSUE  is  a  peculiar  kind  of  animal 
membrane  or  tissue,  consisting  of  an  aggregation 
of  minute  spherical  pouches  or 
vesicles  filled  with  fat  or  oil. 
Tiie  tissue  itself  is  organic  and 
■vital,  the  vesicles  secreting  the 
fatty  matter  from  the  capiUaiy 
blood-vessels  with  which  they 
are  surrounded  ;  the  secreted 
product,  or  fat  (q.  v.),  is  in- 
organic and  devoid  of  vitality. 
The  adipose  tissue  differs  from 
cellular  or  filamentous  tissue  in 
having  the  vesicles  closed,  so  that  the  fat  does  not 
escape  even  wdien  fluid.  A  dropsical  effusion,  which 
infiltrates  the  filamentous  tissues,  does  not  affect  the 
adipose  tissue.  There  is  a  considerable  layer  of 
adipose  tissue  immediately  under  the  skin  ;  also 
around  the  large  vessels  and  nerves,  in  the  omen- 
tum and  mesentery,  around  the  kidneys,  joints.  &c. 

A'DJECTIVE  is  the  name  of  one  of  the  classes 
into  which  grammarians  have  divided  words.  An 
adjective  is  so  called,  not  so  much  from  its  being 
added  to  a  substantive,  as  because  it  add^^  to  the 
meaning,  or  more  exactly  describes  the  object,  than 
the  simple  substantive  or  general  name  does.  The 
effect  of  an  adjective  is  also  to  limit  the  api)lication 
of  the  name  to  which  it  is  joined.  Thus,  when  tall 
is  joined  to  man,  there  is  more  meaning  conveyed ; 
there  are  more  properties  suggested  to  the  mind  by 
the  compound  name  tall  inan,  than  by  the  simple 
name  man ;  but  tall  man  is  not  applicable  to  so 
many  individuals  as  man,  for  all  men  that  are  not 
tall  are  excluded. — Nouns,  or  names  of  things, 
are  often  used  in  English  as  adjectives;  thus,  we 
say  a  silver  chain,  a  stone  ivall.  In  such  expressions 
as  'Income  Tax  Assessment  Bill,'  Income  plays  the 
part  of  an  adjective  to  Tax,  which  is,  in  the  first 
place,  a  noun ;  the  two  together  then  form  a  sort  of 
compound  adjective  to  Assessment ;  and  the  three, 
taken  together,  a  still  more  compound  adjective  to 
Bill,  which,  syntactically,  is  the  only  noun  in  the 
expression.  This  usage  seems  peculiar  to  English. — 
Languages  differ  much  in  their  way  of  using  adjec- 
tives. In  English,  the  usual  place  of  the  adj.  is  before 
the  noun.  This  is  also  the  case  in  German ;  but  in 
French  and  Italian,  it  comes  after.  In  these  languages, 
again,  the  adj.  is  varied  for  gender,  number,  and,  in 
the  German,  for  case.  In  English  it  is  invariable ; 
and  in  this  simplicity  there  is  a  decided  superiority ; 
for  in  modern  languages  these  changes  in  the  adj. 
serve  no  purpose.  The  only  modification  the  Eng. 
A.  is  capable  of  is  for  degrees  of  comparison. 

ADJL'DICA'TION  is  a  technical  term  used  in 
the  practice  botli  of  the  English  and  Scotch  law,  but 
with  a  totally  different  meaning  in  the  two  systems. 
In  the  law  of  England,  the  term  A.  is  commonly 
used  to  denote  the  judicial  determination  at  a  certain 
stage  of  the  proceedings  in  bankruptcy  and  insolv- 
ency. In  Bankruptcy,  the  procedure  is  regulated  by 
the  12  and  13  Vict.  c.  106.  The  petition  prays  that 
the  trader  may  be  adjudicated  a  bankrupt,  and, 
after  proof  of  the  petitioning  creditor's  debt,  of  the 
trading,  and  of  the  Act  of  Bankruptcy,  (q.  v.)  which 
must  have  been  committed  within  twelve  months 
before  the  issuing  of  the  fiat,  an  A.  is  made  by  the 
court  that  the  party  is  bankrupt.  But  a  trader  may 
be  adjudicated  bankrupt  summarily,  and  without 
previous  petition  for  A. — namely,  where,  after  filing 
a  petition  for  arrangement  with  his  creditors,  he 
appears  not  entitled  to  the  benefit  of  the  arrange- 
ment.     See    Bankruptcy.      Ih    Insolvencij,    which 


ADJUSTMENT— AD  LIBITUM. 


differs  from  bankiniptcy  in  tliis  respect,  tlmt  it  is 
not  confined  in  its  operation  to  traders,  or  to  any 
particular  class  of  men,  but  applies  to  the  com- 
munity at  large,  the  A.  is  made  by  the  imprisoned 
debtor  delivering  into  the  Insolvent  Court  a  schedule 
containing  an  account  of  all  his  debts  and  of  all 
his  estate  and  effects  in  possession,  reversion, 
remainder,  or  expectancy,  and  of  all  rights  and 
powers  which  either  ho,  or  any  person  in  trust  for 
him,  is  entitled  to  exercise;  and  ui)on  liis  swearing 
to  the  truth  of  tliis  schedule,  and  executing  a 
warrant  of  attorney,  authorising  a  judgment  to  l)e 
entered  up  against  him  in  any  of  the  superior  courts 
at  Westminster  for  the  amount  of  the  debts  stated 
in  the  schedule,  the  Insolvent  Court  m;iy  adjudge 
that  he  shall  be  discharged  from  the  custody  and 
entitled  to  the  benefit  of  the  Insolvent  Act  1  and  2 
Yict.  e.  1 10.  This  A.  authorises  the  discharge  of 
the  prisoner  from  custody  as  to  all  debts  and  sums 
of  money  due  or  claimed  to  be  due  to  his  several 
creditors.     See  Insolvency. 

It  may,  however,  be  stated  that  the  distinction 
between  bankruptcy  and  insolvency  is  now  generally 
disapproved  in  England;  and  a  liill  has  l)cen  intro- 
duced into  parliament  (MarcL  18^0)  for  the  purpose 
of  reforming  the  bankrupt  law  :'i  this  and  other 
respects. 

In  the  law  of  Scotland,  ^.  signifies  a  process  by 
•which  creditors  may  attach  heritalile  or  real  pro- 
perty of  their  debtors.  It  applies  to  real  estate  in 
its  most  extensive  signification,  including  not  only 
feudal  rights,  but  all  rights  or  interests  atVccting  or 
connected  with  land,  such  as  bonds  and  mortgiiges, 
as  also  annuiti'^s,  and  all  rights  'having  a  tract  of 
future  time,'  life-interests,  reversions,  rights  of  lease, 
offices  of  dignity  or  jurisdiction,  personal  riglits  to 
lands,  a  certain  class  of  personal  bonds,  rights  of 
patronage,  stock  of  any  chartered  bank,  with,  where 
the  process  of  arrestment  (the  process  in  the  Scotch 
law,  for  attaching  personal  estate  ;  see  Arrestment) 
is  excluded,  the  husband's  right  in  his  wife's  real 
estate,  fair,  harbour,  and  ferry  duties,  entailed  estates 
during  the  life  of  the  heir,  and  the  like. 

The  arrangements  for  the  equitable  administration 
of  this  law  are  regulated  by  various  orders  of  the 
Scotch  courts  and  by  different  statutes. 

There  are  various  other  forms  of  the  A.  in  the 
Scotch  law,  one  of  the  most  important  and  useful  of 
which  is  called  the  A.-iii-implenicnt,  a  form  of  legal 
proceeding  devised  for  the  completion  of  defective 
titles  to  landed  property. 

ADJU'STMENT,  in  the  law  of  Insurance,  is  the 
ftscertaining  the  exact  amourit  of  indemnity,  which 
the  party  insured  is  entitled  to  receive  under  the 
policy,  and  fixing  the  proportion  of  the  loss  to  be 
borne  by  each  underwriter.  The  nature  and  amount 
of  damage  being  ascertained,  an  endorsement  is 
made  on  the  back  of  the  policy,  declaring  the 
proportion  of  loss  falling  on  each  underwriter;  and 
on  this  endorsement  being  signed  by  the  latter,  the 
loss  is  said  to  have  been  adjusted.  After  an  A.  has 
been  made,  it  is  usual  for  the  underwriter  at  once  to 
pay  the  loss.  As  a  question  of  law,  however,  it  does 
not  appear  to  have  been  decided  how  far  the  A.  is 
conclusive  and  binding  upon  the  underwriters.  In 
the  opinion  of  some  mercantile  lawyers,  the  A.  is 
merely  presumptive  evidence  against  an  insurer,  and 
it  is,  notwithstanding,  open  to  the  underwriter  to 
shew  facts  which,  if  proved,  would  have  the  effect  of 
relieving  him  from  liability. 

A'DJUTANT,  as  the  derivation  of  the  word 
implies  {adjuvare,  to  help),  is  the  title  of  an  officer 
who  assists  the  commanding-officer  of  a  garrison 
or  regiment  in  all  the  details  of  duty.  lie  receives 
orders,    and    promulgates    them     to     the     several 


companies;  he  inspects  escorts  awd  guards  before 
proceeding  on  their  duty ;  attends  to  the  drill 
of  recruits,  is  accountiible  for  the  keeping  of  the 
regimental  books,  and  ought  to  note  every  infrac- 
tion of  established  rules.  An  Adjutant-general 
performs  amdogous  duties  for  the  general  of  an 
army.  He  keeps  an  accomit  of  the  strength  of 
each  regiment,  distributes  the  orders  of  the  day  to 
the  brigade-majors,  and  sees  the  troops  drawn  up 
for  action.  The  Adji(tant-(icrierol  of  the  Forces  is 
an  officer  of  high  rank  at  the  Ilorse-Guarda.  To 
him  all  communications  are  addiessed  regarding 
leave  of  absence,  discharging,  recruiting,  &c.  Besides 
the  adjutant-general  at  the  Ilorse-guards,  there  are 
deputy  and  assistant  adjutants-general  for  special 
military  districts. 

ADJUTANT  (Ciconia  Arr/nln),  a  bird  closely 
allied  to  the  stork,  made  by  some  naturalists  the 
type  of  a  separate  genus,  Arr/ala.  Adjutant  is  the 
pojjular  name  given  to  it  by  the  English  in  India — 
Arrjalii  the  native  name.  It  is  a  native  of  the 
warmer  parts  of  India.     It  is  of  large  size,  and  has 


Indian  Adjutant. 

very  long  legs ;  in  its  erect  attitude,  it  is  about  five 
feet  high  ;  its  extended  wings  measure  fourteen  or 
fifteen  feet  from  tip  to  tip;  its  head  and  neck  are 
nearly  bare ;  a  sausage-like  pouch  hangs  from  the 
under  part  of  the  neck  ;  the  bill  is  of  enormous  size. 
It  is  very  voracious,  swallows  a  cat  or  a  leg  of  mut- 
ton quite  readily,  and  is  of  great  use  in  devouring 
snakes,  lizards,  and  all  sorts  of  offiil.  It  sonu>times 
catches  birds  upon  the  wing.  The  beautiful  Marabou 
feathers  are  obtained  from  the  under  side  of  the 
wings  of  this  bird,  and  of  another  very  similar  species 
which  inhabits  Senegal. 

AD  LI'BITUM  (in  Ital.,  n  piaccrr,  or  a  pia- 
chnciifo)  is  a  musical  term  which  implies  that  the 
part  so  marked  may  be  performed  according  to 
the  taste  of  the  performer,  and  not  necessarily  in 
strict  time.  When  there  is  an  accompaniment  to 
the  music  thus  marked,  it  must  strictly  follow 
the  ad  libitum  time  of  the  principal  performer. 
Sometimes  the  words  coUa  parte,  meaning  with  the 
leading  part,  are  written  over  the  accompanying 
parts.  Ad  Libitum  also  frequently  means  that  a 
part  for  a  particular  instrument  or  instruments  in 
instrumental  scores  or  pianoforte  arrangements,  may 
either  be  played  or  entirely  left  out ;  thus  :  '  Over- 
ture  arranged  for   the  pianoforte  as  a  duet,    with 

45 


ADMINISTRATION— ADMIRALTY  COURT. 


with  ad  libitum  accompaniments  for  the  violin,  flute, 
or  violoniello.' 

ADMINISTRATION,  in  Politics,  in  its  widest 
sense,  is  equivalent  to  the  executive  government 
of  a  state,  as  distinguished  from  its  permanent 
constitution,  and  embraces  not  only  the  political 
ministry,  but  all  the  offices  of  judicature,  &c.  In  a 
more  restricted  sense,  as  used  in  Eiighuid,  it  desig- 
nates the  Privy  Council  (q.  v.),  and  more  especially 
that  select  committee  of  it  known  as  the  Cabinet  or 
Ministry  (q.  v.). 

ADMINISTRATION  and  ADMINISTRATOR.  An 
administrator,  in  the  law  of  England,  is  the  person 
to  whom,  in  defoult  of  an  exeeutor  named  in  the 
will,  the  ordinary  or  bishop  of  the  diocese  commits 
the  administration  or  distribution  of  the  estates  of  a 
person  dying  intestate. 

ADMINISTRATION  OF  CHARITIES  Aills  in 
the  last  resort  to  the  sovereign  as  purcn.i  pafria  ; 
and  in  the  case  of  any  charity  being  dilapidated  or 
abused,  the  attorney-general  will  file  an  information 
in  the  Court  of  Chancery.  The  A.  of  C.  is  now, 
however,  chiefly  regulated  by  16  and  17  Vict.  c.  187, 
by  which  the  crown  is  empowered  to  appoint  com- 
missioners and  inspectors  lor  the  purpose.  The  act 
contains  a  reservation  of  the  rights  of  the  Church 
of  England;  and  it  does  not  extend  to  the  universi- 
ties, or  to  such  charities  as  are  partially  dependent 
on  voluntary  contributions.  Charities  for  Roman 
Catholic  purposes  were  also  excluded  from  its  opera- 
tion for  two  years,  and  tliis  term  has  been  extended 
by  subsequent  enactments. 

ADMINISTRATOR-IN-LAW.  In  the  Scotch  law, 
a  father  is  A.-in-L.  for  his  children,  and  as  such,  is 
their  guardian  during  minority.  This  power  in  the 
father  ceases  by  the  chihFs  discontinuing  to  reside 
with  him,  unless  he  continues  to  live  at  the  father's 
expense  ;  and  in  the  case  of  daughters,  it  ceases  on 
their  marriage. 

A'DMIRAL,  the  title  of  the  highest  rank  of  naval 
officers.  The  word  is  generally  supposed  to  have 
been  derived  from  the  Arabic  Emir  or  Amir,  a  lord 
or  chief  {Amir-al-Mamenbn,  '  Commander  of  the 
¥3\ihiv\-,''  Amir-al-Omra,  'Commander  of  tlie 
Forces').  Thus  tlie  early  English  form  was  Amiral 
or  ^l;rt?Hirai  (occurring  once  in  Par.  Lo.st);  and  so 
it  is  still  preserved  in  French.  In  Spanish  the  word 
is  Adinirarde  or  Almirante ;  in  Italian,  Ammiracilio. 
The  term  seems  to  have  been  introduced  into 
Europe  during  the  Crusades,  and  to  have  been 
fir-^t  used  in  a  definite  sense  by  the  Sicilians,  and 
afterwards  by  the  Genoese.  About  the  end  of  the 
ISth  c.  it  came  into  use  in  France  and  England. 
The  first  English  Admiral  of  the  Seas  (^Amiral 
de  la  Mer  dn  Roy  d" Annlcterre)  of  whom  there  is 
record  was  William  de  Leybourne,  128!').  His  office, 
however,  was  not  that  of  a  commander,  but 
embraced  those  general  and  extensive  powers  after- 
wards associated  with  the  title  of  Lord  High 
Admiral  of  England  ;  that  is,  both  the  administra- 
tive functions  now  vested  in  the  Lords  Cohimis- 
sionera  of  tlie  Adiniralti/  (six  in  number),  and  the 
judicial  authority  belonging  to  the  present  JIi(/h 
Court  of  Admiralty.  The  office  of  Lord  High  Ad- 
miral was  last  filled  by  H.R.H.  the  Duke  of  Clar- 
ence, afterwards  William  IV.  It  had  previously 
been  in  commission  from  1708  to  1827.  On  his 
resignation  in  1828,  the  office  was  again  put  in  com- 
mission.    See  Admiralty,  Court  of. 

In  the  British  navy,  the  admirals  are  distinguished 
into  three  classes,  according  to  the  colour  of  their 
flag  (whence  the  general  title,  common  to  them 
all,  olfarf-offlrer),  admirals  of  the  Red,  of  the  White, 
and  of  the  Blue.  In  a  fleet  disposed  in  battle-array, 
the  first  of  these  holds  the  centre  ;  the  second,  thp 
46 


van ;  and  the  third,  the  rear.  In  each  of  these 
divisions,  again,  there  are  the  three  grades  of 
Admiral,  Vice-admiral,  and  Rear-admiral;  the 
adniiial  carrying  his  colour  at  the  main,  the  vice- 
admiral  at  the  fore,  and  the  rear-admiral  at  the 
mizzen  top-gallant-mast  head.  Admiral  of  the  Fleet 
is  simply  an  honorary  distinction,  with  an  increase 
of  pay.  The  rates  of  full  or  sea  jtay  of  flag-officers 
are  as  follows:  Admiral  of  the  fleet,  per  day,  £6; 
admiral,  £.5 ;  vice-admiral,  £4 ;  rear-admiral,  £3. 
An  admiral  commanding-in-chief  receives  £3  a  day 
additional,  when  his  flag  is  flying  within  the  limits 
of  his  station.  By  act  of  Congress  of  the  LTnited 
States,  of  July  16,  18C2,  the  navy  of  the  Union  v,as 
divided  into  9  grades,  of  which  the  highest  was  that 
of  rear-admiral.  In  1868,  David  G.  Farragut  was 
the  only  officer  holding  the  rank  of  admiral,  and 
David  D.  Porter,  the  only  vice-admiral.  ITie  rank 
of  acting  rear-admiral  was  held  by  ten  officers, 
and  that  of  retired  rear-admiral  liy  sixteen  officers  of 
merit.  An  admiral  receives  §11  U,000  per  annum  ;  a 
vice-admiral  $5000  to  $7000;  and  a  rear-admiral, 
active,  $3000  to  $5000,  retired,  $2000  per  annum. 

ADMIRALTY     COURT.      This    court,    the    ob- 
ject of  which  is  to  try  and   decide  maritime  causes, 
is  said  by  Sir  Henry  Spclman  and  Lambard  to  have 
been  first  erected  by  Edward  III.     Till  recently,  the 
maritime  courts  of  England  were  divided   into  the 
Instance    Court   and    the    I'rize    Court;  and    these 
courts  were  in  reality  separate  tribunals.     The  same 
judge  usually  presided  in  both,  but  his  authority  to 
hear  and  decide   questions  as  to  prizes  of  war  was 
under  a  special  and  separate  commission,  issued  at 
the  commencement  of  each  war;  and  the  court  itself 
existed  only  duiing  the  war,  or  until   the  litigations 
to  which  it  had  given  rise  were  brought  to  a  conclu- 
sion.    In  this  respect  it  diftered  from  the  Instance 
Court,    which    was   a   permanent    institution.       The 
jmisdiction  in  question  of  booty  of  war,  and  the  dis- 
tribution thereof,  has  now,  however,  been  conferred 
on  the  A.  C.  itself,   and  the  Prize  Court  has  thus 
been  virtually  abolished  (3  and  4  Vict.  c.  65,  s.  22  ; 
see  also  Kerr's  Blarkstone,  viii.  p.  77).     By   a  later 
statute,  jurisdiction  relating  to  the   attack  and  cap- 
ture   cf    pirates    is    vested    in    the    A.    ('.     in    this 
country,  and  in  the   vice- A.   courts  abroad  (13   and 
14  Vict.  c.  26,  27).     Whilst  there  was  a  Lord  High 
Admiral,  the  judge  of  the  A.  C.  usually   presided  in 
virtue  of  a  patent  from  him  ;  but  since  the  office  "has 
been  intrusted  to  commissioners,  the  judge   holds  a 
direct  conmiission  from  the  crown  under  the  great 
seal.      By    3    and  4   Vict.   65,    c.  s.    1,  the   Dean 
of  the  Archrs  is  authorised  to  sit  for  the  jndge  of 
the  A.   C.   in    certain    cases ;  and   advocates,   surro- 
gates, and  proctors  of  the  Court  of  Arches  are  ad- 
mitted to  practise  in  the  A.  C.  (s.  2).     The  proceed- 
ings of  the  A.  C,  like  tho.se   in  the   ecclesiastical 
courts,  were  originally  based   on   the  civil  law,  and 
upon   this   account   it  is   usually   held   at   Doctors 
Commons.     But   it   is   merely   as  the  basis  of  the 
earliei- mercantile  codes,  such    as  the  Rhodian  laws 
and  those  of  Oleroii,  and   by  no  means  exclusively, 
that  the  civil  law  is  of  authority  in  these  courts. 
Questions  of  the  utmost  nicety  in  the  law  of  nations 
fall  to  be  decided  by  maritime  courts  in  time  of  war; 
and   it   was   as   an   A.    judge    that    many   of    the 
most    remarkable    of  Lord    Stowell's  famous  judg- 
ments were  pronounced.     The   appeal  fiom   the  A. 
C,  which  was  originally  to  the  king  in  Chancery, 
and  afterwards  to  certain  commissioners  of  ajipeals, 
consisting    chiefly    of    the    privy  council,    and    not 
of  judges    delegated    by    that    body,    is    now   to 
the   judicial    committee   of   the    privy   council   (3 
and   4   Will.    IV.    c.  41).     The  jurisdiction   of   the 
vice-A.  courts  in  the  colonies  and  foreign  dominions 
of  the  Queen  has  been  extended  and  defined,  and 


ADMIRALTY  DROITS— ADOPTIAN  CONTROVERSY. 


their  procedure  regulated  by  statute  (2  Will.  IV. 
c.  51).  Appeals  from  those  coui'td  lormerly  lay  to 
the  A.  C.  in  England,  and  were  also  competent  to 
the  Queen  in  council  ;  but,  like  those  IVom  the 
A.  C.  itself,  thev  are  now  carried  to  the  judicial 
committee  (3  and  4  Will.  IV.  c.  41,  s.  2).  The 
civil  jurisdiction  of  the  A.  Courts  was  greatly 
extended  by  3  and  4  Vict.  c.  'iO,  by  which  their 
practice  was  much  improved.  It  now  extends 
generally  to  all  marine  contracts  and  other  questions 
of  maritime  riglit,  such  as  disputes  between  part- 
owners  of  a  sliip,  suits  for  niaiiners'  and  officers' 
wages,  suits  for  pilotage,  suits  on  bottomry  and 
respondentia  bonds,  and  lelatiiig  to  salvage,  wreck, 
collision  of  ships,  &c.  In  criminal  matters,  th(> 
A.  C.  formerly  took  cognizance  of  piracy  and 
other  olTenccs  on  the  sea,  or  on  the  coasts  beyond 
the  limits  of  any  county,  and,  concurrently  vitli 
the  common  law  courts,  of  certain  felonies  com- 
mitted in  the  main  stream  of  great  rivers  below 
the  bridges.  The  criminal  jurisdiction  of  the 
A.  is  regulated  by  4  and  5  AVill.  IV.  c.  ;;o, 
and  1  and  8  Vict.  c.  2.  By  the  former  stat- 
ute, the  judge  of  the  A.  is  made  one  of  tin; 
judges  of  the  Central  Criminal  Court,  and  that 
court  is  empowered  to  try  offences  committed 
within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  A.  By  the  latter, 
any  court  of  assize,  oyer  and  terminer,  or  jail- 
delivery,  may  inquire  of  and  determine  such  of- 
fences without  special  commission.  Since  the 
passing  of  these  enactments,  the  criminal  jutiis- 
diction  of  the  A.  C.  may  be  regarded  as  obsolete. 
There  is  a  separate  Court  of  A.  in  Ireland.  The 
A.  C.  of  Scotland  has  been  abolished,  and  its 
ordinary  jurisdiction  transferred  to  the  Court  of 
Session,  the  Court  of  Justiciary,  and  the  sheriffs  ; 
questions  of  prizes,  captures,  condemnations,  and 
the  like,  being  vested  exclusively  in  the  High  Court 
of  A.  in  England. 

A'DMIRALTY  DROITS  are  a  portion  of  the 
hereditary  revenues  of  the  crown,  arising  from 
enemies'  ships  detained  in  the  prospect  of  a  declara- 
tion of  war,  or  coming  into  port  in  ignorance  of 
the  commencement  of  hostilities,  or  from  such  ships 
as  are  taken  by  non-commissioned  captors,  the  pro- 
ceeds of  wrecks,  the  goods  of  pirates,  and  the  like. 
The  proceeds  of  the  Droits  of  A.  are  now  paid  into 
the  Exchequer  for  the  public  use. 

ADMIRALTY  ISLAND  lies  on  the  N.  W.  coast 
of  N.  America,  between  57°  2'  and  68°  24'  hit.  N., 
and  134°  52'  and  135°  30'  long.  W.  It  is  about  8(» 
miles  long,  well  wooded  and  watered.  It  is  inhab- 
ited, and  belongs  to  Russia. 

ADMIRALTY  ISLANDS,  a  group  of  about  40 
islands,  to  the  N.  E.  of  New  Guinea,  ])etween  2°  and 
3°  lat.  S.,  and  146°  18'  and  147°  4(j'  long.  E.  They 
were  discovered  by  the  Dutch  in  lCil6.  The  largest 
is  about  50  miles  long  fiom  E.  to  W.  They  abound 
in  cocoa-nut  trees,  and  aie  inhabited  by  a  race  of 
tawny  frizzle-headed  savages. 

ADO'NIS,  a  mythical  personage,  whose  beauty  as 
a  child  so  attracted  the  love  of  Venus  and  I'roser- 
pine,  that  they  quarcUcd  about  the  possession  of 
him.  Jupiter,  appealed  to,  settled  the  dispute 
by  deciding  that  A.  should  spend  part  of  the 
year  with  Venus,  and  part  with  rroserpino,  so  that 
he  lived  eight  months  of  the  year  in  the  upper 
world,  and  four  in  the  under.  A.  was  afterwards 
killed  by  a  boar  while  hunting,  and  Venus,  coming 
too  late  to  his  rescue,  changed  his  blood  into  flowers. 
• — A  yearly  festi\al  was  celebrated  in  honour  of  A. 
and  consisted  of  two  parts — a  mourning  for  his 
departure  to  the  under  world,  and  a  rejoicing  for 
his  return  to  Venus.  This  festival,  widely  spread 
among  the  countries  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean, 


was  celebrated  with  peculiar  pomp  at  Alexandria. 
Connected  therewith  were  the  Gardens  oi  A.,  as  they 
weie  called.  Before  the  festival,  wheat,  fennel,  and 
lettuce  were  sown  in  earthen,   and  even  in  silver 


Adonis. 

pots,  and  forced  by  licat  ;  intended  to  indicate, 
doubtless  by  their  brief  bloom,  the  transitoriness 
of  earthly  joy.  Tiie  myths  connected  with  A.  belong 
originally  to  the  east.  They  display  a  worship 
of  the  powers  of  nature  conjoined  with  that  of  the 
heavenly  bodies,  and  A.  himself  appears  to  be  the 
god  of  the  solar  year.  The  similarity  of  the  name 
to  the  riioenician  Adon,  which  signified  'lord,'  is 
unmistakable  ;  and  this  word  Adon  was  specially 
applied  to  the  king  of  lieaven,  the  sun. — In  refer- 
ence to  the  brilliant  beauty  ascribed  to  A.,  a  beauti- 
ful man  is  called  'an  Adonis.' 

ADONIS,  a  genus  of  i)!ants  of  the  natural  order 
RaimnculaceK  (q.  v.), 
in  which  the  flower 
has  5  sepals  and  5 — 10 
petals  'without  scales 
at  the  base,  and  the 
fruit  consists  of  awn- 
less  pericarps.  The 
species  are  all  her- 
baceous— some  of  them 
annual  and  some  per- 
ennial. Several  arc 
natives  of  Europe,  but 
only  one,  A.  aulian- 
riaU.sf,  sometimes  called 
Pheasant's  Eye,  is  a 
doubtful  native  of 
Britain.  Its       briglit 

scarlet  petals  have  obtained  for  it  the  name  of  Finn 
Adonh,  their  colour  having  been  fancifully  ascribed 
to  their  being  stained  with  the  blood  of  Adonis.  It 
is  a  well-known  onuiment  of  our  gardens;  in  which 
also^I.  a'stiralif!  frequently  appears,  and  ^4.  rcnialis, 
a  perennial  species  common  upon  the  lower  liills  of 
the  middle  and  south  of  Germany,  with  early  and 
beautiful  flowers. 

ADO'PTIAN  CONTROVERSY,  The,  was  an 
echo  of  the  Arian  controversy,  and  originated 
about  the  end  of  the  8th  c.  in  Spain,  the  country  in 
which  the  doctrine  of  Arius  had  longest  held  out. 
Elipandus,  Archbishop  of  Toledo,  and  Felix,  the 
learned  Bishop  of  Urgel,  advanced  the  opinion  that 
Christ,  in  respect  of  his  divine  nature,  was  doubtless 
by  nature  and  generation  the  Son  of  God;  but  that 
as  to  his  human  nature,  he  must  be  considered  as 
only  declared  and  adopted,  through  the  divine 
grace,  to  be  the  first-born  Son  of  God  (Rom  viii. 
29),  just  as  all  holy  men  are  to  be  adopted  as 
sons  of  God,  although  in  a  less  lofty  sense.  The 
flame  of  controversy  thus  kindled,  spread  into  the 
Prankish  empire,  the  special  domain  of  '  Catholic  ' 
Chiistianity,  and  gave  occasion  to  two  synods,  one 
lield  at  Ratisbon  (792),  and  another  at  Frankfort 
(794),  in  which  Ciiarlemagne  took  part  in  person, 
and  which  condemned  Adoptianisra  as  heresy.  The 
Catholic  doctrine  of  the  unity  of  the  two  natures  o*" 

47 


Adonis  Autunmalis. 


ADOPTION— ADRIATIC  SEA. 


Christ  in  one  divine  person,  and  the  consequeut 
impossibility  of  there  being  a  twofold  Son — an 
original  and  an  adopted — was  upheld  by  Alcuin  and 
the  other  learned  men  of  Charlemagne's  eourt.  At  a 
subsequent  synod  at  Aixla-Chapelle,  Felix,  yielding 
to  coTiipulsion,  recanted  his  opinions,  without,  as  it- 
would  seem,  being  convinced.  Elipandus  adhered 
fanatically  to  his  views,  which  were,  in  after-times, 
defended"  by  Folmar  (1160),  Duns  Scotus  (d.  1308), 
Durandus  (d.  1.322),  the  Jesuit  Vas(iuez  (1006),  and 
the  Protestant  divine  Calixtus  (10-13). 

ADOPTION  (Lat.  rnhptio).  A  legal  institution 
of  much  importance  in  both  of  the  classical  nations 
of  antiquity.  A.,  in  the  stricter  sense,  in  the  Roman 
law,  applied  only  to  the  case  in  which  a  person  in 
the  power  of  his  father  or  grandl'atlier  was  transferred 
to  that  of  the  person  adopting  him.  Where  the 
person  adopted  was  already  emancipated  from  the 
paternal  power  {pnfria  potes^tafi),  and  was  regarded 
by  the  law  as  his  own  master  {sni  juris),  the  pro- 
ceeding was  called  adrogation  (adrorjatio).  A.,  how- 
ever, was  also  used  as  a  generic  term  comprehending 
the  two  species;  and  in  Greece,  where  there  was 
nothing  corresponding  to  the  paternal  power  of  the 
Romans,  this  distinction  did  not  obtain.  At  Athens, 
the  adopted  child  was  transferred  from  his  own  family 
and  parish  or  tribe  (Jeinos),  into  those  of  the  adoptive 
father,  whose  property  he  inherited  in  the  absence 
of  legitimate  children,  and  whose  sacred  rights  he 
was  bound  to  maintain.  Only  Athenian  citizens 
could  be  adopted,  so  that  not  only  the  rext  of  kin, 
but  the  whole  community  were  interested  in  prevent- 
ing fraudulent  adoptions.  With  this  view,  registra- 
tion in  the  demus  of  the  adoptive  father  was  requisite, 
in  order  to  entitle  the  son  to  the  rights  of  citizenship 
as  a  member  of  it.  In  Rome,  the  adopted  child 
assumed  the  name,  and  lieeame  bound  to  discharge 
the  religious  duties,  of  the  adoptive  father,  wliich 
usually  consisted  in  sacrifices  to  the  penatei  or  other 
divinities.  These  observances  were  for  the  most 
part  connected  \\ith  the  gens  or  tribe  to  which  the 
individual  and  his  family  belonged ;  and  Savigny 
has  even  denied  the  existence  of  .wo-a  peculiar  to 
the  fatnily.  A.  was  efiected  tuider  the  authority  of 
a  magistrate,  the  prator  at  Rome,  or  the  governor 
(prcFses)  in  the  provinces.  Adrogation  originally 
rcquh-ed  a  vote  of  the  people  in  the  Coinitia 
Cnriata ;  but  under  the  emperors,  it  became  the 
practice  to  effect  it  by  an  imperial  rescript.  A 
patrician  was  sometimes  adrogated  into  a  plebeian 
family  for  political  purposes.  Clodius,  the  enemy 
of  Cicero,  was  so  adrogated,  in  order  that  he  might 
be  eligible  to  a  tribuneship  of  the  people.  If  a  father, 
having  children  in  his  power,  wus  adopted,  both  he 
and  his  children  passed  into  the  power  of  the  adop- 
tive father.  It  was  requisite  that  the  adoptive  father 
should  have  no  children  at  the  time,  and  no  reason- 
able prospect  of  having  any.  He  was  also  required 
to  be  older  than  the  person  adopted.  Females  could 
not  be  adrogated,  nor,  from  their  not  sharing  in  the 
paternal  power,  could  they  adopt  in  any  form.  An 
opposite  rule  has  prevailed  where  the  institution  has 
been  received  in  modern  times.  A.  was  unknown  to 
tlie  law  of  the  Teutonic  nations ;  and  though  most 
of  the  states  of  the  continent  have  Ijorrowed  it  from 
the  Roman  law,  it  has  never  existed  as  an  institution 
either  in  England  or  Scotland.  The  patrimonial 
benefits  of  A.  may,  however,  be  conferred  by  deed ; 
and  there  is  no  illegality  in  any  one  assuming  the 
name,  arms,  and  other  distinguishing  characteristics, 
and  corresponding  responsibilities, , of  a  person  who 
does  not  belong  to  his  family.  In  France,  A.  is 
recognised  only  in  a  very  modified  form  {Code  Civil, 
art.  ;34-3,  et  seq.). 

ADOU'R,   a  river    in  France,   rises   near   Tour- 
48 


mali't,  in  the  department  of  the  Upper  Pyrenees, 
waters  in  its  course  of  200  miles  the  department 
Gers,  and  the  fertile  part  of  the  department  Landcs, 
and  enters  the  Atlantic  below  Bayonnc.  It  receives 
several  tributaries,  and  is  navigable  to  the  extent  of 
80  miles.  Bagneres-de-Bigorre,  celebrated  for  its 
hot  baths,  is  situated  on  the  A. 

A'DRIA,  in  the  delegation  of  Rovigo  in  Lom- 
bardy,  is  situated  between  the  river  Po  and  the 
Adige,  contains  about  Io,000  inhabitants,  and  is 
chiefly  remarkable  as  being  one  of  the  oldest  cities 
in  Europe.  According  to  tradition,  it  was  founded 
by  the  Pelasgi,  1370  b.  c.  In  the  time  of  the 
Romans,  A.  was  one  of  the  most  frequented  har- 
bours in  the  Adriatic  Sea  ;  but  by  the  continual 
disposition  of  alhivium  on  the  cast  coast  of  Italy, 
it  has  been  gradually  separated  from  the  sea,  from 
which  it  is  now  fourteen  miles  distant.  It  still 
retains  several  interesting  remains  of  Etruscan  and 
Roman  antiquity;  but  its  wine,  formerly  so  cele- 
brated, is  now  deplorably  bad. 

ADRIAN,  the  name  of  six  popes,  none  of  them 
very  remarkable.  A.  IV.  was  by  birth  an  Eng- 
lishman, the  only  one  of  that  nation  that  ever 
sat  in  the  pajiul  chair.  His  name  was  Nicolas 
Breakspeare.  He  was  a  native  of  Langley,  near 
St.  Albans,  became  first  a  lay-brother  or  servant 
in  the  monastery  of  St.  Rufus,  near  Avignon,  and 
in  1137  was  elected  abbot.  His  zeal  for  strict 
discipline  raised  a  combination  to  defime  his  char- 
acter, and  he  had  to  appear  before  Eugenius  111. 
at  Rome.  Here  he  not  only  cleared  hiujself  of  all 
charges,  but  acquired  the  esteem  of  the  pope,  who 
ai^pointed  him  cardinal-bishop  of  Albano  in  1146. 
On  the  death  of  Anastasius  in  115-t,  he  was  raised 
to  the  papal  see.  A.  was  at  first  on  friendly 
terms  with  the  Emperor  Frederic  I.  ;  but  his  liigh 
notions  of  the  papal  siipremaey,  which  he  carried  ai5 
far  as  even  Gregory  Yll.,  led  to  the  beginning  of 
that  long  contest  of  the  popes  against  the  house  of 
Ilohenstaufen,  which  ended  in  the  destruction  of 
the  dynasty.  Ha  was  about  to  excommtmicate 
Frederic,  when  he  died  at  Anagni,  11.50.  It  was 
in  A.'s  time  that  the  doctrine  of  Transubstantia- 
tion  (q.  v.),  advanced  by  Pctrus  Lombardus,  was 
established. 

A'DRIANOPLE,  tlie  second  city  in  the  Turkish 
empire,  was  foimded  by  the  Emperor  Hadrian  on. 
the  left  bank  of  the  navigable  river  Hcbrus  (now 
Maritza).  Here  the  sultans  ruled  from  1360  to 
1453,  when  Constantinople  was  made  the  capital. 
The  city  has  now  about  100,000  inhabitants,  the 
half  of  whom  are  Turks.  Two  palaces,  forty 
mosques,  twenty-four  public  schools,  twenty-two 
baths,  and  the  numerous  gardens  laid  out  on  the 
banks  of  the  Maritza,  may  be  named  as  the  prin- 
cipal features  of  A.  Its  trade  consists  in  opium,  oil 
of  roses,  with  silk  and  other  manufactures. — The 
Russian-Turkish  war  was  here  concluded,  September 
19,  1829,  by  the  Peace  of  A.,  which  left  the  Porte 
in  possession  of  Wallachia,  Moldavia,  and  the  con- 
quests made  by  Russia  in  Bulgaria  and  Roumelia. 
On  the  other  side,  Russia  got  possession  of  the  whole 
of  the  coast  of  the  Black  Sea,  from  the  mouth  of 
the  Kuban,  in  lat.  4.5°  15',  to  the  haven  of  St. 
Niehola,  lat.  42°,  with  the  territories  of  the  Cau- 
casus, and  the  greater  part  of  the  pachalic  of 
Akalzik.  This  Peace  of  A.  served  greatly  to  confirm 
the  power  of  Russia  in  Eastern  Europe  and  in 
Western  Asia. 

ADRIATIC  SEA,  a  large  arm  of  the  sea,  ex- 
tending, in  a  north-westerly  direction,  between  the 
east  coast  of  Italy  and  the  west  coast  of  the  op« 
posite  continent,  being  connected  with  the  Ionian 
Sea  by  the  Strait  of  Otranto.     In  the  north,  it  fornia 


A  DUE— ADVENT. 


the  Gulf  of  Venice,  and  in  tlie  north-east,  the  (lulf 
of  Trieste  ;  wliile,  on  the  Italian  side,  it  forms  the 
bays  of  Ravenna  and  Treniiti,  and  the  narrower 
and  deeper  Gulf  of  Manfredonia.  On  the  other 
side,  tlic  coasts  of  lllyria,  Croatia,  Dahnatia,  and 
Albania  are  sleep,  rocky,  and  barren,  and  begirt  with 
a  chain  of  almost  innumerable  small  rocky  islands. 
The  chief  bay  in  this  side  is  that  of  Quarnero,  lyiug 
south  of  the  peninsula  of  Lstria.  The  most  consider- 
able rivers  flowing  into  the  A.  S.  are  the  Adige 
and  the  Po,  which  are  continually  depositing  soil 
on  the  coast,  so  that  places  once  on  the  shore  are 
now  inland.  The  extreme  saltness  of  the  A.  is 
probably  owing  to  the  comparatively  small  quan- 
tity of  fresh  water  poured  into  it  by  rivers.  Navi- 
gation in  the  A.  is  safe  and  pleasant  in  summer, 
but  in  winter  the  north-west  gales  are  formidable, 
on  account  of  the  rocky  and  dangerous  coasts  on 
the  east.  Trieste,  Ancona,  and  Sinigaglia  are  the 
chief  places  of  commerce. 

A  DU']6  (Ital.),  in  Music,  for  two  voices  or  instru- 
ments. 

ADIT'Llfi,  an  ancient  town  on  the  coast  of  the 
Red  Sea,  was  the  port  of  Axum,  and  is  noticed 
chiefly  on  pcjount  of  au  inscripiion,  of  some  import- 
ance relative  to  the  ancient  geography  of  those 
regions,  the  3Tonumentum  Adulitannm,  first  pub- 
lished in  the  6th  c,  in  the  Topngropliia  Chrlst.irnia 
of  Cosmos  Indicoj)leustes.  The  modern  town  is 
called  Zulla. 

ADUXTERY  (Lat.  adult erimn).  The  best  defi- 
nition of  this  offence  with  which  we  are  acquainted 
is  given  by  an  American  writer :  '  A.  is  the  volun- 
tary sexual  intercourse  of  a  married  person  with 
a  person  other  than  the  offender's  husband  or  wife.' 
{Bishop  on  Marriage  and  Divorce,  §  415.)  By  the 
Roman  law,  there  was  no  A.  unless  the  woman  was 
married,  and  the  same  was  the  rule  in  Athens.  It  was 
in  this  limited  form  also  that  A.  was  recognised  by  the 
Mosaic  law.  By  the  canon  law,  the  husband  and 
wife  were  placed  on  the  same  footing  ;  and  this  view 
has  been  adopted  by  all  the  nations  of  modern 
Europe.  In  the  American  state  of  New  Jersey,  it 
has  been  decided  that  a  married  man  does  not  commit 
this  crime  in  having  connection  with  an  unmarried 
woman.  (Bishop,  ibid.)  But  such  has  not  been 
the  prevalent  doctrine  even  in  America ;  and  it 
has  never  been  doubted  that  the  offence  necessary 
to  found  the  sentence  of  divorce  is  committed  by 
unlawful  sexual  intercourse  equally  whether  the 
particeps  criininis  were  married  or  single.  A.  was 
recognised  as  a  crime  even  before  Moses  (Gen. 
xxxviii.  24),  and  it  is  probal)le  that  in  affixing  to  it 
the  punishment  of  death  (Lev.  xx.  10),  he  followed 
a  prevailing  custom.  A  very  remarkable  law  was 
introduced  for  the  trial  of  A.,  by  causing  the  woman 
suspected  to  drink  the  bitter  waters  of  jealousy 
(Numb.  V.  26).  In  Rome,  the  Julian  law,  enacted 
in  the  timeof  Augustus  (17  p. c),  revised  the  previous 
legislation  on  the  subject,  and  imposed  special  penal- 
ties, consisting  of  forfeiture  of  goods  and  banish- 
ment, both  on  the  adulteress  and  the  piiramour.  The 
husband,  in  certain  cases,  was  permitted  to  kill  the 
latter,  and  the  father  might  sometimes  kill  both. 
A  constitution  of  Constantine,  the  authenticity  of 
which  has  been  doubted,  made  A.  a  capital  offence 
on  the  man's  part.  Whatever  Constantine's  law  was, 
it  was  confirmed  by  Ju-tini  in,  who  further  condemned 
the  wife  to  be  whipped,  and  imprisoned  in  a  convent 
for  the  rest  of  her  days,  unless  relieved  by  her  hus- 
band within  two  years  {Novel,  1.31,  c.  10).  The 
offence  was  visited  in  Athens  with  punishments 
closely  resembling  those  of  the  earlier  Roman  legis- 
lation. In  many  continental  countries,  A.  is  still 
treated  as  a  criminal  offence,  but  in  none  of  them 


does  the  punishment  now  exceed  imprisonment  ibr 
a  limited  period,  which  is  frequently  accompanied 
with  a  fine.  Lord  Coke  says,  that  by  the  law  of 
England  in  early  times,  A.  was  punished  by  fine  and 
imprisonment  (:i  List.  3(J6).  During  the  Conmion- 
wealth,  it  was  made  a  capital  oifence  {ScoheVs  Acts, 
part  ii.,  p.  121);  but  this  law  was  not  contirmed  at 
the  Restoration.  In  Scotland,  the  records  of  the 
Court  of  Justiciary  shew  that  capital  punishment 
was  frequently  inflicted.  At  the  present  day,  it  is 
punishable  in  Great  Britain  only  by  ecclesiastical 
censure ;  and  even  this  may  be  regarded  as  in  desue- 
tude. But  when  conmiitted  by  the  wife,  it  is  regarded 
as  a  civil  injury,  and  forms  the  ground  of  an  action 
of  damages  for  criminal'  conversation  (commonly 
known  as  an  action  of  crim.  con.)  by  the  husband 
against  the  paramour.  No  corresponding  action  is 
competent  to  the  wife,  either  in  England  or  America  ; 
and  her  only  remedy  consists  in  obtaining  a  sepa- 
ration or  divorce.  In  the  United  States  generally,  A. 
is  punished  by  fine  and  imprisonment,  but  the  grow- 
ing laxity  of  public  sentiment  is  inclining  towards 
more  lenient  treatment,  and  even  against  regarding  it 
as  a  criminal  offence.    See  Separation,  Divorce. 

A'DVENT,  or  Time  of  Advent  (Lat.  the  approach, 
or  coming),  a  term  applied,  by  the  Christian  Church, 
to  certain  weeks  before  Christmas.  In  the  Greek 
Church,  the  time  of  A.  comprises  forty  days ; 
Ijut  in  the  Romish  Church,  and  those  Protestant 
Churches  in  which  A.  is  observed,  only  four  weeks. 
The  origin  of  this  festival,  as  a  Church  ordinance, 
is  not  clear.  The  first  notice  of  A.,  as  an  appoint- 
ment of  the  Church,  is  found  in  the  Synod  of 
Lerida  (524  a.  d.),  at  which  marriages  were  inter- 
dicted from  the  beginning  of  A.  until  Christmas. 
The  four  Sundays  of  A.,  as  observed  in  the  Romish 
Church  and  the  Churc'.i  of  England,  were  probably 
introduced  into  the  calendar  by  Gregory  the  Great. 
It  was  common  from  an  early  period  to  speak  of 
the  coming  of  Christ  as  fourfold:  his  '  first  coming  in 
the  flesh  ;  his  coming  at  the  hour  of  death  to  leceive 
his  faithful  followers  (according  to  the  expressions 
used  by  St.  John) ;  his  coming  at  the  fall  of  Jerusalem 
(Matt.  xxiv.  30) ;  and  at  the  day  of  judgment. 
According  to  this  fourfold  view  of  A.,  the  '  gospels' 
were  chosen  for  the  four  Sundays,  as  was  settled 
in  the  Western  Churcti  by  the  Ilomilarium  of 
Charlemagne.  The  festival  of  A.  is  intended  to 
accord  in  spirit  with  the  object  celebrated.  As 
mankind  were  once  called  upon  to  prepare  them- 
selves for  the  personal  coming  of  Christ,  so,  accord- 
ing to  the  idea  that  the  ecclesiastical  year  should 
represent  the  life  of  the  founder  of  the  Church, 
Christians  are  exhorted,  during  this  festival,  to  look 
for  a  spiritual  advent  of  Christ.  The  time  of  the  year 
when  the  shortening  days  are  hastening  toward 
the  solstice — which  almost  coincides  with  tlie  festival 
of  the  Nativity — is  thought  to  harmonise  with  the 
stram  of  sentiment  proper  during  A.  In  opposition, 
possibly,  to  heathen  festivals,  observed  by  ancient 
Romans  and  Germans,  which  took  place  at  the 
same  season,  the  Catholic  Church  ordained  that 
the  four  weeks  of  A.  should  be  kept  as  a  time  of 
penitence ;  according  to  the  words  of  Christ : 
'  Repent,  for  the  kingdom  of  heaven  is  at  hand.' 
During  these  weeks,  therefore,  public  amusements, 
marriage  festivities,  and  dancing  were  prohibited  ; 
fasts  were  appointed,  and  sombre  garments  were 
used  in  religious  ceremonies.  The  Protestant  Church 
in  Germany  has  also  abstained  from  public 
recreations  and  celebrations  of  marri;ige  during 
A.  It  was  parhaps  a  natural  though:  to  begin 
the  ecclesiastical .  year  with  the  days  of  prepar- 
ation for  the  coming  of  Christ.  This  was  first 
done  by  the  Nestorian  Church  in  the  East  in 
the   6th   c. ;  ,  the  •  cxamiTe   was    soon    followed   in 

49 


ADVERB— ADVOCATE. 


Gaul,    and    afterwards    Lecaiuu    general    throughout 
the  West. 

A'DVERB.  As  an  adjective  is  joined  to  a  noun, 
so  is  an  A.,  for  analogous  puri)()ses,  to  a  verb, 
an  adjective,  or  another  A.  From  the  frequency 
with  which  adverbs  are  joined  to  verbs,  they  get 
their  name.  An  A.  cannot  be  the  subject,  the 
copula,  or  the  predicate  of  a  pro|)ositioa  ;  and  is, 
therefore,  a  secondary  part  of  speech,  logically 
speaking.  According  to  their  signification,  adverbs 
mav  be  divided  into — 1.  Adverbs  of  Place,  as,  ichere, 
towards ;  2.  of  Time,  as,  ever,  immedialcly ;  3.  of 
Degree,  as,  verii,  almost ;  4.  of  Manner,  as,  thus, 
wisehj  ;  5.  of  Belief  or  Doubt,  as,  perhaps,  no,  kc. — 
It  is  commonly  said,  that  '.some  adverbs  admit  of 
comparison  ;'  as  if  in  this  respect  they  dilfered  from 
adjectives.  The  truth  is,  that  adverbs  admit  of 
comparison  under  the  same  limitations,  neither  more 
nor  less,  that  restrict  the  comparison  of  adjectives. 
Thus  soon  is  compared  as  naturally  as  hard.  If  now 
or  thus  cannot  be  compared,  neither  can  wooden  nor 
circular ;  and  in  both  cases,  for  the  same  reason — the 
sense  forbids  it.  The  laws  of  euphony  prevent  alike 
miserable  and  miserabh)  from  l>eing  comjjarcd  gram- 
matically, i.  e.,  by  the  addition  of  er  and  est ;  but  both 
admit  of  logical  comparison  by  the  use  of  more 
and  most. — A  large  class  of  adverbs  in  English  are 
formed  from  adjectives  by  annexing  the  syllable  hj, 
which  is  just  the  word  like,  ilost  languages  have 
some  such  means  of  distinguishing  the  A.  from  the 
adjective,  except  the  German,  iti  which  they  are  alike. 
Adverbs  in  general  may  be  looked  upon  as  abbrevia- 
tions of  phrases  ;  thus,  here  =  in  this  place,  theti  =  at 
that  time,  wisely  =  like  a  wise  man.  Combinations  of 
words  that  can  thus  be  represented  by  a  single 
Adverb,  and  all  combinations  that  are  analogou.s. 
though  they  may  have  no  single  word  equivalent  to 
ihem,  are  called  adverbial  expressions. 

ADVE'RTISEMEXT  (Fr.  avertissement).  The 
public  notification  of  a  fact.  This  is  now  commonly 
effected  either  by  means  of  the  ordinary  newspapers, 
or  of  newspapers,  priiiters'  lists,  and  other  publica- 
lions  especially  devoted  to  the  purpose.  Advertise- 
ments, both  printed  and  written,  are  still  posted  on 
.hurch-doors,  and  other  places  of  pu'olic  resort,  in 
which  case  they  are  commoidy  called  bills  or  placards. 
The  most  formal  kind  of  A.,  and  that  which  is  em- 
ployed in  the  case  of  royal  proclamations  and  the 
like,  is  publication  in  the  Gazette  (q.  v.) ;  but  so  little 
is  the  Gaiette  read  by  private  persons,  that  the  courts 
of  law  have  held  that  publication  in  it  alone  is  not  a 
sufficient  notice  of  a  dissolution  of  partnership  to 
free  the  partners  from  debts  afterwards  contracted 
in  name  of  the  company.  Public  notifications  are 
requently  enjoined  by  statute;  as,  for  example,  under 
Road  and  Bridge  Acts,  the  Bankrupt  Statutes,  &c. 
In  many  other  ways,  their  legal  effects  are  import- 
ant. Advertisements  by  public  carriers,  railway  com- 
panies, and  the  like,  are  equivalent  to  offers  whereby 
the  advertiser  will  be  bound  to  those  who  send 
goods  on  the  faith,  and  in  accordance  with  the  terms 
of  the  A.  By  advertising  a  general  ship,  for  a  parti- 
cular voyage,  the  master  places  himself  on  the  foot- 
ing of  a  p\iblic  carrier,  and  is  bound  to  receive  goods 
for  the  port  to  which  the  vessel  is  advertised  to 
sail.  A  merchant  in  such  circumstances  can  insist 
on  his  goods  being  received,  unless  the  ship  be 
full,  or  the  entire  freight  engaged.  The  contract 
of  affreightment  is  completed  by  the  A.,  and  the 
shipping  of  the  goods  in  conformity  and  with  refer- 
ence thereto.  See  Charter-p.vrty,  Carrier. — In 
1833,  the  duty  on  advertisements,  which  was  3s.  6d. 
in  Great  Britain,  and  2s.  (jd.  in  Ireland  for  each  A., 
was  reduced  to  Is.  6d.  in  the  former  countrv,  and 
Is.  in  the  latter  (3  and  -4  Will.  IV.  c.  23).  In  1853, 
50 


it  was  wholly  repealed  (10  and  17  Vict.  c.  62).  In 
1832,  the  year  previous  to  the  reduction,  the  duty 
amounted  to  £17iJ,Ci5<);  in  1811  it  was  ,£131,()()8  ;  and 
in  lSo3,  the  year  of  the  rejieal,  it  had  increased  to 
£180, OUO,  thus  exceeding  the  amount  before  the 
period  of  reduction.  Advertisements  are  found  ia 
England  as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  17th  c. ;  but 
advertising  was  not  general  till  the  beginning  of  the 
18th.  In  America,  where  advertising  has  never  been 
taxed,  it  has  long  been  practised  to  an  enormous 
extent ;  and  since  the  repeal  of  the  duty,  it  has  in- 
creased in  this  country  at  a  very  rapid  rate.  Most 
newspapers  are  rendered  remunerative  to  their  pro- 
prietors only  by  means  of  the  advertisements  which 
they  contain.     See  Newspaper. 

ADVICE.     See  Bill  of  Exchange. 

A'DVOCATE  (Lat.  advocatus').  An  A.  is  gene- 
rally defined  '  the  patron  of  a  cause,'  though  it 
docs  not  appear  that  the  'patrons'  who  in  ancient 
Rome,  assisted  their  clients  with  advice  and  pleaded 
their  causes,  were  ever  called  by  that  name.  Even 
in  the  time  of  Cicero,  the  term  advocatus  was  not 
applied  to  the  patron  or  orator  who  pleaded  in 
public,  but  rather,  in  strict  accordance  with  the 
etymology  of  the  word,  to  any  one  who  in  any  piece 
of  business  was  called  in  to  assist  another.  There 
can  ))e  no  doubt,  however,  that  the  forensic  orators 
and  jurisconsults  of  the  latter  period  of  the  republic, 
who  followed  law  as  a  profession,  and  received  fees 
(honoraria)  for  their  services,  occupied  a  position 
closely  analogous  to  that  of  the  A.  of  modern  times, 
and  thus  it  has  been  said  that  the  profession  is  older 
than  the  name.  The  occupations  of  a  jurisconsult 
and  a  forensic  orator  seem  to  have  differed  pretty 
much  as  those  of  a  consulting  and  a  practising  counsel 
do  with  us.  They  might  be  exerci.sed  separately, 
but  were  generally  combined ;  and  thus  Cicero 
speaks  of  his  master,  Scaevola,  as  'the  most  eloquent 
of  the  learned,  and  the  most  learned  of  the  eloquent ' 
(jurisperitorum  eloquentissimus,  eloqnentiuin  juris- 
peritissimus,  J)e  Or.,  i.  20).  Ulpian  defined  an  A. 
to  be  any  person  who  aids  another  in  the  conduct  of 
a  suit,  or  action  {Dig.  59,  tit.  13),  and  in  other  parts 
of  the  digest  it  is  used  as  equivalent  to  an  orator  (see 
also  Tacit.  Annal.,  x.  6),  so  that  the  word  would 
seem  gradually  to  have  assumed  its  modern  mean- 
ing. The  office  of  the  A.  or  barrister  who  conducted 
the  cause  in  public,  was,  in  Rome,  as  with  us,  alto- 
gether distinct  from  that  of  the  procurator,  or,  as  we 
should  say,  attorney  or  agent,  who  rejiresented  the 
person  of  the  client  in  the  htigation,  and  furnished 
the  A.  with  information  regarding  the  facts  of  the 
case.  The  distinction  between  these  two  occupa- 
tions, however,  obvious  and  important  as  it  seems  to 
us,  does  not  everywhere  prevail;  and  in  many  of  the 
states  of  Germany,  in  Geneva,  in  America,  and  in 
some  of  our  own  colonies,  as,  for  example,  in  Canada, 
they  are  united  in  the  same  person.  In  England 
and  Ireland,  advocates  are  called  Barristers,  under 
which  title  will  be  found  a  statement  of  the  duties 
and  responsibilities  which  the  A.  undertakes  to  his 
client,  and  of  the  state  of  the  profession  in  these 
countries.  In  Scotland,  as  in  France,  the  more 
ancient  name  has  been  retained.     See  Advocates, 

FACtJI.TY  OF. 

In  France,  the  avocat  and  avoue  correspond  very 
nearly  to  the  barrister  and  attorney  in  England. 
The  advocates  do  not  form  a  corporation,  in  the 
technical  sense,  but  are  a  free  society  or  association 
{ordre)  which  has  the  power  of  protecting  its  mem- 
bers, and  of  exercising  interna)  surveillance  and 
discipline  over  them.  Neither  do  they  exercise  any 
ministerial  functions  like  those  which  public  authority 
has  conferred,  under  certain  conditions  and  respon- 
sibilities, on  avouei  and  notaries      The  French  A.  is 


ADVOCATE,  LORD— ADVOCATES,  FACULTY  OF. 


simply  a  free  man,  who  lias  firadiiated  In  law,  and 
]iossesses  the  privilege  of  addressing  the  tribunals. 
The  advocates  who  practise  in  each  court  form  a 
separate  college,  admission  to  which  can  be  obtained 
only  with  the  approval  of  those  who  are  already 
members.  Enrolment  in  the  books  of  the  college 
does  not  confer  the  title  of  A.,  for  this  title  belongs 
to  every  licentiate  who  has  taken  the  oaths  before  a 
court ;  but  it  gives  the  right  of  communicating  {droit 
de  communi.qii.er)  with  the  other  members  of  the 
body,  without  which  the  exercise  of  the  profession 
would  be  impossible.  As  a  necessary  consequence 
of  this  arrangement,  erasure  of  the  name  of  any 
individual  from  the  list  is  equivalent  to  a  prohibition 
to  practise.  The  French  A.  possesses  the  same  privi- 
leges as  to  responsibihty  for  his  advice,  and  for 
the  facts  contained  in  his  instructions,  which  belong 
to  members  of  the  corresponding  branch  of  the  legal 
profession  in  this  country.  He  is  also  entitled  io  plead 
covered  (see  Barrette),  and  as  he  has  no  action 
for  his  fees,  they  are,  as  with  us,  paid  in  advance. 
The  French  advocates  have,  on  several  occasions, 
resisted,  as  an  encroachment  on  their  privileges,  the 
attempt  to  compel  them  to  grant  receipts  for  their 
fees.  It  further  belongs  to  the  etiquette  of  the  bar  of 
France  that,  in  communicating  articles  of  process  to 
each  other,  no  acknowledgment  shall  be  exchanged; 
and  we  are  told,  with  honest  pride,  that  during  the 
many  centuries  that  this  custom  has  existed,  not  one 
single  instance  of  its  abuse  has  occurred. 

In  Belgium,  in  Geneva,  and  also  in  those  of  the 
German  states  by  which  the  Code  Napoleon  has 
been  received,  the  organisation  and  discipline  of  this 
l)ranch  of  the  legal  profession  are  similar  to  those 
which  prevail  in  France.  In  the  other  German 
states,  with  the  exception  of  Saxony,  the  formation 
of  the  advocates  into  a  body  has  been  perseveringly 
resisted  by  the  governments.  A  general  assembly 
of  German  advocates  was  attempted  at  Mayence  in 
1344,  and  in  Hamburg  in  1846;  and  in  the  latter 
city,  it  actually  took  place  in  the  following  year,  but 
it  led  to  no  permanent  results. 

ADVOCATE,  Lord.  The  L.  A.  for  Scotland, 
called  also  the  King's  or  Queen's  A.,  is  the  public 
prosecutor  of  crimes,  senior  counsel  for  the  crown 
in  civil  causes,  and  a  political  functionary  of  very 
great  importance  in  the  management  of  Scottish 
affairs.  He  may  issue  warrants  for  arrestment  and 
imprisonment  in  any  part  of  Scotland,  and  possesses 
many  other  discretionary  and  indefinite  powers. 
Previous  to  the  Union,  the  King's  A.  had  a  seat  in 
the  parliament  of  Scotland  ex  officio;  and  since  that 
event,  he  has  been  almost  invariably  a  member  of 
parliament.  He  is  appointed  by  the  crown,  and  his 
tenure  of  oIBce  ceases  with  that  of  the  administration 
of  which  he  is  a  member.  As  first  law-officer  of  the 
crown  for  Scotland,  the  L.  A.,  when  in  parliament, 
is  expected  to  answer  all  questions  relating  to  the 
business  of  Scotland,  and  to  take  the  superintend- 
ence of  legislation  for  that  portion  of  the  LTnited 
Kingdom.  Notwithstanding  his  multitarious  official 
duties,  the  L.  A.  accepts  ordinary  practice  at  the 
bar,  and,  indeed,  is  usually  the  most  extensively 
employeii  practitioner  connected  with  the  party  in 
power.  He  is  assisted  in  the  duties  of  puldic  pro- 
secutor by  the  solicitor-general,  and  by  four  juuiir 
barristers,  called  advocates-depute,  appointed  by 
himself.  The  L.  A.  and  solicitor-general  are  alone 
entitled  to  plead  within  the  bar,  and  they  are  the 
only  barristers  in  Scotland  who  have  the  distinction 
of  silk  gowns.  "When  the  L.  A.  declines  to  prose- 
cute, it  is  competent  for  a  private  party  to  do  so; 
and  in  this  case  the  concurrence  or  '  concourse,' 
as  it  is  called,  of  the  L.  A.,  which  is  grante  1 
as  a  matter  of  course,  must  be  obtained.  Such 
a     proceeding,    however,    is     scarcely    known     in 


practice  in  Scotland.  The  best  historical  account  of 
this  important,  and,  in  many  respects,  anoiimloiis 
office,  with  which  we  arc  acquainted,  is  contained  in 
the  judgment  of  the  late  Lord  Medwyn  iu  King's 
A.  against  Lord  Douglas,  Deceml)er  24,  18:;»).  In 
England,  the  sovereign  pursues  iu  his  own  name; 
and  such  was  the  practice  in  Scotland  also,  till  about 
the  middle  of  the  IGth  c,  when  we  find  Queen  .Mary 
prosecuting  by  her  advocate ;  probably  in  imitatio.i 
of  the  French  custom.  For  some  time  after  the 
institution  of  the  College  of  Justice  in  loo'i,  the  A. 
for  the  crown  was  always  one  of  the  judges  of  the 
Court  of  Session,  and  as  in  France  the  king's  advo- 
cates were  also  at  the  same  time  judges,  this  coinci- 
dence has  been  mentioned  by  Sir  George  Mackenzie 
in  proof  of  the  French  origin  of  the  office ;  but  a 
combiualion  of  offices,  now  held  to  be  incompatible, 
was  not  then  uncommon.  Lord  Medwyn  informs 
us  that  among  the  original  fifteen  ordinary  judges, 
was  Sir  Ad.im  Otterburne,  who  was  King's  A.  from 
1525  to  1538,  and  also  provost  of  Edinburgh  from 
1524  to  1535.  So  late  as  1G8G,  Sir  George  Lockhart, 
when  i)resident  of  the  court,  was  ordered  by  a  letter 
from  King  James  VII.  to  officiate  as  his  A.  in  parlia- 
ment. It  is  not  certain  that  the  King's  A.  was  origi- 
luilly  authorised  to  act  as  public  prosecutor  in  crimes; 
but  "he  certainly  possessed  that  power  in  1587  (c.  77), 
and  it  seems  to  be  implied  in  an  earlier  statute  (157  9,  c. 
78).  It  was  indeed,  as  Lord  Medwyn  remarks,  less  of 
an  anomaly  that  a  judge  of  the  Court  of  Session  should 
act  as  the  representative  of  the  crown  in  crimiiuil 
than  in  civil  causes,  seeing  that  the  former  were 
adjudged  in  another  court.  The  King's  A.  is  first 
mentioned  as  Lord  A.  in  the  record  of  the  Court  of 
Justiciary  in  1598.  But  although  it  was  not  till  the 
institution  of  the  College  of  Justice  that  this  office 
was  placed  on  its  present  footing,  we  have  mention  of 
its  existence  in  1479;  but  the  King's  A.  was  not  then 
one  of  the  officers  of  state,  a  dignity,  indeed,  which 
he  does  not  seem  to  have  attained  till  1540.  In 
1582,  the  salary  of  the  L.  A.  was  only  £40  Scots.  His 
present  salary  "is  £2387,  and  he  is  enthled  to  per- 
quisites which  raise  his  emoluments  greatly  above 
that  sum.  The  L.  A.'s  deputes  have  £500  a  year, 
and  his  secretary  in  London  £350.  The  crown-agent, 
who  is  a  Writer  to  the  Signet  (q.  v.),  and  who  per- 
forms in  reference  to  crown  causes  pretty  much  the 
same  duties  that  fall  to  an  attorney  or  agent  in 
ordinary  litigation,  receives  £1400.  As  to  the  rela- 
tion in  which  the  L.  A.  gtands  to  the  public 
prosecutors  of  crimes  in  the  inferior  courts,  see 
Procurator-fiscal.  The  L.  A.,  though  not  a 
privy-councillor  ex-officio,  is  addressed  as  the  llight 
Honourable  during  his  tenure  of  office. 

ADVOCATES,  Faculty  of,  in  Scotland.  The 
constitution  of  this  body,  like  the  name  by  which 
its  members  are  known,  was  unquestionably  derived 
from  France.  The  profession  seems  to  have  existed 
in  Scotland  from  a  very  early  time;  and  in  1424 
(c.  45)  a  statute  was  passed  for  securing  the  assist- 
ance of  A.  to  the  poor.  Tiie  words  of  the  statute 
are  remarkable,  and  its  spirit,  when  we  consider  the 
period,  highly  creditable  to  the  humanity  and  enlight- 
enment of  the  Scotch.  '  And  gif  there  bee  onie  pure 
creature,  for  fau'.te  of  cunning,  or  dispenses,  that 
cannot,  nor  may  not  follow  his  cause,  the  king,  for 
the  love  of  God,"sall  ordainc  the  judge  before  quhom 
the  cause  sulde  be  determined,  to  purwey  and  get  a 
leilland  a  wise  advocate,  to  follow  sik  pure  creatures 
causes  ;  and  gif  sik  causes  be  obtelned  [gained],  the 
wranger  [wrong-doer]  sail  assyith  baith  the  partic 
skaithed,  and  the  advocatis  coastes  and  travel.' 
This  institution  has  remained  with  little  alteration 
to  the  present  time  (see  Poor's  Roll).  But  though 
existing  as  a  profession,  the  A.  of  Scotland  did  not 
form  a  Facrdty  or  society  till  the  institution  of  the 

51 


ADVOCATES'  LIBRARY— ADVOWSOX. 


College  of  Justice  (q.  v.)  in  1532.  At  first,  their 
number  was  limited  to  ten,  but  there  is  now  no 
limit.  The  number  on  the  rolls  of  the  body  is 
about  425 ;  but  the  number  of  those  who  practise 
does  not  exceed  120.  Even  of  these  a  very  small 
fraction  live  by  the  practice  of  the  profession.  From 
the  improvements  which  have  been  made  in  the 
sheriff-courts,  and  from  other  causes,  the  amount  of 
litigation  in  the  Court  of  Session  has  greatly  dimin- 
ished since  the  beginning  of  the  present  century, 
and  the  continued  accession  of  new  nieml)er3  to  the 
Faculty  of  A.  is  to  be  accounted  for  only  by  the  fact 
that  the  Bar  is  still  regarded  as  the  regular  avenue 
to  pubHc  and  official  life  in  Scotland.  Two  examin- 
ations are  imposed  on  candidates  for  admission,  the 
one  in  general  scholarship,  the  other  in  law ;  the  first, 
however,  being  dispensed  with  in  case  the  intrant 
shall  produce  evidence  that  he  is  a  Master  of 
Arts  of  any  British  University,  or  that  he  has  ' 
attained  such  degree  in  a  foreign  university  as,  in 
the  opinion  of  the  Dean  of  Faculty  and  his  council, 
affords  evidence  of  the  same  amount  of  scholarship 
as  that  afforded  by  the  degree  of  Master  of  Arts  of 
a  Scottish  university.  Sliould  no  such  degree  be 
possessed,  an  examination  takes  place  before  a  com- 
mittee of  the  Faculty,  assisted  by  tliree  or  more 
persons  of  learning  (generally  professors  in  the 
university  of  Edinburgh),  on  the  following  subjects: 
1.  Latin;  2.  Greek,  or  (in  the  intrant's  option)  any 
two  of  the  following  languages — namely,  French, 
German,  Italian,  Spanish ;  3.  Ethical  and  Metaphy- 
sical Philosophy;  4.  Logic,  or  (in  the  intrant's 
option)  Mathematics.  If  the  intrant  be  found 
qualified  in  general  scholarship,  he  niay,  after  the 
expiry  of  a  year,  go  in  for  his  private  examination 
on  law.  The  examinators,  however,  cannot  take 
liim  on  trial  if,  during  the  year  before  such  examin- 
ation, he  have  been  engaged  in  any  trade,  business, 
or  profession,  either  on  his  own  account,  or  as  assist- 
ant to,  or  in  the  employment  of  another.  Proof  of 
attendance  on  the  law-classes  in  the  university  of 
Edinburgh  is  also  requisite.  An  advocate  is  entitled 
to  plead  in  every  court  in  Scotland,  civil,  ecclesias- 
tical, or  criminal,  superior  or  inferior;  and  also 
before  the  House  of  Lords.  A  party  may  manage 
his  own  cause  in  the  Court  of  Session  (q.  v.)  so  liir 
as  oral  pleading  is  concerned,  but  with  exception  of 
defences,  every  paper  in  process  must  be  signed  by 
an  advocate.  There  is  a  widow's  fund  belonging  to 
the  body,  which  is  also  regulated  by  statute.  The 
supreme  judges  of  Scotland,  and  principal  sheriffs, 
are  always,  and  the  sheriff-substitutes  generally, 
selected  from  the  bar.  The  fees  on  admission  to 
the  Faculty  of  A.  are  about  £336. 

ADVOCATES'  LIBRARY.  This  library,  which 
belongs  to  the  Faculty  of  Advocates  in  Edinburgh, 
■was  established  by  Sir  George  Mackenzie  in  1(582. 
It  had  at  first  no  fixed  fund  ;  the  Faculty,  from  time 
to  time,  set  apart  sums  for  its  maintenance,  and 
donations  were  made  for  its  use,  not  only  by  advo- 
cates but  by  others.  By  the  copyright  law  of  1709, 
it  obtained,  along  with  eight  other  libraries,  the 
privilege  of  receiving  a  copy  of  every  new  book. 
This  privilege  is  still  continued  to  the  A.  L. 
(5  and  6  Vict.  c.  45,  s.  8),  although  withdrawn 
from  the  other  Scottish  libraries;  and  to  this 
is  mainly  owing  the  complete  character  of  the 
collection  in  British  books.  It  is  comparatively 
deficient  in  foreign  literature  and  science ;  for  the 
Faculty  have  no  other  funds  at  their  disposal  than 
the  fees  derived  from  '  intrants,'  and  the  sum  they 
are  able  to  devote  to  the  maintenance  of  the  library 
is  quite  inadequate.  The  nmnber  of  volumes  is 
estimated  at  1(50,000 — perhaps  twice  as  many 
as  any  other  Scottish  library.  It  is  particularly 
rich  in  law;  in  Scottish  history  and  antiquities; 
52 


in  the  works  of  the  fathers  and  schoolmen,  and 
in  theology  generally.  The  Spanish  department  is 
particularly  valuable.  The  building  containing  the 
library,  notwithstanding  the  recent  improvements, 
is  dark  and  inconvenient,  most  of  the  rooms  being 
under  the  Parliament  House,  where  the  courts  of 
law  sit.  Although  the  library  belongs  strictly  to 
the  Faculty  of  Advocates,  yet,  under  their  liberal 
management,  it  has  in  a  great  degree  the  character 
of  a  public  institution.  Any  stranger  arriving  in 
Edinburgh  is  admitted  to  see  the  library ;  and  with 
an  introduction,  any  one  may  resort  to  it  to  consult 
books.  Books  may  even  be  borrowed  through  the 
members  of  the  Faculty,  who  are  remarkably  liberal 
in  this  respect.  Tliomas  Ruddiman  and  David 
Hume  both  held  the  office  of  librarian  or  '  keeper  of 
the  A.  L.' 

ADVOCATION,  a  form  of  process  in  the  law  of 
Scotland,  the  object  of  which  is  to  remove  a  cause 
from  an  inferior  court  to  the  supreme  court,  either 
for  the  purpose  of  review,  or  that  the  cause  in  its 
future  stages  may  be  conducted  in  the  Court  of 
Session.  Final  judgments  of  inferior  courts  are 
thus  brought  under  review  of  the  Court  of  Session 
by  lodging  a  written  note  of  A.  with  one  of  the 
depute-clerks  of  Session  or  his  assistant  (1  and  2 
Vict.  c.  8()).  A  certified  notice  of  this  proceeding 
puts  a  stop  to  all  further  steps  in  the  original 
cause.  The  party  advocating  must  find  caution 
for  the  expenses  already  incurred,  or  which  may 
be  incurred,  in  the  Court  of  Session.  See  Caution 
and  .JuKATOuY  CArxioN.  As  a  general  rule,  A. 
is  competent,  unless  debarred  cither  by  statute  or 
confirmed  practice;  but  no  cause  can  be  advocated 
unless  it  exceed  the  value  of  £25  (16  and  17  Vict, 
c.  80,  8.  22).  A.  is  incompetent  in  actions  limited 
to  particular  courts  by  express  statute,  e.  g.,  by  the 
Small  Debt  Acts,  Road  Acts,  &c.  Every  case  in 
which  the  claim  exceeds  £40,  may  be  removed  into 
the  Court  of  Session,  so  soon  as  an  order  allowing  a 
proof  has  been  pronounced,  should  either  party  be 
of  opinion  that  it  ought  to  be  tried  by  jury.  It  is 
now  competent  in  all  advocations  for  either  party, 
at  the  first  calling  of  the  cause  before  the  Lord 
Ordinary,  to  move  for  its  removal  to  the  Inner 
House  by  report.  On  the  other  hand,  the  parties 
have  it  in  their  pow'er  to  enter  into  a  judicial  con- 
tract, whereby  they  consent  that  the  Lord  Ordinary's 
judgment  shall  be  final,  and  not  subject  to  review; 
but  the  express  consent  of  both  parties  is  necessary 
(16  and  17  Vict.  c.  86,  s.  25). 

ADVOCA'TUS  DIA'BOLI,  the  Devil's  Advocate. 
In  the  Romish  Church,  when  it  is  proposed  that  a 
deceased  person  shall  be  canonised,  an  examination 
of  his  past  life  takes  place.  In  this  process,  one 
party  holds  the  office  of  accuser,  or  advocatm  diaboli  ; 
and  it  is  his  duty  to  bring  forward  all  possible 
objections  against  the  proposed  canonisation ;  while, 
on  the  other  side,  the  Advocatus  Dei  (God's  Advocate) 
undertakes  the  defence.  Hence  the  term  A.  D. 
has  been  applied  to  designate  any  person  who  brings 
forward  malicious  accusations. 

ADVOWSON.  The  right  of  presentation  to  a 
church  or  ecclesiastical  benefice  in  England.  Advow- 
sons  are  either  appendant  or  in  (/ross.  Lords  of  manors 
were  orginally  the  only  founders,  and,  of  course,  the 
only  patrons  of  churches ;  and  so  long  as  a  right  of 
patronage  continues  annexed  or  appended  to  the 
manor,  it  is  called  an  A.  appendant.  Such  rights  are 
conveyed  with  the  manor  as  incident  thereto,  by  a 
grant  of  the  manor  only,  without  adding  any  other 
words.  But  where  the  property  of  the  A.  has  been 
once  separated  from  the  property  of  the  manor  by 
legal  conveyance,  it  is  called  an  A.  in  gross,  or  at 
large,  and  is  annexed  to  the  person  of  its  owner,  and 


JCDILES— .EGIS. 


not  to  his  manor  or  Linds.  Advowsons  arc  further 
divided  into  preventative,  collative,  or  donative.  The 
first  is  where  the  patron  has  the  ri<j;ht  of  presenta- 
tion to  the  i)i8liop  or  ordinary,  and  nniy  demand  of 
him  to  institute  his  elerk,  if  he  find  liini  canonically 
qualified.  This  is  the  most  usual  A.  The  second  oi' 
collative  A.  is  where  the  bishop  and  patron  are  one 
and  the  same  person.  In  this  case,  tiie  bishop  cannot 
present  to  himself,  but  he  does  by  the  one  act  of  col- 
lation the  whole  that  is  done  in  common  cases  by 
both  presentation  and  institution.  The  third  or 
donative  A.  is  when  the  sovercif^n,  or  a  subject  by 
his  licence,  founds  a  church  or  chapel,  and  ordains 
that  it  shall  be  at  the  sole  disposal  of  the  patron,  sub- 
ject to  his  visitation  oidy,  and  not  that  of  the  ordi- 
nary, and  vested  in  the  elerk  by  the  patron's  deed 
of  donation,  without  presentation,  institution,  or  in- 
duction. 'This  is  said  to  have  been  anciently  the 
only  way  of  conferring  ecclesiastical  benefices  in 
England  ;  the  method  of  institution  by  the  bishop 
not  being  established  more  eai'ly  than  the  time  of 
Archbishop  a  Bocket,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II. ' — 
AVn-'s  Blackstone,  vol.  ii.  p.  20. 

^'DILES,  Roman  magistrates,  who  had  the  care 
of  public  buildings  {mles),  especially  the  temples,  and 
also  attended  to  the  cleansing  and  repairing  of  the 
etreets,  the  preparations  for  funerals,  public  games 
and  spectacles,  the  inspection  of  weights  and 
measures,  the  regulation  of  markets,  &c. — At  first 
there  were  only  two  yE.,  who  were  chosen  from  the 
plebeians,  and  styled  ^'E.  plcbis  ;  afterwards,  two  oth- 
ers, styled  jiJ.  curiile.t,  were  chosen  from  the  pa- 
tricians (:>G6  B.C.),  and  Julius  Caesar  appointed  a 
new  order  of  ^'.  cereales  to  take  charge  of  ihe  pub- 
lic granaries. 

-(EGI'XA,  now  written  Egina,  an  island  forming 
part  of  the  kingdom  of  Greece,  of  about  forty 
square  miles  in  area,  in  the  ancient  Saronicus 
Sinus,  now  the  Gulf  of  Egina.  It  is  mountainous, 
with  deep  vallevs  and  chasms;  and  the  coast 
affords  only  one  haven  on  the  north-west.  The 
modern  town  of  Egina  stands  on  the  site  of  the 
ancient  town,  at  the  north-west  end  of  the  island. 
The  island  contains  about  7tH)0  inhabitants,  who 
are  chiefly  occupied  in  trade,  navigation,  and 
agriculture.  The  soil  produces  the  best  almonds 
in  Greece,  with  wine,  oil,  corn,  and  various  fruits. 
Partridges  abound  in  such  numbers  that  the 
people  find  it  necessary  to  thin  them  by  destroy- 
ing their  eggs.  The  most  ancient  name  of  the 
island  was  (J'^none,  and,  according  to  tradition,  the 
Myrmidons  dwelt  in  its  valleys  and  caverns.  In 
ancient  times,  the  people  of  jK.  had  considerable 
importance  in  Greece ;  and  their  fleet  distinguished 
itself  for  valour  in  the  battle  of  Salamis.  Their  pros- 
perity excited  the  envy  of  the  Athenians,  who  made 
the  island  tributary,  and  afterwards  expelled  alto- 
gether the  original  inhabitants.  The  language,  man- 
ners, and  style  of  art  amongthe  ancient  people  of  Ai. 
were  Dorian. 

J^GINE'TAN  SCULPTURES.  The  small  island 
of  yEgina  holds  an  important  position  in  the  history 
of  Grecian  art.  A  severely  natural  character  be- 
longs to  its  works  of  sculpture,  of  which  several 
have  been  discovered  in  modern  times.  On  an 
eminence  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  island  stand  the 
ruins  of  a  temple,  usually  called  the  temple  of  Ju- 
piter Panhollenius,  but  now  believed  to  have  been 
a  temple  of  Pallas  or  Minerva.  Among  these  ruins 
a  series  of  statues  were  excavated  by  a  com- 
pany of  Germans,  Danes,  and  Englishmen,  which, 
in  1811,  were  purchased  by  Louis,  then  crown- 
prince  of  Bavaria,  and  are  now  the  most  re- 
markable ornaments  of  the  (ilyptothek  at  Munich. 
They   are  of  various  heights,   and  were   evidently 


intended    to   decorate    the    tympana  of  the   temple 
beside    which   they    were   found.     The  group    that 


Ruins  of  Temple  of  ^gina. 

seems  to  have  been  designed  for  the  hinder  trm- 
panun  is  superior  in  preservation,  and  repre6cnt.3 
a  combat  of  Greeks  and  Trojans  for  the  body  of  » 


Front  elevation  of  Temnle  of  ^gina,  restored. 

fallen  hero.  The  other  group  is  the  contest  of  Tela* 
mon  with  Laomedon.  The 
figures  are  true  to  nature,  as 
in  the  old  Greek  style,  with 
the  structure  of  bones,  mus- 
cles, and  even  veins,  distinct- 
ly marked ;  but  the  faces 
have  that  unpleasant,  forced 
smile  which  is  chwacteristic 
of  all  sculpture  bcjfbre  the 
time  of  Phidias. 

.^^rGIS,  the  shield  of  Ju- 
piter, which  had  been  fash- 
ioned   by    Hephffistus  (Vul- 
can).     When    Jupiter    was 
angry,  he  waved  and   shook 
the  ^.,  making  a  sound  like 
that  of  a  tempest,  by   which  [ 
the  nations  were  overawed. 
The  jE.  was  the  symbol  of    Jlinerva,  with  JE^is. 
divine    protection,     and    be-  From  nn  ancient  statue, 
came,  in  course  of  time,  the 
exclusive  attribute  of  Jupiter  and  Minerva. 


^GLE— AERATED  BREAD. 


^'GLE,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
AurarUiaceve  (q.  v.),  distinguished  by  a  five-toothed 
calyx,  linear  elongate  niuuronate  anthers,  and  a 
many-celled  fruit.  ^.  Mannelos,  the  tree  which 
produces  the  b/iel  fruit  of  India,  has  ternate  petio- 
iate,  ovato-oblong  leaves,  and  the  flowers  in  panicles. 
It  is  found  from  the  soutli  of  India  to  the  base  of  the 
Himalaya  Mountains.  The  fruit  is  delicious,  fra- 
grant, and  nutritious.  In  an  imperfectly  ripened  state, 
it  is  an  astringent  of  great  effect  in  cases  of  diarrhoea 
and  dysentery  ;  and  as  such  has  lately  been  introdu- 
ced into  English  medical  practice.  The  root,  Ijark, 
and  leaves,  are  also  used  as  medicinal.  The  Dutch 
in  Ceylon  prepare  a  perfume  from  the  rind  of  the 
fruit :  and  the  mucus  of  the  seed  is  employed  as  a 
cement  for  many  purposes. 

.EGOSPO'TAMI  or  ^>GOSPO'TAMOS  (Gr.  Goat- 
river),  in  the  Thracian  Chersonese,  is  famous  for  the 
defeat  of  the  Athenian  fleet  by  the  Laceda>mouians 
under  Lysander,  which  put  an  end  to  tlie  Pelopon- 
nesian  War  and  to  the  predominance  of  Athens  in 
Greece,  405  B.C. 

.E'LFRIC,  or  A'LFRIC,  a  distinguished  Saxon 
ecclesiastic  of  the  luth  c,  regarding  whose  age, 
writings,  and  personality  even,  there  has  been  a 
great  difference  of  opinion  amongst  antiqmiries. 
He  appears  to  have  been  the  son  of  the  Ealdorman 
or  Earl  of  Kent  ;  but  early  manifesting  a  devotional 
spirit,  he  entered  the  monastery  of  Abingdon,  the 
members  of  which  belonged  to  the  Benedictine 
order.  Towards  the  close  of  tlie  10th  c,  he  became 
a  priest  in  the  cathedral  of  Winchester.  He  was 
next  appointed  Abbot  of  St.  Albans,  then  Bishop  of 
Wilton,  and  finally  Archbishop  of  York,  although 
others  appear  to  think  him  that  ^S.  w  ho  was  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury.  j¥..,  Archbishop  of  York, 
died  in  1050  ;  ^E.,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  in 
1005.  The  writer  ^E.,  w  hetlier  of  York  or  of  Can- 
terbury, was  a  man  of  superior  attainments  for  his 
time,  of  excellent  character,  and  one  wdiose  religious 
convictions  were  less  disfigured  by  superstition  than 
those  of  his  contemporaries.  The  principal  works 
a.scribed  to  JE.  are — 1.  A  Latin  and  Saxon  glossary, 
printed  at  Oxford  in  1659;  2.  A  Saxon  version  of 
most  of  the  historical  books  of  the  Old  Testament ; 
3.  A  charge  to  his  clergy  ;  i.  Two  volumes  of  Saxon 
homilies  ;  5.  A  Saxon  grammar  in  Latin. 

.EMl'LIUS  PAULUS.  The  most  remarkable  of 
this  name  was  the  son  of  the  consul  ^E.  P.,  who  fell 
in  the  battle  of  Canute,  216  B.C.  Young  ^Emilius 
inherited  his  father's  valour,  and  enjoyed  an  unwont- 
ed degree  of  public  esteem  and  confidence.  In  168 
B.C.  he  was  elected  consul  for  the  second  time,  and 
intrusted  with  the  war  against  Perseus,  king  of 
Macedon,  whom  he  defeated  in  the  battle  of  Pydna. 
He  held  a  great  triumph,  and  brought  so  much  spoil 
into  the  treasury  that  the  regular  tax  was  no  longer 
exacted  from  citizens.  During  the  war,  his  two 
vounger  sons  died  ;  and  ^E.  is  said  to  have  thanked 
the  gods  that  they  had  been  chosen  as  victims  to 
avert  calamity  from  the  Roman  people. 

.ENE'AS,  the  hero  of  Virgil's  ^neid,  was,  accord- 
ing to  Homer,  the  son  of  Anchises  and  Venus,  and 
was  ranked  next  to  Hector  among  the  Trojan  heroes. 
The  traditions  of  his  adventures  before  and  after 
the  fall  of  Troy  are  vaiious  and  discordant.  Virgil 
gives  the  following  version  :  ^Eneas,  though  warned 
by  Priam  in  the  night  when  the  Greeks  entered  Troy, 
to  take  his  household  gods,  and  flee  from  the  city, 
remained  in  the  contest  until  Priam  fell,  when 
taking  with  him  his  family,  he  escaped  from  the 
Greeks,  but,  in  the  confusion  of  his  hasty  flight,  lost 
his  wife  Creusa.  Having  collected  a  fleet  of  twenty 
vessels,  he  sailed  to  Thrace,  where  he  began  build- 
ing the  city  of  JJnos,  but  was  terrified  by  an  unfa- 
54 


vourable  omen,  and  abandoned  his  plan  of  a  set- 
tlement here.  A  mistaken  interpretation  of  the  oracle 
of  Delphi  now  led  him  to  Crete  ;  but  from  this 
place  he  was  diiven  by  a  pestilence.  Passing  the 
promontory  of  Actium,  he  came  to  Epirus,  and  then 
continued  his  voyage  to  Italy  and  round  Sicily  to 
the  promontory  of  Drepanum  on  the  west,  where 
his  father,  Anchises,  died.  A  storm  afterwards  drove 
him  to  the  coast  of  Africa,  and  landing  near  Carthage, 
he  was  hospitably  received  and  entertained  by 
Queen  Dido.  His  marriage  with  Dido  was  prevent- 
ed by  Jupiter,  who  sent  Mercury  with  a  command 
that /Eneas  nmst  return  to  Italy.  Accordingly,  he 
sailed  away,  leaving  the  disappointed  queen,  who  com- 
mitted suicide.  During  his  stay  in  Sicily,  where  he 
celebrated  the  funeral  of  his  father,  the  wives  of  his 
companions  and  seamen,  weary  of  long  voyages 
without  certainty  of  finding  a  home,  set  tire  to  his 
fleet.  After  building  the  city  Acesta,  he  sailed  for 
Italy,  leaving  behiml  him  the  women,  and  some  of 
the  men  belonging  to  his  fleet.  On  landing  in  Italy, 
he  visited  the  Sibyl  at  Cumaj,  and  received  intima- 
tions of  his  future  destiny.  Then,  sailing  along  the 
Tiber,  and  landing  on  the  east  side  of  the  river,  he 
found  himself  in  the  country  of  Latinus,  king  of  the 
Aborigines.  Lavinia,  the  daughter  of  Latinus,  had 
been  destined  to  marry  a  stranger ;  but  her  mother 
had  promised  to  give  her  in  marriage  to  Turnus, 
king  of  the  Rutuli.  A  war  ensued,  which  terminated 
in  the  marriage  of  J^hieas  with  Lavinia.  Their  son, 
^Enk.^s  Sylvius,  as  the  ancestor  of  the  kings  of  Alba 
Longa,  and  also  of  Ronnilus  antl  Rennis,  was  regard- 
ed as  the  founder  of  the  Roman  empire.  It  is  haidly 
necessary  to  add  that  all  these  statements  are  merely 
mythical,  having  no  historical  basis. 

yEO'LIAX  HARP,  a  very  simple  musical  instru- 
ment which  produces  harmonic  sounds  when  placed 
in  a  current  of  wind.  It  is  formed  by  stretching 
eight  or  ten  strings  of  catgut,  all  tuned  in  unison, 
over  a  wooden  shell  or  box,  made  generally  in  a 
form  sloping  like  a  desk.  The  sounds  produced  by 
the  rising  and  falling  wind,  in  passing  over  the 
strings,  are  of  a  drowsy  and  lulling  character,  and 
have  been  beautifully  described  by  the  poet  Thom- 
son as  supplying  the  most  suitable  kind  of  music  for 
the  Castle  of  Indolence. 

^EO'LIANS,  ene  of  the  principal  races  of  the 
Greek  people,  who  were  originally  settled  in  Thes- 
saly,  from  which  they  spread  and  formed  numerous 
settlements  in  the  northern  parts  of  Greece  and  in 
the  Avest  of  Peloponnesus.  In  the  11th  c.  n.c, 
some  part  of  them  emigrated  to  Asia  Minor,  where 
they  ibunded,  on  the  N.  W.  coast,  in  Mysia,  and  the 
adjacent  isles,  more  than  thirty  cities;  among  them, 
Smyrna,  and  Mitylene  in  the  island  of  Lesbos,  where 
the  J^^oHan  dialect  of  the  Greek  language  chiefly 
developed  itself  in  the  forms  employed  in  the  poetry 
of  Alcasus  and  Sappho.  The  ^^olian  shared  the  fato 
of  the  other  Grecian  colonies  in  Asia  Minor.  First 
oppressed  by  the  Lydian  kings,  then  deprived  of 
their  independence  l;y  the  Persians,  they  became  a 
portion  of  the  great  empire  founded  by  Alexander, 
and,  passing  through  a  stage  of  subjection  to  the 
dynasty  of  the  Seleucidse,  were  ultimately  absorbed 
in  the  Roman  empire. 

JiON,  a  Greek  word  signifying  an  age,  and  also 
eternity.  The  Gnostics  .spoke  of  .Eons,  in  a  pecuhar 
sense,  as  powers  that  had  emanated  from  God  before 
the  beginning  of  time,  and  existed  as  distinct  entities 
or  spirits.  They  were  called  ^Eons  either  as  partak- 
ing of  the  eternal  existence  of  God,  or  because  they 
were  thought  to  preside  over  the  various  ages  and 
transformations  of  the  world.     See  Gnosticis.\i. 

AERATED  BREAD,  a  term  that  has  been 
applied  to  bread  prepared  by  a  process  very  recently 


AERATED  WATERS. 


patented,  and  likely  to  come  into  use.  In  ordinary 
bread-niiiking,  the  wlieat-flonr  is  moistened  with  water 
and  worked  into  dou<;h,  to  whieh  eouimon  .s;ilt  and 
yeast  are  added.  The  latter  eauses  the  flour  to 
ferinenc  or  decompose,  when  carbonic  acid  is  given  otl' 
at  every  part ;  and  when  the  fermented  dough  is 
j)laced  in  an  oven,  the  bubbles  of  cai'bonic  acid  gas 
expand,  and  cause  the  formation  of  the  spongy 
mass  characteristic  of  well-made  loaf-bread.  The 
new  process  of  preparing  A.  B.  consists  in  placing 
the  flour  in  a  strong  enclosed  iron  box,  and  moisten- 
ing it  with  carbonic  acid  water,  prepared  as  stated 
under  A.  Waticks.  The  dough  is  then  worked 
up  by  machinery  inside  the  box,  and  in  ten  minutes 
or  so,  it  is  taken  out,  shaped  into  loaves,  and  placed 
in  an  oven,  when  the  carbonic  acid,  previously 
introduced  with  the  water  within  the  dough, 
expands,  and  forms  a  light  palatable  bread.  The 
advantages  winch  this  method  of  working  bread 
has,  as  set  forth  by  the  patentees,  are — 1.  There 
is  a  saving  of  the  whole  of  the  waste  caused  by 
fermentation,  which  averages  fully  10  per  cent. 
Thus  10  per  cent,  more  bread  is  made  out  of  a  sack 
of  flour  than  by  the  old  process.  2.  The  process, 
instead  of  occupying  eight  or  ten  hours,  is  completed 
in  half  an  hour.  3.  The  cost  of  machinery  and  gas 
is  less  than  that  of  yeast  used  in  the  old  process.  4. 
The  dough  requires  scarcely  any  handling  to  form  it 
into  loaves.  5.  The  bread  is  absolutely  pure — it  is 
simply  flour,  water,  and  salt.  Finally,  should  the 
whole  of  the  bread  in  the  kingdom  be  thus  made,  a 
saving  would  be  effected  in  one  year  equal  in  amount 
to  the  entire  ordinai'y  importation  of  foreign  wheat. 
AERATED  WATERS  are  employed  largely 
as  vefreshing,  refrigerant  beverages  to  allay  thirst 
during  warm  weather,  and  during  feverish  conditions 
of  the  animal  fi'ame.  The  most  common  A.  beverage 
is  Carbonic  acid  v;nter,  generally  spoken  of  as  Soda- 
water,  though  it  seldom  contains  any  soda.  It  is  pre- 
pared on  the  largo  scale  by  placing  whiting,  chalk, 
or  carbonate    of  lime    (CaOjCOj)    in    a    lead   vessel 


Gazogene. 

with  water  and  sulphuric  acid  (SOg),  when  the 
sulphuric  acid  combines  with  the  lime  to  form 
stucco  or  sulphate  of  lime  (CaO,S{)3),  and  carbonic 
acid  (COa)  is  evolved  as  gas.  The  latter  is  received 
in  a  reservoir,  and  is  thereafter  foiced  into  water, 
so  that  the  latter  dissolves  about  five  times  its 
own  volume  of  the  gas.  The  water  then  consti- 
tutes a  brisk  sparkling  liquid,  with  a  pungent,  but 
pleasant  acidulous  taste.  On  the  small  scale,  and 
for  family  use,  carbonic  acid  water  may  be  con- 
veniently prepared  in  the  apparatus  known  as  the 
gazogene  or  sclt::o(jhie.  The  complete  apparatus  is 
seen  at  A.  and  dissected  at  B.  and  C.  In  proceed- 
ing to  use  the  vessel,  the  lower  globe  at  B.  is 
filled  with  water  by  means  of  the  long  funnel  E, 
taking  care  that  no  water  runs  into  the  smaller  and 


!  upper  division.  The  powders,  consisting  of  bicar- 
bonate of  soda  (NaO,IIO,'iC02)  and  tartaric  acid  (T), 
are  then  placed  in  tlie  upper  globe  by  means  of  the 
small  funnel  I),  and  care  is  taken,  by  plugging  up 
I  the  tube  connnunicating  with  the  lower  part  bv  the 
stopper  F,  that  no  powder  passes  into  the  larger 
'  globe.  The  long  tube,  C,  is  then  inserted  into  the 
I  globes,  and  screwed  well  in.  The  apparatus  is 
inclined  till  water  from  the  lower  globe  enters  and 
fills  the  upper  globe  about  one-third;  then  it  is 
placed  erect,  and  allowed  to  be  at  rest  for  two  hours, 
when,  if  the  screw  stop-cock  at  the  upper  y)art  be 
opened,  the  carbonated  water  will  flow  out  readily 
into  any  vessel  ])laecd  to  receive  it.  The  explana- 
tion of  the  action  which  goes  on  in  the  vessel  is, 
that  tartaric  acid  and  bicaibonate  of  soda  have 
no  action  on  each  other  so  long  as  they  are  drv ; 
but  whenever  water  is  admitted,  the  tartaric  acid 
combines  with  the  soda  and  water  to  form  tartrate 
of  soda  and  water  (NaO,HO,T),  and  at  the  same 
time,  carbonic  acid  (COo)  is  given  off,  and  descend- 
ing the  tube  into  the  lower  globe,  dissolves  in  the 
water  contained  therein.  Occasionally,  bisulphate 
of  potash  is  used  instead  of  the  tartaric  acid,  to  save 
the  greater  expense  of  the  latter. — The  gazogenes  can 
likewise  be  used  in  the  prejiaration  of  true  soda- 
water,  or  Ecm  de  Vichy,  by  adding  a  little  car- 
bonate of  soda  to  the  water  in  the  lower  globe  before 
charging  with  carbonic  acid.  A.  wine  may  be 
obtained  by  placing  white  wine  with  a  little  sugar- 
candy  in  the  lower  globe  instead  of  water.  Spark- 
liiig  lentonade  is  procured  when  the  carbonic  acid 
water  is  run  into  a  tumbler  containing  a  little 
sirup  of  sugar;  and  A.  fruit-beverages,  when  the 
water  charged  with  carbonic  acid  is  received  in  a 
glass  containing  about  a  table-spoonful  of  either  of 
the  fruit-sirups. 

The  less  common  A.  W.,  prepared  on  the  large 
scale,  are — 1.  A.  soda-water  {irue  soda-water),  obtained 
by  adding  15  grains  of  crystallised  carbonate  of 
soda  to  each  bottle  before  it  is  charged  with  the 
carbonic  acid  water;  2.  A.  potash-water,  by  employ- 
ing in  a  similar  way  20  grains  of  bicarbonate  of 
potash  ;  3.  A.  Setter s-icater,  when  carbonate  of  soda 
and  chloride  of  sodium  (common  salt)  aie  dissolved 
in  carbonic  acid  water;  4.  A.  Carrnra-ivafer,  when 
finely  divided  Carrara  marble  is  dissolved  in  the 
acid-charged  water;  5.  A.  lime-water,  when  other 
forms  of  lime  than  the  Carrara  marble  are  used ; 
t).  A.  magjiesiaii-watcr,  when  magnesia,  or  the  car- 
bonate of  magnesia,  is  used  ;  and  A.  cJialii})ratc-iratcr, 
when  a  compound  of  iron  is  dissolved  in  the  caibonic 
acid  water.  The  latter  beverage  has  lately  been 
employed  in  medicine,  as  an  easy  means  of  intro- 
ducing iron  into  the  blood,  and  with  good  effect. 
A.  Carrara  and  lime  waters  are  now  administered 
in  cases  where  the  bony  structure  requires  to  be 
strengthened ;  and  A.  magnesia-water  is  a  very 
agreeable  mode  of  giving  a  patient  a  dose  of  mag- 
nesia. The  well-known  effervescing  draughts  called 
soda-powders,  and  seidlit.--powders,  are  two  other 
kinds  of  A.  drinks.  In  the  former,  bicarbonate  of 
soda  and  tartaric  acid  are  added  to  water  in  a 
tumbler,  and  a  refreshing  draught  instantaneously 
prepared.  Scidlitz-poirders  contain  tartrate  of  Roda 
and  bicarbonate  of  soda  in  one  paper,  and  tartaric 
acid  in  the  other;  and  when  both  are  added  to 
water,  effervescence  ensues,  and  the  liquid  is  then 
partaken  of. 

A.  W.  likewise  occur  naturally.  Water,  as  it  is 
drawn  from  a  spring,  tastes  differently  from  the 
same  water  after  being  boiled  and  cooled;  and  this 
is  due  to  the  unboiled  water  containing  the  gases 
oxygen,  nitrogen,  and  carbonic  acid — especially  the 
latter — dissolved  in  it.  Spring-water  is  therefore  a 
natural  A.   beverage.     Rain-water  has   a   mawkish, 

55 


AERIAL  rOISOXS— AEROLITES. 


insipid  taste,  mainly  because  of  tlie  minute  quantity 
of  gas  therein  dissolved ;  but  when  that  rain-water 
trickles  down  the  mountain-side,  and  is  daslied 
from  ledge  to  ledge  of  rock,  it  absorbs  and  dis- 
solves the  gases  from  the  air,  and  is  thus  naturally 
aerated.  Many  waters  are  aerated  in  a  natural  but 
peculiar  way,  which  confers  upon  them  important 
medicinal  properties;  and  these  will  come  belore  ua 
under  their  more  popular  title  of  Mlueval  Springs. 
AERIAL  POISONS.     See  Miasma. 

AERODYNAMICS  is  that  branch  of  science 
wdiieh  treats  of  air  and  other  gases  in  motion.  It 
examines  first  the  phenomena  of  air  issuing  from  a 
vessel,  which  correspond  in  many  respects  with  those 
of  water.  See  HYnaoDYNAMics.  Much  depends,  as 
in  the  case  of  water,  upon  the  nature  of  the  orifice, 
■whether  a  mere  hole  in  the  side  of  the  vessel,  or  a 
tube  or  adjutage.  Another  subject  of  A.  is  the  motion 
of  air  in  long  tubes,  wheie  the  resistance  of  friction, 
&c.,  has  to  be  ascertained.  That  resistance  is  found 
to  be  nearly  in  proportion  to  the  square  of  the  velo- 
city, to  the  length  of  the  tube,  and  inversely  to  its 
width.  A.  examines  also  the  velocity  of  air  rushing 
into  a  vacuum,  of  wind,  &c.  The  instrument  used 
for  the  latter  purpose  is  called  an  anemometer.  See 
WiKDS.  Air  is  found  to  rush  into  a  void  space  at 
the  rate  of  from  1300  to  1400  feet  per  second.  One 
of  the  most  important  inquiries  in  A.  is  the  resist- 
ance offered  to  a  body  moving  in  air,  or — which  is 
the  same  thing — the  pressure  exerted  by  air  in 
motion  upon  a  body  at  rest.  The  law  may  be  stated, 
with  sufficient  accuracy  for  practical  purposes,  as 
follows :  llie  resistance  or  presxure  is  proportional 
to  the  square  of  the  velocity.  We  might  conclude 
from  reason,  without  experiment,  that  such  would 
be  the  ca?e ;  for  if  one  body  is  moving  through  the 
air  four  times  faster  than  another  of  the  same  size, 
not  only  will  it  encoir.jter  four  times  as  many  par- 
ticles of  air,  but  it  will  give  each  of  them  lour  times 
as  great  an  impulse  or  shock,  and  thus  encounter 
4x4,  or  sixteen  times  as  much  resistance. 

This  resistance  is  greatly  increased  by  another 
circumstance,  especially  with  great  velocities.  The 
air  in  front  of  the  moving  body  becomes  accumulated 
or  condensed,  and  a  partial  or  even  entire  vacuum 
is  formed  behind  it.  AVith  a  velocity  of  1700  feet 
per  second,  for  instance,  the  resistance  is  found  to  be 
about  three  times  as  great  as  the  simple  law  of  the 
square  of  the  velocity  would  give.  By  the  operation 
of  these  laws  of  resistance,  a  heavy  body  let  fall 
with  a  parachute  attached  to  it,  comes,  after  a  certain 
time,  to  move  with  a  velocity  approaching  more  and 
more  nearly  to  a  uniform  motion. 

AEROLITES  (Gr.  aer,  air,  and  lilhos,  stone),  or 
Meteoric  Stones,  Fireballs,  and  Shooting-stars, 
are  now  classed  together  as  being  merely  varieties 
of  the  same  phenomenon.  Aerolites  that  fall  during 
the  day,  are  observed  to  be  projected  from  a 
small  dark  cloud,  accompanied  by  a  noise  like 
thunder,  or  the  firing  of  cannon;  at  night,  they 
proceed  from  a  fireball,  which  splits  into  fragments 
with  a  similar  sound.  It  is  believed  that  the  dark 
cloud  that  accompanies  the  fall  of  aerolites  by  da}', 
would  be  luminous  at  night;  and  smoking,  exploding 
fireballs  have  sometimes  been  seen  luminous  even  in 
the  brightness  of  tropical  daylight.  The  connection 
between  aerolites  and  fireballs  is  thus  established. 
Fireballs,  again,  cannot  be  separated  from  shooting- 
stars,  the  two  phenomena  being  sometimes  blended, 
and  also  being  found  to  merge  into  one  another,  both 
with  respect  to  the  size  of  their  disks,  the  emanation 
of  sparks,  and  the  velocities  of  their  motion. 

There  are  numerous  records  and  stories  in  all  ages 
and  coinitries  of  the  fall  of  stones  from  the  sky  ; 
but  until  recent  times,  they  were  treated  by  philoso- 
66 


phers  as  instances  of  popular  credulity  and  super- 
stition. It  was  not  till  the  beginning  of  the  litth  c. 
that  the  fact  was  established  beyond  a  doubt. — 
According  to  Livy,  a  shower  of  stones  I'ell  on  the 
Alban  Mount,  not  far  from  Rome,  about  654  B.C. 
The  fall  of  a  great  stone  at  J"]gospotami,  on  the 
Hellespont,  about  407  b.c,  is  recorded  in  the  Parian 
Chronicle  (q.  v.),  and  mentioned  by  Plutarch  and 
Pliny.  It  was  still  shewn  in  the  days  of  Pliny 
(d.  79  A.D.),  who  describes  it  as  of  the  size  of  a 
wagon,  and  of  a  burned  colour.  In  the  year  1492 
A.D.,  a  ponderous  stone,  weighing  '260  lbs.,  fell  from 
the  sky  near  the  village  of  Ensisheim,  in  Alsace ; 
part  of  it  is  still  to  be  seen  in  the  village  church. 
An  extraordinary  shower  of  stones  fell  near  L'Aigle, 
in  Normandy,  on  the  2Gtli  April  1803.  The  cele- 
brated I'rench  philosopher,  I\I.  Biot,  was  deputed  by 
government  to  repair  to  the  spot  and  collect  the 
authentic  facts ;  and  since  the  date  of  his  report,  the 
reality  of  such  occurrences  has  no  longer  been  (iue.«- 
tioned.  Nearly  all  the  inhabitants  of  a  large  district 
had  seen  the  cloud,  heard  the  noises,  and  observed 
the  stones  fall.  Within  an  elliptical  area  of  seven 
miles  by  three,  the  number  of  stones  that  had  fallen 
could  not  be  less  than  two  or  three  thousand;  the 
largest  were  17  lbs.  in  weight.  These  are  only  a  few 
out  of  hundreds  of  instances  on  record. 

As  was  natural  with  objects  of  such  mysterious 
origin,  meteoric  stones  have  always  been  regarded 
with  religious  veneration.  At  Eniesa,  in  Syria,  the 
sun  was  worshipped  under  the  form  of  a  black  stone, 
reported  to  have  fallen  from  heaven.  The  holy 
Kaaba  of  Mecca,  and  the  great  stone  of  the  pyramid 
of  Cholula,  in  Mexico,  have  all  the  same  history. 

The  existence  of  such  bodies  once  admitted,  led 
to  assigning  a  meteoric  character  to  strange  ferru- 
ginous masses  found  in  different  countries,  and  which 
had  no  history,  or  were  only  adverted  to  in  vague 
tradition.  Of  this  kind  is  the  immense  mass  seen 
by  Pallas  in  Siberia,  now  in  the  Imperial  Museum 
at  St.  Petersburg.  The  largest  known  is  one  in 
Brazil,  estimated  at  14,000  lbs. 

One  constant  characteristic  of  meteoric  stones  is 
the  fused  black  crust,  Uke  varnish,  with  which  the 
surface  is  coated.  From  the  circumstance  of  this 
coat  being  very  thin,  and  separated  from  the  inner 
mass  by  a  sharply  defined  line,  it  is  thought  to 
indicate  some  rapid  action  of  heat,  which  has  not  had 
time  to  penetrate  into  the  substance  of  the  stone. 
This  view  is  favoured  by  the  fact  that  the  stones 
are  found  in  a  strongly  heated,  but  not  incandescent 
state,  when  they  fall.  Their  specific  gravity  ranges 
from  two  to  seven  or  even  eight  times  that  of  water. — 
As  to  their  chemical  composition,  the  predominating 
element  is  iron,  in  a  native  or  metallic  state,  gener- 
ally combined  with  a  small  proportion  of  nickel. 
According  to  Humboldt,  the  aerolites  that  fell  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Agram,  in  Croatia,  in  1751,  the 
Siberian  stone,  and  specimens  brought  by  that 
philosopher  from  Mexico,  contain  96  per  cent,  of 
iron ;  w  hile  in  those  of  Sienna  the  iron  scarcely 
amounts  to  2  per  cent.,  and,  in  some  rare  instances, 
metallic  ii on  is  altogether  wanting.  A  w riter  in  the 
Quarterly  Jieview,  No.  CLXXXIII.,  thus  sums  up  the 
result  of  all  the  chemical  analyses  hitherto  made : 
'  We  find  the  actual  number  of  recognised  elements 
discovered  in  aerolites  to  be  nineteen  or  twenty — 
that  is,  about  one-third  of  the  whole  number  of 
elementary  substances  (or  what  we  are  yet  forced  to 
regard  as  such)  discovered  on  the  earth.  Further, 
all  these  aeroliuc  elements  actually  exist  in  the 
earth,  mough  never  similarly  combined  there.  No 
new  substance  has  hitherto  come  tons  from  without; 
and  the  most  abundant  of  our  terrestrial  metals, 
iron,  is  that  which  is  largely  predominant  in  aerolites, 
forming  irequently,  as  in  some  of  the  instances  jutt 


AEROLITES. 


mentioned,  upwards  of  90  parts  in  100  of  the  mass. 
Seven  otiier  metals— copper,  tin,  nickel,  coba  t, 
chrome,  manganese,  and  molybdcna— enter  variously 
into  the  composition  of  these  stones.  Cobalt  and 
nickel  arc  the  most  invariably  present;  but  the 
proportion  of  all  is  tritiing  couipared  with  that  of 
iron  Further,  there  have  been  louud  in  dillcrcni 
aerolite''  six  alkalies  and  earths— namely,  soda, 
potash  magnesia,  lime,  silica,  and  alumina;  and,  in 
addition  to  these,  carbon,  sulphur,  pl.o>phorus,  and 
hvdro^en.  Finallv,  oxvgen  must  also  bo  named  as 
a'constitm-nt  of  manv"  aoro'.iles,  entering  into  the 
composition  of  several  of  the  substances  just  men- 
tioned As  respects  the  manner  of  conjunction  ot 
these  elements,  it  is  exceedingly  various  iu  dilfcrent 


aerolites.  A  few  there  are,  especially  examined  by 
Berzehus  and  Rose,  containing  olivine,  augiie,  horn- 
blende, and  other  earthy  minerals  ;  and  closely 
resembling  certain  crystalline  compounds  which  we 
dnd  on  the  surface  of  the  earth.' 

Besides  those  solid  masses  of  con.=iidorable  size, 
numcrovis  instances  are  on  record  of  showers  of  dust 
over  large  tracts  of  land;  and  it  is  remarkable  that 
such  dust  has  generally  heen  found  to  contain  small 
hard  angular  grains  resembling  augite.  Stories  of 
the  fall  of  gelatinous  masses  from  the  sky  are 
ranked  by  Humboldt  among  the  mythical  fables  of 
meteorology.  It  has  been  supposed  that  such  fabka 
may  have  originated  in  the  very  rapid  growth  of 
gelatinous  algaj,  as  JS'ostoc  (q.  v.). 


-.dls 


I: 
m 


Shower  of  Shooting-stars  witnessed  in  North  America. 


Flrehalls  and  Sliootinr/sfarx. — From  the  height 
and  apparent  diameter,  the  actual  diameter  of  the 
largest  ftreballs  is  estimated  by  Ilumbohlt  to  vary 
fi-oni  5i)U  to  -ISOO  feet;  others  allow  a  diameter  of 
about  a  mile.  Shooting-stars  are  thought  to  have 
diameters  varying  from  80  to  120  feet._  In  most 
cases  of  luminous  meteors,  a  trahi  of  light  many 
miles  ill  length  is  left  behind.  One  or  two  instances 
are  on  rccwd  where  the  train  of  the  fireball  con- 
tinued shining  for  an  hour  after  the  body  disap- 
peared. The.  hc/fflifs  o(  shooting-stars  are  found  to 
range  from  15  to  l.jO  miles,  at  the  points  at  which 
they  begin  and  cease  to  be  visible.  Their  velocitiex 
vary  from  18  to  36  miles  in  a  second.  When  it  is 
remembered  that  the  velocity  of  Mercury  in  its  orbit 
is  '26-1  miles  in  a  second,  of  Venus  10-2,  and  of  the 
Earth  l(i-4,  we  have  in  this  fact  a  strong  oonfirma- 
tion  of  the  planetary  iKiturc  of  meteorites. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  facts  connected  with 
shooting-stars  is,  that  certain  appearances  of  them 
are  periodic.  On  most  occasions  they  are  sporrid/c— 
that  is,  they  appear  singly,  and  traverse  the  sky  in 
all  directions.  At  other  times,  they  appear  in 
swarms   of  thousands,   moving   parallel;    and  these 


swarms  are  periodic,  or  recur  on  the  same  days  of 
the  year.  Attention  was  first  directed  to  this  fact 
on  occasion  of  the  prodigious  swarm  which  appeared 
in  Xorth  America  between  the  12th  and  13th  of 
November  1833,  described  by  Professor  Olmsted  of 
Newhaven.  The  stars  fell  on  this  occasion  lik(^ 
Hakes  of  snow,  to  the  number,  as  was  estimated,  of 
240,000  in  the  space  of  nine  hours,  and  varying  in 
size  from  a  moving  point  or  phosphorescent  line  to 
globes  of  the  moon's  diameter.  The  most  important 
observation  made  was,  that  they  all  appeared  to 
proceed  from  the  same  quarter  of  the  heavens — the 
vicinity,  namely,  of  the  star  7,  in  the  constellation 
Leo;  and  although  that  star  had  changed  greatly 
its  height  and  azimuth  during  the  time  that  the 
phenomenon  lasted,  they  continued  to  issue  from  the 
same  point.  It  was  afterwards  computed  by  Encke, 
that  tills  point  was  the  very  direction  in  which  the 
earth  was  moving  in  her  orbit  at  the  time.  Atten- 
tion being  directed  to  recorded  appearances  of  the 
same  kind,  it  was  observed  with  surprise  that  several 
of  the  most  remarkable  had  occurred  on  the  same 
day  of  November,  especially  that  seen  by  Humboldt 
at  Cumana  in  1799,  and  by  other  observers  over  a 

57 


AERONAUTICS— AEROSTATIC  PRESS. 


great  extent  of  the  earth.  The  November  stream 
was  again  observed  in  the  United  States  in  1834, 
between  the  Kith  and  14th,  though  less  intense. 
Though  often  vague,  and  in  some  years  altogether 
absent,  this  phenomenon  has  recurred  with  such 
regularity,  both  in  Ameiica  and  Europe,  as  to  es- 
tablish its  periodic  character. 

Another  periodic  swarm  of  considerable  rogulnrity 
is  that  appearing  between  the  9th  and  the  14th  of 
August,  and  noticed  in  ancient  legends  as  the  '  fiery 
tears'  of  St.  Lawrence,  whose  festival  is  on  the  loth 
of  that  month.  There  are  other  periodic  appear- 
ances; and  Humboldt  gives  the  foliowing  epochs  as 
especially  worthy  of  remark  :  22d  to  25th  of  April ; 
17th  of  July;  10th  of  August;  12th  to  14th  of 
November;  27th  to  29th  of  November;  6th  to  12th 
of  December. 

■  It  remains  to  notice  briefly  the  various  opinions 
that  have  been  advanced  as  to  the  origin  of  aerolites, 
and  the  theory  of  meteors  in  general.  The  hypo- 
theses that  have  been  formed  in  answer  to  the 
question — Whence  come  those  solid  masses  that  fall 
upon  the  earth  ? — are  of  two  kinds  ;  some  ascribing 
to  them  telluric  origin,  and  others  making  them 
ahen  to  the  earth.  Of  the  first  kind,  is  the  conjecture 
that  they  may  be  stones  ejected  from  terrestrial 
volcanoes,  revolving  for  a  time  along  with  the  earth, 
and  at  last  returning  to  it.  Another  theory,  which 
at  one  time  Ibund  considerable  lavour,  supposed  that 
the  matter  of  which  aerolites  are  compo.sed  existed 
in  the  atmosphere  in  the  form  of  vapour,  and  was  by 
some  unknown  cause  suddenly  aggregated  and  pre- 
cipitated to  the  earth.  These  conjectures  are  un- 
tenable in  the  face  of  the  facts  of  the  phenomena 
stated  above,  and  are  now  completely  given  up. 

In  seeking  a  source  beyond  the  earth,  the  moon 
readily  presented  itself.  Olbers  was  the  first  to 
investigate,  1795,  the  initial  velocity  necessary  to 
bring  to  the  earth  masses  projected  from  the  moon. 
This  'ballistic  problem,'  as  Humboldt  calls  it,  occu- 
pied during  ten  or  twelve  years  the  geometricians 
Laplace,  Blot,  Braudes,  and  Poisson.  It  was  calcu- 
lated that,  setting  aside  the  resistance  of  air,  an 
initial  velocity  of  about  8000  feet  in  a  second,  which 
is  about  live  or  .six  times  that  of  a  cannon-bail,  would 
suffice  to  bring  the  stones  to  the  earth  with  a  velo- 
city of  35, out)  feet.  But  Olbers  has  shewn,  that  to 
account  for  the  actual  measured  velocity  of  meteoric 
stones,  the  original  velocity  of  projection  must  be 
fourteen  times  greater  than  the  above.  It  is  against 
this  lunar  theory,  that  we  have  no  proof  of  active 
volcanoes  now  existing  in  the  moon ;  and  with  the 
improvement  of  the  telescope,  the  probability  of  the 
contrary  is  increasing.  It  is,  accordingly,  giving 
place  tp  the  planetary  theory,  which  we  noticed  at 
the  outset — a  theory  which  harmonises  better  with 
the  tendency  of  physical  research  and  of  speculation 
generally. 

The  discussion  of  hypotheses  as  to  the  genesis  of 
the  recognised  planets  out  of  portions  of  the  gradu- 
ally contracting  vaporous  mass  of  the  sun ;  the  con- 
tinued discovery  of  hitherto  unobserved  planets 
between  the  orbits  of  Mars  and  Jupiter ;  the  count- 
less multitude  of  comets  that  are  observed  travers- 
ing our  system  in  all  directions,  and  undergoing 
appreciable  alteration  both  of  consistency  and  orbit ; 
— all  prepare  us  for  the  idea,  that  matter  may  exist 
in  the  inter-planetary  spaces,  in  every  variety  of  form 
and  condition.  To  account  for  the  phenomena  of 
meteors  as  above  described,  we  must  suppose  that 
there  are  both  detached  masses,  each  revolving  in 
an  independent  orbit,  and  giving  rise  to  sporadic 
meteors;  and  also  connected  systems,  forming  rings 
or  zones  round  the  sun.  The  intersection  of  the 
earth's  orbit  by  such  zones  or  streams,  would  account 
for  the  periodic  swaums  of  meteors;  and  if  we 
68 


suppose  the  asteroids  composing  it  to  be  irregularly 
grou])ed,  we  see  a  reason  why  the  same  stream 
should  not  be  alw.iys  of  ci|ual  intensity.  There  may 
even  be  periodicity  in  this  res|)ect  too.  Between 
1799  and  1833 — the  two  most  brilliant  manifestations 
of  the  November  stream  on  record — there  elapsed 
34  years  ;  and  a  brilliant  display,  though  inferior  to 
that  of  1833,  was  observed  in  China,  California  and 
the  Eastern  United  States,  but  not  in  Europe,  Nov. 
14,  1867,  and  another  Nov.  14,  1808. 

Tliis  shower,  which  had  been  confidently  anticipated, 
was  observed  byniunerouscorpsof  scientific  men,  and 
the  data  accumulated  Anil  probably  soon  enal)lc  astron- 
omers to  perfect  the  theory  of  their  origin.  Prof.  New- 
comb  believes  that  Temjile's  or  Tuttle's  comet,  whose 
orbit  the  entire  stream  of  November  meteors  is  known 
to  follow,  is  itself  an  agglomeration  of  meteors  just 
dense  enough  to  be  visible  in  the  sun's  rays  ;  and  Sir 
J.  Herschel  has  again  advanced  the  theory  that  me- 
teoric showers  are  simply  light  caused  by  the  collision 
of  the  earth's  atmosphere  with  the  tenuous  substance 
of  a  comet.    This  theory  is  accepted  by  Prof.  Adams. 

AERONAUTICS,  the  art  of  navigating  the  air. 
Sec  Balloon. 

AEROSTATICS.  This  branch  of  science  treats 
of  the  equilibrium  and  pressure  of  air  and  other  gases, 
and  of  the  methods  of  measuring  it  h\  the  barometer 
and  other  instruments.  The  expansive  force  or  pres- 
sure of  atmospheric  air  varies  with  time  and  place. 
In  a  medium  condition  of  the  atmosphere,  and 
near  the  sea-level,  l)aiometrical  observations  give 
the  pressure  or  weight  equal  to  that  of  a  cohnnn  of 
mercury,  30  inches  high,  or  of  a  column  of  water 
about  34  feet  high.  This  makes  the  mean  pressure 
of  the  atmosphere  nearly  15  lbs.  on  every  square 
inch.  This  mean  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  ia 
generally  taken  as  the  unit  or  measure  of  expansive 
or  elastic  forces  generally;  any  particular  pressure 
is  said  to  be  equal  to  so  many  atmospheres.  Aero- 
statics also  investigates  the  phenomena  of  the 
compression  of  gases ;  in  other  words,  the  relation 
between  the  elasticity  and  the  density  or  volume 
of  a  gas.  According  to  the  law  of  JIariotte,  the 
expansive  force  of  one  and  the  same  body  of  gas  is 
pioportional  to  its  density ;  or,  which  is  the  same 
thing,  the  expansive  force  of  a  body  of  gas  under 
different  degrees  of  compression,  varies  inversely  as 
the  space  which  it  occupies.  If  its  elastic  force,  at 
one  stage,  be  measured  by  50  lbs.,  when  compressed 
into  half  the  space,  that  force  will  be  100  lbs.  Con- 
nected with  this  is  the  investigation  of  the  variation 
of  density  and  pressure  in  the  several  vertical  strata 
of  the  atmosphere.  It  is  obvious  that  the  weight  of 
the  atmosphere  must  diminish  as  we  ascend,  as  part 
of  it  is  left  below  ;  and  it  results  from  Mariotte'a 
law,  that,  at  different  distances  from  the  earth's 
surface,  increasing  in  arithmetical  progression,  the 
atmospheric  pressure  diminishes  in  geometrical 
progression.  This  principle  furnishes  the  means  of 
measuring  heights  by  the  Barometer  (q.  v.). 

The  elastic  force  of  air  and  other  gases  is  very 
much  increased  by  heat ;  and  consequently,  when 
allowed,  they  expand.  It  is  found  that  a  rise  of 
temperature  of  1°  of  Fahrenheit,  causes  any  gia  to 
expand  V4eo  of  its  own  bulk  ;  and  this  expansion  is 
uniform.  If  adding  10°  to  the  temperature  of  a 
body  of  gas  increases  its  bulk  3  cubic  inches,  an 
addition  of  20°  will  give  an  increase  of  6  inches;  of 
50°,  15  inches,  and  so  on.  This  law  was  discovered 
by  Gay-Lussae,  and  has  been  verified  by  subse- 
quent investigators.  Both  it,  however,  and  that  of 
Mariotte,  can  be  looked  upon  as  only  nearly  true, 
and  that  within  certain  limits. 

AEROSTATIC  PRESS.  This  is  a  machine  used 
for  extracting  the  colouring-matter  from  dve-woods 


^SCHINES— ^SOP. 


iunl  such  like.  A  vessel  is  divided  by  a  horizontal 
l);utition  pierced  with  small  holes.  Upon  (his  the 
substance  containing  the  colour  is  laid,  and  a  cover, 
also  ])erforated,  is  placed  upon  it.  The  e.xtiacting 
lifpiid  is  then  poured  on  the  top,  and  the  air  being 
drawn  from  the  under  part  of  the  vessel  by  a  pump, 
the  liquid  is  forced  through  the  substance  by  the 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere. 

.^'SCIIIXES,  an  Athenian  orator,  second  only  to 
Demosthenes,  whose  contemporary  and  rival  he  was. 
I'hilip  of  Macedon  was  then  pursuing  his  designs  for 
the  sul)jiigation  of  the  several  (Jreek  states  to  his 
own  sway  ;  and  while  Demosthenes  advocated  tlie 
policy  of  opposing  him  before  it  was  too  Lite, 
jE.  was  the  head  of  the  peace-party.  ^E.  was 
a  member  of  more  than  one  embassy  sent  by  the 
Athenians  to  deal  with  Philip  ;  and  Demosthenes 
accused  him  of  receiving  bribes  from  the  Macedo- 
nian monarch,  and  of  betraying  the  cause  of  Athens 
and  of  her  allies.  There  is  no  proof  that  tliis  was 
the  case ;  and  perhaps  AL  was  deceived  by  the  wily 
Philip  into  believing  that  he  meant  no  harm  to  the 
liberties  of  Athens,  and  that  peace  was  the  best 
poHcy  for  his  countrymen.  The  result  justified  the 
sagacious  fears  of  Demosthenes,  and  condemned  the 
selfish,  isolating  policy  of  jE.  When  it  was  proposed 
to  reward  Demosthenes  with  a  golden  crown,  ibr  his 
patiiotic  exertions  in  defence  of  his  country,  yE. 
biought  an  accusation  of  illegality  against  the 
proposer,  Ctesiphon.  Demosthenes  rephed,  and 
.Escliines  being  vanquished,  and  having  thus  incur- 
red the  penalty  attached  to  an  unfounded  accusation, 
was  oliliged  to  retire  from  Athens.  He  finally  es- 
tablished a  school  of  eloquence  in  Pthodes,  which 
enjoyed  a  high  reputation.  On  one  occasion,  he  read 
to  his  audience  in  Rhodes  his  oration  against  Ctesi- 
phon ;  and  some  of  them  expressing  their  astonish- 
ment that  he  should  have  been  defeated  in  spite  of 
such  a  powerful  display,  he  replied:  'You  would 
cease  to  be  astonished  if  you  had  heard  Demos- 
thenes.' The  oration  against  Ctesiphon  and  two 
others  are  the  only  authentic  productions  of  yE.  that 
have  come  down  to  us.  He  was  born  SS9  n.c,  and 
died  at  Samos,  S14  b.c. 

Jil'SCHYLUS,  the  father  of  Greek  tragedy,  was 
born  at  Eleusis,  in  Attica,  525  B.C.  We  have  but 
scanty  notices  of  his  life.  He  fought  in  the  battles 
of  Marathon,  Salaniis,  and  PlatKa,  witnessed  the 
fall  of  Darius  and  Xerxes,  and  shared  in  the  exulting 
sentiments  which  afterwards  pervaded  liberated 
Greece.  Of  the  seventy  or  ninety  tragedies  ascribed 
to  JE.,  only  seven  have  been  preserved — Prometheus 
Bound,  the  Seven  againxt,  lliebcx,  the  Persians,  Aga- 
niennion,  the  Choephori,  Eiuncnides,  and  the  Sup- 
pliants. These  are  sufficient  to  prove  that  JE.  was 
the  creator  of  the  Greek  dnima  in  its  higher  form. 
He  introduced  action  in  place  of  the  perpetual 
chorus,  and  dramatic  dialogue  to  supersede  the 
long  narrations  of  his  predecessors  Thespis  and 
Chccrilus.  Scenic  effects,  masks,  and  dresses,  were 
other  improvements  introduced  in  the  plays  of  .E. 
The  plots  of  his  pieces  are  very  simple,  and  display 
no  ingenuity  of  construction  or  solution.  His  gene- 
ral tone  is  elevated  and  earnest,  and  shows  a  pref- 
erence of  strong  to  gentle  emotions.  Destiny  is 
represented  in  its  sternest  aspect ;  gigantic  heroes, 
Titan.s,  and  gods,  rather  than  men,  appear  on  the 
scene,  and  the  lofty  grandiloquence  of  the  language 
is  in  accordance  with  tiie  characters.  In  the  choruses, 
the  language  is  often  turgid  and  obscure.  For  some 
reason,  not  well  known,  ^E.  left  his  native  city,  and 
went  to  Sicily,  where  he  was  honourably  received  by 
King  Hiero.  Here  he  died  at  Gela,  456  b.c,  and  the 
inhabitants  of  the  city  raised  a  monument  to  his 
memory,     lu    the    poetical    trauslatiou   by    Dlackie, 


the  non-classical  reader  may  get  a  very  tolerable 
notion  of  the  grandeur  and  fire  of  this  greatest  of 
all  ancient  dramatists. 

^ESCl'LA'PIUS  appears  in  Homer  as  an  excellent 
physician,  of  human  origin  ;  in  the  later  legends,  he 
becomes  the  god  of  the  healing  art.  The  accounts 
given  of  his  genealogy  are  various.  According  to 
one  story,  he  was  the  son  of  Coronis  and  the  Arca- 
dian Ischys.  Ajjollo,  enraged  by  the  infidelity  of 
Coronis,  caused  her  to  be  put  to  death  by  Diana, 
but  spared  the  boy,  who  was  afterwards  educated  by 
Chiron.  In  the  healing  art,  M.  soon  surpassed  his 
teacher,  and  succeeded  so  far  as  to  restore  the  dead 
to  life.  This  offended  Pluto,  who  began  to  fear  that 
his  realm  would  not  be  sufficiently  peopled ;  he 
therefore  complained  to  Jove  of  the  innovation,  and 
Jove  slew  ^E.  by  a  flash  of  lightning.  After  this  he 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  the  gods  by  the  gratitude 
of  mankind,  and  was  especially  worshipped  at  Epi- 
daurus,  on  the  coast  of  Laconica,  where  a  temple  and 
grove  were  consecrated  to  him.  Here  oriental 
elements,  especially  serpent-worship,  seem  to  have 
been  mingled  with  the  rites  and  ceremonies.  From 
Epidaurus  the  worship  of  the  healing  god  extend- 
ed itself  over  the  whole  of  Greece,  and  even  to 
Rome.  According  to  Homer,  M.  left  two  sons,  Ma- 
chaon  and  I'odalirios,  who,  as  physicians,  attended 
the  Greek  army.  From  them  the  race  of  tlie  Ascle- 
piades  descended.  Hygieia,  Panaceia,  and  -Egle 
are  represented  as  his  daughters.  His  temples 
usuahy  stood  without  the  cities  in  healthy  situations, 
on  hillsides,  and  near  fountains.  Patients  that  wer« 
cured  of  their  ailments  offered  a  cock  or  a  goat  to 
the  god,  and  hung  up  a  tablet  in  his  temple,  record- 
ing the  name,  the  disease,  and  the  manner  of  cure. 
Many  of  those  votive  tablets  are  still  extant.  The 
statue  of  the  god  at  Epidaurus,  formed  of  gold  and 
ivory  by  Thrasymedes,  represented  .E.  as  seated  on 
a  throne,  and  holding  in  one  hand  a  staff  with  a 
snake  coiled  round  it,  the  other  hand  resting  on  the 
head  of  a  snake;  a  dog,  as  emblem  of  watchfulness, 
at  the  foot  of  the  deity.  Praxiteles  and  other  sculp- 
tors 1  epresented  the  god  as  an  ideal  of  manly  beauty, 
and  closely  resembling  Jupiter ;  with  hair  thrown 
up  from  the  brow,  and  falling  in  curls  on  each  side. 
The  upper  part  of  the  body  was  naked,  and  the 
lower  was  covered  by  a  mantle  falling  in  folds  from 
the  shoulders.  He  had  sometimes  a  laurel-wreath 
on  his  head,  and  a  cock  or  owl  at  his  feet ;  or  was 
attended  by  a  dwarf-figure  named  Telesphorns — 
AscLKPiADKs,  the  followers  of  ^E.,  who  inherited  and 
kept  the  secrets  of  the  healing  art  ;  or,  assuming 
that  Ai.  was  merely  a  divine  symbol,  the  Asclepiades 
must  be  regarded  as  a  medical,  priestly  caste,  who 
preserved  as  mysteries  the  doctrines  of  medicine. 
The  members  of  the  caste,  or  medical  order,  were 
bound  by  an  oath — the  Hippoeratis  jusjurandwn — . 
not  to  divulge  the  secrets  of  their  profession.  In 
Rome,  292  b.c,  when  a  fatal  pestilence  prevailed, 
the  Sibylline  books  commanded  that  Jisculapius 
must  be  brought  from  Epidaurus.  Accordingly,  an 
embassy  was  sent  to  this  place,  and,  when  they  had 
made  their  request,  a  snake  crept  out  of  the  temple 
into  their  ship.  Regarding  this  as  the  god  ^E.,  they 
sailed  to  Italy,  and,  as  they  entered  the  Tiber,  the 
snake  sprang  out  upon  an  island,  where,  afterwards, 
a  temple  was  erected  to  yE.,  and  a  company  of  priests 
appointed  to  take  charge  of  the  service  and  practise 
the  art  of  medicine.  Hippocrates  is  said  to  have 
descended  from  the  Asclepiades  of  Cos,  who  traced 
their  descent,  on  the  mother's  side,  from  Hercules. 

^SOP,  an  ancient  Greek  writer,  whose  name  is  at- 
tached to  the  most  popular  of  the  existing  collections 
of  Fables.  His  history  is  very  uncertain,  and  some 
critics  have  even  denied  his  existence.  First  among 
these  is  Luther,  in  his  preface  to  the  German  ^iJsop, 

59 


Ji:STIIETICS. 


1530.  We  are  told,  however,  on  the  authority  of 
Herodotus  (ii.  KiJ.),  Diog.  Laenius  (i.  7'i),  and  Phi- 
tarch  Sept.  Sap.  C'onviv.,  and  Be  Sera  Num.  Vi/id.), 
that  Jisop  lived  in  the  latter  half  of  the  6th  century 
B.C. ;  that  lie  was  a  slave  at  Samos ;  that,  on  receiv- 
ing his  freedom,  he  visited  Croesus  and  Pisistratus,  by 
the  former  of  whom  he  was  commissioned  to  dis- 
tribute some  money  among  the  citizens  of  Delphi,  and 
that,  on  his  refusal  to  pay  it,  in  consequence  of  a 
dispute,  he  was  thrown  over  a  precipice  by  the  infu- 
riated mob.  We  are  further  informed  that  the 
Athenians  erected  a  statue  to  him  fiom  the  chisel  of 
Lysippus.  Wliethcr  this  person  was  the  autlior  ol"  the 
existing  iEsopean  collection  or  not.  we  know,  from 
Aristophanes,  and  other  authorities,  tliat  fables  bearing 
his  name  were  popular  in  the  most  brilliant  pei'iod  of 
Athenian  literature.  The  conjecture  of  Bontley, 
Lowever,  seems  well  founded,  that  these  fables  were 
transmitted  entirely  through  oral  tradition.  Focrates 
{Pfunlft,  p.  fil)  turned  such  of  them  as  he  could 
rememlier  into  veise,  of  which  Diog.  Laertius  has 
preserved  a  S|)ccimen  ;  and  the  same  was  done  by 
Demetrius  Phalereus,  320  n.c.  The  oidy  Greek  ver- 
sion, however,  of  which  any  entire  fables  remain, 
and  wliich,  as  shown  by  Pentley,  has  furnished  ma- 
terials to  subsequent  collections,  is  that  of  Bubrius 
(q.v.),  a  writer  of  some  mark,  who  is  supposed  to 
have  lived  in  the  age  before  Augustus.  Of  the  fables 
now  bearing  the  name  of  vKsop,  there  are  throe  sets, 
the  fust  from  a  MS.  of  the  13th  c,  published  at 
Florence  in  1809;  the  second,  a  collection  by  Max- 
imus  Planudes,  a  monk  of  the  1-lth  c,  containing  a 
Ufe  (supposed  to  have  been  the  work  of  Planudes, 
till  it  was  found  in  the  earlier  MS.)  of  yKsop,  full 
of  fabulous  particulars;  and  the  third  a  collection 
published  in  IGld,  from  MSS.  found  at  Heidelberg. 
All  these  are  contained  in  tiie  edition  of  Schneider, 
Breslau,  1810.  The  resemblance  between  some  of 
the  fables,  and  the  personal  peculiarities  attributed 
in  common  to  ^Jsop  and  to  the  Arabian  fabulist 
Lokman,  have  led  some  persons  to  conclude  that  the 
two  men  were  identical ;  and  others,  that  the  fables 
attributed  to  them  in  common  belong  to  the  same 
eastern  source.  See  Phj^dkus. — A  Roman  actor  of 
this  name,  Claudius  uEsorus,  a  contemporary  and 
friend  of  Cicero,  was  as  eminent  in  tragedy  as  Koscius 
was  in  comedy. 

^5:STIIE'TICS,  a  term  invented  about  the  middle 
of  last  century  by  Baumgarlen,  a  professor  of  philos- 
ophy in  the  university  of  Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  to 
denote  the  science  of  the  Beautiful,  particularly  of 
Art,  as  the  most  perfect  manifestation  of  the  Beauti- 
ful. It  has  the  merit  of  being  at  once  comprehen- 
sive and  clear,  and  has  therefore  been  pretty  widely 
adopted,  of  late  years,  by  critics  both  in  France  and 
England. 

The  Beautiful  (Gr.  to  kalon)  was  a  favourite  subject 
of  contemplation  amongst  the  ancients.  The  name 
of  Plato  is  inseparably  associated  with  it,  but  in  his 
philosophisings,  he  nowhere  separated  the  Beautiful 
from  the  Good.  Aristotle,  again,  from  the  immense 
acquaintance  which  he  possessed  with  objects  of  art, 
deduced  the  most  admirable  laws  and  rules  (Canons 
of  Criticism),  so  that  his  Poetics,  according  to  Schiller, 
constitute  a  true  Rhadamanthine  tribunal  for  poets. 
But  the  results  he  arrived  at  are  regarded  by  the 
a  priori  school  of  festheticians  as  empiricism  rather 
than  science.  Baumgarten  they  hold  to  be  the  first 
who  considered  the  subject  from  the  true  scientific 
point  of  view,  and  therefore  entitled  to  be  called 
the  founder  of  the  philosophy  of  art.  All  sensuous 
apprehension,  not  in  one  form  or  manifestation 
only,  but  in  every  possible  form  of  manifestation, 
was  included  in  his  view  of  the  subject,  and 
this  conception  he  expressed  by  the  word  ^Esthetics, 
from  the  Greek  aisthanomai,  I  feel,  indicating  not 
60 


absolute  or  objective  knowledge  of  things,  but  such 
as  is  conditioned  subjectively  by  the  play  of  our 
.sen.sii)ilities.  The  term  is  thus  not  confined  to 
the  hmits  of  the  Beautiful,  though  in  point  of  fact 
we  employ  it  in  this  partial  signification.  Beauty 
wa.«,  with  Baumgarten,  the  result  of  the  highest 
and  purest  a-sthetic  perception,  to  the  realisation  of 
w  hich  the  finer  portion  of  our  nature  aspires  ;  and 
to  trace  which  through  the  whole  sphere  of 
art,  was  the  work  of  .Testhetic  philosophy  (Si?i7ieri- 
erkenntniss).  Kant  subsequently,  from  his  point  of 
view,  carried  out  this  theory  of  the  festhetic  faculty 
in  his  critical  treatise  on  the  power  of  the  Judg- 
ment. Everything  he  conceived  may  be  regarded 
a?sthetically  as  well  as  absolutely,  in  reference  to 
ourselves  as  well  as  in  reference  to  nature.  An 
object  may  be  in  harmony  with  our  sensibilities, 
as  well  as  in  harmony  with  the  totality  of  material 
phenomena ;  or  it  may  not  be  in  harmony  with  the 
I'ormer,  and  yet  truly  accord  with  the  latter.  So,  too, 
with  the  judgment.  It  may  choose  to  nppieheud 
things  in  their  adaptation  to  nuui,  or  in  what  is  cal.- 
ed  the  telcological  [loint  of  view — that  is,  their  fiiuil 
end  or  objective  adaptation  to  each  other.  Hence 
the  ajsthetical  judgment  considers  objects  as  beauti- 
ful, agreeable,  or  useful ;  while  the  telcological  judg- 
ment strives  to  reach  their  absolute  design,  and 
remains  indifferent  to  personal  predilections.  Why 
certain  objects  excite  in  us  a  purely  selfish  interest, 
and  others  a  purely  unselfish  pleasure,  Kant  does  not 
venture  to  determine,  for  he  never  investigates  the 
objective  quality  of  the  Beautiful,  but  confines  him- 
self strictly  to  its  influence  upon  the  feelings  and 
desires.  Schetling  was  the  first  to  undertake  this 
inquiry  after  Schiller  had  paved  the  way  for  him  in 
his  treatise  on  J'Jsthetics.  The  latter,  perhaps  the 
most  lucid  and  intelligible  of  German  a>stheticians, 
in  a  note  to  his  twentieth  letter  on  yl^sthetic  Cul- 
ture, exj>lains  his  conception  of  the  new  science  as  fol- 
lows: All  things  that  can  ever  be  objects  of  per- 
ception may  be  considered  under  four  different 
relationships.  A  fact  can  relate  directly  to  our 
sensuous  coiidition — that  is  its  physical  quality;  or  to 
the  uiulerstanding — that  is  its  logical  (jiiality  ;  or  to 
the  will — tliat  is  its  moral  quality  ;  or  to  the  entirety 
of  our  differer.t  powers,  rather  than  to  any  particular 
manifestation  of  these — that  is  its  aesthetic  quality. 
There  is  a  culture  '"or  the  health,  for  the  understand- 
ing, for  morality,  and  for  taste  or  beauty  :  the  last 
of  which  has  for  its  design  to  bring  out  the  totality 
of  our  sensuous  and  spiritual  powers  in  their  great- 
est possible  harmony.  Schiller's  idea  of  the  Beauti- 
ful is  necessarily  as  comprehensive  as  his  conception 
of  the  sphere  of  ^Esthetics.  He  will  not  admit  that 
it  is  the  result  of  a  mere  limited  experience,  taught 
us  through  the  operation  of  phenomena,  animate  and 
iiurnimate,  on  our  senses,  but  of  pure  abstract  reflec- 
tion. It  is,  therefore,  a  transcendental  idea.  It 
originates  in  the  perfect  union  of  matter  and  spirit. 
From  this  it  follow  s,  that  '  Beauty  can  be  exclusively 
neither  mere  life,  as  some  ingenious  observers  have 
maintained,  nor  mere  form,  as  has  been  decided  by 
some  speculative  philosophers  and  philosophising 
artists '  (for  instance,  Burke  and  Raphael  Mengs). 

Passing  over  Schelling's  transcendental  specula- 
tions, which  are  couched  in  a  style  not  very  intelli- 
gible to  the  Engli.sh  mind,  we  come  to  the  theory  of 
Ilegel.  Like  that  of  Schelling,  it  also  proceeds  from 
the  so-called  metaphysics  of  the  Beautiful.  It  is  the 
absolute  ideal  realising  itself.  Nothing  is  truly  beauti- 
ful except  this.  Nothing,  therefore,  which  exi.stscau 
be  termed  such.  Out  of  the  sphere  of  the  pure  reason 
we  have  only  an  eternal  aspiration.  In  the  finite 
mind,  the  absolute  ideal  is  always  striving  to  realise 
itself,  but  never  completely  succeeds.  There  is  only 
a  ceaseless  approximation.     Hegel  then  traces  the 


ESTHETICS. 


growth   and  development  of  the  Beautiful,  the  fir.st 
form  of  whose   existence  is  natnral  Beauty    and,  as 
Vischer  justly  adds,  the  Beauty  untolded  m  history. 
But  this  Beailtv,  whether  of  nnture  or  history,  m  rare, 
accidental,  fu-itive,  and  tarnishe.l  by  intermixture 
t>'ith  the  not-beautiful.    This  deficiency  or  Innitation 
arises  from   its   being    unconscious   of  itselt.     Hie 
Beautiful  is,  so  to  speak,  as  yet  in  its  infancy.    1 
does  not  know  cither  that  it  is  or  what  it  is.     It  tirst 
passes  into  self-reco-nition  in  the  dawn  of  human 
intelli'^ence,  and    its    conscious    realisation  ot    itselt 
increases  in  proportion  to  the  culture  ot  the  race  or 
the  individual.      The    highest   finite   realisation   o 
it  is  Art;  for  though  the  form  ot    art  be  material, 
it   is   matter  shaped    according  to   an   idea.      Ihe 
artist  looks  on  the  form   simply    as  the   objective 
embodiment  of  the    idea— every   remnant    ot   rii.lc 
nature  b..ing  stripped  oft".     Form,  though  springing 
out  of  matter,    is  thus  a  deliverance  Irom  matter, 
and    the    particular    Arts    may    consequently     be 
re-arded  as  the  gradual  working  of  the  mind  out 
of  materialism.     The  formative  Arts— Architecture, 
Sculpture,  Tainting— are    silent,   heavy,   sti  1  partly 
material.   Music  is  an  advance  on  these.    It  breathes 
in   a    higher   region.       The    materiahsnri    of    bound 
becomes  all  but  ideal.     Poetry  is  a  further  advance. 
It  is  the  pathway  of  the  intellect  to  pure  thought 
Esthetics,  in  this  point  of  vieNV,  is  a  science,  ba,«ed 
on  a  knowledge  of  the  historic  development  ot  the 
Beautiful.     It  wanders  through   its  whole   kingdom, 
of  which  Art  is  only  a  province,  though,  as  has  been 
seen,  the  richest  and  most  valuable. 

Such  was  the  aspect  in  which  Hegel  regarded  the 
new  science.    He  fused  it  into  his  histonco-transcen- 
dental  metaphysic,  and  so  stirred  up  regarding  it  the 
old  quarrel  which  had  agitated  the  latter.     Reahsts 
made  their  appearance,  who  Tigorou.<ly  assailed  the 
principles  of  Fichte,  Schelling,  and  Hegel    in  their 
various  applications    to  Philosophy,  Theology,  and 
Esthetics.    The  reaction  was  and  is  most  conspicuous 
in  the  second  of  these,but  has  as  certainly  manifested 
itself  in  the  others  also.     It  is  denied  that  the  ideal 
conceived  bv  man  is  superior  to  the  Real,  as  it  is  in 
itself.     It  is'  man  who  lowers  it  by  his  inadequate 
apprehension  of  its  harmony  and  perfection.     The 
greatest  artist  does  not  strive  to  outshine  or  even 
to  reach  the  beauty  of  nature,  but  to  surpass  himself 
in  it.     The  whole  historic  theory  of  Hegel  is  hke- 
wi'^e  rejected,  after  severe  and  searching  criticism, 
from  a  rationalistic  point  of  view.     Hegel  conceives 
the  first  eflbrt  of  art  to  have  arisen  from  a  longing  on 
the  part  of   the  human  spirit  to  emancipate  itseL 
from  the  thraldom  of  matter.     This  is  the  idealistic 
view  of  its  beginning.     Kugler,  on  the  other  hand, 
affirms  that  it  arises  from  '  the  necessity  which  man 
is  under  to  bind   his  thoughts  to  one  firm  spot,  and 
to    give  to  this    memorial    a    form    which  may  be 
expressive  of  the  thought.'    The  origin  of  Art  is  thus 
made  retrospective,  not  prospective.     This  may  be 
considered  the  realistic  view  of  its  beginning,    bo  the 
question  stands  at  present  in  Germany. 

In  France,  the  founder  of  the  Eclectic  School  of 
Philosophy,  Victor  Cousin,  has  eloquently  expounded 
the  Platonic  view  of  M.  In  the  second  part  of 
his  treatise  Du  Vrai,  du  Beau,  et  da  Bien  (On  the 
True,  the  Beautiful,  and  the  Good),  he  has  a 
chapter  on  'the  Beautiful  in  Objects,'  in  which, 
after  discussing  the  principal  theories  of  the  mate- 
rialists and  geometricians,  and  pointing  out  what  he 
conceives  to  be  the  errors  and  limitations  of  such 
theories,  he  proceeds  to  a  consideration  of  physical, 
intellectual,  and  moral  beauty,  endeavours  to  dis- 
cover the  quality  or  qualities  in  which  they  agree, 
from  this  rises  to  the  apprehension  of  an  ideal 
beauty  whose  realisation  he  finds  in  God.  '  God, 
Bays  Cousin,  '  in  whom  is  comlnned  absolute  unity 


with  infinite  variety,  is  necessarily  the  realised  ideal 
of  all  l>eautv.' 

Speculations  on  this  subject  in  Britain  have  been 
mostly  limited  to  the  Beautiful  in  form  and  colour. 
We  have  not  in  general  sought,  like  the  Germans,  to 
discover  the  idea  oi  the  Beautiful,  but  the  Beautiful 
itself  Our  critici.^m  may,  and  indeed  does  seem 
meagre  and  unphilosophical  to  them,  but  it  is  at  least 
dear,  and  its  p\irposc  obvious.  We  have  put  to  our- 
selves this  question :  Arc  there,  or  are  there  not, 
constant  qualities  in  certain  objects  which  make 
them  what  we  call  Beautiful  ?  Does  Beauty  arise 
from  anything  inherent  in  the.se,  or  does  it  depend 
upon  accidents  in  us,  such,  for  instance,  as  the  com- 
plex and  numberless  phenomena  of  Association?  la 
it  objective  or  subjective  ? 

Tlie  first  publication  on  this  subject  of  any  con- 
sequence—if we  except  Lord  Shaftesbury's  Charac- 
terixtics,  in  which  there  is  set  forth  a  'rapturous 
Platonic  doctrine,'  impossible  to  criticise,  because 
unintelligible— was  Dr.  ITutcheson's  Im/vhy  (172."i). 
In  this  work,  the  existence  of  an  'internal  sense,' 
through  which  we  either  obtain  a  perception  of  the 
BeautHu!  or  arc  made  in  some  way  conscious  of  its 
presence,  was  maintained.  The  notion  of  a  sixth 
sense  has  been  very  feeverely  criticised  by  Jeffrey  in 
his  celebrated  article  on  Beauty. 

Certain  explanations  and  modifications  of  this 
theory  were  made  by  the  followers  of  Hutcheson, 
but  nothing  really  new  was  brought  out  tih  Edmund 
Burke  published  his  Trcatue  on  the  Sublime  and 
the  Beautiful  (17.50)-  There  is  no  work  upon  the 
subject  so  popular  or  so  worthless.  Every  one 
has  heard  of  it,  large  numbers  have  read  it,  and 
yet  the  fundamental  principle  is  weak  and  absunl. 
He  confounds  the  beautiful  with  the  luxurious.  '  All 
objects  appear  beautiful  which  have  the  power  of 
producing  a  peculiar  relaxation  of  our  nerves  and 
fibres,  and  thus  inducing  a  certain  degree  of  bodily 
languor  and  sinking! ' 

Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  a  contemporary  of  Burke, 
maintained  a  vcrv  remarkable  theory  of  the  Beautiful, 
which  he  borrowed  from  the  celebrated  Pere  Buffier, 
and  illustrated  at  great  length.  Beauty  was  con- 
ceived to  be  the  mean  between  two  extremes.  This 
doctrine  is  open  to  the  fatal  objection  that  the  most 
ordinary  is  therefore  the  most  beautiful,  and  that, 
consequently,  the  greatest  poem  or  the  finest  land- 
scape must  be  that  which  is  the  most  commonplace. 
Nevertheless,  Sir  Joshua  does  not  hesitate  to  push 
his  theory  to  extremities,  declaring  that  if  what  wc 
term  the  deformed  or  monstrous  were  only  more 
common  than  what  we  call  the  beautitul,  they  would 
exchange  names  and  sensations— a  statement  which 
may  safely  be  left  to  refute  itself. 

The  next  work  on  this  subject  that  excited  any 
measure  of  popular  attention  was  Alison's  Esaayx  on 
the  Nature  and  Principles  of  7'aste  (1790).  The 
theory  propounded  by  this  writer  is  generally  known 
as  the  theory  of  Association.  The  most  powerful 
exposition  oflhe  Association  theory  is  that  given  by 
Jeffrey,  in  his  fiimous  article  in  the  Enajclopadia 
Britanvica,  and  in  his  critique  on  Alison  m  the 
Edinbarqh  Revieio  (1811).  According  to  Jeffrey  : 
'These  'emotions  (that  is,  those  excHed  by  the 
contemplation  of  certain  objects)  are  not  original 
emotions,  nor  produced  directly  by  any  qualities 
in  the  objects  which  excite  them;  but  are  reflec- 
tions or  ima-'cs  of  the  more  radical  and  familiar 
emotions  to  which  wc  have  already  alluded,  and 
are  occasioned  not  by  any  inherent  virtue  in 
the  objects  before  us,  but  by  the  accidents,  if  we 
may  so  express  ourselves,  by  which  these  may  have 
been  enabled  to  suggest  or  recall  to  us  our  own 
past  sensations  or  sympathies.'  In  his  defence  of 
this  theory,  Jeffrey  is  obUged  to  consider  those  ot 

61 


ESTIVATION— ^TOLIA. 


Stewart  and  Payne  Knight,  the  former  of  which 
is  piirtly,  and  the  latter  entirely,  opposed  to  his 
own.  tSo  long  as  he  coiitiiies  his  argument  to 
association  in  connection  with  landscapes,  it  seems 
very  conclusive  ;  but  when  he  comes  to  combat 
Payne  Knight's  doctrine  as  to  the  intrinsic  beauty 
of  colours,  it  ceases  to  be  satisfactory.  This  writer 
maintains  that  colours  possess  a  primitive  and 
original  beauty,  which  may  be  enriched  by  asso- 
ciation, but  which  does  not  depend  upon  it.  Jeflrey 
denies  this,  and  attempts  to  prove  that  our  percep- 
tion of  the  beauty  of  colour,  instead  of  being  a  '  mere 
organic  sensation,'  arises  from  association  alone.  In 
the  same  way,  he  refuses  to  believe  that  there  is  any 
independent  or  intrinsic  beauty  in  form  ;  and  con- 
ceives that  architecture  owes  its  beauty  not  to  the 
essential  harmony  of  its  proportions,  but  to  a  variety 
of  curious  considerations  on  our  part.  Ilt>  considers 
Alisop's  analysis  of  this  beauty,  with  special  refer- 
ence to  Greek  architecture,  '  perfectly  satisfactory.' 
It  arises,  1st,  from  the  association  of  utility  ;  '2d,  of 
security;  3d,  of  the  sivill  of  the  arcldtect ;  4th,  of 
magnificence;  5th,  of  antiquity;  Cth,  of  Grecian 
greatness !  To  this  it  may  be  replied,  tliat  such 
associations  increase,  but  do  not  create,  our  percep- 
tion of  the  beauty  of  Greek  arcliitecture. 

The  theory  of  Association  in  this  its  primitive 
nakedness  cannot  be  said  to  W.  held  now  by  any  who 
think  on  the  subject.  It  is  felt  to  be  more  plausible 
and  ingenious  than  soimd  or  adequate.  Ruskin, 
Professor  Blackie,  and  others,  have  nearly  destroyed 
its  popularity.  Professor  Blackie's  three  essays  on 
Beauty,  wliich  are  renuirkable  for  the  brisk  and 
biting  humour  with  which  they  assail  the  Asso- 
ciation theory,  as  well  as  for  the  passages  of  fine 
eloquence  which  they  contain,  make  a  vigorous 
eflbrt  to  indoctrinate  the  Saxon  brain  with  the  ideal 
speculations  of  Plato.  Professor  Blackie  is  a 
Piatonist  in  theory,  but  the  elaboration  of  that 
theory  is  entirely  modern  and  original.  '  Beauty,' 
he  says,  '  does  not  consist  in  one  element,  or  in  one 
power,  or  in  one  proportion,  but  in  many  elements, 
powers,  and  proportions;'  the  principal  of  these  are 
— order,  congruity  (or  harmony),  actuality,  perfec- 
tion (in  the  Platonic  sense — viz.,  the  lull  residt  of  a 
creative  energy),  expressiveness,  smoothness,  deli- 
cacy, and  curvature.  With  reference  to  this  last 
principle.  Professor  Blackie  points  to  tlie  fact  that 
nature  everywiiere  avoids  anguliir  lines,  especially 
in  the  human  figure,  and  most  of  all  in  the  sex 
whicli  has  ever  been  considered  tlie  higliest  symbol 
of  the  beautiful.  In  the  second  vohmie  of  his 
Lectures  on  Metaphysics,  the  lite  Sir  William 
Hamilton  (Lecture  46th)  distinguishes  Beauty 
into  Absolute  and  Relative.  '  In  the  former  case,' 
he  says,  '  it  is  not  necessary  to  have  a  notion  of 
what  the  object  ought  to  be  before  we  pronounce 
it  beautiful  or  not;  in  the  latter  case,  such  a 
previous  notion  is  required.  Flowers,  shells,  ara- 
Isesques,  etc.,  are  freely  or  absolutely  beautiful.  We 
judge,  for  example,  a  flower  to  be  beautiful,  though 
unaware  of  its  destination,  and  tliat  it  contains  a 
complex  apparatus  of  organs  all  admirably  adapted 
to  the  propagation  of  the  plant.  When  we  are 
made  cognizant  of  this,  we  obtain,  indeed,  an  addi- 
tional gratification,  but  one  wholly  different  from 
that  which  we  experience  in  the  contemplation  of 
the  flower  itself  apart  from  all  consideration  of  its 
adaptations.'  Sir  William  thus  states  his  theory  of 
Free  or  Absolute  Beauty  :  '  In  the  case  of  beauty — 
free  beauty — both  the  imagination  and  the  under- 
standing find  occupation;  and  the  pleasure  we 
experience  from  such  an  object  is  in  proportion  as  it 
affords  to  these  faculties  the  opportuinty  of  exerting 
fully  and  freely  their  respective  energies.  Now,  it  is 
the  principal  function  of  the  ui:derstanding,  out  of  the 
62 


mnltifarious  presented  to  it,  to  form  a  whole.  Its  entire 
activity  is,  in  fact,  a  tendency  towards  unity  ;  and 
it  is  only  satisfied  when  this  object  is  so  constituted 
as  to  alford  the  opportunity  of  an  easy  and  |)erfcct 
performance  of  this  its  function.  In  this  case,  the 
object  is  judged  beautiful  or  pleasing.'  Sir  William 
concludes  by  defining  the  beautiful  to  be  that 
'  whose  form  occupies  the  inuigination  and  the 
understanding  in  a  free,  full,  and  consequently  an 
agreeable  activity.' 

There  would  seem,  on  the  whole,  to  be  a  tend- 
ency at  present  towards  an  amalgamation  of  what 
have  hitherto  been  considered  irreconcilable  doc- 
trines— towards  the  belief  that  there  is  an  essential 
beauty  in  the  harmony  of  forms  and  in  the  com- 
bination of  colours,  and  that  the  keen  delight  which 
we  experience  in  beholding  them  is  incapable  of  being 
explained  l)y  any  number  of  associations  ;  while  it 
is  admitted,  on  the  other  hand,  that  many  tilings 
are  made  beautiful  by  association,  that  all  thing.s 
have  their  beauty  enriched  by  it,  and  that  some 
things  even  have  their  intrinsic  beauty  called  forth 
by  it  operating  in  the  form  of  sugfjestion. 

.t:.STIVA'TION,  in  Botany  (from  the  Latin  <rs- 
tivus,  belonging  to  summer),  a  term  employed  to 
denote  the  manner  in  which  the  parts  of  the  flower 
are  disposed  in  the  flower-bud  prior  to  its  opciung. 
Sometimes  the  M.  is  valvate  or  valvular,  when  the 
parts  of  the  same  vei-ticil  exactly  meet  together  by 
their  edges,  like  valves.  But  if  the  edges  are  turned 
in,  the  Ai.  is  indupiicafe  ;  if  they  are  turned  out,  it 
is  reduplicate.  In  many  flowers,  the  Ai.  is  contorted 
or  twisted ;  sometimes  it  is  spirally  imbricated.  In 
pentamerous  flowers,  it  is  very  generally  quincunxial, 
two  of  the  parts  being  external,  two  internal,  and 
one  intermediate.  In  Papilionaceous  Flowers  (q.  v.), 
the  other  parts  of  the  corolla  are  generally  included 
in  the  standard  or  vexillum,  and  this  is  sometimes 
called  rextllarii  AZ.  In  poppies,  the  petals  are 
generally  crumpled  together  before  flowering.  The 
M.  of  the  calyx  is  frequently  of  a  different  kind 
from  that  of  the  corolla.  Thus,  in  Geraniaceee,  the 
^E.  of  the  calyx  is  imbricated,  that  of  the  corolla 
twisted.  The  manner  in  which  the  stamens  and 
pistils  are  disposed  in  the  bud  is  not  so  nnieh  taken 
into  account  in  the  characters  of  orders  and  genera, 
but  is  sometimes  also  noticed  ;  thus,  it  is  a  character 
of  Rosacece  that  the  stamens  are  curved  inwards 
in  M. 

ETO'LIA,  a  district  of  ancient  Gi'cece,  lying  on 
the  north  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Corinth.  The  ancient 
M.  was  divided  from  Acarnania  by  the  river  Achelous, 
and  extended  as  far  as  the  river  Euenos.  On  the  E. 
it  was  bounded  by  Locris  and  Doris;  on  the  N., 
by  Thessaly  and  E[)irus  ;  on  the  W.,  by  Acarnania  ; 
and  on  the  S.,  by  the  Bay  of  Corinth.  In  later  times, 
these  boundaries  were  considerably  extended  to  the 
N.  and  E.  The  coiuitry  had  few  cities,  was  generally 
wild  and  barren,  and,  according  to  Herodotus  and 
Aristotle,  was  infested  by  Hons  on  the  banks  of  the 
Achelous  and  in  other  places.  Here,  according  to 
the  legend,  Meleager  slew  the  Calydonian  boar 
(q.  v.).  The  ^Etolians  make  a  great  figure  in  the 
heroic  age  of  Greece  ;  but  at  the  time  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian  war,  they  were  rude  and  barbarous.  The 
^Etolian  Confederacy,  first  called  into  existence  by 
the  Laniian  war  (323  b.  c. ),  became  more  important 
in  the  time  of  the  Achaean  League  (q.  v.).  The 
several  states  assem.bled  annually  in  autumn  at 
Thermum.  This  assemblage  was  styled  the  Pana:- 
fnlicon.  At  first,  they  called  in  the  aid  of  the 
Romans  against  the  Achaean  League;  Vmt  as  they 
saw  that  t!;e  Romans  had  designs  against  the  inde- 
pendence of  yE.,  they  next  allied  themselves  with 
Antiochus    of    Syria,    afterwards   with    Perseus   of 


AFFIDAVIT— AFFRE. 


Macedonia.  In  189  B.C.,  they  were  compelled  to 
share  the  fate  of  Maccdon,  and  were  subjugated 
by  the  Romans. — ^E.  now  forms  a  governmental 
department,  or  nome,  of  the  modern  kingdom  of 
Greece.  The  moimtains  in  the  N.E. — now  styled 
Viena — from  a  wild  ottset  of  the  Find  us  chain,  and 
slope  steeply  on  the  S.W.  down  to  the  central 
plains,  partly  covered  with  morasses  and  partly 
cultivated.  S.  of  the  lakes  Apokuro  (anciently, 
Trichonis)  and  Zygos  (Ilyria)  rise  a  range  of  moun- 
tains— the  Araci/7ifhus  mountain  of  the  ancients — 
which  fell  on  the  S.W.  to  a  broad  coast-level, 
occujjied  by  morasses  and  lagoons ;  but  on  the  S. 
E.  side  extend  to  the  gulf,  whei-e  the  promon- 
tory of  Antirrliion  reaches  to  within  '21(H)  yards 
of  the  opposite  cape  Rhion,  thus  forming  the  Strait 
of  Lepanto  (Naupactos).  The  chief  rivers  of  Ai. 
are  the  Aspropotamo  (Achelous),  in  the  W.,  and  the 
Fidari.s  (Euenos),  in  the  E.  The  people  in  the  plains 
are  employed  in  agriculture  and  fishing ;  while  in 
the  mountain-districts  some  traces  of  the  rude  and 
martial  character  of  ancient  JE.  may  still  be  found. 
The  chief  towns  are  Missolonghi  and  Lepauto  (q.  v.). 

AFFIDA'YIT,  .an  oath  in  writing,  or  a  written 
declaration  made  before  a  magistrate,  or  other  person 
legally  authorised  to  administer  an  oath,  the  truth  of 
wliich  is  confirmed  either  by  an  oath  sworn,  or  a 
solemn  affirmation  emitted  in  terms  of  18  Vict.  c. 
2.5,  and  the  other  statutes  referred  to  under  Affiu- 
MATiON.  Where  evidence  is  required  in  England  to 
be  laid  before  a  court  or  a  judge,  it  is  usually 
reduced  to  the  form  of  an  A.,  in  place  of  being  de- 
livered orally,  as  in  jury  trial.  An  A.  ought  to 
set  forth  the  matter  of  fact  only,  and  not  to  declare 
the  merits  of  the  cause,  of  which  the  court  is  to 
judge  (21  Car.  I.  B.  R.).  The  name  and  designation 
of  the  party  making  the  A.  are  written  at  length, 
and  he  signs  it  at  the  foot.  When  the  paper  is 
shewn  to  him,  he  is  required  to  swear  or  affirm  that 
its  contents  are  true,  and  that  the  name  and  hand- 
writing are  his.  Affidavits  in  the  High  Court  of 
Chancery  must  be  taken  and  expressed  in  the  first 
person  of  the  deponent.  The  Jurat,  with  which  the 
A.  closes,  specifies  the  officer  before  whom,  the  place 
where,  and  the  time  when  it  was  sworn,  and  this  is 
signed  by  the  officer  or  magistrate.  When  an 
A.  is  sworn  in  open  court,  that  circumstance  is 
mentioned,  and  no  officer  is  named.  In  Scotland, 
voluntary  affidavits  are  not  generally  received  as 
evidence,  because  they  are  ex  parte  statements,  no 
opportunity  being  afforded  for  cross-examination. 
To  this  rule,  however,  there  are  exceptions.  Claim- 
ants are  required  by  the  Bankrupt  Statute  to  lodge 
their  claims  with  A.  or  oaths  of  verity  ;  and  there 
are  other  similar  statutory  provisions.  An  A.  js 
sometimes  i-equired  also  at  common  law,  as  in 
applications  for  warrants  in  meditatione  fugce.     By 

5  and  6  Will.  IV.  c.  62,  various  unnecessary  oaths 
and  affirmations  were  abolished,  and  declarations 
substituted  in  lieu  thereof,  and  voluntary  and  extra- 
judicial oaths  and  affidavits  were  suppressed.  The 
oath  of  allegiance,  and  all  oaths  in  courts  of  ju.stice, 
were  expressly  exempted  from  the  operation  of  the 
statute ;  and  by  6  and  7  Vict.  c.  43,  this  exemption 
was  extended  to  ratifications  by  married  women. 
The    Lord   Chancellor   of  England  is  empowered  by 

6  and  7  Vict.  c.  82,  to  grant  commissions  for  taking 
aflidavits,  affn-mations,  and  declarations  in  Scotland. 

AFFFXITY  (Lat.  ntfini/a:^),  the  relationship 
created  by  marriage  between  the  husband  and  the 
blood-relations  of  the  wife,  and  between  the  wife  and 
the  blood-relations  of  the  husband.  The  relations 
of  the  wife  stand  to  the  husband  in  the  same  degree 
of  A.  in  which  they  stand  to  the  wife  by  blood  or 
consanguinity,    and   vice   versa.     But    between   the 


relations  of  the  two  parties  by  A.  there  is  no  A.  Thus, 
there  is  no  A.  between  the  husbaiul's  brother  and  the 
wife's  sister;  and  by  our  law,  there  is  no  impedi- 
ment to  their  marriage.  The  question  as  to  whether 
those  who  are  related  by  A.  stand  in  all  respects  in 
by  same  position  as  regards  marriage  witli  those 
connected  by  blood,  is  one  on  which  much  difference 
of  opinion  at  present  prevails.  Marriage  between  a 
man  and  the  sister  of  his  deceased  wifi;  is  at  i)resent 
torbidden  by  statute  (5  and  C  Will.  IV.  c.  CA);  but 
an  attempt  is  annually  made  in  parliament  to  obtain 
its  repeal.     See  Mariuagk. 

AFFINITY.  Chemical  A.,  or  chemical  attrac- 
tion, is  the  force  which  produces  all  chemical  pheno- 
mena. It  differs  from  the  attraction  of  gravita- 
tion in  acting,  not  between  masses,  but  between 
atoms,  and  only  when  the  atoms  arc  at  insensible 
distances.  It  differs  also  from  cohesion,  which 
unites  the  particles  of  the  same  substance,  while  A. 
unites  atoms  of  different  substances.  The  compounds 
thus  formed  are  new  bodies,  often  bearing  no 
resemblance  in  appearance  or  other  properties  to  the 
elements  which  combine  to  produce  them.  Thus, 
water  results  from  the  combination  of  two  gases. 

The  strength  of  chemical  A.  is  different  between 
different  substances.  Sulphuric  acid  conil)ines 
with  lime,  and  forms  gypsum ;  but  if  potash  is 
added,  the  sulphuric  acid  leaves  the  lime,  and 
combines  with  the  potash.  As  a  sort  of  choice  is 
here  manifested,  it  is  called  a  ca.se  of  elective  A. 
These  elective  affinities,  however,  are  often  altered 
by  a  change  of  temperature,  or  other  accompanying 
circumstance. 

AFFIRMA'TIOy,  a  solemn  declaration,  which,  in 
the  case  of  members  of  certain  religious  persuasious, 
is  admitted  in  lieu  of  an  oath.  By  3  and  4  Will.  IV. 
c.  49,  3  and  4  Will.  IV.  c.  82,  and  1  and  2  Vict, 
c.  77,  it  is  provided  that  Quakers,  Moravians,  and 
Separatists  (q..  v.)  who,  from  conscientious  scruples, 
refuse  to  take  an  oath  in  courts  of  justice,  may, 
both  in  civil  and  criminal  cases,  make  a  solemn  A., 
according  to  a  prescribed  formula.  For  Quakers 
and  Moravians  the  formula  is :  'I  do  soleinnlv, 
sincerely,  and  truly  declare  and  affirm.'  In  the 
case  of  Separatists,  this  A.  further  bears  to  be 
emitted  'in  the  presence  of  Almighty  God.'  The 
penalties  of  perjury  are  imposed  on  those  who 
shall  be  proved  to  have  affirmed  falsely.  A  later 
statute  (18  Vict.  c.  25)  has  extended  the  privilege 
of  substituting  an  A.  for  an  oath  to  all  persons  who 
refuse  to  be  sworn  from  conscientious  motives — tlte 
judge  being  satixjicd  that  the  motives  are  consciculious. 
See  Oath. 

AFFRE,  Denis  Augustus,  Archbishop  of  Fari-s, 
who  fell  in  the  insurrection  of  June  1848  (b.  1793). 
At  the  time  of  the  Restoration,  he  was  professor 
of  theology  at  the  seminary  of  St.  Sulpice ;  and 
on  account  of  his  prudent  and  temperate  character, 
was  made  Archbishop  of  Paris  by  the  government 
of  Louis  Philippe  in  1840.  Though  not  yield- 
ing a  blind  submission  to  all  the  measures  of 
the  government,  he  abstained  from  all  offensive 
opposition.  When  Louis  Philippe  became  an  exile, 
and  a  republic  was  proclaimed,  the  archbishop 
kept  aloof  from  political  strife,  but  displayed 
earnest  care  for  the  public  welfare.  During  "the 
insurrection  in  Paris,  1848,  he  climbed  upon 
a  barricade  in  the  Place  de  Bastile,  carrying  a 
green  bough  in  his  hand,  as  a  messenger  of  peace, 
and  wished  to  persuade  the  insurgents  to  lay 
down  their  arms.  He  had  scarcely  tittered  a  few 
words,  when  the  insurgents  and  the  troops  com- 
menced firing  again,  and  he  fell,  mortally  wounded 
by  a  musket-ball,  coming  apparently  froiii  a  window 
above.     lie  was  carried  by  the  insurgents  into  the 

63 


AFGIIAN'ISTAN. 


house  of  a  priest,  and  the  next  (l;iy  was  removed  to 
his  palace,  where  he  died,  .lune  27,  1848.  He  w'as 
the  author  of  several  theological  writings,  and  of  a 
woriv  on  Egyptian  hieroglyphics. 

AFGHANISTA'N,  the  land  of  the  Afghans,  for- 
merly known  by  the  names  of  Drangiana  and 
Ariana,  lies  in  lat.  from  28°  to  30°  N.,  and  iu  long, 
from  (52'"  to  73^  E.  Its  length  from  north  to  south 
is  nearly  4.51 »  miles;  its  breadth,  47U,  with  an  area 
of  212, (iO()  square  miles.  Afglian  is  a  Persian 
name ;  the  inhabitants  style  themselves  Pushtaneh 
(plural  of  Pushtu).  Their  country  is  bounded  on 
the  N.  by  Turkistan ;  on  the  E.  by  Peshawur  and 
Sinde ;  on  the  S.,  by  Beloochistan ;  and  on  the 
W.,  by  the  Persian  highlands  of  Khorassan.  It  has 
been  calculated  to  contain  from  five  to  six  millions 
of  inhabitants.  In  the  N.E.,  the  al])ine  retrion  of 
the  Hindu  Kush,  a  wild  mountain  isthmus  cleft  by 
numerous  ravines,  and  towering  up  into  the  clime  of 
perpetual  ice,  unites  the  high  masses  of  land  in 
Eastern,  with  those  in  Western  Asia,  and  presents 
formidable  obstructions  to  comnmnication  between 
the  territory  of  tlie  Oxus  and  that  of  the  Indu.s.  In 
the  E.,  the  parallel  chains  of  the  Soliman  Mountains, 
together  with  those  of  Kalabagh  and  Kliyber  to  the 
N.,  abruptly  divide  the  country  from  the  flat  region 
of  the  Punjab  and  the  plains  of  the  Lower  Indus. 
There  are  only  two  passes  leading  through  the  higli- 
lands  of  Afghanistan  to  the  Indus  :  that  in  the  north, 
formed  by  the  deep  valley  of  the  Cabul  river,  has 
strong  positions  of  defence  at  Jelalabad  and  Pesha- 
wur, not  far  from  the  Kliyber  Pass ;  while  that  in 
the  south,  the  Polan  Pnss,  forms  a  way  of  commu- 
nication with  Sinde.  The  niountain-lubyrinth  of 
Paropamisus,  as  the  Greeks  called  the  ranges  of  the 
Hazareh  and  Eimack,  has  been  little  explored  cither 
in  its  eastern  parts  or  in  the  highlands  stretch- 
ing out  towards  Persia,  although  the  historical 
importance  of  this  region  has  been  long  known. 
The  elevated  terraces  of  Cabul  and  Ghiznce  slope 
gently  down  towards  the  south-west.  This  general 
outline  of  the  country  is  sufficient  to  shew  that  A. 
holds  a  very  important  position  between  East  and 
West  Asia,  and  may  be  regarded  by  Iiulia  as  a  vast, 
natural  fortification  against  all  inroads  from  the 
west.  Though  the  climate  has  generally  a  continental 
character,  yet  the  differences  of  elevation  and 
unequal  distribution  of  water  render  it  various.  The 
date-palm  ornaments  the  oases  in  the  sandy  desert 
to  the  south-west,  and  in  the  deep  .sheltered  valleys 
of  the  east,  the  cultivation  of  cotton  and  sugar 
succeeds;  but  the  high  terraces  of  Cabul  and 
Ghiznee  (8 — 9000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea) 
are  exposed  to  a  severe  winter,  with  heavy  falls 
of  snow.  '  Still,  the  average  temperature  of  this 
table-land  is  about  48°,  and  the  heat  of  the  summer 
ripens  the  finest  grapes.  The  vine  flourishes  here 
in  company  with  apricots,  apples,  pears,  plums, 
cherries,  and  fields  of  European  corn.  Tulips, 
aromatic  herbs,  rhubarb,  tobacco,  and  asafcetida  are 
extensively  grown  ;  and  in  the  well-watered  valleys, 
pomegranates  and  oranges,  with  a  profusion  of  roses, 
display  the  luxury  and  splendour  of  an  Indian  clime. 
The  mulberry-tree  flourishes  in  the  cool  valleys.  In 
particular,  vast  plantations  of  it  are  grown  in  the 
valleys  of  the  Hindu  Cush,  where  the  fruit  exhibits 
many  varieties,  and  when  dried  and  ground  into  flour 
is  largely  used  for  food  by  the  inhabitants.  The 
animal  life  found  in  the  country  corresponds  in 
variety  with  the  climate  and  vegetation.  In  the  colder 
mountainous  regions,  we  find  the  bear,  the  wolf, 
and  the  fox ;  in  the  tropical  valleys,  the  lion,  tiger, 
leopard,  jackal,  and  hyena ;  while  fertile  pastures 
support  sheep,  goats,  horses,  and  horned  cattle. 
Horses,  mules,  and  asses  are  numerous,  and  the 
camel  is  used  iu  the  table-lands.  A.  is  rich  in 
64 


minerals ;  iron  and  copper  esj)ecially,  are  alnnidant. 
The  former  is  of  such  excellent  quality  that,  if 
more  carefully  prepared,  it  is  believed  tluit  it  would 
rival  the  most  valuable  European  iron ;  while  the 
ore  of  the  latter  is  said  to  yield  in  some  places 
nearly  80  per  cent,  of  the  metal.  Lead,  plumbago, 
saltpetre,  suli)hur,  salt,  and  alum,  are  also  exten- 
sively obtainc<l.  The  four  jirincipal  jilaces — Cabul, 
Ghi/nee,  Candahar,  and  Herat  (([.  v.)— have  import- 
ance as  stations  on  the  highway  of  commerce  from 
India  to  Central  and  Western  Asia.  Cabul  and 
Jelalabad  guard  the  passage  to  India  on  the  N.,  as 
does  Candahar  on  the  S. ;  while  in  the  extreme  W., 
Herat  guards  the  border  near  I\  rsia. 

The  variety  which  nature  has  given  to  the  country 
is  also  found  in  the  people ;  but  all  are  united  by 
national  sentiment.  Love  of  independence  and 
equality,  attachment  to  old  customs  and  simple 
modes  of  life,  free  hospitality,  carried  indeed  to  a 
pernicious  excess,  and  a  nuirtial  spirit,  are  their 
characteristics.  The  Afghans  arc  generally  power- 
fully nuule  ;  and,  though  the  features  of  the  men 
may  be  styled  harsh,  the  cheek-bones  being  high,  and 
the  nose  very  large,  they  are  often  ex))rrs.sive  of 
candour,  earnestness,  and  deliberation.  Their  lan- 
guage, the  Pushtu,  is  allied  to  the  Persian  ;  at  least, 
a  great  proportion  of  the  words  are  Persic,  though 
the  primitive  roots  of  the  language  belong  to  some 
unknown  stock.  The  only  authors  in  the  Pushtu 
language  are  lyrists  and  ballad-writers,  but  the 
Persian  is  emjiloyed  in  prose  composition,  and  the 
Persian  authors  are  familiar  to  the  educated  Afghans. 
In  religion  they  are  Mohammedans  according  to  the 
version  of  the  Sunites,  and  are  strongly  opposed  to 
the  Persians  and  the  Sikhs,  who  belong  to  other 
sects.  Yet  they  are  not  bigoted,  for  those  of  the 
heretical  Shiite  sect  may  hold  almost  any  official 
position  in  the  state,  while  Hindus  and  Christians 
enjoy  the  utmost  toleration.  The  Afghans  are 
distinguished  among  orientals  for  their  truthfulness, 
the  respect  with  which  they  treat  women,  their 
indifference  to  rank,  and  their  reverence  for  age. 
They  cannot  be  said  to  be  well  armed,  as  they  em- 
ploy matchlocks,  and  their  artillery  is  unwieldy  ;  but, 
like  other  eastern  people,  they  are  expert  in  the  use 
of  the  sabre. 

The  first  appearance  of  A.  as  an  independent 
power  took  place  during  the  internal  discords  of 
Persia  after  the  death  of  Nadir  Shah.  Ahmed  Khan, 
of  the  race  of  Abdalli  (1747 — 1773),  took  advantage 
of  these  feuds,  and  liberated  A.  from  Persian  rule. 
His  success  founded  the  Douranee  dynasty.  When 
his  son  Timur  died,  in  1793,  a  contest  for  the  throne 
took  place  between  the  brothers  Zemaun,  Mahmud, 
and  Shah  Sujah,  which  ended  in  the  success  of 
Jlahmud,  who,  however,  was  compelled  to  abdicate 
the  throne  in  1823,  and  died  in  1829.  The  empire 
now  fell  into  the  hands  of  three  brothers,  of  whom 
the  oldest.  Dost  Mohammed,  ruled  at  Cabul,  the 
most  important  of  the  three  divisions  of  the  country, 
where  he  had  a  revenue  of  1,400,000  dollars,  and 
an  army  of  18,000  men.  Still,  the  country  was  in 
an  unsettled  state  ;  for  Post  Mohammed  was  at  war 
with  Lahore  in  the  east,  and  in  the  west,  the  Per- 
sians had  invaded  Herat.  On  the  1st  of  October 
1838,  the  governor-general  of  India  (Lord  Auck- 
land) declared  war  against  A.,  on  the  grounds, 
that  Post  Mahammed  had  unlawfully  attacked 
the  British  ally,  Runjeet  Singh ;  that  the  military 
operations  of  the  Afghans  had  betrayed  a  hostile 
purpose  towards  India ;  and  that  Shah  Sujah,  as 
the  rightful  heir  to  the  Afghan  throne,  had  placed 
himself  under  British  protection.  All  this  was  true, 
but  did  not  make  the  invasion  of  A.  by  the  Anglo- 
Indian  forces  either  just  or  politic.  However,  the 
British  forces  advanced   through  the  Bolau  Pass  to 


XXXV. 


^ 


AFRICA. 


Candiihar,  where  Shah  Siijah  formally  chiiiiiccl  pos- 
session of  the  country.  On  the  "2 1  st  of  July,  the  army 
encam[KHl  l)efore  (ihiziiee,  and  after  some  hard  fight- 
ing, that  Ibrtress  was  taken.  On  the  7th  of  August, 
Shah  Sujah,  with  the  British  forces,  entered  Cabul, 
and  the  conquest  was  regarded  as  complete.  It  was 
a  gross  niistalio  of  the  nature  of  the  country  and  the 
character  uf  the  people.  The  land  had  been  invaded, 
but  was  by  no  means  concpiered.  Dost  Mohammed 
had  surrendered  to  the  English ;  but  his  son,  Akbar 
Khan,  was  actively  engage(l  in  a  conspiracy,  of  which 
Sir  Alexander  Burnes  and  the  envoy  Macnaghten 
were  not  aware  until  it  was  too  late.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  winter,  when  help  from  India  was  impossible, 
the  outbreak  took  place  at  Cabul,  when  Burnes, 
Macnaghten,  and  several  British  officers  were  slain. 
Another  t^erious  error  was  now  committed  :  instead 
of  making  some  decided  and  bold  movement,  which 
might  have  inspired  respect  for  the  British  forces, 
humiliating  terms  of  capitulation  were  acceded  to 
by  Major  Pottinger.  It  was  agreed  that  the  invad- 
ers should  leave  the  country  ;  while,  on  the  other 
hand,  Akliar  Khan  and  his  confederates  stipulated 
to  provide  an  escort,  and  make  other  necessary  ar- 
rangements for  the  retreat.  Depending  on  these 
promises,  the  British  army  left  Cabul  on  the  Oth  of 
January  184:2,  in  order  to  return  by  the  Khyber 
Pass  into  India;  but  neither  escort  nor  provisions 
were  supplied  by  the  Afghan  leaders,  and  the  severity 
of  the  season  increased  the  misery  of  the  retreat. 
The  fanatical  tribes  of  the  districts  harassed  the  flanks 
and  rear  of  the  army,  and  slow  women  and  children 
as  well  as  men.  Out  of  a  host  of  l(i,0(iO — or,  if  we 
include  women  and  children,  about  26,000 — only 
one  man  (Dr.  Brydon)  escaped  to  carry  the  dismal 
tidings  to  General  Sale,  who  still  held  his  position  at 
Jelalabad.  Almost  against  his  own  will,  the  new 
governor-general,  Lord  Ellenborough,  sent  other 
forces  into  A.  General  Nott  marched  from  Candahar 
to  Ghiznee,  which  was  again  taken  after  a  slight 
resistance,  and  then  proceeded  to  meet  the  army 
which,  under  General  Pollock,  had  marched  through 
the  Khyber  Pass  to  Cabul.  Here  the  force  of  Akbar 
Khan  was  defeated  and  routed,  and  the  place  was  as 
far  as  possible  desolated.  The  English  officers  and 
their  hidies  who  had  surrendered  themselves  as 
prisoners  to  Ajibar  Khan,  were  restored  to  liberty  ; 
and  soon  afterwards  the  troops  marched  back  to 
India.  It  was  believed  now  that  the  Afghans  were 
deprived  of  all  power  to  confederate  against  the 
government  of  India  ;  but  this  conclusion  was  too 
hasty,  for  in  1846  they  formed  an  alliance  with 
the  Sikhs  against  the  British  ;  and  the  disturb- 
ances in  the  Punjab  were  not  quelled  wMthout 
several  sanguinary  engagements.  After  the  decisive 
battle  of  Gujerat  (Eebruary  21,  1849),  the  Sikhs 
were  forsaken  by  the  Afghans;  and  Dost  Moham- 
med, with  about  16,000  men,  fled  over  the  Indus. 
Once  more  the  British  army  marched  through  the 
Khyber  Pass,  and  renewed  the  work  of  subjugating 
the  several  Afghan  tribes.  Since  the  close  of  the 
Sikh  war,  they  have  remained  tranquil ;  and  there  is 
every  prol)a))ility  that,  as  they  learn  to  recognise  the 
intention  of  England  not  to  extend  the  boundaries  of 
her  conquest  beyond  the  Indus,  they  will  cease  to 
exhibit  that  hostile  jealousy  of  feeling  which  has  long 
characterised  their  relations  and  intercourse  with  her. 
See  A  Journal  of  (he  Disasters  in  Afr/fiani.stmi,  by 
Lady  Sale  (Lond.,  1843) ;  Eyre's  Miliiarii  Operations 
at  Cabul  (Lond.,  1843);  and  a  Ilistorij  of  the  War  in 
Afghanistan,  by  J.  W.  Kaye  (2  vols.  Lond.,  1851). 

A'FRICA,  one  of  the  great  divisions  of  the  globe 
^the  second  in  point  of  size,  but  by  far  the  least 
important  as  regards  the  civilisation  and  progress  of 
the  human  species.  This  continent,  so  long  a  land  of 
mystery,  has,  iii  modern  times,  been  partly  opened 
5 


for  us  by  the  enterprise  of  explorers,  the  zeal  of 
missionaries,  the  perseverance  of  coumieniai  specu- 
lation, and  the  military  aggressions  of  Europeans. 
Tiie  extreme  N.  and  N.E.  borders,  which  in  ancient 
times  were  the  seats  of  civilisation,  while  all  the 
other  parts  lay  hid  in  darkness,  had  fallen  back  into 
a  state  of  barbarism,  but  are  now  partially  restored  to 
a  ])ositi()n  of  importance  in  connection  with  the  po- 
litical and  commercial  interests  of  Europe.  Great 
progress  has  also  been  made,  from  the  soutli  or  Cape 
Colony,  in  exploring  the  elevated  land  of  the  interior, 
and  introducing  commerce  among  the  natives.  The 
efforts  of  England  to  suppress  the  slave-trade,  and 
to  open  new  channels  for  manufacturing  indusiry, 
seem  likely,  in  the  course  of  time,  to  make  great 
alterations  in  the  condition  of  the  countries  and 
tribes  of  people  on  the  western  coast,  while  the 
recent  and  present  attempts  to  navigate  the  Quorra, 
or  Niger,  have  considerably  advanced  our  knowledge 
of  the  interior.  The  chief  hindrances  are  found  in 
the  comparatively  few  accessible  points  on  the  coast, 
the  pestilential  climate  of  the  marshy  lowland  bor- 
dering on  the  sea,  the  barrenness  of  vast  tracts  like 
tl>e  desert  of  Sahara,  over  which  one  must  travel 
rapidly,  and  only  by  certain  routes  ;  and  lastly,  the 
barbarism  and  sanguinary  character  of  the  natives. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  position  of  A.  is  favourable 
to  its  exploration  by  Europeans.  Its  most  remote 
harbours  are  almost  as  near  as  North  America — 
nearer  than  the  Brazils,  and  much  nearer  than  Brit- 
ish India.  A  sailing-vessel  from  Bristol  can  reach 
the  river  Senegal  in  about  twenty  days  ;  Sierra  Leone 
in  thirty  ;  Cape  Coast  in  thirty-five  ;  and  tb.e  Congo 
in  fifty.  Of  course,  steam-communication  is  far  more 
rapid. 

The  valley  of  the  Nile  was  known  in  the  earliest 
period  of  history  as  the  nursery  of  commerce,  arts, 
and  sciences  ;  but  while  Egypt  was  flourishing,  the 
rest  of  A.  was  almost  totally  unknown,  and  was 
vaguely  spoken  of  as  Libya.  In  later  times,  the 
Greeks  and  the  Romans  became  more  acquainted 
with  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  pene- 
trated into  A.,  probably  as  far  as  the  Niger;  but 
they  had  scarcely  any  definite  knowledge  of  the 
countries  lying  beyond  Numidia,  while  South  A. 
was  entirely  unknown.  The  tradition  that  Jewish 
and  Tyrian  merchants,  on  their  voyages  to  Ophir, 
explored  the  east  coast  of  A.,  is  dubious ;  but 
another  account,  that,  in  the  time  of  Pharaoh-Necho, 
the  Phd'nicians  circxminavigated  A.,  seems  to  be 
well  authenticated  ;  and  it  is  probable  that  the  Car- 
thaginians had  a  better  knowledge  of  the  interior 
than  we  have  in  the  present  day.  For  a  history  of 
the  older  discoveries  in  A.,  we  may  refer  to  Murray's 
Historical  Account  of  Discoveries  and  Travels  in 
Africa  (2  vols.,  Edin.  1817),  and  to  Leyden's  Sketch 
of  the  Disco7}eries  in  Northern  and  Western  Africa 
(Edin.  1790). 

The  15th  c.  was  marked  by  an  extension  of 
geographical  knowledge  in  A.  as  elsewhere.  Henry 
the  Navigator  sailed  round  the  formidable  Cape  Nun 
{Hon  plus  ultra) ;  Diaz  and  Vasco  .  de  Gania.  dis- 
covered the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  ;  and  both  the 
western  and  the  eastern  coasts  were  partly  explored 
by  several  European  voyagers.  The  older  travels 
and  discoveries  may  be  arranged  in  the  following 
order  :  in  the  14th  c,  the  travels  of  the  Arabian  Ebn 
Batuta  in  the  north  of  A.  In  the  loth  c,  the 
Portuguese  discoveries  of  Madeira,  Cape  Blanco, 
Senegal,  Guinea,  Benin,  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
&c.,  and  the  I'.avigation  of  the  east  coast  by  the 
Portuguese  Covilham,  who  first  travelled  in  Abys- 
sinia. In  the  IGth  c.,  the  travels  of  Leo  Africanus 
through  Barbary  and  Sahara  to  Abyssinia;  the 
travels  of  the  German  Ranwolf  in  North  A.,  and 
Windham's   voyage   to  .Guinea,  whicli  was  followed 

65 


AFRICA. 


by  several  other  expeditions  in  1554:  and  1562.  In 
1570  and  IGOO  the  rortuguese  visited  Monomotapa, 
then  a  powerful  state  near  the  Mozambique  coast. 
In  the  17th  c.,  the  EngUshiiicn  Jobson  and  Thom- 
son, in  their  journey  to  Timbuktu,  opened  British 
commerce  witli  A.,  and  the  slave-trade  immediately 
followed.  In  16G2,  we  find  a  French  colony  on  the 
Senegal,  and  many  exploring  journeys  to  the  interior 
by  Renouard  and  others.  In  1(524,  tlie  Jesuit  Lobo 
endeavoured  to  find  a  way  from  the  equator  through 
the  interior  as  far  as  Abyssinia.  Thevenot's  journey 
to  Egypt  in  1652,  the  English  occupation  of  Cape 
Coast  in  1664,  Brue's  voyage  to  Senegambia,  and 
several  other  visits  to  the  western  coa.<<t,  mark  the 
progress  made  in  the  latter  half  of  the  17th  c.  One 
German  traveller,  Wansleben,  gave  a  description  of 
his  journeys  on  the  west  coast;  and  another.  Von 
GriJben,  in  1683,  founded  in  Upper  Guinea  the  colony 
of  Fredericksburg,  which  afterwards  fell  into  the 
bands  of  the  Dutch,  but  is  now  al)andoned. 

In  the  course  of  the  18th  c,  various  additions  were 
made  to  our  store  of  information  on  Africa  ;  but 
they  are  not  all  trustworthy.  In  the  year  1788,  the 
African  Society  was  founded  in  London,  and,  under 
its  direction,  Ledyard  and  Lucas  were  sent  to  explore 
the  Niger,  and  were  followed  by  Major  Houghton. 
The  English  colony  of  Sierra  Leone  was  founded  in 
1790.  The  French  expedition  to  Egypt,  towards  the 
close  of  this  century,  gave  a  new  impulse  to  researches 
in  A. 

In  the  19th  c,  the  most  various  motives  have  co- 
operated in  favor  of  an  extended  knowledge  of  this 
vast  continent.  The  captains  of  English  cruisers, 
employed  to  suppress  the  slave-trade,  have  supplied 
some  valuable  infoi-niation ;  the  governors  of  the 
colonies  and  private  merchants  have  contributed 
their  share ;  and  cntcrpiising  travidlers  from  all 
sides  of  the  coast  have  endeavoured  to  strike  out 
paths  to  the  interior.  The  works  published  on  A. 
since  the  year  1800  are  consequently  very  numerous. 
It  would  be  useless  to  specify  the  whole  of  these, 
inasmuch  as  many  of  them  are  only  hasty  and  frag- 
mentary sketches  by  casual  travellers,  and  have 
recently  been  superseded  by  volumes  containing  the 
results  of  more  accurate  and  extensive  researches. 
A  few  of  the  more  important  may  be  mentioned.  In 
1802 — 1805,  Lichtenstein  travelled  in  the  district 
north  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  first  furnished 
information  regarding  the  Bechuana  tribe.  The  trav- 
els of  Mungo  Park  from  Timbuktu  to  Bussa  are  fa- 
miliar to  every  one.  In  1809,  Burckhardt  was  sent 
out  by  the  African  Society,  and  his  explorations,  rich 
in  manifold  results,  occupied  the  years  1812 — 1816. 
To  the  French  we  are  indebted  for  much  valuable 
information  concerning  Marocco,  Algeria,  and  the 
neighbouring  parts  of  Sahara.  In  1821,  Oudney, 
Clappcrton,  and  Denliam  set  out  from  Tripoli,  in 
a  southerly  direction,  through  the  border-land  that 
separates  the  Libyan  from  the  Sahara  Desert,  intend- 
ing to  proceed  to  Bornu,  and  explore  the  course  of 
the  Niger.  Oudney  died  in  1824  ;  but  Clappcrton 
and  Denham  continued  their  journey,  and  reached 
Sokoto  or  Saeatoo,  the  residence  of  the  ruler  of  Sudan. 
They  discovered  the  fresh-water  lake  Tchad.  In  the 
following  year,  Clappcrton,  accompanied  by  three 
friends,  started  from  Benin,  intending  to  travel 
through  the  whole  region  lying  between  Timbuktu 
and  Abyssinia,  but  died  of  dysentery  at  Sokoto, 
April  13,  1827.  His  servant,  Richard  Lander,  after 
giving  an  account  of  their  discoveries,  was  employed 
in  another  exploration  of  the  Niger,  and  traced  its 
lower  course  to  the  embouchure  in  the  Bay  of  Benin. 
During  the  last  twenty  years,  our  knowledge  of 
South  A.  has  received  many  important  additions 
fi'om  the  missionaries  stationed  there,  especially 
MofVat ;  while  David  Livingstone,  who,  since  1843, 
66 


has  been  earnestly  endeavouring  to  open  the  coun- 
tries north  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  penetrated  in 
1849  as  far  as  Lake  N'ganii,  in  2u°  S.  lat.  ;  and  in 
1853,  ascending  the  Leeambye  (Zaml>esi)  northward 
for  several  hundred  miles,  succeeded  in  crossing  the 
continent  to  Loaiido  on  the  W.  coast,  in  the  Portu- 
guese province  of  Angola.  Having  retraced  his 
steps  to  tlie  point  of  the  Zambesi  from  which  he 
had  started,  the  adventurous  traveller  next  followed 
that  stream,  which  there  bends  eastward,  till  he 
reached  the  E.  coast,  in  1 8"  S.  lat.  He  discovered  a  series 
of  elevated  lakes  in  1866-69  which  he  believed  to  be 
the  sources  of  the  Nile.  Further  north  the  geogra- 
phy, language,  and  manners  of  the  inhaliitants  of 
Abyssinia,  Senmuir,  and  Kordofan,  have,  during  late 
years,  been  greatly  illustrated  by  the  efforts  of  Sir 
Samuel  White  Baker  (See  Baker's  "  Albert  Nyanza" 
and  "  j\He  Tributaries  of  Abyssinia"),  and  various 
other  Europeans,  who  have  travelled  thither  with  the 
hojje  of  ex]iloring  the  course  of  the  Nile,  'nicse,  with 
the  extensive  and  long-continued  researches  of  Dr. 
Barth  and  his  companions,  proceeding  by  the  same 
general  route  from  Tripoli  as  Clappcrton  and  Denham, 
and  investigating  the  same  central  division  of  the  con- 
tinent, have  enriched  our  store  of  knowledge,  and  lead 
us  to  cherish  the  expectation  that  the  day  is  not  far  dis- 
tant when  the  secret  places  of  this  land  of  mystery  will 
be  penetrated  by  the  light  of  science  and  cinlization. 

A.  is  situated  in  the  eastern  hemisphere,  to  the 
S.  of  Europe,  and  the  S.  W.  of  Asia,  and  lies 
between  lat.  37°  20'  K,  and  34°  50'  S.,  and  long. 
17°  30' W.,  and  61°  30'  E.  It  is  of  an  irregular 
triangular  foi'm,  with  the  vertex  towards  the  S., 
having  the  Mediterranean  on  the  N.,  the  Isthmus 
of  Suez,  Red  Sea,  and  Indian  Ocean  on  the  E., 
and  the  Atlantic  on  the  W.  It  is  thus  almost 
insular,  the  connecting  isthmus  being  only  72 
miles  across,  of  no  great  elevation  above  the  sea- 
level,  and  even  in  part  occupied  by  salt  lakes  and 
marshes — oifering  in  this  respect  every  facility 
for  the  connection  of  the  Red  Sea  and  Mediter- 
ranean by  canal.  The  coast-line  is  marked  by  few 
indentations  or  projections ;  the  most  important 
gulf  being  that  of  Guinea,  on  the  W. ;  and  Capes 
Bon,  Verde,  Good  Hope,  and  Guardafui,  the  extreme 
points  respectively  on  the  N.,  W.,  S.,  and  E.  The 
greatest  length  of  the  continent,  taken  from  north 
to  south,  is  about  4985  miles  ;  its  greatest  breadth, 
from  east  to  west,  4615  ;  and  its  area,  including 
the  adjacent  islands,  not  less  than  11,854,000  square 
miles. 

What  is  known  of  the  physical  features  of  A. 
may  be  shortly  sketched  under  the  following  heads: 
1.  'The  triangular  region  south  of  Cape  (Juardafui  and 
the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  is  mostly  a  high  table-land, 
having  fringes  of  mountains  crowning  its  edges. 
Between  the  coast  and  the  beginning  of  the  elevation 
runs  a  belt  of  lowlands,  varying  from  50  to  300 
miles  in  breadth.  The  Lupata  range,  seen  running 
parallel  with  the  coast,  forms  the  eastern  crest  of 
the  table-land.  Between  3°  and  4°  S.  lat.,  it  reaches, 
in  the  snow-clad  Kiliraandjaro  and  Kenia,  the 
height  of  20,000  feet.  These  are  believed  to  be 
the  real  Mountains  of  the  Moon,  which  have  hitherto 
been  represented  as  running  across  the  continent  from 
E.  to  W.  The  mountainous  country  of  Abyssinia 
is  the  eastern  prolongation  of  the  plateau  and  its 
elevated  crest ;  in  the  suiumit  of  Abba  Yared,  at 
the  northern  extremity,  it  rises  to  15,0i»0  feet.  At 
the  south,  the  hills  of  Cape  Colony  ri.se  in  stages 
from  Table  Mount  to  the  summits  of  the  Nieuwveld 
and  Sneeuwberg,  in  the  N.  of  the  colony,  which 
are  estimated  at  7 — 10,000  feet;  the  spaces  between 
the  ranges  being  shrubby  kloofs  or  valleys,  and 
broad  elevated  terraces  or  karroos.  From  the 
elevated  crest  that  runs  parallel  to  the  west  coast 


AFRICA. 


from  Cape  Colony  to  Vallisih  Bay,  Mr.  Galton  de- 
scribes the  country  as  sloping  both  W.  and  E., 
thus  giving  a  cup  or  basin-shaped  appearance  to 
the  interior  of  the  continent.  Towards  the  N.W. 
the  border  of  the  table-land  rises  in  the  Canie- 
roons  to  the  height  of  13,OU0  feet.  Its  northern 
boundary  is  not  determined ;  but  it  is  likely  that 
the  valley  of  the  western  branch  of  the  Xile  pene- 
trates into  it,  dividing  it  into  two  portions,  an  east- 
ern and  a  western.  A  mountain  seen  lying  south 
from  Lake  Tchad  is  supposed  to  be  one  of  its  north- 
ern outposts. 

2.  North  of  the  great  triangular  table-land  lies 
Sudan  or  Central  Nigritia,  under  which  name  maybe 
comprehended  the  countries  watered  by  the  Senegal, 
Gambia,  and  Niger,  along  with  the  coast  of  Lower 
Guinea  ;  and  the  basin  of  Lake  Tchad.  In  the  west 
of  this  .section  is  a  mountainous  table-land  of  no  great 
elevation,  in  which  the  rivers  above  named  take  their 
rise  ;  the  Kong  Mountains,  which  run  parallel  to  the 
Guinea  coast,  are  a  branch  of  this  elevation.  East- 
ward of  the  Niger,  the  country  is  hilly,  alternating 
with  rich,  often  swampy  plains.  In  the  basin  of 
Ijakc  Tchad  is  a  vast  alluvial  plain,  one  of  the  larg- 
est on  the  globe,  and  of  great  fertility. 

8.  Between  Sudan  and  the  cultivated  tract  which 
borders  the  Mediterranean,  stretches  the  Sahara  or 
Great    Desert.     It    extends    south    nearly    to    the 
Senegal,  the  northern  bend  of  the  Niger,  and  Lake 
Tchad,    northward  to  the  Atlas    range  in  Marocco 
and  Algeria,  and  towards  Egypt  it  reaches  to  the 
Mediterranean.     Its    average    breadth    from    N.    to 
S.    is    about    1000    miles.      Its    length     from     the 
Atlantic  to  the  western  edge  of  the  valley  of  the 
Nile  is  2000.     Over  a  great  part  of  this  region,  rain 
never  falls,    and  everywhere   it   is  rare  ;  it  is    thus 
condemned  to  sterihty.     It  consists  partly  of  tracts 
of  fine    shifting    sand,    which    frequent    storms    of 
wind  raise  into  the  air,   so  as  ofren  to  overwhelm 
travellers.     But    the    greater  part    of  the  surface 
consists  of  naked  but  firm  soil,    composed  of  indu- 
rated   sand,   sandstone,    granite,   and    quartz-rocks, 
often  rising  into  ridges  or  hills.     The  desolation  is 
interrupted  at   intervals  by   patches,  sometiiiies  of 
considerable  extent,  covered  with  bushes  and  coarse 
grass,  and  often  of  great  beauty  and  fertility.     These 
oases  or  toadies,  as  they  are  called,  which  are  occa- 
sioned by  subterranean  springs,  are  most  numerous 
and   fertile    in   the    eastern    portion   of  the   Desert. 
The  easiest  route  across  the  Desert  to  Sudan  runs 
from    Tripoli   through    the  kingdom    of  Fezzan    to 
Lake  Tchad.     Fezzau  enjoys  periodic  rain  from  the 
moist    winds   of  the   Mediterranean,  which    extend 
further   into   the    continent    here    than   elsewhere. 
The  portion  of  the  Desert  lying  east  of  the  i-oute 
above    described   is   called  the  Libyan   Desert.     It 
is   chiefly    in    this    region    that    the  oases  are    sus- 
ceptible of  cultivation  ;   the  tracts  of  vegetation  in 
the    western    portion    are   fit   ibr  Jittle    else   than 
pasture,  mainly  for  goats  and  sheep.     The  principal 
production  of  the  more  fertile  oases  is   dates  ;  but 
other   fruits    and    grain  are  also  cultivated.     Gum- 
arabic  is  another  production.     Some   of  the  larger 
oases    support    thousands    of   inhabitants    living   in 
villages.     Commerce  is  carried  on  across  the  Desert 
by  various  routes  by  means  of  caravans,   consisting 
of  from  500  to  2000  camels,  with  their  attendants. 
The  distance  between  the  wells  sometimes  exceeds 
ten  days'  journey  ;  :*nd  when  a  well  is  found  dry, 
men  and  animals  are  in  danger  of  perishing.     The 
inhabitants  consist  of  independent  tribes  of  Moors, 
Berbers,  and  Arabs. 

4.  The  Atlas  region,  comprehending  the  mountain- 
ous countries  of  Marocco,  Algeria,  and  Tunis.  The 
northern  slope  towards  the  Mediterranean,  called 
ihi  Tell,    is,  in   aspect,   climate,    and  productions, 


similar  to  the  opposite  coast  of  Europe  ;  the  southern 
fide  merges  gradually  into  the  Sahara.  Some  jiarts 
of  the  chain  are  considerably  above  the  snow-line, 
and  the  highest  summits  may  reach  15,000  feet. 

5.  The  region  bordering  on  the  Red  Sea,  consisting 
of  Abyssinia,  Nubia,  and  Egypt.  Abyssinia,  we  have 
seen,  is  the  mountainous  termination  of  the  great 
southern  plateau.  Between  this  and  the  Mediterra- 
nean extends  the  low  valley  of  the  Nile,  separated 
from  the  Red  Sea  on  the  east  by  a  rugged  mountain- 
ous region,  and  from  the  Libyan  Desert  on  the  west 
by  a  low  ridge  of  limestone  and  sandstone. 

Regarding  the  hydrography  of  A.,  much  is  still  to 
be  ascertain.ed.  The  portion  which,  until  recently, 
was  termed  the 'unexploted  territory,' seems  to  be 
anything  but  the  barren  and  riverless  desert  that 
we'  imagined;  still  it  may  be  safely  stated  that  A., 
as  a  whole,  is  far  from  being  a  well-watered  conti- 
nent, though  hardly  one  of  its  streams  has  been 
traced  throughout  its  entire  course,  while  nearly  the 
entire  tributaries  of  these,  if  (as  is  probable)  such 
exist  in  abundance,  are  almost  wholly  unknown. 
Those  of  the  ?outh,  which  mostly  rise  in  the  neigh- 
bouring highlands,  are,  in  many  instances,  little 
better  than  mountain  torrents,  having  short  and 
rapid  courses;  and  the  embouchure,  generally  in  the 
delta  form,  is  commonly  obstructed  by  a  bar  of  sand. 
The  Orange  River,  for  instance,  is  filled  with  sand  at 
its  mouth. 

Jiivers. — The  great  rivers  of  A.  are  the  Nile,  the 
Niger,  the   Zambesi,    the    Orange,    the    Congo,    the 
Senegal,  and  the  Gambia.     See  arts.  Nile,   Niger, 
&c.     The  first  of  these  is  formed  by  the  junction  of 
two  rivers — the  White  Nile  (Rahr-el-Abiad)  and  the 
Blue  Nile  (Bahr-el-Asrak).     The  former  flows  from 
the    Lake    Alljert   Nyanza,  through   a   region   little 
known   to   Europeans,    skirts   the    eastern    edge  of 
Kordofan,  and  passes  into  Nubia,  where  it  is  joinoi 
by    the    Blue   Nile    at    Ivliartnm,    after    the    latter 
has    broken    through    the   highlands    of    Abyssinia. 
Tire  single  stream  then  sweeps  circnitously  through 
Nubia   in    a   succession    of    cataracts,   and    descend- 
ing into  Egypt,  reaches  the  Mediterranean  through 
the  far-famed   Delta.      The    second    of    the    great 
rivers,  the    Niger,   Joliba,   or   Quorra — for   it  goes 
by    these    and  other    names    in    difirerent    jinrts    of 
its  course — rises  in  the  Kong  Mountains  of  Gninen, 
about    9°  25'  N.  lat.,  9°  45'    W.    long.,   and   flows 
first  N.E.  till  it  reaches  Timbuktu,  where  it  bends  E. 
for  a  short   distance,  and  then  descends  in  a  S.E. 
'  direction   into    the  Gulf  of  Guinea.     Its  length    \^ 
estimated  at  2500   miles;    and  its   navigability   has 
been  ascertained  for  a  distance   of  upwards  of  400 
miles ;  but    its    banks    are   very   pestilential.      Its 
principal   tributary   is  the  Tchadda  or  Benuc.     At 
the  extreme  west  of  the  mountains  of  Kong,  and  noi 
far  from  the  source  of  the  Niger,  rises  the  Senegal, 
which   flows  with   a   crescent   sweep   to  the    N.W. 
through  Senegambia,  and  enters  the  Atlantic  north 
of  Cape  Verde.     The  Gambia,  a  smaller  river,  runs 
in  a  .'similar  direction  through  the  same  country,  and 
falls  into  the  sea  south  of  Cape  Verde.     The  Congo, 
which  has  its  origin  somewhere  in  that  great  division 
of  A.  south  of  tiic  equator  that  has  recently  been 
opened  to  us,  is  very  imperfectly  known.     It  emptie,s 
its   waters  into   the   Atlantic  at  Cape   Padrone,    in 
South  Guinea.     The  Orange  River  flows  from  east 
to  west  with  many  windings  through  what   is  pop- 
ularly   termed    'the    country    of    the    Hottentots;' 
while  the  Zambesi,  though  only  partially  explored, 
seems  rich  in  affluents,  and  runs  in  a  general  easterly 
direction,  entering  the  channel  of  Mozambique,  about 
18°  S.  lat. 

Lakes. — The  lakes  of  A.  are,  as  yet,  no  better 
known  to  us  than  its  rivers.  Tchad,  Chad,  or  more 
correctlv    according  to  Dr.   Barth,    T;;ad,  the  chief 

67 


AFRICA. 


lake  of  Sudan  or  Central  A.,  has  a  circumference  of 
iibout  '2nO  miles,  with  a  depth  varying  from  8 — 51 
foet,  and  an  elevation  of  850  feet  above  the  sea-level. 
Though  it  has  no  ontlet,  its  waters  are  cool  and 
clear,  and  abound  with  fish.  Besides  a  multitude 
of  temporary  streams,  it  is  the  recipient  of  several 
large  rivers.  The  chief  is  the  Shary  or  Asu,  from 
the  south-east.  iJcmbea  or  Tzana,  in  Abyssinia, 
through  which  the  Blue  Nile  flows,  is  about  65  miles 
long,  and  30  bro;id,  and  lies  (iOOO  feet  above  the 
sea-level.  Lake  N'ganii,  in  Southern  A.,  has  been 
Jilready  mentioned.  Tlie  Albert  Xyanza  and  Victoria 
Nyanza  constitute  the  sources  of  the  AVhite  Nile,  as 
determined  by  Baker,  Grant,  and  Speke.  From  the 
concurring  accounts  of  Arab  travellers  and  natives,  it 
is  ascertained  that  there  is  a  large  lake  in  the  interior 
called  Nyassi  or  Uniamesi,  situated  at  the  southward 
of  the  Nyanza. 

Geology. — The  geology  of  A.  is  known  as  yet  only 
from  cursory  observations  made  at  isolated  points. 
The  character  of  the  Sahara  has  been  already  indi- 
cated. The  section  traversed  by  Dr.  Livingstone 
presents  a  variety  of  schists,  shales,  sandstones,  and 
tufa,  through  which  protrude  granite  and  trap-rocks. 
In  one  place  towards  the  east  side  of  the  continent, 
the  sandstone  is  found  overlying  coal.  Between 
Tripoli  and  Murzuk  there  is  a  plateau,  the  dark 
sandstone  of  which  disintegrated,  fills  up  the 
incfiualities  of  the  surface,  fiom  which  the  black 
rock  stands  out  in  fantastic  cones.  The  lofty  barrier 
of  limestone  which  forms  the  western  boundary  of 
Egypt,  reappears  in  the  rugged  ranges  of  hills  which 
break  the  monotonous  waste  of  Sahara;  they  some- 
times contain  marine  shells.  Secondary  limestone 
also  constitutes  the  lower  skirts  of  the  Atlas  Jloun- 
tains,  but  what  constitutes  their  basis  has  not  yet 
been  discovered. 

Climate. — There  arc  three  great  varieties  of  cli- 
mate, corresponding  to  the  physical  structure  of  the 
continent:  first,  that  of  the  plateaus;  second,  that 
of  the  terraces  which  lead  to  them  ;  and  third,  that 
of  the  coasts.  In  the  vast  desert  of  Sahara,  extend- 
ing over  an  area  equal  to  that  of  the  Mediterranean 
Sea,  almost  destitute  of  water  and  vegetation,  and 
partly  covered  with  tracts  of  sand  and  bare  low  rocks, 
the  heat  of  the  day  is  uniformly  contrasted  with  the 
coldness  of  the  night ;  while  on  the  terrace-land  of 
Limbu,  for  instance,  situated  behind  the  Sierra  Leone 
region,  we  find  a  temperate  and  wholesome  climate  ; 
and  in  that  rising  behind  the  Slave  Coast,  we  have 
beautiful  landscapes,  abundant  springs,  new  forms  of 
vegetation,  and  a  mild  Italian  air.  The  natives  of 
Congo  call  their  terrace-lands,  which  are  well  cultiva- 
ted and  thickly  peopled,  '  the  Paradise  of  the  World.' 
But  the  flat  coasts,  which  are  often  over-flooded  in 
the  rainy  season,  have  a  very  oppressive  atmosphere, 
and  from  the  morasses  at  the  mouths  of  the  rivers,  a 
malaria  arises  which  is  pestilential  to  Europeans. 
This  malaria  has  been  supposed  to  arise  from  the 
decay  of  the  vegetable  matter  brought  down  by  the 
rivers  from  the  dense  mangrove  woods,  which,  mixing 
with  the  salt  water  on  the  coast,  produces  sulphuret- 
ted hydrogen  gas.  Nothing  can  be  more  unfavour- 
able to  the  health  and  energy  of  Europeans  than 
the  climate  of  Sierra  Leone,  the  Gambia,  and 
M'Carthy's  Island.  In  the  last,  the  thermometer  is 
often  at  10(5°  in  the  shade  during  the  dry  season,  and 
the  whole  island  is  little  better  than  a  morass  in  the 
four  rainy  months.  The  region  of  pestilential  air 
has  been  calculated  to  extend  about  100  miles  inland  ; 
but  only  40  miles  out  at  sea,  and  to  rise  to  a  height 
of  400  feet  above  the  sea-level. 

Productions. — 'Yhe  vegetation  oi  A.  is  decidedly  less 

varied    than    that   of  Europe    or    Asia.     Along    the 

Mediterranean  sea-board,    it  greatly  resembles  that 

of  Southern  Europe.     The  tropical  regions  are  not 

68 


so  rich  in  species  of  plants  as  those  of  South  Amer- 
ica, but  still  they  exhibit  many  peculiar  genera.  As 
we  leave  the  sultry  coasts,  and  ascend  the  terra- 
ces towards  the  interior,  we  pass  gradually  from 
tropical  productions  to  those  of  the  temperate 
zones,  which  all  flomish  well  in  several  parts  of  A. 
Though  the  forests  cannot  rival  those  of  Brazil, 
they  are  rich  in  valuable  woods,  especially  the 
hai'der  kinds ;  some  of  them  excellent  for  ship- 
building. Here  we  find  the  gigantic  Adnnnonia 
(q.  v.)  digttata  or  baobab.  Ebony,  certain  kinds  of 
rosewood,  and  the  timber  called  African  teak,  are 
among  the  productions  of  the  tropical  forests.  The 
Butter-tree  (Ba.ssia,  q.  v.)  is  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able productions  of  the  central  regions.  Extensive 
level  tracts  are  covered  with  acacias.  Certain  palms 
are  very  characteristic  of  different  parts  of  A.,  and 
are  of  the  greatest  importance  to  the  inhabitants, 
particuliirly  the  Date-palm  (q.  v.)  in  the  north,  and 
in  an  inferior  degree,  the  Doom-palui  (q.  v.),  both  of 
them  growing  in  regions  comparatively  arid,  and 
often  surrounded  by  the  very  sands  of  the  desert ; 
whilst  the  Oil-palm  (q.  v.)  flourishes  amidst  the 
tropical  luxuriance  of  the  west,  and  supplies  an 
article  of  commerce  which  now  attracts  the  ships 
of  Europe,  in  constantly  increasing  numbers  to  short  a 
once  frequented  only  for  the  prosecution  of  the 
slave-trade.  The  Cocoa-palm  ((|.  v.)  flourishes  on 
many  parts  of  the  tropical  coasts.  A  large  quantity 
of  oil  is  produced  also  by  a  plant  of  a  very  diflercnt 
description,  the  Ground-nut  (^Arac/iix,  q.  v.),  a  legum- 
inous herbaceous  j)lant,  which  has  the  remarkable 
peculiarity  of  thrusting  its  pods  into  the  ground  to 
ripen  there,  an^l  which  is  now  so  extensively  culti- 
vated, that  nine  millions  of  bushels  of  ground-nuts 
are  annually  exported  i'rom  the  Gambia.  The 
southern  extremity  of  A.  is  remarkable  for  the  vast 
number  of  its  species  of  mcsembryanthemums  and 
heaths.  Pelargoniums,  iridaceie  and  proteaocae,  are 
also  among  the  most  characteristic  features  of  its 
vegetation.  Euphoibiaccaj  abound  in  most  parts  of 
the  continent.  Many  of  the  jiroductions  of  other 
countries  Invve  been  introduced,  both  in  the  tropical 
and  temperate  parts  of  A.  Maize  is  now  extensively 
cidtivated,  as  well  as  rice,  wheat,  and  millet.  A 
peculiar  kind  of  grain,  called  fundi,  or  fundungi 
{Pa.tpalum  exile),  is  cultivated  in  the  west,  and 
grains  called  teff  and  tocusso  (Poa  Abi/.isinica  and 
Eleusine  Tocuxso)  in  Abyssinia.  Coffee  grows  luxuri- 
antly, and  of  good  quality.  Indigo  and  tobacco  arc 
easily  cultivated,  and  cotton  has  succeeded  well 
where  it  has  been  introduced,  as  in  Egypt,  where, 
however,  it  requires  artificial  and  laborious  irriga- 
tion ;  while  in  the  rich  and  w  ell-watered  soil  of 
Sennaar,  it  flourishes  even  with  a  most  careless 
style  of  cultivation,  and  might,  without  doubt,  be 
produced  in  enormous  quantity.  Other  regions,  as 
Natal,  seem  likely  soon  to  produce  it  abundantly. 
The  vine  is  cultivated  with  success  at  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  and  the  sugar-cane  in  different  parts  of 
the  continent. 

In  the  animal  kingdom,  we  find  the  lion,  the 
leopard — often  called  the  tiger,  but  the  tiger  is  not 
yet  known  except  as  a  native  of  Asia  and  the  Asiatic 
isles — hyenas,  jackals,  and  others  of  the  canine 
family,  a  species  of  elephant,  differing  in  some 
particulars  from  that  of  Asia,  several  species  of 
rhinoceros,  the  hippopotamus,  wart-hogs  {P/iaseo- 
ehcerus),  and  many  kinds  of  monkeys,  particularly 
within  the  tropics.  The  giraffe,  the  zebra,  and  the 
quagga,  are  peculiar  and  characteristic,  as  are  also 
numerous  species  of  antelope,  which  occupy,  in 
African  zoology,  the  place  of  deer  in  other  parts  of 
the  world.  The  gnu  is  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able of  the  antelope  genus.  Some  of  the  smaller 
species  occasionally  appear  in  prodigious  numbers, 


AFRICA. 


deviistiitiiig  the  fields  of  the  colonists.  The  ostrich  is 
found  in  ahiiost  all  paits  of  A.  I'at rots,  flaniiiigocs, 
and  f^uinca-fowls  may  also  be  niontioiicd  among  the 
birds,  t'rocodiles  are  found  in  the  rivers,  and  many 
Kinds  of  lizards  and  serpents  oeeur,  not  a  few  of  the 
latter  being  poisonous.  There  are  also  tortoises  and 
turtles  of  dilVerent  species.  The  domestic  animals 
succeed  well.  Camels  are  said  to  have  been  intro- 
duced by  the  Arabs,  and  are  plentiful  iu  the  northern 
regions. 

It  would  be  hazardous  to  assert  that  A.  is  deficient 
\n  mineral  trealth,  though,  judging  from  our  present 
imperfect  knowledge,  it  does  not  seem  to  be  extremely 
rich.  Gold  is  much  more  plentiful  than  silver,  being 
fouiid  aliundantly  in  the  .sands  of  the  great  rivers 
that  flow  out  of  the  central  region,  on  the  coast  of 
Guinea,  and  also  in  the  south-east  of  A.  The 
Sierr:i  Leone  coast  has  valuable  iron  ore,  which  is 
also  found  in  the  Ui)pcr  Senegal,  the  region  of 
Timbuktu,  the  Congo  chain  of  mountains,  Egypt, 
and  Darfur.  Copper  is  plentiful  at  Majomba,  and  in 
some  ;)ther  places  ;  salt  may  be  obtained  from  almost 
every  district  in  A.  except  Sudan,  and  sal-ammoniac, 
saltjietre,  sulphur,  and  emery  iu  various  portions  of 
the  continent. 

Piipn/ation. — The  poptdation  is  vaguely  estimated 
at  above  in(),O00,t-0O.  The  native  inhabitants  belong 
to  one  of  the  three  great  divisions  of  the  human 
family,  called,  by  Dr.  Latham,  Atlantida?,  the  Etiiiopic 
of  other  ethnologists.  The  subdivision  into  tribes  is 
endless,  but  they  maybe  all  classed  in  six  groups: 
l.st,  Tlie  Kegro  AflcnitUhe. — These  have,  in  an  exag- 
fjeratcd  form,  the  black  unctuous  skin,  woolly  hair, 
projecting  jaws,  flat  nose,  and  thick  lips,  character- 
istic of  the  wliole  variety.  But  it  is  important  to 
ob3er\e  the  comparatively  narrow  area  to  which  the 
negroes  proper  are  confined.  They  occupy  Western  A., 
from  the  Senegal  to  the  Gaboon,  Sudan  in  the  centre, 
and  the  low  parts  of  the  Upper  Nile.  The  dusky  or 
brown  hue  is  more  prevalent  through  A.  as  a  whole 
than  the  jet-black  of  the  negro  ;  which  seems  nearly 
coincident  with  river  valleys  and  deltas  lying  within 
the  tropics.  2d,  Kafir  Atlaniuke. — In  physieal  con- 
formation, they  are  modified  negro  ;  the  j  iws  are  less 
projecting  ;  their  language  has  some  singular  pecu- 
liarities. They  occupy  from  north  of  the  equator 
to  South  of  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn.  ?}d,  Hottentot 
AtlMitidir . — These,  according  to  Dr.  Latham,  have  a 
better  claim  to  be  considered  a  second  species  than 
any  other  section  of  mankind.  Their  colour  is  brown 
rather  than  black ;  the  hair  grows  in  tufts.  The 
stature  is  low,  and  the  bones  of  the  pelvis  peculiar. 
Their  language  has  a  characteristic  click.  They 
inhabit  the  south  of  the  continent,  and  are  divided 
into  Hottentots  and  Saabs,  or  Bushmen.  4//*,  Nilotic 
Atlantidce,  occupying  the  water-system  of  the  Upper 
and  Middle  Nile.  The  leading  trilies  are  the  Gallas, 
Agows,  Nubians,  and  Bishari,  forming  the  population 
of  Abyssinia,  Adel,  and  Nubia.  It  connects  by 
imperceptible  gradations  tlie  Coptic  and  Semitic 
groups  with  the  rest  of  the  African.  6<A,  Amazigh 
Atlantidce,  usually  called  Berbers.  In  conformation, 
they  vary  from  the  negro  to  the  Arab  type.  The 
language  is  s«6-Senutic.  They  inhaljit  the  ranges  of 
the  Atlas,  the  Sahara,  the  Canary  Isles,  and  are 
found  as  far  south  even  as  the  centre  of  Sudan.  0///, 
Egifptian  Atlanlid(e,  or  old  Egyptians,  represented 
by  the  modern  Copts.  Both  language  and  physical 
conformation  connect  them,  on  the  one  hand,  with 
Berbers  and  Nubians ;  on  the  other,  with  the 
Assyrians,  Jews,  &c. 

la  religion,  the  natives  are  ns  various  as  in  lan- 
guage ;  but  it  may  be  questioned  whether  some  of 
the  tribes,  especially  in  South  A.,  can  be  fairly 
described  as  having  any  religion.  In  not  a  few  of 
these,    the    religious    consciousness    seems    wholly 


extinguished,  and  the  very  terms  which  express  it, 
to  have  dropped  out  of  their  language.  Such,  at 
least,  was  the  result  of  Moffat's  observations,  though 
perhaps  the  degradation  in  which  he  found  some 
tribes  plunged  was  in  itself  a  barrier  to  a  just  and 
adecjuate  communication  with  them;  for  the  lower 
that  laces  or  individuals  sink,  the  less  easy  it  is  to 
understand  them.  Throughout  the  north,  and  to  a 
considerable  extent  in  the  interior,  the  creed  of 
Mohammed  is  received,  but  held  very  loosely  by 
many.  The  Mohammedan  tribes  on  the  west  coast 
divide  themselves  into  two  classes — the  Marabouts 
and  the  Sonnachces ;  but  it  is  not  easy  to  under- 
stand the  exact  nature  of  this  distinction,  beyond  the 
simple  fact,  that  the  Marabouts  profess  to  adhere 
rather  strictly  to  the  laws  of  the  Prophet,  while  the 
Sonnachees  are  more  secular,  make  little  profession 
of  sanctity,  but  eat  pork  and  will  drink  spirituous 
liquors.  The  lowest  form  of  superstition,  styled 
fetichixm,  prevails  among  the  uncultured  negro  tribes, 
as  well  as  among  the  Gallas,  a  nation  widely  spread 
south-east  of  Abyssinia  ;  and  the  practice  of  offering 
human  sacrifices  is  found  in  many  tribes.  The 
Abyssinians  hold  by  tradition  a  crude  form  of 
Christianity. 

Of  the  forms  of  gover7unet>t  among  the  several 
nations  and  tribes,  our  knowledge  is  not  sufficiently 
definite.  Though  there  is  despotism,  it  appears  to 
be  limited  to  some  extent  by  a  respect  for  the  'head- 
men' in  every  tribe,  who  form  a  sort  of  aristocracy, 
and  whom  the  king  must  consult  on  all  important 
affairs.  The  liberty  of  sjieech  employed  in  a  native 
parliament,  or  rather  '  palaver,'  is  often  considerable. 
Though  women  arc  generally  found  in  a  degraded 
position,  the  wives  of  tiie  king  often  take  a  part  in 
council,  and  exercise  their  influence  in  the  affairs  of 
state.  Civilisation,  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  term, 
is  only  to  be  met  with  in  the  settlements  of  the 
Europeans ;  for  the  condition  of  the  Moors,  Arabs, 
and  Egiiptians  is  scarcely  entitled  to  rank  higher 
than  that  of  semi-civilisation. 

Of  science,  art,  and  literature,  we  can  say  little ; 
for  all  that  had  been  achieved  under  the  Pharaohs 
and  Ptolemies  disappeared  with  the  conquest  of  the 
Moslems.  A  schoolmaster  is  found  in  almost  every 
Mohammedan  village ;  but  the  Koran  is  the  only 
book  studied.  Medicine  is  little  understood,  though 
the  tribes  in  the  south  and  elsewhere  have  great 
faith  in  its  powers,  and  practice  it  in  a  very  absurd 
and  superstitious  style.  Among  many  tribes,  the 
religion  might  be  styled  medicine-worship.  Inocu- 
lation, as  a  preservative  against  the  small-pox,  is 
common  among  the  Mohammedan  tribes.  Mechan- 
ical skill  is  generally  respected  ;  and  the  smith  or 
worker  in  iron  is  reckoned  among  the  'head-men' 
in  every  tribe.  To  the  Afiican  ndnd,  the  products 
of  European  skill  and  industry  are  the  strongest 
arguments  that  can  be  brought  forward  to  prove 
the  superiority  of  our  religious  doctrines :  thus  com- 
merce seems  indispensable  to  prepare  the  way  for 
any  extensive  changes  of  creed. 

Of  the  interior  commerce  or  barter  of  the  natives 
among  themselves,  our  knowledge  is  scanty.  Cara- 
vans of  camels  pass  over  the  wide  deserts  by  such 
routes  as  lead  them  to  the  greatest  number  of 
springs,  brooks,  and  oases,  or  comparatively  fertile 
places.  The  chieftains  in  the  desert  are  the  principal 
traders ;  and  one  feature  in  their  character,  though 
carried  to  a  cruel  extreme,  is  certainly  favourable  to 
commerce  :  debtors  are  treated  with  great  severity. 
When  payments  are  delayed,  not  only  the  debtor 
himself,  but,  if  he  is  absent,  any  member  of  his 
family,  may  be  seized  as  a  slave.  Timbuktu,  on 
the  southern  edge  of  Sahara,  is  the  chief  commercial 
depot  and  central  station  for  the  caravans  which 
arrive    from    Tafilet,    Tripoli,    and    other    places    iu 

69 


AGA— AGAMA. 


North  A.  From  Timbuktu  they  proceed  on  their 
route  along  the  course  of  the  Niger  to  Kashna, 
another  station  of  commercial  impoitance,  which  is 
also  visited  by  the  caravans  from  Sudan  and 
P.ornu.  From  Kashna  the  caravan-route  leads  to 
Bornu  and  Lake  Tchad  or  Tsad ;  thence  to  the 
territories  of  the  Tibbous  and  the  Tawareks,  and  on 
to  Murzuk  in  the  oasis  of  Fczzan.  Kulfa  is  another 
f;reat  meeting-place  of  the  caravans  coming  from 
Dahomey  in  the  south-west,  Borgu  in  the  north-east, 
and  Niffe  in  the  south-east.  There  seems  to  be  no 
doubt  that  these  caravans  are  in  communication 
with  others  from  the  east,  and  thus  connect,  in  a 
primitive  style  of  commerce,  the  Indian  Ocean  with 
the  Atlantic  and  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  The  prin- 
cipal places  of  commerce  in  the  east  are  Mariiegar, 
Berbera,  Ancobar,  Gondar,  Sennaar,  and  Kobbe.  In 
Benguela  and  Angola,  negro  caravans  from  the 
interior  arrive  at  the  chief  places  on  the  coast, 
bringing  slaves,  ivory,  and  gold-dust,  which  are 
bartered  for  various  commodities. 

Though  A.  is  so  rich  in  natural  productions,  and 
capable  of  maintaining  a  thriving  commerce  with 
other  parts  of  the  world,  it  is  still  a  painful  fact  that 
along  its  coasts,  and  in  the  caravan-roads  of  the 
interior,  the  principal  trade  is  in  slaves.  Kegarding 
the  cruelty  and  wickedness  of  this  traffic,  it  is 
unnecessary  that  a  single  word  should  be  said  here. 
The  verdict  of  enlightened  Christendom  has  con- 
demned it,  but  the  prejudice  against  the  negro  race 
remains,  and  they  are  still  considered  by  a  large 
number  incapable  or  unworthy  of  culture.  It  is  pro- 
bable that  a  more  thorough  knowledge  of  the  Africans 
w^ill  dissipate  so  erroneous  and  i)ernicious  an  idea. 
As  yet,  we  have  chiefly  come  into  contact  with  the 
barbarous  tribes  who  dwell  around  our  settlements 
on  the  coast ;  and  it  is  unfair  to  judge  the  w  hole 
population  by  these.  We  must  remember  that 
several  tribes  have  independently,  and  by  their  own 
exertions,  arrived  at  a  certain  stage  of  culture,  and 
seem  to  be  on  their  way  to  civilisation.  As  we 
advance  towards  the  interior,  we  do  not  find  the 
people  in  a  condition  ■which  can  be  fairly  described 
as  savagism ;  but  with  fixed  dwellings,  though  they 
are  merely  mud-huts,  defended  by  stockades,  and 
possessed  of  some  laws  or  customs  which  are  favour- 
able to  commerce.  Among  several  tribes,  the  native 
merchant  is  highly  respected;  and  his  goods  are 
safe  even  in  times  of  feud  or  warfare.  The  land  is 
cuhivatcd;  the  natives  wear  dyed  cotton  dresses, 
thicker  and  more  durable  than  those  exported  from 
England,  and  consequently  far  dearer.  Gold  and 
iron  are  manufactured  with  ingenuity.  The  principal 
tribes  on  the  Gambia,  the  Fulahs,  the  Joliffes,  and 
tiie  Mandingoes,  have  qualities  which  forbid  us  to 
tiespair  of  the  progress  of  A.  in  culture.  All  that 
is  wanted  is  a  free  commercial  intercourse  with  the 
civilised  world.  Commerce  must  carry  into  A.  the 
doctrine  that  it  is  better  to  employ  men  in  trade, 
such  as  collecting  palm-oil,  than  to  sell  them  as 
slaves.  Ability  to  understand  such  a  truth  will  not 
be  wanting;  and  when  it  is  known  and  practised, 
the  negro  will  prove  that  he  is  human,  and  will 
lireak  through  all  the  natural  obstacles  placed  in  the 
way  of  his  development  and  improvement. 

That  portion  of  A.  which  is  known  is  divided 
as  follows:  Native  states  and  regions — Ashanti, 
Dahomey,  Fezzan,  Barca,  Bornu,  Darfur,  Kordofan, 
Dongola,  Guinea,  Abyssinia,  Marocco,  Senegambia, 
Sennaar,  Sudan  with  Sahara,  the  territory  of  the 
Imaum  of  Muscat,  and  the  countries  of  the  interior, 
with  others  on  the  east  coast.  British  possessions 
are — Cape  Colony  and  Natal,  at  the  south  ;  the  island 
of  Mauritius,  St.  Helena,  Ascension,  Sierra  Leone, 
Cape  Coast,  and  the  Gambia  Colony. — The  French 
have  settlements  on  the  Senegal,  with  the  islands 
TO 


of  St.  Louis  and  Gor6e,  the  Isle  de  Bourbon,  St.  Mariei 
and  the  great  colony  of  Algeria. — Egypt,  Nubia, 
Tunis,  and  Tripoli  belong  nominally  to  Turkey. — 
Danes  and  North  Americans,  as  well  as  the  Dutch, 
have  forts  and  settlements  in  Guinea. — The  Portu- 
guese have  the  Azore  and  Cape  Verde  Islands,  with 
Madeira,  Porto  Santo,  St.  Thomas,  Angola,  Benguela, 
and  Mozambique. — The  Canary  Islands  belong  to 
Spain. — The  large  island  of  Madagascar  and  the 
Comoro  group  are  unde^  native  rulers  ;  but  in  some 
of  these  islands  on  the  east  coast  the  French  have 
recently  established  themselves,  as  at  Mayotta. 

AGA  or  AGIIA,  the  Turkish  title  of  a  superior 
military  connnander  ;  also  of  the  higher  ofiQcera  of 
the  seraglio. 

A'GADES,  formerly  a  very  important  city  of 
Central  Africa,  but  at  present  in  a  declining  con- 
dition. It  is  the  capital  of  ATr  or  Asben  (q.  v.), 
and  is  built  upon  the  eastern  edge  of  a  great 
table-land,  at  an  elevation  of  not  less  than  2.">n0 
feet,  in  lat.  16°  33'  N.,  long.  7'  3u'  E.  It  holds  little 
intercourse  with  the  northern  cities,  such  as  Murzuk, 
which,  indeed,  is  never  visited,  except  by  pilgrims 
on  their  way  to  Mecca ;  but  its  merchants  still 
frequent  the  markets  of  Katsena,  Tasawa,  Maradi, 
Kano,  and  Sokoto.  At  one  time  A.  was  a  sort  of 
entrepot  for  the  vast  traffic  carried  on  with  Gogo — 
the  ancient  capital  of  the  Songhay  empire  (q.  v.) — but 
the  coiuiuest  aiul  destruction  of  this  city,  the  centre 
of  the  gold  trade,  has  fatally  injured  tlie  jjrosperity 
of  the  former,  '  cutting  away  the  very  roots  through 
which  it  received  life.'  A.  was  founded  some  hundreds 
of  years  ago,  in  all  likelihood  by  the  Berbers, 
who  were  expelled  by  the  great  Songhar  conqueror, 
Ilaj,  Moliamnu'd  Askia,  in  1515.  Its  liighest  degree 
of  power  had  been  reached  previous  to  this,  when  it 
probably  contained  60,(100  inhabitants.  At  present, 
it  has  not  more  than  COOO  or  70oO.  The  language 
is  the  Emgcdesiye,  the  same  as  that  spoken  at 
Timbuktu,  with  which  place,  however,  it  has  no 
intercourse  now.  There  is  a  large  admixture  of 
Berber  blood  in  the  people  of  A.  The  trade  and 
manufactures  are  trifling  in  extent.  Dr.  Barth  is  of 
opinion  that  A.  would  form,  for  a  European  agent, 
a  very  good  and  comparatively  healthy  place  from 
which  to  open  relations  with  Central  Africa.  See 
Earth's  Travels  in  Central  Africa,  vol.  i. 

A'GAMA,  a  genus  of  Saurian  Reptiles,  the  type  of 
a  family  called  Agamidce.  The  Agamas  are  allied  to 
the  Iguanas,  and  have  a  lax  skin,  which  they  have 
tlie  power  of  inflating  with  air.  None  of  them  are 
of  a  large  size.  They  are  found  in  warm  climates, 
and  are  of  various  habits,  some  of  them  living  in 
trees,  and  others  confined  to  the  ground.  The 
Egyptian  A.  {A.  Egyptiaca  or  Trapelus  Egyptiacus) 


Frilled  Agama. 

is  remarkable  for  changing  colour,  like  the  cha- 
meleon. Some  of  the  most  common  lizards  of 
Australia  are  of  this  family.  The  Frilled  A.  {chlamy 
dosanrits)  is  a  remarkable  Australinn  lizard,  having 
a  sort  of  frill   around   the  neck,  which    usually  lies 


AGAMEMNON— AGxVPE.MOXE. 


back  in  plaits,  but  is  raised  when  the  animal  is 
alarmed. 

AGAME'MNON,  son  of  King  Atreus,  and  brother 
of  Meuelaus.  After  his  father's  death,  he  reigned  in 
M)'ccniB,  and  married  Clytenuicstra,  by  whom  he 
had  three  cliildren — Ipliigenia,  Electra,  and  Orestes, 
afterwards  celebrated  iu  the  Greek  drama.  "When 
Paris,  son  of  tlie  Trojan  king,  Priam,  seduced  and 
carried  away  Helena,  tlie  wife  of  Menelaus,  A., 
with  his  injured  brother,  made  a  toiu'  tliroughout 
Greece,  exhorting  all  tlie  leaders  of  the  people  to 
unite  their  forces  in  an  expedition  against  Troy. 
Having  gained  their  alliance,  A.  was  appointed 
general-in-chief  of  the  united  forces  assembled  at 
Aulis  in  Boeotia,  where  they  were  delayed  some 
time.  In  the  following  campaign  against  Troy, 
which  forms  the  subject  of  Homer's  Iliad, 
A.  is  described  as  a  very  stately  and  dignified 
character.  After  the  fall  of  Troy,  he  returned 
home,  taking  with  him  Cassandra,  the  daughter  of 
Priam.  Shortly  afterwards,  he  was  murdered  by 
Clytemnestra,  aided  by  ^Egisthus,  in  whose  care  he 
had  left  his  wife  and  children.  A  tragical  fate  had 
always  lowered  over  the  house  of  A. ;  and  the 
destinies  of  his  children — Iphigenia,  Electra,  and 
Orestes — w'cre  the  favourite  subjects  of  the  Greek 
drama. 

A'GAMI  (Psophia),  a  genus  of  South  American 
birds,  allied  to  Cranes.  Only  two  species  are  known. 
They  are  sometimes  called  Trumpeters,  from  a  peculiar 


Bound  which  they  make.  The  best  known  species  is 
the  Gold-breasted  Trumpeter  (P.  crejiitans),  which  is 
of  the  size  of  a  large  ])heasant,  but  with  much  longer 
legs  and  neck,  and  a  very  short  tail.  It  runs  very 
quickly  ;  so  nmch  so,  that  a  tame  one  in  England 
has  been  known  to  keep  up  with  hounds.  It  is 
capable  of  the  most  perfect  domestication. 

A'GAP^E  were  love-feasts,  or  feasts  of  charity, 
usually  celebrated  by  the  early  Christians  in 
connection  with  the  Lord's  Supper.  The  name  is 
derived  from  the  Greek  word  agape,  which  signifies 
love  or  charity.  At  these  feasts,  the  rich  Christians 
presented  their  poorer  brethren  in  the  faith  with 
gifts,  and  all  ate  together,  in  token  of  their  equality 
before  God  and  their  brotherly  harmony.  The 
meetings  were  opened  and  closed  with  prayer ;  and 
during  the  feast,  spiritual  songs  w^ere  sung.  At 
first,  a  bishop  or  presbyter  presided,  who  read  a 
portion  of  Scripture,  proposed  questions  upon  it,  and 
received  the  various  answers  of  the  bretliren.  After- 
wards, wluitever  information  had  been  obtained 
regarding  the  other  churches,  was  read — sucli  as  the 
official  letters  of  overseers,  or  private  communica- 
tions from  eminent  members ;  and  thus  a  spirit  of 
practical  sympathy  was  engendered.  Before  the 
conclusion  of  the  proceedings,  money  was  collected 


for  widows,  orphans,  the  poor,  prisoners,  and  those 
who  had  sufi'ercd  shipwreck.  Then  the  members 
embraced,  and  the  feast  was  ended  with  a'j)hilan- 
thro[)ic  prayer.'  As  early  as  the  2d  c,  the  custom 
of  celebrating  the  A.  and  the  Lord's  Supper  together 
had  ceased  on  account  of  the  persecutions.  Justin, 
when  writing  on  the  latter  subject,  does  not  speak 
of  the  former ;  but  Ignatius,  on  the  other  hand, 
seems  to  regard  them  as  identical.  Generally,  the 
feast  of  the  A.  preceded  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's 
Sujiper.  But  during  the  period  of  the  persecutions, 
when  the  Christians  had  often  to  hold  di\ine  service 
before  dawn,  the  A.  were,  for  the  most  part, 
delayed  till  the  evening.  Later,  a  formal  separation 
was  made  between  the  two  rites.  In  the  3d  and 
4th  centuries,  the  A.  had  degenerated  into  a  common 
banquet,  where  the  deaths  of  relatives,  and  the 
anniversaries  of  the  martyrs,  were  commemorated, 
and  where  the  clergy  and  the  poor  were  guests ;  but 
with  the  increase  of  wealth,  and  the  decay  of  reli- 
gious earnestness  and  purity  in  the  Christian  Church, 
these  A.  became  occasions  of  great  riotousness  and 
debauchery.  Councils  declared  against  them,  forbade 
the  clergy  to  take  any  share  in  their  celebration, 
and  finally  banished  them  from  the  church.  At  the 
same  time,  it  must  be  adnntted  that  the  heathens 
ignorantly  calumniated  the  practices  of  the  Chris- 
tians in  these  A.,  and  that  the  defences  made  by 
TertuUian,  Slinucius,  Felix,  Origen,  &c.,  are  emi- 
nently successful.  The  Moravians  have  attempted 
to  revive  these  A.,  and  hold  solemn  festivals,  with 
prayer  and  praise,  where  tea  is  drunk,  and  wheaten 
bread,  called  Love-bread,  is  used. 

AGAPE'MONt  (Gr.  love-abode),  a  conventual 
establishment  of  a  singular  kind,  consisting  of 
persons  of  both  sexes,  founded  at  Charlynch,  near 
Bridgewater,  in  the  county  of  Somerset,  by  Mr. 
Henry  James  Prince,  formerly  a  clergyman  of  the 
Church  of  England.  The  inmates  are  called 
Lampeter  Brethren,  and  belong  to  a  new  religious 
sect  originating  with  Mr.  Piince,  and  a  Mr.  Starkey, 
also  a  clergyman.  The  adherents  of  the  sect 
generally,  of  whom  there  are  many  in  the  south- 
western counties,  are  known  as  Princeites  or 
Starkeyites. 

As  curate  in  a  village  on  the  coast  of  Dorsetshire, 
Mr.  Starkey,  who  possessed  the  gift  of  eloquence  to 
an  extraordinary  degree,  effected  real  good.  His 
parishioners,  most  of  them  lawless  smugglers,  and 
those  who  Hocked  to  hear  his  discourses,  listened 
to  him  as  to  one  inspired;  and  many  who  did  not 
follow  him  in  his  wild  theories,  ascribe  their  first 
real  impressions  of  religion  to  his  ministry  while 
he  was  yet  a  clergyman  of  the  Established  Church. 
Gradually,  his  doctrine  changed,  and  in  company 
with  Mr.  Prince,  he  began  to  hold  forth  in  barns, 
whence  loud  bowlings  were  heard  by  the  jtassers- 
by.  People  of  all  cTasses  flocked  to  hear  the  new 
preachers ;  even  clergymen's  families  were  infected 
with  the  taint  of  this  heresy,  which  spread  through 
the  secluded  villages  on  the  coast,  obtaining  especial 
hold  among  the  farmers,  several  of  whom,  as  in  the 
times  of  the  apostles,  brought  their  wealth,  and  laid 
it  at  '  Brother  Prince's  feet — community  of  goods 
being  the  tenet  most  streimously  insisted  upon. 

Meanwhile,  funds  accumulated  rapidly.  Three 
of  the  Brothers — Messrs.  Price,  Thomas,  and  Cobb — 
married  three  sisters,  daughters  of  a  wealthy  widow 
lady  named  Nottidge.  These  young  women,  hand- 
some, clever,  and  of  independent  fortune,  began 
by  listening,  against  the  wish  of  their  parent,  to 
Mr.  Prince's  preaching,  and  finally  left  their  home 
to  marry  his  disciples.  A  fourth  sister  afterwards 
followed  their  example.  So  strong  was  the  feeling 
under  which  they  acted,  that,  on  their  aged  mother 
coming  in  person  to  remonstrate  on  their  conduct, 

71 


AGAPEMONE— ACiASSIZ. 


they  rejected  her  claims  of  authority,  saying  that 
the  devil  was  speaking  to  them  by  her  voice. 

Tile  affairs  of  the  A.  have  several  times  given  rise 
to  proreediiigs  in  the  courts  of  law,  on  whicli  occa- 
sions the  public  obtained  some  glimpses  into  the 
internal  regulations  of  the  e>^tabli^hment.  In  184'j, 
one  of  the  ladies  above  mentioned,  having  become 
dissatisfied  with  the  doctrine  and  rule  of  life  in  the 
A.,  was  expelled  from  the  society,  and  put  away  by 
her  husband,  Mr.  Thomas,  though  then  about  to  give 
birth  to  a  child.  After  she  had  lived  four  years 
with  her  mother,  who  had  made  provision  for  the 
child,  Mr.  Thomas  wrote,  renouncing  her  for  ever, 
and  claiming  the  custody  of  his  son.  This  was 
resisted ;  and  in  the  course  of  the  law  proceedings 
(185(1)  that  took  place,  much  fhat  was  offensive 
in  the  conduct  of  the  Agapemonians  transpired. 
Although  the  inmates  were  iiuirricd  couples,  it 
appeared  that  they  entertained  .«ome  religious  objec- 
tion to  the  increase  of  population,  as  if  believing 
that  the  perfection  of  all  things  will  be  the  extinc- 
tion of  the  human  race.  In  sliort,  the  doctrines  or 
peculiar  notions  of  this  remarkable  sect  are  seemingly 
a  natural  and  not  unusual  consef|uence  of  allowing 
an  excited  imagination  to  overrule  the  judgment ; 
and,  hence,  Agapcmonianism  is  but  a  new  or  revived 
form  of  extreme  religious  fanaticism. 

Mr.  Piince's  first  establishment  was  at  Wevmouth. 
The  present  A.,  descri])tion  of  -which  is  given  in 
Dixon's  "  Spiritual  Wives,"  is  a  beautiful  building, 
most  luxuriously  fitted  up,  and  contaiiung  a  nuig- 
nificeut  music  hall,  with  all  kinds  of  melodious 
instruments.  When  svmimoned  thither,  the  farmer 
leaves  his  flocks,  herds,  and  crops,  even  in  the 
midst  of  harvest,  and  goes  to  Charlynch  to  do  the 
will  of  his  '  Lord' — such  is  the  title  by  which  .Mr. 
Prince's  followers  speak  of  him.  At  ortier  times,  the 
yeoman  receives  at  his  own  dwelling  large  parties 
of  the  Princeites,  and  entertains  them  with  lavish 
hospitality.  For  this,  it  is  to  be  supposed,  he  has 
his  reward,  since  one  of  Mr.  Prince's  disci[)les,  upon 
being  offered  assistance  towai'ds  the  recovery  of  a 
large  sum  which  he  had  lost,  replied  that  the  money 
'  had  been  repaid  by  the  Lord — the  friend  of  friends, 
who  sticketh  closer  than  a  brother.' 

Letters  intended  for  Mr.  Prince  pass  through  the 
post-office  directed  to  'The  Lord;'  and  his  fol- 
lowers have  been  heard  to  say  that  he  is  their 
'creator.'  In  18-51,  Mr.  Prince  took  up  a  party  of 
them  to  London  to  see  the  Great  Exhibition.  He 
drove  al)0\it  town  and  in  the  parks  in  a  carriage, 
constantly  attended  by  out-riders,  bareheaded,  be- 
cause they  were  in  the  presence  of  '  the  Lord.' 

Mr.  Prince  has  put  forth  many  pamphlets,  some 
in  the  highest  degree  olijectionable  ;  others,  in  which 
the  tenets  of  the  Cliristian  religion  are  mingled  with 
his  own  peculiar  doctrines.  Christ  came  to  redeem 
the  soul.  Prince  affirms  that  Iiia  errand  is  to 
redeem  the  body.  One  test  applied  to  his  disciples, 
from  which  many  shrank,  was,  that  they  were  to 
see  the  eternal  punishment  of  those  whom  they 
best  loved,  and  to  rejoice  in  it  as  redounding  to 
their  Master's  glory.  When  this  was  proposed, 
several  persons  of  respectability,  who  had  hitherto 
gone  along  with  Mr.  Prince,  declined  to  proceed 
further;  others  agreed  to  it  cordially.  There  is 
now,  it  is  said,  no  necessity  for  prayer;  mourning 
for  deceased  relatives  is  forbidden ;  a  sort  of 
milleninum  is  attained,  in  which  no  exertion  is 
demanded — nothing  but  joy  and  thanksgiving. 
Pain  and  grief,  sorrow  and  sickness,  have  for  ever 
lost  their  dominion  over  the  Princeites ;  yet  still, 
to  the  incredulous,  it  appears  that  consumption, 
rheumatism,  and  other  infirmities  of  human  nature, 
do  affect  them,  and  that  tliey  die  and  are  buried, 
like  other  men.  In  one  of  Mr.  Prince's  latest  pamph- 
72 


lets,  the  following  words  occur,  which  may  serve 
to  elucidate  his  somewhat  mysterious  doctrine : 
'God  in  Jesus  Ciirist  iias  again  entered  into  covenant 
with  man  at  the  resurrection  of  manlvind,  and  this 
is  the  first  resurrection,  and  now  Jholher  Prince  is 
His  witness.'  'This  one  man.  Brother  Prince,  has 
Jesus  Christ  selected  and  ajjpointed  His  witness  to 
His  counsel  and  purpose  to  conclude  the  day  of 
grace,  and  to  introduce  the  day  of  judgment.  To 
close  the  dispensation  of  the  Spirit — the  Gospel — 
and  to  enter  into  covenant  with  flesh.' 

In  185',)  appeared  Brother  Princes  Journal,  an 
Account  of  the  Defttruction  of  the  Works  of  the  Devil 
in  the  Ilivnan  Soul  hi/  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  throm/h 
the  Gospel.  It  was  commenced,  according  to  Brother 
Prince,  twenty-three  years  ago,  and  more  than  nine- 
teen years  have  elapsed  since  its  completion.  Its 
aim  is  sim])ly  this:  to  shew  the  work  of  grace  in  the 
Avriter's  soul,  from  its  first  struggling  manifestations 
to  that  absolute  harmony  in  whicli  self  is  utterly 
absorbed  and  swallowed  up  in  tJod.  Biother  Prince, 
at  the  close  of  his  journal,  delil)erately  states  that 
he  considers  himself  perfect,  and  incapable  of  fur- 
ther improvement.  These  are  his  words :  'Having 
neither  wishes  nor  desires,  my  will  can  have  no 
disposition  whatever  to  move  in  any  one  direction 
rather  than  another,  but  like  the  finely  poised  beam 
of  a  well-adjusted  balance,  it  hangs  delicately  sus- 
pended on  the  divine  will,  in  a  holy  equilibrium  of 
inward  passiveness.'  It  was  some  time  after  Biother 
Prince  had  reached  this  Buddhist-like  annihilation 
of  self-consciousiu'ss,  that  he  started  his  singular 
establishment  at  Weymouth. 

It  would  appear  that  a  society,  similar  in  its  aims 
and  character,  though  not  conventual  in  its  form, 
existed  i'l  England  in  the  10th  and  17th  centuries. 
It  was  calhul  the  '  Family  of  Love.'  Its  founder  is 
generally  supposed  to  have  been  Henry  Nichola.s,  a 
native  of  Miinster,  in  Westphalia,  but  who  lived  a 
considerable  time  in  Holland.  He  held  himself  to 
be  greater  than  Jloses  or  Christ,  for  the  I'ormer  onl}' 
taught  men  to  hope,  and  the  latter  to  believe,  while 
he  first  announced  the  doctrine  of  Love.  He  made 
his  appearance  al)0ut  1540.  Others,  however,  aie 
of  opinion  that  the  real  father  of  this  'Family'  was 
one  David  George,  a  fanatical  Anabaptist  of  Delft, 
in  Holland,  who  died  in  155(5,  and  who  imparted  his 
'damnable  errors'  to  Nicholas,  an  old  friend  of  his. 
In  the  reign  of  Edw-ard  YL,  according  to  Fuller, 
Nicholas  came  over  to  England,  and  commenced  the 
perversion  of  silly  people  in  a  secret  wny.  By  1572, 
they  had  apparently  increased  in  numbers  consider- 
ably, for  in  that  year  one  John  Rogers  published  a 
work  against  them,  entitled,  77ic  iJisplai/inr/  of  an 
Horrible  Secte  of  Grosse  and  Wicked  Jlereiiijues, 
naminr/  themselves  the  Family  of  Lore,  vith  the  Lives 
of  their  Authors,  and  what  Doctrine  llie;/  teach  in 
Corners.  In  1580,  Queen  Eliziibeth  issued  a  procla- 
mation for  the  hunting  out  and  punishing  of  the 
'damnable  sect.'  The  Family  of  Love,  'or  Lust, 
rather,'  as  old  Fuller  has  it,  tried  to  insinuate  them- 
selves into  the  good  graces  of  King  James,  by  pre- 
senting a  petition,  casting  aspersions  on  the  Pni  itans. 
At  length,  the  society  expired  from  continual  expo- 
sure to  the  effects  of  ridicule  in  prose  and  verse,  as 
well  as  from  its  own  intrinsic  worthlessness.  Their 
doctrines  seem  to  have  been  a  species  of  pscudo- 
spirittial  scntimentalism,  inevitably  resulting  in  gross 
impurity. 

A'GAPJC  and  AGA'RICUS.     Sec  Mushroom. 

AGARSIZ,  Louis,  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
of  modern  naturalists,  was  horn  at  Oibe,  in  the 
Canton  de  Vaud,  in  lSu7.  After  jiassing  tlirougli  tho 
usual  course  of  elementary  learning  at  Bid  and 
Lausanne,  he  prosecuted  his  studies  at  Zurich  and 


AGATE— AGAVE. 


Heidelberg,  and  lastly,  studied  medicine  at  Munich. 
In  early  youth,  he  had   displayed  a  strong  love  of 
natural"  liistory ;    and   at    Heidelberg    and    Munich 
comparative  anatomy  was  his  favourite  occupation. 
In  Munich  he  became  accpiainted  with  Martins   and 
Spix,  the  well-known  travellers  in  Brazil;  and  when 
Spix  died  (in  18-Jt-),  hi-<  collection  of  116  species  of 
fish  collected  in  Brazil  was  left  in  the  care  of  A., 
who  published  it  under  the  title  Pisces,  dr.,   quoa 
collegit   ct    pbirjcndos    curavit   Spix,    (lexer ipsit   A. 
(Munich  18'i'J— 1831,  with  91  illustrations  in  lithog- 
raphy.)    Led   by   this   work   to   study    ichthyology 
more    closely,    A.    next     undertook    a    systematic 
arrangement    of    the    fresh-water    lishes    found    in 
Central  Europe.     (»f  this  work,  the  first  fasciculus, 
containing  the  llimily  of  the  Salmonidie,  appeared  at 
NeufcliiiLel   in   ISot',   with   3-1  illu.strations,  and   de- 
scriptions hi  French,  English,  and  German.    A  second 
fasciculus,  prepared  by  liis  friend  Vogt,  Bmbri/oloi/ie 
des  Sa'momx,  yyns  published  in  184u;    and   a  tliiid. 
Anatomic  dcx  Scdmoncs,  appeared  in  1845  as  a  part 
of  the  third  volume  of  the  Memoirs  of  tlie Neufelidtel 
Society  of  Natural  llisiorij.     Beyond  this,  the  w  ork 
was  not  continued.    A.  at  the  same  time  devoted  his 
attention  to  the  fossil  remains  of  fishes,  and  during 
his   stay   in    Baris  (1831 — 1832),   examined    several 
private  and  public  fosisl  collections.     The  results  of 
his  studies  were  giv(Mi  in  his  work  Reeherches  sur  les 
Foisson.':  Fos.siles,  published  at  JS'eui'chutel,  Avith  311 
lithographed  illustrations,  1833 — 1842.     Meanwhile, 
he   had  been  invited   to  take  the  professorship  of 
natural  history  atXeufeliu'el;  and  here  he  found  two 
active  young  friends,  Desor  and  Vogt,  who  afforded 
considerable  aid  in  the  completion  of  his  works.    With 
their  assistance,  his  work  on  fossil  lishes  was  brought 
to  a  conclusion  in   1S42.     During  several  visits  to 
England,  A.  made  himself  well  acquainted  with  the 
collections  of  fossils  in  that  country;   and  in  1844, 
published  a  monograph  on  fossil  fishes  found  in  the 
old    red   sandstone    of  the    Devonian    system.     His 
study  of  these   remains   led  him  to  examine   other 
fossils  ;     and    the    results    appeared    in    his    works 
Description  dcs  EcJtinodi'rines  Fossiles  de  la  Suisse, 
and  Monoyrapliics  J'Eehi)i<>dennes  Vivants  et  Fossiles. 
In  the  latter  work,  Brofessor  Valentin  of  Berne  sup- 
plied the  section  on  the  'Anatomy  of  the  Sea-urchin.' 
A.  next  turned  his  attention  to  the  moUusca,  and 
produced   his   Critical  Studies   on  Fossil  MoUusca, 
which   was  soon    followed   by   his  Memoirs    on  the 
Muscles  in  Living  and  Fossil  MoUusca.      His  work 
on  Glaciers  excited  great  interest,  as  it  opened  new 
views   in   geology.      The   results   of  further   study 
were   given  in  a  second  work   on  The  System  of 
Glaciers;  or  Researches  on  Glaciers  (Baris,   1847). 
In  preparing  this  work,  he  was  assisted  by  his  friends 
Guyot   and   Desor.      In    1846,    A.    went    to   North 
America,  where  he  was  appointed  to  a  professorship 
in  Harvard  College.     In    18GS,  A.  became  a  non-resi- 
dent  professor   of    Natural    liistory  at   the   Cornell 
University  at  Ithaca,  New  York.      He  declined  the 
offer  of  a  chair  in  Baris,  made  him  by  the  P^mjieror 
of  the  French.     He  has  published  in  America,  Prin- 
fiplex  of  Zoolor/y,  for  the  use  of  Schools   and   Col- 


joined  together.  The  layers  are  often  concentric, 
and  in  the  section  sometimes  appear  nearly  circular 
or  elliptical,  sometimes  angular.  ("lialcedony, 
amethyst,  common  quartz,  jasper,  flint,  &c.,  occur 
as  layers  in  A.  It  takes  a  line  polish,  and  is  much 
used  for  ornamental  purposes.  It  is  common  in 
amygdaloids.  Many  agates  arc  foimd  in  Scotland, 
and  are  sold  under  the  name  of  Scotch  Pebbles. 

A'GATIIA,  ST.,  a  nob'c  Sicilian  lady  of  great 
beauty,  who  rejected  tho  love  of  the  Brefet  Octa- 
vianus,  and  suffered  a  cruel  martyrdom  in  the  perse- 
cution of  Christians  under  Dccius  (25(0.  She  holds 
a  high  rank  among  the  saints  of  the  Btoman  Catholic 
chui"ch ;  her  day  falls  February  5. 

AGA'THOCLE.S,  one  of  the  boldest  but  most 
unworthy  adventurers  of  antiquity,  was  born  at 
Thermre,  in  Sicily,  in  361  B.C.  He  rose  from  humble 
circumstances  through  the  patronage  of  Damas,  a 
noble  citizen  of  Syracuse,  and  received  a  command 
in  the  expedition  against  Agrigentum.  Afterwards 
he  married  the  widow  of  Damas,  and  became 
o!ie  of  the  most  wealthy  men  in  Syracuse.  Under 
the  rule  of  Sosistratus,  he  was  ol)liged  to  flee  into 
Lower  Italy,  where  he  collected  a  band  of  par- 
tisans. Returning  to  Syracuse,  after  the  death 
of  Sosistratus,  he  gained  the  supremacy,  confirmed 
it  by  a  massacre  of  several  thousands  of  respect- 
able citizens,  and  tooii  possession  of  the  greater 
part  of  Sicily.  To  establish  his  power,  and 
keep  his  army  employed,  he  now  attempted  to 
expel  the  Carthagiiuans  from  Sicily ;  but  in  this 
undertaking  he  was  defeated.  His  next  plan  was  to 
pass  over  to  Africa  with  a  part  of  his  army,  and  there 
attack  the  Carthaginians.  This  war  he  carried  on 
with  success  for  four  years,  or  until  307  li.c,  when 
disturbances  in  Sicily  compelled  him  to  leave  the 
army  for  a  time.  On  his  return  to  Africa,  he  found 
his  troops  ia  a  state  of  mutiny  against  his  son  Archa- 
gathus,  whom  he  had  left  in  command,  but  pacified 
them  by  promises  of  large  booty.  Soon  afterwards, 
he  suffered  a  serious  defeat,  and  with  deliberate 
treachery,  left  his  own  son  exposed  to  the  vengeance 
of  the  disappointed  soldiers.  The  son  was  put  to 
death,  and  the  troops  surrendered  themselves  to  the 
enemy,  while  A.  escaped  safely  into  Sicily,  where,  by 
fraud  and  cruelty,  he  soon  recovered  his  former 
power,  and  was  afterwards  rn:;aged  in  predatory 
inroads  upon  Italy.  It  was  his  intention  to  leave  the 
throne  to  his  youngest  son.  A.;  but  his  grandson, 
Archagathus,  made  an  insurrection,  slew  the  royal 
heirs,  and  persuaded  Mienon,  one  of  the  favourites  of 
the  aged  tyrant,  to  destroy  liim  by  means  of  a 
poisoned  toothpick.  This  took  place  in  289  d.c, 
when  A.  was  72  years  old,  and  had  reigned  28  years. 

AGA'Vfi,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natu- 
ral order  Amaryllidccc  (q.  v.),  and  having  a  tubular 
perianth  with  '6-partite  limb,  and  a  triangular, 
many-seeded  inferior  capsule.  They  are  herbaceous 
plants,  of  remarkable  and  beautiful  appearance. 
There  are  a  number  of  species,  all  natives  of  the 
warmer  parts  of  America.  By  unscientific  persons 
thev  are  often  confounded  with  Aloes  (q.  v.);  and  A. 


hyes  (lioiiton   1848);  and  Lake  Superior;  its  Pliy- \  ^^^^^^.^^^^^^   jg    generally    known    by    the    name    of 


sical  Character,  Veijetation,  and  Animals  (Boston, 
18.50);  Outlines  of  Comparative  Physiology,  WT-t- 
ten  in  conjunction  with  Mr.  A.  A.  Gould;  and  is  at 
present  engaged  on  a  great  work,  Contributions  to  the 


American  Aloe.  The  Agaves  have  either  no  pro- 
per stem,  or  a  very  short  one,  bearing  at  its  summit  a 
crowded  head  of  large,  fleshy  leaves,  which  are  spiny 
It  the  mardn.      From  the  midst  of  these  shoots  up 


Xatural  Jlislory  of  the  United  States,  four  volumes  j  j,^^  gtraiglU,  upright  scape,  24—36  feet  high,  and  at 


of  which  have  appeared.  In  1865  he  organized  a  sci- 
entific expedition  to  Brazil,  under  the  pati'onage  of 
Mr.  Nathaniel  Thayer,  an  interesting  account  oi 
which  has  since  been  published,  entitled,  "  A  Journey 
in  Brazil,  by  Professor  and  Mrs.  Louis  Agassiz. 

A'GATE,  a  mineral  composed  of  Layers  of  quartz, 
generally  of  different  varieties  or  colours,  intimately 


the  base  often  one  foot  in  diameter,  along  which  are 
small,  appresscd,  lanceolate  bractese,  with  a  terminal 
panicle,  often  bearing  as  many  as  4000  flowers.  In 
South  America,  these  plants  often  flower  in  the 
eighth  year,  but  in  our  hot-houses  not  until  they 
have  reached  a  very  advanced  age  ;  whence  arises  the 
gardeners'  fable  of  their  flowering  only  once  in  one 

73 


AGDE— AGE. 


hundred  years.-  After  flowering,  the  plant  always 
dies  down  to  the  ground,  but  the  root  continuing;;  "to 
live,  sends  up  new  shoots.  The  best  known  species 
is  A.  Amerirana,  wliicli  was  first  brought  from  South 
America  to  I'^urope  in  15G1,  iuid  being  easily  propa- 
gated hy  suclvcrs,  is  employed  for  fences  in  Italian 
Switzerland,  and  has  become  naturalised  in  Naples, 
Sicily,  and  the  north  of  Africa.  By  maceration  of 
the  leaves,  which  are  5  to  7  feet  long,  are  obtained 
coarse  fibres,  which  are  used  iu  America,  under  the 


Americau  Aloe. 

name  of  mrrr/vei/,  for  the  manufacture  of  thread, 
twine,  ropes,  hammocks,  &c.  This  fibre  is  also 
known  as  Pita  Flaz.  It  is  now  produced  to  some 
extent  in  the  south  of  Europe.  It  is  not  very  strong 
nor  durable,  and  if  exposed  to  moisture,  it  soon 
decays.  The  ancient  Mexicans  employed  it  for  the 
preparation  of  a  coarse  kind  of  paper,  and  the 
Indians  use  it  for  oakum.  The  leaves,  cut  into 
slices,  are  used  for  feeding  cattle. — Another  species, 
A.  Mexicana,  is  particularly  described  by  Humboldt 
upon  account  of  its  utility.  When  the  innermost 
leaves  have  been  torn  out,  a  juice  continues  to  flow 
for  a  year  or  a  year  and  a  half,  which,  by  inspissation, 
yields  sugar;  and  which,  when  diluted  with  water, 
and  subjected  to  four  or  five  days'  fermentation, 
becomes  an  agreeable  but  intoxicating  drink,  called 
jiulque,  to  which  the  Mexican  Indians  not  unfre- 
quently  sacrifice  both  fortune  and  life.  It  is  made 
likewise  from  A.  Americana^  and  from  several  other 
species. — The  roots  of  A.  saponaria  arc  used  in 
Mexico  for  washing,  being  a  powerful  detergent,  and 
forming  a  lather  with  salt  water  as  Avell  as  with 
fresh.  The  juice  of  the  leaves,  made  into  cakes,  is 
used  for  the  same  purpose. 

AGDE,  an  ancient  French  town  in  the  department 
of  Herault,  founded  by  the  Greeks,  and  situated 
about  a  league  from  the  Mediterranean  Sen,  on  the 
left  bank  of  a  navigable  stream.  To  the  north,  under 
the  walls  of  the  town,  flows  the  Langucdoc  Canal. 
The  mouth  of  the  stream  forms  a  harbour,  which 
is  entered  by  400  vessels  yearly.  The  coast-trade 
74 


I  of  A.,  in  particular,  is  very  brisk,  while  it  is  also 
I  the  entrepot  for  the  traffic  of  the  south  and  west 
of  France.  It  has,  besides,  considerable  intercourse 
with  Italy,  Spain,  and  Africa.  It  carries  on  a  large 
and  prosperous  trade  in  wine,  oil,  salt,  corn,  timber, 
I  wool,  silk,  and  cloth ;  but  the  general  aspect  of  the 
place  is  sombre  and  forbidding,  on  account  of  the 
l)lack  basalt  of  which  the  iiouses  arc  built,  whence  it 
has  popularly  received  the  name  of  the  lilack  Town. 
It  possesses  a  Naval  Academy,  and  is  noteil  in  history 
as  the  place  at  which  Alaric,  king  of  the  Goths,  coa- 
vened  a  council.     Fop.,  9000. 

AGE.  The  legal  divisions  of  htiman  life,  being 
sometimes  arbitrary,  and  sometimes  founded  on 
nature,  differ  considerably  in  ditl'crent  countries.  In 
England,  the  whole  period  previous  to  twenty-one 
years  of  A.  is  usually  spoken  of  as  ?7ifnnc>/,  a  term 
which  has  a  totally  difl'erent  signification  in  those 
countries  that  have  followed  the  civil  law.  But 
notwithstanding  this  general  division,  which  is 
common  to  both  sexes,  the  ages  of  male  and  female 
are  ditt'erent  for  different  purposes.  '  A  male,  at 
twelve  years  old,  may  take  the  oath  of  allegiance; 
at  fourteen,  is  at  years  of  discretion,  and  therefore 
may  consent  or  disagree  to  marriage,  may  choose  his 
guardian,  may  be  an  executor,  although  he  cannot 
act  until  of  age ;  and  at  twenty-one,  is  at  his  own 
disposal,  and  may  alien  and  devise  his  lands,  goods, 
and  chattels.  A  female,  also,  at  seven  years  of  age, 
may  be  betrothed  or  given  in  marriage ;  at  fourteen, 
is  at  years  of  legal  discretion,  and  may  choose  a 
giuirdiaii ;  at  seventeen,  may  be  an  executrix;  and 
at  twenty-one,  may  dispose  of  iierself  and  her  lands. 
So  that  full  A.  in  male  or  fenuile  is  twenty-one 
years,  which  A.  is  completed  on  the  day  preceding 
the  anniversary  of  a  person's  birth,  who,  till  that 
time,  is  an  infant,  and  so  styled  in  law.' — (Kerr's 
Blarkxtovr,  vol.  i.  p.  493.) 

By  tlie  law  of  Scotland,  again,  life  is  divided  into 
three  periods — pupilaritii,  vrhioriti/,  and  majority. 
The  first  extends  from  birth  to  the  age  of  legal 
puberty,  which  is  fourteen  in  males  and  twelve 
in  females,  at  which  ages  they  may  respectively 
marry  ;  the  second  embraces  the  period  from 
the  termination  of  pupilarity  till  the  attainment 
of  majority,  which  takes  place  at  the  age  of 
twenty-one  in  both  sexes ;  and  the  third  includes 
the  whole  of  after-life.  The  term  Minority,  how- 
ever, is  often  applied  to  the  whole  period  anterior 
to  majority,  and  is  thus  equivalent  to  infancy 
or  nonage  in  England.  Infancy  in  Scotland  can 
scarcely  be  said  to  possess  a  technical  meaning;  but 
when  used  at  all,  it  is  always  in  the  sense  of  the 
Roman  infautla,  to  indicate  the  period  from  birth 
till  seven  years  of  age,  during  v.  liich  a  child, 
unless  in  verj'  unusual  circumstances,  is  intrusted 
to  the  care  of  the  mother.  Tlie  office  of  tutory  cor- 
responds in  duration  to  pupilarity,  that  of  curatory 
to  minority.  See  Tutor,  Curator.  By  the  Eoman 
law,  an  approach  to  majority  was  held  to  modify 
the  character  of  minority,  and  so  of  the  other  periods; 
but  this  rule  has  not  been  followed  by  the  law  of 
Sco^]and  ;  and  a  youth  who  wants  but  a  day  of 
twenty-one,  is  as  much  incapacitated  as  if  be  were 
fifteen.  In  France,  the  marriageable  A.  is  eighteen 
in  males,  and  fifteen  in  females  (Code  Civile, 
art.  144),  an  arrangement  which  seems  more  reason- 
able than  that  which  we  have  borrowed  from  the 
liomai:s,  and  which,  however  suitable  it  may  have 
been  to  the  climate  of  Italy,  could  never  have  been 
free  from  inconveniences  in  this  country.  Twenty- 
one  is  generally  the  age  at  which  men  are  eligible  for 
public  offices ;  and  at  this  age  they  may  elect,  and  be 
elected  members  of  parliament.  But  a  man  must  be 
twenty-four  before  he  can  be  admitted  to  priests' 
orders,  and  thirty  before  he  can  be  a  bishop.     In 


AGEN— AGES. 


America,  a  member  of  the  Senate  must  be  thirty,  and 
a  nieniber  of  tbc  House  of  Representatives,  twenty- 
five  ;  this  latter  was  also  the  peiiod  of  majority  by 
the  civil  law.  The  legal  disabilities  attaching  to 
the  dilfcrent  stages  of  minority,  or,  to  speak  more 
correctly,  the  privileges  which  the  law  confers  on 
minors  for  their  protection,  will  be  treated  of  under 
the  different  subjects  to  which  they  relate.  See 
GoARDiANSiiiP,  Consent,  Conthact,  Crime,  Mar- 
riage, &c. 

AGE'X,  the  chief  town  of  the  department  of  Lot- 
et-Garonne  in  France,  is  situated  in  a  fertile  region 
on  the  right  bank  of  tiie  Garonne.  The  town  is  old 
and  gloomy  in  appearance  ;  but  carries  on  an  active 
trade  in  woollen  and  linen  fabrics,  leather,  col- 
oured paper,  colours,  cordage,  and  sail-cloth.  It 
forms  the  connecting-link  of  the  intercourse  be- 
tween Toulouse  and  Bordeaux,  and  exports  plums, 
brandy,  hemp,  flax,  and  poultry.  Close  by  it  is  the 
old-fashioned  house  in  which  Joseph  Scaliger,  the 
prince  of  scholiasts,  was  born.  In  ancient  times  A. 
was  the  scene  of  many  a  fierce  martyrdom  of  the 
Christians,  when  it  was  under  the  rule  of  Roman 
prffitors.  Afterwards  it  suffered  the  miseries  of  war, 
during  the  barbaric  irruptions  fiom  Germany,  to  a 
most  incredible  extent,  having  been  taken  and  plun- 
dered by  Goths,  Vandals,  and  Iluns,  in  their  turn. 
Next  it  came  under  the  thraldom  of  the  English,  in 
their  early  P'rench  wars,  and,  at  a  later  period,  was 
twice  taken  by  the  Huguenots,  in  the  religious  con- 
tests of  the  ItJth  c.     Top.,  16,uu0. 

A'GEN'T  (Lat.  agens).  An  A.  is  one  who  is 
authorised  or  delegated  to  transact  business  for 
another  (who  in  this  relation  is  called  his  Principal 
or  constituent)  in  whose  place  he  comes,  and  who 
is  bound  by  his  acts  in  the  business  to  which  the 
agency  extends.  The  appointment  of  an  A.  may 
either  be  general,  having  reference  to  all  the  princi- 
pal's alfairs,  or  special,  concerning  some  particular 
object.  It  may  further  be  I'mdted  by  instructions 
as  to  the  conduct  he  is  to  pursue,  or  unlimited,  in 
which  case  his  conduct  is  left  to  his  own  discretion. 
Even  in  the  last  case,  however,  the  A.  is  not 
freed  from  all  responsibility  for  his  conduct ;  he  is 
bound  to  do  his  best  for  his  employer,  and  he  ought 
not  to  accept  or  retain  the  agency  unless  he  is  com- 
petent to  its  performance.  The  mutual  relations 
of  principals  and  agents,  and  their  respective  re- 
sponsibilities to  the  public  in  mercantile  transactions, 
will  be  treated  under  Prin'cipal  and  Agent.  See 
also  Factor,  Broker,  Commissioner,  Com.mission- 
Agent. 

AGEXT  and  client.  The  employer  of  a  law- 
agent  is  entitled  to  presume  that  he  is  possessed  of 
competent  protes-;ional  knowledge,  and  the  A.  is 
consequently  responsible  to  his  C.  for  the  conse- 
quences of  gro.?s  professional  ignorance,  or  fl;igrant 
negligence  in  the  conduct  of  the  business  intrusted 
to  him.  It  is  not  enough  to  entitle  the  C.  to 
damages  that  the  A.'s  proceedings  have  not  had  the 
effect  which  was  expected,  or  ivhich  he  himself  pre- 
dicted from  them.  It  has  been  ol)served  in  the 
House  of  Lords,  that  it  is  of  the  very  essence  of  an  ac- 
tion against  a  professional  man  by  his  employer,  that 
there  shall  be  grosa  ignoranre  (Purves  v.  Landed, 
4  Bell,  46).  See  Attorney,  Soi.icit()R,  Writer  to 
THE  Signet. 

AGEXT,  Army.  A  person  authorised  by  the 
government  to  manage  the  monetary  affairs  of  regi- 
ments in  the  army,  as  a  kind  of  military  banker, 
formerly,  persons  were  employed  to  effect  tlie  pur- 
chase and  sale  of  commissions  in  the  British  army 
(the  only  army  in  which  this  strange  system  of  pur- 
chase exists),  Avithout  much  reference  to  honesty  or 
fitness;    but    to    prevent    pernicious   trafficking,    no  I 


one  is  now  permitted  to  manage  these  transactions 
except  the  authorised  Army  Agents,  under  a  heavy 
penalty.  The  Army  Agents  are  also  bound  down  by 
restrictions,  in  relation  to  any  pecuniary  advantage 
derivable  by  vhemselves  from  the  sale  ami  purchase. 
Their  business,  however,  is  more  intimately  coimected 
with  the  regular  expenditure  of  government  money. 
Every  regiment  has  an  agent,  selected  by  the 
colonel,  and  empowered  by  him  to  be  his  representa- 
tive in  the  monetary  arrangements  of  the  corps.  The 
colonel  is  responsible  to  the  Crown  for  the  honesty 
of  the  Army  A.  ;  but  the  agent  is  in  many  ways 
regarded  as  a  servant  of  the  pulilic.  "When  money 
is  wanted  for  the  regular  expenses  of  the  regiment, 
the  agent  applies  to  the  War-office ;  whereupon 
the  Secretary  of  State  for  AVar  issues  an  order  to  the 
Paymaster  of  the  Forces  to  advance  the  requisite 
sum;  the  Paymaster  does  so,  and  takes  a  receipt 
from  the  agent.  There  is  an  annual  settlement  of 
accounts  between  the  Paymaster  and  the  agent,  each 
one  paying  or  receiving,  according  to  the  side  on 
which  excess  or  deficiency  may  appear.  The  agent 
then  distributes  the  pay  and  other  charges  of  the 
regiment.  The  percentage  allowed  to  Army  Agents 
for  their  trouble  in  paying  the  full-pay  of  officers,  is 
allowed  for  by  the  state,  and  is  included  among  the 
annual  army  estimates  ;  but  the  officer  generally  bears 
this  charge  in  relation  to  half-pay  and  allowances. 
The  Army  Agents  conduct  all  correspondence,  and 
send  all  the  requisite  notices  concerning  pay  and  pay- 
ment ;  the  colonel  of  the  regiment  takes  no  part  in 
the  matter.  The  details  of  the  system  have  varied 
considerably  at  different  times,  and  in  different  por- 
tions of  the  British  dominions.  Sometimes  the  .'jgent 
receives  twopence  in  the  pound  on  the  amount  of 
pay ;  sometimes  three-halfpence  in  the  pound,  with 
an  addition  varying  from  sixpence  to  one  shilling  per 
day  for  each  company  of  infantry  or  troop  of  cavalry  ; 
sometimes  (in  Ireland,  and  in  the  colonies)  a  fixed  an- 
nual salary.  The  amount  paid  for  this  agency  is 
about  £40,000  a  year.  Many  experienced  govern- 
ment-officers have  recommended  the  abandonment  of 
the  system,  and  the  paying  of  all  moneys  by  the  War- 
office  direct,  as  a  measure  of  simplification  and 
economy ;  but  there  is  not  an  unanimity  of  opinion 
on  this  point.  When  the  colonels  of  regiments  pro- 
vided the  men's  clothing,  under  a  system  now  aban- 
doned, the  Army  Agents  were  very  intimately  mixed 
up  with  the  transactions;  but  at  present,  the  duties 
of  those  agents  are  linuted  to  the  following  :  applying 
monthly  to  the  AVar-oftice  for  the  money  re(juired 
for  each  regiment ;  receiving  that  money  ;  ajjplying 
part  of  it  to  the  payment  of  officers;  disbursing  the 
regimental  paymaster's  bills  for  the  cost  of  the 
expenditure ;  paying  soldiers'  remittances  for  the 
benefit  of  their  families ;  settling  the  effects  and 
credits  of  soldiers  ;  distributing  prize-money ;  and 
managing  the  sale  and  purchase  of  commissions. 

AGEXT,  Navy,  a  naval  banker,  who  bears 
some  such  relation  to  admiralty  expenditure  as 
the  Army  A.  (q.  v.)  to  War-office  expenditure. 
His  employment  consists  in  managing  the  pecuniary 
matters  of  naval  ofliccrs  and  seaman,  in  all  that 
concerns  pay,  prize-money,  &c.  All  such  agents 
must  be  sanctioned  by  the  government,  and  must 
conduct  their  operations  accocding  to  certain  pre- 
scribed rules.  The  Xavg  List  for  1858  contained 
the  names  of  17  navy  and  prize  agents  for  officers 
of  the  royal  navy,  resident  in  London  ;  1  agent  for 
officers  of  the  Royal  Marines  ;  and  10  licensed 
Navy  Agents  for  peiey  officers  and  seamen,  of  whom 
four  had  their  offices  in  London,  and  the  rest  at 
l^ortsea,  Liverpool,  Chatham,  Plymouth,  and  Bir- 
mingham. 

AGES,  a  term  emplovea  to  designate  the  epochs 

75 


AGESILAUS— AGN'ATE. 


of  civilisation  in.  the  history  of  the  human  race.  The 
old  poets  and  philo?oi)hers  described  these  in  har- 
mony with  what  tlicy  oonceived  to  have  been  the 
moral-  and  political  condition  of  their  ancestors. 
The  idea  of  a  succession  of  A.  presented  itself  at  a 
very  early  period  to  the  Greek  mind.  Tiie  life  of  the 
race  was  likened  to  that  of  the  individual — hence 
the  infancy  of  the  former  might  easily  be  imagined 
to  be,  like  that  of  the  latter,  the  most  beautiful 
and  serene  of  all.  Hcsiod  mentions  five  A. — the 
golden,  simple  and  patriarchal ;  the  silver,  voluptu- 
ous and  godless ;  the  brazen,  warlike,  wild,  and 
violent ;  the  heroic,  an  aspiration  towaids  the  better  ; 
the  iion,  in  which  justice,  piety,  and  faithfulness  had 
vanished  from  the  earth,  the  time  in  which  Hesiod 
fmcied  that  he  himself  lived.  Ovid  closely  imitates 
the  old  (ireek  except  in  one  partictdar — he  omits  the 
heroic  age.  This  idea,  at  first  perhaps  a  mcie  poetic 
comparison,  gradually  worked  its  way  into  prose, 
and  finally  became  a  portion  of  scientific  philosophv. 
These  A.  were  regarded  as  the  divisions  of  the 
pr'^at  world-year,  which  would  be  completed  when 
the  stars  and  planets  had  jjcrfonned  a  revolution 
round  tlie  heav-ens,  after  which  destiny  woidd  re[)eal 
itself  in  the  same  series  of  events.  Thus  mythology 
was  brought  into  connection  with  astronomy.  The 
golden  age  was  said  to  be  governed  by  Saturn  ;  the 
silver,  by  Jupiter;  the  brazen,  by  Keptune;  and  the 
iron,  by  Pluto.  Many  curious  calculations  were 
entered  into  by  ancient  writers  to  a.scertain  the 
length  of  the  heavenly  year,  and  its  various  divisions. 
The  greatest  discrepancy  pri'vailed,  as  might  natu- 
rally be  expected  ;  some  maintaining  that  it  was  30<i(», 
an'd  others,  as  many  as  lS,(i()()  solar  years.  The 
Sibylline  books  compared  it  to  the  .reasons  of  the 
solar  year,  calling  the  golden  age  the  spring,  <fcc. ; 
and  on  the  completion  of  the  cycle,  the  old  order 
was  renewed.  The  idea  of  a  succession  of  A.  is 
so  natural,  tlnit  it  has  inwrought  itself  into  the  reli- 
gious convictions  of  almost  all  nations.  It  is  sanc- 
tioned by  Scripture,  for  it  is  symbolically  adopted  in 
the  Apocalypse  to  a  certain  extent ;  it  also  manifests  i 
itself  in  the  sacred  books  of  the  Indians.  Modern 
philosophy,  at  least  in  Germany  and  France,  has  i 
also  attempted  to  divide  human  iiistory  into  definite  j 
A.  or  periods.  Fichte  numbers  five,  of  which  he  | 
conceives  that  we  are  in  the  third ;  Hegel  and 
Auguste  Conite  reckon  three,  placing  us  in  the  last. 
Fortunately,  the  coui'se  of  history  is  not  arrested  bv  1 
such  speculations,  but  proceeds  in  quiet  indiflerence 
to  all  metaphysical  dogmatism. 

AGESILATS,  king  of  Sparta  (390— 3C.0  b.c),  was 
elevated  to  the  throne  chiefly  by  the  exertions  of 
Lysander.  Being  called  upon  by  the  lonians  to 
assist  them  against  Artaxerxes,  he  commenced  a 
splendid  campaign  in  Asia;  but  was  compelled  by 
the  Corinthian  war,  in  which  several  of  the  Grecian 
states  were  allied  against  Sparta,  to  leave  his  con- 
quest over  the  Persians  incomplete,  and  return  to 
Greece.  At  Chreronea(o9-1:  n.c),  he  gained  a  victory 
over  the  allied  forces,  and  in  378  the  war  was  con- 
cluded by  a  treaty  of  peace  in  fiivour  of  Sparta.  Af- 
terwards, in  the  Theban  war,  though  hard  pressed  by 
Pelopidas  and  Epannnondas,  he  bravely  and  ably  de- 
fended his  country.  He  died  in  his  8-tth  year.  A.  is 
described  as  of  small  stature  but  commanding  as- 
pect, blameless  in  his  private  character,  and,  in  pub- 
lic life,  just,  as  far  as  his  partiality  for  his  own  country 
allowed.  His  biographers  are  Xenophon,  Plutarch, 
and  Cornelius  Nepos. 

A'GIXCOURT.     See  Azincouet. 

A'GIO,  an  Italian  word,  signifying  '  accommoda- 
tion,' was  first  used  in  Italy  to  denote  the  premium 
taken  by  money-changers  in  giving  gold  for  silver, 
on  account  of  the  greater  convenience  of  gold  for 
76 


transport.  The  same  word  is  now  used  to  denote 
the  dillerencc  between  the  real  and  the  iionnnal  value 
of  money  ;  also  the  variations  fiom  fixed  jjars  or 
rates  of  exchange.  It  corresponds  very  nearly  to  the 
English  word  '  jjremiuni.' 

A'GIS,  the  name  of  several  kings  of  Sparta.  Men- 
tion is  made  of  a  king  A.  as  early  as  about  l(»(iO  year.? 
B.C.,  who  subdued  the  old  inhabitants  of  Sparta, 
and  made  the  Helots  vassals  or  slaves.  Of  the 
others,  A.  I.  reigned  during  the  greater  part  of  the 
Peloponnesian  war,  from  420  to  397  n.c. — A.  It. 
ascended  the  throne  in  338  B.C.  His  hatred  of  the 
Macedonian  supremacy  led  him  to  form  alliances 
with  several  Persian  satrajis  against  Alexander  the 
Great.  A.,  after  extending  his  conquests  to  almost  all 
'  the  cities  of  the  Peloponnesus,  fell  in  battle  330  B.C. — A. 
III.  came  to  the  throne  in  214  B.C.,  when  the  state 
of  Sparta  had  fallen  into  a  ruinous  condition  through 
long-continued  war.  Though  only  twenty  years  old 
when  he  began  to  reign,  he  boldly  resolved  to  restore 
!  the  old  institutions  and  severe  nnmners  of  Spai'ta; 
but  intrigues  and  self-interest  in  the  higher  classes 
frustrated  his  designs.  The  riches  of  the  state  were 
now  in  the  hands  of  a  few  persons,  while  a  great 
nuijority  of  the  people  were  in  extreme  indigence. 
A.,  therefore,  in  accordance  with  tlie  old  laws  of  the 
state,  proposed  a  redistril)ution  of  landed  estates  by 
lotteiy.  The  new  ephorus,  Agesilaus,  who  was  rich 
in  landed  property,  but  buidened  with  many  debts, 
astutely  proposed  that  first  all  debts  should  be  can- 
celled, and  next  the  lands  should  be  divided.  The 
first  part  of  this  plan  was  soon  effected ;  but  great 
hindrances  were  opposed  to  the  carrying  out  of  the 
rcnuiinder.  Meanwhile,  the  disappointed  people 
were  easily  persuaded  that  A.  had  endeavoured  to 
introduce  measures  inimical  to  the  welfare  of  the 
state.  Pursued  by  his  enennes,  he  lied  for  refuge  to 
a  temple,  but  was  betrayed  by  false  friends  into  the 
hands  of  the  magistrates,  who  immediately  ordered 
him  to  be  put  to  death  by  strangidation  (240  B.C.). 
His  mother  and  his  grandmother,  who  had  favoured 
his  measures,  were  barbarously  executed  in  the  same 
manner.  Alfieri,  the  Italian  poet,  wrote  a  powerful 
tragedy  on  the  fate  of  A.  HI. 

AGNA  NO,  a  small  lake  near  Naples,  is  about  sixty 
feet  in  depth,  and  has  no  vi.'-ible  outlet.  The  sur- 
rounding country  is  volcanic  and  mountainous. 
Formerly,  the  lake  was  named  Aiiffniano,  fron)  the 
number  of  snakes  in  the  neighbourhood.  On  the 
right  of  Lake  A.  lies  the  Grotto  dr.l  Cane — so  called 
from  the  stratum  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  some  1 8  inches 
deep,  which  always  covers  the  floor,  and  which  suflb- 
cates  a  dog  (cane)  or  other  small  animal  taken  into 
it — and  on  the  left  are  found  the  natural  vapour- 
baths  of  San  Gerinano,  used  for  the  cure  of  gout, 
rheumatism,  &c.,  but  inferior  in  virtue  to  the  baths 
(^Stufe  di  JVcrone)  at  Bai£e.  The  volcanoes  surround- 
ing the  lake  have  been  extinct  since  1198  .\.n.  Fur- 
ther on  the  left  from  A.  lies  the  lake  of  Astroni, 
which  occupies  the  crater  of  an  extinct  volcano,  and 
is  surrounded  by  beautiful  woodlands. 

A'GNATE  (Lat.  ar/natus).  Agnates,  in  the  law 
both  of  England  and  Scotland,  are  jiersons  related 
through  the  father,  as  cognates  aie  persons  related 
through  the  mother.  In  the  Roman  law,  both  of 
these  terms  had  a  somewhat  different  signification. 
Agnates,  by  that  system,  were  persons  related 
through  males  only,  Avhilst  cognates  were  all  those  in 
whose  connection,  though  on  the  father's  side,  one 
or  more  female  links  intervened.  Thus,  a  brother's 
son  was  his  uncle's  A.,  because  the  propinquity  was 
wholly  by  males ;  a  sister's  son  was  his  cognate, 
because  a  female  w-as  interposed  in  that  relationship. 
With  us  the  intervention  of  females  is  immaterial, 
provided  the  connection  be  on  the  male,  oi  paternal, 


AGNESI— AGRA. 


side  of  the  house.  The  cause  of  our  liaving  thus 
changed  the  meaning  of  terms  manifestly  borrowed 
from  the  Roman  law,  seems  to  be  that  in  Rome 
the  distinction  between  agnates  and  cognates  was 
founded  on  an  institution  which  has  not  been 
adopted  in  the  Roman  sense  by  any  modern  nation — 
that,  namely,  of  the  patria  potestas  (q.  v.).  Roman 
agnati  are  delined  by  Hugo  to  be  all  those  who 
either  were  actually  under  the  same  pafrrfcimiHas, 
or  would  have  been  so  had  he  been  alive  ;  and  thus 
it  was  that,  as  no  one  could  belong  to  two  different 
families  at  the  same  time,  the  agnation  to  the 
original  family  was  destroyed,  and  a  new  agnation 
created,  not  only  by  marriage,  but  by  adoption  (q.  v.). 
The  foundation  of  cognation,  again,  was -a  legal 
marriage.  All  who  could  trace  up  their  origin  to 
the  same  marriage  were  cor/nnti ;  and  thus  the  term 
coffiiatiis,  generally  speaking,  comprehended  af/7iatus. 
But  though  an  agnatus  was  thus  almost  always  a 
cognatus,  a  cognatus  was  an  agnatus  only  when  his 
relationship  by  blood  was  traceable  through  males. 
Justinian  abolished  entirely  the  distinction  between 
agnates  and  cognates,  and  admitted,  both  to  legal 
succession  and  to  the  office  of  tutor  of  law,  not  only 
kinsmen  by  the  father,  though  a  female  had  been 
interposed,  but  even  those  by  the  mother  (JVov. 
118,  c.  4,  5).  As  to  the  legal  effects  of  the  dis- 
tinction in  the  modern  sense,  see  Succession, 
Guardianship. 

AGNESI,  Maria  G.etana,  a  woman  remarkable 
for  her  varied  attainments,  was  born  at  Milan, 
1718.  In  her  ninth  year  she  could  converse  in 
Latin,  and  gave  a  lecture  in  this  language,  in  which 
she  argued  that  a  knowledge  of  the  ancient  lan- 
guages was  a  proper  accomplishment  in  women.  In 
her  eleventh  year  she  could  also  speak  Greek 
fluently,  and  subsequently  acquired  witli  great 
facility  several  of  the  Oriental  languages,  and  also 
French,  Spanish,  and  German.  She  was  jocosely 
styled  '  the  walking  polyglot.'  This  precocious 
development  of  intellect  was  encouraged  by  her 
father,  who  invited  parties  of  learned  men  to  his 
house,  with  whom  Maria  disputed  on  philosophical 
points.  Of  her  discourses  in  these  parties,  her  father 
published  some  specimens,  entitled  Propositionea 
FhiloHophlcce  (Milan,  1738).  After  her  twentieth 
year,  she  devoted  her  mind  to  the  study  of  mathe- 
matics, wrote  an  unpublished  treatise  on  Conic 
Sections,  and  published  her  Jnstituzioiii  Analitiche 
(2  vols.,  Milan,  1748).  This  work  so  extended  her 
reputation,  that,  when  her  father  was  disabled  by 
infirmity,  she  took  his  place  as  Professor  of  Mathe- 
matics in  the  University  of  Bologna,  by  the  appoint- 
ment of  Pope  Benedict  XIV.  It  is  said  that,  after 
her  devotion  to  the  study  of  mathematics,  her  cheer- 
fulness vanished,  .she  avoided  society,  and  at  last 
became  a  nun,  and  gave  the  whole  of  her  time  to 
attendance  on  the  poor  and  the  afflicted.  Maria  A. 
was  a  remarkable  exception  to  the  general  rule  of 
precocious  intellect  and  short  life,  as  she  lived  to  the 
age  of  81. 

_  A'GNUS  DEI  (Lat.  '  Lamb  of  God '),  one  of  the 
titles  of  Christ  (John  i.  29)  ;  also  the  name  given 
to  a  certain  prayer  used  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
service  of  Mass.  The  litanies  generally  conclude 
with  the  same  prayer  :  "  0  Lamb  of  God,  that  takest 
away  the  sins  of  the  world,  have  mercy  upon  us.' — 
The  figure  of  a  lamb,  bearing  a  cross,  stamped  upon 
an  oval  of  wax,  silver,  or  gold,  is  also  styled  an 
A.  D.  Such  medals  have  been  consecrated  by 
the  popes  since  the  14th  c.,  and  are  generally  dis- 
tributed among  the  faithful  on  the  first  Sunday 
after  Easter.  In  the  ancient  church,  candidates  for 
baptism  received  similar  medals  of  wax,  and  wore 
them   as  amulets.      See    Amulet.       In   the    Greek 


Church,  the  cloth  which  covers  the  cup  in  the  com- 


Agnus  Dei. 

munion-service   bears   the  image   of  a   lamb,  and  is 
styled  the  A.  D. 

AGOU'TI  (DaR)iprocta  Ar/oii(i\  a  small  quadruped 
nearly  allied  to  the  Cavy  or  Guinea-pig,  very  abund- 
ant in  some  parts  of  the  West  Indies  and  of  South 
America.     It  is  often  very  injurious  to  the  fields  of 


Agouti. 

sugar-cane.  It  is  gregarious.  Its  flesh  resemblei? 
that  of  the  hare  or  rabbit.  Other  species  are  found 
in  the  same  regions,  and  even  in  the  colder  parts  of 
South  America.  The  Pampas  Hare  is  Dasijprocta 
Patacho7iica. 

A'GRA,  a  British  district  in  the  lieutenant-gov- 
ernorship of  the  North-western  provinces,  bounded 
N.  and  E.  by  the  districts  of  Muttra,  Minpoorce 
and  Etawah,  S.  and  W.  by  the  territories  of  Dhort- 
pore,  Gwalior,  and  Bhurtpore^  Its  area  is  ISGO square 
miles.  The  surface  of  the  country  is  for  the  most 
part  very  level,  the  principal  elevation  of  the  Futteh- 
pore  Sikri  hills,  a  sandstone  range  on  the  west 
frontier,  being  about  700  feet.  The  principal 
rivers  are  the  Jumna — flowing  along  the  north-east 
frontier,  and  its  tributary  the  Chumbul  (along  the 
southern  boundary),  both  of  which  are  too  deep  in 
the  channel  to  be  of  much  avail  for  irrigation.  The 
district  generally  is,  in  consequence,  deficient  in 
water;  and  the  failure  of  the  rains  in  some  seasons 
(as  in  1837,  1838)  has  been  followed  by  severe 
famine.  The  temperature  has  a  Avide  range,  being, 
during  the  hot  winds  of  April,  May,  and  June,  so 
high  that  the  city  of  A.  is  scarcely  habitable  by 
Europeans,  while  in  January,  severe  frosts  occur  at 
night,  though  the  thermometer  at  mid-day  is  high. 
The  most  important  commercial  product  is  cotton, 
which  generally  occupies  about  a  tenth  of  the  arable- 
land.  There  are  two  crops  yearly — the  spring  crop, 
consisting  of  various  grains  (wheat,  barley,  oats,  &c.), 
leguminous  plants,  flax,  tobacco,  &c.,  the  autumnal 
crop  of  maize,  7nu}iff,  wo^A,  melons,  &e.  The  cultiva- 
tion of  rice  is  very  limited,  owing  to  the  want  of 
water.  The  population  in  1848  was'828,'2'Ji>,  of  whom 
80,557  were  Mohammedans,  Europeans,  &c.,  the  rest 
Hindus.      Of  the    Hindu    population,    about    two- 

7-7 


AGRA— AGRARIAN  LAW 


thirds  are  agricultural;  of  the  rest,  about  one  fourth. 
— The  'division'  of  A.  which  constitutes  one  of  the 
six  North-western  Provinces,  embraces  the  districts 
of  A.,  Muttra,  P'urruckubad,  Minpoorec,  and  Etawah, 
and  contains  an  area  of  about  9U(J()  sijuare  miles, 
with  a  population  in  1849  of  3,500,000.  In  1833  it 
was  resolved  (3  and  4  Will.  IV.  cap.  Sii)  to  divide  the 
Bengal  Presidency  into  two,  one  of  which  was  to  be 
called  the  A.  Presidency.  This  act  was  never  carried 
into  effect,  and  a  subsequent  act  suspended  its  opera- 
tion, substituting  the  present  arrangenient.  See 
NoRTii-wKSTKisN  PROVINCES.  The  Seat  of  the 
lieutenant-governor  is  at  A.,  from  which  circum- 
stance that  functionary  is  sometimes  called  the 
lieutenant-governor  of  A. 

AGRA,  the  capital  of  the  British  Xorth-wcstcrn 
Provinces  in  India,  is  situated  in  the  district  of  the 
same  name  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Jumna,  139 
miles  S.E.  from  Delhi,  and  783  N.W.  from  Cal- 
cutta. The  ancient  walls  of  the  city  embrace  an 
area  of  about  1 1  square  miles,  of  which  about  one- 
half  is  at  present  occupied.  The  houses  are  for  the 
most  part  built  of  the  red  sandstone  of  the  neigh- 
bouring hills.  The  principal  street,  running  north- 
west fro!n  the  fort,  is  very  spacious,  but  the  rest  are 
generally  narrow  and  irregular,  though  clean.  Some 
of  the  public  buildings,  monuments  of  the  house  of 
Timour,  ai-e  on  a  scale  of  striking  magnificence. 
Among  these  are  the  fortress  built  by  Akbar,  within 
the  walls  of  which  are  the  palace  and  audience-hall 
of  Shah  Jclian,  and  the  Moti  Ma.«jid  or  Pearl 
Mosque,  so  called  for  its  surpassing  architectural 
beauty.  Still  more  celebrated  is  the  Taj  Mahal, 
situated  without  the  city,  about  a  mile  to  the  east  of 
the  fort.  This  extraordinary  and  beautiful  mauso- 
leuiii  was  built  by  the  Emperor  Shah  Jehan  for 
himself  and  his  favourite  wife,  Arjimand  Banoo 
(surnanied  Munitaz  ]\Iahal).  '20,u00  men,  says 
Tavcrniei',  who  saw  the  work  in  progress,  were 
employed  incessantly  on  it  for  twenty-two  years. 
The  principal  parts  of  the  building  are  constructed 
or  o\  erlaid  outside  and  in  with  white  marble ; 
and  the  mosaic  work  of  the  sepulchral  apartment 
and  dome  is  described  by  various  travellers  in 
terms  of  glowing  admiration.  It  is  composed  of 
twelve  kinds  of  stones,  of  which  lapis-lazuli  is  the 
most  frequent,  as  well  as  the  most  valuable.  Of 
British  edifices  in  and  near  the  city,  the  principal 
are  the  (xovernment  House,  the  College  (for  the 
education  of  natives),  the  Metcalfe  Testimonial,  the 
English  Church,  and  the  barracks.  The  climate  at 
A.,  during  the  hot  and  rainy  seasons  (Afiril  to  Sep- 
tember), is  very  injurious  to  Europeans;  but  on  the 
w  hole,  tlie  average  health  of  the  city  is  equal  to  that 
of  any  other  .'.tation  in  the  Xorth-western  Provinces. 
As  the  seat  of  the  lieutenant-governor  of  these 
provinces  and  of  the  adiuinistrati\e,  judicial,  and 
military  establishments,  A.  is  a  place  of  considerable 
importance,  independent  of  its  past  history.  The 
population,  before  the  late  revolt,  was  estimated 
at70,tiOu.  The  principal  articles  of  trade  are  cotton 
and  salt,  which  are  conveyed  in  large  quantities 
down  the  Jumna  to  the  lower  provinces.  This  city 
is  held  in  great  veneration  by  the  Hindus,  as 
the  scene  of  the  incarnation  of  Yishnu  under  the 
name  of  Parasu  Ra-ma.  It  first  rose  to  import- 
ance in  the  beginning  of  the  16th  c,  and  from 
1526  to  1658,  it  was  the  capital  of  the  Mogul 
sovereigns.  In  that  year,  Aurungzebc  removed 
to  Delhi ;  henceforth,  A.  declined.  It  was  taken 
in  1784  by  Scindia,  and  surrendered  in  1803  to 
Lord  Lake,  after  a  bombardment  of  a  few  hours. 
Among  the  spoils  on  that  occasion  was  a  cannon  of 
23  inches  cahbre,  lU  inches  metal  at  the  muzzle  ; 
length,  14  feet  2  inches ;  weight,  96,000  pounds. 
The  balls,  of  cast  iron,  weighed  1500  pounds. 
78 


This  stupendous  piece  of  ordnance  is  said  to  have 
been  wantonly  reduced  to  fragments  by  blasting  by 
some  artillery-officers  in  1833.  (Thornton's  Gazetteer 
of  India.)  During  the  late  mutiny,  A.  was  one  of 
the  places  in  which  the  Europeans  were  shut  up. 
At  the  outbreak,  the  gariison  consisted  of  the 
44th  and  67th  regiments  of  B.  N.  Infantry,  the  3d 
European  Fusiliers,  and  a  few  artillery.  The  native 
regiments  were  disarmed  in  June  1857  ;  and  the 
defence  of  this  important  city  devolved  upon  the 
Europeans.  The  ladies  resorted  at  night  to  places 
of  refuge  appointed  by  the  governor,  while  the 
gentlemen  patrolled  the  streets ;  but  matters  grow- 
ing worse  both  in  the  city  and  country,  it  was 
resolved,  after  a  battle  with  the  mutineers,  to  aban- 
don the  city  and  retire  to  the  Fort  or  Residency.  It 
was  time ;  for  some  thousands  of  prisoners  getting 
loose,  began  to  fire  all  the  European  buildings  in  the 
city.  Hardly  a  house  escapeil  destruction  ;  num- 
bers of  traders  were  ruined,  and  had  to  endure  the 
misery  of  beholding  their  ruin  from  the  Fort.  As 
the  Fort  was  both  large  and  strongly  defended, 
fugitives  (locked  in  fiom  all  parts  of  the  country, 
and  the  numbers  soon  swelled  to  5846.  Heroic 
sallies  were  occasionally  made.  Major  Montgom- 
ery's march  to  Allyginh,  and  his  defeat  of  the  rebels, 
though  twenty  times  as  numerous,  was  a  feat  worthy 
of  Havelock.  When  Delhi  fell,  its  rabble  of  defend- 
ers hurried  off  in  the  direction  of  A.,  which  place 
was  seriously  threatened  iiy  them,  but  was  lelieved 
by  the  rapid  and  brilliant  march  of  Colotu^HJreathed, 
who  discomfited  the  enemy,  and  despoiled  thcin  of 
nearly  all  their  baggage. 

AGRAAf,  the  capital  of  Croatia,  finely  situated  at 
the  foot  of  a  richly  wooded  range  of  mountains,  is 
about  two  miles  from  the  Save,  in  hit.  45°  49'  N., 
long.  16°  4'  E.  King  Bela  IV.  raised  it  in  1266  to 
the  dignity  of  the  royal  town,  in  consequence  of  its 
having  assisted  him  against  the  Tartars.  The  town 
is  divided  by  a  small  stream  into  three  parts,  each 
of  which  is  under  a  separate  jurisdiction.  These  are 
— the  royal  town  proper,  or  upper  town,  built  upon 
two  eminences  ;  the  capital,  or  lower  town  ;  and  the 
episcoj)al  town  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishop. 
The  inhabitants  are  principally  Croats,  who  carry  on 
an  insigniticant  trade  in  wood,  corn,  and  tobacco. 
The  lower  town  is  the  newest  and  finest  in  appear- 
ance, many  of  the  houses  having  Italian  roofs.  A.  is 
the  residence  of  the  governor  of  Croatia,  of  the  mil- 
itary commander-in-chief  of  the  Croats,  and  of  a 
Catholic  bishop.  It  also  possesses  a  royal  academy, 
with  a  public  library,  and  various  other  educational 
institutions.     Pop.  14,800. 

AGRA'RIAN  LAW.  With  the  name  of  A.  L. 
used  to  be  associated  the  idea  of  the  abolition  of 
property  in  land,  or  at  least  of  a  new  distribution  of 
it.  This  notion  of  the  A.  laws  of  the  Romans  was 
not  only  the  popular  one,  but  was  also  received  by 
most  scholars.  The  French  Convention,  in  1793, 
passed  a  law  punishing  with  death  any  one  who 
should  propose  an  A.  L.,  understanding  by  the  term 
an  equal  division  of  the  soil  among  all  citizens.  Now, 
it  would  have  been  strange  if  the  Romans,  with 
whom  private  property  was  so  sacred,  could  ever 
have  been  brought  to  sanction  any  measure  of  the 
kind.  It  was  the  German  scholars,  Heyne,  Savigny, 
and  especially  Niebuhr,  who  first  explained  the  true 
nature  and  character  of  the  Roman  A.  laws.  There 
are  still  some  disputed  points  on  this  matter,  but  one 
thing  seems  made  out — that  those  laws  had  no  refer* 
ence  to  private  lands  held  in  absolute  property,  but 
to  public  or  state  lands. 

As  the  dominion  of  Rome  extended,  a  portion 
more  or  less  of  each  contiuercd  territory  was  confis- 
cated to  the  state,  and  became  public  domain.     All 


AGRAKIAN  LAW. 


laws  respecting  the  disposition  of  these  lands  were 
called  A.  laws  ;  which  are  therefore  of  various  kinds. 
What  made  these  laws  be  so  long  mistaken  for  an 
interference  with  private  rights,  and  excited  such 
opposition  to  them  at  the  time,  was  tlie  use  which 
was  made  of  the  public  domains,  while  unapi)ro- 
priated.  '  It  was  tlie  practice  at  Rome,'  says  Dr. 
Arnold,  'and  doubtless  in  other  states  of  Italy,  to 
allow  individuals  to  occupy  such  lands,  and  to  enjoy 
all  the  benefits  of  them,  on  condition  of  paying  to 
the  state  the  tithe  of  the  produce,  as  an  acknow- 
ledgment that  the  state  was  the  proprietor  of  the 
land,  and  the  individual  merely  the  occupier.  Now, 
although  the  land  was  undoubtedly  the  property  of 
the  state,  and  although  the  occupiers  of  it  were  in 
relation  to  the  state  mere  tenants-at-will,  yet  it  is 
in  human  nature  that  a  long  undisturbed  possession 
should  give  a  feeling  of  ownersliip  ;  the  more  so  a?, 
while  the  state's  claim  lay  dormant,  the  possessor 
was,  iu  (act,  proprietor,  and  the  land  would  thus  be 
repeatedly  passing  by  regular  sale  from  one  occupier 
to  another.' 

The  state,  however,  was  often  obliged  to  interfere 
with  these  occupiers  of  the  public  lands,  and  resume 
its  rights.  The  very  idea  of  a  citizen,  in  ancient 
times,  involved  that  of  a  landholder,  and  when  new 
citizens  were  to  be  admitted,  they  had  each  to 
receive  their  portion  out  of  the  unallotted  ]iublic 
domain ;  which  was  attended,  of  course,  with  tlie 
rjection  of  the  tenants-at-will.  It  appears,  also, 
that  the  right  to  enjoy  the  public  lands  in  this 
temporary  way  was  confined  to  the  old  burghers 
or  patricians.  This,  taken  in  conjunction  with  the 
tendency,  strong  at  all  times,  of  larger  possessions  to 
swallow  lip  smaller,  kept  up  an  ever-increasing 
number  of  landless  commons,  whose  destitution  and 
degradation  came  from  time  to  time  to  such  a  pitch, 
that  alleviation  was  necessary,  to  prevent  the  very 
dissolution  of  the  state.  It  is  easy,  however,  to  see 
what  motive  the  patricians,  as  a  body,  had  to  oppose 
all  such  measures,  since  it  was  their  interest,  though 
not  their  right,  to  keep  the  lands  unallotted. 

The  enactment  of  A.  laws  occasioned  some  of  the 
most  memorable  .struggles  in  the  internal  history  of 
Rome.  Most  of  the  kings  of  Rome  are  said  to  have 
carried  an  A.  L.,  that  is,  to  have  divided  a  portion 
of  the  public  land  among  those  whom  they  admitted 
to  the  rights  of  citizenship.  '  The  good  king,' 
Servius  TuUius,  may  be  looked  upon  as  the  first 
victim  of  the  liostility  of  the  nobles  to  A.  laws. 
About  twenty-four  years  after  the  expulsion  of  the 
Tarquins,  the  distress  of  the  commons  called  aloud 
for  remedy,  and  the  consul,  Spurius  Cassius,  proposed 
an  A.  L.  for  a  division  of  a  certain  proportion  of  the 
public  land,  and  for  enforcing  the  regular  payment 
of  the  rent  or  tithe  from  the  occupiers  of  the 
remainder.  The  aristocracy,  however,  contrived  to 
defeat  the  proposal,  and  when  the  year  of  his 
consulship  was  out,  Cassius  was  accused  of  trying  to 
make  himself  king,  was  condemned,  scourged,  and 
beheaded,  and  his  liouse  razed  to  the  ground. 

The  first  important  A.  L.  of  a  permanent  nature, 
actually  passed,  was  that  proposed  by  the  tribune, 
jLicinius  Stolo,  and  carried,  after  a  struggle  of  five 
years,  in  the  year  of  Rome  383.  The  provisions  of 
Licinius's  bill,  or  ror/ation,  were  as  follows:  'Every 
Roman  citizen  shall  be  entitled  to  occupy  any  portion 
of  the  unallotted  state  land  not  exceeding  b^)()  jurtcra 
(see  Acre),  and  to  feed  on  the  public  pasture-land 
any  number  of  cattle  not  exceeding  loO  head  of 
large,  or  500  head  of  small,  paying  in  both  cases 
the  usual  rates  to  the  public  treasury.  Whatever 
portions  of  the  public  land  beyond  500  jugera  are  at 
present  occupied  by  individuals,  shall  be  taken  from 
them,  and  disiributed  among  the  poorer  citizens  as 
absolute  property,  at  the  rate  of  seven  jugera  apiece. , 


Occupiers  of  public  land  shall  also  be  bound  to  em- 
ploy a  certain  number  of  freemen  as  labourers.' 

This  law  produced  for  a  time  very  salutary  effects. 
But  before  the  year  C21,  vhen  Tiberius  Gracchus 
was  elected  tribune,  the  Licinian  law  had  been 
sufl'ered  to  fall  into  abeyance ;  and  although  vast 
tracts  had  been  acquired  by  the  Italian,  the  Punic, 
and  the  Greek  wars,  no  regular  distribution  of  land 
among  the  destitute  citizens  had  taken  place  for 
upwaids  of  a  century.  Numerous  military  colonies 
had  indeed  been  founded  in  the  conquered  districts, 
and  in  this  way  many  of  the  poorer  Romans  or  their 
allies  had  been  provided  for;  but  still  there  remained 
large  territories,  the  property  of  the  state,  which, 
instead  of  being  divided  among  the  poorer  members 
of  the  state,  were  entered  upon,  and  brought  into 
ctdtivation,  by  the  rich  capitalist,  many  of  whom 
thus  came  to  hold  thousands  of  jugera,  instead  of 
the  five  hundred  allowed  by  the  Licinian  law.  To  a 
Roman  statesman,  therefore,  looking  on  the  one 
hand  to  the  wretched  pauper  population  of  the 
meaner  streets  of  Rome,  and  on  the  other,  to  the 
enormous  tracts  of  the  public  land  throughout  Italy 
which  the  wealthy  citizens  held  in  addition  to  their 
own  private  property,  the  question  which  would 
naturally  present  itself  was — Why  should  not  the 
state,  as  landlord,  resume  from  these  wealthy 
capitalists,  who  are  her  tenants,  as  much  of  the 
public  land  as  may  be  necessary  to  provide  little 
farms  fortliese  pauper  citizens,  and  so  convert  them 
into  respectable  and  independent  agriculturists? 
This  question  must  have  presented  itself  to  many ; 
but  there  were  immense  difficulties  in  the  way.  Not 
only  had  long  possession  of  the  state  lands,  and  the 
expenditure  of  large  sums  in  bringing  them  into 
cultivation,  given  the  wealthy  tenants  a  sort  of 
proprietary  claim  upon  them,  but  in  the  course  of 
generations,  during  which  estates  had  been  bought, 
sold,  and  inherited,  the  state  lands  liad  become  so 
confused  with  private  property,  that  in  many  cases 
it  was  impossible  to  distinguish  between  the  two. 
Notwithstanding  these  difficulties,  Tiberius  Gracchus 
had  the  boldness  to  propose  an  A.  L.,  to  the  effect, 
that  every  fither  of  a  family  might  occupy  500 
jugera  of  the  state  land  for  himself,  and  250  jugera 
additional  for  each  of  his  sons ;  but  that,  in  every 
case  where  this  amount  was  exceeded,  the  state 
should  resume  the  surplus,  paying  the  tenant  a  price 
for  the  buildings,  &c.,  which  he  had  been  at  the 
expense  of  erecting  on  the  lands  thus  lost  to  him. 
The  recovered  lands  were  then  to  be  distributed 
among  the  poor  citizens  ;  a  clause  being  inserted  in 
the  bill  to  prevent  these  citizens  from  selling  the 
lands  thus  allotted  to  them,  as  many  of  them  would 
have  been  apt  to  do. 

According  to  the  laws  and  constitution  of  Rome, 
there  was  nothing  essentially  unjust  in  this  proposal, 
which  was,  in  private,  at  least,  approved  of  by  some 
of  the  most  distinguished  men  of  the  time.  The 
energy  of  Gracchus  carried  the  measure,  iu  spite  of 
the  opposition  of  the  aristocratic  party,  whose 
vengeance,  however,  could  only  be  satisfied  with  the 
assassination  of  Gracchus  and  his  brother.  Pee 
Gracciiijs.  The  attempts  to  carry  out  the  '  Sem- 
pronian  law,'  as  it  was  called,  were  attended  with 
great  difficulties,  and  although  not  formally  repealed, 
it  continued  to  be  evaded  and  rendered  inoperative. 
Various  A.  laws  were  subsequently  passed,  some  by 
the  victorious  aristocratic  party,  in  a  spirit  directly 
opposed  to  the  Licinian  and  Sempronian  laws. 

Besides  A.  laws  having  for  their  object  the  division 
among  the  commons  of  j)ul)lic  lands  usurped  by  the 
nobles,  there  weie  others  of  a  more  partial  and  local 
nature,  for  the  establishment  of  colonies  in  particular 
conquered  districts;  these  naturally  met  with  less 
opposition.     Still  more  different  were  those  violent 

-79 


AGRICOLA— AfxRICULTURE. 


appropriations  of  territory  made  bj'  the  victorious 
military  leaders  in  the  hitter  tftnes  of  the  republic,  in 
order  to  reward  their  soldiers,  and  establish  exclu- 
sively military  colonies.  In  these  the  private  rights 
of  the  previous  occupants  were  often  disregarded. 

AGRFCOLA,  Gnaf.us  or  CsEirs  Julius,  a  Roman 
of  the  imperial  times,  distinguished  not  loss  by  his 
great'  abilities  as  a  statesman  and  a  soldier  than  by 
the  beauty  of  his  private  character,  was  born  at  Forum 
Julii  (now  J^rejus  in  Provence),  37  a.d.  Having  served 
with  distinction  in  Britain,  Asia,  and  Acpiitania,  and 
pone  through  the  round  of  civil  offices,  he  was,  in 
77  A.D.,  elected  consul,  and  in  the  following  year 
proceeded  as  governor  to  Britain — the  scene  of  his 
military  and  civil  administration  during  the  next 
seven  years.  He  was  the  first  Roman  general  who 
effectually  subdued  the  island,  and  the  only  one 
who  displayed  as  much  genius  and  success  in  training 
the  inhabitants  to  the  amenities  of  civilization  as  in 
breaking  their  rude  force  in  war.  In  his  seventh 
and  last  campaign  (84  a.d.),  his  decisive  victory 
over  the  Caledonians  under  Galgacus,  at  the  foot  of 
the  Grampians,  established  the  Roman  dominion 
in  Britain  to  that  extent  northward.  At  the  close 
of  this  campaign,  his  fleet  circmimavigated  the 
coast,  for  the  first  time,  discovering  Britain  to  be 
an  island.  Among  the  works  executed  by  A. 
during  his  administration,  were  a  chain  of  forts 
between  the  Solway  and  the  Tyne,  and  another 
between  the  Clyde  and  Forth.  Numerous  traces 
of  his  operations  are  still  to  be  found  in  Anglesey 
and  North  Wales,  and  in  Galloway,  F'ife,  Perth- 
shire, and  Angus.  The  news  of  A.'s  successes 
inflamed  the  jealousy  of  Bomitian,  and  he  was 
speedily  recalled.  Thenceforth  he  lived  in  retire- 
ment ;  and  when  the  vacant  proconsulships  of  Asia 
and  Africa  lay  within  his  choice,  he  prudently 
declined  promotion.  The  jealousy  of  the  emperor, 
however,  is  supposed  to  have  hastened  his  death, 
which  took  place  at  the  early  age  of  55.  His  life, 
by  his  son-in-law,  Tacitus,  has  always  been  regarded 
as  one  of  the  choicest  specimens  of  biography  in 
literature. 

AGRICOLA,  John  (whose  true  name  was 
Schnitter  or  Schneider,  but  who  was  also  called 
Magister  Islebius  and  John  Eisleben,  after  the  name 
of  his  native  town),  born  1492,  was  one  of  the  most 
zealous  founders  of  Protestantism.  Having  studied 
at  Wittenberg  and  Leipsic,  he  was  sent  (1525)  by 
Luther,  who  highly  appreciated  his  talents  and 
learning,  to  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  to  institute 
there,  at  the  desire  of  the  magistrates,  the  Protestant 
worship.  On  his  return,  he  resided  as  a  teacher  and 
preacher  in  his  native  town  of  Eisleben,  till  1536. 
In  1537,  he  became  a  professor  at  Wittenberg, 
where  the  Antinomian  controversy,  already  begun 
between  him  and  Luther  and  Melancthon,  broke 
out  openly.  See  Axtinomianism.  The  troubles 
in  which  he  was  thus  involved  obliged  him  to 
withdraw  (1538)  to  Berlin,  where  he  was  reduced 
to  extreme  want,  and  was  thus  induced  to  make  a 
recantation  never  altogether  sincere.  He  then  found 
a  protector  in  the  Elector  John  of  Brandenburg, 
who  appointed  him  preacher  to  the  court  and 
general  superintendent.  He  made  great  exertions 
for  the  spread  of  the  Protestant  doctrine  in  the 
Brandenburg  states ;  but  ere  his  death,  which  took 
place  at  Berlin,  22d  September  1566,  he  had  become 
as  much  hated  for  his  share  in  the  drawing  up  of 
the  Augsburg  Interim  (q.  v.),  as  he  had  formerly 
been  for  his  Antinomian  opinions.  Besides  his 
numerous  theological  writings,  his  country  possesses 
a  truly  national  work  of  his,  entitled  Die  Gemei.nen 
Deutschen  Spriahuorter  mit  Hirer  avdegunr/  (Common 
German  proverbs,  with  their  explanation;  Hagenau, 
80 


1592;  and  a  very  complete  but  somewhat  altered 
edition  at  Wittenberg,  1592).  The  patrioiic  feelings, 
pure  morals,  and  pithy  language  of  this  book,  have 
procured  for  it  one  of  the  first  places  among  the 
German  works  of  that  age. 

AGRICOLA,  RunoLPiius,  one  of  the  most 
learned  and  remarkable  men  of  the  15th  c,  and  a 
chief  instrument  in  transplanting  the  taste  for  litera- 
ture, just  revived  in  Italy,  into  his  native  country  of 
Germany,  was  born,  1443,  in  the  vi'.hige  of  Baflo,  near 
Groningcn.  His  name  was  properly  Rolef  Huys- 
mann  (i.  e.,  houseman  or  husbandman),  which  was 
Latinised  by  him  into  A.,  after  the  usage  of  the  time. 
He  was  also  called  Frisius,  and  Rudolf  of  Griiningen, 
from  his  native  place ;  and  sometimes  Rudolf  of 
Ziloha,  from  the  monastery  of  Silo,  where  he  spent 
some  time.  Having  been  first  a  disciple  of  Thomas  a 
Kempis  at  ZwoUe,  he  went  to  Louvain,  then  to  Paris, 
and  thence  to  Italy,  where,  during  the  years  1476 
and  1477,  he  attended  the  lectures  of  the  most  cele- 
brated men  of  his  age.  Here  he  entered  into  a  close 
friendship  with  Dalberg,  who  afterwards  became 
Bishop  of  Worms.  He  was  the  first  German  who 
distinguished  himself  in  Italy  in  public  S]ieaking  and 
lecturing,  and  this  he  did  not  only  by  his  erudition, 
but  by  the  elegance  of  his  language  and  the  correct- 
ness of  his  pronunciation,  ilo  likewise  acquired 
reputation  as  an  accomplished  musician ;  and  his 
pieces  were  popular  throughout  Italy.  On  his  return 
to  Germany,  he  endeavoured,  in  connection  with 
several  of  his  former  co-disciples  and  friends,  among 
whom  were  Alexander  Hogius  and  Ruilolphus  Langc, 
to  promote  a  taste  for  literature  and  eloquence  in 
Germany.  Several  cities  of  Holland  vainly  strove 
with  each  other  to  obtain  his  presence,  by  offering 
him  public  functions ;  but  not  even  the  brilliant 
overtures  made  to  him  by  the  court  of  the  emperor 
Maximilian  I.,  to  which  he  had  repaired  in  connec- 
tion with  affairs  of  the  town  of  (JiiJiiingen,  could 
induce  him  to  renounce  his  independence.  At 
length  yielding  (1483)  to  the  solicitations  of  Dalberg, 
who  was  now  chancellor  to  the  Elector  Palatine, 
and  Bishop  of  Worms,  he  established  himself  in  the 
Palatinate,  where  he  sojourned  alternately  at  Heidel- 
berg and  Worms,  dividing  his  time  between  private 
studies  and  public  lectures,  and  enjoying  high  popu- 
larity. He  distinguished  himself  also  as  a  painter; 
and  at  the  age  of  40  set  wiih  ardour  to  learn 
Hebrew,  in  order  to  study  theology.  He  went  again 
(1484)  with  Dalberg  into  Italy,  and  died  shortly 
after  his  return  to  Germany  (on  the  28th  October, 
1485).  His  fame  rests  chiefly  on  the  personal  influ- 
ence he  exerted.  His  compositions,  which  are 
written  in  Latin,  are  neither  so  numeror.s  nor  so 
important  as  those  of  many  of  his  learned  contem- 
poraries. The  first  nearly  complete  edition  of  them 
was  that  published  by  Alard  (2  vols.,  Cologne,  1539). 
Considt  Tresling,  Fz7a  et  Merita  E.  A.  (Groningen, 
1830). 

A'GRICULTURE  (Lat.  ac;er,  a  field,  and  colo,  I 
till)  is  the  art  of  rearing  those  plants  and  animals 
that  are  best  suited  to  supply  the  wants  of  man. 
Man  h.is  found  the  earth,  in  almost  every  clime, 
covered  with  vegetation,  yet  this  often  yields  little 
that  he  can  use.  The  spontaneous  growth  of  nature 
affording  but  a  limited  quantity  of  food,  he  at  first 
attempts  to  supply  the  deficiency  by  capturing  the 
wild  animals,  w  hich  often  feed  upon  what  is  unsuited 
for  his  sustenance.  Sometimes,  however,  the  most 
fertile  lands  under  luxuriant  forests,  or  other  natural 
vegetation,  only  support  a  small  number  of  animals. 
In  the  most  favourable  circumstances,  a  given  area 
of  territory  cannot  maintain  many  of  the  human 
family,  so  long  as  they  dgpend  upon  the  natural 
vcjretation  or  on  the  chase.     It  is  only  after  those 


AGRICULTURE. 


plants  wliicli  yield  niiin  iin  abundant  supply  of  food 
are  selected  and  made  the  objects  of  cultivation, 
that  population  augments,  and  civilisation  takes  its 
rise. 

Man  has  selected  a  great  variety  of  plants  for 
cultivation  to  afl'ord  him  food  and  clothing.  In 
northern  latitudes,  wheat,  barley,  oats,  rye,  and  the 
potato  form  the  chief  plants  from  which  he  derives 
subsistence.  These  crops  arc  most  productive  when 
grown  in  summer  in  the  temperate  climates  of  the 
earth,  being  unsuited  to  the  heats  of  the  torrid 
zone.  Their  geogrnphical  limits,  however,  are  greatly 
extended  by  growing  them  as  winter  crops  on  the 
borders  of,  and  even  within  the  tropics.  In  these 
regions,  however,  rice,  maize,  millet,  and  other  grains 


become  far  more  productive  of  food  than  the  already 
mentioned  cereals  are  in  high  latitudes,  as  they 
flourish  during  the  heats  of  summer.  Where  heat 
and  moisture  are  almost  perennial  in  the  tropics,  the 
banana,  the  bread-fruit  tree,  and  other  herbaceous 
plants  and  trees,  are  most  productive  of  human 
food. — A  sliort  historical  outline  of  the  A.  of  different 
parts  of  the  world  will  exhibit  the  chief  elements 
that  regulate  the  practices  of  the  husbandman. 

The  early  civilisation  of  Ef/vpt  claims  for  it  the  first 
notice  in  a  passing  outline  of  the  chief  systems  of  A. 
The  teeming  population  that  existed  in  ancient  times 
in  the  n:irrow  valley  of  the  Nile,  the  large  standing 
army  which  was  maintained,  the  extraordinary 
works  of  engineering  and    architecture  still  visible 


Modern  Shadoof. 


in  onr  day,  and  the  exportation  of  corn  to  other 
nations,  indicate  an  advanced  state  of  the  art  of 
A.  Rain  is  a  rare  phenomenon  in  Upper  Egypt, 
and  fertility  is  only  maintained  by  the  waters 
of  the  Nile,  which  are  subject  to  annual  floods. 
The  risings  and  ebl)ings  are  as  regular  now  as 
they  were  in  the  days  of  Herodotus;  and  the 
agricultural  systems  are  also  in  a  great  measure 
the  same.  The  inundation  which,  unless  prevented 
by  embankments,  covers  the  whole  land,  occurs  at 
the  hottest  se  .son.  As  the  waters  retire  in  October, 
the  land  is  sown  with  what  are  there  styled  ivinier 
crops,  consisting  of  wheat,  barley,  lentils,  beans, 
flax,  lupines,  chick-pease,  &c.  All  these  crops  require 
no  further  watering,  as  the  moisture  which  the  soil 
6 


has  imbibed  during  the  inundation  is  sufficient  to 
bring  them  to  maturity  about  the  end  of  April,  or 
even  a  month  sooner  in  Upper  Egypt.  Only  one 
crop  in  the  year  is  grown  u|)on  most  of  the  inun- 
dated lands.  J5ut  on  those  lands  which  arc  protected 
from  the  inundation,  t/irce  crops  a  ■  year  may  be 
raised  by  means  of  artificial  watering.  Few  of  the 
plants  used  as  winter  crops  can  be  grown  in  summer 
in  Egypt.  The  plants  adapted  for  summer  consist  of 
rice  (largely  grown  in  the  Delta),  durra,  millet,  maize, 
sesame,  melons,  onions;  they  are  sown  from  April 
to  August,  and  of  several  of  them  two  crops  in  the 
season  ripen  under  the  cloudle.-^s  sky  of  Egypt.  A 
vast  amount  of  manual  labour  and  animal  power  is 
expended  in  watering  the  ground  for  the  summer  crops. 

81 


AGRICULTURE. 


The  peasants  use  the  shadoof  for  the  purpose,  which 
is  a  simple  eontrivaiicc,  used  in  drawing  water,  over 
a  larL^^e  portion  of  the  East.  The  Persian  wlieel,  driven 
by  oxen,  is  largely  employed  ;  so  much  so,  that  about 
60, IKK)  of  these  machines  are  at  present  in  use  in  the 
valley  of  the  Nile.  Besides  these  crops,  cotton,  indigo, 
and  sugar-cane  are  now  cultivated  to  a  small  extent. 
When  the  waters  rest  long  on  the  lar.d,  it  answers  all 
the  ends  of  a  fallow,  by  extirpating  the  land-weeds 
and  disintegrating  the  soil.  The  ground,  in  such 
cases,  recpiires  no  further  culture  than  treading  in 
the  seed  by  animals,  or  sliglitly  scratching  the  sur- 
face with  bushes.  On  the  other  hand,  the  summer 
crops  require  a  great  deal  of  tending,  both  in 
cultivating  and  wat<.'ring  the  soil.  The  diminution 
of  the  population  in  Egypt  has  in  some  measure 
deprived  the  country  of  the  means  of  its  former 
advanced  state  of  A. ;  nor  is  its  present  political 
condition  at  all  likely  to  lead  to  nuich  improvement. 

Few  historieil  records  of  the  state  of  lin/ji/loninn 
A.  have  come  down  to  us.  Wc  can  only  judge  of  its 
productiveness  by  the  dense  population  tliat  was 
supported  in  the  plains  bordering  the  Euphrates, 
where  the  summer  climate  is  almost  as  arid  as  that 
of  Egypt.  That  river  also  was  subject  to  overtlow, 
when  the  snows  melted  on  the  moimtains  of  Armenia 
in  suuuner.  Further  than  tliis,  however,  we  have 
no  hnowledge  of  the  systems  pursued  or  crops 
cultivated. 

The  Scriptures  are  full  of  allusions  to  the  opera- 
tions of  the  husbandman  in  Palestine  as  well  as  in 
Egypt.  The  operations  in  the  two  countries  neces- 
sarily formed  striking  contrasts — the  crops  in  the 
former  being  chieliy  dejiendent  on  the  rains  for 
growth  ;  in  the  latter,  on  tlie  inundations  of  the  Nile. 
Ill  the  Holy  Land,  there  are  extensive  plains  of 
fertile  soil  which  yielded  the  finest  wheat.  The 
hillsides  were  covered  with  vines  and  olives,  often 
planted  on  terraces  formed  with  much  labour,  to 
afford  a  larger  mass  of  soil,  in  which  the  plants 
might  flotuish  in  the  almost  rainless  summerts.  The 
valleys  were  well  watered,  and  afforded  pastm-e 
for  numerous  flocks.  Of  the  smaller  cultivated 
plants,  millet  was  the  chief  summer  crop,  but 
was  only  cultivated  to  a  limited  extent,  being  confined 
to  those  sp<jts  that  could  be  artificially  watered. 
Wheat  and  barley  were  the  chief  cereals,  as  the  winter 
rains  were  sufficient  to  bring  them  to  maturity.  The 
large  number  of  inhabitants  that  Palestine  supported 
under  the  Jews  is  the  wonder  of  all  modern  travel- 
lers, who  are  struck  with  the  ruins  of  ancient  cities 
and  the  desolation  of  the  country.  The  means  of 
cultivation,  however,  disappeared  with  the  inhabit- 
ants ;  and  the  destruction  of  the  wood  has  added  to 
the  aridity  of  tlie  cliuuite.  Concurring  testimony 
indic.ites  that  the  systems  of  cultivation  were  some- 
what similar  in  all  the  countries  bordering  on  the 
Mcditerr.mean,  which  are  characterised  by  arid 
summers,  and  autumn  and  winter  rains.  Irrigation, 
therefore,  was  had  recourse  to  wherever  it  was 
practicable. 

The  A.  of  Itahj  in  the  present  day  exhibits  great 
contrasts  in  its  condition  ;  for  while  a  garden-like 
cultivation  is  seen  in  Lombardy,  the  utmost  rudeness 
and  backwardness  prevail  in  the  southern  parts  of 
the  peninsula.  Into  the  social  causes  that  have  led 
to  these  results  our  linuts  forbid  us  to  enter.  The 
literature  of  the  A.  of  the  ancient  Romany  throws 
much  light  on  the  systems  that  then  existed  in  the 
countries  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean.  As  is 
well  known,  the  wide-spread  dominion  of  Rome 
rose  out  of  a  diminutive  colony  planted  on  the  banks 
of  the  Tiber.  In  the  time  of  the  early  l.ings,  its 
original  territory  did  not  extend  above  five  miles 
towards  the  Alban  Hills,  and  still  less  in  other  direc 
tions.  Romulus  is  said  to  have  divided  a  portion  of 
82 


his  small  territory  among  his  subjects,  at  the  rate  of 
little  more  than  an  acre  to  each.  This  allotment, 
granted  in  perpetuity,  was  not  liable  to  be  ta.xed, 
and  could  be  sold  by  its  ownei.  The  whole  territory 
was  not  assigned  to  the  citizens,  but  the  larger  part 
was  kept  as  donnun  lands,  which  yielded  a  revenue 
to  the  state,  by  being  let  to  the  wcalihy  classes. 
These  domain  lands  were  either  cultivated  or 
allowed  to  renuiin  in  pasture.  The  common  conditions 
were,  that  the  occupants  of  the  corn-land  paid  one- 
tenth  of  the  produce  as  rent ;  of  vines  and  fruit-trees, 
one  fifth  ;  and  a  moderate  rate  a  head  for  sheep  or 
cattle  pastured.  The  occupants  were  merely  temints 
at-will,  and  the  state  could  resume  aiulsell  their  lands 
at  any  time.  A  similar  policy  seems  to  have  l)cen 
pursued  by  the  numeious  states  of  ancient  Italy.  As 
these  were  all  conquered  in  succession  by  the 
Romans,  their  lands  became  the  property  of  the 
llonian  state.  Pometin.es  the  inhabitants  were 
wholly  extirpated,  or  sold  into  slavery,  and  their 
lands  were  partly  assigned  to  the  poorer  citizens 
engaged  in  the  war  ;  the  remainder,  which  was 
always  the  much  larger  part,  became  domain  lands. 
In  otiicr  instances,  only  a  portion  of  the  lands  was 
taken  from  the  coiKpiered  nations  ;  the  former 
owners  were  allowed  lo  retain  them  as  tenants,  pay- 
ing the  ordinary  rent.  Thus,  from  tlie  earliest  times, 
two  classes  of  cultivators  were  in  existence — the 
small  proprietors  and  the  wealthy  tenants,  holding 
the  lands  of  the  state.  Betwixt  the  two,  there  was 
almost  a  perpetual  strife — the  one  denninded  the 
distribution  of  the  state  domains,  while  the  others 
constantly  resisted  it.  J>.cn  after  the  Romans 
became  masters  of  the  whole  of  Italy,  the  citizens 
had  little  7nore  than  four  acres  of  land  assigned  to 
each  ;  and  the  donuiin  lands  increased  enorn.ously. 
Attempts  were  constantly  nnide  to  restrict  the 
extent  of  domain  held  by  the  patricians,  but  gener- 
ally without  e'.Vect.  Pee  Aorauian  Laws.  The 
great  extent  of  domain  lands  gave  rise  to  the 
employment  of  slave-labour  in  their  cultivation 
by  the  wealthy  citizens.  This  led  to  the  discourage- 
ment of  snniU  propiictors,  so  that  the  free  population 
engaged  in  A.  diminished  throughout  Italy.  The 
evil  was  further  aggravated  by  the  policy  that 
the  Romans  pursued  towards  the  inhabitants  of 
the  conquered  provinces  ;  there  none  of  the  land 
was  held  as  freehold,  b\it  it  was  solely  vested  in  the 
Roman  jiecple,  being  all  let  out  for  the  benefit  of  the 
state.  On  the  conquest  of  Sicily,  the  wealthy 
Romans  flocked  over,  and  farmed  the  rents,  as  well 
as  culiivated  the  lands  by  means  of  slave  labour. 
Indeed  the  chief  supplies  of  grain  sent  to  Rome  from 
Sicily,  Sardinia,  and  Carthage,  were  raised  by  means 
of  slaves.  A.  was  long  the  only  source  of  wealth 
open  to  the  patricians  ;  and  it  w  as  deemed  the  most 
honourable  of  occupations.  Its  operations  were 
then  directed  by  men  of  wealth  and  learning  ;  and 
no  wonder  that  its  literature  Avas  so  copious,  and 
held  in  so  high  estimation.  Cato,  the  first  and 
most  celebrated  agricultural  writer  (who  died  aged 
88,  150  B.C.),  was  in  the  middle  period  of  life  at  the 
end  of  the  second  Punic  war.  The  large  farming 
system. had  been  fully  established;  and  he  gives 
us  not  only  the  most  riiinute  particulars  regarding 
the  management  of  the  slaves  on  his  Sabine  farm,  but 
all  the  details  of  husbandry,  from  the  ploughing  of 
the  fallows  to  the  reaping  and  threshing  of  the  crop. 
The  chief  grain  cultivated  by  the  Romans  was 
wheat,  but  barley  was  also  cultivated  to  a  consider- 
able extent.  Land  devoted  to  grain  was  fallowed  for 
a  whole  year  every  alternate  year  ;  in  other  words, 
the  rotation  consisted  of  l.s<,  wheat,  -Id,  fallow.  One 
third  of  the  fallow  was  manured  and  sown  with 
some  green  crop  as  cattle-fpod.  Fallow  received  from 
four  to  five  furrows  before  the  wheat  was  sown  in 


AGRICULTURE. 


autumn.  The  last  p'.ou-irmg  left  the  Uuul  innarrow 
viil"-os;  and  as  the  seed  was  sown  broadcast,  it  came 
upTn  rows,  which  admitted  oftlie  crop  being  several 
times  hand-hoed.  The  crops  of  wheat  ripened  about 
the  middle  of  June,  but  the  smnmers  were  too  dry  to 
allow  of  millet  and  other  summer  crops  being  raised 
with  certainty.  Rye,  hemp,  flax,  beans,  turnips, 
lupines,  vetches,  and  lucerne  arc  also  mentioned 
as  o.'casionally  cultivated.  Meadows  were  highly 
esteemed,  and  irrigation  to  some  extent  adopted. 
Cattle  were  fed  in  the  plains  in  winter,  and  driven 
towards  the  Apennines  as  the  snows  melted  in  spring, 
and  when  the  pastures  below  became  parched  by 
the  heat.  The  greater  proportion  of  the  surface  of 
Southern  Italy  consists  of  thin  calcareous  soils,  ill 
adapted  for  tiie  growth  of  grain  or  grass ;  and  the 
vine,  the  olive,  and  the  nnilbeiry  become  the  chief 
objects  of  culture.  The  principal  districts  for  grow- 
ing wheat  are  in  the  neighbourhood  of  .Naples, 
an'd  in  the  ancient  Apulia,  where  Hannibal  gener- 
ally wintered  when  he  overran  Italy.  Pome  of 
these  rich  plains  are  still  held  directly  fiom  the 
government,  and  cultivation  is  of  the  rudest  char- 
acter. One-third  of  the  land  is  in  pasture,  and 
the  other  two-thirds  in  fallow  and  grain.  Three 
or  four  crops  are  taken  in  succession,  and  the  soil 
is  then  allowed  to  recruit  its  exhausted  strength  by 
remaining  under  pasture. 

In  the  great  plain  of  Northern  Italy  watered  by 
the  To,  agriculture  is  now  in  a  very  advanced  con- 
dition. A  great  part  of  it  is  of  great  natural  fertility  ; 
it  drew  forth  the  praises  of  I'olybius,  who  visited  it 
about  fifty  vears  after  it  came  into  the  hands  of  the 
Romans,  the  oak -groves  which  he  found  scattered 
over  the  plain,  fed  the  immense  droves  of  swine 
that  were  then  raised  in  Italy.  Now,  however, 
rich  and  poor  soils  are  subjected  to  the  fertil- 
ising influences  of  irrigation,  and  the  region  has 
become  the  best  cultivated  in  Europe.  No  less  than 
l,tiO,),000  acres  of  land  are  under  irrigation,  and  the 
results  are  of  the  most  striking  charactet;.  The  land 
is  forced  to  produce  a  constant  succession  of  grass 
and  grain.  The  irrigated  meadows,  like  the  pastures 
of  Ireland  and  Scotland,  are  made  the  corner-stone 
of  the  systems  of  rotation.  In  general,  three  years 
in  meadow  are  succeeded  by  three  years  in  rice; 
two  vears  in  Indian  corn  and  flax  ;  one  year  in 
wheat  sown  out  with  grass-seeds.  Large  numbers 
of  cattle  are  kept  on  the  farms  of  Lombardy,  where 
the  land  is  often  a  complete  net-work  of  canals, 
with  their  smaller  distributing  channels.  There  is 
a  large  exportation  both  of  grain  and  dairy  produce. 
The  vast  ranges  of  snowy  mountains  that  bound 
the  plain  to  the  north,  afford  a  never-fiiiling  supply 
of  water  during  the  heats  of  summer.  The  vine 
and  mulberry  beautify  the  country,  and  also  give 
emplovment  "to  the  dense  population. 

The  absence  of  forests  gi\'es  to  Spain  a  more 
arid  sunnner  climate  than  Italy.  Rains  commonly 
fdl  o;ily  during  the  autumn  and  winter,  and  the 
supply  is  scanty  and  irregular.  This  renders  Spain 
a  poor  and  unproductive  country,  excepting  where 
the  soil  can  be  irrigated.  For  this  reason,  the 
resources  of  its  agriculture  are  chiefly  confined  to 
its  well-watered  valleys,  which  are  capable  of  being 
made  to  outstrip  Egypt  itself  in  productiveness. 
The  Moors  early  introduced  the  art  of  irrigation  in 
tlie  south  of  Spain,  and  carried  it  to  a  high  pitch  in 
the  kingdom  of  Granada.  Before  the  conquest  of 
that  country  by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  the  valley 
of  Granada  was  one  well  cullivated  garden.  Though 
the  undiminished  powers  of  the  laiid  are  still 
attested  by  a  few  spots  in  the  verjas  of  Mnrcia  and 
Granada,  its  present  condition  cannot  be  compared 
to  its  condition  under  the  Moors.  The  high  tetnpera- 
tiu-e  admits  of  a  succession  of  crops  being  raised  in  one 


year,  as  in  Egypt.  After  wheat  has  been  gathered 
in  June,  a  crop  of  maize  or  millet,  or  of  vegetables, 
is  got.  Maize  is  scarcely  grown  in  Spain  except 
where  the  land  is  irrigated,  so  that  every  valley  ia 
more  or  less  under  the  productive  influences  of 
water.  The  melting  of  the  snows  in  summer  on 
the  high  ranges  of  mountains,  affords  a  .supply 
when  if  is  most  needed  in  the  plains  below.  Vines, 
olives,  and  oranges  find  a  genial  climate  for  their 
growth  in  the  southern  parts,  and  are  important 
objects  of  culture. 

France  must  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  richest 
agricultural  countries  in  Europe.  In  the  south, 
the  climate  is  sufficiently  hot  for  olives,  maize,  the 
mulberry,  and  tlie  vine.  The  summer  rains,  too, 
arc  more  abundant  than  in  Spain,  and  permit 
maize  to  be  extensively  grown  alternately  with 
wheat,  which  forms  a  most  productive  course  of 
crops.  Irriiiation  has  received  considerable  atteiition 
in  the  southern  valleys,  and  the  reclamation  of  the 
barren  wastes  of  the'Crau  in  Provence,  testifijs  to 
its  fertilising  eflccts.  Much  of  the  soil  is  poor  in 
the  southern  provinces,  and  not  suited  to  the  giowth 
of  grain;  but  such  soil  admits  of  the  growth  of 
the  mulberry,  the  olive,  or  the  vine.  All  these  crops 
demand  a  large  amount  of  labour  in  their  culture, 
and  sustain  a  dense  population.  Normandy  U 
celebrated  for  its  pastures.  The  north-west  of 
France  generally  is  the  most  fertile  tract  of  land 
in  Europe.  In  "the  less  advanced  districts,  tallow, 
wheat,  and  oats  is  the  rotation  still  followed. 
Clovers  and  lucerne  are  largely  sown  in  the  chalky 
districts.  In  the  best  cuUivated  districts  in  the 
north,  wheat  and  beet-root  or  poppy  are  sown 
alternately.  Beet  forms  a  most  important  plant 
in  the  agriculture  of  France  in  the  present  day,  as 
a  larsje  part  of  the  sugar  consumed  in  the  country 
is  derived  from  it.  Much  of  France  is  divided  into 
small  properties,  which  is  more  especially  the  case 
in  the  less  fertile  provinces.  This  division  of  pro- 
perty is,  so  far,  a  necessity,  as  no  other  industrial 
occupation  is  open  to  the  people.  As  soon  as  manu- 
facttn-es  raise  the  standard  of  living  in  the  town, 
it  will  influence  the  condition  of  the  rural  population, 
and  lead  to  the  enlargement  of  properties. 

In  Aits^tria,  Huinjari/,  and  the  countries  on  both 
sides  of  the  Danube,  the  climate  resembles  that  of 
the  southern  half  of  France.  Maize  and  wheat  are 
the  chief  products,  l)ut  the  agriculture  labours  under 
so  many  impediments  to  progress,  that  it  is  yet  in  a 
backward  state.  In  Southern  liimsia,  there  are  vast 
tracts  of  rich  land  bordering  on  the  rivers  flowing 
into  the  Black  Sea  and  Sea  of  Azov,  from  which 
Western  Europe  derives  large  supplies  of  wheat  and 
flax-seed,  as  well  as  some  maize.  The  northern 
parts  of  Russia  are  less  fertile,  and  as  yet  the 
means  of  transport  are  defective  and  linnted.  Oats, 
flax,  skins,  and  tallow  are  the  chief  pro<lucta  sent 
to  inarket.  Rve  forms  the  common  bread-corn  of 
the  lower  classes.  Frusnia,  unless  along  the  shores 
of  the  Baltic,  has  no  great  proportion  of  fertile 
land  within  her  territory ;  the  chief  article  exported 
is  wheat  from  the  Baltic  provinces,  which  is  of  fine 
quality.  The  potato  enters  largely  into  the  food  of 
the  co'mmon  people  in  Prussia,  and  is  also  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  anient  spirits.  Its  agricidture,  how- 
ever, has  no  peculiarities  deserving  of  special  notice 
in  this  cursory  sketch. 

Flanders  has  long  been  celebrated  for  its  farming, 
and  its  cultivators  are  generally  supposed  to  have 
carried  improved  systems  into  the  ca.stern  counties 
of  England.  It  is  characterised  by  painstaking 
management,  and,  at  the  same  time,  lilieral  appli- 
cation of  manure.  The  general  size  of  tlie  farms 
would  be  considered  rather  small  in  England,  but 
considerable    capitals    are    invested    in    stock    and 

83 


AGRICULTURE. 


implements,  and  several  kinds  of  crops  are  raised 
unknown  to  Biitish  A,  A  larp;e  part  of  tlie  stock  is 
stabled  throiifjhout  the  year,  the  grass  being  cut  and 
carried  from  the  fields.  The  rearing  and  the  feeding 
of  cattle,  as  well  as  the  dairy,  are  often  combined  on 
the  same  farm.  Flnx  is  a  crop  Avhich  receives  a 
^reat  deal  of  careful  management,  llemp  and 
beet-root  require  liberal  treatment  with  re.spect  to 
manure,  and  only  enter  into  the  rotation  where 
high  farming  is  followed.  The  crops  are  so  arranged 
in  the  rotation,  that  two  cereal  crops  do  not  succeed 
each  other.  In  no  country  are  the  fields  kept  so 
free  from  weeds  as  they  are  in  Flanders,  and  in 
none  do  the  agriculturists  sufler  .«o  little  from  fluctu- 
ations in  the  prices  of  grain,  owing  to  the  great 
variety  of  crops  that  are  raised, 

England  had  made  considerable  advances  in  A. 
fio  far  back  as  the  ItUh  c.  This  Aict  may  be  gathered 
from  the  writings  of  Fitzherbert,  Tusser,  and  otlicrs. 
At  an  earlier  period,  her  chief  article  of  export  had 
been  wool,  which  supplied  the  scats  of  manufacturing 
industry  in  Holland,  but  now  she  also  exports  a 
large  quantity  of  wheat.  The  increasing  prosperity 
of  the  country  caused  a  demand  for  butclier-meat, 
which  began  to  rise  in  price  much  sooner  than  it  did 
in  Scotland.  By  the  middle  of  the  17th  c,  turnips 
and  red  clover  were  introduced  as  field-crops,  and 
by  the  end  of  it,  the  two  were  extensively  cultivated 
in  many  parts,  in  alternation  with  corn.  In  1750, 
the  four-course  shift  was  not  uncommon  in  many 
parts  of  Norfolk.  Under  this  system  of  l.sV,  wheat; 
Id,  turnips;  Zd,  barley;  Ath,  grass,  one  half  of  the 
land  was  constantly  under  corn-crops,  and  the  other 
under  cattle-crops.  Large  numbers  of  sheep  and 
cattle  were  fattened  on  the  turnips  and  clover.  In 
the  preparation  of  the  hind  for  turnips,  it  was  well 
cultivated  and  weeded,  and  the  consumption  of  the 
roots  on  the  land  increased  the  yield  of  the  barley. 
The  four-course  shift  has  formed  the  basis  upon 
which  further  improvements  have  been  made  in  the 
southern  and  eastern  parts  of  England.  The  strong 
soils  of  Suffolk  and  Essex  yield  good  pasture,  and 
about  a  century  ago,  they  were  mostly  devoted  to 
dairy-farming.  The  high  price  of  corn,  however, 
encouraged  the  conversion  of  these  lands  into  arable- 
farms.  The  course  followed  was  Is/,  wheat;  Id, 
fallow;  3c?,  barley;  Ath,  clover.  Instead  of  the 
fallow,  mangel-wurzel  is  now  largely  substituted, 
which  enables  the  farmers  to  feed  large  numbers  of 
bullocks  in  the  yards,  without  so  large  an  expendi- 
ture in  the  purchase  of  oil-cake  as  was  at  one  time 
thought  necessary.  In  the  western  counties,  where 
the  climate  is  more  suitable  for  grass,  and  less  so  for 
wheat,  dairy  and  stock-rearing  become  greater 
objects  of  attention.  The  demand  for  dairy  produce 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  large  manufacturing 
towns  of  the  west,  renders  the  land  of  much  greater 
value  under  grass  than  under  corn,  more  especially 
where  the  soil  is  tenacious.  In  the  more  friable 
soils  of  the  north-western  counties  of  England,  the 
systems  of  A.  resemble  somewhat  that  of  Scotland. 
Instead  of  the  land  lying  one  year  under  grass,  it 
lies  two,  followed  by  oats,  then  turnips  or  potatoes, 
and  the  wheat-crop  is  taken  after  this  green  crop, 
and  not  after  the  grass.  This  is  the  characteristic 
which  distinguishes  the  arable  farming  in  the  western 
from  that  in  the  eastern  counties  of  England.  A 
large  portion  of  the  surface  of  England  is  under 
permanent  pasture,  and  the  beauty  of  the  meadows 
is  unrivalled  in  any  part  of  the  world.  The  surface 
of  England  is  very  unequally  farmed,  for  while 
A.  has  attained  a  great  degree  of  perfection  in 
such  counties  as  Suffolk,  Norfolk,  and  Lincoln,  it 
is  in  a  comparatively  primitive  state  in  others. 
The  causes  which  have  led  to  this  state  of  things 
are  often  difficult  to  trace.  The  spirit  of  improve- 
84 


I  ment  now  seems,  however,  far  more  generally 
diffused,  and  spirited  farmers  are  everywhere  spring- 
ing up,  who,  before  long,  will  find  many  imitators. 

In  Ireland,  the  want  of  manufactures  has  con- 
tinued to  act  as  a  great  hindrance  to  agricultural 
improvement.  The  competition  that  arose  among  a 
geuerally  indigent  population  in  taking  small  farms, 
led  to  extravagant  rents,  the  payment  of  which 
involved  the  starvation  of  the  tenants.  The  faithful 
jiictures,  which  Arthur  Young  drew,  towards  the 
close  of  the  last  century,  showed  the  workings  of  such 
a  system.  The  general  introduction  of  the  potato, 
upon  which  the  peof)lo  chiefly  subsisted,  enabled  rents 
to  be  paid  by  selling  the  scanty  produce  of  grain, 
or  the  pigs  that  were  reared.  The  failure  of  the 
potato-crop  in  1846  produced  the  most  heart-rending 
S(en(»s  of  misery  that  have  been  witnessed  in  our 
times.  When  Young  made  h'.s  tour,  it  was  the  com- 
mon practice,  among  the  small  farmers,  to  take  from 
four  to  six  crops  of  oats  or  barley  in  succession,  after 
which  the  land  was  allowed  to  renovate  its  power."? 
by  the  growth  of  the  luitural  grasses.  On  the 
moderate-sized  farms,  the  cultivation  was  better; 
but  turnips  had  little  place  in  a  course  of  cropping 
for  nearly  a  century  after  they  were  largely  cultivated 
in  Xorfoik,  The  Protestant  population  in  the  north 
of  Ireland  introduced  at  an  early  period,  the  culture 
of  flax,  which  still  forms  a  peculiar  feature  in  the  A. 
of  that  part  of  the  country.  The  large  amount  of 
manual  labour  which  it  requires  in  its  preparation 
for  market,  has  so  far  served  to  ])reserve  the  cultiva- 
tors from  descending  so  low  in  the  scale  of  social 
existence  as  those  in  the  south.  As  a  general  rule, 
it  is  found  that  the  worst  land  is  most  densely 
peopled  ;  the  secondary  descriptions  are  in  moderate- 
sized  farms;  while  the  best  land  has  hitherto  been 
devoted  to  pasture,  for  which  the  climate  is  admir- 
ably suited.  The  winters  are  so  mild  in  the  south, 
that  cattle  are  often  not  stabled.  In  Young's  time, 
the  Irish  graziers  were  the  oidy  class  of  agriculturists 
that  were  possessed  of  capital.  The  exodus  which 
took  place  after  the  potato-failure,  has  relieved  the 
country  of  a  portion  of  the  redundant  population, 
but  it  is  still  too  dense  in  many  places. 

Scotlnvd  made  comparatively  little  or  no  advance 
in  A.  for  ages  previous  to  the  beginning  of  the 
18th  c.  Donaldson,  who  published  his  Hushandri/ 
Anatomised  ten  years  befoi-e  the  L'nion,  affords 
a  pretty  accurate  picture  of  the  art  as  then  prac- 
tised. The  farms  were  small,  and  divided  into 
outfield  and  infield  land.  On  the  former,  which  was 
furthest  from  the  homestead,  the  rotation  consisted 
of  two  years  in  grass,  succeeded  by  two  years  in  oats. 
On  the  infield  land,  barley,  oats,  and  pease  were 
sown  in  succession,  and  the  whole  manure  was  com- 
monly apj)licd  to  the  barley-crop.  The  yield  of  corn 
was  from  three  to  four  times  the  quantity  of  seed. 
Pastures  were  of  the  poorest  description,  as  no  artifi- 
cial grasses  were  sown.  Little  encouragement  was 
held  out  to  rear  cattle,  for  a  heifer  did  not  bring 
more  than  twenty  shillings  in  the  market — scarcely 
the  price  of  two  quarters  of  barley  at  that  time.  At 
the  Union,  however,  Scotland  gained  free  trade 
with  her  wealthier  rival,  from  which  flowed  the 
hap])iest  consequences.  Every  branch  of  industry 
shared  in  the  new  field  opened  up,  and  none  more  so 
than  A.  A  large  trade  soon  arose  in  sending  the 
lean  cattle  and  sheep  that  were  reared  on  the 
mountainous  wastes,  as  well  as  in  the  low  country, 
to  be  fattened  on  the  pastures  and  green  crops  in  the 
south.  A  great  rise  in  the  pric^es  of  stock  soon 
followed,  which  not  only  encouraged  improved 
breeds,  but  enabled  cidtivators  to  devote  a  certain 
portion  of  the  arable  lands  to  the  growth  of  artificial 
grasses  and  turnips.  Neither  of  these  were  grown  pre- 
vious to  thet-nion;  but  in  little  more  than  fifty  years 


AGRICULTURE. 


afterwnrds,  one  farmer  in  Roxburslisliirc  is  said  to 
have  had  lUO  acres  of  turnips  in  one  year.  Towards 
llie  end  of  the  century,  turnips  and  artificial  grasses 
formed  the  basis  of  unproved  A.  in  every  county. 
A  great  rise  in  the  value  of  land  took  place.  The 
war-prices  in  the  beginning  of  the  present  century 
gave  a  further  stimulus  to  the  reclamation  of  land. 
The  improvenient.s,  however,  were  not  effected 
without  a  great  revolution  in  the  state  of  the  rural 
population.  Formerly,  the  farms  were  small,  and 
often  laboured  by  the  members  of  a  single  family. 
A  consolidation  of  farms  took  place,  which  neces- 
sitated a  great  change  in  t!ie  social  condition  of 
employers  and  employed,  producing  often  painful 
contrasts.  Of  late  years,  the  eonnnercial  prosperity 
of  the  country  has  greatly  helped  to  elevate  the  rural 
population,  aiid  necessitated  improvements  in  cottage 
accommodation. 

Scottish  A.  is  distinguished  for  great  economy  in 
labour,  forming  a  contrast  in  this  respect  to  that  in 
the  chief  corn  districts   of  England.     Few  farms  are 
to  be    seen  in  the  richer   dis^tricts  without  having  a 
fixed  steam-engine  for   driving  the  barn  and   other 
machinery.     Labour-saving  machines  have  also  been 
freely  introduced.     With  soil,  climate,  and  situation, 
the  mode  of  cropping  varies  greatly  over  the  country. 
L»    the  Lothians,  the    si.x-course    shift   is  common: 
namely,  Ls/,  wheat ;  2d,  beans  or  potatoes;  Si,  wheat; 
4C/(,  turnips;  5^/*,  barley  or  wheat;  tj^/t,  grass-seeds. 
Ill  certain  situations,  the  potato-crop  has  lately  been 
BtiU  more   extensively   i)lanted,  occupying  the  place 
of  tiie  bean  or  the  turnip.     On  secondary  farms,  the 
five-course    rotation    becomes   more    common  :   l.tt, 
wheat,  or  barley  ;  2d,  grass  ;  3J.  grass  ;  4th,  oats;  5(h, 
turnips  or  potatoes.     The   larger    proportion  of  the 
surface  of  Scotland,  however,  is  devoted  to  pasture 
for  sheep  and  cattle.     The  mountainous   tracts  are 
generally  unlit  for  cultivation.     Little  else  has  been 
done  in  the  wav  of  improving  them   than  digging  a 
few  surface-drains,  and  improving  the  breeds  of  the 
stock  they  feed.     Sheep-farms  vary  in    extent  from 
1000  to  60,000  acres.    A  few  of  the  best  stock-farms 
may  summer  and  winter  a  sheep  to  the   acre,  but 
most  require  three  acres.     The  black-faced  are  rear- 
ed upon    the   most    elevated  and   exposed    ground, 
while  the  Cheviots  thrive  on  those  parts  that  are  less 
so.     No  other  food   is   usually   given  in  winter  than 
what  is  left  on  the  fields  in  autumn.    Cross-breeds  be- 
tween the  Cheviot  and  the  Leicester  are  reared  in  the 
lower  ranges,  where  a  supply  of  turnips  may  be  had 
to  give  to° the  ewes  while  suckling  their   offspring. 
When  the  sheep  are  to   be   fattened,  they  are  taken 
TO  the  arable   districts.     The  opening  of  steam-navi- 
gation, and  lately,  the  system  of  railways,  have  been 
of  infinite  benefit  to  Scottish  A.  in  getting  a  market 
for  fat   animals. 

In  Xorth  jhnerica,  the  same  crops  are  raised  as 
in  corresponding  latitudes  in  Europe.  The  winters 
in  Canada  and  the  United  States  are  much  more 
severe  than  those  of  Western  Europe,  while  the 
summers  are  quite  as  hot,  and  far  more  moist, 
«ind  hence  arise  considerable  variations  in  the 
practices  of  agriculture.  In  Canada  and  the 
northern  states,  wheat  is  the  staple  article  of  export. 
In  all  the  chief  exporting  districts,  wheat  and  rod 
clover  are  grown  as  alternate  crops.  Betwixt  lati- 
tudes 42°  and  39°,  wheat  is  often  grown  alternately 
with  maize,  after  the  land  has  been  under  pasture 
for  iiome  years.  Again,  betwixt  latitudes  39°  and 
,■5.5°,  the  climate  is  better  suited  for  maize  thau 
wheat,  which  becomes  less  productive.  The  best 
pastoral  regions  are  in  south  Ohio,  and  through- 
out Kentucky.  Below  latitude  35°,  maize  is  much 
less  productive,  and  the  climate  becomes  suitable 
for  cotton.  This  plant  furnishes  the  staple  article 
of  production    from    latitude    35°,  to   the    shores 


of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Rice  is  the  most  profit- 
able crop  in  the  southern  states ;  but  its  culture 
is  chiefly  confined  to  the  tidal  swamps,  which  caii 
be  flooded  by  fresh  water.  The  sugar-cane  is 
Hmited  to  the  rich  alluvial  lands  on  the  banks 
of  the  Mississippi  as  far  nortn  as  latitude  31°. 
Tobacco  is  a  principal  crop  in  Virginia  and  some 
other  states.  The  West  India  Islands,  surrounded 
by  the  warm  waters  of  the  gulf,  are  free  from  the 
cold  north  winds  of  the  American  continent.  Thm 
circumstance  favours  the  growth  of  the  cane,  which 
is  so  susceptible  of  injury  from  frosts.  The  rich 
lands  of  these  islands  produce  large  crops  of  sugar. 
Coffee  is  also  grown  to  a  considerable  extent  on 
several  of  the  Antilles.  On  the  Pacific  coast,  the 
climate  is  characterised  by  mild  winters  and  dry 
summers,  so  that  the  methods  of  agriculture  must 
conform  to  those  of  the  countries  bordering  on  the 
Mediterranean. 

The  soil  of  South  America  appears  to  be  much 
more  fertile  than  tliat  of  North  America.  In  the 
southern  parts,  the  winters  are  comparatively  mild, 
when  contrasted  with  those  on  the  same  latitudes  in 
the  British  possessions.  The  valley  of  the  Rio  de  la 
Plata  is  admirably  suited  for  rearing  sheep  and 
cattle,  which  are  found  in  immense  herds  in  the 
interior.  Brazil  is  densely  wooded,  shewing^  the 
abundance  of  the  rains,  and  the  capabilities  of  the 
country  for  the  growth  of  the  sugar-cane.  In  the 
north,  where  the  dry  seasons  are  of  longer  duration, 
there  are  immense"  grassy  plains  called  savannahs, 
covered  with  herds  of  wild-cattle.  Though  no  cat- 
tle were  found  on  the  continent  when  discovered  by 
Europeans,  it  has  been  asserted  that  more  cattle 
are  now  running  wild  in  South  America  than  the 
whole  domesticated  cattle  of  Europe. 

China  possesses  a  climate  having  a  great  suni- 
larity  to  that  of  the  United  States,  east  of  the 
Rockv  Mountains.  The  winters  are  cold,  and  the 
summers  moist  and  hot.  Rice  forms^  the  great 
staple  crop  in  the  warmer  regions  of  the  south, 
wherever  the  land  can  be  irrigated.  This  plant  is 
also  cultivated  to  a  limited  extent  on  dry  lands, 
j  along  with  millet  and  maize.  The  density  of  the 
I  population  in  China,  is  an  indication  of  the  advanced 
state  of  its  A.  The  careful  manner  in  which  all  the 
refuse  of  the  towns  and  villages  is  husbanded  and 
applied  to  the  land,  while  weeds  are  not  suffered 
to  grow  among  the  crops,  is  the  true  secret  of  the 
productive  A.  of  the  Chinese. 

The  condition  of  A.  in  China  shews  what  we 
might  expect  from  enhghtened  policy  in  the  promo- 
tion of  that  of  India.  The  monsoons  which  prevail 
over  Hindustan  during  summer  cause  a  great  luxuri- 
ance of  vegetation  wiiile  they  last;  but  the  extreme 
droughts  that  precede  and  follow  them  parch  and 
wither  up  the  shallower-rooted  plants.  Over  a  large 
part  of  India,  irrigation  is  re(iuircd  to  produce  many 
of  the  crops  with  certainty.  In  the  tropical  latitudes, 
rice  is  the  most  abundant  grain-yielding  plant,  and 
furnis  the  chief  food  of  the  people.  The  numerous 
rivers  of  Northern  India  supply  the  means  of  irriga- 
tion, and  the  production  of  food  then  becomes  a 
matter  of  comparative  certainty.  Where  the  winters 
are  cool,  wheat  and  barley  arc  grown  at  that  season, 
and  rice,  maize,  millet,  &c.,  in  summer,  just  as  we 
find  in  the  irrigated  valleys  of  the  south  of  Spain. 
At  the  present  time,  the  principal  drawbacks  to  the 
better  cultivation  of  land  are  the  deficiency  in  the 
means  of  transporting  the  produce,  and  the  tenure 
by  which  the  land  is  held.  The  immense  quantities 
of  cotton  and  flax  which  are  grown  and  literally  lost 
for  want  of  a  market,  is  a  subject  that  is  beginning 
to  attract  attention,  since  our  manufacturers  are 
suffering  from  the  scarcity  of  raw  material. 

It  would  be  out  of  place  to  give  an  outline  of  the 

85 


AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY— AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATIOX. 


A.  of  the  other  intertropical  countries  ol' the  world, 
which  have  contributed  ho  little  to  the  common 
civilisation  of  mankind.  Wiiore  rains  arc  abundant, 
the  ease  witli  whith  a  subsistence  can  be  got  from 
large  herbaceous  plants,  and  trees  yielding  fruit  at 
all  seasons  of  the  year,  has  been  justly  regarded 
as  inimical  to  the  progress  of  society.  The  jiro- 
ductiveness  of  the  banana  and  tiie  bread-fruit 
tree,  considering  the  small  amount  of  cultivation 
they  require,  is  calculated  to  strike  natives  of 
colder  climates  witii  astonisliniciit.  Captain  Cooli 
eloquently  remarks  :  '  AVhoever  has  planted  the  bread- 
fruit trees  has  fulfilled  his  duty  to  his  own  and 
Micceeding  generations  as  comi)]etely  and  amply  as 
an  inhabitant  of  our  rude  clime  who,  throughout 
l)is  whole  life,  has  ploughed  during  the  rigour  of 
winter,  reaped  in  the  heat  of  summer,  and  not  only 
provided  his  present  household  wiih  bread,  but  i)ain- 
iully  saved  some  money  i'or  his  children.' 

In  the  southern  hemisphere,  the  extent  of  sea 
greatly  predominates  over  the  land.  Tlie  vapours 
which  are  raided  over  so  vast  an  expanse  of  water 
flow  towards  the  equator,  and  are  cliiefly  deposited 
there  in  copious  rains.  Tliey  are  not  diveited  l)y 
the  peninsulas  of  South  America,  Soutli  Africa,  or 
New  Holland,  as  they  are  by  tlic  continents  of 
America  and  Asia.  Comparatively  sterile  regions 
are  the  result.  Australia  and  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  are  sparingly  supplied  with  rains,  so  tiiat  their 
soil  is  not  very  productive  of  grai.i.  Cultivation 
languishes,  and  tlie  agriculturist  devotes  his  attention 
to  the  rearing  of  cattle  and  sheep.  New  Ze;il;ind, 
however,  possesses  a  climate  having  considerable  re- 
semblance to  that  of  England,  and  is  iavourable  for 
the  production  of  grass  and  grain. 

Under  the  heads  of  Cultivated  Tlants,  Dairy, 
Domestic  Animals,  Drainage,  Irrigation,  Implc- 
nionts.  Manures,  Soil,  Rotation  of  Crops,  Lease,  &:c., 
will  be  more  particularly  treated  the  systems  and 
rationale  of  farm-management  pursued  in  the  Lritish 
Islands. 

AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY,  that  branch  of 
chemical  science  which  treats  of  the  comiiosilion 
of  soils  and  manures,  and  of  the  vegetable  and 
animal  substances  wliich  it  is  the  object  of  agricul- 
ture to  produce.  Instead  of  consideiing  the  subject 
by  itself,  it  will  receive  attention  under  the  heads  of 
Drainage,  Irrigation,  Manures,  Soils,  kc. 

AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION",  as  at  present 
understood,  is  a  compreliensive  term,  including  in- 
struction in  chemistry,  geology,  botany,  zoology, 
mechanics — embracing,  in  short,  the  science  as  well 
as  the  practice  of  agriculture.  However  important 
the  branching  off  of  education  into  this  special 
track,  it  is  only  of  late  years  that  adequate  attention 
has  been  paid  to  it.  The  iirst  agricultural  school 
was  foimded  by  Fcllcnborg  at  Hofwyl,  in  Switzer- 
land, in  180G.  His  pupils  were  taken  from  the 
poorest  class  of  peasantry,  of  whom  lie  truly  ob- 
served, that  having  '  no  other  property  than  their 
])hysical  and  mental  faculties,  they  should  be  taught 
liow  to  use  this  capital  to  the  best  advantage,'  by 
a  combination  of  '  discipline,  study,  and  numual 
labour.'  Ko  fewer  than  o(MM)  pupils  were  trained  in 
this  school,  which  flourished  for  thirty  years  under 
the  able  direction  of  Wehrli.  Since  then,  various 
institutions  of  the  same  character  have  sprung  up 
on  the  continent.  In  France,  there  are  several, 
supported  by  the  state — the  principal  being  the  one 
at  Grignon,  to  which  an  old  royal  palace  with  its 
domain  of  1185  acres  has  been  given  u.p.  In  Prussia, 
there  is  scarcely  a  province  that  does  not  boast  its 
agricultural  school  and  model  farm  ;  and,  indeed, 
throughout  Germany,  as  well  as  in  Russia,  we  find 
educational  institutions  supported  by  the  state,  in 
86 


all  of  whicli,  with  some  slight  difference  of  drt:  il, 
agriculture  is  practically  as  well  as  theoretically 
taught. 

In  England,  there  are  as  yet  no  state  institutions 
of  this  kind.  In  1845,  an  agricultural  College  was 
establislicd  by  private  enteri)iise,  at  Cirencester,  for 
the  education  of  both  resident  and  i;on-re.-idcr.t 
pupils — the  former  paying  from  £'o5  to  £80  piT 
annum,  tlie  latt'  r,  .£4(i,  and  the  course  of  instruction 
extending  over  two  years.  A  large  farm  is  attached 
to  the  school,  which  has  acquired  a  high  rcput;i- 
lion,  and  is  in  every  way  prospcious.  In  Scotland, 
S|)ecial  instruction  in  agriculture  has  taken  the  form 
of  lectures  at  universities,  provincial  associations, 
&c.,  by  which,  as  well  as  by  the  labours  of  the  High- 
land Society,  much  valuable  educational  knowledge 
has  been  disseminated.  Private  agricultural  instruc- 
tion is  also  given  liy  farmers,  who  l)oard  and  educate 
students  for  a  stipulated  sum  per  annum.  M;.ny  of 
the  counties  in  Scotland  are  exceedingly  well 
adapted  for  agricultural  students,  as  the  nature  of 
the  ground  permits  of  both  sheep  and  ordinary 
farming  being  practised  together. 

Hut  it  is  in  Ireland,  wheie  peculiar  circumstances 
rendered  it  eminently  expedient,  that  the  n;ost  syste- 
matic and  successful  cfl'orts  have  been  made.  For 
several  years  past,  the  Commissioners  of  National 
Education  have  judiciously  jtaid  special  attention  to 
agriculture.  Altogether,  Ireland  has  1G(5  farm- 
schools,  with  land  attached  of  very  various  extent, 
)-anging  from  fiom  2  to  18()  acres.  These  schools  n^ay 
be  divided  into  i'our  classes,  and  ]iresent  a  gradual 
ascent,  from  small  to  great:  Isf,  Tliere  are  70 
Workhouse  National  Agiicultural  Schoo's.  '2c/,  48 
Ordinary  National  Agricultural  Schools,  where,  by  a 
slight  addition  to  the  ordinary  salary  of  a  national 
sclioolmaster,  the  teachers  arc  encouraged  to  culti- 
vate school-gardens  and  small  holdings,  and  thus  to 
give  daily  practical  lessons  to  tlic  children  under 
their  care.  ?.</,  There  are  37  Model  Agricultural 
Schools  in  various  parts  of  Ireland;  18  of  them 
under  local  management,  19  under  the  exclusive 
management  of  thie  Hoard.  These,  whether  tl;eir 
scale  of  culture  be  small  or  extensive,  present  to 
the  inferior  schools  standards  of  excellence  ai-.d 
imitation,  linking  the  lowest  of  the  agiicultural 
establishments — namelv,  the  cotter  firm  attach.ed  to 
the  Ordinary  Agricultural  School  with,  4///,  tlie 
highest  establishment  of  the  kind,  the  Central  Modil 
Farm  at  (JIasnevin,  containing  ISO  acres,  and  culti- 
vated by  from  80  to  100  pupils,  chosen  for  their 
merit  from  all  the  minor  agricultural  schools  through- 
out Ireland.  Glasnevin  Training  Farm  was  estab- 
lished by  the  Connnissioncrs  of  National  Ediics.tion 
in  1838,  and  consideralily  enlarged  in  1849.  Hetween 
January  1847, and  December  1855,  no  fewer  than  270 
young  men  left  the  Albert  Institution  at  Glasnevin, 
to  carry  out  its  principles  either  on  farms  of  their 
own,  or  in  the  still  more  responsible  post  of  land- 
stewards  or  of  teachers,  to  impart  them  to  hundreds. 
T'he  Temjdemoyle  Agricultural  Seminary,  established 
in  the  county  of  Ix)ndonderry  40  years  ago,  and 
placed,  within  the  last  15  years,  in  connection  with 
the  national  system  of  education,  is  also  worthy  of 
special  notice  as  having  sent  forth  fully  1000  well- 
trained  agriculturists.  The  cause  of  agricidtural 
education  and  instruction  in  the  mechanic  arts  has 
claimed  the  earnest  attention  of  many  enlightened 
minds  in  the  United  States,  and  has  at  length  re- 
ceived liberal  encouragement  by  grants  of  jiublic 
lands  by  Congress.  In  1862  an  act  was  passed  jire- 
senting  to  each  State  which  may  provide  colleges  for 
the  benefit  of  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts 
30,000  acres  of  the  public  domain  for  each  senator 
and  representative  in  Congress,  to  be  ap]ilicd  exclu- 
sivelv  to  education.     In  18G9  there  were  in  the  United 


AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETIES. 


States  13  agricultural  collcf^es  and  scientific  schools 
in  wliich  the  princii)les  of  tliat  art  were  tauj;ht.  The 
oldest  of  tliese  is  "  the  State  A.  C.  of  Michigan," 
which  was  estahlishcd  in  1855,  and  opened  at  Lan- 
sing in  1857.  It  is  a  jirospei-ous  and  useful  institu- 
tion, with  8:2  students,  GO  of  whom  are  sons  of  fanners. 
"  Three  hours  of  each  day  shall  be  devoted  hy  every 
student  of  the  College  to  labour  upon  tlie  farm,  anil  no 
person  shall  be  exempt  except  for  physical  debility," 
ai"e  the  terms  of  the  organic  law  of  the  College.  The 
officers  personally  superinteuil  the  work,  and  illustrate 
in  the  garden  or  the  field  the  principles  learned  from 
the  books.  The  trustees  regard  the  laliour  system  as 
successful.  The  regular  course  extends  through  four 
years,  antl  embraces  a  wide  range  of  study  and  en- 
quiry well  adapted  to  promote  the  ends  in  view.  It 
is  governed  by  a  Board  of  Agriculture,  and  affords 
thorough  instruction  in  agriculture  and  the  natural 
sciences  connected  therewith.  "  The  Fanners'  High 
School  of  Pennsylvania"  was  opened  in  Centre  County 
in  February  1859.  In  1862  it  took  the  name  of  "  The 
A.  C.  of  Pennsylvania"  and  for  a  time  was  prosper- 
ous, but  the  error  of  overbuilding  and  the  loss  of  its 
lamented  ])rincipal,  Dr.  Evan  Pugh,  have  greatly  em- 
barrassed its  operations.  It  is,  however,  again  in  a 
position  to  effect  the  object  of  its  establishment,  hav- 
ing recently  been  re-organized  under  the  presidency 
of  Thomas  H.  Burrowes.  In  1858,  the  State  of  Iowa 
provitled  for  an  A.  C.  "  in  which  labour  and  study 
should  be  jdaced  in  their  true  position,  and  taught  to 
walk  together,"  and  free  instruction  afforded  to  her 
citizens.  In  1853,  the  Massachusetts  A.  C.  was 
chai'tered  by  the  State,  and  in  1864  located  at  Am- 
herst in  the  valley  of  the  Connecticut.  It  was  opened 
in  1867,  has  been  fully  patronised,  and  is  generally 
conceded  to  have  been  remarkably  successful.  There 
are  no  free  scholarships.  The  nundier  of  students  is  96. 
The  Kansas  State  A.  C.  was  ojiened  in  1 863.  The  num- 
ber of  students  in  1868  was  158,  71  of  whom  were  ladies. 
In  adilition  to  the  above-named  State  agricultui'al 
colleges  may  be  named  sundry  universities  and  col- 
leges that  have  established  scientific  schools  in  which 
the  principles  of  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts 
are  taught.  In  the  State  of  New  York,  the  Cornell 
University  at  Ithaca ;  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School 
of  Yale  College,  New  Haven,  Conn. ;  the  Rutgers 
Scientilic  School  of  Rutgers  College,  New  Bruns- 
Anck,  N.  J. ;  Rhode  Island  has  de\'oted  a  branch  of 
Brown  University  to  this  object,  Wisconsin  in  the 
university  of  the  State  ;  and  Maine,  New  Hampshire, 
Minnesota  and  Illinois  have  opened  or  are  organiz- 
ing collrges  of  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts,  to 
be  aided  or  sustained  by  ])roceeds  of  the  United  States 
land  grants.  See  Ayrlcnltaral  Collqjes,  by  II.  F. 
French,  in  Rep.  of  the  Com.  of  Agr.,  1865,  and  Our 
Industrial  Colleges,  Rep.  of  Com.  of  Agr.,  1868. 

AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETIES,  associations  for 
the  purpose  of  iiroinoting  the  science  and  practice 
of  agriculture.  Such  societies  were  established  in 
the  north  of  Italy  in  the  beginning  of  the  last  cen- 
tury. As  early  as  It'iS,  a  'Society  of  Improvers  in 
the  Knowledge  of  Agriculture  in  Scotland '  was 
instituted.  This  had  a  short  existence ;  but  the 
necessity  of  such  an  association  was  felt,  and  another 
arose  in  1755.  This  also  did  not  succeed  well; 
however,  in  1783  a  number  of  gentlemen  met  in 
Edinburgh  and  founded  one  destined  ior  pernuuiency, 
the  well-known  '  Highland  Society.'  The  first  annual' 
meeting  of  this  body  was  held  in  1784,  and  it  was 
incorporated  by  royal  charter  in  17S7.  Originally 
designed  for  tlie  general  improvement  of  the  High- 
lands, it  gradually  extended  the  sphere  of  its  oper- 
ations over  the  whole  of  Scotland,  and  confined 
its  elForts  more  and  more  to  the  advancement  of 
agriculture.  Its  title  is  now  the  'Highland  and 
Agricultural  Society  of  Scotland.'     Its  carhest  efforts 


were  aided  by  a  grant  of  £"000  out  of  the  moneys 
paid  for  the  estates  of  the  noblemen  and  gentle- 
men who  were  attainted  in  consequence  of  their 
accession  to  the  rebellion  of  17-15.  The  funds 
required  to  defray  the  expenses  of  the  charter,  how- 
ever, were  raised  by  subscription,  and  the  members 
then  were  only  about  150.  In  1799  the  Socie'y 
bei;an  to  publish  its  Transactions  or  prize  essays. 
At  present  (1859)  its  meniliers  number  nearly  37(iO. 
The  ordinary  sid)>cription  is  £1,  3.f.  fx/.  annually, 
which  may  be  redeemed  by  one  payment  of  £1'J,  \'1». 
Tenant  farmers  are  admitted  on  a  subscription  of  10s. 
annually,  or  £5,  5s.  for  life.  The  more  important 
objects  aimed  at  by  the  Society  are — 

1.  Agricultural  meetings,  and  general  shows  of 
stock,  iuiiilenients,  and  dairy  produce,  held  in  the 
principal  towns  of  Scotland. 

'J.  Encouraging  a  system  of  district  shows,  for  the 
improvement  of  breeds  of  stock  most  suitable  to  the 
different  parts  of  the  country. 

3.  The  eucouragement  and  promotion  of  a  proper 
system  of  agricultural  education,  by  means  of  jjowers 
confened  by  a  supplementary  loyal  charter,  aiulior- 
i  ing  'the  Council  of  the  Higldaud  and  A.  Society  on 
Education  '  to  prescribe  a  curriculum  of  study,  and  to 
grant  dii)lomas  to  students  of  agriculture  who  shall 
pass  the  requisite  examination. 

4.  The  advancement  of  the  veterinary  art,  by  con- 
ferring the  Society's  diploma  on  students  who  have 
passed  through  a  regulated  curriculum  in  the  Edin- 
burgh Veterinary  College,  and  who  are  found  by  a 
rigid  examination  qualified  to  practise.  A  second 
college,  started  by  51  r.  Gaingec,  has  been  sanctioned 
by  the  Highland  Society. 

5.  The  appointment  of  a  chemist  for  the  purjiose 
of  analysing  soils,  manures,  &;cr,  to  members,  and  for 
promoting  the  application  of  science  to  agriculture. 

C.  The  establishment  of  an  agricultural  Museum, 
illustrative  of  the  vegetable  products  of  the  country. 

1.  Monthly  meetings  during  the  winter  session  for 
the  discussion  of  agricultural  subjects. 

8.  The  p(  riodical  publication  of  reports  and  prize- 
essays  on  all  branches  of  agriculture  and  arboricul- 
ture, as  well  as  the  proccednigs  of  the  laboratory. 

The  general  shows  of  stock,  &c.,  arc  held  once 
every  year,  at  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  Aberdi^en,  or 
some  other  principal  town,  and  are  attended  by  vast 
numbers  of  persons.  The  business  of  the  Society  is 
conducted  by  a  secretary  at  an  office  in  Ediuburgli. 

The  writings  of  Arthur  Young  directed  attention 
to  the  agricultural  condition  of  England,  shortly 
after  the  middle  of  the  last  century.  In  1793  the 
'  Board  of  Agriculture'  was  incorporated  with  Sir 
John  Sinclair  at  its  head,  and  being  supported  by 
p:ir;i;\nientary  grants,  it  so  far  partook  of  the  natm-o 
of  a  public  institution.  Its  'surveys'  of  the  dilVerent 
counties  collected  and  diffused  an  immense  amount 
of  information  of  the  most  valuable  kind.  It  lat- 
terly encouraged  experiuients  and  improvements  of 
all  kinds  in  agriculture,  but  was  dissolved  in  1816. 
Various  societies  have  sprung  up  since  then  in 
dilferent  parts  of  England  ;  of  these  the  '  Smitl'.field 
Cattle  Club,'  'The'  Bath  and  West  of  England 
Sociitv,'  and  the  'Yorkshire  A.  Society,'  nniy  be 
mentioned  as  the  most  influential.  The  growth  and 
vigour  of  the  national  society,  'The  Royal  A. 
Society  of  England,'  has  been  beyond  all  precedent. 
It  was  established  in  May,  183S,  and  then  consisted 
of  46()  members,  but  in  1858  the  members  amounted 
to  upwards  of  10,000.  The  objects  which  it  pursues 
are  almost  identical  with  those  of  the  Iligldand 
and  A.  Society  of  Scotland.  Ordinary  members 
pay  £1  annually,  or  £10  for  life.  The  Journal, 
containing  interesting  and  original  reports  on  A. 
subjects  is  sent  free  to  all  the  members.  Ireland 
also  boasts  of  its  '  Royal  A.  Improvement  Society.' 

87 


AGRIGENTUM— AGRIPPA. 


It  was  formed  in  J  844,  and  has  greatly  assisted 
in  advancing  the  agriculture  of  the  country,  espe- 
cially by  introducing  improved  breeds  of  cattle. — 
Most  of  the  countries  of  continental  Europe  have 
followed  the  example  of  Great  Britain  in  the  forma- 
tion of  A.  Associations  of  various  kinds. 

In  1785,  the  first  A.  S.  formed  in  America  was 
organized  at  Philadelphia  by  professional  gentlemen, 
merchants  and  a  few  owners  of  farms.  Similar  as- 
sociations were  early  formed  at  Charleston,  S.  C, 
New  York  and  Boston,  lliough  at  first  ridiculed 
by  practical  farmers,  the}'  have  proved  of  great 
utility,  and  have  aided  in  elevating  the  standard  of 
the  art  by  widening  the  mental  horizon  of  its  prac- 
titioners. In  1806,  an  A.  S.  was  organized  at  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  and  in  1809,  the  Columliian  A.  S.  was 
formed  at  Georgetown,  D.  C,  and  exhibitions  held 
annually  until  it  was  dissolved  by  the  war  of  1812. 
The  National  Pomological  Society  was  instituted  in 
1848,  and  lias  proved  of  great  utility.  In  June  1852, 
the  United  States  A.  S.  was  organized  and  incor- 
porated in  1860  by  Congress.  The  association  was 
of  a  higher  grade  than  many  of  the  State  and  County 
A.  S.  that  have  since  abounded,  whicli  have  often 
expended  their  energies  in  exhibitions  of  over-fatted 
cattle  and  the  monstrosities  of  the  field  and  garden. 
In  1862,  the  Government  acceded  to  the  wishes  of 
leading  statesmen  and  intelligent  agriculturists,  and 
established  the  Department  of  Agriculture.  Eiglit  vol- 
umes of  Annual  Ileports  liave  been  issued.  Eor  a  his- 
tory of  the  Agriculture  of  the  United  States,  by  B. 
P.  Poore,  see  Rep.  of  Conmi.  of  A.,  1866,  and  for  a 
Catalogue  of  A.  and  Hort.  S.  in  the  United  States  in 
1867,  see  Rep.  of  Comm.  of  A.  for  that  year. 

AGRIGENTUM  (Gr.  Akragas),  the  modern 
Girgciiti,  a  town  on  the  south  coast  of  Sicilv,  in 
lat.  37°  17'  N.,  and  long.  13°  28'  E.,  founded  by 
a  colony  from  Gela  (o82  B.C.)  and,  in  the  earlier 
ages,  one  of  the  most  important  places  in  the 
island.  In  its  palmy  days,  it  is  said  to  have 
contained  200,000  inhabitants.  After  being  at  first 
free,  and  then  subject  to  tyrants,  it  was  demolished 
by  the  Carthaginians  (405  B.C.);  but  very  soon  rose 
again.  In  the  course  of  the  Punic  wars,  it  was 
compelled  to  submit  to  the  Romans.  From  825  to 
1086  A.D.,  it  was  in  the  possession  of  the  Saracens, 
from  whom  it  was  conquered  by  Count  Roger 
Guiscard.  The  modern  city  contains  about  15, not) 
inhabitants,  and  exhibits  numeious  and  splendid 
ruins,  which,  glittering  in  the  brilliant  light  of  a 
soutliern  sky,  afford  inexhaustible  materials  for 
pictorial  representation.  Among  the  best  preserved 
of  these  remains  of  antiquity  is  the  Temple  of  Concord, 
of  which  only  the  roof  and  part  of  the  front  are 
wanting.  The  most  extensive  of  the  temples  was 
that  of  Jupiter,  340  feet  long,  120  feet  high,  and 
160  feet  wide,  which,  at  the  time  of  its  destruction, 
appears  not  to  have  been  finished.  Only  the  base- 
ment and  some  fragments  remain.  Considerable 
ruins  of  the  temples  of  Juno  Lucina,  of  Hercules, 
and  .Esculapius,  are  still  found.  The  trade  of  the 
modern  city  is  inconsiderable.  Some  corn,  fruit,  oil, 
&c.,  is  exported,  but  the  harbour  is  little  frequented. 

A'GRIMOXY  (A(f7'imonia),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natnr A  order  Jiosacece  {q.v.),suh-ordeT  Potentillece. 
The  calyx  is  five-cleft,  without  bracts  ;  the  hardened 
tube  at  length  invests  two  carpels,  and  is  covered 
with  hooked  bristles. — The  Common  Agrimony  (^. 
Eupatoria)  is  a  native  of  Britain  and  other  parts  of 
Europe,  growing  in  borders  of  fields,  on  waysides, 
&c.  It  has  an  upright  habit,  attains  a  height  of 
two  feet  or  more,  and  has  interruptedly  pinnate 
leaves,  with  the  leaflets  serrate  and  downy  beneath. 
The  flowers  are  small  and  yellow,  in  close  racemes. 
The  whole  plant  has  a  pleasant,  shghtly  aromatic 
88 


smell,  and  is  bitter  and  styptic.  A  decoction  of  it 
is  used  as  a  gargle  ;  the  dried  leaves  form  a  kind 
of  herb  tea  ;  and  the  root  has  some  celebrity  us  a 


Common  Agrimony. 

vermifuge. — Very  similar  to  this  is  A.  siiaveolens,  a 
native  of  Virginia,  Carolina,  kc.  It  has  a  very 
agreeable  fragrance. 

AGRI'PPA,  Henry  Cornelius,  a  remarkable 
character  of  the  10th  c,  distinguished  as  writer, 
philosopher,  and  physician,  wlio  united  great  ability 
and  extensive  ac(|uirenients  with  quackery,  was 
born  of  a  noble  family  at  Cologne,  1486.  He  led  an 
adventurous  and  unsettled  life,  quite  in  the  spirit 
of  his  times.  As  early  as  1509,  he  was  appointed 
teacher  of  theology  at  Dole,  in  Eranche  Comte,  and 
attracted  great  attention  by  his  lectures ;  but 
having  by  his  bitter  satires  on  the  monks  drawn 
upon  himself  the  hatred  of  that  body,  he  was  a<;cused 
of  heresy,  and  obliged  to  leave  Dole.  He  next 
taught  theology  for  some  time  in  Cologne,  occupying 
himself  at  the  same  time  with  alchemy,  and  then 
went  to  Italy,  where  he  took  military  service  under 
Maximilian  L,  and  was  knighted.  He  was  after- 
wards made  Doctor  of  Laws  and  of  Medicine,  and 
gave  lectures  at  Pavia,  until,  burdened  with  debt, 
he  fled  to  Casale.  After  a  time,  he  was  appointed 
Syndic  of  Metz;  but  in  1520,  he  was  again  in 
Cologne,  having  excited  the  hostility  of  the  inquisi- 
tion and  of  the  monks  by  his  defence  of  a  witch. 
His  old  enemies,  the  monks,  persecuted  liim  still  in 
Cologne,  so  that  he  went  to  Freiburg  in  Switzerland, 
where  he  began  to  practise  as  a  physician.  In  1524, 
he  went  again  to  Metz,  and  there  he  gained  such  a 
reputation  that  the  mother  of  Francis  I.  chose  him 
as  her  physician.  As  he  decHned  to  prophesy  the 
issue  of  the  campaign  that  Francis  I.  undertook  in 
1525  in  Italy,  he  lost  his  post,  and  went  to  Holland. 
Here  he  wrote  his  celebrated  book,  De  hicertitvdine 
et  Va7iitate  Scierdifirum  {Colog.  1527),  a  biting  satire 
on  the  sciences  as  they  then  existed.  An  accusation 
against  him  having  been  brought  before  Charles  V., 
on  account  of  this  book,  he  again  became  a  fugitive, 
and  repaired  to  Lyon.  He  there  found  the  hatred 
he  had  early  excited  in  France  not  yet  extinguished, 
and  was  imprisoned  ;  but  being  liberated,  through 
the  exertions  of  his  friends,  he  retired  to  Grenoble, 
where  he  died  (1535).  A.  was  a  clear-headed  man, 
and  had  the  merit  of  successfully  combating  many 
of  the  prejudices  of  his  age.  His  book,  De  Occulta 
Philosophia,  which  contains  the  most  systematic 
account  of  the  Cabbala  (q.  v.),  stands  in  direct  con- 
tradiction with  the  work  above  mentioned.  The 
most  complete  collection  of  his  writings  appeared  at 
Lyon,  in  two  vols,  without  date  (about  155m). 

AGRIPPA,   Herop.,   I.,  son  of    Aristobulus  and 


AGRIPPA— AGUADO. 


Berenice,  and  grandson  of  Herod  the  Great,  was 
educated  at  Rome.  He  lived  there  in  a  very  extra- 
vagant style,  giving  splendid  entertainments,  espe- 
cially to  the  princes  of  the  imperial  family,  and 
Bcattering  his  money  lavishly  in  gifts  to  the  freedmen 
of  the  enTperor,  until  his  debts  rendered  it  unsafe  for 
him  to  remain  longer  in  the  city.  He  then  took 
refuse  in  Idumca.  From  this  period  almost  to  the 
death  of  Tiherius,  he  suffered  a  variety  of  misfor- 
tunes, but  having  formed  a  friendship  with  Caligula, 
the  latter,  on  his  accession  to  the  throne,  gave  him 
the  tetrarchiesof  Abilene,  Hataniea,  Trachonitis,  and 
Auranitis.  After  the  baiiijlunent  of  Herod  Anlipas, 
he  received  his  tetrarchy  also — namely,  Galilee  and 
Perea.  Claudius,  whom  A.  helped  to  secure  the 
possession  of  the  empire,  added  to  his  dominions 
Judaja  and  Samaria,  and  he  was  thus  the  ruler  of  a 
more  extensive  territory  than  even  Herod  the  Great 
had  been.  His  government  was  mild  towards  the 
Jews,  with  whom  he  was  remarkably  popular;  but 
he  severely  persecuted  the  Christians.  He  caused 
James,  the  brother  of  John,  and  the  head  of  the 
Church  at  Jerusalem,  to  be  beheaded,  and  Peter  to 
be  thrown  into  prison.  He  died  of  a  peculiarly 
loathsome  disease  at  Cfesarca,  in  Palestine,  while 
celebrating  games  in  honour  of  the  emperor,  in  the 
5oth  vear  of  his  age,  and  the  44th  of  the  Christian 
era.  The  account"  given  of  this  in  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles,  substantially  agrees  with  that  of 
Josephus. 

AGRIPPA,  Hkrod  II.,  son  of  Agrippa  I.,  was 
at  Rome  when  his  fither  died,  and  only  17  years  of 
age.  Claudius,  therefore,  resolved  to  detain  him  for 
some  time,  and  in  the  meanwhile  rc-transforincd 
the  kingdom  into  a  Roman  province,  but  presented 
him  with  the  little  tenitory  of  Chalcis,  when  his 
uncle  Herod,  who  was  its  ruler,  died.  In  53  a.d., 
he  left  Rome,  and  received  from  the  emperor  nearly 
the  whole  of  his  paternal  possessions,  which  were 
subsequently  enlarged  by  Kero.  Like  his  fatlier, 
A.  was  fond  of  tine  buildings,  a  taste  which  he 
probably  acquired  by  his  long  sojourn  at  Rome.  He 
spent  great  sums  in  adorning  Jerusalem,  Berytus, 
and  other  cities;  but  he  was  not  prudent  in  the 
distribution  of  his  favours,  or  just  in  his  treatment 
of  tiic  high-priests,  so  that  he  failed  to  secure  the 
good-will  of  the  Jews.  He  did  all  in  his  power, 
however,  to  dissuade  them  from  rebelling  against 
the  Romans;  but  when  he  found  his  advices  and 
warnings  neglected,  he  abandoned  his  countrymen, 
and  joined  the  imperial  troops.  When  Jerusakm 
was  taken,  he  went  with  his  sister  to  live  at  Rome, 
where  he  was  made  praetor,  and  where  he  died  in  the 
7i)th  year  of  his  age— the  last  of  the  Herods.  It 
was  before  him  Paul  made  his  memorable  defence. 

AGRIPPA,  Marcus  Vipsanius  (63—12  n.c.,) 
a  Roman,  who,  though  not  of  high  birth,  rose  to  an 
exalted  position  through  his  own  talents.  He  first 
epoused  xMarcella,  the  niece,  and  then  Julia,  the 
daughter  of  Octavius.  He  was  eminent  both  in  war 
and'in  peace  ;  and  as  a  general,  counsellor,  and  friend 
of  the  emperor,  did  good  service  to  him  and  to  the 
Roman  state.  As  a  general,  he  laid  the  foundation 
for  the  sole  dominion  of  Octavius,  and  commanded 
his  fleet  in  the  battle  of  Actium  (31  b.c).  He  was 
generou.s,  upright,  and  a  friend  of  the  arts;  Rome 
owed  to  him  the  restoration  and  construction  of 
several  aqueducts,  and  of  the  Pantheon,  besides 
other  public  works  of  ornament  and  utility. 

AGRIPPIXA.— I.  The  daughter  of  M.  Vipsanius 
Agrippa,  by  his  wife  Julia,  was  one  of  the  most 
heroic  and  virtuous  women  of  antiquity.  She  was 
married  to  Cajsar  Gernianicus  (see  Germanicus), 
who;n  she  accompanied  in  all  his  campaigns.  She 
ojeuly  accused  Tiberius  before  the  senate  of  having 


hired  the  murderers  of  her  husband;  and  the 
tyrant,  who  hated  her  for  her  virtues,  and  the 
esteem  in  which  she  was  held  by  the  people, 
banished  her  to  the  island  of  Pandataria,  near 
Naples,  where  she  voluntarily  died  of  hunger  (33 
A.I).).  The  antiquarian  museum  at  Dresden  posscs.se8 
four  excellent  busts  of  her.— II.  A  very  difterent 
character  was  Aguippina,  the  daughter  of  the  last 
mentioned,  one  of  the  most  detestable  women  that 
have  lived.  In  her  second  widowhood,  she  induced 
the  emperor  Claudius,  her  own  uncle,  to  n)arry  her, 
and  espou.sed  his  daughter,  though  already  be- 
trothed to  another,  to  her  son  Nero.  In  order  to 
bring  the  latter  to  the  throne,  she  ruined  many  rich 
and  noble  Romans,  excluded  Britannicus,  the  son  of 
Claudius  bv  Me.ssalina,  and  finally  poisoned  the 
emperor,  h'er  husband.  She  then  endeavoured  to 
govern  the  empire,  through  her  son  Nero,  who  was 
chosen  emperor;  but  her  ascendency  proving 
intolerable,  Nero  caused  her  to  bo  put  to  death 
(OO  A.D.).  She  enlarged  and  adorned  her  native  city, 
Cologne,  -which  received  from  her  the  name  ot 
Colonia  Aggripina. 

AGTELEK,  Cavern  of  (in  Hungarian,  Baradlo, 
i.  e.,  a  suffocating  place),  one  of  the  largest  and 
most  remarkable  stalactitic  caverns  of  Europe,  is 
situated  near  the  village  of  Agtelek,  in  the  county  of 
Gomor,  not  far  irom  the  road  iiom  Pesth  to  Kaschau. 
It  opens  at  the  foot  of  a  mountain  with  an  entrance 
scarcely  3.V  feet  high  by  5  feet  wide.  _  It  consists  of 
a  labyrinth  of  caverns  communicating  with  one 
another,  many  of  which  it  is  dillicult,  and  even 
dangerous,  to  explore,  when  the  streams  that  flow 
through  them  are  high.  Numerous  stalactitic  struc- 
tures "occur  in  all  the  caverns,  which,  from  their 
singidar  shapes,  have  given  rise  to  the  various  names 
of  °  the  Great  Church,'  'the  Mosaic  Altar,'  'the 
Image  of  the  Virgin,'  &c.  The  largest  and  most 
imposing  of  those  caverns,  situated  about  2i)i)  paces 
from  the  entrance,  is  called  the  Flower- Garden.  It 
IS  9t)  feet  high,  90  feet  wide,  and  runs  nearly  900 
feet  in  a  straight  hne. 


AGUADO,  Alkxander  Maria,  Marquis  de  Las 
Marismas  del  Guadalquiver,  one  of  the  wealthiest 
bankers  of  modern  times,  was  born  at  Seville,  1784. 
and  died  14th  April,  1842.  He  was  descended  from 
a  Jewish  family,  and  in  his  youth  bore  arms  as  a 
soldier.  During  the  Spanish  war  of  independence, 
he  fought  with  distinction  on  the  side  of  Joseph, 
rose  in  the  French  army  to  the  rank  of  colonel,  and 
acted  as  aide-de-camp  to  Marshal  Soult,  but  retired 
in  1815,  and  began  a  commission  business  at  Pans. 
In  this  he  soon  realized  such  wealth  as  enabled  hira 
to  found  a  bank.  Good-fortune,  energy,  and  bold- 
ness, with  a  singular  talent  for  concerting  schemes, 
advanced  him  in  a  short  time  to  be  one  of  the  first 
bankers  in  Paris.  He  also  obtained  a  political  repu- 
tation by  negotiating  the  Spanish  loans  of  182.3,  1828, 
1830,  and  1831.  In  these  operations,  the  Spanish  gov- 
ernment frequently  invested  him  with  unlimited 
powers,  which  ho  dexterously  employed  to  save  his 
country  from  national  bankruptcy.  I'crdinand  VII. 
conferred  on  him  the  title  of  Marquis  de  las  Marismas 
del  Guadalquiver.  His  services  were  also  recom- 
pensed bv  privileges  in  mining  and  in  executing 
public  undertakings.  All  the  Spanish  bonds  issuing 
from  his  house  received  the  name  of  Aguados.  It 
was  through  A.  that  the  Greek  loan  of  1834  was 
effected.  He  was  naturalised  in  France  in  1828,  and 
at  his  death  left  a  fortune  of  above  60  million  francs, 
of  which  he  had  invested  part  in  landed  property  ; 
the  castle  of  Chateau-Margaux,  celebrated  for  its 
wine,  belonged  to  him.  His  distinguished  collection 
of  pictures  gave  occasion  to  Gavard  for  the  pubUca- 
tion  of  the  ^Galerie  A.  (Paris,  1837—1842.). 

89 


AGUAS  CALIENTES— A-nULL. 


A(JUAS  CALIE'NTES,  a  well-built  town  in 
Mexico,  in  the  province  of  Z;icatccas.  It  is  situated 
in  N.  lat.  21°  53',  and  W.  long.  101°  45',  in  a  plain 
6000  feet  above  the  sea-level,  and  on  a  stream  of  the 
same  name,  which  is  tributary  lo  the  Rio  (Jrande  de 
Santiago.  It  contains  a  population  of  '20,()(iO;  and 
besides  the  cultivation  of  fields  and  gardens,  the 
manufacture  of  woollen  cloth  is  very  considerable, 
and  is  carried  on  on  the  factory  system.  The  town 
is  favouraljly  situated  for  trade,  as  the  great  road 
from  Mexico  to  Sonora  and  Durango  is  here  crossed 
by  that  from  San  Louis  Potosi  to  Guadalaxara.  The 
environs  abovnid  in  hot  fjprings,  from  which  the 
town  takes  its  name. 

A'GUE  {Febris  intermittenfi)  is  the  common  name 
for  an  interuiitting  fever,  accompanied  by  paroxysms 
or  fits.  Fach  fit  is  composed  of  three  stages  ;  the 
cold,  the  hot,  and  the  sweating  stage.  Before 
a  fit,  the  patient  has  a  sensation  of  debility  and  dis- 
tress about  the  epigastrium  ;  feels  weak  and  disin- 
clined for  exertion  ;  the  surface  of  his  body  becomes 
cold,  and  the  bloodless  skin  shrivels  up  into  the  con- 
dition termed  goose-skin  [cutis  anserina).  A  cold 
sensation  creeps  up  the  back,  and  sprea<ls  over  the 
body  ;  the  patient  shivers,  his  teeth  chatter,  his  knees 
knock  together  ;  his  face,  lips,  ears,  and  nails  turn 
blue ;  he  has  pains  in  his  head,  back,  and  loins. 
This  condition  is  succeeded  by  flushes  of  heat,  the 
coldness  gives  place  to  warmth,  and  the  surface 
regains  its  natural  appearance.  The  warmth  con- 
tinues to  increase,  the  face  becomes  red  and  turgid, 
the  head  aches,  the  breathing  is  deep  and  oppressed, 
the  pulse  full  and  strong.  The  third  stage  now 
comes  on ;  the  skin  becomes  soft  and  moist,  the  pulse 
resumes  its  natural  force  and  frequency,  and  a  copi- 
ous sweat  breaks  from  the  whole  body. 

These  paroxysms  recur  at  regular  intervals.  The 
interval  between  them  is  called  '  an  intermission.' 
When  they  occur  every  day,  the  patient  has  gno- 
tidinn  A. ;  every  second  day,  tertian  ;  and  when 
they  are  absent  for  two  days,  quartan.  All  ages 
are  liable  to  this  disease  ;  and  a  case  is  on"  record 
of  a  pregnant  woman  having  a  tertian  A.  which 
attacked  her  of  course  every  other  day;  but  on  the 
alteriiaro  days,  when  she  was  well,  she  felt  that  the 
child  also  had  A.,  although  the  paroxysms  did  not 
coincide  with  her  own. 

Theexcitiui.;-  cause  of  A.  appears  to  be  the  develop- 
ment within  the  human  system  of  microscopic  semi- 
nal spores  of  fungi,  which  have  grown  on  the  de- 
ca^'iTig  -s'egetable  matter  of  marshes  and  elsewhere. 
A  theory  of  the  eryj)togamous  origin  of  A.  was 
broachetl  in  1849  by  Dr.  J.  K.  Mitchell,  of  Phila- 
deljihin,  and  imrtially  confirmed  by  Prof.  J.  II.  Salis- 
bury in  the  Am.  Jour,  of  Med.  Science  in  1866.  In 
England,  A.  is  almost  exclusively  confined  to  the 
eastern  coast ;  and  tiie  extension  of  drainage  has 
renilered  agues  far  more  rare  than  before.  James 
I.  and  OIi\HT  Cromwell  died  of  A.  contracted  in 
London.  The  Pontine  Marshes  to  the  S.  of  Rome 
have  long  been  notorious  as  a  source  of  aguish  fevers. 
Peat,  bog,  or  moss,  is  not  productive  of  malaria,  as  is 
seen  in  parts  of  Ireland  and  Scotland.  Neither  is 
A.  ever  seen  among  the  inhabitants  of  the  Disnuil 
Swamp — a  moist  tract  of  15(),0.)0  acres  on  the  fron- 
tiers of  Virginia  and  North  Carolina  in  North 
Americi. — Tlie  treatment  of  aguish  fever  consists 
generally  in  calomel  given  in  purgative  doses,  followed 
by  prei)aratio!is  of  cinchona-bark,  and  in  applying, 
during  the  paroxysm,  external  warmth  to  the  body. 

AGUE'SSEAIT,  IlExni  Francois  d',  a  distinguished 
lawyer  and  chancellor  of  France,  and  pronounced 
by  Voltaire  to  have  been  the  most  learned  nnigis- 
trate  that  France  ever  possessed,  was  born  at 
Limoge,  16G3  a.d.  lie  received  his  earliest  education  I 
90 


from  his  father  ;  and  afterwards  devoted  himself  to 
the  study  of  law,  became  avocat-ffhicrnl  at  Paris  la 
1690,  and  at  the  age  of  th'ivty-tw o,  procnrciir-r/hieral 
of  the  parliament.  In  this  office  he  effected  many 
improvements  in  the  laws  ar.d  in  the  administration 
ofjustice.  He  displayed  great  benevolence  dm'ing  a 
famine  which  occurred  in  the  winter  of  1709,  ajjply- 
ing  all  the  means  in  his  power  for  the  alleviation  of 
the  calamity.  As  a  steady  defender  of  the  rights  of 
the  people,  and  of  the  (iallican  Chui'ch,  he  success- 
fully opposed  the  decrees  of  Louis  XIV.  and  the 
Chancellor  Voisin  in  favour  of  the  papal  bull  I'^ni- 
genitus  (q.  v.).  During  the  government  of  the  Duke 
of  Orleans  he  became  chancellor;  liut  in  the  follow- 
ing year  fell  into  disgrace  by  opposing  Law's  system 
of  finance,  and  retired  to  his  country-seat  at  Fresnes. 
When,  however,  the  ruin  induced  by  Law's  system 
produced  a  general  outcry  of  dissatisfaction,  A.  was 
reinstated,  in  oi-der  to  appi^ase  the  people;  but  his 
well-meant  efforts  could  not  retrieve  the  desperate 
state  of  affairs.  A.  was  afterwards  exiled  a  second 
time,  in  consequence  of  his  opposing  Cardinal  Du- 
bois; and  though  he  (in  1727)  obtained  from  Cardi- 
dal  Fleury  permission  to  return,  yet  he  did  not  again 
resume  the  office  of  chancellor  till  17:57.  He 
resigned  in  175<t,  and  died  Feb.  9,  1751.  His  works, 
consisting  of  pleadings  and  speeches  at  the  openings 
of  the  parliament,  occu|)y  thirteen  volumes  (Paris, 
1759 — 1788.     Newest  edition,  Paris,  1S19). 

AGU'LHAS,  CAPE,  (meaning  Needles),  the  most 
southern  point  of  Africa,  lies  about  Ktii  miles  E.S.E. 
of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  in  lat.  C'i-°  51'  S.,  long. 
19°  55'  E.  In  1849,  a  light-house  was  erected  on  it, 
at  an  elevation  of  52  feet  above  Iiigh-water.  The 
A.  Barik  extends  along  the  whole  southern  coast  of 
Africa.  It  is  560  miles  in  leugili,  and,  0[)posite  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  as  many  as  200  in  breadth. 

A'lIAH,  the  son  and  successor  of  Omri,  was  king 
of  Israel  from  918  to  897  r..c.  lie  married  Jezebel, 
the  daughter  of  Ethbaal,  king  of  Sidon  ;  through 
whose  injurious  influence  the  Phn-nician  worship  of 
Baal  was  introduced,  the  king  himself  seduced  to 
idolatry,  and  the  [jriests  and  prophets  of  Jehovah 
cruelly  persecuted.  Yet  the  prophets  retained  their 
influence  over  the  people  ;  and  Elijah  dared  openly 
to  attack  the  ]>riests  of  Baal,  and  reprove  the  wick- 
edness of  the  king  with  the  most  se;cre  ihreaten- 
ings  of  punishment.  A.  prosecuted  three  wars,  with 
various  success,  against  Benhadad,  king  of  Syria; 
but  in  the  last  campaign  he  was  killed  by  an  arrow. 
His  whole  i'amily  was  afterwards  extirpated  under 
King  Jeim. 

AIIASUE'RL'S  is  the  name,  or  rather,  perhaps, 
the  title,  by  which  several  kings  of  Media  and 
Persia  are  mentioned  in  Scripture.  The  best  known 
of  these  is  Esther's  husliand  (see  Esfher),  who  is 
probably  the  same  as  the  Persian  king  Xerxes  ;  the 
Hebrew  form  of  his  name  (Achaschverosch)  pointing 
to  the  old  Persian  form  of  the  name  Xerxes 
(ii^hschyai-schan). 

A-IIULL,  a  maritime  term,  used  to  denote  the 
position  of  a  ship  when  all  her  sails  are  fuiled,  and 
her  helm  lashed,  on  the  lee -side  ;  in  such  a  position, 
she  lies  nearly  with  her  side  to  the  wind,  hut  with  the 
head  turned  a  little  towards  tiie  direction  of  the  wind. 

It  may  be  convenient  to  mention  in  this  place 
that  the  phraseology  adopted  by  British  naval 
oflfieersand  seamen,  whether  belonging  to  the  royal 
navy  or  to  the  mercantile  marine,  comprises  a  large 
number  of  words  formed  on  a  principle  similar  to 
that  oi'  ohm r!,  with  the  vowel  a  (a  corruption  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  preposition  07i,  meaning  nn,  in,  at),  pre- 
fixed to  a  noun.  Such  are  the  following:  Aback, 
abaft,  aboard,  abrenxt,  a-cockbill,  adrift,  afloat,  afore, 
aground,    ahead,    a-hull,  a-lec,    ahft,    aloof    amain, 


AHMEDABAD— AIDE-TOI  ET  LE  CIEL  TAIDERA. 


aiiii.d-'fli'ps,  an-ciid,  apeak,  asliorc,  aa/ern,  atrip,  ava.tt, 
a-wealhcr,  a-wciah.  Sucli  of  these  terms  as  socin  to 
rocinire  it,  will  be  fouiKl  briefly  oxphiiiied  uiuler  their 
proi)er  lioiulings. 

AIIMEDARA'D,  or  more  properly  AIIMADA- 
BAD,  the  chief  town  in  the  district  of  the  sinne 
name,  in  the  Presi(l<'ncy  of  Bombay,  is  situated  on 
the  left  l>:ink  of  the  SaUermutty,  wliich  flows  nearly 
due  south  into  the  Gulf  of  Cambay.  It  Avas  built 
in  the  year  1412,  by  Ahmed  or  Ahmad  Shah,  and 
underwent  all  the  vicissitudes  of  government  incident 
to  the  cities  of  Hindustan,  till  the  year  181S,  when 
it  fiuallv  came  under  the  power  of  the  British.  It 
was  formerly  one  of  the  lare;est  and  most  majijid- 
ficent  capitals  in  the  East — in  the  opinion  of  a 
native  writer,  '  the  handsomest  city  in  Hindustan  ; 
perhaju  iu  the  w-orld.'  Its  architectural  relics  are 
gorfreous,  even  in  the  midst  of  decay.  The  Jumna 
or  Juma'ah  Masjid,  or  Great  Mosque,  rises  from 
the  centre  of  tlie  city,  and  is  adorned  by  two 
superbly  deeorated  niiuarets,  '  each  of  which  con- 
tains a  circul.ir  flight  of  steps,  leading  to  a  gallery 
near  the  summit.  Its  domes  arc  supported  by 
lofty  columns,  regularly  disposed  ;  the  concave  of 
these  cupolas  is  richly  oiiuunented  with  mosaic 
and  fret-worlc.  Tiie  pavement  is  of  the  finest 
m.irble.'  The  mosque  of  Sujaat  Khan  is  extrf'mely 
elegant.  There  is  likewise  an  ivory  mosqui\  which 
lias  obtained  that  name  from  the  circumstance,  that 
although  built  of  white  marble,  it;  is  '  curiously  lin-cd 
with  ivory,  and  inlaid  with  a  profusion  of  gems, 
to  imitate  natural  flowers,  bordered  by  a  silver 
foliage  oil  mother-of-pearl.'  There  are  also  the  Fire 
Temple  and  the  Tower  of  Silence  of  the  Parsis.  A. 
once  abounded  in  gardens,  aqueducts,  reservoirs, 
&c. ;  but  these,  especially  the  gaidens,  are  now  sadly 
deficed  an<l  injured.  Its  prosperity  has  been  almost 
wholly  destroyed  by  the  rapacity  of  the  Mahrattas, 
although  at  one  time  it  was  famous  for  its  manu- 
facture of  rich  fabrics  of  silk  and  cotton,  articles  of 
gold,  silver,  steel,  and  enamel.  '  It  employed  many 
artists  i;i  portrait-painting  and  miniatures,'  and  had 
extensive  trade  in  indigo,  cotton,  and  opium.  The 
old  city-walls,  built  in  1185,  which  had  in  the  course 
ofag:?s,  and  througli  the  assaults  of  enemies,  become 
very  dilapidated,  were  repaired  in  183-4  at  an  expense 
of  2.50,000  rupees,  and  water  conveyed  from  the 
river  through  the  city  by  means  of  pipes.  It  is  dis- 
tant from  Bombay  290  miles  north;  in  lat.  23°  N., 
long.  72°  30'.     Pop.  130,000. 

AHMEDXU'GGUR,  or  AHMADNrGGUR,  an 
important  town  in  the  Presidency  of  Bombay.  It 
was  founded  in  1494  by  Ahmad  Nizam  Shah. 
During  the  reign  of  his  son,  Boorhan  Nizam  Shah, 
it  reached  a  high  degree  of  prosperity,  but  after 
his  death,  it  witnessed  an  incessant  series  of  wars, 
confusion-!,  and  murders.  In  1797,  it  fell  info  the 
hands  of  the  Mahrattas;  and  in  1803  was  sur- 
Tendered,  after  a  trivial  resistance  of  two  days,  to 
General  Wellesley.  It  was,  jiowever,  shortly  after 
restored  to  tlie  Peishwa;  but  in  1817,  the  fort 
was  again  occupied  by  the  British.  The  town  has 
increased  rapidly  since  it  came  under  British  pro- 
tection ancl  rale.  It  possesses  a  most  singtilar 
defence,  in  addition  to  its  wall;  this  consists  of  an 
'immense  prickly-pear  hedge  about  20  feet  high, 
which  is  so  full  of  sap  that  no  fire  will  kindle  it,  ancl 
so  vigorous  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  force  one's 
way  tlirough  it.'  A.  contains  an  English  church,  a 
dhnrmxalah  (or  place  of  entertainment  for  travellers) 
cap  ible  of  l:olding  250  persons.  It  also  possesses  a 
good  supply  of  water  by  means  of  acjneducts.  It  is 
distant  from  Boiidjay  122  miles  east,  ia  lat.  19°  0', 
long.  7  1°  4G'.  There  are  several  places  of  the  same 
name  in  Hindustan. 


A'HRIMAN  (in  the  Zend,  auliro  7naini/-us,  i.  e., 
the  malignant,  destroying  .«pirit)  is,  according  to  the 
dua'.istic  doctrine  of  Zoroaster,  the  ])iTSOidiication 
of  malignity,  the  original  source  of  all  moral  and 
physical  evil,  the  chief  of  the  devils  and  malignant 
spirits,  the  king  of  darkne.^s  and  of  death,  and 
conse(piently  the  eternal  enemy  and  opponent  of 
Orinuzd     and    of  his    kingdom    of    liglit.     See    Zo- 

UO.\STKR. 

AI'DE-I)E-CAMP,  an  ofllcer  who  may  be  regarded 
as  a  kind  of  supeiior  confldential  attendant  upon 
a  general  in  active  service.  The  A.  is  the  organ 
of  the  general.  He  carries  all  orders  on  the  field 
of  battle :  these  he  is  to  deliver  in  the  plainest 
terms,  so  as  to  bo  distinctly  understood;  and  when 
so  iniderstood,  the  orders  are  to  be  as  iin|)licitly 
obeyed  as  if  the  general  himself  were  present  and 
speaking.  As  an  example  of  the  importance  of  this 
matter,  may  be  adduced  the  brilliant  but  disastrous 
light-cavalry  charge  at  Balaklava  in  the  autumn  of 
1854.  Lord  Raglan  sent  a  message,  partly  verbal 
and  partly  written,  to  the  E.irl  of  Lucan,  concerning 
a  particular  piece  of  strategy  at  a  certain  time  and 
place;  the  message  was  misconceived,  and  the  Earl 
of  Cardigan  was  directed  to  make  a  military  niove- 
j  ment,  perfectly  hopeless  in  its  character,  resultirig 
I  in  a  very  serious  cavalry  loss ;  although  the  inci- 
I  dent  presented  a  fine  display  of  heroism  united 
I  with  discipline.  An  A.  also  nets  as  secretary  to 
tlie  general,  and  assists  him  in  his  correspondence, 
j  He  aids  likewise  in  dispensing  the  courtesies  of  the 
general's  house  or  tent.  Generals  are  much  accus- 
tomed to  ajipoint  their  sons  or  other  relations  to  this 
confidential  post.  The  Aides-de-camp  vary  from 
one  to  four  in  number,  according  as  the  commander 
is  a  brigadier-general,  major-general,  lieutenant- 
general,  geiieral,  or  field-marshal.  Before  an  oflicer 
[  can  be  appointed  as  A.,  he  must  have  been  two 
1  years  with  his  regiment.  Aidf\s-de-camp  are  not 
I  to  lie  full  effective  officers  of  regiments;  Ijut  they 
usually  have  the  rank  of  captain.  Besides  these 
Aides-de-camp  to  generals,  the  Queen  has  the  power 
to  appoint  any  number  of  Aides-de-camp  to  herself, 
in  her  capacity  as  nominal  head  of  the  army.  There 
arc  no  particular  duties  attached  to  the  office  ;  but 
it  is  much  sought  after,  both  as  an  honour,  and  as 
conferring  on  the  holder  the  rank  of  colonel  iu  the 
army.  The  post  is  intended  as  a  reward  for  deserv- 
ing officers,  but  is  not  always  conferred  without 
favouritism.  There  is  a  limited  number  who  receive 
diily  pay  as  Aides-de-camp,  and  who  take  it  iu 
turn  to  attend  the  Queen  on  state  occasions; 
but  the  others  receive  no  direct  emolument.  In  the 
year  1858  there  were  no  fewer  than  thirty-five 
military  Aides-de-camp  to  the  Queen,  of  whom  si.x 
were  peers  of  the  realm,  and  one  a  jirince  of  a 
German  royal,  or  rather  ducal  house.  In  addition 
to  all  the  above,  there  are  naval  Aides-de-camp  to 
the  Queen,  of  whom  there  were  ten  in  the  year  1358  ; 
besides  two  belonging  to  the  Royal  Marines. 

AIDE-TOI  ET  LE  CIEL  T'AIDERA  (Help 
yow'sclf,  and  Heaven  will  help  you).  This  moral 
aphorism  was  the  cry  of  certain  French  political 
writers  to  the  middle  classes,  about  the  ye:ir  1824, 
and  became  the  Avatch-word  and  title  of  a  society, 
having  for  its  object  to  agitate  the  electoral  Iiody  in 
opposition  to  the  government.  Tliis,  however,  was 
to  be  done  by  means  stiictly  legitimate,  and  chiefly 
by  correspondence  and  political  pul)lications.  Most 
of  its  founders  and  active  members  l)elonged  to  the 
party  of  Dodrinnires  (q.  v.),  as  Gaizot,  who  was 
liresident  for  some  time,  Duchatel,  Duvergier  de 
Ilauranne,  Dubois,  Remusat,  Thiers,  Cavaignac, 
&c.  Lc  Globe  newspajier  was  tlie  organ  of  the 
association,  and   afterwards  Ze  Js^ational.     It   had 

91 


AIDIX— AINMULLER. 


a  great  share  in  bringing  about  the  revolution  of 
July  1830,  and  was  at  first  countenanced  by  the 
new  government ;  but  after  a  short  time  it  was  dis- 
B0lved(18;32). 

AIDI'N,  or  GUZEL-HISSAR,  a  town  of  Asiatic 
Turkey,  on  the  river  Meander,  in  the  pachalic  of 
Anatolia,  built  out  of  the  ruins  of  the  ancient 
Tralles,  which  was  situated  on  a  plateau  above  the 
present  town.  It  lies  sixty  miles  south-east  of 
Smyrna,  contains  6,000  houses,  and  30,000  inhabit- 
ants, is  four  miles  in  circuit,  and  carries  on  a  trade 
iiext  in  importance  to  that  of  Smyrna.  It  is  one 
of  the  termini  of  the  Smyrna  and  Aidin  railway, 
which  was  begun  in  1858,  and  the  first  line  laid 
down  in  Turkey. 

AIDS.  These  were  originally  mere  benevolences 
pfranted  by  a  tenant  to  his  lord,  in  times  of  distress ; 
but  gradually  they  catne  to  be  regarded  as  matters 
of  right,  and  not  of  discretion.  There  were  three 
principal  objects  for  which  A.  were  demanded:  Lit, 
To  ransom  the  person  of  the  lord  when  taken  pri- 
soner; 2r/,  To  make  his  eldest  son  a  knight ;  and  3(7, 
To  provide  a  suitable  portion  to  his  eldest  daughter 
on  her  marriage.  These  A.  were  abolished  by  12 
Car.  ir.  c.  24. 

Aid  of  the  King  is  where  the  king's  tenants 
pray  A.  of  the  K.  on  account  of  rent  demanded  of 
them  by  others.  In  such  cases,  the  proceedings  are 
Stopped  till  the  king's  or  queen's  counsel  are  heard 
to  say  what  they  think  fit  for  avoiding  the  king's 
prejudice. 

AI'GRETTE,  a  French  word,  used  to  denote  the 
down  or  plume  (botanic:illy,  ^ff;>;D?M)  which  is  found 
attached  to  many  vegetalile  seeds,  as  the  thistle  and 
dandelion.  It  is  also  used  in  reference  to  the  feathery 
tuft  on  the  heads  of  several  birds,  as  the  heron  ;  and 
in  English  zoology  the  name  aigret  or  egret  (q.  v.)  is 
applied  to  the  lesser  white  heron,  an  elegant  bird, 
with  a  white  body  and  a  feathery  crest.  Hence  tlie 
term  A.  came  to  be  used  to  designate  the  long  deli- 
cate wliite  feathers  which,  being  stuck  upright  in  a 
lady's  head-dress,  are  calculated  to  give  a  majestic 
appearance  to  the  person.  More  recently,  the  usage 
has  been  still  further  extended,  and  any  head-dress 
hearing  an  analogy  to  a  plume,  even  a  bouquet  of 
flowers,  fastened  with  precious  stones,  is  denominated 
an  A. 

AIGUES  MORTES  (Aqua;  Mortuie),  a  small  town 
in  France  (pop.  3,000),  in  the  department  of  Gurd, 
which  claims  to  have  been  founded  by  the  Roman 
Marius.  It  is  situated  in  an  e.\tensive  marsh, 
impregnated  with  sea-salt,  and  is  about  three  miles 
from  the  Mediterranean,  with  which  it  is  connected 
by  a  canal.  It  was  from  A.  M.  that  St.  Louis 
sailed  in  1248,  and  again  in  1270,  for  the  Crusades 
— a  proof  that  the  sea  then  reached  this  spot. 
In  l.iSS,  Francis  I.  had  an  interview  at  A.  M.  with 
Charles  V. 

AIGUl'LLE  (Fr.  a  needle),   an  instrument  often 
used  by  military  engineers,  to  pierce  a  rock  for  the 
eception  of  gunpowder,  when  any  blasting  or  blow- 
i.ng-up  is  to  be  effected. 

AIGUILLE'TTE,  a  part  of  the  decorations  of 
military  dress.  It  was  formerly  worn  on  the  right 
shoulder  by  general  officers  of  various  grades;  but 
is  now  chiefly  confined  to  officers  of  the  Life-Guards 
and  Horse-Guards.  It  is  merely  an  ornament,  com- 
posed of  gold  or  silver  cords  and  loops. 

AI'GULET,  a  rope  called  a  lashing-rope,  em- 
ployed in  ships-of-war  for  securing  the  breeching  of 
a  gun. 

AILAXTO     {Ailanthvs    pi nnduloaus) ,  a  lofty  and 
beautiful  tree,  of  the    natural  order  Xantliori/lacexc 
(see  Xantiioxvlo.s),  a  native   of    China,   but  now 
S2 


frequently  planted  to  shade  public  walks  in  tlie 
south  ot  Europe,  and  not  uncommon  in  England. 
The  styles  are  combined  at  tiie  base,  the  fruit  con- 
sists of  3-5  sauiane  {(tr  winged  ar/icitia,  q.  v.).  The 
leaves  are  large  and  pinnate,  with  an  odd  leaflet, 
resembling  those  of  the  ash.  The  ti-ee  grows  better 
than  almost  any  otiier  on  chalky  soils,  and  is  hardy 
enough  to  endure  the  climate  even  of  the  north  of 
Scotland.  It  is  easily  propagated  by  suckeis  and 
cuttings  of  the  roots.  The  wood  is  fine  grained, 
satiny,  and  suited  for  cabinet-making. 

AILE'TTES  (Fr.  little  wings)  were  appendages  to 
the  armour  worn  by  knigiits  in  the  l;;th  c.  Thev 
were  sometimes  mrde  of  leather,  covered  with  a 
kind  of  cloth  called  cnrdn,  and  i'astcned  with  silk 
laces.  The  form  was  sometimes  circular,  sometimes 
pentiigonal,  cruciform,  or  lozenge  shaped,  but  more 
usually  square.  Sometimes  they  were  not  larger 
than  the  palm  of  the  hand  ;  in  other  instances,  as 
large  as  a  shield.  In  most  instances,  the  A.  were 
worn  behind  or  at  the  side  of  the  shoulders. 
Whether  the  purpose  of  tliese  appendages  was  as 
a  defence  to  tlic  shoulders  in  war  ;  as  an  ensign  or 
mark,  to  indicate  to  the  followers  of  the  knight  his 
place  in  the  field ;  or  as  armorial  bearings,  is  not 
now  clearly  known  ;  but  the  first  supposition  is  the 
most  probable.  A  are  figured  on  many  effigies, 
monumental  brasses,  and  stained  windows,  in  our 
cathedrals  and  old  churches. 

Al'LS.Y  CRAIG,  a  remarkable  islet  about  10  miles 
from  the  southern  coast  of  Ayrshire,  opposite  Girvan, 
lat.  55°  15'  12"  N.  ;  long.  5°  7'  W.  Rising  abruptly 
out  of  the  sea  to  a  height  of  1098  feet,  it  forma 
a  most  striking  object,  even  at  a  considerable  dis- 
tance. It  is  about  two  miles  in  circuml'erence,  and 
is  accessible  only  at  one  point,  where  the  accumula- 
tion of  debris  has  formed  a  rough  beach.  The 
rock  may  be  described  generally  as  a  mass  of  trap, 
assuming  in  some  places  a  distinct  columnar  form, 
with  dimensions  far  exceeding  those  of  the  basaltic 
pillars  of  Staffa.  On  the  north-west,  perpendicular 
cliffs  rise  to  a  height  of  from  200  to  300  feet ;  on 
the  other  sides,  the  Craig  descends  to  the  sea 
with  a  steep  slope,  covered  with  grass  and  wild- 
flowers,  with  numerous  scattered  fragments  of 
rock.  The  only  inhabitants  are  goats,  rabbits, 
and  wild-fowl.  Solan  geese,  in  particular,  breed  in 
the  clifl's  in  countless  numbers.  About  2i!0  feet 
from  the  summit  are  some  sjjrings,  and  on  the  ledge 
of  a  crag  on  the  eastern  front  are  the  remains  of 
an  ancient  stronghold.  In  1831,  the  Earl  of  Cassillis, 
the  proprietor  of  A.  C,  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of 
Marquis  of  Ailsa. 

AIX,  a  river  in  France,  rises  in  the  mountains  of 
the  Jura,  flows  through  the  departments  of  Jura  and 
Ain,  and  after  a  course  of  about  100  miles,  falls  into 
the  Rhone,  IS  miles  above  Lyon. 

AIX,  a  frontier  department  of  France,  is  bounded 
on  the  N.  by  the  departments  of  Jura  and  Saone-et- 
Loire,  on  the  E.  it  is  separated  from  Switzerland  and 
Savoy  by  the  Rhone,  which  also  divides  it  from  Isere 
on  the  S.,  while  on  the  W.  the  Saone  separates  it 
from  the  departments  of  the  Rhone  and  Saone-et- 
Loire.  The  eastern  part  is  mountainous;  but  the 
southern  portion  of  that  pat  t  which  lies  to  the  west 
of  the  Ain,  forms  an  argillaceous  plateau,  abounding 
with  marshes,  which  occasion  epidemic  fevers.  This 
department  is  divided  into  the  five  arrondissements 
of  Bourg,  Belley,  Gex,  Kantua,  Trovoux,  and  into 
35  cantons.     Pop.  in '61,369,767.     Chief  towii,  Bourg. 

AIXMULLER,  JIax.  Emax.,  to  whom  we  owe 
the  restoration  of  the  art  of  painting  on  glass,  was 
born  at  Munich,  1807.  He  began  the  study  of 
architecture,  but  afterwards  entered  the  royal  por- 
celain  manufactory  as   decorator;  and  it  was  here 


AINSWORTII— AIR-BEDS. 


tliiit  lio  first  succeeded  in  overcoming  the  technical 
di.HcuUies  in  the  execution  of  ghiss-paintiiig,  A 
separate  institution  was  now  estal)li3hed  for  the 
art ;  and  A.,  as  inspector,  succeeded  in  raiding  it 
to  a  high  degree  of  perfection,  lie  is  s;iid  to 
have  first  conceived  the  happy  thought  of  laying 
coloured  glass  on  coloured,  instead  of  the  process 
hitherto  followed,  of  laying  coloured  glass  on  white; 
thus  giving  the  command  of  above  lOi)  variously 
coloured  glasses,  in  all  gradations  of  tint.  He  was 
also  the  first,  in  conjunction  with  Wehrstorfer,  to 
execute  pictures  on  glas-,  and  thus  revive  the  art  of 
miniature  glass-painting.  Nor  was  it  only  technical 
improvements  and  inventions  that  he  contributed  to 
the  new  art;  his  artistic  culture  qualified  him  power- 
f'dly  to  aid  the  regeneration  of  taste  that  has 
accompanied  it.  The  first  work  of  the  new  institu- 
tion was  the  restoration  of  the  windows  of  the 
cathedral  of  Ratisbon  (18'^G — 18o3),  to  which  A.  con- 
tributed the  ornamentation,  and  painted  several  of 
the  pictures.  He  made  a  like  contribution  to  the 
splendid  windows  of  the  church  of  Maria-Ililf  (1838 
— -1838),  in  Munich.  In  the  contribution  of  King 
Ludwig  of  Bavaria  to  the  cathedral  of  Cologne, 
and  the  numerous  other  windows  executed  at 
Munich  for  all  parts  of  the  world — England  among 
the  rest — A.  displayed  the  highest  artistic  faculty  in 
giving  to  the  figures  a  rich  setting  of  architectural 
ornamentation,  in  such  a  way  as  to  harmonise  with 
the  style  of  the  building. — A,  has  also  acquired  a 
great  reputation  as  an  architectural  ])ainter  in  oil. 
Among  his  pieces,  are  St.  Mark's  Church,  in  Venice  ; 
the  interior  of  St.  Stephen's  Church,  Vienna;  the  in- 
terior of  Windsor  Chapel,  of  Westminster  Abbey, 
and  the  Poets'  Corner. 

AI'NSWORTH,  RoBi^RT,  the  author  of  a  once 
extensively  used  Latin  Dictionary,  was  born  at 
Woodvale,  near  Manchester,  in  1CG">.  He  was 
educated  at  Bolton,  and  taught  a  school  there  for 
some  time,  but  afterwards  went  to  London,  where 
he  was  engaged  for  many  years  in  educational  pur- 
suits. In  1714,  he  commenced  his  Dictionary, 
(Latin-English  and  Englisii-Latin),  which,  however, 
was  not  publislied  until  173G.  A.  died  near  London 
on  the  4th  of  April,  1743.  He  wrote  also  some 
Latin  poems,  and  a  few  treatises  on  various  subjects ; 
but  nothing  keeps  his  memory  alive  except  the  Dic- 
tionary, which  itself  is  now  fast  passing  away  into 
oblivion.  The  labour  expended  on  such  a  production 
was  indeed  highly  honourable  to  the  author,  but  the 
work  has  no  claim  to  the  character  of  an  accurate 
or  philosophical  lexicon,  and,  in  spite  of  the  numer- 
ous emendations  it  has  received,  it  remains  essen- 
tially what  it  was  at  first.  It  has  been  superseded 
by  Riddell's,  and  more  recently  by  Smith's,  Andrews', 
and  other  Lexicons. 

AIXSWORTII,  William  Francis,  an  English 
physician,  geologist,  and  traveller,  a  relation  of  the 
foregoing,  was  born  at  Exeter,  1807.  He  studied 
medicine  at  Edinburgh,  and,  after  receiving  (1827) 
hia  medical  diploma,  he  travelled  in  France,  and 
prosecuted  geological  investigations  in  the  Auvergne 
and  Pyrenean  mountains.  Returning  to  Edinburgh 
in  18'28,  he  conducted  the  publication  of  the  Journal 
of  Natural  and  Geographical  Science,  and  delivered 
lectures  on  geology.  In  1835,  he  was  attached  as 
physician  and  geologist  to  the  Euphrates  expedition 
under  Colonel  Chesney,  at  the  recommendation  of 
Colonel  Sabine,  and  returned  home  in  1837  througli 
Kurdistan,  the  Taurus,  and  Asia  Minor.  In  the 
following  year,  he  went  again  to  Asia  Minor,  being 
sent  with  Rassam  and  Russell  by  the  Geographical 
Soidcty,  and  the  Society  for  the  'Diffusion  of  Chris- 
tian Knowledge.  The  objects  were  chiefly  to  explore 
the  course  of  the  Halys,  and  to  visit  the  Christians 


'  in  Kurdistan.  On  his  return  (1841),  he  gave  tha 
result  of  his  inquiries  and  observations  in  two 
works— iic.se(//v/(c5  in  Assi/riit,  and  Travels  and  Re' 
Marches  in  Asia  Minor,  Mesopotamia,  Chaldea, 
and  Armenia  (London,  1842).  He  lias  published 
also  The  claims  of  the  Christian  Aborigines  in  the 
East,  and  Travels  in  the  Track  of  the  10,r()0  Greeks 
(London,  1844).  In  18.54  he  edited  Xenophon's 
Anabasis  and  Memorabilia  in  Bohn's  '  Classical  Li- 
brary.' 

AINSWORTII,  WiLLiAit  IIaurison,  a  well-known 
writer  of  fiction,  was  born  February,  180.5,  at  Man- 
chester, where  his  father  was  a  solicitor,  Hia 
creative  fancy  began  early  to  show  itself  in  ballads 
and  tales,  which  appeared  in  the  local  newspapers, 
and  in  contributions  to  the  London  Magazine  and 
other  periodicals.  Being  destined  to  succeed  his 
father,  he  entered  a  writer's  office;  but  after  a  while 
he  forsook  law  for  literature,  and  at  first  began  a 
publishing  business  in  London,  which,  however,  he 
soon  gave  up  in  disappointment.  He  had  previously 
published  his  first  novel,  Sir  John  Chiverton  (1825). 
After  spending  some  time  on  the  continent,  he 
returned  to  England,  and  wrote  Hookwood  (1834), 
which  was  favourably  received.  It  was  followed  by 
Crichton  (1837)  and  Jack  Sheppard  (1839).  These 
works  deal  largely  in  the  startling  and  horrible, 
.after  the  manner  of  Mrs.  RadclitFe  ;  and  have  been 
considered  to  exercise  a  hurtful  Influence  on  the 
young.  A.  edited  for  a  time  Bentle>i's  Miscellang, 
and  in  1842  began  his  own  AinsioorlKs  Magazine; 
in  1845  he  acquired  also  the  New  Monthlij  Magazine 
from  Colburn.  In  these  periodicals,  and  in  the 
Sundag  Ti^ncx,  have  appeared  a  somewhat  more 
wholesome  and  creditable  class  of  novels,  such  as 
Gug  Fawkes,  The  2\nccr  of  London,  Old  Saint  PauVs, 
Windsor  Castle,  &c. 

AIR,  or  ASBEX,  a  kingdom  of  Central  Africa, 
extending  from  about  17°  to  l'J°  N.  lat.,  and  from  8*^ 
to  9"  E.  long.  Agades  (q.  v.)  ia  the  capital,  and 
residence  of  the  sultan,  but  his  power  ia  in  a  large 
measure  merely  nominal.  The  country  contains 
various  towns  and  villages,  and  is  principally  in- 
habited by  three  large  tribes — the  Kel-owi,  the 
Kel-gercs,  and  Itisan,  each  of  which  has  numerous 
subdivisions.  There  are,  besides,  the  Kel-n-Negarru, 
the  Imghad,  &c.  The  word  kel  means  '  people,'  but 
specially  denotes  settled  people,  in  opposition  to 
jiomads.  Thus,  Kel-owi  is  people  settled  in  the  val- 
ley of  Owi.  Many  of  the  tribes  and  families  live  not 
in  fixed  dwellings,  but  movaljle  tents  made  of 
mats.  The  valleys  of  A.  are  naturally  rich,  but  they 
are  poorly  cultivated.  Food  and  clothing  are  both 
imported.  The  population,  which  is  very  considera- 
ble, could  not  be  sustained,  were  it  not  for  the  salt- 
trade  of  Bilmi,  a  town  lying  to  the  east  of  A.,  in  the 
Tebu  country.  Although  the  valleys  of  A.  are  in 
the  region  of  the  tropics,  the  climate  is  compara- 
tively temperate.  See  Barth's  Travels  in  Central 
Africa,  vol.  i. 

AIR  ia  the  name  given  to  that  compound  of  gases 
constituting  the  substance  of  our  atmosphere.  For- 
merly, all  aeriform  fluids  were  called  '  airs,'  but  in 
this  sense  the  word  gas  is  now  used.  The  chief 
properties  of  air,  and  the  phenomena  they  give 
rise  to,  will  be  found  treated  under  Atmosphere, 
Aerodynamics,  Aeiostatics,  Air-pump,  Barometer, 
Balloon,  &c. 

AIR,  in  Music.     See  Aria. 

AIR-BEDS  and  AIR-CUSHIONS.  Air-beda  were 
known  as  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  18th  c,  but 
being  made  of  leather,  W'cre  expensive.  It  was 
only  after  t!ie  invention  of  air-tight  or  Macintosh 
cloth  that  it  became  possible  to  use  air  in  this  way 
at  a  moderate  cost.     An  air-bed  consists  of  a  sack  in 

93 


Air.-BLArirr.^Ain-GrN. 


the  form  of  a  mattress,  divided  into  a  nunibcr  of 
compartments, -each  air-tiglit ;  a  projection  at  one 
end  forms  a  bolster.  Each  compartment  has  a 
valve,  through  which  the  air  is  blown  in  by  a  bel- 
lows. The  advantages  of  such  beds,  in  point  of 
cleanness,  coolness,  lightness,  and  elasticity  are  ob- 
vious. They  are  specially  valuable  in  many  cases  of 
sickness.  The  travelling-cushion  is  another  contri- 
vance of  the  same  kind.  Recently,  vulcanised  India- 
rubber,  instead  of  cloth,  has  been  used  in  the  fabri- 
cation of  .such  articles.  The  chief  drawback  to  these 
contrivances  is  the  liability  to  being  spoiled  by  a  rent 
or  other  injury. 

AIR-BLADDER,  or  SWIMMING-BLADDER,  in 
Fishes.  An  organ  apparently  intended  to  aid  them 
in  ascending  in  deep  water,  and  for  the  accommoda- 
tion of  their  specific  gravity  to  various  depths.  It  is 
made  to  serve  this  purpose  by  the  increase  or  dimi- 
nution of  its  volume,  according  to  the  degree  of  pres- 
sure exerted  upon  it  by  the  ribs.  Its  place  is  in  the 
abdomen,  under  the  spine  ;  and  it  is  very  various  in 
size  and  form  in  different  kinds  of  fishes.  It  gene- 
rally has  an  openi.ig  into  the  oesophagus,  or  into  the 
stomach,  but  apparently  only  for  the  ejection,  and 
not  for  the  admission  of  air.  In  some  tishes,  it  has 
no  opening.  The  air  with  which  the  A.  is  filled  ap- 
pears to  be  the  result  of  secretion  ;  and  in  fresh- 
water fishes,  consists  in  general  almost  entirely  of 
nitrogen,  but  contains  a  Lirger  proportion  of  oxvgen 
in  sea-fishes ;  the  oxygen  in  deep-sea  fishes  having 
been  found  to  amount  to  87  per  cent.  The  A.  is 
in  some  fishes  very  small ;  in  others,  it  is  entirely 
wanting,  particularly  in  fishes  that  are  destined  to 
live  chiefly  at  the  l,ottom  of  the  water,  as  flat  fishes. 


Air-bladder  of  Tarp  : 

Consisting  of  two  parts — B  and  (',  idint-il  hy  a  narro-rneck; 

A  D,  a  canal  communicating  with  (esophagus,  E. 

eels,  &c. ;  but  there  are  remarkable  instances  of  its 
r.bsence  also  in  species  of  very  different  habits,  such 
as  the  common  mackerel,  whilst  it  exists  in  other 
species  of  the  same  genus  or  family.  The  A.  of  fishes 
affords  the  finest  kind  of  isinglass. 

AIR-CELLS,  or  AIR-SACS,  in  Birds,  are  remark- 
able  cavities   connected   with   the   respiratory   svs- 


a 


tern.  They  are  distributed 
nlong  the   inside  of  the 
whole  cavity  of  the  chest 
and    abdomen  ;    and   in 
birds  of  strong  wing  and 
rapid  flight,  often   send 
prolongations    into     the 
bones.     They    are    con- 
nected with  the  extreme- 
ly active  respiratory  sys- 
tem,   and    communicate 
with  the  lungs,  giving  an 
immense  extension  to  the 
?>i"face  with  which  the  air 
Lungs,  &c.,  of  Ostrich  :       inhdcd  comes  in  contact. 
«  a  it  (I  it  nir-tel!s;   h  i:  l.;Ti-y;     Tlie  cells  in  the  lungs  of 
c,  lioart;  f/,  stomach ; 
e,  intestines. 

t':(!  mammalia,  into  ■«iiich  the  sir  is 
conveyed  by  minute  ramificatio;is 
of  the  windpipe,  in  order  to  be 
brought  info  contact  with  the 
1  '.ood  distributed  on  their  walls, 
are  very  small ;  in  man,  only  about 
one  hundredth  part    of  an  i:.ca    in  dlamctcr.- 

y-4 


Air-tubes  of  Insect. 


cells,  or  air-sacs,  may  be  said  to  form  the  whole  res- 
piratory apparatus  in  some  of  the  lower  kinds  of 
animals  (see  Anxklida),  whilst  in  others,  liigiicr  in 
the  scale  of  organisation,  j)articnlarly  in  insects, 
air-tubes  arising  from  these  ramify  throughout  the 
whole  body.  The  air-tubes  of  insects  arc  iorn:cd  of 
a  spiral  fibre  within  a  membranous  coat,  like  the 
spiral  vessels  of  plants,  so  that  they  possess  great 
elasticity. 

AIR-CELLS  in  plants  are  cavities  containing  air 
in  the  stems  or  leaves.  The  orifices  of  tlie  inter- 
cellular passages  are  closed  up,  so  as  to  prevent  the 
juices  of  the  plant  from  entering  them.  They  are 
very  variable  in  size,  figure,  and  arrangement,  but 
are  formed  according  to  a  uniform  ridi;  in  each  par- 
ticular species  in  which  they  are  found.  They  are 
large  and  numerous  in  many  aquatic  plants,  evident- 
ly .'serving  the  purpose  of  buoying  them  up  in  the 
water.  Besides  A.  of  regular  form,  there  are  irregu- 
lar cavities,  also  called  by  the  same  name,  which 
seem  to  be  formed  by  the  tearing  of  the  cellular 
tissue  in  the  rapi<l  growth  of  the  plant,  as  in  grasses 
and  umbelliferous  plants. 

AIR-EXGIXE.     See  C.\Lonic  E.ngike. 

AIR-GUX,  an  instrument  for  firing  bullets  or 
other  projectiles,  I)y  the  force  of  compressed  air 
instead  of  gunpowder.  Various  forms  of  construc- 
tion have  been  adopted.  The  most  usual  plan  is  to 
insert  a  condensing  syringe  in  the  stock  of  the  gun. 
The  piston  of  this  syi-inge  is  worked  by  an  apparatus 
which  jiasses  thi'ongh  to  the  exterior  of  the  gun  ; 
and  this  working  causes  a  small  body  of  air  to  be 
condensed  into  a  chamber.  The  chamber  has  a 
valve  opening  into  the  barrel,  just  behind  the  place 
where  the  bullet  is  lodged.  The  gun  is  loaded  from 
the  nnizzle,  as  ordinary  muskets  or  fowling-iiicccs ; 
and  there  is  at  that  time  just  behind  it  a  small  body 
of  highly  compressed  air,  ready  to  ru.'-h  out  at  any 
opening.  This  opportunity  is  aflbrdcd  by  a  move- 
ment of  the  trigger,  which  opens  the  valve ;  the 
air  rushes  forth  with  such  impetuosity  as  to  propel 
the  bullet.  By  a  certain  management  of  the  tiig- 
ger,  two  or  three  bullets,  successively  and  sepa- 
rately introduced,  can  be  fired  ofl^ — if  filing  it  can 
be  called — by  one  mass  of  condensed  air.  An- 
other form  of  A.  contains  .«^evcral  I)ullots  in  a  re- 
ceptacle or  channel  under  the  barrel;  by  the  move- 
ment of  a  cock  or  lever,  one  of  these  bullets  can 
readily  be  shifted  into  the  barrel;  and  thus  sev- 
eral successive  discharges  can  be  made  after  one 
loading — -on  a  principle  somewhat  analogous  to 
that  of  the  revolving  pistol.  Some  varieties  of  A. 
have  the  condensing  syringe  attached,  by  which 
means  a  more  powerful  condensation  of  air  may  be 
produced  ;  this  done,  tlie  air-chamber  is  replaced  in 
its  proper  position  behind  tb.e  bullet  in  the  barrel. 
Those  air-guii5  which  present  the  external  apper.r- 
ance  of  stout  walking-sticks,  and  arc  thmce  called 
air-canes,  have  a  chamber  within  the  handle  for 
containing  condensed  air,  which  can  be  unscrewed, 
and  subjected  to  the  action  of  the  condensing  syringe. 
One  inventor  has  devised  a  form  of  A.  with  two 
barrels — one  of  small  bore  for  the  reception  of  the 
bullets,  and  another  of  larger  bore  for  the  reservoir 
of  condensed  air ;  the  condensing  syringe  being 
wiiliin  the  stock  of  the  gun.  An  attempt  has  more 
recently  been  made  to  combine  the  action  of  elastic 
springs  with  that  of  compressed  air,  in  an  A.; 
springs  of  gutta-percha,  or  of  vulcanised  india- 
ribber,  are  employed  in  substitution  of,  or  in  co- 
operation with,  a  condensing  syringe.  No  form 
of  A.  hitherto  made  has  had  power  enough  to 
propel  a  bullet  to  any  considerable  distance  •,  and 
llicrcforc  the  instrument  is  scarcely  available  in 
war;    there  are,  liowcvcr,  circumstances  in  which 


Ain-rLANTS— AIRY. 


such  an  arm  may  be  useful — seeing  that  there  is  no 
expense  for  gunpowder,  no  noise,  no  smoke,  no 
unpleasant  odour.  The  A.  was  known  in  Frant'e 
more  than  two  centuries  ago.;  but  the  anrionts 
were  aequaintcd  with  some  kind  of  apparatus,  by 
which  air  was  made  to  act  upon  the  shorter  arm 
of  a  lever,  wliile  the  larger  arm  impelled  a  bullet. 

AIR-rLAXTS.     Sec  Epipiiytks. 

AIR-PUMP,  an  instrument  for  removing  the  air 
from  a  vessel.  The  essential  part  i.s  a  hollow  brass 
or  glass  cylinder,  in  which  an  air-tight  piston  is 
made  to  liio've  up  and  down  by  a  rod.  From  the 
bottom  of  the  cylinder,  a  connecting  tube  leads  to 
the  space  which  is  to  bo  exhausted,  which  is  usually 
formed  by  placing  a  bell-glass,  culled  the  receiver, 
with  edges  ground  smooth,  and  smeared  with 
lard,  on  a  flat,  smooth  plate  or  table.  When  the 
piston  is  at  the  bottom  of  the  barrel,  and  is  then 
drawn  up,  it  lifts   out    the  air  from  the  barrel,  and 


Air-pump. 


a  portion  of  the  air  under  the  receiver,  by  its  own 
expanfive  force,  passes  through  the  connecting  tulio, 
and    occupies    the    space    below    the    piston,  which 
would    otherwise    be    a    vacuum.      The    air   in    the 
receiver  and  barrel  is  thus  rarefied.     The  piston  is 
now  forced  down,  and  the  cfiect  of  this  is  to  close 
a  valve  placed  at  the  mouth  of  the  connecting  tube, 
and  opening  inwards  into    the  barrel.     The    air   in 
the  barrel  is  thus  cut  off   from  returning  into  the 
receiver,  and,  as  it   becomes  condensed,  forces  up  a 
valve  in  the  piston,  which  opens  outwards,  and  thus 
escapes    into    the    atmosphere.       When  the  piston 
reaches  the  bottom,  and  begins  to  ascend  again,  this 
valve  closes ;  and  the  same  process  is  repeated  as  at 
the  first  ascent.     Eich    stroke    thus  diminishes  the 
quantity  of  air  in  the  receiver ;  but  from  the  nature 
of  the  process,  it  is  evident  that  the  exhaustion  can 
never  be  complete.     Even  theoretically,  there  must 
always  be  a  portion  left,  though  that  portion  may  be 
rendered    less    than    any    assignable    quantity ;  and 
practically  the  process  is  limited  by  the  elastic  force 
of  the  remaining  air  being  no  longer    sufficient   to 
open  the  valves.     The  degree  of  rarcfication  is  indi- 
cated by  a  gauge  on  the  principle  of  the  barometer. 
By    means    of  the    parti.il    vacuum  formed    by  the 
A.,  a  great  many   interesting    experiments    can   be 
performed,  illustrating    the    eTects    of   atmospheric 
pressure,  aud  otlier  mechanical  properties  of  gases. 
— The  A.  was  invented  by   Otto   Guericke    (q.  v.), 
1(')54;  and  though  many  improvements  and  varieties 
of  structure  have  been  ."nee  devised,  the  principle  of 
all  is  the  same.     Two  barrels  are  generally  used,  so 
as  to  do'ible  the  effect  of  one  stroke.     In  some  air- 
pumps,  stop-cocks  turned  by  the  hand  take  the  place 
of  valves;  and  in   others,  the  entrance  of  the  con- 
necting tube  into  the  cylinder  is  so  contrived  that 
the  valve  tiirough  the  piston  is  not  required. 

AIRD,  Thomas,  a  poet  of  considerable  gonitis, 
born  at  Bowden,  in  Iloxbiu-ghshirc,  in  1802.  lie 
received  the  rudiments  of  education  at  schools 
in  his  native  county,  f.om  which  he  passed  to  the 


university  of  Edinburgh.  While  in  the  metropolis, 
he  made  the  friendship  of  many  distinguished  men, 
(-specially  Professor  John  Wilson,  who  was  accus- 
tomed to  speak  of  him  in  the  highest  terms.  From 
1835  to  1863  he  was  editor  of  I'he  Diunfriex  Her- 
ald, a  journal  started  on  Conservative  ijrincijiles. 
His  genius  is  of  a  purely  literary  character,  and 
not  calculated  to  be  effective  in  the  discussion  of 
political  questions.  His  works  are  not  so  well 
known  as  they  deserve  to  be,  from  their  intrinsic 
merit.  In  spite  of  very  warm  eulogy  from  some  of 
the  gri^atest  names  in  popular  criticism,  and  in 
spite  of  many  elaborate  and  discriminating  reviews 
in  various  important  magazines,  they  have  failed 
to  secure  a  large  measure  of  public  approbation. 
The  DeviVs  Bream  is  perhaps  an  exception  to  the 
rest,  for  it  is  both  well  known  and  admired.  Com- 
petent judges  have  asserted  that  there  is  some- 
thing almost  Dantesque  in  the  stern,  intense,  and 
subliine  lilernlness  of  the  conception.  This  power 
of  realisation  in  painting  objects  is  the  grand 
characteristic  of  Mr.  A.'s  mind.  Whether  the 
scenes  are  colossal,  as  in  The  Devil's  Dream,  or 
minute,  as  in  llie  Simmers  Dau,  there  is  the  same 
clear,  vigorous,  and  picturesque  Avord-painting. 
Herein  lies  Mr.  A.'s  chief  originality,  for  his 
thought  and  sentiment,  though  always  pure  and 
fine,  are  not  strikingly  novel.  In  1827,  he  published 
Religions  Characterikics,  a  piece  of  exalted  prose-^ 
poetry;  in  1S15,  The  Old  Bachelor,  a  volume  of 
tales 'and  sketches;  in  1848,  a  collected  edition 
of  his  poems — a  second  edition  of  which  appeared 
in  1850;  and  in  1852,  ho  edited  the  select  poems 
of  David  Macbeth  Moir  ('be  'Delta'  of  Blaeki'-ood), 
prefixing  a  memoir  for  the  benefit  of  Dr.  Moir'a 
i'amil  V. 


AI'RDPJE,  a  town  in  the  parish  of  New  Monk- 
land,  Lanarkshire,  11  miles  E.  of  Glasgow.  The  high 
road  between  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  intersecting 
it,  forms  its  principal  street.  It  has  risen  rapid'y, 
and  is  now  one  of  the  most  flourishing  inland  towns 
in  Scotland.  About  a  century  ago,  it  consisted  of 
little  more  than  a  solitary  farmhouse;  but  tlie  abun- 
dance of  iron  and  coal  in  the  vicinity,  has  given  its 
progress  an  impetus  like  that  of  an  American  city 
(see  Gartsherkie).  The  Monkland  Canal,  together 
with  a  branch  of  the  Caledonian  Railway,  receives 
the  produce  of  the  coal  pits  and  iron  mines.  The 
town  has  some  neat  buildings,  is  well  paved,  and 
lighted  with  gas,  but  is  not  specially  characterised 
hy  beauty.  The  weaving  of  cotton  goods  for_  the 
Glasgow  manufacturers  is  carried  on  to  a  consider- 
able extent,  as  is  also  the  distillation  of  spirits. 
Pop.  14,435. 

AI'RY,  George  BinnELi,,  D.C.E.,  M.A.,  Astrono- 
mer Royal,  was  born  at  Alnwick  in  1801.  He  was 
educated  principally  at  Colchester,  from  which  he 
passed  in  1819  to  the  university  of  Cambridge.  In 
1822,  he  was  elected  Scholar;  in  lS2o,  he  took  the 
degree  of  B.  A.,  with  the  honour  of  Senior  Wrangler  ; 
and  in  1826,  that  of  M.A.  In  the  same  year,  he  was 
elevated  to  the  chair  of  Science  founded  by  Lucas, 
which  he  rescued  from  the  reproach  of  being  a 
sinecure,  by  delivering  a  course  of  public  lectures  on 
experimental  philosophy.  In  1828,  he  was  made 
Plumian  professor,  and  had  the  management  of  the 
newly-erected  Cambridge  Observatory  intrusted  to 
him.  On  account  of  his  severe  and  uninternhtting 
labours  in  connection  with  this  office,  his  income 
was  augmented  from  the  funds  of  the  university. 
He  published  his  observations  (.4.s<ro«o)HU'ai  Observa- 
tions :  Cambridge,  1829—1838,  9  vols.),  arranged  in 
a  clear  and  simple  manner;  and  they  have  served 
as  a  model  ever  since  for  those  of  Greenwich  and 
other  ob.-ervatories.  In  1835,  the  office  of  Astronomer 

95 


AISLE— AIX-LA-CIIAPELLE. 


Royal  becoming  Vacant,  Mr.  A.  was  appointed  to  it  by 
Lord  Anckland,  then  First  Lord  of  tlie  Admiralty. 
If  he  has  not  made  himself  faniong  by  any  brilliant 
discovery  or  important  undertaking,  like  Herschel 
or  Hind,  he  liag  at  least  shewn  his  high  talent  by 
many  useful  and  interesting  improvements,  especially 
in  the  introduction  of  new  or  more  perfect  scientilic 
instruments,  more  rapid  methods  of  calculation,  and 
researches  in  magnetism,  meteorology,  photography, 
&c.  One  of  tlie  most  valuable  of  his  contributions 
to  popular  science  is  his  well-known  article  on 
'Gravitation,'  in  the  Penny  C'/clopadia  ("1837). 
Equally  excellent  and  popular  is  his  treatise  on 
Trigonometry,  which  wa9  written  for  the  Encnclo' 
pcedia  Metropolitana  (1855).  He  has  made,  besides, 
numerous  useful  experiments  in  the  application  of 
mathematical  science  to  geognostic  and  astronomical 
phenomena,  and  has  deservedly  obtained  the  reputa- 
tion of  being  one  of  the  most  able  and  indefatigable 
of  living  sai'ana.  Mr.  A.  is  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  ;  an  Honorary  Member  of  the  Institution 
of  Civil  Engineers,  Corresponding  Member  of  the 
French  Institute,  and  other  foreign  scientific  bodies. 

AISLE  (from  Lat.  ala, 
a  wing)  means  any  lat- 
eral division  of  any  part 
of  a  church,  whether 
nave,  clioir  or  transept. 
The  number  of  aisles 
varies  in  the  churches  j 
of  different  countries. 
In  England,  there  is  only 
one  on  each  side  of  the 
nave  or  choir  ;  in  most 
foreign  countries,  there 
are  generally  two,  and 
at  Cologne  there  are  even 
three.  The  continental 
edifices  it  would  seem, 
have  antiquity  in  their 
favour  for  this  arrange- 
ment (see  Basilica).  The 
word  is  often  incorrectly 
applied  to  the  open 
space  in  the  nave  of 
churches  between  the  seats  of  the  .congregation. 

AISXE,  a  tributary  of  the  Oise,  in  France,  rises 
in  the  department  of  Meuse,  and  flows  north-west 
through  the  departments  of  Marne  and  Ardennes, 
and  then  west  through  that  of  Aisne  and  part  of 
Oise,  where  it  falls  into  the  river  Oise,  above 
Compicgnc.  Its  course  extends  to  150  miles,  of 
which  70  are  navigable. 

AISNE,  a  department  in  the  north  of  France, 
formed  of  a  part  of  ancient  Picardy  and  the  Isle  of 
France.  It  belongs  to  tJie  basin  of  the  Seine,  and  is 
intersected  by  the  river  A.,  and  bv  other  navigable 
streams  and  canals.  The  soil  is 'fertile;  the  chief 
culture  is  wheat,  and  other  grain.  Its  rich  meadows 
supply  Paris  with  hay.  The  area  is  2830  square 
miles:  population  in  1861,  564,597.  It  is  the  seat 
of  considerable  cotton  and  other  manufactures,  the 
centre  of  which  is  St.  Quentin  (q.  v.),  and  at  St. 
Gobin  is  the  famous  manufactory  of  mirrors.  The 
department  is  divided  into  5  arrondissements  and 
'61  cantons.     The  chief  town  is  Laon  (q.  v.). 

AIX,  a  town  in  France,  formerly  the  capital 
of  Provence,  now  the  chief  town  "of  an  arron- 
dissement  in  the  department  of  the  Bouches-du- 
Rhone.  It  is  believed  to  have  been  built  by  the 
Roman  consul,  C,  Sextius  (120  B.C.),  on  account  of 
the  mineral  springs  in  tlie  neighbourhood,  and 
thence  called  Aquje  Sextise.  A.  is  the  seat  of  a 
court  of  appeal  ;  and  possesses  an  academy  for 
theology    and    law,    and    a    public    library    which 


Aisle  (Melrose  Abbev.l 


reckons  nearly  100,000  vols.,  and  1100  MS.S.  The 
baptistery  of  the  cathedral  is  believed  to  have  been 
originally  a  temple  of  Apollo,  The  numerous  public 
fountains  give  a  cheerful  air  to  the  place.  One  of 
them  has  a  sculpture  of  the  Good  King  R6n6,  exe- 
cuted by  Bavid.  There  is  also  an  old  clock-tower, 
the  machinery  of  which,  when  the  clock  strikes, 
sets  various  quaint-looking  figures  in  motion.  The 
industry  of  this  again  flourishing  town  consists 
chiefly  in  the  cultivation  of  the  olive,  in  cotton- 
spinning,  leather-dressing,  and  trade  in  oil,  wine, 
almonds,  &:c.  The  warm  springs  are  slightly  sulphu- 
reous, with  a  temperature  from  90°  to  l()(i°  F.,  clear 
and  transparent  as  the  purest  well-water,  almost 
free  from  smell,  yet  with  a  slightly  bitter  taste. 
They  have  tlie  reputation  of  inipioving  the  beauty 
of  the  skin,  and  are  on  this  account  especially  fre- 
quented by  the  fair  sex.  The  field  on  which  Mariu.s 
defeated  the  Teutones  lies  in  the  plain  l)etween  A. 
and  Aries.  In  the  middle  ages,  under  the  Counts  of 
Provence  (see  Rene),  A.  was  long  the  literary  capital 
of  Southern  Europe.  The  population  of  the  muni- 
cipality of  Aix  in  1861,  wa.s  27,651. 

AIX  (Aquae  Gratianne,  AUobrogum),  a  small  town 
of  Savoy,  pop.  2 — 8000,  in  a  deliglitful  valley  near 
Lake  Bourget,  seven  miles  north  from  ChamVjery. 
It  was  a  much  frequented  bathing-place  in  the  times 
of  the  Roman  empire,  and  among  its  numerous 
remains  of  ancient  times,  are  the  arch  of  Pomponius, 
the  ruing  of  a  temple  ond  of  a  vaporarium.  The 
king  of  Sardinia  lias  a  palace  lierc.  The  hot  springs, 
two  in  number,  are  of  sulphurous  quality,  and  of  a 
temperature  above  100°  F.  They  are  used  both  for 
drinking  and  as  bathg,  and  attract  annually  above 
2000  visitors. 

AIX-LA-CIIAPELLE  (Ger.  Aachen)  is  the  capi- 
tal of  a  district  in  Rhenish  Prussia.  It  is  situated 
in  a  fertile  hollow,  surrounded  by  heights,  and 
watered  by  the  Wurni  ;  N.  lat.  50°  47',  Yj,  long.  6° 
5' ;  pop.  in  1861,58,55.3,  of  whom  2000 arc  Protestants 
and  SOO  Jews.  A.  is  the  centre  of  numerous  thriving 
manufactories,  especially  of  iieedlea  and  pins — 
celebrated  for  200  years — also  of  broad-cloths  and 
buckskins,  which  have  almost  driven  even  the 
English  goods  out  of  the  American  market.  A.s  a 
principal  station  on  the  Belgian-Rhenish  railways, 
A.  is  an  important  staple  place  of  Prussian  trade. 
The  city  is  rich  in  historical  associations.  It 
emerges  from  historical  obscurity  about  the  time  of 
Pepin,  and  Charlemagne  founded  its  world-wide 
celebrity.  Whether  it  was  the  birthplace  of  Charle- 
magne, is  doubtful,  but  it  became  his  grave,  814 
A.D.  In  796  A.D.,  Charlemagne  caused  the  already 
existing  palace,  called  the  Imperial  Palace,  to  be 
entirely  rebuilt,  as  well  as  the  chapel,  in  which 
Pepin  had  celebrated  Christmas  in  765  a.d.  The 
two  buildings  were  connected  by  a  colonnade,  which 
fell  into  ruins  a  short  time  before  the  emperor's 
death,  probably  from  the  effects  of  an  earthquake. 
The  present  town-house  has  been  built  on  the  ruins 
of  the  palace;  the  chapel,  after  being  destroyed  by 
the  Xormjins,  was  rebuilt  on  the  ancient  plan  by 
Otho  111.,  in  983,  and  forms  the  nucleus  of  the 
present  cathedral.  This  ancient  cathedral  is  in  the 
form  of  an  octagon,  which,  with  various  additions 
round  it,  forms,  on  the  outside,  a  sixteen-sided 
figure.  In  the  middle  of  the  octagon,  a  stone,  with 
the  inscription  '  Carolo  Maono,'  marks  the  grave  of 
Charlemagne.  Otto  III.  opened  the  vault  in  the 
year  997  A.n.  The  body  of  the  emperor  was 
found  in  a  wonderful  state  of  preservation,  seated 
upon  a  marble  chair,  dressed  in  his  robes,  his  sceptre 
in  his  hand,  the  Gospel  on  his  knee,  a  piece  of  the 
holy  cross  on  his  head,  and  a  pilgrim's  scrip  attached 
to  his  girdle.  Otto  caused  the  tomb  to  be  built  up 
again,  after  repairing  the  injuries  of  the  arch.     lu 


AIX-LA-CHAPELLE. 


1165  A.D.,  when  the  emperor  Frederick  I.  caused  the 
vault  to  be  re-opeiied,  the  bones  of  tlie  great  emperor 
were  enshrined  in  a  casket  of  gold  and  silver,  and  a 
large  and  beautifully  wrought  chandelier  was  hung 
up  over  the  toudj  as  a  memorial.  In  1215  a.d., 
Frederick  II.  caused  the  remains  of  the  emperor  to 
be  enclosed  in  a  costly  chest,  in  which  they  are  yet 
kept  in  the  sacristy.  The  marble  cliair  was,  in  later 
times,  overlaid  with  gold  plates,  and  used  till  1558 
A.D.  at  the  imperial  coronations,  as  a  throne  for  the 
newly  crowned  emperor.  The  imperial  insignia  wore 
removed  to  Vienna  in  1705. — In  the  14th  c,  a  choir 
in  the  Gothic  style  was  added  to  the  east  side  of  the 
octagon,  which  had  been  built  in  the  Byzantine 
style  ;  while  on  the  west  side,  a  square  belfry  was 
joined  to  it,  as  well  as  two  small  round  towers,  with 
winding  stairs  leading  to  the  treasury.  Here  arc 
kept  the  so-called  'great  relics,'  which,  once  in 
seven  years,  are  still  shewn  to  the  people,  in  the 
month  of  July,  from  the  gallery  of  the  tower.  This 
spectacle  attracts  many  thousands  of  strangers  to  A. 
Much  has  of  late  years  been  done  to  restore  this 
venerable  pile.  The  columns  brought  by  ("harle- 
magne  from  the  palace  of  the  Exarch  at  Ravenna, 
to  decorate  the  interior  of  the  octagon,  had  been 
carried  off  by  the  French  ;  and  although  part  of 
them  had  been  restored  at  the  peace  of  Paris,  they 
were  not  replaced  in  the  building  till  recently. 

The  town  house — which  encloses  the  remains  of 
the  Imperial  Palace — adorns  the  market-place,  having 
the  Bell  or  Market  Tower  on  the  left,  and  on  the 
right  the  Granus  Tower,  a  memorial  of  old  Roman 
times.  The  coronation-hall,  102  feet  long,  by  60 
feet  wide,  in  the  interior  of  the  town-house,  was,  in 
the  last  century,  divided  in  the  middle  by  a  wooden 
partition.  This  noble  hall,  in  which  thirty-seven 
German  emperors  and  eleven  empresses  have  been 
crowned,  has  been  restored  to  its  original  form, 
and  the  walls  are  in  process  of  being  decorated 
with  large  fresco-paintings  of  scenes  from  the  life  of 
Charlemagne,  by  Rethel.  Before  the  town-house 
stands  a  beautiful  fountain,  with  a  bronze  statue  of 
Charlemagne.  In  the  church  of  the  Franciscans, 
are  to  be  seen  a  line  picture  of  the  Taking  Down  of 
Christ  from  the  Cross,  by  Yandyck,  and  two  other 
pictures  representing  the  Crucifi.xion,  by  A.  Diepen- 
beeek.  At  a  short  distance  from  A.,  and  surrounded 
by  the  river,  stands  Frankenburg,  once  the  favourite 
abode  of  Charlemagne  and  of  Fastrada,  and  still 
rich  in  legends.  It  has  lately  been  rebuilt  from  its 
romantic  ruins.  As  a  town,  A.  has  recently  been 
much  improved.  It  now  possesses  many  tine  build- 
ings, among  which  are  several  large  and  splendid 
hotels.  From  being  a  quiet  old  city  of  historical 
interest,  it  has  become  a  busy  centre  of  manufactur- 
ing industry.  At  one  time,  it  was  noted  for  its 
public  gambling-tables ;  but  these,  to  the  credit  of 
the  Prussian  government,  are  now  disallowed. 

The  name  of  Aix  or  Aachen  is  evidently  derived 
from  the  springs,  for  which  the  place  has  been 
always  famous.  (Sec  AA.)  The  name  Aquis  Granum, 
which  it  receiveil  about  the  3d  c,  may  possibly  be 
derived  from  Granus,  one  of  the  names  of  Apollo, 
who  was  worshipped  by  the  Romans  near  springs. 
The  French  name,  A.,  refers  to  the  Chapel  of  the 
Palace.  Charlemagne  granted  extraordinary  privi- 
leges to  this  city.  The  citizens  were  exempted,  in 
all  parts  of  the  empire,  from  personal  and  military 
service,  from  imprisonment,  and  from  all  taxes. 
The  city  also  possessed  the  right  of  sanctuary  :  '  the 
air  of  A.  made  all  free,  even  outlaws.'  In  the 
middle  ages,  this  free  imperial  city  (then  included 
m  the  circle  of  Westphalia)  contained  more  than 
100,000  inhabitants ;  and  held  an  important  i)lace 
among  the  confederated  cities  of  the  Rhine.  The 
emperors  were  crowned  in  A.  from  Louis  the  Pious 
7 


to  Ferdinand  I.  (S13 — 1531  a.d.).  17  imperial  diets 
and  11  provincial  councils  were  held  within  its 
walls.  The  removal  of  the  coronations  to  Frankfort, 
the  religious  contests  of  the  I6th  and  I7th  centuries, 
a  great  tire  which  in  1656  a.d.  consumed  about  4000 
houses  in  the  city,  combined  with  other  causes  to 
bring  into  decay  this  once  flourishing  community. 
In  January  171)3,  and  again  in  1794,  A.  was  occu- 
jiied  by  the  French.  By  the  treaties  concluded  at 
Campo  Forniio  and  Luneville,  it  was  formally  ceded 
to  France,  and  became  the  capital  of  the  depart- 
ment of  Roer;  at  length,  in  1815,  the  city  fell  to 
Prussia.  See  Qui.x,  Gcschichte  der  Stadt  A.  (History 
of  A.),  2  vols.,  A.,  1841. 

The  MiXKUAL  Springs  of  A.,  of  which  six  are  hot, 
and  two  cold,  were  known  in  the  time  of  Charlemagne, 
and  were  much  frequented  as  early  as  1170.  The  hot 
springs  are  strongly  sulphurous,  and  contain  also 
hydrochlorates.  The  temperature  varies  from  111° — 
136°  F.  They  chiefly  act  on  the  hver,  and  on  the 
mucous  surfaces  and  skin,  and  are  therefore  effica- 
cious in  cases  of  gout,  rheumatism,  cutaneous  diseases, 
&c.  The  most  remarkaVile  is  the  '  Emperor's  Spring,' 
which  rises  in  the  middle  of  the  Hotel  Kaiserbad. 
The  baths  themselves  are  from  4  to  5  feet  deep,  and 
are  built  quite  in  the  old  Roman  style.  The  cold 
springs  are  chalybeate,  and  not  so  copious.  The 
new  '  Eisenquelle  '  (iron  spring\  first  discovered  in 
1829,  is  provided  with  an  elegant  bath-house.  The 
well-proved  medicinal  virtues  of  the  mineral  springs 
of  A.  bring  yearly  to  the  city  many  thousands  of 
strangers. 

TuKATii'S  OF  Peace,  and  Conguess  of  A — The 
first  Peace  of  A.  ended  the  war  carried  on  between 
France  and  Spain  for  the  possession  of  the  Spanish 
Netherlands.  On  the  death  of  Philip  IV.,  Louis 
XIV.  laid  claim  to  a  large  portion  of  those  territories 
in  the  name  of  his  wife,  Maria  Theresa,  the  daughter 
of  Philip,  urging  the  law  of  succession  prevailing  in 
Brabairt  and  Nanmr  respecting  private  property. 
The  victorious  progress  of  Louis  was  checked  by 
the  triple  alliance  between  England,  Holland,  and 
Sweden ;  and  a  treaty  of  peace  was  concluded  at 
A.  in  1668,  by  which  France  retained  possession  of 
the  fortresses  of  Charleroi,  Lille,  &c.,  which  she  had 
already  taken. 

The  second  Peace  of  A.  concluded  the  war  respect- 
ing the  succession  of  Maria  Theresa  to  the  empire. 
See  Succession,  Wars  of.  After  the  war  had  been 
carried  on  with  various  success  for  eight  years, 
peace  was  concluded  in  1748.  In  general,  the 
possessions  of  the  several  states  remained  as 
before  the  war.  Austria  ceded  Parma  and  Placentia 
to  the  Spanish  infanta,  Philip ;  and  the  posses- 
sion of  Silesia  was  guaranteed  to  Prussia.  The 
privilege  of  the  Assiento  Treaty  (q.  v.)  was  anew 
confirmed  to  England  for  four  years,  and  the  pre- 
tender was  expelled  from  France.  Owing  chiefly  to 
the  exertions  of  her  minister,  Kaunitz,  Austria  came 
off  with  bu.t  small  sacrifice,  while  England,  notwith- 
standing her  splendid  victories,  derived  little  solid 
advantage,  and  was  left  with  a  debt  raised  to  80 
millions. 

The  Congress  of  A.  was  held  m  1818,  for  regulating 
the  affairs  of  Europe  after  the  war.  It  began  on  the 
30th  September,  md  ended  on  the  21st  November. 
Its  principal  object  was  the  withdrawal  from  France 
of  the  army  of  occupation,  150,000  strong,  as  well 
as  the  receiving  of  France  again  into  the  alliance  of 
the  great  powers.  The  emperors  of  Russia  and 
Austria,  and  the  king  of  Prussia,  were  personally 
present.  The  plenipotentiaries  were — Metternich, 
Castlcreagh,  and  Wellington,  Hardenberg  and  Bern- 
storff,  Nesselrode  and  Capo  d'Istrias,  with  Richelieu 
on  the  part  of  France.  France  having  engaged  to 
complete   the  pavment   o*"  the   stipulated   sums   of 

07 


AJACCIO— AKBAR. 


money,  was  admitted  to  take  part  in  the  delibera- 
tions, and  the  five  great  powers  assembled,  signed  a 
protocol  announcing  a  future  policy,  known  as  that 
of  the  '  Holy  Alliance  '  (q.  v.). 

AJA'CCIO,  the  chief  town  of  the  island  of  Corsica, 
which  i'ornis  a  department  of  France.  The  population 
is  10,000.  The  chief  employments  are  the  anchovy 
and  pcnrl  fisheries,  and  the  trade  in  wine  and  olive- 
oil,which  the  neighbourhood  produces  in  abundance, 
and  of  good  quality.  The  harbour  is  protected  by  a 
strong  fort.  A.  is  remarkable  as  the  birthplace  of 
Napoleon  ;  the  house  is  still  to  be  seen. 

AJA'X,  a  portion  of  the  E.  coast  of  Africa,  extend- 
ing from  Cape  Guardafui  nearly  to  the  equator. 

A'JAX  was  the  name  of  two  of  the  Greek  heroes 
of  the  Trojan  war.  One  of  them  was  called  A.  the 
Less,  or  the  Locrian,  being  the  son  of  Oileus,  king  of 
the  Locrians.  At  the  head  of  forty  Locrian  ships,  he 
sailed  against  Troy,  and  was  one  of  the  bravest  of  the 
Greek  heroes ;  in  swiftness  of  foot,  he  excelled  all 
except  Achilles.  Wiien  Cassandra  fled  to  the  temple 
of  Minerva,  after  the  taking  of  Troy,  it  is  said  that 
A.  tore  her  from  it  by  force,  and  dragged  her  away 
captive.  Others  make  Iiim  even  violate  the  ]iro- 
phetess  in  the  temple.  Though  he  exculpated  him- 
eelf  by  an  oath  when  accused  of  this  crime  by  Ulysses, 
yet  he  did  not  escape  the  vengeance  of  the  goddess, 
who  caused  him  to  be  engulfed  in  the  waves. 

The  other  A.,  called  by  the  Greeks  the  Greater, 
was  the  son  of  Telanion,  king  of  Salamis,  and,  by 
his  mother's  side,  a  grandson  of  ^Eacus.  He  sailed 
against  Troy  with  twelve  ships,  and  is  represented 
by  Homer  as,  next  to  Achilles,  the  bravest  and 
handsomest  of  the  Greeks.  Afrer  the  death  of 
Achilles,  A.  and  Ulysses  contended  for  the  arms  of 
the  hero,  and  the  prize  was  adjudged  to  Ulysses, 
which  threw  A.  into  such  a  state  of  rage  and  despair 
that  he  killed  himself  with  his  sword.  This  melan- 
choly fate  of  the  hero  is  the  subject  of  one  of  the 
extant  tragedies  of  Sophocles. 

AJMEE'R,  a  British  'non-regulation'  district  in 
the  North-west  Provinces  of  Lidia,  Iving  between 
lat.  25°  43'— 20°  42';  long.  74°  22'— 75°  S3'.  Its 
length  from  south-east  to  north-west  is  about  80 
miles ;  breadth,  50 ;  area,  2029  square  miles.  The 
surface  of  the  cor.ntry  towards  the  south-cast  is 
generally  level.  In  the  north,  north-west,  and  west, 
it  is  broken  by  mountains  and  hills  belonging  to  the 
Aravulii  range.  The  mountain  of  Taragnrh,  above 
the  city  of  Ajmeer,  contains  carbonate  of  lead,  ninn- 
ganese,  copper,  and  abundance  of  iron  ore.  The 
general  elevation  of  the  plain  of  A.  is  about  2000 
feet,  and  the  frosts  in  winter  are  sometimes  severe. 
Strong  breezes  are  prevalent,  and  the  climate 
on  the  whole  is  healthy.  Tiie  scarcity  of  water, 
however,  often  occasions  great  distress.  The  only 
permanent  stream  is  the  Koree,  the  water  of  which 
is  so  impregnated  with  mineral  salts  as  to  be  unfit 
for  alimentary  use  except  during  the  rains.  To 
compensate  for  this  deficiency,  water-tanks  are  nume- 
rous. The  staple  crop  is  bajra  {Holms  spicatus). 
Sheep  are  reared  in  great  numbers,  and  wool  is 
cheap,  affording  the  material  of  their  clothing  to  the 
lower  orders.  Among  the  more  prevalent  diseases 
are  small-jjox  and  ophthalmia.  The  population  in 
1848  was  224,891,  of  whom  27,288  were  Mussulmans, 
&c.,  the  rest  Hindus.  The  principal  race  arc  the 
Rajpoots,  the  conquerors  of  the  native  Bheels. 
Mhairs,  and  Neenas.  The  present  limits  of  this 
district  by  no  means  correspond  to  its  former 
importance.  In  the  r2th  c,  at  the  time  of  the 
Mussulman  invasion,  the  sultan  of  A.  and  Delhi 
was  the  most  powerful  monarch  in  India.  Under 
Akbar  also,  who  acquired  this  territory  in  1559, 
A.  was  a  large  and  important  province.  It  after- 
f8 


wards    fell  into   the   hands  of  the   Mahratta.s,   from 
whom  it  was  wrested  by  the  British  in  1817. 

AJMEER,  an  ancient  city  of  Hindustan,  the 
capital  of  the  British  district  of  the  same  name,  228 
miles  west  from  Agra.  It  is  situated  in  a  i)icturesque 
and  rocky  valley,  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain  of 
Taragurh,  which  is  crowned  by  a  fort,  once  strong, 
but  now  dismantled.  The  city  is  suriounded  by  a 
stone  wall,  with  five  lofty  and  handsome  gateways 
on  the  west  and  north.  Most  of  the  streets  are 
narrow  and  dirty,  but  some  of  them  are  spacious, 
and  contain  many  fine  residences,  besides  several 
mos(|U('S  and  temples  of  very  massive  architecture. 
A.  is  the  seat  of  a  British  political  agency,  a  medical 
school,  and  an  English  and  Oriental  school.  The 
tomb  of  the  Mussuhiian  saint,  Kwajah,  within  the 
town,  is  held  in  great  veneration,  and  pilgrimages 
are  made  to  it  even  by  Hindus.  Tlie  emperor 
Akbar  journeyed  to  it  from  Agra  on  foot  in  1570, 
in  fulfilment  of  a  vow  after  the  visit  of  his  son 
Jehanghir.  In  October,  a  great  annual  fair  is  held  in 
honour  of  the  saint,  at  which  ridiculous  miracles  arc 
prerended  to  bo  w  rought.  The  pop.  of  A.  is  probably 
about  30,000. 

AKBAR  (i.  0,  'Yerv  Great'),  properly  JELAL- 
ED-1)IX-M0IIAMMED,'  emperor  of  Ilin(iustan,  tiie 
greatest  Asiatic  monarch  of  modern  times.  His 
father,  Ilumayun,  was  deprived  of  the  throne  by 
usurpers,  and  had  to  retire  for  refuge  into  Persia; 
and  it  was  on  the  way  thither,  in  the  town  of 
Amerkoto,  that  A.  was  born,  in  1542  a.d.  Ilumayun 
recovered  the  throne  of  Delhi  after  an  exile  of  twelve 
years  ;  but  died  within  a  year.  The  young  prince 
at  first  committed  the  administration  to  a  legent- 
minister;  but  finding  his  autliority  degenerating  into 
tyranny,  he,  by  a  bold  stroke,  shook  it  oft",  and  took 
the  power  into  his  own  hands  (1558).  At  this  tin)e. 
only  a  few  of  the  many  provinces  once  subdued  by 
the  Mongol  invaders  were  actually  subject  to  the 
throne  of  Delhi  ;  in  ten  or  twelve  years,  A.'s  empire 
embraced  the  whole  of  Hindustan  south  of  the 
Deccan;  but  although  great  in  subduing,  A.  was 
yet  greater  in  ruling.  The  wisdom,  vigour,  and 
humanity  with  which  he  organised  and  administered 
his  vast  dominions,  are  unexampled  in  the  east.  He 
promoted  commerce  by  constructing  roads,  establish- 
ing a  uniform  system  of  weights  and  measures,  and 
a  vigorous  police.  He  exercised  the  utmost  vigi- 
lance over  his  viceroys  of  provinces  and  other  officers, 
to  see  that  no  extortion  was  practised,  and  that 
justice  was  impartially  administered  to  all  classes  of 
his  subjects.  For  the  adjustment  of  taxation,  the 
lands  were  accurately  measured,  and  the  statistics 
taken,  not  only  of  the  population,  but  of  the  re- 
sources of  each  jirovince.  For  a  Mohammedan,  the 
tolerance  with  which  he  treated  other  religions  was 
wonderful.  He  was  fond  of  inquiries  as  to  religious 
beliefs;  and  Portuguese  missionaries  from  Goa  were 
sent  at  his  request  to  give  him  an  account  of  the 
Christian  faith.  He  even  attempted  to  i)romulgatc 
a  new  religion  of  his  own,  which,  however,  never 
took  root.  Literature  received  the  greatest  encour- 
agement. Schools  wore  established  for  the  education 
botli  of  Hindus  and  Mohammedans;  and  numbers 
of  Hindu  works  were  translated  from  Sanscrit  into 
Persian.  Abu-1-Fazl,  the  able  minister  of  A.,  has 
left  a  valuable  history  of  his  master's  reign,  entitled 
A.-nameh  (History  of  A.);  the  third  volume,  con- 
taining a  description  of  A.'s  empire,  derived  from 
the  statistical  inquiries  above  mentiou'^d,  and 
entitled  Aiiin-i-Akhari  (Institutes  of  A.),  h'ls  been 
translated  into  English  by  Gladwin  (3  -vols., 
Calcutta,  178(1 ;  and  London,  ISiiO).  A.'s  latter 
days  were  emliittcred  by  the  death  of  two  of  his  sons 
from  dissipation,  and  the  rebeUious  conduct  of  the 


AKEE— ALABAMA. 


third,   Sclim  (known  as  Johanghir),  who   succeeded 
his  father  at  his  death  ia  1GU5. 

AKEE'  {Cupaiiia  or  Bliglda  sapidn),  a  fruit-tree 
belonging  to  the  natural  order  Sapbidacne  (([.  v.), 
a  native  of  Guinea,  introduced  into  Jamaica  in  the 
end  of  last  century.  It  grows  to  the  heiglit  of 
20 — 25  feet  or  upwards,  with  numerous  branches  and 
alternate  pinnate  leaves,  resembling  those  of  the 
ash.  The  flowers  are  small,  white,  on  axillary 
racemes  ;  the  fruit  is  about  the  size  of  a  goose's  egg, 
with  three  cells  and  three  seeds,  and  its  succulent 
aril  has  a  grateful  subacid  flavour.  The  fruit  is 
little  inferior  to  a  nectarine.  Boiled  down  with 
sugar  and  cinnamon,  it  is  used  as  a  remedy  for 
diarrhoea.  The  distilled  water  of  the  flowers  is 
used  by  negro  women  as  a  cosmetic.  The  A. 
sometimes  produces  fruit  in  stoves  in  Britain.  In 
order  to  obtain  this,  the  roots  should  be  cramped 
in  pots. — The  Aki  of  New  Zealand  is  a  totally 
different  plant,  Metro^'ulcros  buxifolia,  of  the  natural 
order  Miirtacece,  a  hard- wooded  shrub,  which  sends 
out  lateral  roots,  and  by  means  of  them,  climbs  to 
the  summits  of  the  loftiest  trees. 

A'KENSIDE,    Mark,    an   authoi'   of    considerable 
celebrity,  in  his  own  day,  on  account  of  his  didactic 
poem.   The  Pleasures  of  the  luinglnation,  and   some 
medical  works.     He  was  born  November  9,  1721,  at 
Newcastle-on-Tyne,  where  his  father  was  a  butcher. 
Being    intended    for    the    Presbyterian    Church,    he 
was  sent  to  study  theology  at  Edinburgh,  but  soon 
abandoned  it  for  that  of  medicine.     He   graduated 
as  a   physician  at  Leydcn  in  1741,  and  practised  at 
Northampton,    then    at    Ilampstoad,    and    finally    in 
Loudon.     His  success  as  a  practising   physician  was 
never  very  great,  owing,  it  is  said,    to   his   haughty 
and  pedantic  manner.     He  died   in    London  (June 
28,   1770),    soon  after    being    appointed  one  of  the 
physicians  to  the  queen.     At  Leyden,  he  had  formed 
an  intimacy  with  Jeremiah  Dyson,  and  this  rich  and 
generous  friend  allowed  him  £300  a  year.     Some  of 
Ills    medical    treatises,   as    those    on    the    lymphatic 
vt-^sels  and  on  dysentery,  possess  considerable  merit. 
His   later   poetry,    consisting    chiefly    of    odes   and 
iiymns,   did  not   attain  the    same   reputation   as  his 
Pleasures  of  the  I/nar/i}iatio7i,  which  was  written  in 
his    twenty-third    year,    and    to    which    is    owing 
whatever    celebrity    has     attached     to    his    name. 
Dyson    published    his    poetic    works    in    1772,    and 
another   edition    appeared    in    18o7.     In    Peregrine 
Pickle,   Smollett  has  satirically   sketched    the   char- 
acter of  A.,  under  that  of  the   pedant  who  under- 
takes  to    give  an  entertainment    after    the  manner 
of  the   ancients.     A.  has   little    originality  of  con- 
ception or  even  of  expression  ;  the  reader  is  carried 
along  for  a  time  by  the  evident   enthusiasm  of  the 
poet,  and  rapid  and  stately  march   of  lofty  images 
and    ideas ;    but,    as    it    has    been    well    expressed, 
'all  is  operose,  cumbrous,  and  cloudy,  with  abund- 
ance   of  gay    colouring    and    well-sounding    words, 
but    filling   the   eye   oftener    than    the   imagination, 
and    the    ear    oftener    than    either.'      A.    became 
dissatisfied  with  his  juvenile   production,  and  at  his 
death,  had  written  a  portion  of  a  new  poem  on  the 
same  subject.     Both  poems  were  published  in  the 
complete  edition  of  his  works,  Lond.  1773.     His  life 
has  recently  been  written  by  Bucke :  Life,  Writings, 
and  Genius  of  A.  (8vo,  Lond.  1832). 

AKETON,  another  name  for  a  portion  of  armour, 
used  in  the  feudal  times,  called  the  Gambeson  (q.  v.). 
A'K.IERMAXN  or  AKKERMANN,  a  town  in 
Besarabia  on  the  Black  Sea,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Dniester,  with  a  citadel  and  harbour;  pop.  2(), 000. 
It  is  the  Alba  Julia  of  the  Romans ;  and  called,  by 
the  Poles,  Bialogiod,  which,  as  well  as  A.,  signifies 
the   tch'te   town.     It  is  considered  a  town  of  some 


importance,  on  account  of  its  harbour,  fortifications, 
commerce,  and  csj)ecially  its  extensive  salt-pits. 

The  Treaty  (supplementary  of  that  of  Bucharest, 
1812)  concluded  at  A.  in  182G,  between  Russia  and 
Turkey,  secured  to  Russia  the  free  navigation  of  the 
Black  Sea,  and  iu<U'mni!ication  for  losses  sustained 
by  her  subjects  from  the  Barbary  corsairs  ;  the  insti- 
tution of  divans  in  Moldavia  and  Wallachia,  and  the 
power  of  re-electing  the  hos])odars  after  their  term  of 
olfice;  and  the  restoration  of  the  privileges  of  Servia, 
ill  which  Turkish  troops  were  only  to  retain  posses- 
sion oF  the  fortresses.  The  boundaries  in  Asia  were 
to  remain  as  they  then  stood ;  Russia  conse(|uently 
retaining  the  Turkish  fortresses  of  which  she  had 
gained  possession.  The  non-fulfilment  of  this  treaty 
on  the  part  of  the  Porte,  occasioned  the  war  of  1828, 
which  was  terminated  by  the  peace  of  Adrianople. 

ALABA'MA,  one  of  the  states  composing  the 
LTnion  of  North  America,  was  first  known  to  Euro- 
peans in  the  year  1541,  half  a  century  after  the  dis- 
covery of  America.  The  celebrated  exploring  expedi- 
tion of  De  Soto  had  to  fight  is  way  fiercely  through 
the  tribes  who  peopled  its  wilds  at  that  period,  and 
who  were  much  less  savage  and  far  more  numerous 
than  the  northern  aborigines.  In  one  instance,  a  chief's 
house  measured  120  feet  by  40,  and  included  small 
buildings  like  offices.  LTpon  the  Savannah  River,  at 
Silver  Bluff,  there  was  found  a  remarkable  temple, 
loo  feet  long,  40  feet  wide,  and  proportionally  high. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  18th  c,  the  French  built 
a  fort  on  Mobile  Bay,  but  the  city  of  that  name 
was  not  commenced  till  nine  years  later  (1711).  In 
1763,  when  the  entire  French  possessions  east  of  the 
Mississippi  (except  New  Orleans)  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  English,  A.  was  incorporated  first  with 
Georgia,  afterwards,  in  1802,  with  the  Mississippi 
territory;  but  finally,  in  the  year  1810,  it  became 
an  independent  member  of  the  great  American  confe- 
deracy, and  is  now  the  fourth  in  point  of  population 
among  the  southern  states. 

A.  very  nearly  forms  a  rectangle,  widening  a  little 
towards  the  south-east  and  south-west,  so  that  wc 
would  naturally  expect  a  fine  sea-board;  but  of  this 
it  is  deprived  by  Florida,  which  occupies  fully  tliree- 
fourths  of  the  coast-line.  It  lies  between  30°  K/ 
and  35°  N.  lat.,  and  between  85°  and  88°  3:t'  W. 
long. ;  being  about  330  miles  in  extreme  length  from 
north  to  south,  and  300  miles  in  breadth.  It  contains 
an  area  of  50,722  square  miles,  or  32,402,080  acres, 
only  6,385,724  of  which,  or  rather  less  than  one- 
fifth,  were  improved  in  1860.  The  country  is  neither 
mountainous  nor  level,  but  rugged  and  broken, 
especially  in  the  centre,  with  many  picturesque  views 
and  wild  romantic  gorges.  The  Alleghauies  termi- 
nate in  the  north  in  a  scries  of  elevated  hills,  and 
the  ground  gradually  slopes  to  within  GO  miles  of 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  when  it  becomes  level.  There 
are  three  bays  in  A.,  the  principal  of  which  is 
Mobile  Bay,  stretching  north  for  about  30  miles. 
There  are  also  three  large  rivers — the  Tennessee,  the 
Tombigbee,  and  the  A. ;  the  firs^  of  which  only 
makes  a  sweep  into  the  state  at  the  north-east  angle, 
and  then  another  sweep  out  at  the  north-west ;  the 
second  comes  into  A.  from  Mississippi,  receives  an 
affluent  (Black  Warrior),  and  flows  due  south,  until 
it  is  joined  by  the  A.,  flowing  out  of  Georgia  in 
a  south-westerly  direction.  After  the  union,  the 
river  is  called  the  Mobile,  and  discharges  its  waters 
into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  Tombigbee  is  about 
500  miles  in  length,  and  naviga))le  for  steam-boats 
throughout  its  entire  course  in  Alabama.  The 
A.  is  about  600  miles  long,  and  may  be  ascended 
in  steam-boats  to  Wetumpka  (on  the  Coosa  branch), 
460  miles  from  the  Gulf;  but  the  navigation  of  the 
Tennessee,  which  has  130  miles  of  its  course  in  A., 
is  obstructed  by  the  Muscie-shoals,  a  series  of  rapids.' 

CO 


ALABAMA— ALABASTER. 


The  climate  of  this  state  is  almost  tropical,  reach-  | 
ing  to  within  7°  of  the  torrid  zone,  aud  its  productions 
are  alUed  to  those  of  the  tropics.  Rivers  rarely 
freeze.  In  1850,  1S51,  the  maximum  temperature 
of  the  three  winter  months  was  ascertained  to  be  82°, 
the  minimum  18%  and  the  mean  at  3  o'clock  p.  M., 
48°  25'.  The  lowlands  are  very  unhealthy,  near  the 
rivers  and  muscle-shoals,  but  the  hilly  regions  are  ^ 
salubrious.  The  soil  is  exuberantly  fertile  in  many  j 
places,  yielding  more  cotton  in  1860  than  any  | 
other  State  except  Mississippi.  There  are  fine 
grazing-lands  in  the  low  hills  of  the  north,  where  i 
the  Alfeghanies  terminate,  and  the  long  flat  valleys 
between  them  are  extremely  rich.  The  central  part 
is  a  great,  broken,  and  swelling  prairie,  remarkably 
fertile  ;  while  the  southern,  though  often  sandy  and  j 
inferior  in  productiveness,  has  many  fertile  alluvial 
bottoms,  which  yield  rice.  Besides  cotton,  A.  pro-  ] 
duces  large  quantities  of  Lidian-corn,  oats,  sweet  , 
potatoes,  and  butter ;  a  considerable  amount  of  | 
wheat,  rye,  rice,  wool,  hay,  pease,  beans,  potatoes, 
fruits,'market-vegetables,  and  sugar;  some  tobacco, 
barley,  buckwheat,  wine,  cheese,  grass-seeds,  hops, 
flax,  and  silk,  are  also  raised.  In  1860,  there  were 
50,064  farms  in  A.,  with  a  live-stock  valued  at 
43*4 11,7 11  dollars,  and  farming  imj^lements  and 
machiiiery  worth  more  than  7,43.3,000  dollars.  There 
is  abundance  of  wdld  deer  and  turkeys;  aud  wild 
geese  and  ducks  frequent  the  Muscle-shoals  of  Ten- 
nessee in  immense  numbers.  Bears,  wolves,  and 
foxes  are  likewise  still  met  with.  Tlie  trees,  like 
the  animals,  are  numerous,  but  not  remarkably 
varied.  In  the  centre  and  north,  there  are_  oaks, 
poplar,  hickory,  chestnut,  and  mulberry  ;  iu  the 
south,  cvpvess  and  loblolly  :  pine  is  also  abundant 
south  of  the  mountains.  A.  is,  however,  very  rich 
in  mineral  treasures,  particularly  in  coal,  iron, 
limestone,  and  marble.  Red  ochre,  lead,  and  man- 
ganese are  also  found.  A  vein  of  bituminous  coal 
of  a  superior  quality  runs  eastward  from  Tusca- 
loosa into  Georgia.  '  There  arc,  in  various  sections 
of  the  state,  salt,  sulphur,  and  chalybeate  springs. 
At  Blount's  Springs,  a  fashionable  watering-place, 
t'.iere  are  several  different  varieties  of  sulphur 
waters.  A  gold-mine  was  also  wrought  for  a  short 
time  in  St.  Clair  county,  while  the  statuary  granite 
of  A.  is  admitted  to  be  the  best  in  the  whole  of  the 
United  States. 

But  little  attention,  comparatively  speaking,  has 
been  paid  to  manufactures  in  Alabama ;  but  accord- 
ing to  the  census  of  1860,  there  were  in  the  state 
1459  manufacturing  establishments,  employing  7889 
persons,  consuming  raw  material  worth  $5,489,963, 
producing  goods  to  the  value  of  $10,588,571  annu- 
ally. Total  amount  of  capital  invested,  $9,098,181. 
Of  these,  31  were  establishments  for  preparing  and 
manufacturing  cotton,  capital  invested  $1,652,450, 
value  of  annual  products  $1,483,252  ;  336  saw-mills, 
capital  invested  $1,756,572,  annual  products  $1,873,- 
484 ;  236  flour  and  meal  establishments,  capital  in- 
vested $692,733,  annual  products  $2,343,238  ;  _  27 
turpentine  distilleries,  3  liquor  distilleries,  1 6  machine- 
shops,  62  carriage  factories,  132  establishments  for 
the  manufacture  and  preparation  of  leather,  140 
blacksmiths'  shops.  Value  of  home-made  manufac- 
tures, $1,817,520. 

Tliere  were  in  Alabama,  in  1860,  743  miles  of  rail- 
roail  completed,  and  several  hundred  in  course  of 
construction.  A.  has  more  than  1 500  miles  of  steam- 
boat navigation  on  her  rivers. 

Education  is  progressing  satisfactorily  in  A.  In 
1860,  there  were  17  colleges,  1903  public  schools, 
and  206  academies  and  other  schools.  The  num- 
ber of  pupils  attending  school  was  74,649.  llie 
annual  income  of  the  state  university,  located  at 
Tuscaloosa,  is  15,000  dollars.  The  newspaper  and 
100 


periodical  literature,  as  everywhere  else  in  America, 
is  very  prolific.  'ITiere  were  96  periodicals  of  ditler- 
ent  kinds;  the  circulation  being,  dailies  8820,  tri- 
weekly 2886,  semi-weekly  400,  weekly  74,289,  monthly 
7200.  Denominations  exhibit  a  similar  fecundity; 
but  the  Baptists  and  Methodists  have  a  vast  pre- 
ponderance over  the  others.  Tliere  are  various 
public  institutions  iir  A.,  such  as  a  lunatic  a.sylura 
at  Tuscaloosa,  a  blind  asylum  at  Mobile,  and  a 
state  penitentiary  at  Wetumpka.  An  asylum  for 
the  deaf  and  dumb  was  also  recently  organized. 
Tlie  buildings  of  A.  University  are  very  fine, 
and  cost  150,000  dollai's.  In  1850,  there  were 
56  libraries,  with  20,623  volumes,  in  the  state. 

A.  was  one  of  the  slave-states.  Its  government 
resembles  that  of  the  other  states  in  its  general 
features.  The  senate  consists  of  33  mendiers, 
ejected  for  4  years ;  and  the  house  of  representa- 
tives of  100,  elected  for  2,  both  by  the  people.  Tlie 
judiciary  consists  of  a  supreme  court,  a  court  of 
chancery,  nine  circuit  courts,  and  a  city  court 
of  Mobile.  The  population,  in  18C0,  was  964,201. 
Tlie  ])reponderance  of  the  farming  interests  is 
very  remarkable ;  though,  of  course,  extremely 
natural,  and,  even,  ineritable.  Wliilc  gjocers, 
shoemakers,  engineers,  vvheeh\Tights,  masons,  &c., 
are  reckoned  only  by  the  hundred,  there  are 
upwards  of  66,000  farmers.  On  the  sujjpression  of 
the  rebellion,  the  government  of  A.  became  provis- 
ional. Haring  complied  with  the  requirements  of 
Congress,  Gen.  Meade,  on  July  14,  1868,  restored  to 
the  civil  powers  the  direction  of  affairs  in  the  State. 
At  the  i)residential  election,  in  1868,  the  "  Democrats" 
polled  a  majority  of  40,000  votes.  The  cotton  crop 
in  1868  was  400,000  bales.  The  commercial  metrop- 
olis is  Mobile,  with  a  population,  in  1860,  of  29,258  : 
but  the  State  mctro]iolis  is  Montgomery,  with  a  pop- 
ulation of  8843.  The  other  chief  towiis  are  Hunts- 
ville,  Selma,  and  Marion. 

A'LABASTER.  This  name  is  given  to  two  kinds 
of  white  stone,  chemically  distinct,  but  resembling 
each  other  in  appearance,  and  both  used  for  orna- 
mental purposes.  A.  proper  is  a  white,  granular, 
semi-transparent  variety  of  gypsum  (q.  v.)  or  sulphate 


Alabastra. 

of  lime  It  occurs  in  various  countries,  but  the 
finest  is  found  near  Volterra,  in  Tuscnny,  where  it  is 
worked  into  a  variety  of  the  smaller  objects  of 
sculpture  vases,  time-piece  stands,  &c.  Gypseous 
A  of  a  good  quality  is  also  found  in  Derbyshire  and 
many  ornamental  articles  are  made  of  it  at  Matlock 
and  "other  places.  Not  being  quite  insoluble  in 
water,  it  cannot  be  exposed  to  the  weather ;  and 
its  softness  makes  the  surface  easily  become  rough 
and  opaque.  Nor  is  it  generally  found  iu  sufficient 
masses  for  large  works.  The  other  stone  is  a 
compact,  crystalline  carbonate  of  lin.e  depositea 
from  water  in  the  form  of  stalagmite,  &c.  It  is 
distinguishable  from  the  gypseous  alabaster  by  its 
.  effervescing  with  an  acid,  and  by  its  hardness  ;  real 


ALAGOAS— ALARIC  I. 


alabaster  may  be  scratched  with  the  nail. — The  name 
is  derived  from  Ahibastron,  a  town  in  Upper  Egypt, 
where  this  i<inil  of  stone  was  abundant,  and  was 
niiiniifactured  into  pots  for  perfumes.  Sucli  pots 
were  called  aUibastra,  even  when  made  of  other 
materials. 

ALAGO'AS,  a  maritime  province  of  Brazil,  which 
formed  at  one  time  a  district  of  the  province  of 
Pernamhuco.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  and  W.  by 
Pernambuco,  and  on  the  S.  is  divided  from  the 
province  of  Sergipe  by  the  navigable  river  San 
Francisco.  The  country ,  which  is  mountainous  in  t)ie 
north-west,  and  low,  marsliy,  and  unhealthy  on  the 
coast,  contains  220,000  inhabitants.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions are  the  sugar-cane,  cotton-plant,  maudioc 
or  cassava,  maize,  rice,  &c.,  and  also  timber  and 
dye-woods.  The  capital,  A.,  is  situated  on  the 
Lake  Manguaba.  The  name  A.  is  derived  from  the 
lakes  {lar/oas')  in  which  the  pro\ince  abounds. 

ALAM.\'NXI,  LuiGT,  a  distinguished  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Florence,  October  28,  141)5.  His  father,  a 
man  of  noble  birth,  was  a  zealous  partisan  of  the 
Medici,  and  Luigi  stood  higli  in  their  favour,  till,  in 
revenge  for  some  real  or  landed  wrong,  he  conspired 
against  the  life  of  Cardinal  Guiliano,  the  representa- 
tive of  Leo  X.  This  being  found  out,  A.  fled  to 
Venice,  and  thence,  on  the  accession  of  the  cardinal 
to  the  pa[)al  chair,  to  Fiance.  In  1527,  encouraged 
by  the  pope's  reverses,  he  returned  to  Florence,  and 
urged  the  Republic  to  seek  the  protection  of  Charles 
v.,  by  means  of  Andrea  Doria's  friendly  mediation. 
The  Republic  declared  such  a  proposal  treachery, 
and  A.  sailed  with  Doiia  for  Spain.  Finally,  he 
settled  in  France,  employed  as  a  diplomatist  by 
Francis  I.  and  Henry  II.  A.  died  at  Amboise  in 
1536.  He  wrote  epics,  dramas,  and  minor  poems, 
much  admired  in  their  day,  and  disputes  with 
Trissino  the  claim  of  first  introducing  blank  verse 
into  Italian  poetry. 

A'LAND  ISLANDS  (pronounced  Oland),  a 
numerous  group  of  small  islands  and  rocks  at  the 
entrance  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  ojjposite  Abo,  about 
25  miles  from  the  Swedish  coast,  and  15  from  that 
of  Finland.  They  arc  called,  by  the  Finns,  Ahven- 
anmaa.  About  80  of  them  are  inhabited.  Although 
these  rocky  isles  are  covered  with  but  a  thiri 
Stratum  of  soil,  they  bear  Scotch  fir,  spruce,  and 
birch  trees,  and  with  proper  cultivation,  produce 
barley  and  oats,  besides  aflbrding  subsistence  to  a 
hardy  breed  of  cattle.  The  inhabitants  are  of 
Swedish  origin,  skilful  sailors,  fishermen,  and  sc;.!- 
hunters.  The  total  population  is  about  15,0oo. 
The  largest  of  the  islands,  which  gives  its  name 
(signifying  'Land  of  Streams')  to  the  whole  group, 
is  about  18  miles  long  by  H  broad.  It  is  tolerably 
wooded  and  fruitful,  and  contains  nearly  10,000 
inhabitants.  These  islands  belonged  formerly  to 
Sweden,  but  were  seized  by  Russia  in  1809.  Previous 
to  this,  they  had  several  times  changed  hands  between 
these  two  powers.  In  1717,  the  Swedes  were  defeated 
by  the  Russians  in  a  naval  engagement  near  Aland, 
the  first  important  exploit  of  the  Muscovite  navy. 
Tiie  importance  of  the>-e  islands  as  a  military  position 
led  to  the  constructio  ;,  in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor 
Nicliolas,  of  those  strong  fortifications  at  Bomarsund 
which,  in  August  1851,  were  destroyed  by  the 
Anglo-French  force,  commanded  by  Sir  Charles 
Napier  and  Baraguay  d'Hilliers.  Two  thousand 
prisoners  were  taken.  This  extensive  fortress  (which 
is  supposed  to  have  been  but  the  first  of  an  intended 
series  of  similar  menacing  fortifications  in  the  Baltic) 
commanded  the  anchorage  of  Ytternajs,  capable  of 
containing  a  large  fleet. 

ALANGIA'CE.^5,    a    natural   order    of    dicotyle- 
donous  plants,    allied    to    Ifyrtacccc  (q.    v.),    and 


containint;  only  about  eight  known  species,  trees  anl 
large  shrubs,  of  which  the  greater  number  belong  to 
the  American  genus  Ni/ssa  (see  TurEi.o),  ditl'ering 
from  the  rest  of  the  order  in  the  alisence  of 
petals.  The  one-celled  fruit,  and  pendulous  albu- 
minous seeds,  constitute  marks  of  distinction  from 
Myrtacea;.  The  fruit  of  A/anrfhtni  deatpctnlum 
and  A.  hexapetalum,  natives  of  the  East  Indies,  ai<* 
eatable,  but  mucilaginous  and  insipid.  The  timber 
is  good,  the  roots  aromatic. 

ALARCON     Y     MENDOZA,     Jitan     Ruiz     de, 

one  of  the  most  eminent  of  Spanish  dramatists,  born 
at  the  town  of  Tasco  in  Mexico,  about  the  end  of 
the  lOth  c.  He  belonged  to  the  anciint  family  of  the 
Ruizes  of  Alarcon,  of  which  a  branch  had  emigrated 
to  America.  Having  studied  at  the  college  that  had 
been  instituted  in  Mexico,  he  removed  to  Spain, 
where  he  is  mentioned  as  Relator  del  real  conscjo  de 
las  Indias  (Reporter  of  the  ro^al  council  of  the 
Indies)  in  1622.  The  success  that  early  attended  his 
pieces,  joined  to  the  haughty  disdain  with  which,  in 
the  consciousness  of  his  own  powers,  he  treated  the 
opinion  both  of  the  public  and  of  his  brother-writers, 
excited  the  envy  and  jealousy  of  his  contemporaries, 
so  that  he  became  the  object  of  venomous  epigrams 
by  the  most  famous  poets  c''  the  time,  in  which  the 
deformed  upstart  from  New  Spain,  with  his  pride 
and  contemptuousness,  was  held  up  to  public  ridi- 
cule. This  kind  of  persecution  continued  till  his 
death,  which  occurred  in  1031).  Even  during  his 
lifetime,  his  best  pieces  were  attributed  to  others, 
and  were  printed  and  represented  under  the  names 
of  more  favoured  poets.  This  early  withdrawal  and 
oblivion  of  his  name,  together  with  the  scarcity  of 
his  works,  have  been  the  cause  that  he  has  seldom 
been  mentioned,  and  still  less  appreciated  by  histo- 
rians of  literature,  even  down  to  the  latest  times. 
Yet  some  of  the  best  critics  rank  him  next  to 
Calderon  and  Lope  de  Yoga  as  a  dramatic  wiiter. 
Besides  many  single  or  detached  pieces  piinted  in 
collections,  he  published  a  number  in  his  Comedian 
(vol.  i.,  Madrid,  1628;  vol.  ii.,  Barcelona,  1634). 
Ilartzenbusch  began  a  collected  edition  at  Madrid, 
1848.  A.  attempted  almost  all  the  kinds  of  drama 
in  vogue  in  Ids  time ;  and  was  especially  eminent  in 
the  heroic,  as  the  best  specimens  of  which  may  be 
mentioned,  El  Tejedorde  Segovia,  and  Ganar  Amigox, 
or  La  que  mucho  vale  mucho  chesfa.  A.'s  mastery 
in  delineating  character  is  shewn  in  the  Coniedias  de 
Costiciii/jrex,  or  character-comedies,  of  which  he  may 
be  held  as  the  creator.  The  best  known  are  La 
Vcrdad  Sospechosa  (imitated  by  Corneille  in  his 
Menteiir)  and  Las  Pavcdes  Oi/cn  (Walls  have  Ears), 
which  are  yet  lepresented  on  tlie  Spanish  stage. 
Of  his  comedies  of  intrigue,  the  best  specimen  is 
Todo  cs  rcntura. 

It  does  not  appear  that  A.  wrote  any  Autos  {(\.  v.), 
though  his  two  pieces,  £1  Antichristo,  and  Quicn  mal 
andc  en  mat  acaba,  betray  a  tendency  to  ascetic 
mysticism.  Although,  through  the  artifices  of  his 
contemporaries,  as  well  as  the  eclat  of  Lope  de  Vega's 
and  Calderon's  dramas,  the  compositions  of  A.  were 
soon  driven  from  the  stage,  yet  he  lemains,  together 
with  Tir.-o  de  Molina,  the  most  distinguished  at.d 
original  among  the  successors  of  Lope.  Loiie  and 
Calderon,  the  coryplijei  of  that  age,  are  the  only 
dramatists  that  excel  A.  Combining,  in  no  mean 
degree,  the  characteristics  of  both,  he  excels  them 
in  purity  of  language  and  elevation  of  moral  feeling. 

A'LARIC  I.  (in  German  Al-ric,  i.  e.,  all  rich) 
belonged  to  one  of  the  noblest  families  of  the 
Visigoths.  He  makes  his  first  appearance  in  history 
in  304  A.r.,  as  leader  of  the  Gothic  auxiliaries  of 
Theodosius  in  his  war  with  Eugenius  ;  bvit  after  the 
death   of  the   I'ormerj    he   took   advantage    of  the 

101 


ALARIC  II.— ALATERNUS. 


dissensions  and  weakness  that  prevailed  in  the 
Roman  Empire  to  invade  (395)  Thrace,  Maccdon, 
Thc'ssaly,  and  Illyria,  devastating  the  country,  and 
threatening  Constantinople  itsilf.  Rutinus,  the 
minister  of  Arcadius,  appears  to  have  sacrificed 
Greece  in  order  to  rescue  the  capital,  and  Athens 
was  obliged  to  secure  its  own  safety  by  ransom. 
A.  proceeded  to  plunder  and  devastate  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus, but  was  interrupted  by  the  landing  of 
Stilicho  in  Elis  with  the  troops  of  the  west. 
Stilicho  endeavoured  to  hem  in  the  Goths  on  the 
reucius  ;  but  A.  broke  through  his  line^,  and 
escaped  with  his  prisoners  and  booty  to  Illyria,  of 
which  he  was  appointed  governor  by  the  Emperor 
Arcadius,  who  was  frightened  by  his  successes, 
and  hoped,  by  conferring  this  dignity  on  liim, 
to  make  him  a  peaceful  subject  instead  of  a 
lawless  enemy  (.396).  In  402,  he  invaded  Upper 
Italy,  and  Honorius,  the  emperor  of  the  west,  lied 
from  Rome  to  the  more  strongly  fortified  Ravenna. 
On  the  way  to  (laul,  A.  was  met  and  defeated 
by  Stilicho  at  Pollentia  on  the  Tanaio ;  but  it 
was  not  till  the  following  autumn  that  the  result 
of  the  battle  of  Verona  forced  liini  to  retire 
into  Illyria.  Through  the  mediation  of  Stilicho, 
A.  concluded  a  treaty  with  Hoiioiius,  according 
to  which  he  was  to  advance  into  Epirus,  and  thence 
attack  Arcadius  in  conjunction  \\ith  the  troops  of 
Stilicho.  The  projected  expedition  did  not  take 
place,  yet  A.  demanded  indemnification  for  having 
undertaken  it;  and  Honorius,  by  the  advice  of 
Stilicho,  promised  him  4i)(>0  pounds  of  gold.  When, 
after  the  death  of  Stilicho  (q.  v.),  Honorius  failed 
to  fulfil  his  promise,  A.  advanced  with  an  armv, 
and  invested  Rome,  which  he  refused  to  leave 
till  he  had  obtained  the  jH-omise  of  5i)00  jiounds  of 
gold,  and  30,000  of  silver.  But  neither  did  this 
liCgotiation  produce  any  satisfactory  result,  and  A. 
again  besieged  Rome  (409  a.i>.).  Famine  soon  ren- 
dered it  necessary  that  some  arrangement  should  be 
made;  and  in  order  to  this,  the  senate  proclaimed 
Attains,  the  prefect  of  the  city,  emperor  instead  of 
Honorius.  But  Attains  displayed  so  little  discretion, 
that  A.  obliged  him  jmblicly  to  abdicate.  The 
renewed  negotiations  with  Honorius  proved  equally 
fruitless  with  the  former,  and  A.  was  so  irritated 
at  a  perfidious  attempt  to  fall  upon  him  by  surprise 
at  Ravenna,  that  he  advanced  on  Rome  for  the 
third  time.  His  victorious  army  entered  the  city 
on  August  24,  410,  and  continued  to  pidage  it 
for  six  days,  A.  strictly  forbidding  his  soldiers  to 
dishonour  women  or  destroy  religious  buildings. 
AVhen  A.  quitted  Rome,  it  was  only  to  prose- 
cute the  conquest  of  Sicily ;  the  occurrence 
of  a  storm,  liowever,  which  his  ill-constructed 
vessels  were  not  able  to  resist,  obliged  him  to 
abandon  the  project  for  the  time  ;  and  his  death, 
which  took  place  at  Cosenza,  in  Calabria,  soon 
after  (410),  prevented  his  resuming  it.  In  order 
that  his  remains  might  not  be  discovered  by  the 
Romans,  they  were  deposited  in  the  bed  of  the 
river  Busento,  and  the  captives  who  had  been 
employed  in  the  work  were  put  to  death.  Rome 
and  all_  Italy  celebrated  the  death  of  A.  with  public 
festivities;  and  the  world  enjoyed  a  momentary 
repose.  But  A.  himself  was  much  less  barbarous 
than  his  followers.  He  admired  those  monuments 
of  civilisation  with  which  the  Eternal  City  abounded, 
and  sought  to  preserve  them ;  he  checked  the 
excesses  of  his  fierce  soldiery,  and  at  times  gave 
indications  that  the  lessons  of"  Christianity  which  he 
had  learned  from  the  Arian  missionaiies  had  not 
been  altogether  forgotten.  Yet  through  Lira,  the 
Goths  learned  the  way  to  Rome. 

ALARIC  II.,  eigl.th  King  of  the  West  Goths,  or 
Visigoths,  succeeded  his  father  in  484  a.d.     He  was  of 
102 


a  peaceful  disposition,  and  wished  to  live  on  friendly 
terms  with  the  Franks.  His  dondnions  were  very 
extensive.  Besides  Hispania  Tarraconensis  and 
Bffitica,  he  possessed  numerous  rich  jjrovinces  in 
Gaul,  and  formed  an  alliance,  which  still  further 
increased  his  power,  with  Gondeband  and  Thcodoi-ic, 
the  latter  of  whom  was  his  I'ather-in-law,  and  king 
of  the  East  Goths.  At  length,  ho\vcver,  he  came 
into  collision  with  the  Frankish  monarch,  Clovis, 
whose  cupidity  had  been  excited  by  the  extent  and 
fertility  of  the  territories  over  which  A.  ruled.  An 
excuse  was  found  for  breaking  the  jieace  which 
existed  between  the  two  nations,  in  the  fact  that  A. 
was  a  zealous  Arian.  This  ciicumstauce  had  given 
great  offence  to  many  of  iiis  subjects,  wlio  were 
orthodox  Catholics;  and  ostensildy  to  vindicate  the 
true  doctrine,  the  newly  converted  barbarian,  Clovis, 
declared  war  against  him.  The  result  was  fatal  to 
A.  He  was  slain  by  the  hand  of  Clovis  hin.self  at 
Vouille,  near  Poitiers,  and  his  forces  completely 
routed. 

A.  is  said  to  have  been  indolent  and  luxurious  in 
his  youth;  but  this  may  simply  imply  that  he  was 
not  fond  of  those  sanguinary  pleasures  which  capti- 
vated his  savage  contemporaries.  lie  was  tolerant 
in  his  religions  convictions.  Though  an  Arian,  he 
did  not  persecute  the  Catholics.  He  even  permitted 
the  orthoilox  prelates  to  hold  a  council  at  Agile  in 
500.  In  his  .secular  capacity,  he  disj/iayed  an  appre- 
ciation of  the  blessings  of  law  and  order.  He  enacted 
several  useful  statutes,  and  kept  a  watchful  eye  on 
all  parts  of  his  kingdom.  It  was  during  his  reign 
that  the  Brcviarmm  Alariciaitum^  or  code  of  A., 
was  drawn  up.  It  is  a  selection  of  imperial  statutes 
and  writings  of  the  Roman  jurisconsults.  A.  sent 
copies  of  it  to  all  his  governors,  ordering  them  to  use 
it,  and  no  other  An  edition  of  it  was  published  by 
Sichard,  at  Basle,  in  1528. 

ALA'RM.  In  military  matters,  the  word  alarm 
has  a  more  defined  meaning  than  mere  terror  or 
fright.  An  alarm,  among  solders  in  an  army,  is  not 
so  much  a  danger,  as  a  warning  against  danger.  An 
alarm,  signified  by  the  filing  of  a  gun  or  tiie  beating 
of  a  drimi,  denotes  to  an  army  or  camp  that  the 
enemy  is  susj)ected  of  intending  a  sudden  surprise, 
or  that  the  surprise  has  actually  been  made.  There 
is  an  alarm-post  in  camp  or  garrison  arrangements, 
to  which  the  troops  are  directed  to  hasten  on  any 
sudden  alarm  being  given. 

ALA'SKA  or  ALIASKA,  a  ])eninsala,  formerly 
a  part  of  Russian  America,  occupying  nearly  the 
same  latitudes  as  Kamtchatka  and  Britain.  lorming 
the  south-eastern  boundary  of  the  Sea  of  Kamtchatka, 
it  nniy  be  regarded,  physically,  as  a  continuation  of 
its  southern  limit,  the  Aleutian  Isles.  It  was, 
accordingly,  assumed  by  the  Russians  to  be  an 
island — a  link  in  that  great  chain  of  stejjping-stones, 
which  had  certainly  guided  them,  and  perhaps 
successive  shoals  of  adventurers  bel'ore  them,  to  the 
New  World.  The  connection  of  A.  with  the  conti- 
nent was  left  to  be  ascertained  by  Captain  Cook, 
whose  explorations  in  search  of  an  Arctic  passage — ■ 
for  Behring's  Strait  was  still  a  matter  of  doub; — 
were  recorded  in  tlie  adjacent  names  of  Biistol  Bay 
to  the  westward,  and  Cook's  Inlet  to  the  eastward. 
Thus  A.,  thougii  materially  known  only  as  a  home 
for  the  hunter  and  his  game,  becomes  morally  a 
word  of  interest  in  connection  with  the  history, 
ot  discovery  and  colonization.  All  of  wdiat  was  for- 
merly Russian  America  now  belongs  to  the  IJ.  States, 

ALx\TE'RNUS,  according  to  some,  a  genus  of 
plants  of  the  natural  oriler  Bhamnaceai  (q.  v.), 
akin  to  J^Iiamnifi  (see  Buckthorn);  but  more 
generally  regarded  as  a  sub-genus  of  Rhamnas, 
consisting  of  evergreen  shrubs,  of  which  the  best 


ALAVA— ALBA. 


known  is  Rhamnus  A..,  or  A.  philli/rca,  a  large 
shrub,  densely  branched,  with  sliiniug  alternate 
leaves,  wliich  are  more  or  less  ovate.  The  flowers 
are  dioecious,  rucenied,  numerous,  and  small,  much 
sought  after  by  bees.  This  shrnb  is  abun<lant 
in  the  south  of  Europe,  and  is  often  ])lautL'd  in 
town-gardens  in  England  to  conceal  walls  and 
other  objects,  being  of  rapid  growth,  readily  pro- 
pagated by  cuttings,  bearing  to  be  clipped  into  any 
shape,  and  not  easily  injured  by  snioUe.  Both  the 
bark  and  wood  have  been  used  in  dyeing. 

ALA'VA,  Don  Miguel  RiCARno  de,  a  Spanish 
general,  born  at  Vittoria,  in  1771,  of  a  noble  family 
in  the  province  of  Alava.  He  entered  the  navy 
in  early  liie ;  but  afterwards  changed  to  the  land- 
service.  After  the  abdication  of  Ferdinand  YII., 
lie  was  for  a  time  a  zealous  partisan  of  France ; 
however,  in  1811,  when  he  saw  the  ibrtunes  of 
Joseph  beginning  to  wane,  he  abandoned  the  cause 
of  this  prince,  to  em])race  that  of  the  national 
party,  and  accepted  the  office  of  Spanish  com- 
missary on  the  staff  of  Wellington.  lie  gained 
the  conhdence  of  this  general,  and  from  this  lime 
manifested  the  strongest  predilection  for  England 
and  English  institutions.  The  war  of  independence 
furnished  him  with  numerous  occasions  of  dis- 
tinguishing himself.  After  the  restoration  of  the 
king,  however,  he  was  arrested,  on  the  suspicion 
of  entertaining  liberal  opinions  ;  but  on  the  apjjli- 
cation  of  his  uncle,  Ethonard,  the  inquisitor, 
seconded  by  the  influence  of  Wellington,  he  was  not 
only  liberated,  but  appointed  ambassador  to  the 
Hague.  lie  returned  to  Spain  in  1820,  after  the 
revolution  ;  became  captain-general  of  Aragon, 
made  himself  conspicuous  among  the  Exaltados, 
and  figured  in  the  ranks  of  the  militia  on  occasion 
of  the  revolt  of  the  royal  guard  at  Madrid,  July  7, 
1822.  In  the  Cortes  assembled  at  Seville  in  1823, 
he  voted  for  the  suspension  of  the  royal  authority, 
and  took  part  in  the  negotiations  carried  on  with 
the  Duke  of  Angoulenie,  at  Cadiz.  The  rc-establish- 
ment  of  absolute  monarchy  in  the  Peninsula  drove 
him,  as  a  political  refugee,  to  Brussels  and  England, 
till,  at  the  death  of  Ferdinand,  he  was  recalled  by 
the  regent,  Maria  Christina.  In  183-1,  he  was 
appointed  Spanish  ambassador  to  London ;  and 
towards  the  end  of  1835,  he  undertook  a  mission 
to  Paris.  Under  the  administration  of  Isturiz, 
A.  shewed  himself  as  zealous  for  the  moderate 
system  as  he  had  been  for  the  preceding  one, 
and  advocated  the  French  intervention,  which 
he  had  opposed  during  his  embassy  to  London. 
After  the  insurrection  of  La  Granja,  he  refused 
to  swear  to  the  constitution  of  1812,  declaring 
that  he  was  tired  of  constantly  taking  new  oaths  ; 
he  gave  in  his  resignation  accordingly,  and  retired 
to  France,  where  he  died  in  1843. 

A'LBA,  or  A'LVA,  Ferdinand  Alvarez  ton 
Toledo,  Duke  of,  prime-minister,  and  general  of  the 
Spanish  armies  uiuler  Charles  V.  and  Philip  II.,  was 
born  in  1508,  of  one  of  the  most  illustrious  families 
of  Spain.  He  was  educated  under  the  eye  of  his 
grandfather,  who  instructed  him  in  the  arts  of  war 
and  of  goverinnent.  He  fought,  while  yet  a  youth, 
at  the  battle  of  Pavia,  and  had  the  custody  of  Francis 
I.  while  a  prisoner.  He  commanded  under  Charles 
V.  in  Hungary,  was  present  at  the  siege  of  Tunis, 
and  accompanied  the  expedition  against  Algiers.  He 
defended  Perpignan  against  the  dauphin,  distin- 
guished himself  in  Navarre  and  Catalonia,  and  was 
in  consequence  created  Duke  of  A.  His  cautiotis- 
ness  and  LU  taste  for  political  intrigue  afforded  as 
yet  no  very  high  evidence  of  his  military  talents; 
and  even   Cl^arlcs  V.,  wliom  he  counselleil,  when  in 


rather   than    hazard    a    decisive    battle,    seems    to 
have    intrusted    him    with  the    command    rather    as 
matter  of    personal  favour   than  recognition   of  his 
abilities.     His  pride  was  hurt  at  the  low   estimation 
in  which  he  was  held  ;  and  his  real  genius  began  to 
shew  itself.     The   victory   which   Charles  Y.  gained 
at  Miihlberg  over  John  Frederic,  J^lector  of  Saxony, 
in  1547,  was  due  to  the  al)Ie  generalship  of  the  Duke 
of    A.      Under    his    influence,    as   president    of   the 
council  of  war,  the  captive  elector  was  conilemned 
to  death;  and  it  was  entirely  against  his  wish  that 
the  emperor  comnuited  the  sentence.     He  took  part 
under  the  emperor  in  the  expedition  against  Henry 
II.,    king   of    France,  who   had  taken   possession  of 
Metz  ;  but  here  his  exertions,  as  well  as  those  of  the 
emperor,  proved  unavailing.     He  was  more  fortunate 
in   Italy   against  the   combined  armies  of  the   pope 
and  the  French  king,  which  he  repeatedly  defeated 
during  the  campaign  of  1555.     After  the  abdi(.a;ion 
of  the  emperor  Charles  V.  in  155(5,  he  continued  to 
hold   the    command  of  the  army,  and  overran   the 
States  of  the  Church,  which,  after  the  retreat  of  the 
In-ench  army  in  1557,  lay  entirely  at  his  mercy.     He 
was  obliged,  however,  by  the  command  of  Philip  II., 
to  conclude  a  peace  with  Pope  Paul  lY.,  and  restore 
all    his    conquests.       Being    recalled   from    Italy,  he 
appeared  in  1559  at  the  court  of  France,  with  which 
Spain  had  become  reconciled  by  the  peace  of  Cluiteau- 
Cambresis   (April   8,   155'.i);    and,   as   proxy   lor  his 
sovereign,  espoused  Elizabeth,  Henry  II. 's   daughter. 
When   the    inhabitants    of  the    Netherlands,    who 
had  been  accustomed  to  freedom,  revolted  against 
the   tyranny   of   Spain,   and  especially    against   the 
hated  inquisition,  the  Duke  of  A.'s  council   was  to 
suppress  the  insurrection  forcibly  and    with    rigour. 
The  king  accordingly  committed    the    matter  to    his 
hands,  and  sent  him  to  the  Netherlands,    15G7,  with 
unlimited    power  and    a   large    military    force.     His 
first    step  on    arriving    was    to    establi.sli   what    was 
called  the  '  Bloody  Council,'  in  which   he   himself  at 
first     presided,     and     over    which     he     afterwards 
appointed  the  sanguinary  Don   Juan  de  Yargas.    This 
tribunal    condemned    all    without  distinction    Avhose 
opinions  appeared  dubious,  or  whose   wealth  excited 
jealousy.     The  present  and  the  absent,  the  living  and 
the    dead,    were    subjected  alike  to    trial,  and   their 
property  confiscated  by  the  council.     A  number  of 
the  merchants  and  mechanics  emigrated  to  Eiigland  ; 
above  100,000  abandoned  their  native  country,  and 
many  others  enlisted  under  the  banners  of  the  pro- 
scribed  princes,  Louis  and  William  of  Orange.     A., 
rendered  still  more  savage  by  a   defeat  which  befcl 
his  lieutenant,  the  Duke  of  Aiomberg,  put  to   death 
the  Counts  Egmont  and  Horn  on  the  scatlbld.     He 
afterwards    defeated   Prince    Louis,    and    compelled 
William  of  Orange  to  retire  to  Germany ;  upon  which 
he  entered  Brussels  in  the  greatest  triumph  on  the 
22d  December  1568.     The  pope  presented  him  with  a 
consecrated  hat  and  sword,  as  defender  of  the  (^atho- 
lic   faith  ;    an  honour    which,    having  been   hitherto 
conferred  only  on  crowned  heads,  increased  his  inso- 
lence to  the  highest  degree.     He  caused  a  statue  to 
be  cast,  in  which  he  was  represented  as   tramplinr' 
under    foot    two    human    figures,    representing    the 
nobles  and  the  people  of  the  Netherlands;  and  this  he 
.set    up    in    Antwerp.     His    executioners   shed   more 
blood   than  his    soldiers ;  and    none   now    withstood 
his  arms   except    Holland   and    Zealand.     But    these 
provinces   continually   renewed  their  efforts  against 
him,  and  succeeded  in  destroying  the  fleet  which  had 
been  eriuipped  by  his  orders.     This  disaster,  and  per- 
haps still  more  the  apprehension  that  he  might  lose 
the    king's  favour,   induced  him  to  request  that    ho 
might  be    recalled.     Philip  gladly  acceded  ;    as    ho 
perceived  that  the  obstinacy  of  the  rebels  was  onlv 


Hungary,  to  build  a  bridge  of  gold  tor  tlie   Turks,  )  increased  by  these  cruelties;  and  he  was  desirous  of 

103 


ALBA  LONGA— ALBANIA. 


trying  the  effect  of  milder  measures.  A.  accordingly 
resigned  the  command  of  tlie  troops  to  Don  Louis 
de  Requesens,  and  (December  18,  1573)  left  the 
country,  in  which,  as  he  himself  boasted,  he  had 
executed  18,000  men.  The  war  which  he  had 
kindled  burned  for  sixty-eight  years,  and  cost  Spain 
800,000,000  dollars,  her  finest  troops,  and  the  loss  of 
seven  of  the  richest  provinces  of  the  Netherlands. 

A.  was  received  at  Madrid  with  the  highest  distinc- 
tion, but  did  not  long  enjoy  his  former  consideration. 
Don  Frederic,  one  of  his  sons,  having  seduced  one 
of  the  queen's  ladies  of  honour  under  promise  of 
mariiagc,  and  being  arrested  on  this  account,  the 
father  assisted  him  to  escape,  and  in  opposition  to 
the  desire  of  the  king,  united  him  in  marriage  to  one 
of  his  relatives.  He  was  in  consequence  banished 
from  the  court  to  his  castle  of  Uzeda,  where  he 
lived  two  years.  But  now  the  troubles  in  Por- 
tugal, the  crown  of  wliich  Philip  claimed  as  his 
hereditary  right,  induced  the  king  to  draw  A.  anew 
from  his  letrcat.  The  duke  accordingly  led  an  army 
into  Portugal,  and  drove  out  Don  Antonio,  who,  as 
grandson  of  John  IIL,  had  taken  possession  of  the 
throne.  The  whole  country  was  speedily  conquered 
(1581);  and  A.,  with  his  accustomed  cruelty  and 
rapacity,  seized  the  treasures  of  the  capital  himself, 
while  he  allowed  the  soldiers  to  plunder  without 
mercy  the  suburbs  and  the  surrounding  country. 
Philip,  dissatisfied  with  these  proceedings,  desired  to 
have  an  investigation  of  the  conduct  of  the  duke  ; 
but  the  haughty  bearing  of  the  latter,  and  the  fear 
of  a  revolt,  induced  him  to  abandon  it.  A.  died  at 
Lisbon,  December  11,  1582,  at  the  ago  of  74.  He  had 
a  fine  countenance,  with  a  haughty  air  and  a  robust 
frame ;  he  slept  little,  while  he  both  laboured  and 
wrote  much.  It  has  been  said  of  him,  that  during 
sixty  years  of  military  service  lie  never  lost  a  battle, 
and  never  allowed  himself  to  be  surprised. 

A'LBA  LO'NGA,  one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  of 
Italy,  situated  on  the  rocky  ridge  that  runs  along  the 
eastern  shore  of  the  Alban  Lake,  between  the  lake 
and  the  Alban  Mount.  Sec  Aldaxo.  According  to 
legendary  history,  it  was  built  by  Ascanius,  the  son 
of  Jilneas,  about  300  years  before  the  foundation  of 
Rome,  which  is  represented  as  a  colony  of  A.  Not- 
withstanding this,  the  Romans,  under  Tullus  Hostilius, 
destroyed  the  city,  and  removed  the  inhabitants  to 
Rome.  It  seems  certain  that  A.  was  an  important 
city  long  before  the  existence  of  Rome,  and  the  head 
of  a  confederation  of  Latin  towns,  and  that  when  it 
was  destroyed,  many  of  its  inhabitants  settled  at 
Rome.     Some  traces  of  its  walls  are  yet  to  be  seen. 

A'LBAN,  St.,  tlic  first  martyr  of  Britain,  was 
born  at  Yerulani,  in  the  Sd  c,  and  after  having  long 
lived  as  a  heathen,  was  converted  to  Christianitv,  [ 
but  put  to  death  at  the  commencement  of  Diode-  I 
tian's  persecution  of  the  Christians.  His  anniversary 
is  celebrated  on  the  22d  June.  The  town  of  St. 
Albans  (q.  v.),  which  bears  his  name,  is  believed  to 
stand  on  the  site  of  his  birthplace,  or  the  scene  of 
his  martyrdom. 

ALBA'XI  is  the  name  of  a  rich  and  celebrated 
family  of  Rome,  who  came  originally  from  Albania 
in  the  IGih  c,  and  settled  first  at  Urbino.  The  great 
influence  of  the  family  dates  from  the  accession  (1700) 
of  Giovanni  Francesco  A.  to  the  papal  throne,  as 
Clemens  XI.  It  has  since  furnished  a  succession  of 
cardinals.  It  was  Cardinal  Alcssandro  A.  (h.  1602 — 
d.  1779)  who  formed  the  famous  collection  of  objects 
of  art  in  the  Villa  A.,  outside  the  Porta  Salaria 
at  Rome.  It  is  still  a  rich  collection,  although  part 
of  it  was  carried  off  by  the  French.  The  pieces 
taken  away  were  restored  in  1815;  but  the  then 
possessor  being  unable  to  pay  for  their  removal  to 
Rome,  sold  them  to  the  king  of  Bavaria. 
104 


ALBANI,  FuANCKsco,  a  painter  of  the  liolognese 
school,  of  the  time  of  the  Caracci ;  born  at  Bologna, 
1578,  and  died  there  in  ICbO.  He  studied,  along 
with  Guido  Reni,  first  under  Calvert,  and  afterwards 
under  the  Caracci.  He  has  painted  above  fifty 
altar-pieces,  worthy  of  the  Caracci  school ;  but  his 
inclination  lay  more  to  the  representation  of  scenes  of 
a  playful  and  pastoral,  or  of  a  mythical  kind,  and  of 
this  nature  are  the  greater  part  of  his  pieces.  He  had 
by  his  second  wife  a  family  of  twelve  children  of 
extraordinary  beauty,  in  \\liom  he  found  exquisite 
models  for  his  Yenuses,  Galateas,  and  angels'  heads; 
with  the  disadvantage,  however,  of  ini{)artiiiga  certain 
uniformity  to  the  countenances  of  his  figures.  His 
representation  of  the  Four  Seasons,  so  often  imitated, 
gained  him  great  renown.  A.'s  chief  defect  lies  in 
the  expression  of  life  and  feeling. 

ALBA'NIA  (allied  to  Alp,  and  meaning  '  moun- 
tain region')  forms  the  south-west  piovince  of  Euio- 
pean  Turkey,  having  Montenegro,  IBosnia,  and  Servia 
on  the  N.,  Macedonia  and  Thessaly  on  the  E.,  Greece 
on  the  S.,  and  the  Ionian  and  Adriatic  seas  on  the 
W.  It  is  divided  into  four  circles,  following  the  four 
confederations  of  tribes  that  people  it — tlie  Jcgani, 
Tohkani,  Liapuri,  and  Jamuri.  These  circles  differ 
both  in  climate  and  in  the  manners  of  their  inhabit- 
ants. A  distinction  is  al.'-o  made  between  Upper 
Albania,  the  Illyria  of  the  Romans,  in  the  north,  ai.d 
Lower  Albania,  the  ancient  Epirus,  in  the  south.  On 
the  east  boundary,  forming  the  water-shed  of  the 
peninsula,  rises  the  range  of  the  Boia-dagh  and  the 
Pindus.  The  first  detaches  itself  from  the  wild 
masses  of  the  Tshar-dagh  (dagh  in  Turkish  means 
woHutain)  and  Argentaro  mountains;  and  west  of 
it  lie  parallel  chains,  enclosing  on  the  one  side,  long 
elevated  valleys,  and  sinking  on  the  other  in 
terraces,  down  to  level  stiips  along  the  coast,  con- 
sisting mostly  of  unhealthy  swamps  and  lagoons. 
Pindus,  to  the  south,  is  also  flanked  by  isolated 
basins  or  hollows,  whose  western  edges  pass  into  the 
jagged  and  thick-wooded  Epirotic  highlands.  These 
highlands  advance  to  the  sea,  forming  steep  rocky 
coasts;  one  promontory,  the  Acioceraunian,  project- 
ing in  Cape  Linguetta  far  into  the  sea,  reaches  a 
height  of  A — 500o  feet. 

The  chief  rivers  are  the  Bojana,  the  Drin,  the 
Skombi,  Erkent,  Yojussa,  (Jlykys  or  Acheron  (which 
follows  for  some  distance  a  subterranean  channel, 
and  on  reappearing,  is  called  Mauropotamos),  the 
Arta,  and  the  upper  course  of  the  Aspiopotamos. 
Among  the /aAf.s,  those  of  Bojana,  Ochri,  and  Janina, 
arc  the  most  important. 

A  fine  climate,  the  heat  of  which  is  tempered  by 
high  mountains  and  the  pioximity  of  the  sea,  and  a 
favourable  soil,  would  seem  to  invite  the  inhabitants 
to  agriculture  ;  but  for  the  most  part  in  vain.  In 
the  north,  little  or  nothing  is  cultivated  but  maize ; 
in  the  moist  valleys,  a  little  rice  and  barley  are 
produced ;  but  the  mountain-terraces  are  used  as 
pastures  for  numerous  herds  of  cattle  and  sheep.  In 
Epirus,  there  is  more  variety.  Here  the  slopes  of  the 
lower  valleys  are  covered  with  olives,  fruit  and  nml- 
berry  trees,  intermixed  with  patches  of  vines  and 
maize,  while  the  densely  wooded  mountain-ridges 
furnish  valuable  supplies  of  timber.  The  plateau  of 
.lanina  yields  abundance  of  grain ;  and  in  the  valleys 
opening  to  the  south,  the  finer  fruits  are  produced, 
along  with  maize,  rice,  and  wheat.  Even  cotton  and 
indigo  might  be  profitably  cultivated  in  the  moist 
valleys ;  but  in  its  present  wretched  condition,  the 
country  can  barely  support  its  scanty  population. 

The  inhnbitants,  estimated  at  1,900,000,  form  a 
peculiar  people,  the  Albanians  or  Arnauts ;  they  call 
themselves  Skypetars.  They  are  the  descendants  of 
the  ancient  Illyrians,  mixed  with  Greeks  and  Slaves, 
and  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  Albani  that  live 


ALBANO— ALBANY. 


on  the  ("iispiau  Sea.  The  All>;uiiaiis  arc  half-civihzA'd 
mouutaint'cis,  frank  to  a  friend,  vindictive  to  an 
enemy.  They  are  constantly  under  arms,  and  are 
more  "devoted  to  robbery  and  piracy  than  to  cattlc- 
feedin"  and  agriculture.  They  live  in  perpetual 
anarch^v,  everv  village  being  at  war  with  its  neigh- 
bour, and  cveii  the  several  qiiurter.s  of  the  same  town 
carrying  on  mutual  hostilities.  Many  of  them  serve 
as  mercenaries  in  other  countries,  and  they  form  the 
best  soldiers  of  the  Turkish  array.  At  one  time,  the 
Albanians  were  all  Christians ;  after  tlie  death  of 
their  last  chief,  the  hero  Scanderbcg,  and  their  sub- 
jugation by  the  Turks,  a  large  part  became  Mohain- 
ineiians,  who  .lislinguished  themselves  by  cruelty 
and  treachery  towards  the  tribes  that  remained  true 
to  their  old  faith.  The  steep  valleys  of  the  Acheron 
in  the  south,  forming  the  district  of  Suli,  are  inhabited 
by  a  powerful  tribe,  the  SuUotes,  who  till  their  fields 
sword  in  hand,  and  and  conceal  their  harvests  in  the 
earth.  They  made  themselves  famous  by  their  long 
resistance  to  Ali  Pacha.  In  the  north,  between  the 
Black  Drin  and  the  sea,  is  the  country  or  circle  of 
the  Miidites,  i.  e.,  the  brave,  who  are  always  ready 
with  weapons  in  their  hands  to  defend  their  freedom 
and  their  religion— the  Roman  Catholic.  A.  is 
divided  into  tli^e  pachalics  of  Janina,  Ilbessan,  and 
Scutari,  and  the  sandjaks  of  Delvino  and  Avlona. 
The  chief  towns  are  the  ports  of  Durazzo,  Avlona, 
Prevesa,  and  Parga ;  the  more  inland  towns,  Scutari, 
Berat,  Argyro  Castro,  and  Arta  ;  and  in  the  eastern 
mountain  districts,  Aklinda  and  Joannina. 


ALBA'XO,  a  town  in  the  States  of  the  Church,  on 
the  dcclivitv  of  the  lava-walls  which  encompass  the 
lake  of  the  same  name,  and  about  18  miles  from 
Rome.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  numbers  500u 
inhabitants,  and  is  surrounded  with  handsome  man- 
sions of  the  wealthier  Romans.  It  is  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  lake  from  where  Alba  Longa  stood,  and 
owed  its  origin  to  the  villas  of  ancient  Roman 
magnates,  such  as  Pompeius,  Domitian,  and  Clodius. 
A  valuable  wine  is  produced  in  the  environs.  At  a 
short  distance  from  the  town,  on  the_  old  Appian 
Way,  are  found  the  remains  of  an  amphitheatre,  and 
a  sepulchre  of  Etruscan  architecture. 

The  Alban  Lake,  or  Lago  di  Castello,  is  formed 
in  the  basin  of  an  extinct  volcano,  and  has  a  circum- 
ference of  6  miles,  with  the  enormous  depth  of  more 
than  10(1)  feet.     Its   elevation   is   nearly   1000   feet 
above  the  sea-level.     While  the  Romans  were  at  war 
with  the  Veientes  (390  n.c),  this  lake  rose   to  an 
extraordinary  height  in  the   heat   of  summer,  and 
without    any    apparent    cause.      Etruscan    diviners 
declared   that  the   conquest  of  Veil  depended  upon 
letting  off  the  waters  of  the  lake.    Stimulated  by  this, 
the  Romans,  under  the  direction  of  the  Etruscans, 
opened    an   emissary  or   tunnel    through    the    lava- 
wall  which  bounds  it.     In  the  execution  of  this  work 
they  accpiired   the   art   of   mining,  which  they  now 
applied  to  undermine  the  walls  of  Veii.     The  tunnel, 
which  still  remains,  and  still  fulfils  its  ancient  office, 
is  \i  miles  in  length,  with  a  height  of  7  feet,  and  a 
width  of  4  feet.     On  the  eastern  bank  of  the  lake, 
rises  Monte  Cavo,  the  ancient  Mount  Albanus,  3(i00 
feet  high,    affording  an   extensive    and  magnificent 
view  from  its  summit.     Upon  it  once  stood  the  mag- 
nificent   temple    of    Jupiter    Latialis,     which    was 
approached  by  a  paved  way,  for  the  ascent  of  the 
solemn     processions    of    the    Latin    confederation 
{Ferice  Lalina-),    and    for    the    ovations    of  Roman 
generals.    The  road  remains,  in  great  part,  perfect  to 
this  dav. 

The  Albano  stone,  called  Peperino,  was  much  used 
in  Roman  buildings.  It  is  a  kind  of  volcanic  tufa,  of 
an  ash-colour,  and  is  still  quarried  extensively  at  A. 

A'LBANS,  St,  an  ancient  borough  in  Hertford- 


shire, situated  on  the  top  and  northern  side  ot  a 
picturesque  hill,  21  miles  north-west  from  London. 
The  Ver,  a  small  tributary  of  the  Colne,  separates 
it  from  the  site  of  the  aiicient  VeruUvmium  (Veru- 
1am),  an  important  station  in  the  time  of  the 
Romans,  and  the  scene  of  a  terrible  slaughter  in 
the  insurrection  under  Boadicea.  In  honour  of  St. 
Alban,  said  to  have  suffered  martyrdom  here  in 
297,  a  Benedictine  monastery  was  founded  by  Offa, 
king  of  Mercia,  in  796.  The  foundation  of  the 
town  is  supposed  to  be  due  to  Ulsig  (or  Ulsin^ 
who  was  abbot  about  150  years  later.  Two  battles 
were  fought  near  St.  A.  during  the  Wars  of  the 
Roses,  in  1455  and  UCl.  In  the  first,  Henry  VI. 
became  a  captive  ;  in  the  other,  he  was  set  at  liberty 
by  his  brave  queen,  Margaret  of  Anjou.  The  most 
noteworthy  object  in  the  town  is  the  old  abbey- 
church,  a  cruciform  building,  of  irregular  architecture, 
647  feet  in  length,  by  2(i6  in  breadth,  with  an 
embattled  tower  146  feet  higii.  The  Abbot  of  St.A. 
had  a  seat  in  the  House  of  Peers,  and  had  precedence 
of  all  other  English  abbots.  In  St.  Michael's  Church 
is  to  be  seen  a  monument  to  the  memory  of  the 
great  Bacon,  who  bore  the  titles  of  Baron  Verulam 
and  Viscount  St.  A.  More  recently,  the  Beauelerk 
family  have  taken  from  this  place  the  title  of  duke, 
and  the  Grimston  family  that  of  carl.  The  popula- 
tion, in  1861,  was  7675,  many  of  whom  are  emplovfd 
in  straw-plaiting  and  silk-spinning.  In  the  neigh- 
bourhood are  great  numbers  of  corn-mills.  The 
borough,  which  formerly  returned  two  members, 
was  di'sfranchised  in  1852  for  notorious  bribery. 

A'LBANY,  or  ALBAINN,   an  ancient  name  for 
the  Highlands   of   Scotland,    and   retained^  in  some 
degree  of  use  down  to  our  own  day.     Connected 
with  it  is  the  term  Albiones,  applied  to  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  entire  British  island  in  Festus  Avienus's 
account  of  the  voyage  of  Ilamilcar,  the  Carthaginian, 
in  the  5th  c.  n.c. ;  also  the  term  Albion,  which  appears 
as    the  name   of  the   island    in  Aristotle's    Treatise 
of  the    World.     It    may,    indeed,  be    pretty  safely 
assumed    that    Albion    or  Albany   ^vas■the  original 
name   of  Britain   among  its  Celtic  population ;  and 
that    it    only   became    restricted   to   the  north-west 
provinces  of  Scotland,  when  the  Celts  had  for  the 
most    part    become    confined    to    the    same    region. 
Albainn  means  a  country  of  heights  (the  root  being 
alb  or  alp,  a  height);  and  it  is  remarkable  to  find 
Albania  also  a  mountainous  country.     The  modern 
use  of  the  name  A.  may  be  said  to  have  taken  its 
rise  in  an  act  of  a  Scottish  council  held  at  Scone  in 
June   1398,  when  the  title  of  Duke  of  A.  was   con- 
ferred on  the  brother  of  King  Robert  III.,  then  acting 
as  regent  of  the  kingdom.    Tiie  title,  being  forfeited 
ill  the  son  of  the  first  holder,  was  afterwards  con- 
ferred on  Alexander,  second  son  of  King  James  II., 
in  the  person  of  whose  son,  John,  it  became  extinct 
in  1536.    Subsequently  it^yas  conferred  in  succession 
on  Henry  Lord  Darniey,  on  Charles  I.  in  infancy, 
on  James  II.  in  infancy,  and   (is  a  British   title)  on 
Frederick,  second  son  of  George  III.  The  unfortunate 
Prince   Charles  Stuart,  in   his   latter  years,  assumed 
the    appellation    of   Count  A.  as  an  incognito  title, 
and  gave  the  title  of  Duchess  of  A.  to  his  legitimated 
dauditcr. 


AI.BANY,  the  capital  of  New  York,  is  situ- 
ated on  the  west  bank  of  the  Hudson  River, 
145  miles  north  of  New  York  City,  in  latititde 
42"  39'  N.,  and  longitude  73"  45'  W.  After  James- 
town and  St.  Augustine,  it  is  the  oldest  in  the  Union, 
having  been  founded  by  the  Dutch  in  1623,  though 
it  did"not  receive  its  present  appellation  until  1664, 
when  it  came  into  the  possession  of  the  English,  and 
was  so  named  in  honour  of  the  Duke  of  York  and 
Albany.     It  is  situated  in  the  midst  of  a  fertile  and 

105 


ALBANY— ALBE. 


welUcultivated  coiitrtry,  and  is  one  of  tlie  most  flour- 
ishing cities  in  tlie  States,  being  the  chief  emporium 
for  the  transit-trade  of  the  coast-towns  with  tliose 
of  the  north  and  north-west.  It  is  advantiigeously 
built  for  commerce,  at  the  head  of  the  sloop-nuvi- 
oation  on  the  Hudson,  conmiunieating  by  means 
of  canals  with  Lake  Erie,  Lake  Ontario,  and  Lake 
Champlain.  It  is  also  the  ccUtre  in  which  a  number 
of  railways  meet,  connecting  it  with  New  York, 
Buffalo,  Boston,  &c.  One  of  the  most  important 
articles  in  its  commerce  is  timber.  It  is  one  of  the 
largest  timber-market  in  the  world  ;  the  quantity 
received  in  18G3  amounting  to  243,611, .500  feet  of 
boards  and  scantling,  an.l  l'4G,746,000  llis.  of  staves, 
and  thousands  of  cubic  feet  of  other  articles,  the  whole 
valued  at  over  7,000,000  dollars.  Viewed  from  some 
p;irts  of  the  river,  A.  has  a  picturesque  and  imposing 
appearance.  In  general,  it  is  not  very  remarkable 
for  the  regularity  of  its  streets  or  the  elegance  of  its 
houses ;  nevertheless,  it  contains  some  of  the  most 
splendid  edifices  in  the  Union.  A  new  state  capi- 
tol,  on  the  lieiiaissance  style,  is  in  process  of 
erection,  at  a  cost  of  four  millions  of  dollars, 
which  will  be  one  of  the  noblest  ])ublic  edihces 
in  America.  A.  is  honourably  distinguished  for  its 
educational  and  literary  institutions.  The  univer- 
sity, incorporated  in  "lS5'2,  has  for  its  aim  the 
discipline  of  the  American  youth  in  the  most 
important  blanches  of  practical  science.  The  medical 
college,  founded  in  183'.i,  has  one  of  the  best  museums 
in  the  States,  and  is  otherwise  amply  furnished  with 
the  means  of  instruction.  There  is  likewise  a  large 
number  of  public  schools.  Its  population  in  1860 
was  02,367. 

ALBANY,  Louisa  -  Maria  -  Carolink,  also 
Aloysia,  Counti-ss  of,  wife  of  the  unfortunate 
Prince  Charles-Edward  (q.  v.)  grandson  of  James  II. 
of  Enghmd.  She  was  the  daughter  of  the  Prince 
Gustavus  Adolphns  of  Stolberg-Gedern,  who  fell  in 
the  battle  of  Leuthcn  in  1757.  This  lady  was  born 
in  1753,  and,  during  her  married  life,  bore  the  name 
of  the  Countess  of  A.  She  had  no  children  ;  her 
marriiige  proved  an  unhappy  one ;  and  in  order  to 
escape  from  the  ill-usage  of  iier  husband,  who  lived 
in  a  state  of  continual  drunkenness,  she  sought  refuge 
in  a  nunnery,  1780.  At  the  death  of  the  prince  in 
1788,  the  court  of  France  allowed  her  an  annual 
pension  of  00,000  livrcs.  She  outlived  the  House  of 
the  Stuarts,  which  became  extinct  at  the  death  of 
her  brother-in-law,  the  Cardinal  of  York,  in  1807. 
She  died  at  Florence,  which  was  her  usual  place  of 
residence,  on  the  29th  of  January  1824.  Her  name 
and  her  misfortunes  have  been  transmitted  to  pos- 
terity through  the  works  and  autobiograpliy  of 
Alficri  (q.  v.),  to  whom  she  was  privately  married. 
Their  remains  repose  in  the  same  tomb  in  the  Church 
of  Santa  Croee  at  Florence,  between  the  tombs  of 
MacchiaveOi  and" Michael  Angelo. 

A'LBATROSS  {Diomcden),  a  genus  of  web-footed 
birds  of  tlie  fandly  of  the  Larida,  nearly  allied 
to  Gulls  and  Petrels.  Their  feet  have  no  hind-toe 
nor  claw ;  they  have  a  large  strong  beak — the 
upper  mnndible,  with  strongly  marked  sutures,  and 
a  hooked  point.  The  common  Albatross  (Z>.  cxnlans), 
also  called  the  Wandering  A.,  is  the  largest  of  web- 
footed  birds,  the  spread  of  wing  being  sometimes 
twelve  feet,  and  the  weight  twenty  pounds  or 
upwards.  The  wings  are,  however,  narrow  in  pro- 
portion to  their  length.  This  bird  is  often  seen  at  a 
great  distance  from  land,  and  abounds  in  the  southern 
seas,  particularly  near  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
whence  sailors  sometimes  call  it  the  Cape  Sheep. 
It  often  approaches  very  near  to  vessels,  and  is  one 
of  the  objects  of  interest  which  present  themselves 
to  voyngers  far  away  from  land,  particularly  when 

ioo 


it  is  seen  sweeping  the  surfaco  of  the  ocean  in 
pursuit  of  ll>iiig-fish,  or  when  it  alight*,  as  it  not 
unfrequentlv  does,  upon  the  rigging  of  the  ship.  It 
seems  rather  to  float  and  glide  in  the  air  than  to  fly 
like  other  birds,  as,  except  when  it  is  ri.^ing  fiom  the 
water,  the  motion  of  its  long  wings  is  scarcely  to 
be  perceived.  The  plumage  is  soft  and  abundant, 
mostly  white,  dusky  on  the  upper  parts,  some  of 
the  feathers  of  the  back  and  wings  black.  The 
bill  is  of  a  delicate  pinky-white,  inclining  to  yellow 
at  the  tip.  The  A.  is  extremely  voracious  ;  it 
feeds  chiifly  on  fi,-h  and  mollusca,  but  has  no 
objection  to  the  flesh  of  a  dead  whale,  or  to  any 
kind  of  carrion.  It  is  not  a  courageous  bird,  and 
is  often  compelled  to  yield  up  its  prey  to  sca-eaglcs^ 


Albatross. 

and  even  to  the  larger  kinds  of  gulls.  When  food 
is  abundant,  it  gorges  itself,  like  the  vultures,  and 
then  sits  motionless  upon  the  water,  so  that  it  may 
sometimes  be  taken  with  the  hand.  Not  unfre- 
quentlv, however,  on  the  approach  of  a  boat,  it 
disgorges  the  undigested  food,  and  thus  lightened, 
it  flies  off.  Its  cry  has  been  compared  to  that  of 
the  pelican  ;  it  also  sometimes  emits  a  noise  which 
has  been  likened  to  the  braying  of  an  a.ss.  It.s  flesh 
is  unpalatable.  It  heaps  up  a  rude  nest  of  earth  not 
far  from  the  sea,  or  deposits  its  solitary  egg  in  a  slight 
hullow  which  it  makes  in  the  dry  ground.  The  egg 
it  about  four  inches  long,  white,  and  spotted  at  the 
larger  end  ;  it  is  edible.  There  are  seven  species 
of  this  genus.  One  of  these  {!).  fulif/iiiof:a),  chiefly 
found  within  the  Antarctic  Circle,  is  called  by  sailors 
the  Quaker  Bird,  on  account  of  the  pievaiiing  brown 
colour  of  its  plumage.  All)atros.-es  appear  in  great 
numbers  towards  the  end  of  June,  about  the  Kurile 
Islands  and  Kamtchatka.  The  Kamtchadales  take 
them  by  baited  hooks,  blow  up  the  entrails  for  floats 
to  their  nets,  and  make 
tobacco-pipes  and  vaii- 
ous  domestic  articles  of 
the  wing-bones. 

ALBE,  or  ALB  (Lat. 
alhux,  white),  the  long 
white  linen  vestment 
worn  in  early  times  by 
all  ecclesiastics  at  di- 
vine service.  It  differed 
fiom  the  more  modern 
sm-plice  (q.  v.),  which 
is  oidy  a  modification  of 
it,  in  having  narrower 
sleeves.  At  the  foot 
and  wrists  were  em- 
broidered ornnments 
called  apparels.  In 
the     ancient     church, 


ALBEROXI— ALBERT. 


newly  baptised  persons  were  obliged  to  wear  a  similar 
garment  lor  eight  daj's ;  and  hence  catechumens 
were  called  cilbati ;  and  the  Sunday  alter  Easter,  on 
which  they  usually  received  baiitism,  came  to  be 
called  Dominica  iu  Albis. 

ALBERO'NI,  GiuLio,  Cardinal,  the  son  of  a  poor 
vine-dresser,  was  born  on  tlie  31st  of  May  ItKl-t  at 
Firenzuola  in  Parma.  From  being  merely  a  clioi  ister 
in  a  church  at  I'iacenza,  he  quickly  rose,  through  his 
abilities,  to  tlie  dignity  of  cha|ilain  and  favourite  of 
Count  Roncovieri,  Bishop  of  St.  Donino.  He  was 
afterwards  sent  to  Madrid  as  charf/e  (Tajfaircx,  by 
the  Duke  of  Parma,  v.  here  be  gained  the  favour  of 
Philip  Y.  of  Spain,  and  had  the  honours  successively 
conferred  on  him  of  grandee,  cardinal,  and  prime- 
minister.  In  this  last  capacity  he  was  of  singularly 
great  service  to  Sjuiin,  oveitln owing  the  intriguing 
family  of  Ursini,  bringing  about  the  second  niariiage 
of  Philip  V.  witli  Elizabeth  Farncse,  and  stimulating 
the  expiring  energies  of  Spain.  A  new  life  dawned 
upon  the  nation,  which  learned  to  forget  the  hard- 
ships it  had  suffered  in  the  Siianish  Wars  of  Succes- 
sion ;  although,  on  the  other  luind,  it  must  be 
admitted  that  it  was  principally  through  his  instru- 
mentality that  the  last  lil)crtie3  and  rights  of  the 
people  were  sacrificed  in  favour  of  obsolutism.  He 
was  ambitious,  and  ambition  is  always  despotic  and 
unscrupulous  ;  hence,  to  gratify  the  covetous  desires 
of  his  new  mistress,  he  suddenly  invaded  Sardinia, 
in  violation  of  the  Peace  of  Utrecht,  cherisliing  the 
hope  of  re-establishing  the  innnarchj'  of  Charles  V. 
and  Philip  If.,  and  startling  Europe  by  his  insolent 
audacity.  The  Regent  of  France  broke  off  his 
alliance  with  Spain,  and  united  himself  with  England 
and  the  Emperor;  but  A.  was  not  dismayed.  Even 
when  the  Spanish  fleet  in  the  Mediterranean  was 
destroyed  by  an  English  one,  he  contemplated  an 
extensi^e  war  by  land,  in  which  all  the  European 
powers  would  have  been  entangled.  He  patronised 
the  Pretender,  to  annoy  England,  and  the  French  Pro- 
testants, to  annoy  Louis.  Ho  sought  to  unite  Peter 
of  Russia  and  Charles  XII.  with  him,  to  plunge 
Austria  into  a  war  with  the  Turks,  to  stir  up  an 
insurrection  in  Hungary,  and,  through  his  influence 
with  one  of  the  parties  at  the  French  court,  he 
actually  accomplished  the  arrest  of  the  Regent  him- 
self (  he  Duke  of  Orleans).  But  so  universal  became 
the  complaints  against  A.,  that  Philip  lost  courage, 
and  concluded  a  treaty  of  peace,  the  chief  condition 
of  wliich  was  that  the  cardinal  should  be  dismissed, 
which  was  effected  through  the  influence  of  Elizabeth 
herself,  now  weary  of  the  arrogance  of  her  late 
favourite.  On  the  2(»th  of  December  17-0,  A.  re- 
ceived a  command  to  quit  Madrid  within  twenty-four 
liours,  and  the  kingdom  within  live  days.  Exposed 
to  the  vengeance  of  every  power  whose  hatred  he 
had  drawn  upon  himself,  he  knew  no  land  where  he 
could  remain.  Kot  even  to  Rome  could  he  ventiu'C, 
for  Clement  was  more  bitterly  inimical  to  liini  than 
any  secular  potentate.  He  wandered  al>out  in 
disguise,  and  under  fictitious  names.  At  length,  ho 
was  imprisoned  in  the  Genoese  territory,  through  the 
solicitation  of  the  pope  aiid  the  Spanish  monarch  ; 
but  he  specMlily  recovered  his  lil)erty,  and  two 
years  after  the  death  of  Clement,  was  reinstated  by 
Iimocent  XIII.  in  all  the  rights  and  dignities  of  a 
cardinal.  In  17-tt)  he  retired  to  Piaeenza,  where  he 
died  twelve  years  after  (June  2(i,  ]7o2)  at  the 
age  of  88.  He  bequeathed  his  possessions  in  Lom- 
bardy  to  Philip  V.,  while  his  cov.sin  and  heir,  Caesar 
A.,  became  possessor  of  1,000,000  ducats. 

A'LBERT,  Ar.EXANnER  Martin,  a  member  of  the 
Provisional  Government  of  France  after  the  revolu- 
tion of  February  1848,  was  born  at  Bury  (Oise)  in 
1815.      His  father  was  a  peasant,   and  he  himself 


learned  a  mechanical  trade  at  Pa  lis.  Ho  took  part 
in  the  revolution  of  July  1830,  and  was  implicated  in 
the  celebrated  trial  of  18;5-1 ;  after  which  he  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  and  di.-cussion  of  political 
questions,  yet  not  abaridoning  his  workshop.  He 
commenced  at  Lyon  the  republican  journal  called 
La  G'laucuxe,  on  account  of  which  lie  was  condeinneil 
to  a  fine  of  5000  francs  when  the  insurrection  broke 
out  at  Lyon.  In  1840  he  began  L' Atelier,  a  paper 
conducted  exclusively  by  operatives,  and  devoted  to 
their  interests.  On  the  evening  bei'ore  the  procla- 
mation of  the  republic  in  February  1848,  he  was 
making  buttons  in  his  workshop  ;  and  on  the  nomi- 
nation of  Louis  Pjlanc,  he  was  called  to  take  jiart  in 
the  Provisional  Government.  He  was  afterwai'ds 
chosen  president  of  the  Commission  for  Xational 
Rewards  ;  but  he  soon  resigned  this  post.  He  was 
elected  by  a  large  majority  of  voices  as  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  department  of  the  Seine  iu  the 
National  Asscml)ly  ;  but  invohing  himself  in  the 
attempt  of  Jlay  15,  1848,  against  the  government  as 
it  then  existed,  he  was  arrested  the  same  day,  and 
condemned  to  a  lengthened  imprisonment. 

ALBERT,  Count  of  Bollstadt,  usually  called 
Albcrtus  Magnus,  also  Albertus  Teutonieus,  a  man 
less  distinguished  for  originality,  th.an  for  the 
extent  of  his  acquirements  and  his  efVorts  for  the 
spread  of  knowledge,  especially  of  the  works  and 
doctiines  of  Aristotle,  was  born  at  Lauingen,  in 
Swabia,  in  1205,  or.  as  some  say,  in  ll'JJi.  After 
finishing  his  studies  at  Padua,  ho  entered  the  order 
of  the  Dominican  friars,  and  taught  in  the  schools 
of  Hildesheim,  Ratisbon,  and  Cologne,  where 
Thomas  Aquinas  became  his  pupil.  In  1230  he 
repaired  to  Paris,  where  he  publicly  cxpoundjd 
the  doctrines  of  Aristotle,  in  spile  of  ti.e  piohibition 
of  the  Church.  In  1249,  he  bi  came  rector  of 
the  school  at  Cologne;  and  in  1.54,  jrovincial  of 
the  Dominican  order  in  Germany.  In  12  0,  he 
received  from  Pope  Alexander  IV.  the  bishopric  of 
Ratisbon.  But  iu  12G2,  he  retiied  to  l.is  convent 
at  Cologne,  to  devote  himself  to  literary  pursiuts ; 
and  here  he  composed  a  great  number  of  works, 
especially  commentaries  on  Aristotle.  He  had  fallen 
into  dotage  some  years  before  his  death,  which 
occurred  in  1280.  "The  fullest  edition  of  his  works 
was  prepared  by  Pierre  Jammy,  the  Pomir.ican 
(21  vols.,  Lyon  "and  Leyden,  1C51);  but  it  is  far 
from  being  "complete.  Many  of  the  writings  at- 
tributed to  A.  seem  to  be  spurious  ;  among  others, 
that  entitleil  I)e  Sccretis  Mttlicritvi,  which  was 
widely  circulated  during  the  middle  ages.  The 
extensive  chenncal  and  mechanical  knowledge 
which  A.  possessed,  considering  the  age  in  which 
he  lived,  brought  upon  him  the  im])utation  of 
sorcery  ;  aiul  in  German  tradition  he  lias  a  very 
ambiguous  reputation.  It  is  recorded,  for  instance, 
that  "iri  the  winter  of  1240,  he  gave  a  banciuet  in 
the  garden  of  his  convent,  at  Cologne,  to  AVilliam 
of  Holland,  king  of  the  Romans;  and  that  during 
the  entertainment,  the  wintry  scene  was  suddenly 
transformed  into  one  of  suunuer  bloom  and  beauty. 
This  myth  rests  most  likely  on  the  fact  of  A. 
having  had  a  green-house. — The  scholastics  who 
followl'd  A.'s  oiiinions  took  the  name  ot  Aibertists. 

ALBERT,  Francis  (Albert)  Augcstcs-Ciiarles- 
EmmaNUEL,  Prince  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  late  Con- 
sort of  Victoria,  Queen  of  Great  Britain,  born  Aug.  26, 
1819,  was  the  second  son  of  the  late  Duke  of  Saxe- 
Cohurg-Gotha,  by  his  first  marriage  with  Louisa, 
daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg.  'llie 
Prince,  after  a  careful  domestic  education,  along  with 
his  elder  brother,  the  reigning  Duke,  attended  the 
university  of  Bonn,  where,  in  addition  to  the 
sciences    connected    with    state-craft,    he    devoted 

107 


ALBERT— ALBERT  THE  BEAR. 


himself  with  ardour  to  the  study  of  natural  history 
and  chemistry,  and  displayed  great  taste  for  the  tine 
arts,  especially  painting  and  music.  Several  compo- 
sitions of  his  obtained  publicity,  and  an  opor.i  was 
afterwards  performed  in  London,  said  to  have  been 
composed  by  liini.  (lifted  with  a  handsome  figure, 
he  attained  expertness  in  all  knightly  exercises.  It 
was  this  accomplished  Prince  that  the  young  Queen 
of  Great  Britain  selected  as  her  partner  for  life. 
The  marriage  was  celebrated  in  London  on  the  l(uh 
of  Fel)ru,iry  1810.  On  his  marriage,  Prince  Albert 
received  tlie  title  of  Royal  Highness,  was  naturalised 
as  a  subject  of  Great  Britain,  and  obtained  the  rank 
of  Field-marshal,  the  knighthood  of  the  Order  of  the 
Bith,  and  the  command  of  a  regiment  of  Hussars. 
As  the  union  ju-oved,  in  the  highest  dcgi'ee,  a  happy 
one,  the  jirince  was  loaded  with  honours  and  dis- 
tinctions both  by  the  Queen  and  the  nation.  The 
title  of  Consort  of  Her  Most  Gracious  Majesty  wa.s 
formally  conferred  in  1842,  and  that  of  Prince  Con- 
sort, in  1857,  made  him  a  prince  of  the  United  King- 
dom. He  was  also  a  member  of  the  Privy  Council, 
Governor  and  Constable  of  Windsor  Castle,  Colonel 
of  the  Grenadier  Guards,  Acting  Grand  Master  of 
the  Order  of  the  Bath,  Chancellor  of  the  University 
of  Cambridge,  Master  of  the  Trinity  House,  &c. 
Notwithstanding  his  high  and  favoured  position,  the 
Prince,  Avith  rare  prudence  and  tact,  abstained  from 
meddling  with  state  affairs,  and  thus  escaped  the 
jealousy  and  detraction  of  parties.  When  the  ^\^lig 
ministr}'  of  1840  proposed  for  him  the  income  of 
£50,000,  as  Consort  of  Queen  Victoria,  the  Tories,  in 
conjunction  with  the  Radicals,  succeeded  in  limiting 
the  sum  to  £30,000.  This  appears  to  have  been  the 
only  instance  of  any  manifestation  of  jiarty  feeling 
wth  reference  to  the  Prince.  On  the  other  hand,  he 
opened  for  himself  an  influential  sphere  of  action,  in 
the  encouragement  and  promotion  of  science  and  art, 
appearing  as  the  patron  of  many  useful  associations 
and  public  undertakings.  The  Industinal  Exhibition 
of  1851  owed  much  to  the  suggestions  and  encour- 
agement of  the  Prince.  Four  princes  and  five  prin- 
cesses were  the  fruit  of  his  marriage  with  Queen 
Victoria.     He  died  December  14,  1861. 

ALBERT     or     ALBRECHT.         Five     Povereign 

dukes  of  Austria  (q.  v.)  bore  this  name,  of  whom 
two  (I.  and  V.)  were  also  emperors  of  Germany. 
A.  L,  Duke  of  Austria  and  Emperor  of  Germanv, 
was  the  eldest  son  of  Rudolph  I.,  and  born  in 
the  year  1248.  Rudolph,  about  the  close  of  his 
career,  made  an  effort  to  have  A.  appointed  his 
successor;  but  the  electors,  tired  of  his  authority, 
and  emboldi'ued  by  his  age  and  infirmities,  refused 
to  comply  with  his  requi>st.  After  Rudolph's  death, 
Austria  and  Styria  revolted  ;  but  A.,  having  vigor- 
ously crushed  the  insurrection,  had  the  audacity 
to  assume  the  insignia  of  the  empire  without  waiting 
for  the  decision  of  the  Diet.  This  violent  measure 
induced  the  electors  to  choose,  in  preference  to 
him,  Adolphus  of  Nassau.  Disturbances  in  Switzer- 
land, and  a  disease  which  cost  him  an  eye,  now- 
rendered  him  more  humble  ;  he  delivered  up  the 
insignia  which  he  had  so  r.ishly  assumed,  and 
took  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  new  emperor, 
who,  however,  after  some  years,  so  completely 
disgusted  his  subjects,  that  A.  began  to  entertain 
hopes  of  recovering  his  imperial  dignity.  In  12ti8, 
Adolphus  was  deposed,  and  A.  elected  ;  but  the 
former  having  resolved  to  maintain  his  title,  A. 
was  obliged  to  fight  for  the  crown.  The  rivals 
drew  up  their  forces  near  Worms,  where  a  battle 
ensued,  in  which  Adolphus  was  defeated  and  slain. 
A.,  feeling  that  he  might  now  safely  display  magna- 
nimity, voluntarily  resigned  the  crown  which  had 
been  recently  conferred  u[)on  him ;  and,  as  he  had 
anticipated,  was  unanimously  re-elected.  His 
108 


I  coronation  took  place  at  Aix-la-Chaixllc,  in  August 
1298.  But  the  po[)e,  Boniface  Vlll.,  denied  the 
right  of  the  princes  to  elect  A.,  declared  himself  the 
only  true  emperor  and  legitimate  king  of  the 
Romans,  sunnnoncd  the  former  before  him,  required 
liim  to  ask  {)ardon  and  do  penance,  forbade  the 
princes  to  acknowledge  him,  and  released  them 
from  their  oath  of  allegiance.  A.,  on  the  other 
hand,  with  his  usual  iiitre|)idity,  defied  his  Holiness, 
formed  an  alliance  with  Philip  the  Fair  of  France, 
secured  the  neutrality  of  Saxony  and  Brandenburg, 
invaded  tlie  electorate  of  Metz,  and  forced  the 
archbishop  to  break  off  his  alliance  with  Boniface 
and  to  form  one  with  himself  for  the  next  five 
years.  The  pope  was  alarmed  by  his  success,  and 
entired  into  negotiations  with  him.  A.,  whose 
duplicity  and  unscrupulousness  equalled  his  courage, 
suddenly  broke  off  his  alliance  with  Philip,  admitted 
the  western  empire  to  be  a  papal  grant,  and  declared 
that  the  electors  derived  their  right  of  choosing  from 
the  Holy  See.  ilorcover,  he  promised  upon  oath  to 
defend  the  rights  of  the  Romish  court  whenever  he 
was  called  upon.  As  a  reward,  Bonifice  gave  him 
the  kingdom  of  France,  exconmuinicating  Philip, 
and  declaring  him  to  have  forfeited  the  crown; 
but  the  latter  severely  chastised  the  pope  for  his 
insolence  in  'jaring  to  give  away  what  was  not 
his  own.  In  the  following  year,  A.  made  war 
unsuccessfully  against  Holland,  Zealand,  Friesland, 
Hungary,  Bohcnda,  and  Thuringia.  Shortly  after- 
wards, news  reached  him  that  a  rebellion  had 
broken  out  amongst  the  Swi.ss  in  Unterwalden, 
Schweitz,  and  Uri,  in  .lauuary  1^08.  A.  had  not  only 
foreseen,  but  desired  tliis,  in  order  that  he  might 
find  a  pretext  for  completely  subjugating  the 
country.  A  new  act  of  injustice,  however, 
occasioned  a  crime  which  put  an  end  to  his 
lunbition  and  life.  IHf  nephew,  Duke  John,  claimed 
Swabia  as  his  rightful  inheritance,  and  had  set 
his  claims  before  A.,  but  in  vain.  When  the  latter 
was  departing  for  Switzerland,  the  former  renewed 
his  demand.  A.  scoffingly  refused  ;  and  Duke 
John  resolved  to  be  revenged.  Along  with  four 
others,  he  conspired  against  his  uncle's  life,  and 
a-sissinated  him  on  the  way  to  Rheiufeldcn,  while 
separated  from  his  followers  by  the  river  Reuss. 
The  emperor  expired  \'ay  1,  I3<  8,  in  the  arms 
of  a  beggar-woman  sitting  by  the  wayside  —  a 
spectacle  calculated  to  excite  stern  reflection  on 
the  vanity  of  human  ambition.  His  daughter 
Agnes,  queen  of  Hungary,  frightfully  revenged  her 
father's  death.  See  Joiix,  the  Paiiricidk.  A. 
left  five  sons  and  five  daughters,  the  children  of 
his  marriage  with  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  the  Count 
of  Tyrol. 

ALBERT  THE  BEAR  (so  called,  not  from  any 
peculiarity  of  character  or  appearance,  but  from  the 
heraldic  cognj/ancc  that  he  assumed).  Margrave  of 
Brandenburg,  one  of  the  most  renuirkable  princes  of 
his  age,  was  born  1 106.  He  was  the  son  and  successor 
of  Otiio,  the  rich  Count  of  Ballenstiidt,  and  of  Elica, 
eldest  daughter  of  Magnus,  Duke  of  Saxony.  Having 
proved  faithful  to  the  Emperor  Lothario,  he  received 
from  the  latter  Lusace,  to  be  held  as  a  fief  of  the 
empire ;  but  the  Duchy  of  Saxony,  to  which  he  had 
the  best  claim,  was  given  to  Henry  of  Bavaria  (1127), 
the  son  of  the  youngest  daughter  of  the  duke.  As  a 
compensation,  A.  was  made  Margrave  (Markgraf)  of 
the  Northern  March  or  Marck  (Salzwedel) ;  but  in 
the  year  1138,  Henry  having  been  put  undiir  the 
imperial  ban,  the  duchy  reverted  to  the  former, 
when  he  took  the  title  of  Duke  of  Saxony.  I/enry, 
however,  again  got  the  upper  hand,  and  A.  was  com- 
pelled to  fly,  and  to  content  himself  with  the  mar- 
graviatc  of  Northern  Saxony,  and  the  government 
of  Swabia,  which  was  given  him  as  an  indemnity. 


ALBERT— ALBIGEXSES. 


Returning  to  lii.s  own  country,  he  got  himself  iiivefsted 
with  the  lands  uliich  he  had  conquered  from  tlie 
Wends  as  a  hereiiitary  fief  of  the  empire,  and  tluis 
became  tlie  founder  and  first  Margrave  of  the  new 
state  of  Brandenburg.  Under  A.  the  Margravedom 
was  afterwards  raised  to  Ije  an  Electorate,  and  he 
himself  became  Elector  of  Brandenburg.  After  he 
had  quelled  a  revolt  of  the  Wends  in  1167,  he 
determined  to  take  extreme  measures  against  the 
vanquished.  He  ahnost  depopulated  their  country, 
and  then  colonised  it  with  i'lemings.  On  his  return 
from  a  pilgrimage  to  Palestine  in  company  with  his 
wife  in  115i>,  he  exerted  himself  to  suppress  the 
language  and  paganism  of  the  Wends,  and  to  intro- 
duce Christianity  amongst  them.  He  died  in  1170, 
at  Ballcnstiidt,  where  he  was  buried.  Brandenburg 
continued  in  t!ie  possession  of  his  descendants  for 
two  centuries,  and  finally  (1415)  fell  to  the  house  of 
Hohcuzollern  (q.  v.) 

ALBERT,  last  grand-masfor  of  the  Teutonic 
Order,  and  first  Duke  of  Prussia,  was  born  in  1490. 
He  was  the  son  of  the  Margrave  Frederic  of 
Anspach  and  Baiicuth,  who,  having  several  children, 
wished  to  make  him  enter  the  church.  He  was 
educated  under  the  care  of  Archbishop  Hermann, 
of  Cologne,  where  he  became  canon.  He  did  not, 
however,  neglect  knightly  exercises.  He  accom- 
panied the  Emperor  Maximilian  L  in  his  expe- 
dition against  Venice,  and  was  present  at  the 
siege  of  Pavia.  In  1511,  when  scarcely  twenty  one 
years  old,  he  was  chosen  grand-master  of  the 
Teutonic  Order,  the  knights  expecting  tlieir  feudal 
allegiance  to  Poland  to  be  abolished,  on  accotmt  of 
his  near  relationship  to  Sigismund,  the  monarch  of 
that  country,  while  they  also  hoped  for  {)rotection 
against  the  latter  from  his  friends  in  Germany. 
He  was  consecrated  at  Mergcntheim  with  his 
father's  consent.  In  151"2  he  removed  to  Konigs- 
berg,  having  been  acknowledged  by  Poland  like- 
wise ;  but  refusing  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance, 
he  was  plunged  into  a  war  with  Sigismund  in 
1520.  The  year  after,  a  four  years'  truce  was 
agreed  to  at  Thorn.  A.  next  made  his  appearance 
at  the  imperial  Diet  at  Niirnberg,  as  a  German 
prince  of  the  empire,  to  induce  the  other  princes  to 
assist  him  against  the  Poles.  But  Germany  could 
at  that  time  grant  no  assistance  to  any  one.  Dis- 
appointed in  his  hopes,  A.  threw  himself  into  the 
c  luse  of  the  Reformation,  which  had  rapidly  spread 
into  Prussia,  and  broken  the  last  strength  of  the 
declining  order,  whose  possessions  now  appeared  a 
certain  prey  to  Po'and.  A.  still  hoped  to  preserve 
these,  by  acting  ujwn  Luther's  advice,  which  was,  to 
declare  himself  secular  Duke  of  Pitissia,  and  place 
his  land  under  the  sovereignty  of  Sigismund.  This 
was  done  with  great  pomp  at  Cracow,  on  the  8th 
April  1525,  the  duchy  being  secured  to  him  and  his 
descendants.  During  the  remainder  of  his  life,  A. 
zealously  sought  to  further  the  welfare  of  his  duchy. 
He  regulated  the  administration  of  all  affairs,  both 
secular  and  ecclesiastical,  established  the  ducal 
library,  founded  in  1543  the  university  of  Kiinigs- 
berg,  gathered  many  literary  men  around  him,  and 
caused  their  works  1o  l)e  printed.  Hi  1527,  he 
married  Dorothea,  daughter  of  Frederick,  king  of 
Denmark.  A.  earnestly  desired  peace,  but  his  was 
not  an  age  in  which  peace  could  be  purchased.  The 
tran.sition  period  from  the  old  to  the  new  is  always 
violent,  and  the  duke  found  himself  entangled  in 
conflicts  with  the  nobles,  and  in  theological  disputes, 
which,  along  with  other  crosses  of  a  more  personal 
character,  saddened  the  close  of  his  life.  He  died 
in  1568.     See  Pklssia. 

ALBERT,  Archbishop  of  Magdeburg,  and  Elector 
Mculz,    generally    called    A.     of   Brandenburg, 


younger  son  of  the  elector,  John  Cicero  of  Branden- 
burg, was  born  in  1489.  In  1513  he  became  Arch- 
bishop of  Magdeburg ;  in  the  sanu;  year,  also, 
Administrator  of  the  bishopric  of  Halberstadt,  and 
in  the  following  year.  Archbishop  and  Elector  of 
Mentz.  Leo  X.  having  granted  him  permission  to  sell 
indulgences,  on  condition  that  he  should  deliver  up 
half  the  booty  to  the  papal  exchequer,  A.  appointed 
the  Dominican  Tetzel  '  indtdgence-preacher,'  who, 
by  the  shameless  manner  in  which  he  went  about 
his  work,  first  stirred  Luther  to  post  up  his  well' 
known  ninety-five  theses.  Even  in  the  archbishop's 
own  diocese,  the  reformer's  doctrines  found  not  a 
few  adherents,  so  that  A.  was  compelled,  at  the 
imperial  Diet  at  Augsburg,  to  act  the  part  of  jieaee- 
maker.  When  he  joined  the  Holy  Alliance  against 
the  Treaty  of  Schmalkald,  Luther  made  a  fierce 
attack  on  him  in  writing.  He  was  the  first  of  all 
the  German  primes  who  received  the  Jesuits  into 
his  dominions.  In  1541,  he  granted  religions  liberty 
to  his  subjects,  under  tlie  condition  that  they  should 
pay  his  debts,  amounting  to  500,0u0  florins.  He  did 
this,  not  from  any  love  of  religious  liberty,  but  either 
because  of  the  consideration  referred  to,  or  from  a 
dread  of  popular  compulsion.  The  last  days  of  his 
life  were  spent  at  Aschaflenburg,  where  he  died  in 
1545. 

ALBERT,  or  ALBRECHT,  Ar-hdnke  of  Austria, 
born  in  1550,  was  the  third  sou  of  the  emperor 
MaximilHan  11,  He  was  brouglit  up  at  the  Spanish 
court,  and  dedicated  himself  to  the  church.  In  1577 
he  was  made  cardinal,  in  1584,  Archbishop  of  Toledo, 
and  during  the  years  1594-96,  held  the  office  of 
viceroy  of  Portugal.  He  was  next  appointed  Stadt- 
holder  of  the  Netherlands,  where  he  continued,  until 
his  death,  the  representative  of  the  Spanisli  monarch, 
discharging  the  duties  of  his  function  with  prudence 
and  dignity.  Cardinal  Bentivoglio,  who  resided  a 
considerable  time  at  his  court,  praises  his  upright- 
ness, his  moderation,  his  love  of  serious  study,  his 
industry,  his  perseverance,  and  his  discretion,  though 
he  does  not  conceal  the  fact  that  he  was  a  prince 
better  fitted  for  peace  than  for  war.  He  displayed 
at  first  both  courage  and  enthusiasm,  htit  afterwards 
he  was  accused  of  dilatoriness  and  timidity.  .Mean- 
while, he  did  not  receive  from  Spain  the  promised 
help ;  and,  moreover,  affairs  hatl  reached  such  a 
pitch,  that  they  could  hardly  become  worse.  A., 
however,  did  the  best  that  could  be  done.  His  mild, 
moderate,  and  unpersecuting  character,  essentially 
contributed  to  the  re-establishment  of  the  Spanish 
authority  in  the  Netherlands.  Philip  employed  him 
to  mediate  amid  the  disturbed  provinces.  A.  now 
abandoned  his  ecclesiastical  profession,  and  married 
(1598)  the  Infanta,  Isabella,  wlio  received  the  Nether- 
lands for  her  dowry.     He  died  in  1621. 

ALBE'RTUS      MAGNUS.       See      Albert      of 

BOLLSTADT. 

A'LBI,  capital  of  the  department  of  Tarn  in 
France,  is  built  on  a  height.  It  is  very  old,  and 
suffered  greatly  during  the  religious  wars  which 
devastated  the  land  in  the  time  of  the  Albigenses. 
Besides  the  usual  government  offices,  it  possesses  a 
public  library  of  12,tiiiO  volumes,  and  a  museum. 
The  most  remarkable  buildings  are  the  cathedral, 
built  in  the  stylo  of  the  13th  c,  the  old  palace  of 
the  Count  of  Aibigeois,  and  the  theatre.  There  is 
considerable  trade  in  corn,  wine,  anise,  prunes,  and 
clover-seed.  The  chief  manufactures  are  table-linen, 
cotton  and  woollen  goods,  leather,  &c.     Pop.  15,493. 

A'LBIGENSES  is  a  name  applied  loosely  to  the 
'  heretics,'  belonging  to  various  sects,  that  abounded  in 
the  south  of  France  about  the  beginning  of  the  13th 
c.  The  chief  sect  was  the  Cathari  (q.  v.«);  but  they 
all  agreed  in  renouncing  the  authority  of  the  popea 

109 


ALBIGEXSES— ALBORNOZ. 


nnd  the  discipline  of  llie  Roinisli  (Iliurcli.  The  name 
arose  from  the  cii'cuinatHiice  that  the  district  of 
Albigeoi.s  in  Langiiodoc — now  in  the  department  of 
Tarn,  of  which  Albi  is  the  capital — was  the  first 
point  against  which  the  crusade  of  Pope  Innocent 
III.,  I'iUO,  was  directed.  The  immediate  pretence 
of  the  crusade  was  the  murder  of  the  papjal  legate 
and  inquisitor,  Peter  of  Castelnau,  who  had  been 
commissioned  to  extirpate  heresy  in  the  dominions 
of  Count  Raymond  VI.  of  Toulouse;  but  its  real 
object  was  to  deprive  the  count  of  his  lands,  as  he 
had  become  an  object  of  hatred  from  his  toleration 
of  the  heretics.  It  was  in  vain  that  he  had  submitted 
to  the  most  humiliating  penance  and  flagellation 
from  the  hands  of  the  legate  Milo,  and  had  purchased 
the  papal  absolution  by  great  sacrilices.  The  legates, 
Arnold,  Abbot  of  Citeaux  and  Milo,  who  directed 
the  expedition,  took  by  storm  Bezicr.s,  the  capital 
of  Raymond's  nephew,  Roger,  and  massacred 
20,000 — some  say  40,000 — of  the  inhabitants. 
Catholics  as  well  as  heretics.  'Kill  them  all,' 
said  Arnold;  '  CJod  will  know  his  own!'  Simon, 
Count  of  Montfort,  who  conducted  the  war  mider 
the  legates,  proceeded  in  the  same  relentless  way 
with  other  places  in  the  territories  of  Raymond  and 
liis  allies.  Of  these,  Roger  of  Bezicrs  died  in 
prison,  and  Peter  I.  of  Aragon  fell  in  battle.  The 
conquered  lands  were  given  as  a  reward  to  Simon  of 
Montfort,  who  never  came  into  (piiet  possession  of 
the  gift.  At  the  siege  of  Toulouse,  r_'18,  he  was 
killed  by  a  stone,  and  Counts  Raymond  VI.  and 
VII.  disputed  the  possession  of  their  territories  with 
his  son.  But  the  papal  indulgences  drew  fresh 
crusaders  from  every  province  of  France  to  continue 
the  war.  Raymond  YII.  continued  to  struggle 
bravely  against  the  legates  and  Louis  VIII.  of 
France,  to  whom  Montlort  had  ceded  his  preten- 
sions, and  who  fell  in  the  war  in  1'2'Jf).  After 
hundreds  of  thousands  had  perished  on  both  sides,  a 
peace  was  concluded,  in  1-1-1',\  at  which  Raymond 
purchased  relief  from  the  ban  of  the  church  by 
immense  sums  of  money,  gave  up  Narbonne  and 
several  lordships  to  Louis  IX.,  and  had  to  make  his 
son-inlaw,  the  brother  of  Louis,  heir  of  his  other 
possessions.  These  provinces,  hitherto  independent, 
were  thus,  for  tiie  first  time,  joined  to  the  kingdom 
of  France  ;  and  the  pope  sanctioned  the  acquisition, 
in  order  to  bind  Louis  more  firmly  to  the  papal 
chair,  and  induce  him  more  readily  to  admit  the 
inquisition.  The  heretics  were  handed  over  to  the 
proselytising  zeal  of  the  order  of  Dominicans,  and 
the  bloody  tribunals  of  the  Inquisition  ;  and  both 
used  their  utmost  power  to  bring  the  recusant  A.  to 
the  stake,  and  also,  by  inflicting  severe  punishment 
on  the  penitent  converts,  to  inspire  dread  of  incur- 
ring the  church's  displeasure.  From  the  middle  of  | 
the  loth  c,  the  name  of  the  A.  gradually  disappears. 
The  remnants  of  them  took  refuge  in  tlie  east,  and 
settled  in  Bosnia.  Compare  Fauriel,  Croisade  contre 
les  Albigeois  (Par.  1838);  Fabcr,  Inquiry  into  the 
Ilistori/  and  Tlicolocjy  of  the  Vallcnscsand  Albif/enses 
(Lon.  18oS). 

ALBI'XOS— called  also  Leuccethiopcs,  or  white 
n.egroes,  and  by  the  Dutch  and  Germans  Kakorlaken 
— were  at  one  time  considered  a  distinct  race  ;  but 
closer  observation  has  shewn  that  the  same  pheno- 
menon occurs  in  individuals  of  all  races,  and  that 
the  peculiar  appearance  arises  from  an  irregularity 
in  the  skin,  which  has  got  the  name  of  leucopatJuj  or 
leucosis.  It  consists  in  the  absence  of  the  colouring 
matter  which,  in  the  normal  state,  is  secreted 
between  the  cuticle  and  the  true  skin,  and  also  of 
the  dark  pigment  of  the  eye  ;  so  that  the  skin  has  a 
pale,  sickly  white  colour,  while  the  iris  of  the  eye 
appears  rod*  from  its  great  vascularity.  As  the  pig- 
ment in  the  coats  of  the  eye  serves  to  diminish  the 
110 


stimulus  of  the  light  upon  the  retina,  A.  generally 
cannot  bear  a  strong  light  ;  on  the  oth(>r  hand,  they 
sec  better  in  the  dark  than  others.  The  colouring 
matter  of  the  hair  is  also  wanting  in  A.,  so  liiat  their 
hair  is  white.  All  these  did'erences  are  of  course 
more  striking  in  the  darker  varieties  of  the  species, 
and  most  of  all  in  the  negro  albiios. 

Albinoism  is  always  born  with  the  individual, 
and  occurs  not  only  in  men,  but  also  in  other  mam- 
malia, in  biids,  and  jirobably  in  insects,  it  is  not 
improbable  that  the  |>eculiaiity  may,  to  fomv  extent, 
be  hereditary.  The  opinion  that  A.  are  distinguished 
from  other  me!i  by  weakness  of  body  and  mind,  is 
completely  refuted  by  facts. 

A'LBIOX  is  the  most  ancient  name  on  record  of 
the  island  of  Great  Britain.    See  Aluanv  or  Alhalnn. 

A'LBOIN,  the  founder  of  the  Lombard  dominion 
in  Italy,  succeeded  his  faiher  in  601  a.d.,  as  king  of 
the  Lombards,  who  were  at  that  time  settled  in 
Pannonia.  His  thirst  for  action  first  vented  itself 
in  aiding  Narses  against  the  Cstiogoths  ;  and  after- 
wards, in  a  war  with  the  (Jepida-,  wiiom  he,  in  con- 
junction with  the  Avari,  diti^ated  in  a  great  battle 
(otitt),  slaying  their  king  Cunimond  with  his  own 
hand.  On  the  death  of  his  first  wile,  Klodoswinda, 
he  married  Rosamond,  daughter  of  Cunimond,  who 
was  his  prisoner.  Some  of  ids  wariiors,  who  had 
accompanied  Narses  into  Italy,  brought  back  reports 
of  the  beauties  and  riches  of  the  country.  This 
determined  A.,  in  .0(')8,  to  enter  Italy  with  his  own 
nitiou  of  Lombards,  the  remains  of  tiie  Gepida9, 
and  20,0(10  Saxons.  He  soon  overran  and  subdued 
the  north  of  the  country  as  far  as  the  Tiber,  fixing 
his  principal  residence  at  Pavia — v.hich  long  con- 
tinued to  be  the  capital  of  the  Lombards;  when 
his  barbarity  cost  him  his  life.  During  a  feast  at 
Verona,  he  made  his  queen  drink  out  of  the  .«kull 
of  her  father,  which  he  had  converted  into  a  wine- 
cup.  In  revenge,  she  incited  her  paramour  to 
nmrder  her  husliand,  who  fell  574.  Strangely  enough, 
A.  was  a  just  and  beneficent  ruler.  He  was  beloved 
by  his  subjects,  whom  he  stimulated  into  that  vital 
activity  that  characterised  tlieir  descendants  for  ages. 
P^or  several  centuries,  his  name  continued  to  be 
illustrious  among  the  German  nations,  who  cele- 
brated his  praises  in  martial  songs.  To  escape  the 
fury  of  the  Lombards,  Rosamond  fled  with  her 
associate  and  the  treasure  to  Longiims,  the  exarch, 
at  Ravenna.  Longinus  becoming  a  suitor  for  her 
hand,  she  administered  poison  to  Helmichis,  her 
paramour,  who,  discovering  the  treachery,  caused  her 
to  swallow  the  remainder  of  the  cup,  and  die  with 
him. 

ALBORXOZ,  Ji^GiDirs  Alvarez  Carillo,  a 
warlike  prelate  of  the  middle  ages,  was  born  at 
Cuenca.  He  studied  at  Toulouse,  a:;d  subsequently 
became  almoner  to  Alfonso  XL,  king  of  Castile, 
who  appointed  him  Archdeacon  of  Calatra%-a,  and 
finally  Archbishop  of  Toledo.  He  took  part  in 
the  wars  against  the  Jloors,  saved  the  life  of  the 
king  in  the  battle  of  Tarifa,  and  was  present  at 
the  siege  of  Algeciras,  where  the  king  dubbed 
him  knight.  On  account  of  the  Cliristian  boldness 
with  which  he  denounced  the  criminal  excesses 
of  Peter  the  Cruel,  he  fell  into  disgrace,  and  had 
to  flee  to  Pope  Clement  VI.,  at  Avignon,  who  made 
him  a  cardinal.  Innocent  VII.  also  recognised 
his  political  talents,  and  sent  him  as  cardinal-legate 
to  Rome,  wdiere,  by  his  tact  and  vigour,  he  secured, 
in  spite  of  the  intricate  complication  of  afTairs, 
the  restoration  of  the  papal  authority  in  the  States 
of  the  Church  (1353-t)2).  Pope  Urban  V.  owed 
the  recovery  of  his  dominions  to  him,  and  out 
of  gratitude,  appointed  him  legate  at  Bologna,  in 
1367.     In  the  same  year  he  died   at  Vitcrbo,  but 


ALBUERA— ALBUQUERQUE. 


expressing  a  wish  to  be  buried  at  Toledo,  almost 
royal  honours  wi're  rendered  to  his  dead  body 
by  the  Spanish  monarch,  Henry  of  Castile  ;  and 
Urban  even  granted  an  indulgence  to  all  who 
had  assisted  in  the  transference  of  his  remains  from 
Viterbo  to  Toledo.  He  left  a  valuable  work  upon 
the  constitution  of  the  Romish  Church,  printed  for 
the  first  time  at  Jesi  in  1473,  and  now  very  rare. 

ALBUERA,  in  the  Spanish  province  of  Estrcma- 
dura,  an  insiguilieant  hamlet,  famous  for  the  battle 
of  May  10,  1811,  between  the  combined  EiigUsh, 
Spanish,  and  Tortuguese  forces  under  General 
Beresford ;  and  the  French  under  Marshal  Soult, 
who  were  scarcely  so  numerous,  bat  had  abundant 
artillery.  The  object  of  the  latter  was  to  compel  the 
English  to  raise  the  siege  of  Badiijos.  The  result  was, 
that  Soult  was  obliged  to  retreat  to  Seville,  with  the 
loss  of  9^100  men  ;  the  loss  of  the  allied  forces-was 
about  7000.  In  proportion  to  the  numbers  engaged, 
the  battle  was  the  most  sanguinary  in  the  whole 
contest.  The  French  had  at  first  got  possession  of 
a  height  which  commanded  the  whole  position  of 
the  allied  army,  but  they  were  driven  from  it  by 
6000  British,  "only  1500  of  whom  reached  the  top 
unwouuded. 

ALBUFERA  (an  Arabic  word  meaning  'The 
Lake'),  a  lake  near  Valencia,  in  Spain,  about 
10  miles  in  length  and  the  same  in  breadth,  divided 
from  the  sea  by  a  narrow  tongue  of  land  ;  a  canal 
comieets  it  witli  the  city  of  Valencia.  It  is  rich  in 
fish  and  fowl,  and  is  said  to  have  been  excavated 
by  the  Moors.  From  it.  Marshal  Suchet  (q.  v.) 
takes  the  title  of  Duke. 

A'LBUM,  amongst  the  Romans,  was  a  white 
tablet  overlaid  with  gypsum,  on  which  were  written 
the  Annalex  Maximi  of  the  pontifex,  edicts  of  the 
prtetor,  and  rules  relative  to  civil  matters.  It 
was  so  called,  either  because  it  was  composed  of 
a  white  material,  or  because  the  letters  used  were  of 
that  colour.  To  tamper  with  the  names  written  on 
an  A.  was  regarded  by  the  Romans  as  a  serious 
offence,  and  involved  a  severe  penalty.  In  the 
middle  ages,  the  word  was  used  to  denote  any  list, 
catalogue,  or  register,  whether  of  saints,  .soldiers,  or 
civil  functionaries.  In  the  gymnasia  and  universi- 
ties on  the  continent,  the  list  of  the  names  of  the 
members  is  called  the  A.  The  name  is  also  applied 
to  the  'black  board'  on  which  public  notifications  of 
lectures,  &c.,  are  written  up.  But  its  popular  signi- 
fication in  modern  times  is  that  of  a  blank  book 
of  orname:ital  exterior  fitted  for  a  drawing-room 
table,  and  intended  to  receive  fugitive  pieces  of 
verse,  or  the  signatures  of  distinguished  persons,  or 
sometimes  merely  drawings,  prints,  marine  plants,  &c. 
ALBU'MEX  is  an  organic  compound,  found  both 
in  animal  and  vegetable  substances.  It  forms  the 
chief  ingredient  in  the  white  of  egg,  and  abounds  in 
the  blood  and  chyle,  and  more  or  less  in  all  the 
serous  fluids  of  the  aniuuil  body  :  it  also  exists  in  the 
sap  of  vegetables,  and  in  their  seeds  and  other  edible 
parts.  A.  forms  the  starting-point  of  animal  tissues, 
for  in  an  egg  during  incubation  all  the  parts  of  the 
chick  are  formed  out  of  it.  The  organised  sub- 
stances, fibrine  and  caseine,  have  a  chemical  composi- 
tion similar  to  A.  ;  and  hence,  along  with  A.,  they 
are  called  albuminous  compounds.  A.  may  be 
considered  the  raw  material  of  fibrine,  and  fibrine 
as  animalised  A. 

The  chief  component  elements  of  A.  are  carbon, 
hydroj;en,  nitrogen,  and  oxygen,  with  small  pro- 
portions of  phosphorus  and  sulphur.  It  is  believed 
to  be  a  definite  chemical  compound,  though  the 
exact  pro[;ortions  and  the  rational  formula  have 
not  been  definitely  ascertained.  Carbon  forms  about 
54  per  cent,  of  it ;  nitrogen,  16  ;  and  sulphur,  2.     It 


is  the  sulphur  of  the  A.  that  blackens  silver  when 
brought  in  contact  with  eggs,  and  the  smell  of 
rotten  eggs  arises  from  the  formation  of  sulphuretted 
hydrogen  during  the  decomposition. 

A.  is  soluble  in  water,  and  in  such  a  state  of  solu- 
tion is  found  in  the  egg,  the  juice  of  tlesh,  the  serum 
of  blood,  and  the  juice  of  vegetables;  but  when 
heated  from  140°  to  160°  it  coagid  ites,  and  is  no 
longer  soluble  in  water.  'With  bichloride  of  mer- 
cury (corrosive  sublimate),  sulphate  of  copper  (blue 
vitriol),  acetate  of  lead  (sugar  of  lead),  nitrate  of 
silver  (lunar  caustic),  it  forms  insoluble  compounds, 
and  is  therefore  used  as  an  antidote  to  these  poisons. 
The  property  of  coagulating  with  heat  adapts  A. 
for  the  purpose  of  clarifying  in  sugar-refining  and 
other  processes.  The  A.  is  added  to  the  liquid  in  the 
cold  state,  allowed  to  mix  thoroughly  therein,  and 
then,  when  heated,  it  coagulates,  entangling  and 
separating  all  the  impurities  suspended  in  the  liquid. 
A.  is  likewise  coagulated  by  the  majority  of  the 
miner.al  acids,  but  not  by  acetic  acid.  Alcohol,  ether, 
creasote,  and  tannic  acid  likewise  cause  the  coagu- 
lation of  A.,  and  hence  the  efficacy  of  these  sub- 
stances, especially  the  two  latter,  in  coagulating 
and  thereby  killing  the  nerves  which  cause  so  much 
pain  in  toothache.  The  importance  of  A.  as  aa 
article  of  diet,  will  be  discussed  under  Food. 

ALBUMEN,  in  Botany,  a  store  of  nutritive 
matter,  distinct  from  the  embryo,  but  enclosed 
along  with  it  within  the  integuments  of  the  seed. 
It  is  also  known  by  the  names  Fcrisperm  and 
Endosperm.  When  a  seed  has  a  store  of  A.  separate 
from  the  embryo,  it  is  said  to  be  albuminous  or 
peruperinic.  When  the  nutritive  matter  is  stored 
up  in  the  cotyledons  or  lobes  of  the  seed  itself,  as 
in  the  bean,  pea,  wall-flower,  &c.,  the  seed  is  said  to 
be  exalbuminoiis  or  apcrisper)nic.  In  these  the  A., 
as  a  distinct  part  of  the  seed,  is  Avanting,  and  the 
entire  seed  consists  of  embryo  and  integument. 
When  the  A.  is  present,  it  is  sometimes  very  small, 
as  in  the  nettle  ;  in  other  instances,  on  the  contrary, 
it  is  very  much  larger  than  the  embryo,  as  in  the 
cocoa-nut,  of  which  it  forms  the  edible  part.  It  is 
also  the  edible  or  useful  part  of  many  other  seeds 
— as  in  the  different  kinds  of  corn — and  in  coffee, 
nutmeg,  &c.  It  is  sometimes  7}icali/  or  farinaceous, 
as  in  the  cereals ;  oU;/,  as  in  the  poppy  ;  horni/,  as 
in  coffee  ;  cartilagirvous,  as  in  the  cocoa-nut ;  vnici- 
lacfinoiis,  as  in  the  mallow.  Vegetable  ivory  is  the 
A.  of  a  palm  (genus  Phvtdcphas)  which  grows  oa 
the  banks  of  the  Magdalena,  and  is  used  in  place 
of  ivory.  The  presence  or  absence,  and  various 
peculiarities  of  A.,  afford  botanical  characters  of 
great  value.  The  A.  appears  to  be  a  store  provided 
for  the  nourishment  of  the  embryo,  and  consists  of 
starchy,  oily,  and  albuminous  matter.  _  Vegetable  A., 
in  a  chemical  sense,  exists,  and  often  in  large  quan- 
tity, even  in  seeds,  which,  according  to  the  language 
of'descriptive  botany,  are  cxalbuminous  or  destitute 
of  A.  ;  and  to  prevent  confusion,  pcrispcrin  has 
begun  to  be  employed  as  the  botanical  term  ;  but  it 
is  not  yet  in  general  use. 

ALBUQUERQUE,  Alfonso  the  Gre.vt,  viceroy 
of  the  Indies,  and  also  called  the  Portugese  Mars, 
was  born,  in  1453,  near  Alhandra,  a  town  not  far  from 
Lisbon,  of  a  family  of  the  royal  blood  of  Portugal.  In 
that  age,  the  Portuguese  people  were  distinguished 
for  heroism  and  a  spirit  of  adventure.  They  had 
discovered  and  subjugated  a  great  part  of  the 
western  coast  of  Africa,  and  were  beginning  to 
extend  their  dominion  over  the  seas  and  tlic  people 
of  India.  A.  being  appointed  viceroy  of  these 
new  possessions,  landed  on  the  coast  of  Malabar 
on  September  26,  1503,  with  a  fleet  and  some 
troops;    conquered    Goa,  which  he   made  the   seat 


ALBURNUM,  OR  SAP-WOOD— ALCANTARA. 


of  the  Portuguese  government,  and  the  centre  of 
its  Asiiitic  connnerce ;  iind  afterwards  the  whole 
of  Malabai',  Ceylon,  the  Sunda  Isles,  the  peninsula 
of  Malacca,  and  (in  1515)  the  island  of  Orinuz  at 
the  entrance  of  tiie  Persian  Gulf.  When  the  king 
of  Persia  sent  for  the  tribute  which  the  princes 
of  this  island  had  formerly  rendered  to  him,  A. 
presented  bullets  and  swords  to  the  ambassador, 
saying  :  '  This  is  the  coin  wiih  w  hich  Portugal  pays 
her  tribute.'  He  made  the  Portuguese  name  pro- 
foundly res])ected  among  the  princes  and  people  of 
the  East;  and  many  of  them,  especially  the  kings  of 
Si:im  and  Pegu,  sought  his  alliance  and  protection. 
All  his  undertakings  bore  the  stamp  of  an  extra- 
ordinary mind.  He  maintained  strict  military 
discipline,  was  active,  far-seeing,  wise,  humane,  and 
equitable,  respected  and  feared  by  his  neighbours, 
while  beloved  by  his  subjects.  His  virt\ies  made  such 
an  impression  on  the  Indian  people,  that  long  after 
his  death,  they  resorted  to  his  grave,  to  implore 
Lis  protection  against  the  niisgovernment  of  his 
successors.  Notwithstanding  his  valuable  services, 
A.  did  not  escape  the  envy  of  the  courtiers  and 
the  suspicions  of  King  Emmanuel,  who  appointed 
Lopez  Soarez,  a  personal  enemy  of  A.,  to  supersede 
him  as  viceroy.  This  ingratitude  affected  him 
deeply.  IsmacI,  the  shah  of  Persia,  offered  his 
assistance  to  resist  the  arbitrary  decree  of  the 
Portuguese  court;  but  A.  would  not  violate  his 
allegiance.  A  few  days  after,  commending  his  son 
to  the  king  in  a  short  letter,  he  died  at  sea  near 
Goa,  December  16,  1515.  Emmanuel  honoured  his 
memory  by  a  long  repentance,  and  raised  his  son  to 
the  highest  dignities  in  the  state.  His  life  is  well 
portrayed  in  the  Commcntarios  do  Grande  Affoimo 
de  A.  (Lisbon,  157G  and  177-t,)  published  by  his  son 
Blasius. 

ALBURNUM,  or  SAP-WOOD,  in  Botany,  is 
that  part  of  the  wood  of  exogenous  trees  which 
is  still  imperfectly  hardened,  and,  consisting  of 
the  woody  layers  most  recently  formed,  is  interposed 
between  the  bark  (q.  v.)  and  the  heart-wood  or 
duramen  (q.  v.).  There  is  often  a  very  marlced  divi- 
sion between  it  and  the  duramen,  in  t  ees  whose 
age  is  such  that  the  latter  has  been  perfected.  The 
A.  differs  from  the  duramen  in  having  its  tubes 
Btill  open  for  the  passage  of  fluids  ;  and  these  tubes 
appear  to  be  the  vessels  which  chiefly  serve  for 
the  ascent  of  the  sap.  (See  Sap.)  It  gradually 
hardens,  and  is  transformed  into  duramen,  new 
layers  being  added  externally.  It  is  almost  always 
of  a  white  or  very  pale  colour,  whilst  in  many  trees 
the  duramen  is  highly  coloured.  The  A.  is  pale 
even  in  ebony,  in  which  the  duramen  is  black. 
In  general,  tlie  A.  is  much  inferior  in  value  to  the 
hardened  or  perfected  wood,  and  the  different  pro- 
portions which  they  bear  to  each  other  in  the 
thickness  of  the  stem,  go  far  to  determine  the 
relative  values  of  some  kinds  of  trees.  These  pro- 
portions, however,  are  different  not  only  in  trees 
of  different  kinds,  but  even  in  trees  of  the  same  kind 
at  dilferent  ages,  and  according  as  circumstances 
have  been  favourable  or  otherwise  to  rapidity  of 
growth.  When  there  is  a  great  proportion  of  A., 
the  wood  dries  slowly,  and  with  difficulty,  owing  to 
the  quantity  of  sap  it  contains. 

A'LCA  and  ALCAD.E.     See  Auk. 

ALC^TS,  of  Mitylene,  one  of  the  greatest  lyric 
poets  of  Greece,  flourished  about  the  end  of  the 
7th,  or  the  beginning  of  the  6th  c.  p.c.  His  odes, 
in  the  ^Eolic  dialect,  are  occupied  with  his  grief 
for  the  dissensions  of  his  country,  his  hatred  of 
tyrants,  his  own  misfortunes,  and  the  sorrows  of 
exile ;  while  on  other  occasions  he  celebrates  the 
praises  of  love  and  wine.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
112 


an  admirer  of  Sappho,  w  ho  «  as  a  contemporary.  A. 
himself  took  part  in  the  civil  war,  first  as  the  coad- 
jutor of  Pittacus,  but  afterwards  against  him,  when 
he  proved  tyrannical.  Being  banished  from  Mitylene, 
he  endeavoured,  at  the  head  of  the  other  e.xiles,  to 
iorce  his  way  back ;  but  in  this  attempt  he  fell 
into  the  hands  of  Pittacus,  who,  however,  granted 
him  his  life  and  freedom.  He  was  the  inventor 
of  the  form  of  verse  which  after  hiin  is  called  the 
Alcaic,  and  which  Horace,  the  hap])iest  of  his  imi- 
tators, transphmted  into  the  Latin  language.  Of  the 
ten  books  of  A.'s  odes,  only  fragments  remain,  wliich 
are  collected  in  the  Cainbridfie  Museum  Crilicmn, 
and  in  Bergk's  Poetiv  Lyrici  6'r(f(/ (Leip.  1843). 

ALCALA'  DE  HENARES  (El  Ca/aat,  in  Arabic, 
means  'the  castle'),  a  town  in  Spain,  in  the  province 
of  New  Castile,  situated  on  the  Henares,  22  miles 
from  the  capital,  pop.  6300.  It  is  built  in  the  old 
style,  and  boasts  of  a  university,  which  was  founded 
by'Cariiinal  Ximcnes  in  1510,  and  once  enjoyed  a 
world-wide  fame,  second  to  that  of  Salamanca  alone. 
AVlien  Francis  I.  visited  it,  while  a  piisoner  in 
Spain,  he  was  welcomed  by  11,000  students.  The 
lil)rary  contains  the  original  of  the  celebrated 
polyglot  Bible  which  was  printed  in  this  to«n,  and 
called  the  Complutensian,  from  the  ancient  name  of 
the  place  (Complutum.)  A.  has,  besides,  a  military 
academy,  and  a  celebrated  powder  and  leather 
factory.  It  is  said  to  have  been  the  birthiilace  of 
Cervantes,  and  various  other  distinguished  persons. 
— There  are  several  other  towns  in  Spain  which 
bear  the  name  of  Alcala  ;  as  A.  of  Chisbcrte,  in 
Valencia  (pop.  COOO);  A.  de  Guadaira,  near  Seville 
(5200),  and  A.  la  Real,  in  Jaen  (10,000),  with  superior 
wine,  fruit,  sheep,  &c. 

ALCA'LDE,  a  corruption  of  the  Ar;ibic  cl-cndi, 
'the  judge,' a  word  introduced  by  the  Moors.  It  is 
still  used  in  Spain  as  the  general  title  of  judicial  and 
magisterial  office,  the  special  function  being  denoted 
by  another  term.  Thus,  there  are  alcaldes  de  alden, 
village-justices;  alcaldes  jiedaneox,  justices  of  the 
peace ;    alcaldes  de  corie,  judges  of  the  court,  &c. 

ALCA'NTARA  {Al-kantarah,  Arabic,  'the 
bridge '),  the  Norba  Caesarea  of  the  Romans,  an  old 
fortified  Spaidsh  town,  built  by  the  Moors  in  the 
province  of  Estremadura.  The  present  population  is 
about  4000.  It  was  plundered  by  tlie  French  under 
General  Lapisse  in  1809.  The  bridge  from  which  it 
takes  its  name  was  built  for  Tr:ijan,  loo  a.d.  It 
consists  of  six  arches,  the  two  central  ones  with  a 
span  of  110  feet;  the  whole  length  is  67o,  and  the 
h(;ight  210  feet.  This  remarkable  structure  was 
partially  blown  up  by  the 
English  in  1812,  and  was 
again  destroyed  during  the 
civil  war  of  1836;  and  though 
it  might  be  easily  repaired,  it 
is  left  in  a  state  of  ruin,  the 
lazy  Spaniards  being  ferried 
over  in  a  lumbering  boat. 

The  Order  of  A.  (formerly 
St.  Julian),  one  of  the  reli- 
gious orders  of  Spanish 
knighthood,  was  founded 
(1156)  as  a  miHtary  frater- 
nity for  the  defence  of  Estre- 
madura against  the  Moors. 
In  1197,  Pope  Celestine  III. 
raised  it  to  the  rank  of  a  reli- 
gious order  of  knighthood ; 
bestowed  great  privileges  on 
it,  and  charged  it  with  the  Order  of  Alcantara, 
defence  of  the  Christian  faith, 

and  the  maintenance  of  eternal  war  with  the  infidel. 
Alphonso  IX.,  having  taken  the  town  of  Alcantara, 


ALCEDO— ALCHEMY. 


ceded  it  in  1218  to  tlie  order  of  Calatrava  (<[.  v.) ; 
but  the  kiiifjlits  of  this  order,  uiiiihle  to  liold  it  uloii;:; 
with  their  other  preat  possessions,  \  ioided  it  to  the 
knights  of  St.  Julian,  wiio  transferied  to  it  th<'irseat, 
and  hencelbiih  were  known  by  its  name.  At  length 
the  gnind-ni:istership  of  the  order  was,  by  Pope 
Alexander  VI.,  united  to  the  Spanish  crown  in  14'.t.5. 
The  order  is  till  richly  endowed.  The  kniglits,  who 
follow  the  rule  of  St.  Benedict,  take  now  only  the 
vows  of  obedience  and  poverty,  having,  since  1540, 
been  absolved  from  that  of  celibacy.  A  special 
vow  binds  them  to  defend  the  immaculate  con- 
ception of  the  Virgin.  At  their  iioniination,  thev 
must  prove  four  generations  of  nol)ility.  For  a 
time,  the  knights  of  A.  acknowledged  the  superiority 
of  the  knights  of  Calatrava,  but  they  were  latterly 
absolved  from  it.  Both  the  costume,  however,  and 
the  cross  are  still  the  same,  with  the  exception  of 
the  colour,  which  is  green.  The  crest  of  the  order 
is  a  pear-tree. 

ALCE'DO.     See  KixGFisnER. 

ALCIIE.VirLLA.     See  Lady's  Mantle. 

A'LCHEMY  is  to  modern  chemistry  what  astrol- 
ogy is  to  astronomy,  or  legend  to  history.  In  the 
eye  of  the  astrologer,  a  knowledge  of  the  stars  was 
valuable  only  as  a  means  of  foretelling,  or  even 
of  influencing,  future  events.  In  like  manner,  the 
genuine  alchemist  toiled  with  his  crucibles  and 
alembics,  calcining,  subliming,  distilling,  not  with  a 
view  to  discover  the  chemical  properties  of  sub- 
stances, as  we  understand  them,  but  with  two  grand 
objects,  as  illusory  as  those  of  the  astrologer — to 
discover,  namely,  (1)  the  secret  of  tra>ixmnti7if/  the 
baxer  metals  into  gold  and  sili'er,  and  (2)  the  means  of 
indefinitely  prolonging  Inunan  life. 

Tradition  points  to  Egypt  as  the  birthplace  of  the 
science.  Hermes  Trismegistus  (q.  v.)  is  represented 
as  the  father  of  it;  and  the  most  probable  etymology 
of  the  name  is  that  which  connects  it  with  the  most 
ancient  and  native  name  of  Egypt,  Chcmi  (the  Scrip- 
ture Cham  or  Ham).  The  Greeks  and  Romans  under 
the  Empire  would  seem  to  have  become  acquainted 
with  it  from  the  Egyptians ;  there  is  no  reason  to 
believe  that,  in  early  times,  either  people  had  the 
name  or  the  thing.  Chonia  (Gr.  rhemein)  occurs  in 
the  lexicon  of  Suidas,  written  in  the  11th  c,  and  is 
explained  by  him  to  be  '  the  conversion  of  silver  and 
gold.'  It  is  to  the  Arabs,  from  whom  Europe  got  the 
name  and  the  art,  that  we  owe  the  prefixed  article  al. 
As  \i  chonia  had  been  a  generic  term  embracing  all 
common  chemical  operations,  such  as  the  decocting 
and  compounding  of  ordinary  drugs,  the  grand 
operation  of  transmutation  was  denominated  the 
cheinia  (a/-chemy) — the  chemistry  of  chemistries. 
The  Roman  emperor  Caligula  is  said  to  have  insti- 
tuted experiments  for  the  producing  of  gold  out  of 
orpiment  (sulphuret  of  arsenic) ;  and  in  the  time  of 
Diocletian,  the  passion  for  this  pursuit,  conjoined 
witii  magical  arts,  had  become  so  jirevalent  in  the 
empire,  that  that  emperor  is  said  to  have  ordered 
all  Egyptian  works  treating  of  the  chemistry  of  gold 
and  silver  to  be  burnt.  For  at  that  time,  multitudes 
of  books  on  this  art  were  appearing,  written  by 
Alexandrine  monks  and  by  hermits,  but  bearing 
famous  names  of  antiquity,  guch  as  Democritus, 
Pythagoras,  and  Hermes. 

At  a  later  i)eriod,  the  Arabs  took  up  the  art; 
and  it  is  to  them  that  European  A.  is  directly 
traceable.  The  school  of  polypharmacy,  as  it  has 
been  called,  flourished  in  Arabia  during  the  kalifates 
of  the  Abbasides.  The  earliest  work  of  this  .school 
now  known  is  the  Sitmina  perfritionin,  or  'Summit 
of  Perfection,'  composed  by  Gebir  (q.  v.)  in  the  8th 
c.  ;  it  is  consequently  the  oldest  book  on  chemistry 
proper  in  the  world.     It  contains  so  much  of  what 


sounds  very  much  like  jargon  in  our  ears,  that  Dr. 
Johnson  ascribe.-  the  ori;;in  of  the  word  'gibberish 
to  the  name  of  the  compile  r.  Yet  when  viewed  in 
its  true  light,  it  is  a  wonderful  perlbrmancc.  It  is  a 
kind  of  text  book,  or  colk'ctiou  of  all  that  was  the:i 
known  and  believed.  It  appears  that  t'.ie.-e  Arabian 
I)olypharmists,  had  long  been  engaged  in  firing  and 
boiling,  di-ssolving  and  precipitating,  subliming  and 
coagulating  chemical  substances.  They  worked  with 
gold  and  mercury,  arsenic  and  sulphur,  salts  and 
acids;  and  had,  in  short,  become  familiar  with  a 
large  range  of  what  arc  now  called  chemicals.  Gebir 
taught  that  there  are  three  elemental  chemicals — 
mcrciry,  sulphur,  and  arsenic.  These  suljstances, 
especially  the  first  two,  seem  to  have  fascinated  the 
thoughts  of  the  alchemists  by  their  potent  and 
penetrating  qualities.  They  saw  mercury  di.ssolve 
gold,  the  most  incorruptible  of  matters,  as  water 
dissolves  sugar;  and  a  stick  of  sulphur  presented  to 
hot  iron  penetrates  it  like  a  spirit,  and  makes  it  run 
down  in  a  shower  of  solid  drops,  a  new  and  remark- 
able substance,  possessed  of  properties  belonging 
neither  to  iron  nor  to  sulphur.  The  Arabians  held 
that  the  metals  are  compound  bodies,  made  up  of 
mercury  and  sulp'iur  in  dilferent  proportions.  With 
these  very  excusable  errors  in  theory,  they  were 
genuine  practical  chemists.  They  toiled  awav  at 
the  art  of  making  'many  medicines'  (polyphar- 
macy) out  of  the  various  mixtures  and  reactions  of 
such  chemicals  as  they  knew.  They  had  their  pestle.s 
and  mortars,  their  crucibles  and  furnaces,  their 
alembics  and  aludels,  their  vessels  for  infusion,  for 
decoction,  for  cohabitation,  sublimation,  fixation, 
lixiviation,  filtration,  coagulation,  &c.  Their  scien- 
tific creed  was  transmutation,  and  their  methods 
were  mostly  blind  gropings ;  ami  yet,  in  this  way, 
they  found  out  many  a  new  body,  and  invented 
many  a  useful  process. 

From  the  Arabs,  A.  found  its  way  through  Spain 
into  Europe,  and  speedily  became  entangled  with 
the  fantastic  subtleties  of  the  scholastic  pliilosophy. 
In  the  ndddle  ages,  it  was  chiefly  the  monks  that 
occupied  themselves  with  A.  Pope  John  XXII. 
took  great  delight  in  it,  though  it  was  afterwards 
forbidden  by  his  succes-or.  The  earliest  authentic 
works  on  European  A.  now  extant  are  those  of  Roger 
Bacon  (b.  1214,  d.  1284)  and  Albertus  Magnus  (b. 
1205,  d.  1280).  Roger  Bacon  (q.  v.)  appears  rather 
the  earlier  of  the  two  as  a  writer,  and  is  really  the 
greatest  man  in  all  the  school.  He  was  acquainted 
with  gunpowder.  Although  he  condemns  magic, 
necromancy,  charms,  and  all  such  things,  he  believes 
in  the  convertibility  of  the  inferior  metals  into  gold, 
but  does  not  profess  to  have  ever  ett'ected  flic  con- 
version. He  had  more  faith  in  the  elixir  of  life  than 
in  gold-making.  He  followed  tiebir  in  regarding 
potable  gold — that  is,  gold  dissolved  in  nitro-hydro- 
ehloric  acid  or  aqun-regin — as  the  elixir  of  life. 
Urging  it  on  the  attention  of  Pope  Nicholas  IV., 
he  informs  his  Holiness  of  an  old  man  who  found 
some  yellow  liquor  (the  solution  of  gold  is  yellow) 
in  a  golden  phial,  when  plougiiing  one  day  in  Sicily. 
Supposing  it  to  be  dew,  he  drank  it  oft".  He  wa3 
thereupon  translbrmed  into  a  hale,  robust,  and 
highly  accomplisiied  youth.  Bacon  no  doubt  took 
many  a  dose  of  this  golden  water  himself. — Albertus 
Magnus  (q.  v.)  had  a  great  mastery  of  the  practical 
chemistry  of  his  times ;  he  was  acquainted  with 
alum,  caustic  alkali,  and  the  purification  of  the 
royal  metals  by  means  of  lea<l.  In  addition  to  the 
sulphur-and-mercury  theory  of  the  metals,  drawn 
from  Gebir,  he  regarded  the  element  water  as  still 
nearer  the  soul  of  nature  than  either  of  these  bodies. 
He  appears,  indeed,  to  have  thought  it  the  ])rimary 
matter,  or  the  radical  source  of  all  things — an 
opinion    held     by    Thalcs,    the     father    of    Greek 

113 


ALCHEMY— ALCIBIADES. 


speculation. — Thomas  Aquinas  (q.  v.)  also  wrote  on 
A.,  and  was  the  first  to  employ  the  word  miialgani 
(q.  v.). — Uaymond  Lully  (q.  v.)is  another  great  name 
in  the  annals  of  A.  His  writings  are  nuicli  more 
disfigured  by  unintelligiljlc  jargon  than  those  of 
Bacon  airl  Albertus  Magnus.  He  was  the  first 
to  introduce  the  use  of  chemical  symbols  (q.  v.), 
his  system  consisting  of  a  scliemo  of  arbitrary  hiero- 
glypliics.  He  made  much  of  the  spirit  of  wine  (the 
art  of  distilling  spirits  would  seem  to  have  been 
then  recent),  imposing  on  it  the  na!ne  of  aqua  vitce 
ardens.  Hi  his  enthusiasm,  lie  pronounced  it  the 
very  elixir  of  life.  One  of  the  most  celebrated  of  the 
alchcnnsts  was  Basil  Valentine  (q.  v.),  (b.  1394),  who 
introduced  antimony  into  medical  use.  He,  along 
with  some  previous  alchemists,  regarded  salt,  sul- 
phur, and  mercury  as  the  three  bodies  contained  in 
the  metals.  He  inferred  that  the  philosopher's-stone 
must  be  the  same  sort  of  combination — a  compound, 
namely,  of  salt,  sulphur,  and  mercury ;  so  pure, 
that  its  projection  on  the  baser  metals  should  be 
able  to  work  them  up  into  greater  and  greater  purity, 
l)ringing  tliem  at  last  to  the  state  of  silver  and  gold. 
His  practical  knowledge  was  great ;  he  knew  iiovv 
to  precipitate  iron  from  solution  by  potash,  and 
many  similar  processes,  so  that  he  is  ranked  as  the 
founder  of  analytical  chemistry. 

But  more  famous  than  all  was  Paracelsus  (q.  v.), 
in  whom  alchemy  proper  may  be  said  to  have  cul- 
minated. He  held,  with  Basil  Valentine,  that  the 
elements  of  compound  bodies  were  salt,  sulphur, 
and  mercury — representing  respectively  earth,  air, 
and  water,  fire  being  already  regarded  as  an  impon- 
derable— but  these  substances  were  in  his  system 
purely  representative.  All  kinds  of  matter  were 
reducible  under  one  or  other  of  these  typical  forms ; 
everything  was  cither  a  salt,  a  sulphur,  or  a 
mercury,  or,  like  the  metals,  it  was  a  '  raixt  '  or 
compound.  Tiiere  was  one  element,  however, 
common  to  the  four ;  a  fifth  essence  or  'quintes- 
sence' of  creation;  an  unknown  and  only  true 
element,  of  which  the  four  generic  principles  were 
nothing  but  derivative  forms  or  embodiments :  in 
other  words,  he  inculcated  the  dogma,  that  there 
is  only  one  real  elementary  matter — nobody  knows 
what.  This  one  prime  clement  of  things  he  appears 
to  have  considered  to  be  the  universal  solvent  of 
which  the  achemists  were  in  quest,  and  to  express 
which  he  introduced  the  term  alcahcnt — a  word  of 
unknown  etymology,  but  supposed  by  some  to  be 
composed  of  the  two  German  words  alle  gclM,  '  all 
spirit.'  He  seems  to  have  had  the  notion,  that  if 
this  quintessence  or  fifth  element  could  be  got  at, 
it  would  prove  to  be  at  once  the  philosopher's-stone, 
the  universal  medicine,  and  the  irresistiljle  solvent. 

After  Paracelsus,  the  alchemists  of  Europe  became 
divided  into  two  classes.  The  one  class  was  com- 
posed of  men  of  diligence  and  sense,  who  devoted 
themselves  to  the  discovery  of  new  compounds  and 
re-actions — practical  workers  and  observers  of  facts, 
and  the  legitimate  ancestors  of  the  positive  chemists 
of  the  era  of  Lavoisier.  The  other  class  took  up 
the  visionary,  fantastical  side  of  the  older  alchemy, 
and  carried  it  to  a  degree  of  extravagance  before 
unknown.  Instead  of  useful  work,  they  compiled 
mystical  trash  into  books,  and  fiithered  them  on 
Hermes,  Aristotle,  Albertus  Magnus,  Paracelsus, 
and  other  really  great  men.  Their  language  is  a 
farrago  of  mystical  metaphors,  full  of  '  red  bride- 
grooms '  and  '  lily  brides,'  '  green  dragons,'  '  ruby 
lions,'  'royal  baths,'  'waters  of  life.'"  The  seven 
metals  correspond  with  the  seven  planets,  the  seven 
cosmical  angels,  and  the  seven  openings  of  the 
head — the  eyes,  the  ears,  the  nostrils,  and  the  mouth. 
Silver  was  Diana,  gold  was  Apollo,  iron  was  Mars, 
tin  was  Jupiter,  lead  was  Saturn,  and  so  forth. 
lU 


They  talk  for  ever  of  the  powder  of  attraction, 
which  drew  all  men  and  women  after  the  possessor; 
of  the  alcahest,  and  the  grand  elixir,  which  was 
to  confer  immortal  youth  upon  the  studeiit  who 
should  appiove  himself  pure  and  biavc  enough  to 
kiss  and  quaff  the  golden  draught.  There  was  the 
great  mystery,  the  mother  of  the  elements,  the 
grandmother  of  the  stars.  There  was  the  philo- 
aophers-stnne,  and  there  was  the  phUosophical- 
xtone.  The  philosophical-stone  was  younger  than 
the  elements,  yet  at  her  virgin  touch  the  grossest 
calx  (ore)  among  them  all  would  l)lush  before  her 
into  perfect  gold.  The  philo.'^opher's-stone,  on  the 
other  hand,  was  the  first-born  of  nature,  and  older 
than  the  king  of  metals.  Those  who  had  attained 
full  insight  into  the  arcana  of  the  science  were  styled 
Wise;  those  who  were  only  striving  alter  the  light 
were  Pliilosophers ;  while  the  ordinary  praclisers  of 
the  art  were  called  Adepts.  It  was  these  visionaries 
that  formed  themselves  into  Rosicrucian  Societies 
and  other  secret  associations.  It  was  also  in  con- 
nection with  this  mock-A.,  mixed  up  with  astrology 
and  magic,  that  quackery  and  imposture  so 
abounded,  as  is  depicted  by  Scott  in  the  character 
of  Dousterswivel  in  the  Antiqitari/.  Designing 
knaves  would,  for  instance,  make  up  large  nails, 
half  of  iron  and  half  of  gold,  and  lacker  them,  so 
that  they  appeared  common  nails;  and  when  their 
credulous  and  avaricious  dupes  saw  them  extract 
from  what  seemed  plain  iron  an  ingot  of  gold,  they 
were  ready  to  advance  any  s>im  that  the  knaves 
pretended  to  be  necessary  for  pursuing  the  pi'ocess 
on  a  large  scale.  It  is  from  this  degenerate  and 
effete  scliool  that  the  prevailing  notion  of  A.  is 
derived — a  notion  which  is  unjust  (o  the  really 
meritorious  alchemists  who  paved  the  way  for 
genuine  chemistry. 

It  is  interesting  to  observe  that  the  leading  tenet 
in  the  alchemists'  creed — namely,  the  doctrine  of 
the  transmutability  of  other  metals  into  gold  and 
silver — a  doctrine  which  it  was  at  one  time 
thought  that  modern  chemistry  had  utterly  exploded 
— receives  not  a  little  countenance  from  a  variety  of 
facts  every  day  coming  to  light.  The  multitude  of 
phenomena  known  to  chemists  under  the  name  of 
Allotropi/  (q.  v.),  are  leading  speculative  men  more 
and  more  to  the  opinion  that  many  substances 
hitherto  considered  chemically  distinct,  are  only 
the  same  substance  under  some  different  condition 
or  arrangement  of  its  component  molecules,  and 
that  the  number  of  really  distinct  elements  may 
be  very  few  indeed.  See  Kopp's  Ge-fcJnchte  der 
Chernie,  also  Alchemy  and  the  Alcheinists,  by  Dr. 
Samuel  Brown,  in  Chambers's  Papers  for  the 
People  (No.  Ofi),  from  which  the  above  sketch  is 
chiefly  condensed. 

ALCIBI'ADES,  a  son  of  Clinias  and  Dinomache, 
born  at  xVthens,  450  n.c.  He  lost  his  father  in  the 
battle  of  Chajronea ;  and  was  in  consequence  educated 
in  the  house  of  Pericles,  his  uncle.  In  his  youth  he 
gave  evidence  of  his  future  greatness,  excelling  both 
in  mental  and  bodily  exercises.  His  handsome 
person,  his  distinguished  parentage,  and  the  high 
position  of  Pericles,  procured  him  a  multitude  of 
friends  and  admirers.  Socrates  was  one  of  the 
former,  and  gained  considerable  influence  over  him  ; 
but  was  unable  to  restrain  his  love  of  luxury  and 
dissipation,  which  found  ample  means  of  gratification 
in  the  wealth  that  accrued  to  him  by  his  union  with 
Hipparete,  the  daughter  of  Hipponicus.  His  public 
displays,  especially  at  the  Olympic  games,  were 
incredibly  expensive.  He  bore  arms  for  the  first 
time  in  the  expedition  against  Potidaja  (432  R.c.) 
where  he  was  wounded,  and  where  his  life  was 
saved  by  Socrates — a  debt  which  he  liquidated 
eight  years  after  at  the  battle  of  Dclium,  by  saving. 


ALCMAN— ALCOHOL. 


in  his  turn,  the  life  of  the  jihilosopher ;  but  lie 
seems  to  have  taken  no  Jiart  in  jjohtieal  matters  till 
after  the  deatli  of  the  demagogue  Cleon,  when  Nieias 
brought  about  a  treaty  of  peace  for  fifty  years 
between  the  Atlienians  and  Lacedaemonians.  A., 
jealous  of  the  esteem  in  which  !N'icias  was  held, 
persuaded  the  Athenians  to  ally  themselves  with 
the  people  of  Argos,  Elis,  and  Mantinoa,  and  did  all 
in  his  power  to  stir  up  afresh  their  old  antipathy 
to  Sparta.  It  was  at  his  suggestion  that  they 
engaged  in  the  celebrated  enterprise  against  Sicily, 
to  the  command  of  which  he  was  elected,  along 
with  Xicias  and  Lamachns.  But  while  preparations 
were  being  mailc,  it  happened  during  one  night  that 
all  the  statues  of  Mercury  in  Athens  were  mutilatiMl. 
The  enemies  of  A.  threw  the  blame  of  this  mischief 
upon  him,  but  postponed  the  impeachment  till  he 
had  set  sail,  when  they  stirred  up  the  people 
against  him  to  such  a  degree,  that  he  was  recalled, 
in  order  to  stand  his  trial.  On  his  way  home,  he 
landed  at  Thurii,  fled,  and  betook  himself  to 
Sparta,  where,  by  conforming  to  the  strict  manners 
of  the  people,  he  soon  became  a  favourite.  He 
induced  the  LacediPmonians  to  send  assistance  to 
the  Syracusans,  persuaded  them  to  form  an  alliance 
with  the  king  of  Persia,  and  after  the  unfortunate 
issue  of  the  Athenian  expedition  in  Sicily,  to  support 
the  people  of  Chios  in  their  endeavours  to  throw  off 
the  yoke  of  Athens.  He  went  thither  himself,  and 
raised  all  Ionia  in  revolt  against  that  city.  But 
Agis  and  the  other  leading  men  in  Sparta,  jealous  of 
the  success  of  A.,  ordered  their  generals  in  Asia  to 
have  him  assassinated.  A.  discovered  this  plan,  and 
fled  to  Tissaphernes,  a  Persian  satrap,  who  had 
orders  to  act  in  concert  with  the  Lacedcemonians. 
He  now  resumed  his  old  manners,  adopted  the 
luxurious  habits  of  Asia,  and  made  himself  indis- 
pensable to  Tissaphernes.  He  represented  to  the 
latter  that  it  was  contrary  to  the  interests  of  Persia 
entirely  to  disable  the  Athenians.  He  then  sent 
word  to  the  commanders  of  the  Athenian  forces  at 
Samos  that  he  would  procure  for  them  the  friend- 
ship of  the  satrap  if  they  would  control  the  extrav- 
agance of  the  people,  and  commit  the  government  to 
an  oligarchy.  This  offer  was  accepted,  and  Pisander 
was  sent  to  Athens,  where  he  got  the  supreme 
power  vested  in  a  council  of  400  persons.  When  it 
appeared,  however,  that  this  council  had  no  intention 
of  recalling  A.,  the  army  at  Samos  chose  him  as 
their  commander,  desiring  him  to  lead  them  on 
instantly  to  Athens,  and  overthrow  the  tyrants. 
But  A.  did  not  wish  to  return  to  his  native  country 
till  he  had  rendered  it  some  service,  and  he  accord- 
ingly attacked  and  defeated  the  Lacedaemonians 
both  by  sea  and  hind.  Ti-saphernes  now  ordered 
him  to  be  arrested  at  Sardis  on  his  return,  (he 
satrap  not  wishing  the  king  to  imagine  that  he  had 
been  accfssory  to  his  doings.  But  A.  found  means  to 
escape ;  placed  himself  again  at  the  liead  of  the  army ; 
beat  the  Lacedremonians  and  Persians  at  Cyzicus; 
look  Cyzicus,  Chalcedon,  and  Byzantium  ;  restored 
to  the  Athenians  the  dominion  of  the  sea;  and  then 
returned  to  his  country  (4(17  B.c),  to  which  he  had 
been  formally  invited.  He  was  received  with 
general  enthusiasm,  as  the  Athenians  attributed  to 
his  banishment  all  the  misfortunes  that  had  befallen 
them. 

The  tiiumph  of  A.,  however,  was  not  destined  to 
last.  He  was  again  sent  to  Asia  with  100  ships;  but 
not  being  supplied  with  money  for  the  soldiers'  pay, 
he  was  obliged  to  seek  assistance  at  Caiia,  where 
he  transferred  the  command  in  the  meantime  to 
Antiochus,  who,  being  lured  into  an  ambuscade  by 
Lysander,  lost  his  lite  and  part  of  the  ships.  The 
enemies  of  A.  took  advantage  of  this  to  accuse  him 
and    appoint    another    commander.       A.    went    to 


'  Thrace,  where  he  lived  in  voluntary  exile  in  Pactyse, 
one    of    the    castles    which     he    had    built   out    of 

I  his  earlier  spoils.     But  being  threatened  herewith 

j  the  power  of  Laced;vmonia,  he  removed  to  Bithynia, 

I  with  the  intention  of  repairing  to  Artaxer\es,  to  gain 
him  over  to  the  interests  of  his  country.  At  the 
request  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants  of  Athens,  and  with  the 
concurrence  of  the  Spartans,  Pharnabazus,  a  satrap 
of  Aita.xerxes,  received  orders  to  put  A.  to  death. 
He  was  living  at  this  time  in  a  castle  in  Phrygia  ; 
Pharnabazus    ordered   it    to  be  set  on    fire  during 

'  the  night,  and  as  his  victim  was  endeavouring  to 
escape  from  the  flames,  he  was  pierced  with  a  volley 
of  arrows.     Thus  perished  A.  (4ti4  n.c),  about  the 

,  forty-fifth  year  of  his  age.  Ho  was  singularly 
endowed   Ijy   nature,   being    possessed  of  the  most 

;  fascinating  eloquence  (although  he  coidd  not  articu- 
late the  letter  ?•,  and  stuttered  in  his  speech),  and 
having   in   a   rare    degree   the   talent   to  win  and  to 

'  govern  men.  Yet  in  all  his  transactions,  he  allowed 
himself  to  be  directed  by  external  circumstances, 
without  having  any  fixed  principles  of  conduct. 
On  the  other  hand,  he  possessed  that  boldness 
which  arises  from  conscious  superiority,  and  shrunk 
from  no  difficulty,  because  he  was  never  doubtful 
concerning  the  means  by  which  an  end  might  be 
attained.  His  life  has  been  written  by  Plutarch  and 
Cornelius  Nepos. 

ALCMAX,  an  ancient  lyric  poet,  was  born  at 
Sardis,  the  capital  of  Lydia,  in  Asia  Minor,  but  lived 
first  as  a  slave,  and  afterwards  as  a  freeman  in  Sparta. 

I  He  is  the  curliest  erotic  poet,  and  is  said  to  have  intro- 
duced some  new  metrical  forms  called  Alc/iuinica 
metra.  He  composed  in  the  Doric  dialect  a  ))oeni 
on  the  Dioscuri,  Parthenia,  or  songs  sung  by  choruses 
of  virgins,  bridal-hymns,  verses  in  praise  of  love  and 
wine,  <S:c.  We  possess  only  a  few  fragments  of  A., 
nor  do  these  justify  the  high  oiiinion  entertained  of 
his  merits  by  the  ancients,  though  some  of  them 
exhibit  considerable  beauty.  A.  died  of  a  loath- 
some disease  {morbus  pedicular  is). 

ALCO,  a  variety  of  dog,  domesticated  in  Mexico 
and  Peru  before  the  discovery  of  America  by 
Europeans,  and  also  found  in  a  wild  state  in  these 
countries.  But  whether  it  is  or'ginally  a  native  of 
them,  or  has  escaped  from  domestication,  is  imcertain, 
nor  is  the  variety  well  known  to  naturalists.  It  is 
described  as  having  a  very  small  head  and  pendulous 
ears :  the  latter  being  in  dogs  one  of  the  ordinary 
results  of  domestication.  Hunilioldt  supposed  it  to 
be    allied    to    the    shepherd's    dog.       It    has    been 

attempted  to  elevate  it  into  a  species  under  the 
name  of   Canis  A.     It  is  not  improbable  that  the 

name  A.  was  given  to  more  varieties  than  one. 

A'LCOHOL  is  a  limpid,  colourless  liquid,  of  a 
hot  pungent  taste,  and  having  a  slight  but  agreeable 
smell.  It  is  the  characteristic  ingredient  of  fer- 
mented drinks,  and  gives  them  their  intoxicating 
quality.  Looking  at  the  extraordinary  consumption 
of  these  liquors,  and  to  the  extensive  ap])lication  of 
A.  for  other  purposes,  it  becomes  one  of  the  most 
important  substances  produced  by  art. 

There  is  only  one  source  of  A. — namely,  the  fer- 
mentation of  sugar  or  other  saccharine  matter.  Sugar 
is  the  produce  of  the  vegetable  world.  Some  plants 
contain  free  sugar,  and  still  more  contain  starch, 
which  can  be  converted  into  sugar.  The  best  vege- 
table substances,  then,  for  yielding  A.  are  those  tliat 
contain  the  greatest  abundance  of  sugar  or  of  starch. 
See  Di.\ST.\SE,  Feumkntation,  and  Distillation. 

Owing  to  the  attraction  of  A.  for  water,  it  is 
impossible  to  procure  pure  A.  by  distillation  alone. 
Common  spirits,  such  as  brandy,  whisky,  &c.,  contain 
50  or  52  per  cent,  of  A.;  in  other  words,  they  are 
about  half  A.,  half  water.     Proof-sjoirit,  which  is  the 

113 


ALCOIIOLOMETRY— ALCUDIA. 


standard  by  means  of  which  all  mixtures  of  A.  and 
water  are  judged,  contains  57'27  per  cent,  by  volume, 
and  4y5()  jier  cent,  by  weight  of  A.  The  specihc 
gravity  of  proof-spirit  is  918-6;  and  when  a  spirit 
is  caWcd  aboi'c  proof,  it  denotes  that  it  contains  :ni 
excess  of  A. ;  thus,  .vpir»7  of  wme,  or  rectified  spirit, 
with  specific  gravity  838,  is  54  to  58  ovcrproof, 
and  requires  54  to  68  per  cent,  of  water  to  be  added 
to  it,  to  bring  the  strength  down  to  that  of  prool- 
fspirit;  whilst  the  term  widvr-jiroif  hi\9.  reference 
to  a  less  strong  spirit  than  the  standard.  See 
Arkomi.teu.  The  most  primitive  method  of  learning 
tlie  strength  of  A.  was  to  diench  gunpowder  with 
it,  set  fire  to  the  spirit,  and  if  it  infhimcil  the  gun- 
powder as  it  died  out,  tlicn  the  A.  stood  the  test  or 
proof,  and  was  calhd  proof-spirit.  The  highest  con- 
centration possible  by  distillation  gives  'JO  per  cent, 
of  A.,  still  leaving  lu  per  cent,  of  water.  In  order 
to  remove  this,  fused  chloride  of  calcium,  quicklime, 
or  fused  caibnnate  of  potash,  is  added  to  the  alco- 
holic liquid,  the  whole  allowed  to  st.uid  for  twelve 
hours,  and  then  the  spirit  may  be  distilled  off  quite 
free  from  water.  S|)irit  of  wine  may  also  be  deprived 
of  its  remaining  water  by  suspending  it  in  a  bladder 
in  a  warm  place ;  the  bladiier  allows  much  of  the 
water  to  pass  through  and  evaporate,  but  little 
of  the  A.  The  latter  method  is  called  Soeinmer- 
ing's  process,  and  depends  on  the  ditVerent  degrees 
of  rapidity  with  which  the  bladder  admits  of 
water  and  A.  passing  through  it.  'I'hus,  introduce 
into  one  bladder  eight  ounces  of  water,  and  into 
a  second,  eight  ounces  of  A.,  and  allow  both 
bladders  to  be  siniilarily  exposed  on  a  sandbath, 
till  all  the  water  has  evaporated  through  the  i  ores 
of  the  membrane,  which  will  be  aecouipli.-hed  in 
about  four  days,  and  it  will  then  be  observed, 
that  whilst  eight  ounces  of  water  have  made  their 
exit  from  the  bladder,  only  one  ounce  of  A. 
has  thus  evaporated,  and  seven  ounces  still  remain 
in  the  bladder.  This  experiment  explains  why 
smugglers,  a  few  generations  ago,  could  supply  a 
whisky  which  was  stronger,  and  hence  esteemed 
preferable,  as  they  carried  the  whisky  in  bladders 
around  their  persons,  and  the  water  escaping  there- 
from in  much  greater  pioportion  than  llie  A.,  a 
stronger  spirit  was  left. 

A.  is  used  medicinally,  both  internally  and  exter- 
nally. The  more  common  form  for  internal  use  is 
brandy,  and  is  that  generally  reconnnended  by 
physicians.  As  a  stomachic  stimidant,  A.  is  used  in 
sea-sickness  and  indigestion.  As  a  .stimulant  and 
resloratire,  it  is  employed  with  advantage  in  the 
later  stages  of  fever.  It  is  also  employed  internally 
as  a  powerful  ejrcitant  to  prevent  fainting  during 
operations,  antl  to  assist  in  restoration  in  cases  of 
suspended  animation.  In  cases  of  diarrhoea,  unac- 
companied by  inflammation,  it  is  often  of  great 
benefit.  Externally,  A.  is  applied  to  stop  hemor- 
ihage,  to  harden  the  cuticle  over  tender  par:s,  as 
the  nipples  of  females  lor  some  time  before  delivery, 
and  to  feet  which  have  been  blistered  from  long 
walking  or  tight-fitting  shoes. 

Absolute  or  anhydrous  A.  has  a  specific  gravity 
of  793  at  the  temperature  of  tiU°.  It  boils  at  173°, 
and  has  not  been  frozen  by  any  cold  hitherto  pro- 
duced. Reduced  to  a  temperature  of — lo()°,  A. 
becomes  of  an  oily  and  greasy  consistence ;  at  — 140°, 
it  assumes  the  aspect  of  melted  wax  ;  and  at — ltJO°, 
it  gets  still  thicker,  but  does  not  congeal  at  the 
lowest  attainable  temperature.  This  property  of 
non-freezing  at  any  degree  of  cold  to  which  the 
earth  is  subjected,  has  led  to  the  employment  of 
A.  coloured  red  by  cochineal,  in  the  theimometers 
sent  out  to  the  Arctic  regions.  It  acts  as  a  poison  by 
abstracting  the  water  from  the  purts  it  touches.  It 
is  highly  inflammable  ;  its  combusfon  vielding  only 
11(5 


carbonic  acid  and  water.  \Yhen  mixed  with  water, 
heat  is  evolved,  and  a  condensation  takes  place. 
The  formula  of  A.  is  CilloOi.  In  1  ii)  pounds, 
therefore,  of  A.,  about  68  are  car])on,  13  hydrogen, 
and  34  oxygen.  Besides  the  A.  consumed  in  wine, 
beer,  and  spirits,  it  is  much  employed  in  pharmacy 
and  in  the  arts.  It  is  a  jiowerfid  solvent  for  resins 
and  oils  ;  and  hence  is  employed  in  the  pre[)aration 
of  varnishes.  In  Germany,  a  cheap  spiiit  made  from 
jiotatoes  is  much  used  for  cooking  on  a  small  scale. 
Sec  INIiTnvLATED  SpiKiT. — The  use  and  abuse  of 
alcoholic  drinks  will  l)e  considered  under  Food  and 
Drink,  and  Tkmpkranc  k. 

ALCOIIOLO'.METIIY    is    the    process    of    esti- 
mating   the    jiercentage    of  absolute    alcohol    in    a 
sam])le  of  spirits.     See  Arkometkr. 
A'LCORAN.     See  Koran. 

AL(X)'VE  (Spanish,  alcoba,  which  is  derived  from 
the  Arabic,  El-kanf,  a  tent),  an  architectural  term, 
denoting  a  sort  of  niche  or  recess  in  a  chamber 
where  one  may  recline,  or  where  a  bed  may  be 
placed.  An  A.  is  either  hung  w  ith  curtains  or  closed 
with  doors  during  the  day.  It  was  Known  to  the 
ancients,  and  at  one  time  very  common  in  France, 
when  the  immoderate  size  of  the  apartments  ren- 
dered it  absolutely  necessary  as  a  preventive 
against  the  cold  during  sleep.  It  is  no  longer 
fashionable,  the  most  eminent  jihysicians  lia\ing 
declared  it  to  be  j)r(judicial  to  health. 

ALCO'Y,  a  town  in  the  province  of  Valencia, 
Spain,  about  '24  miles  north-west  of  Alii  ante.  It  is 
'built  in  a  funnel  of  the  hills,  on  a  tongue  of  lai:d 
hemmed  in  liy  two  streams,  with  bridges  and  arched 
viaducts.'  The  old,  (|uaint-looking  hou,-es  hang 
[lietin-esquely  over  the  terraced  gardens  and  ravir.es. 
The  walls  of  A.  are  of  clay,  and  suffered  consider- 
able damage  during  the  last  war ;  but  the  town 
contains  some  new  edifices,  and  has  numerous 
nniiiufactories.  '  Here  is  made  the  pnpel  de  fiilo,  the 
book  Lihrito  de  fumar,  which  forms  the  entire  demi- 
duodeciino  library  of  nine-tenths  of  Spaniards,  and 
with  which  they  make  their  pajirlitofs,  or  little  paper- 
cigars.'  200,<)()0  reams  are  annually  made,  of  which 
lOjOOO  are  used  for  writing,  10, (Mill  for  jjacking,  and 
180,000  for  the  pajier-cigars !  A.  is  also  famous  for 
its  sugar-plums.  It  has  a  pari.-h  chm-ch,  schools, 
consistory,  town-hall,  i)00r  asylum,  public  granary, 
&c.     Pop.  27,000. 

ALCrDI'A,  Manuel  dk  Gopot,  Dike  of,  known 
as  the  Prince  of  Peace,  was  born  at  Badajos,  in  Spain, 
12th  of  May  17t)7.  Poor,  but  handsome  and  musical, 
at  the  age  of  twenty,  he  entered  the  king's  body- 
guard at  Aladrid,  and  soon  became  a  favourite  of  the 
weak  Charles  IV.,  as  well  as  of  his  queen.  Honours 
and  emoluments  flowed  in  rapidly.  In  ISOl,  he 
led  the  Spanish  army  against  the  Portuguese,  and 
signed  the  treaty  of  Badajos.  In  1804,  he  was  made 
generalissimo  of  the  Spanish  forces  on  sea  and  land, 
and  invested  with  unlimited  power.  The  alliance 
of  Spain  with  France,  and  the  war  wiih  England 
which  ensued,  in  s[)ite  of  the  sums  paid  by  Spain  to 
secure  neutrality,  the  defeat  of  Trafalgar,  and  con- 
sequent check  to  commerce — all  tended  to  exasper- 
ate the  pubRc  mind,  and  a  court-party  was  formed 
against  him,  with  the  Prince  of  Asturias  at  its  head. 
A.  now  resolved  to  shake  off  the  French  alliance, 
and  to  treat  secretly  with  the  Lisbon  court.  But 
however  cautiou.~ly  taken,  liis  warlike  measures 
reached  the  ears  of  Napoleon,  and  determined  him 
to  carry  out  his  project  of  dethroning  the  Bourbons. 
Meanwhile,  the  people  had  been  further  exasperated 
against  the  favourite  by  his  unprincipled  accusations 
against  the  Prince  of  Asturias;  and  when,  in  1808, 
Charles  abdicated  in  favour  of  his  sou,  the  duke's 
life  was   only  saved  by  the  promise    of   his   trial. 


ALCUIN— ALCYONIUM. 


This  trial,  however,  never  took  phice.  Napoleon, 
who  knew  his  intiuenec  over  the  minds  of  their 
Spanish  niiijesties,  had  him  liberated,  and  broii{;lit 
to  Bayonne,  where  he  instigated  all  measures  taken 
by  the  ex-king  and  queen,  retaining  their  favor  till 
their  death.  After  his  fall,  he  lived  chiefly  in 
France.  In  1808,  his  income  had  been  estimated  at 
five  million  piastres.  After  the  revolution  of  18:i<>, 
we  find  him  subsisting  in  Paris  ujion  a  small  pension 
bestowed  by  Loiiis-rhiiipi)e.  In  1847,  his  leturii 
to  Spa'ti  was  permitted,  and  his  titles,  together  with 
great  part  of  his  wealth,  restored,  lie  died  at  Paris, 
4th  October  1851. 

ALCUIN\  or  FLACCUS  ALBI'NUS,  the  most 
distinguished  scholar  of  the  8th  c.,  the  confiiiant 
and  adviser  of  Charlemagne,  was  born  at  York 
about  the  year  785.  lie  was  educated  under  the 
care  of  Archbishop  Egbert,  and  his  relative, 
Aelbert,  and  succeeded  the  latter  as  master  of  the 
School  of  York.  Charlemagne  became  acquainted 
with  liim  at  Parma,  as  he  was  returning  from  Rome, 
whither  he  had  gone  to  bring  home  the  pallium  for 
a  friend;  and  in  the  year  78'i,  this  monarch  invited 
him  to  his  court,  and  availed  himself  of  his  assist- 
ance in  his  endeavours  to  civilise  his  subjects.  A. 
became  tlie  preceptor  of  Ciiarlemagne  himself,  whom 
he  instructed  in  the  various  sciences.  To  render 
his  instructions  more  available,  Charlemagne  estab- 
lished at  his  court  a  school  called  Schola  Palafi?ia, 
the  superintendence  of  wliicli,  as  well  as  of  several 
monasteries,  was  committed  to  him.  In  the  learned 
Bociety  of  the  court,  A.  went  by  the  name  of  Flaccus 
Albimis.  Most  of  the  schools  in  France  were  either 
found^'d  or  improved  by  him.  Among  others,  he 
founded  the  school  in  the  Abbey  of  St.  Martin,  in 
Tours  (79f>),  taking  as  his  model  the  School  of  York  ; 
and  in  this  sciiool  he  himself  taught  after  his  retire- 
ment from  court  (8()1).  While  living  at  Tours,  he 
frequently  corresponded  with  Charlemagne.  At  his 
death,  in  801,  he  left,  besides  numerous  theological 
writings,  a  immlier  of  elementary  works  on  phil- 
osophy, mathematics,  rhetoric,  and  philology ;  also 
poetns,  and  a  great  number  of  letters.  His  letters, 
while  they  betray  the  uncultivated  character  of  the 
age  generally,  shew  A.  to  have  been  the  most  accom- 
plished man  of  his  time.  lie  understood  Latin, 
Greek,  and  Hebrew.  The  most  complete  edition  of 
his  works  appeared  at  Katisbon  in  1777.  See  the 
Life  of  A.  l)v  Loreiiz  (Halle,  18"i9),  translated  into 
English  (Loinl.  1837). 

ALCYO'XIUM,  a  genus  of  Zoophytes,  the  type  of 
a   lumily   called  Alci/onidce,    belonging   to  the  class 


Alcyonium  digitatnm : 
1.  Rednred  general  .2.    A  portion   shewing  the 

figure.  jmlypes     i)rotrudeil,     and 

witli   extended  tentacula. 

Anthozoa,  and  order  Axferoida,  and  consisting  of  a 
polype-mass    with    starlike    pores    and    protrusive 


polypes.  A.  digilatum  is  extremely  conmion  on  the 
British  shores,  on  stones,  old  shells,  &c.,  in  deep 
water.  It  sometimes  appears  as  a  mere  crust,  aliout 
the  eighth  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  but  commonly 
rises  up  in  rounded  cones,  and  often  assumes  forms 
which  have  procured  for  it  the  popular  name  of 
Dead  Mail's  Mnf/crx,  and  other  similar  appellation.s. 
The  polype-mass  is  gelatinous  within,  and  covered 
with  a  sort  of  leathery  skin,  the  mass  being  traversed 
by  a  nuiltitude  of  niiiuite  canals,  terminating  on  the 
outer  surface  in  starlike  figures,  which,  if  the  whole 
is  placed  in  sea-water,  are  seen  to  project  consideral)Iy 
from  the  surface,  and  appear  as  polypes  with  eight 
tentacula  or  feelers ;  so  that  what  seems  to  be  a 
disgusting  fleshy  mass  in  the  fisherman's  net,  proves 
to  be,  when  i)laced  in  its  proper  element,  a  structuro 
of  wonderful  lioauty  and  full  of  animal  life,  exist- 
ing under  j)eculiar  and  wonderful  conditions.  The 
manner  in  which  the  polypes  protrude  and  retract 
themselves,  has  been  likened  to  that  in  which  the 
horns  of  a  snail  are  protruded  and  retracted.  Their 
tentacula  are  short,  obtuse,  and  elegantlv  fringed  at 
the  margins.  The  external  part  of  the  body  of  the 
polype  is  a  membrane  so  transparent,  tliat  by  the 
employment  of  a  m  ignifying-glass  the  whole  inter- 
nal structure  can  be  seen  through  it.     See  fig.  3,  6 


3.  Alcyonium  digitatum  : 
&,  the  polype  fully  protruded,  m.agnifled ;  r,  the  polype  par- 
tially protruded,  magnified. 

This  delicate  membrane,  however,  is  composed  of 
two  very  thin  membranes,  intimately  united,  the 
outer  of  which  increases  in  thickness  at  the  base  of 
the  polype,  coalesces  with  that  of  adjacent  polypes, 
and  is  continuous  with  the  common  leathery  skin 
of  the  polype-mass.  The  inner  membrane  retains 
its  extreme  delicacy 
throughout ;  it  ex- 
tends into  and  lines 
the  cell  of  the  polype 
(see  fig.  4)  and  the 
tube  or  canal  which 
proceeds  from  the 
cell  into  the  mass, and 
is  thus  also  cnntinu- 
ous  with  the  corres- 
ponding membranes 
of  other  polvpes;  for 
the  canals  divide  into 
branches  in  their 
course  from  the  base 
of  the  polype-mass  to 
the  surface,  and  the 
intimacy  of  union  in 
the  whole  is  increased  g^^tj^^  ,,,^„.i„„ 
by  a  fine  tubular  net- 
work which  occupies  the  spaces  betweeri  the 
principal  canals.  If  a  portion  of  an  A.  is  irri- 
tated, not  only  the  particular  polypes  immediately 
subji'ctcd  to  irritation  retract  themselves  as  to 
withdraw  from    danger,    but    the    gradual    lollapse 

117 


Alcyonium  digitatum  : 

internal  structure. 


ALDEBARAN— ALDER. 


and  contraction  ol"  the  whole  polype-mass  shows 
that  the  irritation  has  been  felt  through  it  all.  The 
contraction  of  the  mass  is  owing  to  a  discharge  of 
water,  which  the  polypes,  when  protruded,  imbibe, 
and  which  circulates  through  and  distends  the 
polype-mass,  so  that  when  the  polypes  are  undis- 
turbed, and  in  full  activity,  it  has  twice  or  three 
limes  the  size  wliicli  it  has  as  we  find  it  cast  out 
upon  the  beach.  The  stomach  of  each  polype  is 
cylindrical  (as  may  be  seen  in  lig.  3,  b,  immediately 
under  the  oval  disk  or  expanded  ten(aculai),  and 
beneath  it  is  a  comparatively  large  cavity,  into 
which  hang  loosely  (as  may  also  be  seen  in  the 
figure  just  referred  to)  eight  twisted  filaments  or 
threads,  the  use  of  which  is  not  well  ascei'tained, 
and  has  been  the  subject  of  very  different  ojiinions 
among  naturalists.  In  tlie  gelatinous  substance  of 
the  polype-mass,  which  fills  the  interstices  of  the 
tubular  net-work,  numerous  crystalline  calcareous 
spieula  lie  immersed,  like  the  raphidcs  (q.  v.)  found 
in  the  intercellular  passiigcs  of  some  plants.  They 
are  toothed  on  the  sides,  but  are  of  various  forms, 
and  have  no  organic  connection  with  any  part  of  the 
animal  structure;  their  only  use  api)arently  being 
to  impart  some  degree  of  strength  to  the  whole. 
These  spieula  are  of  general  occurrence  in  zoophytes 
of  this  order,  and  are  secreted  by  the  common  skin 
of  the  polype-maf^s.  The  polype-mass  increases  by 
(jemmce  or  buds,  which  grow  into  new  branches ; 
but  the  propagation  of  the  species  takes  place  by 
ova  or  eggs,  which  first  appear  as  minute  smooth 
warts  on  the  membrane  of  the  canals  in  the  interior. 
The  constriction  of  the  neck,  by  which  they  grow, 
separates  them  from  the  parent  meml)rane,  and  they 
n  ove  through  the  canal  by  means  of  very  minute 
vibrating  cilia  or  hairs  with  which  they  are  fur- 
nished, until  they  rciich  the  stomach  of  a  polype, 
into  which  they  enter,  and  through  which  they 
more  slowly  proceed  till  at  last  they  are  (jected  by 
the  mouth  (the  only  opening),  and  committed  to 
the  waves  and  tides.  The  ova  seem  as  if  capable 
of  feeling  whilst  within  the  parent  mass,  and  may 
be  observed  to  move  backwards  and  forwards,  and 
to  contract  their  sides  as  if  by  voluntary  action  in 
their  passage  through  the  body  of  the  polype.  These 
wonderful  phenomena  of  nature  are  the  more  easily 
observed,  because  the  ova  aie  of  a  deep  vermilion 
colour,  beautifully  contrasting  with  the  pure  white 
of  the  polype,  through  the  tunic  of  which  they  are 
seen. — One  of  the  most  remarkable  known  species 
of  A.,  and  the  largest,  is  that  ca.]\i:d  A.  pocidum  or 
Neptune's  Cup,  which  was  discovered  by  Sir  Stam- 
ford RafQes  upon  the  coral-reefs  of  Sumatra,  and  is 
^.^  found    iu    the    neighbour- 

'^L^ '";»  hood    of    Singapore.      It 

'  h   "j^J  grows     erect,     sometimes 

;^^^  attaining  nearly  three  feet 

^  *     ,-'-;'^     ^"    height    and    eighteen 
"jT^.  •  7^.     ^3-    inches  in  diameter.     Spe- 
cimens are  now  frequent  in 
museums  in  this  country. 


f^. 


m: 


.'S^  ' 


'^,;'^- 


^^.:i 


Alej-onidinm  gelatinosum. 
lieJuced. 
118 


The  name  Alcyonium 
was  formerly  also  given 
to  many  zoophytes  now 
found  to  be  of  very  differ- 
ent structure,  some  of 
which  now  bear  the  name 
Alciionidium,  others  that 
of  Alcyonella.  The  genus 
Ahnjmiidium  belongs  to 
the  class  of  Zoophytes  call- 
ed Polij::oa,  order  Iiifun- 
dibulatn.  See  Zoopiiytks. 
The  most  common  British 
species  is  Alcyonidhtm 
gelatiiiosuin.  It  resembles 


a  sponge  in  appearance,  but  is  more  pellucid  and 
gelatinous,  and  is  full  of  polypes,  each  having  15 
or  1()  long  slender  tentacula.  It  is  attached  to 
old  shells  and  stones,  and  is  sometimes  much  lobed, 
as  in  the  preceding  figure,  sometimes  almost  simple. 
The  colour  varies  from  a  very  pale  brown  to  clear 
yellow  ;  the  surface  is  speckled  with  minute  dots, 
from  which,  when  it  is  placed  in  sea-water,  the 
polypes  protrude.  The  polype  diflers  widely  from 
that  of  Alcyonium  in  having  an  intestine,  which,  pro- 
ceeding from  the  stomach  to  the  aperture  of  the  cell, 
opens  there  by  an  orifice  distinct  from  the  month,  a 
difference  characteristic  of  the  classes  to  which  they 
lespectively  belong.  Tlic  ova  are  clothed  with  cilia, 
and  their  motions  either  are  or  most  strikingly  resemble 
voluntary  motions. — Alcyonella  belongs  to  the  class 
Polyzoa,  order  Ihijtocrepin.  See  Zoopiiytrs.  There 
is  one  lirltish  species,  Alcyonella  star/noi-^an,  found 
in  stagnant  waters,  especially  in  autumn,  in  shape- 
less, jelly-like  masses,  of  a  blackish-green  colour, 
usually  adhering  to  the  leaves  of  aquatic  plants. 
The  jelly-like  mass  is  traversed  from  base  to  surface 
by  multitudes  of  tubes,  which  ojicn  by  a  roundish  or 
5-angled  aperture  ;  the  heads  of  the  polypes  project 
a  little  way  from  the  aperture,  and  expand  into 
a  circle  of  about  fifty  tentacula.  About  If.tio  polypes 
are  situated  on  a  square  inch  of  the  surface  of  the 
mass.  The  number  of  tentacula  on  a  specimen  of 
moderate  size  lias  been  computed  at  more  than 
5,n0(\()no.  The  tentacula  are  covered  with  minute 
cilia,  only  to  be  observed  with  a  high  mngnifying 
power,  by  means  of  which  a  constant  whirljiool  is 
miiintained  centering  in  the  mouth  of  the  polype, 
and  essential,  probalily,  for  breathing  as  well  as  for 
the  supply  of  food.  Each  polype  is  organically 
connected  with  the  mass,  its  tunic  being  contiimous 
with  the  tube.  The  alimentary  canal  has  two 
openings.  The  ova  are  to  be  found  in  vast  numbers 
in  the  tubes  which  traverse  the  mass.  They  are 
dark  brown,  whilst  the  tubes  are  colouiless  or  tinted 
with  green,  of  a  lens-like  form  and  destitute  of 
cilia.  They  are  produced  from  all  parts  of  the  inner 
side  of  the  gelatinous  tubes;  and  as  there  seems  to 
be  no  aperture  for  their  escape,  it  is  supi'oscd  that 
they  are  liberated  from  the  parent  mass  only  on  its 
death  and  decomposition.  The  Alcyonella  is  an 
interesting  object  in  a  fresh-water  aquarium,  but 
is  rather  diflicult  to  preserve.  It  is  not,  however, 
always  to  be  found  even  in  ponds  where  it  might  be 
expected,  and  is  abundant  in  particular  seasons  and 
rare  in  others.  The  ova  are  probably  capable  of 
remaining  long  dormant,  until  some  concmrence  of 
circumstances  favours  the  development  of  the  germ 
of  life  which  they  contain.  See  Johnson's  History 
of  Britlxh  ZoophytcK,  2  vols.,  Lond.  1847 — a  most 
interesting  and  valuable  work 

ALDEBARAN,  the  Arabic  name  of  a  star  of 
the  first  magnitude  in  the  constellation  Taurus.  It 
is  the  largest  and  most  brilliant  of  a  cluster  of  five 
which  the  Gn^eks  called  the  Ilyades.  From  its 
position  in  the  constellation,  it  is  sometimes  termed 
'  the  Bidl's  Eye.' 

ALDER  (Alnus),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Bctulaccw  (regarded  by  many  as  asub-ordcr  of 
Amentacece ;  see  Birch  and  AmkktacKjJ:  i.  The  genus 
consists  entirely  of  trees  and  shrubs,  natives  of 
cold  and  temperate  clinuttes  ;  the  flow  crs  in  terminal, 
imbricated  catkins,  which  appear  before  the  leaves; 
the  male  and  female  flowers  in  separate  catkins  on 
the  same  plant;  the  male  or  barren  calkins  loose, 
cylindrical,  pendulous,  having  the  scales  3-lobcd,  and 
each  with  three  flowers  whose  perianth  is  single  and 
4-partite ;  the  fertile  catkins  oval,  compact,  having 
the  scales  sub-trifid,  and  each  with  two  flowers 
destitute  of  perianth  ;  styles  two  ;  fruit,  a  compressed 


ALDERMAN— ALDERNEY. 


nut  without  wings. — The  Common  or  Black  A.  {A.  as  somewhat  stiff  and  formal  in  appcaiaiico  ;  but  in 
glutiuom)  is  a  native  of  Britain,  and  of  the  northern  groujis  or  clusters,  it  is  always  i'.ir  otliorwise. — The 
parts  of  Asia  and  America.  It  has  roundish,  wedge-  coinmon  A.  ceases  on  the  Swedisli  shore  of  the  Gulf 
shaped    obtuse    leaves,    lobed   at    the   margin   and    of  Bothnia,  in  the  south  of  Angerniannland,  and  i3 

there  called  the  Sea  A.,  because  it  is  only  in  the 
lowest  grounds  near  the  sea  that  it  occurs.— The 
Gray  or  Whitk  A.  {A.  incana),  a  native  of  many 
parts  of  continental  Europe,  especially  of  the  Alps, 
and  also  of  North  America,  and  of  Kamtihatka, 
but  not  of  Britain,  ditlers  from  the  connnon  A.  in 
having  acute  leaves,  downy  beneath,  and  not  gluti- 
nous. It  attains  a  rather  greater  height,  but  in  very 
cold  climates  and  unfavourable  situations  appears 
as  a  shrub.  It  occura  on  the  Alps  at  an  elevation 
above  that  to  which  the  common  A.  extends, 
and  becomes  abundant  also  where  that  species 
disappears  in  the  northern  part  of  tlie  Scandinavian 
peninsula.  The  wood  is  white,  fine-grained,  and 
compact,  but  readily  rots  under  water.  The  bark 
is  used  in  dyeing. — A.  cordifolia  is  a  large  and 
handsome  tree,  with  cordate  acuminate  leaves,  a 
native  of  the  south  of  Italy,  but  found  to  be  quite 
hardy  in  England.  Some  of  the  American  species 
are  mere  shrubs.  The  bark  of  A.  nerrulata  is  used 
in  dyeing. — Sevc^ral  species  are  natives  of  the  Hima- 
layas.— The  BKituY-iiKARiNG  A.,  or  A.  Bi.ckthoun, 
isa  totally  dillerent  plant.     See  BucKTiion.N. 

A'LDERMAN,  a  title  derived  from  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  ealdor}iia)iy  compounded  of  caWor  (older)  and 
num.  Whether  any  definite  and  invariable  functions 
were  connected  with  the  ancient  raidc  of  cnldorinan, 
docs  not  seem  to  be  very  clearly  ascertained.  The 
term  was  generally  applied  to  persons  of  high  and 
hereditary  distinction,  such  as  princes,  carls,  and 
governors.  Its  special  signification  in  the  titles 
'  A.  of  all  England '  {Alderviannux  toiiits  Aiuil'm)  and 
'King's  A.'  (Aldcrviannn>i  Jicr/is),  is  not  distinctly 
indicated.     There  were  also   aldermen   of  counties, 


Alder  Tree. 

serrated.  The  bark,  except  in  very  young  trees,  is 
nearly  black.  It  succeeds  best  in  moist  soils,  and 
helps  to  secure  swampy  river-banks  against  the 
effects  of  floods.  It  attains  a  height  of  30—00  feet. 
Its  leaves  are  somewhat  glutinous.  The  wood  is  of 
an  orange -yellow  colour,  not  very  good  for  fuel,  but 
affording  one  of  the  best  kinds  of  charcoal  for  the 
manufacture  of  gunpowder,  upon  which  account  it  is 
often  grown  as  coppice-wood.  Groat  numbers  of 
small  A.  trees  are  used  in  Scotland  for  making  staves 
for  herring-barrels.  The  wood  is  also  employed  by 
and   joiners  ;  but  it  is  particularly  valuable 


Alder  leaves,  &c.  : 
a,  abranohlct  with  male  and  female  catkinB,  rcdnoed  ;  I 
a  branclilet  with  leaves  and  female  catkii.w  in  a  more  ad 
vanced  stage,  reduced  ;  c,  the  fruit-bearing  female  catkin 
d,  the  same,  cut  across,  to  show  the  email  nuts  or  seeds. 


or  with  copperas,  a  black  colour.  The  leaves  and 
female  catkins  are  employed  in  the  same  way,  by  the 
tanners  and  dyers  of  some  countries.  The  bark  is 
bittef  and  astringent,  and  has  been  used  for  gargles, 
and  also  administered  with  success  in  ague.  The 
seeds  are  a  favourite  food  of  greenfinches. — The 
Alder  is  one  of  the  ornaments  of  many  of  the  most 
exquisite  landscapes  in  Britain.  The  dark  green  of 
its  foliage,  and  the  still  darker  hue  of  its  bark,  con- 
trast beautifully  with  the  colours  of  the  other  trees 
with  which  it  is  usually  associated  on  the  banks  of 
our  rivers.  In  boggy  grounds  it  is  often  almost  the 
only  kind  of  tree  that  appears,  and  in  many  parts  of 
the  Highlands,  groups  of  alders  are  scattered  over 
the  lower  and  moister  parts  of  the  mountain-slopes. 
The  individual  tree  viewed  by  itself  may  be  regarded 


land  is  Bailie.  The  London  Court  of  Aldermen 
consists  of  twenty-six  aldermen,  including  the  Lord 
Mayor,  and  constitutes  the  i>ench  of  magistrates  for 
the"  city,  besides  having  judicial  and  legislative 
authority  in  the  corporation. 

A'LDERNEY  (Fr.  Aurifjny,  Lat.  Aiirmia),  an 
island  in  the  English  Channel  (see  Channel  Islands), 
hit.49°45'  N.,  lone  2°  13' W.,  separated  from  the  coast 
of  Normandy  by  a  strait  about  7  ndles  in  breadth, 
called  the  Race  of  Alderney.  Through  this  channel, 
which  is  very  dangerous  in  rough  weather,  the 
remnant  of  the  French  fleet  escaped  after  their 
defeat  at  La  Ilogue  in  1092.  The  distances  between 
Alderney  and  the  nearest  points  of  Guernsey, 
Jersey,  "and  Great  Britain,  are  respectively  about 
15,  S3,  and  GO  miles.  The  length  of  tlie  i.sland  is 
about  4  miles,  the  breadth  about  1^1.  The  coast  to 
the  south-east  is  bold  and  lofty,  to  the  north-east 
and  north,  it  descends,  fonning  numerous  small 
bays,  one  of  which,  that  of  Crabby,  aflbrds  the 
oniv  anchorage  in  the  island.  A  harbour  of 
refuge  and  breakwater  have  been  constructed  on 
the  '^lorth  side  of  the  i.sland,  the  extensive  works 
connected  with  which  have  greatly  increased  the 
))opvdation.  Six  miles  to  the  west  are  the  Caskets, 
a  small  cluster  of  rocks,  on  which  are  tlirce  light- 
houses. The  soil  in  the  centre  of  the  island  is  highly 
productive  ;  and  the  A.  cows,  a  small  but  handsome 
breed,  have  always  been  celebrated.  The  climate  is 
mild  and  healthv,  and  good  water  abounds.  The  popu- 
lation  had  decreased  between  1813  and  1841  from 

119 


ALDERSIIOTT  CAMP— ALDIXE  EDITIONS. 


1308  to  1030;  in  1851  it  amounted  to  8333. 
Education  to  some  extent  is  universal.  Tlie 
population  was  oriji^inally  French,  but  half  the 
inhabitants  now  speak  English,  and  all  understand 
it.  Protestantism  has  prevailed  here  since  the 
Reformation.  A.  is  a  dependency  of  Guernsey, 
and  subject  to  the  British  crown.  The  civd  power 
is  vested  in  a  judge  appointed  by  the  ciowii, 
and  six  jurats  chosen  by  the  people.  These, 
with  twelve  popular  representatives  or  domainkrs 
(who  do  not  vote),  constitute  the  local  legislature. 
The  court  of  justice  is  composed  of  the  judsje  and 
jurats,  the  royal  prociu'cur  and  comptiollcr  and 
the  registrar  (f/rcjficr),  nominated  by  the  governor. 
There  is  a  local  militia,  consisting  of  two  companies 
of  infantry,  and  a  brigade  of  artillery.  The  'Town,' 
situated  in  a  picturesque  valley  near  the  centre  of  the 
island,  contains  a  few  public  l)uil(lings,  among  which 
is  the  old  church,  said  to  have  been  erected  in  the 
12th  c,  and  a  new  one  in  the  early  English  style, 
with  a  tower  104  feet  high.  The  living  is  a  perpe- 
tual curacy  in  the  archdeaconry  and  diocese  of 
Winclicster. 

A'LDEPiSIIOTT    CAMP.       When    England    and 
France  declared  war  against  Russia  in  1S.'>4,  in  rela- 
tion to  Turkish  aflliiirs,  tlie  British  army  was  known 
to  be  in  an  unsatisfactory  state.     Thirty-nine  years 
of  peace   had   allowed   many  important  elements  in 
military  organisation  to  fall  into  a  state   of  inefli- 
ciency.      Among  others,   the   power  of  acting  well 
logetlier  in  brigades  and  divisions  had  scarcely  been 
tauglit   to  our  soldiers,  wlio  had  been  familiar  with  I 
little  more  than  the  discipline  and  tactics  of  battalions 
iind  companies.     To   remedy   in   part  these  defects 
was   the    object  held   in    view   in   establishing   the 
camp  at  A.     It  was   to   be  a  permanent  camp,  with 
barracks  and  huts,  instead  of  mere   canvas  tents; 
and    was    to    be    provided    witii    all    the   appliances 
for  a  military  scliool,  valuable  to  officers  as  well  as 
to  privates.     A  dreary   waste,    on    the    confines    of 
Surrey,    Hants,    and    Berks,    called    A.    Heath,   was 
purchased  by  the  government  as  the  locality  for  the 
new   camp.      The   aiea   was   7063    acres,    and   the 
jiurchase-price    about    £130,000.      The     spot    was 
deemed  suitable   as  being  distant  from  any  thickly 
inhabited  district  ;    as   being  \\ithin    easy   reach   of 
three   or   four    stations    on  the    South-western    and 
South-eastern  railways;  and  as  being  conveniently 
placed  for  the  quick  transmission  of  troops  to  any 
part  of  the  southern  coast.     Tiic  camp  was  ready  for 
the  reception  of  troops  in  1855.     At  first,  no  brick 
structnres    were    attempted.       The     soldiers    were 
acconmiodated    in    wooden    lints,    each    furnisliing 
living  and  slee])ing  room  i'or  about  t«enty-hve  men. 
When  tlie  camp   was  inaugurated,   in   April   of  the 
year  last  named,    by  a  review  at  wliicii  the  Queen 
was  present,  there  were  ]8,()00  troops,  regulars  and 
.  militia,  temporarily  stationed   there.     Tlie  huts  for 
each   regiment  were   grouped  apart,  for  the  better 
maintenance  of  regimental  discipline.     Each  hut  had 
a  range  of  iron  bedsteads  on  cither  side,  capalde  of 
being  doubled   up;    and  a  long  table   through   the 
middle,  in  a  line  with  two  doors  at  the  ends  of  the 
Imts.     The  officers'  huts,  though  of  course  superior 
in  construction  and  convenience,  were  as  simple  as 
they  could  will  be.     The  cooking  was  performed  in 
huts  especially  set  apart  for  that  purpose,  provided 
with  etiicient  cooking  apparatus.     The  wooden  huts 
have  gradually  been  superseded   by  brick   barracks, 
at  a  cost  of  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  million  sterling. 
These   will  be  briefly  described   in  a  future   article 
(Barracks),    as   examples    of    the    finest    barracks 
hitherto  constructed  in  this  country.     The  Ba^ing- 
Btoke    Canal,    running    directly    across    the    Heath, 
has    occasioned    a    division    into    North    Camp   and 
South    Camp  ;    but    each   of    these    is    susceptible 
120 


of  a  good  deal  of  extension.  On  various  occasions 
between  the  spring  of  1855  and  that  of  1859, 
the  Queen  has  been  present  at  grand  'field-days' 
and  reviews  at  the  camp  ;  but  the  more  import- 
ant operations  are  those  which  are  carried  on  daily, 
and  are  known  to  very  few  besides  those  imme- 
diately concerned.  There  are  many  stjuare  miles  of 
plain,  heath,  shrub,  morass,  valley,  and  hill  sur- 
rounding the  camp,  on  which  soldiers,  and  especially 
the  militia  regiments,  are  exercisi'd  in  the  various 
evolutions  and  strategic  movements  connected  with 
the  battle-field  and  siege-works.  It  is  no  child's 
play  ;  the  men  are  ofien  sever<'ly  worked,  and  gain 
a  ibretaste  of  some  of  the  fatigues  of  military  life. 
On  other  days,  they  are  exeicised  in  various  quiet 
duties  of  tents  and  huts,  barracks  and  kitchens, 
intended  to  teach  them  many  of  the  useful  knacks 
in  which  J'reneh  soldiers  are  acknowledged  to  be 
more  skilled  than  the  English.  Dilierent  reginu-nts, 
regulars  as  well  as  milit'a,  artillery  as  well  as 
cavalry  and  infantry,  take  it  in  turn,  to  experience 
caiiip-lifc  at  A.  At  the  time  when  this  article  is 
being  written  (Mav  1850),  there  are  about  15,000 
troops  al  the  camp,  comprising  infantry,  cavalry, 
artillery,  and  militia.  The  war  authorities  have 
recently  ptirchased  or  leased  a  portion  of  forest-land 
between  A.  and  Winchester;  camjiing  arrangements 
of  a  temporary  kind  will  be  made,  and  the  troops 
will  be  occasionally  exeieiseil  with  a  tough  march  of 
a  dozen  miles.  One  unfortunate  circnmstance  con- 
nectetl  with  the  camp  is,  that  the  barracks  have  been 
built  at  the  very  edge  of  the  ground  belonging  to  the 
government;  as  a  consequence,  private  speculators 
built  beer-houses  and  haunts  of  dissipation,  almost 
dose  to  the  barracks,  greatly  to  the  demoTalisation 
of  the  soldiers;  and  it  is  not  easy  to  buy  up  these 
people,  owing  to  the  enormous  rise  in  the  value  of 
the  land  near  the  camp. 

A'LDINE  EDITIONS,  the  name  given  to  the 
works  that  issued  from  the  press  of  Aldo  Manuzio 
(q.  V.)  (Lat.  Aldus  Jlanutius)  and  his  family  in  Venice 
(149O-1507).  Recommended  by  their  intrinsic  value, 
as  well  as  by  their  handsome  exterior,  they  have 
been  highly  prized  by  the  learned  and  by  book- 
collectors.  Many  of  them  are  th(!  first  editions 
[cdidones  prhiciprs)  of  Greek  and  Roman  classics; 
others  contain  corrected  texts  of  modern  classic 
writers,  as  of  Petrarch,  Dante,  Boccaccio,  &c.,  care- 
fully collated  with  the  MSS.  All  of  them  are 
distinguished  for  the  remarkable  correctness  of  the 
typography  ;  the  Greek  works,  however,  being  in  this 
respect  somewhat  inferior  to  the  Latin  and  Italian. 
The  editions  published  by  Aldus,  the  lather,  form  an 
epoch  in  the  annals  of  printing,  as  they  contributed 
in  no  ordinary  measure  to  the  peifecting  of  types. 
No  one  had  ever  before  used  such  beautiful  Greek 
types,  of  which  he  got  nine  different  kinds  made, 
and  of  Latin  as  nniny  as  fourteen.  It  is  to  him,  or 
rather  to  the  engraver,  J'rancesco  of  Bologna,  that 
we  owe  the  types  called  by  the  Italians  CWsivi, 
and  known  to  us  as  Italics,  which  he  used  for 
the  first  time  in  the  8vo  edition  of  ancient 
and  modern  classics,  commencing  with  Virgil 
(1501).  Manuzio's  impressions  on  parchment  are 
exceedingly  beautiful ;  he  was  the  first  jTinf er  who 
introduced  the  custom  of  taking  some  impressions 
on  better  paper — that  is,  finer  or  stronger  than 
the  rest  of  the  edition.  The  first  example  of  this  is 
afforded  in  the  Epistolce  Grcrcce  {\AS)^).  It  would  be 
difficult  to  name  another  who  has  brought  so  much 
zeal,  disinterestedness,  taste,  and  1  nowlcdge  to  the 
furtherance  of  literature,  especially  classical  litera- 
ture. After  his  death,  in  1515,  his  business  was 
superintended  by  his  father-in-law,  Andi'eas  Asu- 
lanus.  Paul,  the  son  of  Aldus,  possessed  the  same 
enthusiasm  for  Latin  classics  that  his  father  had  for 


ALE— ALEMBERT. 


Greek.  lie  died  at  Rome  in  1597.  The  printing 
establisluin'nt  Ituinded  by  Aldo  continued  in  active 
opei-iitio  1  lor  loii  years,  and  durinj;  tliid  time  printed 
908  dill'erent  worlvs.  Tiie  distinguishing  mark  is  an 
anchor,  entwined  i)y  a  dolphin,  generally  with  the 
motto,  Sii<i<n'/t  et  alxil.  Under  the  direction  of  the 
grandson  of  tiie  founder,  it  lost  the  superiority  which 
it  had  formerly  maintained  over  all  the  other  print- 
ing-presses in  Italy.  The  demand  which  arose  for 
editions  from  this  office,  and  especially  for  the  earlier 
ones,  induced  the  printers  of  Lyons  and  Florence, 
about  1512,  to  begin  the  system  of  issuing  counter- 
feit Aldiiies.  The  Aldo-mania  has  considerably 
diminished  in  liter  times.  Among  the  A.  works 
which  have  now  bi'come  very  rare  may  be  mentioned 
the  Hone  Beat(e  Maria  Virginif:  of  1-11)7  ;  the  Virriil 
of  1501  ;  and  the  Rhetores  Grceci ;  not  to  mention 
the  editions  fioin  1-1'Jl:  to  1497,  which  are  now 
extremely  rare.  The  most  complete  collections  known 
are  those  of  the  (Jraiid  Duke  of  Tuscany,  and  of 
Renouard,  the  bookseller  of  Paris.  In  18ol  appeared 
a  third  edition  of  the  monograph  published  by 
Renouard,  Annales  de  V Imprimerie  des  AlJrs,  ou 
Histoire  des  troix  Mnnucex^  et  de  leur  Editions  : 
par  A.  IieHOunrd  (Vdvis,  IS^U).  Ebert  has  published 
a  catologue  of  all  the  atithentic  A.  E.  in  the  sup- 
plement to  the  first  volume  of  his  Liblio<jraphical 
JJictionan/. 

ALE  would  seem  to  have  been  the  current  name 
in  England  for  m:ilt  liquor  in  general  before  the 
introduction  of  hops.  This  took  place,  according  to 
Johnson  (C/ieiiiisfri/  of  Common  Life),  as  late  as  the 
reign  of  Hein-y  VIII.,  about  the  year  1524.  As  the  use 
of  hops  was  derived  from  Germany,  the  German  name 
for  malt  licpior  {bier),  beer,  was  used  at  first  to  dis- 
tinguish the  hopped  liquor  from  ale,  the  unhopped. 
The  word  ale  had  in  all  likelihood  been  introiiuced 
by  the  Danes  and  other  Scandinavian  settlers — for  ot 
(allied  probably  to  oil)  is  still  the  name  for  malt  liquor 
in  the  Scandinavian  tongues — and  must  have  driven 
out  the  beor  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  which  that  people 
had  in  common  with  the  other  Teutonic  nations. 
As  now  used,  ale  signifies  a  kind  of  beer  (q.  v.  and 
Fermf.ntation),  distinguished  chiefly  by  its  strength 
and  the  quantity  of  sugar  remaining  undecomposed. 
Strong  ale  is  made  from  the  best  pale  malt ;  and  the 
fermentation  is  allowed  to  proceed  slowly,  and  the 
ferment  to  be  exhausted  and  separated.  This, 
together  with  the  large  quantity  of  sugar  still  left 
undecomposed,  enables  the  liquor  to  keep  long  with- 
out requiiing  a  Luge  amount  of  hops.  The  Scotch 
ales  are  distinguished  for  the  smallness  of  the 
quantity  of  hops  they  contain,  and  for  their  vinous 
flavour.  They  are  fermented  at  an  unusually  low 
temperature.  The  ales  of  J3dinburgh  and  Pi'estonpans 
have  a  high  reputation.  Burton  ale  is  the  strongest 
made,  containing  as  much  as  8  per  cent,  of  alcohol  ; 
while  the  best  brown  stout  lias  about  6  per  cent., 
and  connnon  beer  only  1  per  cent.  India  pale  ale 
diiiers  chiefly  in  having  a  larger  quantity  of  liO|)S. 

A-LEE,  expressed  by  the  French  sons  le  vent,  or 
'under  the  wind,'  is  a  maritime  term  applied  to  the 
position  of  the  helm  when  so  worked,  as  to  bring 
the  head  of  the  ship  to  windward. 

ALEMAX,  Matf.o,  a  famous  Spanish  novelist, 
•was  born  about  the  middle  of  the  lUth  c,  at  Sevili(>, 
and  died  in  Jlexico  during  the  reign  of  Philip  III. 
In  1()04,  he  ])ubli?hod  a  poetical  biography  of  St. 
Antonius  of  Padua;  and  in  1008,  while  in  the  New 
World,  an  Ortografa  Castellana,  written  during  his 
voyage  ;  but  his  great  work  is  (Juzmnn  de  A'farache, 
a  novel  with  a  rogue  for  the  hero,  like  some  of  the 
more  recent  English  fictions.  It  was  first  published 
at  Madrid  in  15'JO,  became  immensely  popular,  and 
in  half-a-dozen  years  had  gone   through  twenty-six 


'editions,  consisting  of  not  less  than  5o,000  copies,  in 
Spain  and  other  countries.  Both  as  regards  the 
delineation  of  manners  and  the  purity  of  style,  this 
masterly  creation  of  A.  ranks  next  to  that  most 
celebrated  of  all  the  Spanish  novels  of  the  same 
character — the  Lazarillo  de  Tnrmcs  of  Mendoza.  It 
displays  keen  powers  of  observation  ;  and  is  readily 
recognized  as  the  work  of  a  ripe  and  cultivated  mind. 
Mendoza's  hero  has  the  advantage  in  originality, 
freshness,  and  vivacity  ;  but  Guzman  exhibits  a 
richer  variety  of  gifts  in  the  various  characters 
he  is  compelled  by  circinnsiances  to  assume,  such 
as  stable-boy,  beggar,  thief,  coxcomb,  mcicenarv, 
valet,  pander,  merchant,  &c.  The  manners  of  the 
author's  own  age  are  hit  oft"  with  great  skill  and 
eftect,  a  wide  knowledge  of  human  nature  is  mani- 
fested, and  the  whole  narrative  is  interspersed  with 
shrewd  and  solid  reflections  and  moralisings.  A.  is 
considered  to  rank  with  Mendoza,  Cervantes,  &c., 
as  one  of  the  masters  of  the  Castilian  style. 

ALEMAXXI  (that  is,  all-mcii),  the  name  of  a 
military  confederacy  of  several  German  tribes 
which  began  to  appear  on  the  Lower  and  Middle 
Maine  about  the  beginning  of  the  od  c.  Caracalla 
fought  with  them  first  on  the  Maine  in  211  a.  n.,  but 
without  conquering  them  ;  Alexander  Sevcrus  was 
equally  unsuccessful  ;  but  Maximinus  at  length 
succeeded  against  them,  and  drove  them  beyond  the 
Rhine.  After  his  death,  they  again  invaded  Gaul, 
but  were  defeated  by  Posthumius,  who  pursued  them 
into  Germany,  and  fortified  with  ramparts  and 
ditches  the  boundary  of  the  Roma.i  territory,  called 
the  Af/ri  Deeumafes.  The  mounds  near  Plorung, 
on  the  Danube,  the  rampart  extending  through  the 
principality  of  Ilohenlohe  to  Jaxthausen,  and  the 
ditch  with  palisados  on  the  north  side  of  the 
.Maine,  arc  remains  of  these  works.  See  Devil's 
Wall.  The  A.,  however,  did  not  desist  from  their 
incursions,  although  they  were  repeatedly  drivt^n  back. 
After  282,  being  pressed  upon  from  the  north-east 
by  the  Burgundians,  they  took  up  permanent  settle- 
ments within  the  Roman  boundary  from  Mentz  to 
Lake  Constance.  At  last,  Julian  came  (357)  to  the 
relief  of  Gaul,  which  had  been  sufleriiig  from  the  in- 
cursions of  the  A.,  and  soon  compelled  eight  of  their 
chiefs  to  sue  for  peace.  Their  united  force,  in  their 
principal  battle  with  Julian,  amounted  to  35,000 
men.  After  the  5th  c.,  the  confederated  nation  is 
spoken  of  as  A.  and  Suavi  or  Suevi.  In  the  course 
of  the  4th  e.,  they  had  crossed  the  Rhine,  and 
extended  as  far  (vest  as  the  Vosges,  and  south  to  the 
Helvetian  Alps.  At  length  Ciovis,  king  of  the 
Franks,  broke  their  power  in  4'.»tj,  and  made  them 
subject  to  the  Prankish  domiinon.  The  south  part 
of  their  territory  was  formed  into  a  duchy,  called 
Alemannia.  The  name  of  Swabia  came  afterwards 
to  be  applied  to  the  part  of  the  duchy  lying  east  of 
the  Rhine.  From  the  A.,  the  French  have  given  the 
Uiimc  of  Alle/nands  ami  Allemnr/ne  to  Germans  and 
Gernumy  in  general,  though  the  iidiabitants  of  the 
north  of  Switzerland,  with  those  of  Alsace  and 
part  of  Swabia,  are  the  proper  descendants  of  the 
Alemanni. 

ALEMBERT,  Jean  le  Rond  n',  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  mathematicians  and  writers  of  the 
18th  c,  was  horn  in  Paris,  November  Id,  1717.  He 
was  the  illegitimate  son  of  Madame  de  Tencin,  a 
lady  of  considerable  notoriety  in  the  time  of  the 
Regency,  and  of  a  M.  Destouches.  He  was  exposed 
by  his  mother  on  the  steps  of  the  church  of  St. 
Jean-le-Rond,  and  the  policeman  who  i'ound  him 
committed  the  seemingly  dying  infant  to  the  care  of 
the  wife  of  a  poor  glazier,  thinking  it  too  weak  to  be 
taken  to  the  depot.  The  father,  without  publicly 
avowing  the  child,  secured  to  him  an  allowance  of 

121 


ALEMBIC— ALEMTEJO. 


1200  francs  a  year.  At  the  age  of  twelve,  he  entered 
tlie  ('ollep;e  Mazaiin,  where  he  soon  gave  indication 
of  that  inclination,  or  rather  passion  lor  mathemati- 
cal studies  which  distinguished  him  through  life.  On 
leaving  college,  he  returned  to  the  humble  home  of 
his  kind  foster-mother,  where  he  continued  to  hve 
and  pursue  his  favorite  studies  for  nearly  forty 
years,  sharing  with  her  household  his  small  revenue. 
Although  the  good  woman  loved  him  as  a  son,  so 
little  did  she  encourage  his  exclusive  devotion  to 
sci.^nce,  that  when  he  spoke  of  his  discoveries  or 
writings,  she  replied  with  a  sort  of  pity  :  '  You  will 
never  be  anything  but  a  philosopher  ;  and  what  is  a 
philosopher,  but  a  fool  who  torments  himself  during 
his  life,  that  people  may  talk  about  him  when  he  is 
dead.'  At  hrst,  his  friends  urged  him  to  qualify 
himself  for  some  profitable  career ;  but  after  trying 
for  a  time  the  study  of  law,  and  then  of  medicine,  he 
gave  up  the  attempt  as  hopeless,  and  abandoned 
himself  without  reserve  to  his  passion  for  science. 
In  1741,  at  the  age  of  '23,  he  was  admitted  a 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  having  already 
attracted  attention  by  several  physico-mathcmatical 
tracts.  Two  years  later  appeared  his  Treatise  on 
Dt/)tamics,  founded  on  a  new  and  fertile  principle 
which  makes  an  epoch  in  mechanical  philosophy. 
'This  principle  consists,' says  Condorcet,  'in  estab- 
lishing the  equality,  at  every  instant,  between  the 
changes  which  the  motion  of  the  body  has  under- 
gone, and  the  forces  which  have  been  employed  to 
produce  them  ;'  in  other  words,  it  reduces  all  the 
laws  of  motion  to  the  consideration  of  Equilibrium. 
Among  the  more  important  of  his  other  scientific 
works  are  :  his  Tlieonj  of  the  Winds,  which  gained  the 
prize  of  the  Academy  of  Berlin,  17-1(),  and  which 
contains  the  first  conception  and  use  of  the  Calculus 
of  Partial  Diifcrenccs ;  a  treatise  on  the  Precession 
of  the  Equinoxes,  1749,  giving  for  the  first  time  an 
analytical  solution  of  that  phenomenon,  as  well  as  of 
the  nutation  of  the  earth's  axis  ;  Essay  on  the  Resist- 
ance of  Fluids,  175-  ;  Researches  on  some  Important 
Points  in  the  Si/stem  of  the  Universe,  1754  and  175G. 
His  Mathematical  Opuscules  contain  an  immense 
number  of  memoirs,  some  on  new  subjects,  some 
containing  developments  of  his  previous  works. 

But  A.  did  not  confine  himself  to  physical  science. 
Diderot  (q.  v.)  having  conceived  the  idea  of  the 
famous  Encyclopedie,  enlisted  the  services  of  A.,  who 
wrote  the  Preliminary  Discourse,  which  is  allowed 
by  all  to  be  a  noble  tribute  to  literature  and  philos- 
ophy— a  model  of  lucid  and  eloquent  exposition, 
and  displaying  an  immense  extent  of  knowledge 
combined  with  rare  judgment.  Besides  numerous 
articles  in  the  Encyclopidie,  he  published  Elemctits 
of  Philosophy,  1750  ;  3Jclavr/cs  of  Literature  and 
Philosophy  ;  The  Destruction  of  the  Jesuits,  &c.  He 
also  wrote  a  great  many  eloges  of  members  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences,  of  ■which  he  was  elected 
secretary  in  177 '2.  His  literary  works  have  been  pub- 
lished iu  a  collected  form,  new  edition,  by  Bossange 
(Paris,  1821,  5  vols.  8vo).  This  edition  contains  the 
correspondence  of  A.  with  Voltaire  and  the  king  of 
Prussia.  His  scientific  works  have  never  been 
collected. 

A.  gave  striking  proof  of  how  little  he  regarded 
riches  and  distinctions,  or  the  flatteries  of  the  great, 
and  how  genuine  was  his  love  of  independence. 
Frederick  II.  of  Prussia  oflered  him  the  presidency 
of  the  Academy  of  Berlin,  1752,  but  he  declined  to 
leave  France,  and  only  accepted  a  subsequent  offer 
of  a  pension  of  1200  francs.  The  king  of  France 
granted  him  a  similar  sum.  In  17G2,  Catharine  11. 
of  Russia  invited  him,  through  her  ambassador,  to 
undertake  the  education  of  her  son,  with  a  salary  of 
100,000  francs ;  and  when  he  declined,  she  wrote 
him  a  letter  with  her  own  hand,  urging  that  to 
122 


refuse  to  contribute  to  the  education  of  a  whole 
nation  was  inconsistent  with  his  own  jirinciples ; 
and  inviting  him,  if  he  could  not  reconcile  himself  to 
the  breaking-olf  of  his  pursuits  and  friendships,  to 
bring  all  his  friends  with  him,  and  she  would  ])rovide 
both  for  them  and  for  him  evcrythiiig  they  could 
desire.  But  A.  remained  steadfast.  AVhen  the  Grand 
Duke  afterwards  visited  Paris,  he  good-humourediy 
reproached  A.  with  his  refusal  ;  and  to  the  excuse  of 
the  rigour  of  the  climate  and  feeble  health,  the  prince 
replied,  w  ith  the  compliment :  'in  truth,  monsieur,  it  is 
the  only  false  calculation  you  have  made  in  your  life.' 
A.  was  never  married.  He  was  tenderly  attached  for 
many  yeais  to  a  Mademoiselle  J^spinasse,  although 
their  iminK\cy,  it  is  believed,  never  went  beyond  a 
warm  friendship.  The  death  of  the  lady  was  a  severe 
blow  to  A.  His  own  health  began  to  give  way  ;  for 
he  was  suffering  from  the  stone,  and  would  not  con- 
sent to  an  operation.     He  died,  October  20,  1783. 

A.  was  truthful,  frank,  and  extremely  benevolent. 
He  held  it  as  a  principle  of  morals  that  a  man  has  no 
right  to  dispose  at  will  of  his  own  super(!uous  means 
while  there  are  others  in  want  of  the  necessaries  of 
life.  A  stigma  has  attached  to  the  name  of  A.  from 
his  intimate  association  with  Voltaire  and  other 
assailants  of  Christianity  ;  but  A.  never  attacked 
religion  in  his  published  writings,  vhich  might  be 
read  without  knowing  what  his  opinions  regarding 
revelation  were.  It  is  only  from  his  private  corre- 
spondence that  it  appears  that  he  thought  the 
probabilities  were  in  favour  of  theism. 

AT-E'MBIC  (formed  by  the  Arabs  from  their 
article  al  and  Gr.  ambix,  a  goblet),  is  a  form  of 
still  introduced  into  chemistry,  by  the  alchemists, 
and  used  by  the  more  ancient  experimenters  in 
manipulative  citemistry  for  the  distillation  and  sub- 
limaiion  of  sub.slauces,  such  as  alcohol,  or  lormic 
acid  obtained  by  heating  a  decoction  of  red  ants  in 
water.  The  vessel  consisted  of  a  body,  cucurbit  or 
matrass  (A),  in  which  the  material  to  be  volatil- 
ised was  placed  ;  a  head  or  capital  (B)  into  which  the 
vapours  rose,  were  cooled,  and  then  trickled  down 
to  the  lower  part  (C),  from  whence  by  a  pipe  (D)  the 
distilled  product  passed  into  the  receiver  (¥.).  Where 
very  volatile  liquids  were  being  distilled,  it  was 
customary  to  introduce  the  receiver  (E)  into  a  vessel 
with  cold  water,   so  as  to  increase  the  pcrfectnesa 


Alembic. 

of  the  condensing  part  of  the  arrangement.  Th« 
A.  has  now  been  entirely  superseded  by  the  retort 
and  receiver,  or  by  the  ilask  attached  to  a  Liebig's 
condenser.     See  Retort. 

ALEMTE'JO,  a  large  province  of  Portugal,  con- 
taining about  300,000  inhabitants,  is  the  second  most 
southerly  province  of  the  country.  It  is  partly 
washed  by  the  Atlantic  on  the  west,  and  stretches 
to  the  Spanish  frontier  on  the  east.  It  is  traversed  by 
a  number  of  mountain-chains,  and  is  watered  by  the 
Tagus,  Guadiana,  and  Saado  or  Sado.     In  the  south 


ALEXgON— ALESIA. 


and  west,  the  climate  is  liot  ami  dry ;  the  jilaiu.s  are 
covered  with  brown  heath,  unrelieved  by  a  tree  or 
a  shrub,  and  only  broken  at  intervals  by  marshy 
wastes,  while  the  vegetation  is  extremely  scanty. 
In  the  east,  on  the  contrary,  the  valleys  are  fertile, 
and  the  mountains  adorned  with  forests.  The  pro- 
ductions are  singularly  abnndant.  They  consist  of 
wheat,  barley,  rice,  maize,  the  vines,  and  a  variety  of 
choice  fruits — such  as  the  citron,  the  lemon,  the  fig, 
the  pomegranate.  In  the  valleys,  the  jiriucipal  trees 
are  thj  o.ik  with  edible  fruits,  the  evergreen-oak,  the 
cork-o.ik,  the  chestnut,  and  the  pine ;  in  the  plains, 
we  find  lavender,  rosemary,  juniper,  the  myrtle.  The 
pasturage,  also,  is  extraordinarily  tine.  Great  attention 
is  paid  to  the  rearing  of  swine,  goats,  and  sheep,  and 
in  a  less  degree,  of  horned  cattle,  asses,  and  nudes. 
As  the  population  is  sparse,  more  grain  is  produced 
than  is  consumed ;  but  manufactures  are  in  a  back- 
ward condition.  Even  mining,  which  might  be  very 
profitably  carried  on,  is  neglected.  The  chief  towns 
are  Evora  (the  capital),  Elvas,  Portalcgre,  Beja, 
Estremoz,  and  Mertola. 

ALE'NyOX,  chief  town  of  the  department  of 
Orne,  in  France,  is  situated  on  the  Sarthe,  in 
lat.  48°  25'  N.,  and  long.  0°  5^'  E.  The  town- 
church — a  structure  of  the  16th  c,  containing  the 
remains  of  the  tombs  of  the  A.  family,  which 
were  almost  completely  destroyed  at  the  llevolution 
— is  built  in  the  (iothic  style.  It  has  a  line  porch 
and  exquisitely  painted  windows.  A.  is  a  clean  and 
handsome  town,  with  good  streets  and  a  delightful 
public  walk.  The  inhabitants  produce  excellent 
woollen  and  linen  stuffs,  embroidered  fabrics,  straw- 
hats,  lace  work,  artificial  flowers,  hosiery,  &e.  The 
manufacture  of  A.  point-lace  [points  (VA.)^  although 
still  important,  is  not  carried  on  to  the  same  extent 
as  formerly.  The  cutting  of  the  so-called  A. 
diamonds  (quartz-crystals),  found  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  town,  is  a  branch  of  industry  which  has  also 
greatly  declined. 

The  old  Dltkks  of  A.  were  a  branch  of  the  royal 
family  of  Valois,  and  were  descended  from  Charles 
of  Valois,  who  jtorished  at  the  liattle  of  Creey  in 
134:6.  His  grandson,  John  I.,  fell  at  Agincourt  in 
1415.  His  successor,  John  II.,  allying  himself  with 
the  enemies  of  the  court,  was  twice  condemned  to 
death,  but  pardoned  both  times.  Rene,  son  of  John 
II.,  also  excited,  not  without  cause,  the  suspicion  of 
the  French  monarch,  Louis  XL,  who  confined  him 
for  three  months  in  an  iron  cage  at  Chinon  ;  but  as 
the  parliament  had  never  condemned  him,  he  was 
released  at  the  death  of  Louis,  and  restored  by 
Charles  VIII.  to  his  title  and  estate,  llcne's  son, 
who  had  married  the  sister  of  Francis  I.,  was  general 
of  the  advance-guard  of  the  French  army  in  the 
Netherlands.  He  commanded  the  left  Aving  at  the 
battle  of  Pavia,  where,  instead  of  supporting  the 
king  at  a  critical  moment,  he  fled  with  his  troops  ; 
and  to  liim,  therefore,  has  been  attributed  both 
the  disastrous  defeat  sustained  by  the  French,  and 
his  sovereign's  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy. 
With  him  expired  the  old  House  of  A.  The  duchy 
was  then  given  to  the  Duke  of  Anjou.  Louis  XIV. 
conferred  it  upon  the  Duke  of  Berri,  and  Louis 
XVI.  on  the  Count  of  Provence. 

ALE'PPO,  a  town  in  the  north  of  Syria,  between 
the  Orontes  and  the  Euphrates,  on  the  bauks  of  the 
little  desert  stream,  Nahr-cl-IIaleb,  ut  the  north-west 
entrance  of  the  great  Syro-Arabian  waste.  It  stands 
in  a  large  hollow,  surrounded  by  rocky  hills  of 
limestone.  The  fruitful  gardens,  celebrated  for  their 
excellent  plantations  of  i)istachios,  are  the  sole  con- 
trast to  the  desolation  winch  environs  the  city,  whose 
numberless  cupolas  and  minarets,  clean,  well-paved 
streets,  and  stately  houses,  make  it  even  yet  one  of 


the  most  beautiful  in  the  oast.  It  contains  about 
8tl,00U  inhabitants  of  whom  17,000  are  Christians, 
and  4700  Jews,  with  a  small  number  of  Eurojieans. 
Sixty  years  ago,  it  had  above  200,0(>(\and  supplied  a 
great  part  of  the  east  with  fabrics  of  silk,  cotton  and 
wool,  and  gold  and  silver  stuffs ;  but  in  1822  an  earth- 
quake swallowed  up  two-thirds  of  the  inhabitants, 
and  transformed  the  citadel  into  a  lit-ap  of  ruins. 
The  plague  of  1S27,  the  cholera  of  1S:J2,  and  the 
oppression  of  the  Egyptian  government,  all  but  com- 
pleted its  destruction.  During  the  sway  of  tlie  last, 
liowever,  a  new  citadel  and  some  other  edifices  were 
erected  ;  but  scarcely  half  of  the  mosques  and  bath.s 
have  bceu  rebuilt.  The  aqueduct  is  the  oldest 
moiunnent  of  the  town.  A.  is  one  of  the  principal 
emporiums  of  the  iidand  counuerce  of  Asia.  Its 
port  is  Iskaudcroon  (q.  v.)  situated  60  miles  to  the 
N.  E.,  on  tlic  bay  of  the  same  name.  A.  has  a 
large  trade  in  cotton  and  silk  goods,  skins,  tobacco, 
wine,  oil,  &c.  It  was  once  the  centre  of  Haracenic 
power,  still  retains  much  of  the  Arabic  character, 
and  its  citizens  arc  famed  throughout  the  cast  for 
their  elegant  manners. 

ALEU'TIAX  ISLANDS,  or  the  CATHERINE 
ARCHIPELAGO,  is  the  name  of  a  group  of  islands, 
numbering  above  150,  and  consisting  of  several  clus- 
ters, most  of  which  belong  to  the  U.  States,  and  form 
an  insular  continuation  of  the  N  American  jwninsnla 
of  Alaska,  in  the  shape  of  an  arch  or  bridge  between 
the  former  continent  and  Asia.  They  lie  in  55°  N. 
lat.,  separating  the  Sea  of  Kamtchatka  from  the 
Pacific,  and  naturally  subdivide  themselves  into  five 
groups:  1.  Pehring's  Islands  (where  Pehring  died 
in  1741);  2.  the  Sasignan,  or  'Nearest'  Islands,  so 
called  because  nearest  to  the  coast  of  Kamtchatka; 
3.  the  Rat  Islands;  4.  the  Andrcianow.sky,  which  are 
very  small  and  little  frequented ;  5.  the  Fox  Islands, 
among  which  is  Unimak,  the  largest  in  the  archi- 
pelago. The  islands  arc  all  craggy,  and  have  a  deso- 
late appearance  from  the  sea.  They  exhibit  traces  of 
violent  internal  commotion.  Several  volcanoes  aro 
still  periodically  active  ;  and  warm  volcanic  springs 
arc  numerous.  The  whole  chain  or  group  forms 
a  connecting-link  between  the  volcanic  range  of 
the  west  coast  of  America  and  Kamtchatka.  On 
account  of  the  numerous  rocks  which  lie  olf  their 
shores,  they  are  not  very  accessible  to  ships.  Under 
a  clinuite  which  exchanges  only  for  a  short  time  the 
monotonous  rigour  of  winter  for  a  cloudy  spring  and 
a  hot  summer,  little  can  be  expected  of  so  niggardly 
a  soil.  There  are  plenty  of  low  scrubby  bushes, 
grasses,  moss,  and  lichens,  but  no  strong  and  stately 
growth  of  trees.  An  experiment  tried  at  Unalaska 
of  planting  pines  had  very  little  success.  Here  and 
there,  how'cver,  European  kitchen-gardens  have  lieen 
attempted  with  better  results;  and  the  cultivation 
of  the  potato  has  likewise  succeeded.  The  i.-lands 
abound  in  springs,  and  are  overrun  with  foxes, 
dogs,  and  reindeer,  while  the  coasts  swarm  with  fi.^h, 
seals,  and  otters.  The  inhabitants,  who  arc  extremely 
rude,  and  of  Kamtchatkan  origin,  were  converted  to 
Christianity  by  Russian  priests.  They  are  reckoned 
about  Oooo.  Their  occupation  is  liunting  and  fishing. 
Tlieir  trade  is  chiefly  in  furs  and  fish,  of  which  the 
principal  entrcput  is  Alexandria,  in  the  island  of 
Rojak.    Sec  Rep.  of  Com.  of  Ag.,  1868. 

ALE'SIA,  a  town  of  ancient  Gaul,  the  siege  and 
capture  of  which  form  one  of  Cesar's  greatest  exploits. 
The  Gauls  were  making  a  last  cllbrt  to  shake  off 
the  Roman  yoke  ;  and  Vercingetorix,  their  bravest 
leader,  after' several  defeats,  had  shut  himself  up 
with  80,()00  men  in  A.,  there  to  await  the  reinforce- 
nuMits  which  he  expected  from  a  general  insmrec- 
tion  of  the  country.  The  town  was  situated  on  a 
lofty  hill,  and  well  calculated  for  defence.     Ciesar, 

123 


ALESSANDRIA— ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT. 


with  Ills  army  of  60,000  men,  completely  sur- 
rounded the  place,  with  the  view  of  starving  it  into 
a  surrender.  He  fortified  his  position  by  two  lines 
of  rampart  of  prodigious  extent  and  strength  ;  one 
towards  tlie  town,  for  defence  against  tlie  sallies  of 
the  besieged ;  the  other  towards  the  plain,  against 
the  expected  armies  of  relief.  Before  they  could 
assemble,  250,000  strong,  he  was  ready  for  thein  ; 
and  all  tlicir  assaults,  combined  with  the  desperate 
efforts  of  the  besieged,  were  of  no  avail.  A.  was 
obliged  to  surrender,  and  Vercingetorix  was  made 
prisoner.  A.  was  afterwards  a  place  of  some  note 
under  the  empire,  but  was  destroyed  by  tlie  Normans 
in  864.  Near  the  site  of  the  ancient  A.,  west  from 
Dijon,  stands  the  modern  village  of  Alise  or  Sainte- 
Reine. 

ALESSA'NDRL\,  the  principal  fortress  and 
town  of  the  province  of  tlie  same  name  in  tlie 
kingdom  of  Sardinia,  is  situated  in  a  marshy  country 
near  tlie  confluence  of  the  IJormida  and  Tanaro.  It 
was  built  in  11 08  by  the  iidiabitants  of  Cremona, 
Milan,  and  Placentia,  as  a  bidwarlv  against  the 
emperor  Frederick  I.  Its  original  name  was  Ciesarea, 
but  it  was  afterwards  called  A.  in  honour  of  Pope 
Alexander  III.,  who  estal)lished  a  bishopric  in  it. 
Designed  at  first  as  a  fortress  to  guard  the  passage 
of  the  IJormida  and  Tanaro,  and  being  the  central 
point  of  intercourse  between  Genoa,  Milan,  and 
Turin,  tlic  town  has  frequently  been  the  object  of 
sanguinary  strife.  It  was  taken  and  plundered  in 
15'2"i  by  Duke  Sforza;  besieged,  but  witliout  success, 
by  the  French,  under  the  Prince  of  Conti,  in  lOoT  ; 
and  again  taken,  in  spite  of  an  obstinate  resist- 
ance, by  Prince  Eugene  in  17o7.  After  tiie  prostra- 
tion of  Austria  at  the  battle  of  Marengo  in  18(iO, 
Bonaparte  concluded  an  armistice  at  A.  with  his 
enemies,  according  to  which.  Upper  Italy,  as  far  as 
the  Mincio,  was  ceded  to  the  French,  with  twelve 
fortresses.  It  was  the  principal  armory  of  the 
Piedmontese  during  the  insurrection  of  the  Lom- 
bardo-Venetian  states  in  1848 — 0,  when  many  new 
fortifications  were  added  to  it.  At  present,  the 
citadel  is  one  of  the  strongest  fortresses  in  Europe  ; 
of  enormous  size,  larger,  it  is  said,  tlian  many  a 
town,  and  in  the  event  of  a  war  in  Italy,  will 
probably  be  once  more  the  scene  of  many  a  desperate 
and  bloody  struggle.  A.  contains,  exclusive  of  the 
garrison,  about  4o,OO0  inhabitants,  wlio  carry  on  a 
considerable  trade  in  linens,  woollens,  silk  fabrics, 
stockings,  liats,  kc.  The  culture  of  flowers  is  also 
much  attended  to.  Two  fairs  are  held  in  A.  annually, 
which  arc  largely  frequented. 

ALEXANDER  TIIE  GREAT,  son  of  Philip  of 
Macedon  and  Olynipias,  daughter  of  Neoptolemus  of 
Epirus,  was  born  at  Pella,  35b  n.  c.  Endowed  by 
nature  with  a  happy  genius,  he  early  announced  his 
great  character.  Philip's  triumphs  saddened  him. 
On  one  occasion  he  exclaimed :  '  My  father  will 
leave  nothing  for  me  to  do.'  Ilis  education  was 
committed  first  to  Leonidas,  a  maternal  relation, 
then  to  Lysimachus,  and  afterwards  to  Aristotle. 
This  great  philosopher  withdrew  him  to  a  distance 
from  tlie  court,  and  instructed  him  in  every  branch 
of  himian  learning,  especially  in  what  relates  to  the 
art  of  government,  while  at  the  same  time  he  dis- 
ciplined and  invigorated  his  body  by  gynmastic 
exercises.  As  Macedon  was  surrounded  by  danger- 
ous neighbours,  Aristotle  was  anxious  to  inspire  his 
pupil  with  military  ardour,  and  with  this  view 
recommended  him  to  study  the  Iliad,  a  revision 
of  which  he  himself  undertook  for  his  use.  A.  was 
16  years  of  age  when  his  father  marched  against 
Byzantium,  and  left  the  government  in  his  hands 
during  his  absence.  Two  years  afterwards,  he  dis- 
played singular  courage  at  the  battle  of  Cha;ronea 
124 


(338  li.  c),  where  he  overthrew  the  Sacred  Band  of 
the  Thebans.  'My  son,'  said  Piiiiip,  as  he  embraced 
him  after  the  conflict,  '  seek  for  thyself  another 
kingdom,  for  that  which  I  leave  is  loo  small  for 
thee.'  The  fatiier  and  son  quarrelled,  however,  when 
the  former  repudiated  Olynipias.  A.  took  part  with 
his  molher,  and  fled,  to  escape  his  father's  vengeance, 
to  Epirus;  but  receiving  his  pardon  soon  afterwards, 
be  returned,  and  accompanied  him  in  an  ex|>edition 
against  the  Triballi,  when  he  saved  liis  Hfe  on  the 
field.  Philip  being  appointed  generalissimo  of  the 
(Jreeks,  was  preparing  for  a  war  with  Persia,  when 
lie  was  assassinated  (336  n.  c),  and  A.,  rot  yet  twenty 
years  of  age,  ascended  the  throne.  After  punishing 
his  father's  murderers,  he  went  into  the  Peloj  onnesus, 
and  in  a  general  assembly  of  the  (ireeks  he  caused 
himself  to  be  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  forces 
against  Persia.  On  his  return  to  Macedon,  he  found 
the  Ulyrians  and  Triballi  up  in  arms,  whereu|on  he 
marched  against  them,  forced  his  way  through 
Thrace,  and  was  everywhere  victorious.  But  now 
the  Tliel)ans  had  been  induced,  by  a  report  of  his 
death,  to  take  up  arms,  and  the  Athenians,  stimu- 
lated by  the  elociuence  of  Demosthenes,  were  pre- 
paring to  join  them.  To  prevent  this  coalition,  A. 
rapidly  marched  against  Tliebes,  which,  refusing  to 
surrender,  was  coiuiuered,  and  razed  to  tlie  ground : 
6(1(1(1  of  tiie  iniiabitants  weie  slain,  and  3(»,(i(/0  sold 
into  slavery;  the  house  and  family  of  the  j'oet  Pin- 
dar alone  being  spared.  This  severity  struck  terror 
into  all  Greece.  The  Athenians  were  treated  with 
more  leniency,  A.  oidy  rcipiiriiig  of  them  the  bani.sh- 
ment  of  Charidemus,  who  had  been  most  bitter 
in  his  invectives  against  liini. 

A.,  having  appointed  Antipater  his  deputy  in 
Europe,  now  prepared  to  prosectite  the  war  with 
Persia.  He  cro.ssed  the  IIellespt)nt  in  the  spring  of 
334  n.  c.  with  3(i,(ltlO  foot  and  5(.()(»  liorse,  attacked 
the  Persian  satraps  at  the  ri\er  (Jianicus,  and  gained 
a  complete  victory,  overthrowing  the  son-in-law  of 
I):irius  with  his  own  lance.  The  only  real  resistance 
the  Macedonians  met  with  was  liom  the  Greek 
auxiliaries  of  the  Persians,  who  were  marshalled 
in  phalanxes,  under  the  command  of  Meniiion  of 
Rhodes,  but  finally  they  were  all  slain  exct  pt  20(10, 
who  were  taken  prisoner.s.  A.  celebrated  the  ob- 
se(|uies  of  his  fallen  warriors  in  a  splendid  manner, 
ancl  bestowed  many  privileges  on  their  relations. 
Most  of  the  cities  of  Asia  Minor,  Sardis  not  excepted, 
opened  their  gates  to  the  conqueior,  nor  tVid  Miletus 
or  Halicarnassusofl'er  longer  resistance.  A.  restored 
democracy  in  all  the  Greek  cities,  cut  the  Gordian-knot 
(([.  V.)  w  ilh  his  sword  as  he  passed  through  tJordiuni, 
and  proceeded  to  the  conquest  of  Lycia,  Ionia,  Caria, 
Pamphylia,  and  Cappadocia.  His  career  was  checked 
for  a  time  by  a  dangerous  illness,  brought  on  by 
bathing  in  the  Cydnus.  On  this  occasion  he  displayed 
his  magnanimity  in  the  following  circumstances. 
He  received  a  letter  from  Parmenio,  insinuating 
that  Philip,  his  physician,  intended  to  poison 
him,  having  been  bribed  by  Darius.  A.  handed  the 
letter  to  Philip,  and  at  the  same  time  swallowed  the 
draught  which  liad  been  prepared  for  him.  As  soon 
as  he  recovered,  he  advanced  towards  the  defiles  of 
Cilicia,  in  which  Darius  had  stationed  himself, 
with  an  army  of  above  500,000  men.  He  arrived 
in  November  333  B.C.  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Issus,  where  a  battle  took  place,  between  the 
mountains  and  the  sea.  The  disorderly  masses  of 
the  Persians  were  thrown  into  confusion  by  the 
charge  of  the  Macedonians,  and  fled  in  terror.  On 
the  left  wing,  3!>,(H)0  Greek.*,  in  the  pay  of  the 
Persian  king,  lield  out  longer,  but  they,  too,  were 
at  length  compelled  to  yield.  All  the  treasures  as 
well  as  the  family  of  Darius  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
conqueror,  who  treated  the  latter  with  the  greatest 


ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT. 


maguiiiiiinity.  The  king,  who  lied  towards  the 
Euphrati's,  twice  made  overtures  of  peace,  whieli  A. 
haughtily  refiKsed,  saying  that  Darius  must  rcgaid 
him  as  the  ruler  of  Asi.i,  and  the  lord  of  all  his 
people.  One  of  the  conditions  of  the  second  overture 
was  that  A.  should  possess  all  Asia  to  the  Euphrates. 
On  hearing  which  his  general,  Parmeuio,  exclaimed: 
'I  would  do  it,  if  I  were  A.'  'So  would  J,'  replied 
the  monarch,  '  if  I  were  Parmenio.'  The  victory  at 
Issus  opened  the  whole  country  to  the  Macedonians. 
A.  now  turned  towards  Syria  and  IMui'iiicia,  to  cut 
off  Darius's  escape  by  sea.  He  occu|)ied  Damascus, 
where  he  found  princely  treasures,  and  secured  to 
himself  all  the  cities  along  the  shores  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean. Tyre,  confident  in  its  sti-ong  position, 
resisted  him,  l)ut  was  conquered  and  destroyed,  after 
seven  monthsof  incredible  exertion  (IJS'in.c).  Thence 
he  marched  victoriously  through  Palestine,  where  all 
the  cities  submitted  to  him  except  Gaza,  which 
shared  the  same  fate  as  Tyre.  Egypt,  weary  of  the 
Persian  yoke,  welcomed  him  as  a  deliverer ;  and  in 
order  to  stiengthen  his  dominion  here,  he  restored 
all  the  old  customs  and  religious  institutions  of  the 
country,  and  founded  Alexandria  in  the  beginning 
of  331  13. c,  which  became  one  of  the  first  cities  of 
ancient  times.  Thence  he  marched  throTigh  the 
Libyan  Desert,  in  order  to  consult  the  oracle  of 
Jupiter  Amnion,  whose  priest  saluted  him  as  a  son 
of  Jove  ;  and  at  the  return  of  spring  went  against 
Darius,  who  had  assembled  an  army  in  Assyria. 
A  battle  ensued,  in  October  331  b.  c,  on  the  plains 
of  Arbela,  or  rather  Guagamela,  for  Arbela,  the 
point  to  which  A.  pursued  the  Persians,  is  50  miles 
from  the  scene  of  the  fight.  See  Aubel.v.  Notwith- 
standing the  immense  superiority  of  his  adversary, 
who  had  collected  a  new  army  of  500,000  men,  A. 
was  not  for  a  moment  doubtful  of  victory.  Heading 
the  cavalry  himself,  he  rushed  on  the  Persians,  and 
put  them  to  flight ;  but  as  soon  as  he  had  entirely 
dispersed  them,  he  hastened  to  the  assistance  of  his 
left  wing,  whicli,  in  the  meanwhile,  had  been  sorely 
pressed.  He  was  anxious  to  make  a  prisoner  of  the 
Persian  king  himself,  but  the  latter  escaped  by 
flight  on  horseback,  leaving  his  baggage  and  all  his 
treasures  a  prey  to  the  conqueror,  Babylon  and 
Susa,  the  storehouses  of  the  treasures  of  the  east, 
opened  their  gates  to  the  conqueror,  who  next 
marched  towards  Persepolis,  the  capital  of  Persia, 
which  he  entered  in  triumph. 

The  marvellous  successes  of  A.  now  began  to 
dazzle  his  own  judgment,  and  to  intiame  his  passions. 
He  became  a  slave  to  debauchery,  and  his  caprices 
were  as  cruel  as  they  were  ungrateful.  In  a  fit  of 
drunkenness,  and  at  the  itistigation  of  Thais,  an 
Athenian  courtezan,  he  set  fire  to  Persepolis,  the  won- 
der of  the  world,  and  reduced  it  to  a  heap  of  ashes  ; 
then,  ashamed  of  the  deed,  he  set  out  with  his  cavalry 
to  pursue  Darius.  Learning  that  Bessus,  the  satrap  of 
Bactriana,  held  the  king  a  prisoner,  he  hastened  his 
march,  in  the  hope  of  saving  him,  but  he  i'ound  him 
mortally  wounded  on  the  frontiers  of  that  country 
(330  B.C.).  He  mourned  over  his  unfortunate  enemy, 
and  caused  his  body  to  be  buried  with  all  the  usual 
rites  observed  in  Persia ;  but  he  pursued  Bessus, 
who  himself  aspired  to  the  throne,  through  Hyr- 
cania,  Iran,  Bactriaiux,  over  the  Oxus  to  Sogdiana 
(now  Bokhara),  whose  satrap,  S|)itanienes,  surrendered 
Bessus  to  him.  Having  discovered  a  conspiracy  in 
which  the  son  of  Parmenio  was  implicated,  he  put  both 
father  and  son  to  death,  though  Parmenio  himself  was 
innocent  of  all  knowledge  of  the  affair.  This  cruel 
injustice  excited  universal  displeasure.  In  329  he 
penetrated  to  the  furthest  known  limits  of  Northern 
Asia,  and  overthrew  the  Scythians  on  the  banks  of 
the  Jaxartes.  In  the  following  year,  he  subdued  the 
whole  of  Sogdiana,  and  married  Roxana,  whom  he  had 


taken  prisoner.  She  was  liie  daughter  of  Oxyai'tes, 
one  of  the  enemy's  ca|)tains,  and  was  said  to  be  the 
handsomest  of  the  virgins  of  Asia.  A  new  conspiracy 
broke  out  against  A.,  at  the  head  of  which  were  ller- 
molaus  and  Callisthenes,  a  pupil  of  Aristotle,  which 
occasioned  the  death  of  many  of  the  culprits  ;  while 
Callisthenes  himself  was  nnitilated,  and  cirried  about 
in  an  iron  cage  through  the  army,  till  some  one  put 
an  end  to  his  suiVerings  by  poison. 

In  tlio  yeir  327  B.C.,  A.  proceeded  to  the 
conquest  of  India,  then  known  only  by  name.  He 
crossed  the  Indus  near  to  the  modern  Attock, 
and  j)ursued  his  way  under  the  guidance  of  a  native 
prince  to  tlie  Ilydaspes  (modern  Jelum),  when;  he 
was  opposed  by  Porus,  another  native  prince,  whom 
he  overthrew  after  a  bloody  contest.  Thence  he 
marched  as  lord  of  the  country  through  that  part  of  In- 
dia wiiich  is  now  called  the  Punjab,  establishing  Greek 
colonies.  He  then  wished  to  advance  to  the  CJanges, 
but  the  general  murmuring  of  his  tioojis  obliged 
him,  at  the  Ilyphasis  (modern  Sutledge),  to  commence 
his  retreat,  which  was  accomplished  under  circum- 
stances of  extreme  danger.  When  he  had  again  reach- 
ed the  Ilydaspes,  he  built  a  fleet,  and  sent  one  division 
of  his  army  in  it  down  the  livcr,  while  the  other 
followed  along  the  banks,  fighting  its  way  through 
successive  Indian  armies.  At  length,  having  reached 
the  ocean,  he  ordered  Nearchus,  the  commander  of 
the  fleet,  to  sail  thence  to  the  Persian  Gulf,  while 
he  himself  struck  inland  with  one  division  of  his 
army,  in  order  to  return  home  through  Gedrosia  (now 
Bcloochistan).  Here  he  I'.ad  to  traverse  immense 
deserts,  where  a  great  part  of  his  army  perished  for 
want  of  food  and  water,  and  weie  buried  in  the  sand. 
The  other  division  marched  through  Arachosia  and 
Drangiana  (Afghanistan)  under  Craterns,  but  they 
united  again  in  Carmania.  Of  all  the  troops,  how- 
ever, wliich  had  set  out  with  A.,  oifly  about  a 
fourth  part  arrived  with  him  in  Persia  (325  B.C.). 
At  Susa  he  married  Stateira,  the  daughter  of 
Darius,  and  he  bestowed  presents  on  those  Mace- 
donians (about  10,000  in  number)  who  had  nuirried 
Persian  wonien,  his  design  being  to  unite  the  two 
nations  as  closely  as  possible.  He  also  distributed 
liberal  rewards  among  his  soldiers.  At  Opis  on 
the  Tigris  he  declared  it  to  be  his  intention  to  send 
home  the  invalids  richly  rewarded  ;  and  this  he 
accomplished,  but  not  till  he  had  with  some  diffi- 
culty repressed  the  mutiny  which  broke  out  on  the 
occasion.  Soon  afterwards  he  was  deprived,  by  death, 
of  his  fiivourite  Heph;estion,  on  which  occasion  hi.<» 
grief  was  unbounded,  and  he  interred  the  deceased 
with  kingly  honours.  As  he  was  returning  from 
Ecbatana  to  Babylon,  it  is  said  that  the  Magi  fore- 
told that  the  latter  city  would  prove  fa'al  to  him  ; 
but  A.  despised  their  warnings,  and,  in  s])ite  of 
the  advice  of  his  friends,  marched  to  Baliylon, 
before  reaching  which,  however,  he  was  met  by 
ami)assadors  from  all  parts  of  the  world — Libya, 
Italy,  Carthage,  Greece,  the  Scythians,  Celts,  and 
Iberians.  Here  he  again  occupied  himself  with 
gigantic  plans  for  the  future,  both  of  conquest  and 
civilisation,  when  he  was  suddenly  taken  ill  after  a 
ban(iuet,  and  died  eleven  days  afterwards,  on  the  11th 
or  Kith  of  Mayor  June,  3J3  B.C.,  in  the  32d  year 
of  his  age,  having  reigned  twelve  years  and  eight 
months.  His  body  was  deposited  in  a  golden 
coffin  at  Alexandria,  by  Ptolemajus,  and  divine 
honours  were  paid  to  him,  not  only  in  Egypt,  but 
in  other  countiies.  A.  had  appointed  no  heir  to 
his  immense  dominions  ;  but  to  the  question  of  liis 
friends:  'Who  should  inherit  them?'  he  replied: 
'  The  most  worthy.'  After  many  disturbances, 
his  generals  recognised  as  kings  the  weak-minded 
Aridajus — a  son  of  Philip  by  Philinna,  the  dancer — • 
and  A.'s  posthumous  son   by   Roxana,  while   they 

125 


ALEXANDER  SEVERUS— ALEXANDER  L 


shared  the  provinces  among  themselves,  under  the 
name  of  satraps.  Perdiccas,  to  wliom  A.  had,  on-his 
death-bed,  delivered  his  ring,  became  guardian  of 
the  liings  during  their  minority. 

It  is  but  riglit  to  observe  that  A.  did  something 
more  than  shed  blood  during  his  life.  He  diffused 
the  languiigc  and  civilisation  of  Greece  wherever 
victory  led  him,  and  planted  Greek  kingdoms  in 
Asia,  which  continued  to  exist  for  some  centuries. 
At  the  very  time  of  his  death,  he  was  engaged  in 
devising  plans  for  the  drainage  of  the  unhealthy 
marshes  around  Babylon,  and  a  better  irrigation  of 
the  extensive  plains.  It  is  even  supposed  that  the 
fever  which  he  caught  there,  rather  than  his  famous 
drinking-bout,  was  the  real  cause  of  his  death.  To 
A.,  the  ancient  world  owed  a  vast  increase  of  its 
knowledge  in  geography,  natural  history,  &c.  He 
taught  Europeans  the  road  to  India,  and  gave 
tliem  the  first  glimpses  of  that  magnificence  and 
splendour  which  has  dazzled  and  captivated  their 
imagination  for  two  thousand  years. 

ALEXANDER  SEYERUS,  a  Roman  emperor 
(222 — 235  A.U.),  was  the  cousin,  adopted  son,  and  suc- 
cessor of  Ilcliogabalus.  The  excellent  education 
which  he  received  from  his  mother,  Julia  Mamnuea, 
rendered  him  one  of  the  best  princes  in  an  age  when 
viitue  was  reckoned  more  dangerous  than  vice  in  a 
monarch.  He  sought  the  society  of  the  learned  ; 
Paulus  and  Ulpian  were  his  counsellors,  Plato  and 
Cicero  were,  next  to  Horace  and  Virgil,  his  favourite 
authors.  Although  a  pagan,  he  reverenced  the 
doctrines  of  Christianity,  and  often  quotjd  that 
saying  :  '  Whatsoever  ye  would  that  men  should  do 
to  you,  do  ye  so  also  to  them.'  Beloved  as  he  w-as 
by  the  citizens  on  account  of  his  ecfuity,  he  soon 
became  an  object  of  hatred  to  the  mn-uly  pratorian 
guards.  His  first  expedition,  against  Artaxerxes,  king 
of  Persia,  w-as  happily  terminated  by  a  speedy  over- 
throw of  the  enemy.  But  during  one  which  lie  under- 
took against  the  Germans  on  the  Rhine,  to  defend 
the  frontiers  of  the  empire  from  their  incursions,  an 
insurrection  broke  out  among  liis  troops,  headed 
by  Maximin,  in  which  Alexander  was  murdered, 
along  with  his  mother,  not  far  from  Mentz.  The 
grateful  people,  however,  placed  him  among  the 
gods.  After  his  death,  military  despotism  obtained 
the  ascendency,  and  the  Roman  power  rapidly 
declined. 

ALEXANDER  NEAYSKI,  or  NEYSKT,  a  Rus- 
sian hero  and  saint,  born  at  Yladimir  in  1219  A.n., 
was  the  son  of  the  Grand  Duke  Jaroslav,  of 
Novgorod.  In  order  to  defend  the  empire,  which 
was  attacked  on  all  sides,  but  especially  by  the 
Mongols,  his  father  quitted  Novgorod,  leaving  the 
cares  of  the  government  to  his  sons,  Fedor  and 
Alexander,  the  former  of  whom  died  soon  after- 
wards. The  latter  vigorously  resisted  the  enemy ; 
yet  Russia  was  forced  to  submit  to  the  Mongol 
dominion  in  1238  a.d.  A.  now  fought  to  defend 
the  western  frontier  against  the  Danes,  the  Swedes, 
and  the  Teutonic  knights.  He  received  the  surname 
of  Newski,  on  account  of  the  splendid  ^  ictory  over 
the  Swedes,  which  he  achieved  in  1240,  on  the  Newa 
(Neva),  in  the  province  where  St.  Petersburg  now 
stands.  In  1243  A.n.,  on  the  ice  of  Lake  Peipus, 
he  defeated  the  Livonian  Knights  of  the  Sword, 
who  had  been  stimulated  by  the  pope  to  attack  the 
Russian  heretics.  At  the  death  of  his  fivther  in 
1247,  he  became  Grand  Duke  of  Yladimir.  Pope 
Innocent  lY.  now  made  a  diplomatic  attempt  to 
reunite  the  Greek  and  Roman  churches,  since  his 
military  scheme  had  failed,  and  with  this  view,  sent 
an  embassy  to  A.,  which,  however,  proved  as  inef- 
fectual as  the  former.  To  the  end  of  his  life,  how- 
ever, he  remained  a  vassal  of  the  Tatars  or  Mongols. 
12G 


Thrice  had  he  to  renew  his  oath  of  fealty  to  the 
Asiatic  barbarians,  making  in  each  instance  a 
journey  to  their  camp.  He  died  in  1263  a.d.,  at 
Kassimcow,  on  his  return  from  the  last  of  these 
journeys;  and  the  gratitude  of  the  nation  perpe- 
tuated his  memory  in  popular  songs,  and  even 
canonised  him.  Peter  the  Great  honoured  his 
memory  by  building  a  magnificent  convent  on  the 
spot  where  A.  had  fought  his  great  battle,  and  by 
founding  the  knightly  order  of  A.  N. 

ALEXA'NDER  YL  (Borgia),  1492—15(1.'',,  the 
most  celebrated  of  the  eight  popes  (see  Popi:s)  of 
this  name,  but  at  the  same  time  the  most  infamous 
one  that  ever  lived,  as  well  as  the  most  vicious 
prince  of  his  age.  His  most  conspicuous  qualities 
were  a  cunning  and  insidious  cruelty,  united  with 
great  fearlessness  in  danger,  an  unwearied  perse- 
verance and  vigilance  in  all  his  undertakings,  a 
soft  and  plausible  manner  towards  his  inferiors,  a 
harsh  and  grasping  s[)irit  towards  the  rich.  In  spite 
of  his  talents  and  his  love  of  art  and  science,  he 
disdained,  throughout  his  dissolute  career,  no  means 
of  gratifying  his  lust — not  even  perjury,  murder, 
and  poi.-oning.  He  was  born  at  Yalencia,  in  S[)ain, 
1430.  His  own  name  was  Rodiigo  Lcnzuoli,  but  he 
assumed  the  ancient  and  famous  one  of  his  mother's 
family,  Borgia.  He  luid  five  children  by  Rosa 
Yanozza,  a  woman  celebrated  for  her  beauty,  two  of 
whom  equalled  himself  in  criminality,  Caesar  and 
Lucretia  (see  Boroia).  A.  was  made  a  cardinal  by 
his  uncle  Calixtus  III.,  and  on  the  death  of  Innocent 
YIIL,  was  elevated  to  the  papal  chair,  which  he  had 
previously  secured  by  flagrant  bribery.  The  long 
absence  of  the  popes  from  Ita'.y  had  weakened  their 
authority  and  cm-tailed  their  revenues.  To  com- 
pensate for  this  loss,  A.  endeavoured  to  break  the 
power  of  the  Italian  princes,  and  to  appropriate  their 
po.ssessions  for  the  benefit  of  his  own  iamily.  To 
gain  this  end,  he  employed  the  most  execrable 
means.  He  died  in  1503,  from  having  partaken,  l)y 
accident,  as  is  connnonly  believed,  of  jioisoned  wine, 
intended  for  his  guests.  Under  his  pontificate,  the 
censorship  of  books  was  introduced,  and  Savonarola, 
the  earnest  and  eloquent  Florentine  priest,  who  had 
advocated  his  deposition,  was  condemned  to  be 
burned  as  a  heretic. 

ALEXANDER  I.,  PAULOWiTscn,  Emperor  and 
Autocrat  of  All  the  Russias(18ol — 1825),  was  born 
December  23,  1777.  His  education,  in  which  his 
father,  Paul  I.,  had  no  hand,  was  conducted  by  his 
grandmother,  Catherine  II.,  and  Colonel  Laharpe  and 
other  tutors.  He  always  shewed  great  aftection  for 
his  mother,  Maria,  daughter  of  Eugene,  Duke  of 
Wiirteniberg.  With  a  humane  and  benevolent  dis- 
position, the  '  northern  Tclemaque'  was  imbued  by 
Laharpe  with  the  enlightened  principles  of  the  age. 
Professor  Kraft  instructed  him  in  experimental 
physics,  and  Pallas  in  botany.  It  was  thought 
better  not  to  devote  his  attention  to  pocti-y  and 
music,  as  it  would  have  required  too  much  time  to 
make  any  great  acquirements.  In  1793  he  married 
Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Karl  Ludwig,  Crown  Prince 
of  Baden,  and,  on  the  as.sassination  of  his  father 
Paul  (q.  v.),  on  the  24th  of  March  1801,  succeeded 
him  upon  the  throne.  Although  A.  doubtless 
knew  of  the  conspiracy  to  dethrone  his  father, 
there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  he  contemplated 
the  crime  of  nmrder.  His  accession  was  celebrated 
by  Klopstock  in  an  ode.  To  Humanity,  indicative 
of  the  high  expectations  formed  of  him.  The  young 
ruler  seemed  deeply  penetrated  with  a  sense  of  his 
obligation  to  make  his  people  happy  and  to  promote 
their  civilisation  and  prosperity.  He  was  the  first 
to  lay  the  foundation  of  the  national  culture  and 
popular  instruction  on  a  regular  plan,  to  introduce 


ALEXANDER  I. 


orf^atiisatioii  into  the  internal  administration,  un- 
.•sbaclile  the  industry  of  the  nation,  laise  the  foreign 
commerce  of  Kussia,  and  awaken  in  the  people  a 
feehng  of  unity,  and  a  spirit  of  patriotism. 

Of  speeilic  intetnal  impiovenients  cft'ected  by  A., 
his  exertions  on  belialf  of  the  language,  literature, 
and  general  culture  of  the  Sclavonic  nations  deserve 
special  notice.  Seven  universities,  at  Dorput,  Knsan, 
Charkow,  Moscow,  Wiina,  Warsaw,  and  St.  Peters- 
burg, were  either  instituted  or  remodelled  by  him  ; 
204  gymnasiums  and  normal  schools,  and  above  2000 
district  elementary  schools,  were  erected  ;  and  fresh 
life  and  activity  given  to  the  higher  scientific  insti- 
tutions in  St.  Petersburg  and  Moscow.  lie  did  more 
than  any  other  sovereign  in  Europe  for  the  spread  of 
the  Bible,  by  supporting  the  Bible  Society  (which 
was  sui)[)ressed,  however,  in  1821));  and  in  1S2(»,  he 
had  a  bisliop  instituted  for  the  evangelical  Lutheran 
church,  and  a  general  consistory  in  St.  Petersburg 
for  the  whole  empire.  He  devoted  large  sums  to 
the  printing  of  important  works,  such  as  Krusen- 
stern's  Travels,  and  Karamsiu's  History  of  linssia, 
and  prized  and  rewarded  scientific  merit  both  at 
home  and  abroad.  Several  scientific  collections  were 
purchased  by  him,  and  in  1818  he  invited  two 
orientalists,  Demange  and  Charmoy,  from  Paris  to  St. 
Petersburg,  to  promote  the  study  of  the  Arabic, 
Armenian,  Persian,  and  Turkish  languages.  Young 
men  of  talent  were  sent  to  travel  at  his  expense. 
By  the  ukase  of  1816  he  prepared  the  way  for  the 
abolition  of  slavery  in  the  Baltic  provinces  ;  he  also 
declared  that  no  more  gifts  of  peasants  would  be 
made  on  the  crown-lands.  As  early  as  1801  he  had 
abolished  the  secret  tribunal  which  is  said  to  have 
extorted  confession  from  political  offenders  by  means 
of  hunger  and  thirst.  The  practice  of  shtting  the 
nose  and  branding,  which  had  been  customary  in 
connection  with  knouting,  was  also  done  away  with. 
Laws  were  enacted  to  pievent  the  abuses  of  power 
by  governors.  The  privilege  of  the  nobles,  that  their 
inherited  jjroperty  could  not  be  confiscated  as  a 
punishment,  was  raised  by  him  to  a  common  right 
for  all  suljjects ;  and  much  was  done  in  composing 
a  code  of  civil  law.  He  promoted  the  manufactures 
and  trade  of  the  empire  by  amending  the  laws 
regarding  debt  and  mortgages ;  and  by  the  institution 
of  an  imperial  liank,  the  construction  of  roads 
and  canals,  making  Odessa  a  free  port,  and,  above 
all,  by  the  ukase  of  1818,  permitting  all  peasants  in 
the  em[)ire  to  carry  on  manufactures,  winch  was 
beibie  only  allowed  to  nobles  and  to  merchants  of 
the  first  und  second  guilds. 

A.'s  far-sighted  [)olicy  with  regard  to  the  foreign 
commerce  of  Russia  is  shown  in  various  expeditions 
round  the  world  sent  out  by  him  ;  in  the  embassy 
to  Persia  in  1817,  in  which  was  the  Frenchman 
Gradanne,  who  was  acquainted  with  all  the  plans 
of  Napoleon  respecting  Lidia  and  Persia ;  in  the 
missions  to  Cochin  China  and  to  Khiva;  in  the 
treaties  with  the  United  States,  Brazil,  and  Spain  ; 
in  the  naval  and  commercial  treaties  with  the  Porte  ; 
and  in  the  settlement  on  the  north-west  coast  of 
America. 

A.'s  foreign  policy  was  characterised  at  the  outset 
by  a  desire  lor  peace  ;  in  1801  he  couchided  a  con- 
vention, putting  an  end  to  hostilities  with  England, 
and  made  peace  with  France  and  Spain.  He  next 
entered,  along  with  France,  into  negotiations 
respecting  the  indemnification  of  the  minor  states 
in  Germany  and  Italy,  but  soon  discovered  how 
little  the  French  ruler  intended  any  real  compen- 
sation. As  Bonaparte  encroached  more  ami  more, 
took  possession  of  Hanover,  and  annihilated  Hol- 
land, A.  broke  with  France,  and  joined  the  coalition 
of  1805.  He  was  present  at  the  battle  of  Austerlitz, 
when  the  allied  armies  of  Austria  and  Russia  were 


I  defeated,  and  retired  with  the  remains  of  his  forces 
I  into  Russia,  declining  to  enter  into  the  treaty  that 
I  followed.  Next  year,  he  came  forward  as  the  ally 
I  of  Prussia;  but  after  the  di.<astrou3  battles  of  Evhni 
I  and  Friedland,  in  1807,  he  was  obliged  to  conclude 
I  the  peace  of  Tilsit,  in  which  he  n;anaged  to  prevent 
the  restoration  of  the  kingdom  of  Poland,  and  to 
!  mitigate  the  hard  fate  of  the  king  of  Prussia.  Dur- 
ing the  war  with  France,  A.  had  also  to  carry  on 
^  hostilities  wit'.i  I'ersia  and  with  Turkey. 

Dazzled  by  the  fortune  and  genius  of  Napoleon, 
A.,  in  pursuance  of  the  stipulations  of  Tilsit,  accedeil 
with  his  huge  empire  to  the  French  continental 
system,  thus  altering  entirely  the  foreign  policy  of 
Russia.  He  began  by  declaring  war  on  England  in 
1808,  and  attacking  her  ally  Sweden,  wrested  from 
that  country,  by  the  peace  of  Friedrichshamm  (ISn'.i), 
the  province  of  Finland.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
Russian  fleet  sent  to  the  aid  of  the  French  at 
Lisbon,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  British.  In  the 
autumn  of  18(>8,  the  two  great  potentates  held  a 
meeting  at  Erfurt,  attended  with  great  splendour, 
at  which  A.  represented,  as  it  were,  the  empire  of 
the  east  of  Europe,  while  Napoleon  assumed  the 
dominion  of  the  west.  In  the  war  of  France  against 
Austria  in  1800,  A.  took  only  a  lukewarm  part,  al- 
though at  the  peace  of  Vienna  he  rectivcd  the  circle 
of  Tarnopol  as  hia  share  of  the  spoil  of  Galicia. 
Against  the  Porte,  which  had  rot  observed  the 
armistice  of  Slobosta,  he  renewed  tlie  war,  which 
was  continued  till  the  peace  of  Bucharest  in  1812. 

The  alliance,  however,  of  A.  with  the  Cor.sican 
conqueror  involved  such  an  inconsistency,  and  was 
so  contrary  to  the  real  interests  of  Russia,  that  a 
rupture  and  a  complete  change  of  the  Rus.sian  policy 
were  inevitable.  The  pressure  of  the  continental 
system  on  the  material  resources  of  Russia,  the 
despotic  changes  made  by  Napoleon,  the  augment- 
ation of  the  duchy  of  Warsaw,  the  proffers  of 
alliance  by  England  and  Sweden,  awoke  in  A.  first 
dijcontent  and  aversion,  and  soon  the  thought  of  a 
decisive  contest  against  the  subjugator  of  Europe 
and  the  disturber  of  the  peace  of  the  world.  Wiien 
this  gigantic  struggle  at  last  began  (1812),  Russia 
brought  into  the  field  an  army  of  nearly  900,000 
men.  During  this  war  (see  Ru-sso-Gkumax  War), 
A.  repeatedly  exposed  himself  to  personal  danger, 
in  order  to  fire  the  courage  and  patriotism  of  his 
troops.  His  magnanimity  towards  Fiance  after  the 
taking  of  Paris  facilitated  the  negotiations  for  peace, 
and  won  for  him  great  personal  regard,  amounting 
to  a  kind  of  enthusiasm.  He  was  received  with  the 
same  feeling  in  Loudon,  which  he  visited  after  the 
treaty  of  Paris  in  June,  1814.  When  he  retin-ned 
to  St.  Petersburg,  his  first  care  was  to  provide  for 
the  wounded,  and  for  the  families  of  the  soldiers 
that  had  fallen.  The  senate  wished  to  give  him  the 
title  of  '  Blessed,'  which,  from  Christian  humility, 
he  declined.  After  a  short  residence  in  his  own 
capital,  he  repaired  to  the  Congress  of  Vienna.  Here 
he  laid  claim  to  Poland  as  essential  to  the  interests 
of  Russia,  but  pron;isetl  to  confer  on  it  a  constitution, 
and,  on  the  whole,  appeared  to  act  for  the  good  of 
humanity  and  the  freedom  of  nations. 

In  the  return  of  Napoleon,  A.  saw  the  confusion 
of  Europe  l)egun  agtiin,  and  therefore  urged  the 
fulfilment  of  the  treaty  of  Chaumont  and  the  out- 
lawry of  the  common  enemy.  His  appearance  in 
the  French  capital  after  the  battle  of  Waterloo 
raised  less  etithusiasm  than  previously  ;  yet  on  this 
occasion,  too,  France  owed  nuich  to  his  generosity. 
It  was  abont  this  time  that  the  tendency  of  A. 
to  pietism,  fostered  by  intercourse  with  Madame 
Kriidener  (q.  v.),  was  most  strongly  manifested, 
and  exercised  decided  influence  on  his  political 
views.     It  was  under  the  influence  of  this  reliLrio.-ity 

127 


ALEXANDER  I.— ALEXANDER  IL 


that  he  founded  the  Holy  Alliance  (q.  v.),  the  osten- 
Bible  object  of  which  was  lo  make  the  i)i-inciple3  of 
Christianity  be  recogni.^ed  in  the  political  ariange- 
nients  of  the  world,  but  which  became,  in  fact,  a 
mere  handle  for  political  reaction. 

In  the  end  of  October,  1815,  A.  returned  to  his 
own  dominions.  His  policy,  and  the  march  of 
events,  had  completely  changed  the  internal  coir- 
dition  of  Russia  and  her  foreign  relations.  Her 
weight  in  Eui  opean  politics  had  become  powerful ; 
the  liiTiits  of  the  empire  had  extended  in  all 
directions;  and  notwithstanding  (he  war,  the 
earlier  legislative  reforms  had  begun  to  act  favour- 
ably on  the  industry  and  well-being  of  the  nation. 
After  1805,  A.  had  remodelled  the  army  after  the 
fashion  of  the  western  power.*,  and  raised  it  to  a 
condition  that  menaced  Europe.  When  peace  was 
attained,  he  not  only  .sought  to  heal  the  wounds 
inflicted  by  the  war,  but  to  carry  forward  the  work 
of  relbrm  formerly  begun.  Numerous  administrative 
abuses  were  done  away  with,  and  the  condition  of 
the  peasants  was  more  and  more  alleviated.  In 
ISUi,  the  Jesuits,  who  were  causing  a  great  deal 
of  disturljance,  were  made  to  leave  St.  Petersburg 
and  Moscow,  and  in  IStiO  were  sent  out  of  the 
empire.  On  the  other  hand,  prosclytisni  was  rigidly 
prohibited,  and  the  Duchoborzes,  a  sect  of  the 
Russo-Greek  church,  were  allowed  the  free  exercise 
of  worsiiip. 

But  however  good  A.'s  intentions  might  be,  his 
internal  policy  met  with  obstructions,  partly  arising 
from  his  jjersonal  views  and  character,  partly  from 
the  nature  of  the  position.  Affected  witli  a  morliid 
religiosity,  worn  out  and  shaken  perhaps  in  body 
and  mind  by  the  vast  events  in  the  vortex  of  which 
he  had  moved  for  his  last  ten  years,  tlie  emperor 
became  i)Ossessed  by  the  dread  of  another  Euro- 
pean revolution ;  and  the  political  struggles  against 
reaction  in  Germany,  and  the  outl)reaks  against 
despotism  in  Italy  and  Spain,  appeared  to  him  as  the 
beginning  of  a  new  and  terrible  catastrophe.  The 
attention  now  bestowed  by  A.  on  foreign  relations 
threw  internal  improvements  into  the  background  ; 
and  the  liberal  reformer  and  pu))il  of  Laharpe  found 
himself  involved  in  hopeless  inconsistency,  when  he 
fully  concurred  in  the  policy  of  the  Austrian  cabinet, 
and,  at  the  congresses  of  Troppau,  Laybach,  and 
Verona,  helped  to  crush,  along  with  the  insurrec- 
tions, the  just  requirements  and  political  progress  of 
the  nations. 

This  complete  reversal  of  policy  could  not  fail 
to  produce  fruits,  especially  as  Russia  peculiarly 
abounded  in  fermentable  materials.  Poland  saw 
itself  completely  disajjpointed  in  its  national  expecta- 
tions, and  required  the  actual  carrying  out  of  the 
promised  constitution.  The  contact  iirto  which  the 
Russians  had  come  during  the  war  with  the  civilisa- 
tion and  institutions  of  the  western  nations,  had 
excited  in  ditl'erent  classes  of  Russian  society  wishes 
and  views  by  no  means  compatible  with  their 
condition  at  home.  On  the  other  hand,  there  had 
long  existed  in  the  most  influential  circles  an  Old- 
Russian  party,  who  cither  found  their  interests  hurt 
by  the  enlightened  measures  of  the  emperor,  or  saw 
in  them  the  downfall  of  the  national  church,  and  of 
the  nation  it.self.  Besides,  the  army  was  kept  up 
on  the  war-footing,  and  in  1821  numbered  about 
830,000  regular  troops;  and  this  pressed  severely  on 
the  people,  and  produced  discontent,  along  with 
e.xjiaustion  and  disorder  of  the  finances.  To  meet 
this  evil,  A.  began  the  planting  of  military  colonies, 
which,  however,  met  with  insuperable  obstacles  in 
the  execution,  and  did  not  attain  the  end  in  view. 
But  to  exorcise  the  spirit  of  political  discontent  and 
the  phantom  of  a  Ru.ssian  revolution,  the  emperor 
adopted  the  same  measures  that  were  very  generally 
128 


applied  over  the  rest  of  Europe  with  similar  views. 
The  censorship  of  the  press,  and  a  rigid  guard  over 
the  importation  of  books,  were  again  introduced  ;  re- 
strictions were  put  on  science,  literature,  and  educa- 
tion; inquiries  instituted  into  all  democratic  move- 
ments;  mason-lodges  and  missionary  societies  sup- 
pressed; and  gradually  all  plans  for  reform  and  pro- 
gress given  tip.  Over  all  the  provinces  of  the  empire, 
a  net  of  police,  open  and  secret,  was  spread,  which 
interfered  with  the  ordinary  intercourse  of  society. 

The  experience  that,  in  spite  of  this  system  of 
repression,  public  opinion  could  not  be  stifled,  and  that 
parties  and  individuals  only  expressed  themselves 
more  bitterly  ;  the  variance  with  his  former  self  in 
which  A.  found  himself  involved  ;  and  the  diflicultiea 
of  governing  the  huge  enipiie,  which  were  now 
becoming  more  manifest  and  startling — all  this  tor- 
mented and  iinbiltercd  his  morbid  mind,  and  led 
him  lo  complain  of  ingratitude  and  of  a  want  of 
recognition  of  his  good  intentions.  Sometimes  he 
sought  to  forget  his  j)Osition  in  the  dissipations  of  a 
splemlid  court,  in  which  luxury  and  piety  were 
strangely  blended  ;  at  other  times,  he  i)lunged  into 
the  dariviiess  of  religious  mysticism.  The  progress 
of  tiie  revolt  in  (Jrcece  brought  the  policy  of  the 
emperor  into  comiilete  opposition  to  public  opinion 
ami  the  most  sacred  sympatiiics  of  the  nation.  The 
Russian  peo[)lc,  restrained  from  all  jiarticipation  in 
political  movements,  were  profoundly  affected  by 
the  religious  element  of  the  Greek  struggle  ;  but  the 
emperor  condemned  the  rising  as  insmrcction,  dis- 
claimed the  favour  he  had  formerly  shewn  to  the 
(irei'k  cause,  and  confined  himself  to  exhortations  to 
the  Porte  to  act  with  hunuiiiity.  The  deatii  of  his 
only  and  mucii-loved  natural  daughter,  the  terrible 
inundation  suflercd  by  St.  Petersburg  in  1824,  in 
which  he  exposed  himself  to  personal  danger,  and 
the  alarm  caused  by  a  Russo-Polish  conspiracy 
against  all  the  members  of  the  House  of  Romanow, 
contributed  not  a  little  to  break  the  heart  of  the 
emperor,  and  completely  destroy  the  composure  of 
his  mind.  Sick  in  body,  weary  of  life,  and  possessed 
by  thoughts  of  detith,  he  commenced,  in  September 
1825,  a  journey  to  the  Crimea,  with  a  view  to  benefit 
the  health  of  the  empress,  who  was  ailing,  and  that 
he  himself  might  enjoy  retirement.  Leaving  the 
empress  at  Taganrog,  he  continued  his  journey,  but 
was  suddenly  seized  by  a  fever  peculiar  to  the 
country,  and  obliged  to  returh  to  Taganrog.  Here, 
ill  spite  of  all  care,  he  became  worse,  and  died, 
December  1,  1825.  The  rumour  that  he  had  been 
poisoned  is  altogether  groundless.  He  is  said  to 
have  learned,  shortly  before  his  death,  the  details 
of  the  conspiracy  which  his  brother  and  successor, 
Nicholas  I.  (q.  v.),  had  to  begin  his  reign  by  putting 
down.  Interesting  notices  of  the  life  and  character 
of  A.  are  given  in  Choiseul-Goutlier's  Memoirex 
Historiques  sur  V Empercuf  Alexandre  et  la  Cour  de 
Russie  (l\\r.  1829). 

ALEXANDER  II.,  Emperor  of  Russia,  was  born 
April  29,  1818.  He  was  carefully  educated  by  his 
father,  Nicholas,  who  professed  himself  delighted 
with  the  manifestations  of 'true  Russian  spirit'  in 
his  son.  At  sixteen,  he  was  declared  of  age,  made 
commandant  of  the  Lancers  of  the  Guard,  Hetman  of 
the  Cossacks,  first  aide-de-camp  of  the  emperor,  and 
subjected  daily  to  a  life  of  manoeuvring,  reviewing, 
and  military  parade,  which  at  last  seriously  injured 
his  health.  He  then  travelled  through  Germany  to 
recruit  his  energies,  and  while  there,  concluded  a 
marriage  with  the  Princess  Maria,  daughter  of  the 
Grand  Duke  of  Darmstadt,  in  1841.  He  now 
vigorously  applied  himself  to  his  duties  as  chan- 
cellor of  the  university  of  Fiidand.  By  his  dexter- 
ous and  subtle  manners,  he  insinuated  himself 
into   the    affections   of  the   Finns,    and    weakened 


ALEXANDER  I.— ALEXANDER  OF  HALES. 


their  love  of  itulependence.  Ho  founded  a  chuir  of 
the  Finnish  lanjjuage  and  literature,  patronised  the 
academy  for  the  culture  of  Fiiiiiisli  literature,  and 
defraved  the  expenses  of  remote  ex]ilorations  under- 
taken by  their  savdux,  such  as  Cyfrniviis,  Wallin, 
and  Castren.  In  185i»,  he  visited  Southern  Russia, 
NicolaTeff,  Sebastopol,  Tiflis,  Eiivan,  &c.  It  is  said 
that  he  witnessed  with  regret  the  attitude  which 
his  father  assumed  towards  Europe,  and  that  he 
altogether  disapjiroved  of  the  Crimean  war.  On  his 
acce^ssion  to  the  throne,  March  2,  1855,  he  found 
himself  in  a  very  critical  position.  He  had  two 
parties  to  conciliate  at  home — the  old  Muscovite 
partv,  blindly  zealous  for  war,  and  the  more  peace- 
able" and  inteUigent  portion  of  tlie  nation,  who 
possessed  his  personal  sympathies.  He  pursued  a 
course  calculated  to  encourage  both  ;  spoke  of  ad- 
hering to  the  policy  of  his  '  illustrious  ancestors,' 
and  at  the  same  time  concluded  peace.  Since  then, 
he  has  shown  a  strong  desire  to  purge  the  internal 
administration  of  its  impurities;  he  has  sharply  re- 
buked the  corruption  of  functionaries,  and  severely 
punished  some,  as  a  warning  to  the  rest.  An  hon- 
ourable recognition  has  been  given  to  public  instruc- 
tion, which  he  has  freed  from  military  influence, 
where  that  absurdly  existed,  as  in  the  Law  School 
of  St.  Petersburg,  and  has  placed  it  under  his  own 
direct  and  personal  superintendence.  His  modera- 
tion has  even  stimulated  the  hopes  of  the  Poles.  By 
a  ukase  of  May  27,  1856,  he  has  granted  to  all  Polish 
exiles  who  arewilling  to  express  repentance  for  the 
past,  permission  to  return  home  ;  Init  though  desir- 
ous of  preserving  the  nationality  of  Poland,  he  will 
not  have  it  separated  from  the  '  great  Russian  fam- 
ily.' The  grand  achievement  of  his  reign,  however, 
as  yet,  is  the  emancipation  of  the  Russian  serfs  in  1861, 
and  of  the  Polish  serfs  in  1864.  An  attempt  was  made 
to  assassinate  him,  at  Paris,  June  6,  1867,  while  on  a 
visit  to  Napoleon  III. 

ALEXANDER  I.,  king  of  Scotland,  a  younger 
sou  of  Malcolm  Ceannmor  (big-hcMd),  succeeded  his 
brother,  Edgar,  in  llii7,  and  amidst  incessant  dis- 
turbances, governed  Scotland  for  seventeen  years 
with  great  ability.  In  addition  to  good  natural 
power.s,  he  had  enjoyed,  through  his  mother, 
Margaret  of  England,  the  advantages  of  a  higher 
mental  cultivation  than  any  of  his  predecessors. 
One  of  the  most  formidable  insurrections  which  his 
prompt  energy  enabled  him  to  cjuell,  was  that 
excited  in  11 20  by  Angus,  great  grandson  of  the 
wife  of  Macbeth  ;  in  allusion  to  which,  old  Wynton 
says : 

Fra  thnt  day  forth  his  lieges  all 

Used  him  Alox.inder  the  Fierce  to  call. 

His  determined  resistance  to  the  pretensions  of  the 
English  hierarchy  secured  the  independence  of  the 
Scottish  church,  while  his  liberal  patronage  of  the 
monasteries  promoted  her  strength  at  home.  In 
1123  he  founded  the  Abbey  of  Inchcolm.  He  died 
at  Stirling  in  1124. 

ALEXANDER  II.  was  born  in  1198;  succeeded 
his  father,  William  the  Lion,  in  1214.  He  early  dis- 
played that  wisdom  and  strength  of  character,  in 
virtue  of  which  he  holds  so  higli  a  place  in  history 
among  Scottish  kings.  The  first  act  of  his  reign  was 
to  enter  into  a  league  with  the  English  barons  who 
had  combined  to  resist  the  tyranny  of  King  John. 
This  drew  down  upon  him  and  his  kingdom  the  pa- 
pal excommunication  ;  but  two  years  subsequently 
(1218),  the  ban  was  removed,  and  the  liberties  of  the 
Scottish  church  were  even  confirmed.  On  the  acces- 
sion of  Henry  III.  to  the  English  throne,  A.  brought 
the  feuds  of  the  two  nations  to  a  temporary  close  by 
a  treaty  of  peace  (1217),  in  accordance  with  which 
he  married  Henry's  eldest  sister,  the  Princess  Joan 
9 


(1221).  The  alliance  thus  estal)li>hed  was  broken 
after  the  death,  without  issue,  of  Queen  Joan  (1238), 
and  the  .second  marriage  of  A.  with  the  daughter  of 
a  nobleman  of  France.  In  1244,  Henry  marched 
against  Scotland,  to  compel  A.'s  homage.  In  this 
emergency,  the  Scottish  king  received  ihe  steady 
support  of  the  barons,  whose  ordinary  policy  was 
opposition  to  the  crown,  and  is  said,  in  a  short  time, 
to  have  i'ound  himself  at  the  head  of  10o,()(i()  foot, 
and  inoo  horse.  A  peace  was  concluded  without  an 
appeal  to  arms.  While  engaged  in  one  of  those 
warlike  expeditions  w  hich  the  turi)ulence  of  his  sub- 
jects so  frequently  rendered  necessary,  A.  died  of 
fever  at  Kerrera,  a  .small  i.sland  opposite  Oban,  on 
the  west  coast  of  Argyleshire,  in  the  thirty-fifth  year 
of  his  reign. 

ALEXANDER  III.  succeeded  his  father,  A.  IL, 
on  the  Scottish  throne  at  the  age  of  eiglit,  and, 
two  years  later,  in  1251,  he  married  the  Princess 
Margaret,  eldest  daughter  of  Henry  HI.  of  England. 
The  tender  age  of  the  sovereign  enabled  Henry  to 
prosecute  successfully  for  some  time  his  schemes  for 
obtaining  entire  control  over  the  Scottish  kingdom  ; 
but  long  before  he  reached  manhood,  A.  displayed 
so  much  energy  and  wisdom  as  to  give  assurance 
that  when  the  administration  of  affairs  should  come 
under  his  personal  direction,  it  would  be  vain  to 
think  of  reducing  him  to  submission.  Very  shortly 
after  he  had  come  of  age,  his  energies  were  sum- 
moned to  the  defence  of  his  kingdom  against  the 
formidable  invasion  of  Haco,  king  of  Norway  (1263), 
who  claimed  the  sovereignty  of  the  Western  Isles. 
In  attempting  a  landing  at  Largs,  on  the  coast  of 
Avr,  the  Norwegian  prince  sustained  a  total  defeat ; 
aiid  A.,  as  the  result  of  this  important  victory,  se- 
cured the  allegiance  both  of  the  Hebrides  and  of  the 
Isle  of  Man.  The  alliance  between  Scotland  and 
Norway  was  strengthened  in  1282  by  the  marriage 
of  A.'s'  only  daughter,  Margaret,  to  Eric,  king  of 
Norway,  this  princess  died  in  the  following  year, 
leaving  an  infant  daughter,  Margaret,  commonly  des- 
ignated the  .Maiden  of  Norway,  whose  untimely  death, 
on  her  way  to  take  pos.session  of  her  throne,  was 
the  occasion  of  so  many  calamities  to  Scotland. 
During  the  concluding  years  of  A.'s  reign,  the  king- 
dom enjoyed  a  peace  and  prosperity  which  it  did 
not  taste  again  for  many  generations.  The  justice, 
liberality,  and  wisdom  of  the  king,  endeared  his 
memory  to  his  sid»jects,  while  the  misfortunes  that 
followed  his  death, "heightened  the  national  sense  of 
his  loss.  His  only  son.  A.,  who  had  mariied  the 
daughter  of  Guy,  Count  of  Flanders,  died  without 
issue  in  1284.  A.  contracted  a  .second  nuirriage  in 
1285  with  Joleta,  daughter  of  the  Count  de  Dreux. 
The  hopes  of  the  nation  were  soon  after  cloiuled  by 
his  untimely  death.  Riding  on  a  dark  night  between 
Burntisland  and  Kinghorn,  he  fell  with  his  horse 
over  a  precipice,  and  was  killed  on  the  spot. 

ALEXANDER  OF  HALES  (in  Latin,  Alex- 
ander Halensis),  a  famous  theologian,  known  as  the 
'Irrefragable  Doctor'  (d.  1245).  He  was  originally 
an  ecclesiastic  in  Gloucestershire,  but  had  attended 
the  schools  of  Paris,  got  the  degree  of  doctor,  and 
had  become  a  noted  professor  of  philosophy  and 
theology  there,  when  (1222)  he  suddenly  entered  the 
order  of  the  Minorite  Friars.  From  that  time,  he 
lived  the  life  of  a  studious  recluse.  His  chief  and 
oidy  authentic  work  is  the  Snmma  Univerm  TIico- 
lor/ice  (best  ed.,  Venice,  1570,  4  vols.),  written  at  the 
command  of  Pope  Innocent  IV.,  and  enjoined  by  his 
successor,  Alexander  IV.,  to  be  used  by  all  professors 
and  students  of  theology  in  Christendom.  A.  gave 
the  doctrines  of  the  church  a  more  rigorously  syllo- 
gistic form  than  they  had  previously  had,  and  may 
thus  be  considered  as  the  author  of  the  scholastitf 

129 


ALEXANDERS— ALEXANDRIA. 


theology.  Instead  of  appealing  to  tradition  and ' 
authority,  he  deduces  with  great  subtlety,  from 
assumed  premises,  the  most  startling  doctrines  of 
Catholicism,  especially  in  favour  of  the  prerogatives 
of  the  papacy.  He  refuses  any  toleration  to  heretics, 
and  would  have  them  deprived  of  all  property  ;  he 
absolves  subjects  from  all  obligation  to  obey  a  ' 
prince  that  is  not  obedient  to  the  church.  The 
spiritual  power,  which  blesses  and  consecrates  kings, 
is,  by  that  very  fact,  above  all  temporal  powers,  to 
Bay  nothing  of  the  essential  dignity  of  its  nature. 
Ithas  the  right  to  appoint  and  to  judge  these  powers, 
while  the  pope  has  no  judge  but  tiod.  In  ecclesias- 
tical affairs,  also,  he  maintains  the  pope's  authority 
to  be  full,  absolute,  and  superior  to  all  laws  and 
customs.  Tlie  points  on  which  A.  exercises  his 
dialectics  are  sometimes  simply  ludicrous;  as  when 
he  discusses  the  qui'stion,  whether  a  mouse  that 
shoidd  nibble  a  consecrated  wafer  would  thereby 
eat  the  body  of  Christ.  He  arrives  at  the  conclusion 
that  it  would. 

ALEXANDERS  (S!mj/rniitm  obixntrnm),  a  bien- 
nial plant  of  the  natural  order  Uiribelliferce  (q.  v  ), 
found  in  waste  ground,  near  ruins,  &c.,  in  Britain 
and  the  south  of  Europe.  The  stem  is  3 — 1  feet 
high,  very  stout  and  furrowed  ;  the  leaves  twice  or 
thrice  tcrnate,  stalked,  serrate,  of  a  bright  yellowish- 
green  colour;  the  leaflets  very  large.  The  flowers 
are  yellowish-green,  in  very  dense,  numerous  rounded 
umbels,  destitute  of  involucres ;  the  fruit  almost 
black.  The  plant  has  an  aromatic  taste,  strong  and 
pungent,  but  becomes  rather  pleasant  when  blanclu'd, 
and  was  formerly  much  cultivated  and  used  in  the 
same  way  as  celery,  although  at  present  it  is  little  re- 
garded. The  frequency  of  its  occurrence  near  ruins 
in  Britain,  may  probably  be  referred  to  its  former 
cultivation.  The  fruit  is  earnunative. — S.  pcrfolia- 
ium,  a  native  of  Italy,  with  the  upper  stem-leaves  em- 
bracing the  stem,  is  used  in  the  same  way. — The  genus 
Siiii/rtiiwn  contains  only  a  few  known  species,  chiefly 
natives  of  the  temperate  parts  of  the  northern  hem- 
isphere. It  has  compound  umbels  ;  is  variable  in  the 
involucres;  the  calyx  is  obsolete  ;  the  petals  inflected 
at  the  point ;  the  fruit  consists  of  two  nearly  globose 
carpels,  each  with  three  jirominent  sharp  dorsal  ribs  ; 
the  lateral  ones  distant  and  obsolete;  several  vittfe 
in  the  interstices;  the  albumen  involute. 

ALEXA'NDRIA  (called  Skanderi'eh  by  the 
Turks  and  Arabs)  was  founded  by  .\lexander  the 
Great  in  the  autumn  of  tlie  year  332  b.c.  It  was 
situated  originally  on  the  low  tract  of  land  which 
separates  the  lake  Mareotis  from  the  Mediterranean, 
about  14:  miles  west  of  the  Canopic  mouth  of  the 
Nile.  Before  the  city,  in  the  Mediterranean,  lay  the 
island  of  Pharos,  upon  the  north-east  point  of  which 
stood  the  famous  light-house  (Pharos),  and  which 
was  connected  with  the  mainland  by  a  mole,  called, 
from  its  length,  the  Ileptastadium,  or  '  Seven  Fur- 
long'  mole,  thus  forming  the  two  harbours.  The 
plan  of  A.  was  designed  by  the  architect  Dinoc- 
rates,  and  its  original  extent  is  said  to  have  been 
about  4  miles  in  length,  with  a  circumference  of 
15  miles.  It  was  intersected  by  two  straight  main 
streets,  crossing  each  other  at  right  angles  in  tlie 
middle  of  the  city.  Colonnades  adorned  the  whole 
length  of  these  streets,  which  were  in  general 
very  regularly  built.  Tlie  most  magnificent  quarter 
of  the  city  was  that  called  the  Brucheium,  which 
was  situated  on  the  eastern  harbour.  This  quarter 
of  the  city  containeil  the  palaces  of  the  Ptolemies, 
with  the  Museum  and  the  old  library  ;  the  Sonui  or 
mausoleum  of  Alexander  t!ie  Great  and  of  the  Ptole- 
mies, the  Poseidonum,  and  the  great  theatie.  Fur- 
ther west  was  the  emporium  or  exchange  The  Ser- 
apeion,  or  temple  of  Serapis,  stood  in  the  western 


division  of  the  city,  which  formed  the  Egyptian  (piar- 
ter,  and  was  called  Rhacntis ;  a  small  town  of  that 
name  had  occupied  the  site  before  the  foundation  of 
A.  To  the  west  of  the  city  lay  thegieat  Necropolis, 
and  to  the  east  the  race-course,  beyond  which  was 
the  suburb  of  Nicopolis.  The  greater  part  of  the 
space  under  the  houses  was  occupied  by  vaulted  sub- 
terranean cisterns,  which  were  capable  of  containing 
a  suHicient  fiuantity  of  water  to  supply  the  uhole 
population  of  the  city  for  a  year.  From  the  time  of 
its  foundation,  A.  was  the  (ireek  capital  of  Egypt. 
Its  population,  in  the  time  of  its  prosperity,  is  said 
by  Diodorus  to  have  amounted  to  about  3u(i,(iOO  free 
citizens,  and  if  we  take  into  account  the  slaves  and 
strangers,  that  number  must  be  more  than  doubled. 
This  population  consisted  mostly  of  (ireeks,  Jews, 
ami  Egy[)tians,  ttigether  with  settlers  from  nil  na- 
tions of  the  known  world.  After  the  death  of  Alex- 
der  the  Gieat,  A.  became  the  residence  of  the  Ptole- 
mies. Thev  nuide  it,  next  to  Rome  and  Antiocii,  the 
most  nuignificent  city  of  antiquity,  as  well  as  the 
chief  seat  of  (Jrecian  learning  and  literature,  which 
s[)read  hence  over  the  greater  part  of  the  ancient 
world.  Tiie  situation  of  the  city,  at  the  point  of 
junction  betwceii  the  east  and  west,  rendered  it  the 
centre  of  the  commerce  of  the  world,  and  raised  it 
to  tile  highest  degree  of  prosperity. 

A.  had  reached  its  greatest  splendour,  when 
it  came  into  the  possession  of  the  Romans, 
about  30  n.c.  From  this  nu)nient  its  prosperity 
began  to  decline — at  first  almost  imperceptibly,  but 
afterwards  more  rapidly,  in  conseciuence  of  the 
removal  of  the  works  of  art  to  Rome,  the  massacres 
of  Caiacalla,  the  laying  waste  of  the  Brucheium 
by  Aurelian,  the  siege  and  (lillage  of  the  city  by 
Diocletian,  and,  lastly,  the  rising  prosperity  of  the 
rival  city  of  Constantinople.  All  these  causes  com- 
bined to  destroy  A.  so  speedily,  that,  in  the  4th  c. 
no  building  of  any  importance  was  left  in  it  except 
the  temple  of  Serapis.  The  strife  between  Chris- 
j  tianity  and  heathenism  gave  rise  to  bloo<ly  contests 
j  in  A.  The  Serapcion,  the  last  seat  of  heathen  thc- 
1  ology  and  learning,  was  stormed  by  the  Christians 
j  in  389  A.D.,  and  converted  into  a  Christian  church. 
I  This  put  an  end  to  heathenism,  and  A.  became 
henceibrward,  a  chief  seat  of  Christian  theology, 
and  continued  to  be  so  till  it  was  taken  by  the 
Arabs,  under  Amru,  in  June  638  a.d.  This  siege, 
and,  still  more,  itscoiujuest  by  the  Turks  in  808  .\.D., 
completed  the  destruction  of  the  city.  It  revived, 
indeed,  in  some  degree  under  the  Egyptian  califs, 
and  continued  during  the  middle  ages  to  be  the 
most  important  emporium  of  trade  between  the 
east  and  west ;  but  the  discovery  of  America,  and 
of  the  passage  to  India  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
very  much  diminished  the  t'-ade  of  A. ;  and  the  do- 
minion of  the  Mamalukes,  and  the  conquest  of  the 
Osnuiidi,  a!!nihi!ated  even  the  little  which  the  Arabs 
had  restored.  Tlie  result  was,  that  in  1778  a.d.  A. 
contained  no  more  than  6000  inhabitants.  After  the 
conquest  of  Egypt  by  the  French  in  the  end  of  the 
18th  c.,  A.  once  more  began  to  revive,  and  under 
Mehemet  Ali,  who  resided  in  it  a  part  of  every  year, 
it  pro  pcred  to  such  a  degree,  that  it  may  now  be 
reckoned  one  of  the  most  important  commercial  places 
on  the  Jlediterranean.  In  consequence  of  steam 
navigation,  the  communication  between  Europe  and 
the  East  Indies  has  again  begun  to  pass,  as  it  for- 
merly did,  through  A. 

Tiie  present  city  is  not  situated  exactly  on  the 
site  of  the  old  one,  but  is  built  on  the  mole  called 
the  Ileptastadium,  which  has  been  increased  by 
alluvial  deposits  till  it  has  become  a  broad  neck  of 
land  between  the  two  harbours,  of  which  the  eastern 
is  called  tiie  New  Port,  and  the  western  the  Old 
Port.     A.  i»  connected  with  Cairo  by  the  canal  of 


ALFAANDRIA— ALEXANDRINE  AGE. 


Mahmoiiflich,  coiistructi-d  botweon  181S  and  1820, 
and  by  riiihvay  uith  Suez,  which,  until  recently,  was  the 
means  of  transit  tor  i)assenij;crs  and  t'rei.niit  destined  for 
India.  The  population  of  A.  is  now  aliout  1  oO,(JOO — Ara- 
bians, Turks,  Jews,  Coi)ts,  Greeks,  and  Franks.  Of  the 
few  remains  of  antiijuity  still  to  l)e  seen  in  A.,  the 
most  prominent  is  Ponipey's  Pillar,  as  it  is  orro- 
neonsly  ealled,  the  shaft  of  whieh,  of  red  granite,  is 
73  feet  long.  According  to  the  Gieek  inscription  on 
the  liase,  whieh  is  still  legible,  this  Pillar  was  erected 
by  the  Egyptian  prefect,  Publius,  in  honour  of  the 
Emperor  Diocletian.  There  aie  also  the  so-called 
Cleopatra's  Needles,  two  obelisks  of  the  time  of 
King  Tiiothnies  111.,  who  lived  in  the  IGth  c.  before 
the  Christian  era.  One  of  the  Needles  lies  prostrate 
on  the  ground,  half  covered  with  sand  ;  the  other,  a 
monolith,  of  about  72  feet  in  height,  is  still  standing. 
The  other  antiquities  of  A.  are,  some  catacond)s  of 
the  ancient  city  of  the  dead,  and  some  of  the  cisterns 
below  the  city,  which  are  almost  entirely  filled  up. 

ALEXANDRIA,  a  city,  port  of  entry,  and  capital 
of  Alexandria  co.,  Virginia,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Potomac,  7   miles  below  Washington.     Lat.  38"  49' 


N.;  k 


4'  W.     The  river,  here  one  mile  M"ide, 


forms  a  commodious  harbor,  sufficiently  deep  for  the 
largest  shijjs.  Tlie  city  is  pleasantly  situated  on  un- 
dulating ground,  with  a  fine  \'iew  of  the  Capitol  at 
Washington  and  of  the  broad  Potonuic.  The  streets 
cross  each  other  at  right  angles,  and  are  generally 
well  paved  and  lighted  ^vith  gas.  The  i)ublic  build- 
ings are  a  court-house  and  about  12  churches.  ITicrc 
are  3  banks,  2  news]iaper  offices,  and  several  excellent 
schools.  Water  is  supplietl  to  the  city  fi-om  a  small 
stream  called  Cameron's  Kun.  A  canal  has  been 
opened  to  Georgetomi,  intersecting  the  Chesapeake 
and  ( )hio  Canal,  and  a  R.  R.  90  miles  long  extends  fi"om 
this  city  to  Gordonsville-on  the  Central  Railroad. 

Alexandria  is  also  connected  \\'ith  I>eesburg  (about 
40  miles  distant),  and  a  railroad  has  lately  been 
opened  to  Washington.     Pop.  in  18G0,  12,654. 

ALEXA'NDRIAN  CODEX,  an  important  manu- 
script of  the  sacred  Scriptures  in  Greek,  now  in  the 
British  Museum.  It  is  written  on  parchment,  in 
finely  formed  uncial  letters,  and  is  without  accents, 
marks  of  aspiration,  or  spaces  between  the  words. 
Its  probable  date  is  the  latter  half  of  the  6th  c. 
With  the  exception  of  a  few  gaps,  it  contains  the 
whole  Bible  in  Greek  (the  Old  Testament  being  in 
the  translation  of  the  Septuagint),  along  with  the 
epistles  of  Clemens  Romanus.  For  purposes  of 
biblical  criticism,  the  text  of  the  Epistles  of  the 
New  Testament  is  the  most  valuable  part;  for  with 
respect  to  the  Gospels,  it  is  clear  that  the  original 
text  which  the  copyist  had  before  him  must  have 
been  far  inferior.  This  celebrated  mannsciipt 
belonged,  as  early  as  1098,  to  the  library  of  the 
patriarch  of  Alexandria.  In  lt'i28  it  was  sent  as  a  i 
present  to  ('harles  I.  of  England  by  Cyrillus  Lucaris, 
patriarch  of  Constantinople,  who  declared  that  he 
had  got  it  from  Egypt ;  and  that  it  was  written 
there  appears  from  internal  and  external  evidence. 
Grabe  made  this  manuscript  the  foundation  of  his 
edition  of  the  Septuagint  (4  vols.,  Oxf  1717 — 1720). 
Fac-siniiles  have  been  jnibiished,  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, by  Woide  (Lond.  178f.,  fob);  of  the  Old 
Testament,  by  Babcr  (Lond.  ISIG,  iol.). 

ALEXANDRIAN  LIBRARY.  This  remarkable 
collection  of  books,  the  largest  of  the  ancient 
world,  was  founded  by  Ptolemy  Soter,  in  the  city 
of  Alexandria,  in  Egypt.  Even  in  the  time  of 
its  first  manager,  Demetrius  Phalcreus,  a  banished 
Atheinan,  the  ntunber  of  volumes  or  rolls  already 
amounted  to  50, 0(»() ;  and  during  its  most  floiu-ish- 
ing  period,  under  the  direction  of  Zeiiodotus, 
Aristarchus  of  Byzantium,  ApoUouius  Rhodius,  and 


others,  is  said  to  have  contained  400,000,  or,  accord- 
ing to  ajiother  authority,  700,000.  The  greater  part 
of  this  Library,  whieh  embraced  the  collected  liter- 
ature of  Rome,  Greece,  India,  and  Egypt,  was  con- 
tained in  the  Museum,  in  the  quarter  of  Alexandria 
called  Brucheium.  During  the  siege  of  Alexandria 
by  Julius  Cffisar,  this  part  of  the  Library  was 
destroyed  by  fire  ;  but  it  was  afterwards  replaced  by 
the  collection  of  Pergamos,  which  was  presented  to 
Queen  Cleopatra  by  Mark  Antony,  to  the  great 
annoyance  of  the  educated  Romans.  The  other 
part  of  the  Library  was  kept  in  the  Serapeion,  the 
temple  of  Jupiter  Serajjis,  where  it  remained  till  the 
time  of  Theodosius  the  Great.  When  this  emperor 
permitted  all  the  heathen  temples  in  the  Roman 
empire  to  be  destroyed,  the  magnificent  tcmiile  of 
Jupiter  Sera  pis  was  not  spared.  A  mob  of  fanatic 
Christians,  led  on  by  the  Arehbishop  Theophihis, 
stornu-d  and  destroyed  the  temple,  together,  it  is 
most  likely,  with  the  greater  part  of  its  literary 
treasures,  in  U'Jl  A.n.  It  was  at  this  time  that  the 
destruction  of  the  Library  was  begun,  and  not  at 
the  taking  of  Alexandria  by  the  Arabians,  under 
the  Calif  Omar.  The  story,  at  least,  is  ridicu- 
lously exaggerated  which  relates  that  the  Arabs 
found  a  sufticient  number  of  books  remaining  to  heat 
the  baths  of  the  city  for  six  months.  The  historian 
Orosius,  who  visited  the  place  after  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  temple  by  the  Christians,  relates  that  he 
then  saw  only  the  empty  shelves  of  the  Library. 
See  Petit-Radel,  Rccherches  snr  le.i  Bibliothi'ques 
Ancieiincs  et  Modfrnes  (Paris,  1819) ;  and  Ritsehl, 
Die  Alcxandrinischoi  Bibliotheken  (Berlin,  1838). 

ALEXANDRINE  AGE.  After  liberty  and 
intellectual  cultivation  had  declined  iu  Greece, 
Alexandria  in  Egypt  became  the  home  and  centre  of 
science  and  literature.  The  time  in  whieh  it  held 
this  position  is  styled  the  A.  A.,  and  maybe  divided 
into  two  periods:  the  first  including  the  reigns  of 
the  Ptolemies,  from  323  to  30  B.C. ;  the  second, 
from  30  b.c.  to  G40  a. p.,  or  from  the  fall  of  the 
Ptolemsean  dynasty  to  the  irruption  of  the  Arabs. 

Ptolcmasus  Soter,  the  first  ruler  who  introduced 
and  patronised  Greek  science  and  literature  in 
Alexandria,  was  followed  by  that  yet  moie  nninif;- 
cent  patron,  Ptolemajus  Philadelphus,  who  regularly 
established  the  celebrated  Alexandrian  Library  and 
Museum,  which  had  been  probably  begun  by  his 
father.  This  Museum  contained  porticos,  a  leetiu-e- 
room,  and  a  large  ludl,  in  which  the  learned  men 
— the  professors  and  fellows,  as  they  might  be 
called — dined  together.  The  A.  school  consisted  of 
Egyptians,  Greeks,  Jews,  and  latterly,  Romans.  The 
giainmarians  and  poets  nuide  the  greatest  figure. 
The  granmiarians  were  both  philologists  and  liltlra- 
teurs,  who  explnined  things  as  well  as  words,  and 
were  thus  a  kind  of  encyclopedists.  Among  these 
raidv  Zenodotusof  P^piicsus,  Eratosthenes  of  Cyrene, 
Aristophanes  of  Byzantitmi,  Aristarchus  of  Siimo- 
thrace,  Crates  of  .M alius,  Dionysius  the  Thracian, 
Apollonius  the  Sophist,  and  Zoilus.  Their  chief  ser- 
vice consists  in  having  collected  the  writings  then 
existing,  prepared  corrected  texts,  and  preserved 
them  for  future  generations.  The  most  noted  of 
the  poets  of  the  A.  school  were  Aiiollonius 
Rliodius,  Lycophron,  Aratns,  Nicander,  Euphorion, 
Callimachus,  Theocritus,  Dionysius,  and  the  seven 
tragedians  called  the  A.  Pleiades. 

The  A.  school  has  a  spirit  and  character  altogether 
different  from  the  previous  intellectual  life  of  Greece. 
From  the  attention  paid  to  the  study  of  language,  it 
was  natural  that  correctness,  purity,  and  clegr.nccof 
expression  should  become  especially  cidtivatcd  ;  and 
in  these  respects  many  of  the  A.  writers  are  di.stin- 
ginshed.  But  what  no  study  and  no  efforts  could 
o-ive — the  spirit,  namelv,  that  animated  the  earlier 

131 


ALEXANDRINES— ALEXIUS  COMNENUS. 


Greek  poetry,  -was,  in  most  of  these  works,  wauliiifi. 
In  place  of  it,  there  was  dis])hiyed  greater  art  in 
composition ;  what  had  formerly  been  done  by 
genius,  was  now  to  be  done  by  the  rules  furnished 
by  criticism.  Only  a  lew  display  real  genius  ;  the 
works  of  the  rest,  faultless  according  to  rule,  are 
destitute  of  life  and  soul.  In  a  school,  where  imita- 
tion and  rule  thus  took  the  place  of  inspiration,  each 
generation  of  disciples  became  more  artificial  and 
lifeless  than  their  masters.  Criticism  degenerated 
into  frivolous  fault-finding,  and  both  prose  and 
poetry  became  laboured  aHectation. 

The  Alexandrine  PniLosornY  is  characterised 
by  a  blending  of  the  philosophies  of  the  East  and 
of  the  West,  and  by  a  general  tendency  to  ec'cc- 
ticisin,  as  it  is  called,  or  an  endeavour  to  reconcile 
conflicting  systems  of  speculation,  by  bringing 
together  what  seemed  true  in  each.  Not  that  the 
A.  philosophers  were  without  their  sects ;  the  most 
famous  of  which  were  the  Neoplatonists  (q.  v.). 
Uniting  the  religious  notions  of  the  East  with  Greek 
dialectics,  they  represent  the  struggle  of  ancient 
civilisation  with  Christiajiity  ;  and  thus  their  system 
was  not  without  influence  on  the  form  that  Christian 
dognnxs  took  in  Egypt.  The  amalgamation  of 
eastern  ideas  with  Christian,  gave  rise  to  the  system 
of  the  Gnostics  (q.  v.),  which  was  elaborated  chielly 
in  Alexandria. — The  A.  school  was  no  less  distin- 
guished for  the  culture  of  the  mathematical  and 
physical  sciences,  which  here  reached  a  greater  height 
than  anywhere  else  in  ancient  times.  As  early  as 
the  3d  c.  B.  c,  Euclid  had  here  written  his  great 
work  on  geometry.  The  astronomers  of  the  A.  school 
were  distinguished  from  all  tlu'ir  jiredecessors  by 
their  setting  aside  all  metaphysical  speculation,  and 
devoting  themselves  to  strict  observation.  Among 
the  distinguished  physicists  and  mathematicians  of 
the  A.  school,  were  Archimedes,  Eratosthenes, 
Aristarchus  of  Samos,  rtolenuuus,  &c.  For  about 
four  centuries,  the  A.  school  was  the  centre  of  learn- 
ing and  science  in  the  ancient  world.  Counting 
from  its  origin  to  its  complete  extinction,  it  lasted 
1000  years. 

ALEXA'NDRINES  are  rhyming  verses  consisting 
each  of  twelve  syllables  or  six  nu'asures.  The  name 
is  most  probably  derived  from  an  old  French  poem 
on  Alexander  the  Great,  belonging  to  the  12th  or 
18th  c,  in  which  this  measure  was  first  used  ;  accord- 
ing to  others,  it  was  so  called  from  the  name  of  one 
of  the  authors  of  that  poem  being  Alexander.  Tlie 
Alexandrine  has  become  the  regular  epic  or  heroic 
verse  of  the  French,  among  whom  each  line  is 
divided  in  the  middle  into  two  hcmistichs,  the  sixth 
syllable  always  ending  a  word.  In  English,  this 
rule  is  not  always  observed,  as  in  the  following 
verse  from  Spenser : 

That  all  the  woods  shall  an]8wcr,  and  their  echo  .ring. 

The  only  considerable  English  poem  wholly  written 
in  A.  is  Drayton's  Poljiolhlon  ;  but  the  Spenserian 
stanza  regularly  ends  in  an  Alexandrine,  and  the 
measure  occurs  occasionally  in  our  common  heroic 
verse,  as  the  last  line  of  a  couplet : 

"When  both  are  full,  they  feed  our  blest  abode. 

Like  those  that  watered  once  I  the  paradise  of  God. — Dryden. 

ALEXANDRO'VSK,  a  town  in  the  south  of 
Russia,  capital  of  the  district  of  the  same  name, 
situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Dnieper,  below  the 
cataracts.  It  is  48  miles  south  of  Ekaterinoslav,  is 
fortified,  and  has  considerable  trade.  Inland  pro- 
ductions are  shipped  here  for  the  Black  Sea.  Pop. 
4000. — There  are  various  other  towns  and  districts 
of  the  same  name  in  Russia  ;  the  most  important  of 
which  is  that  in  the  government  of  Vladimir,  in  the 
centre  of  the  empire.  It  was  a  favourite  summer 
132 


residence  of  the  Czar  Ivan  Tasilicwitch,  who  intro- 
duced there  the  first  printing-press  known  in  Russia. 
It  has  also  a  magnificent  imperial  xtiid,  commenced 
by  the  Empress  Elizabeth  in  1701,  and  conqjleted 
about  20  years  after.     Pop.  Sotto. 

ALEXE'I  MICIIA'ILOWITCII,  the  second 
Russian  czar  of  the  House  ofRomanow(b.  March  10, 
1021) — d.  Jainiary  29,  1070),  succeeded  his  father, 
Michael  Fedorowitch,  in  1045.  The  young  Czar  A. 
yielding  himself  to  the  control  of  his  chancellor, 
Plessow,  and  his  tutor,  Morosow,  the  avarice  of 
these  bad  advisers  caused  an  insurrection  in  1048, 
in  which  Plessow  lost  his  life.  Popular  discon- 
tent favoured  tlie  plans  of  two  pretenders  to  the 
throne — Demetrius  III.  (q.  v.)  and  Ankudinow. 
The  latter,  professing  to  be  a  son  of  the  Cza» 
VVasili  Shuiskoi,  was  executed  at  Moscow  in  1653. 
A.  possessed  good  qualities,  which  appeared  when 
he  came  to  riper  years.  In  his  two  campaigns 
against  the  Poles  (1054 — 1050,  and  1000 — 1067),  he 
took  Smolensko,  conquered  and  devastated  almost 
the  whole  of  Lithuania,  and  even  secuie<l  for  himself 
the  possession  of  several  provinces.  He  also  gained 
a  part  of  the  Ukraine  ;  and  though  his  war  with 
Sweden  (ie5() — 1058)  was  unfortunate,  he  lost 
nothing  by  the  following  peace.  A.  conferred  great 
benefits  on  his  countrymen,  by  the  introduction  of 
various  important  reforms  into  the  Ru.ssian  laws  ; 
he  ordered  translations  of  numerous  scientific  works, 
chicfiv  of  a  military  nature,  into  Russian;  and  even 
ventured  on  some  ecclesiastical  changes.  In  his 
private  character,  he  was  amiable,  temperate,  and 
pious.  His  second  wife,  the  beautiful  Natalia 
Narischkin,  was  the  mother  of  Peter  the  Great. 

ALEXEI,  PETRO'WITCH.  The  eldest  son  of 
Peter  the  Great  of  Russia,  was  born  at  Moscow, 
February  18,  1090.  Having  shewn  himself  opposed 
to  the  reforms  and  innovations  made  by  the  emperor, 
he  was  excluded  by  Peter  from  the  line  of  succession 
to  the  throne.  With  this  decision,  he  appeared  to 
be  satisfied,  and  declared  his  intention  of  spending 
the  remainder  of  his  days  in  a  monastery.  B<it 
when  Peter  the  Great  undertook  his  second  tour  in 
Northern  Europe,  A.  under  the  pretence  of  following 
the  czar,  escaped  in  1717  to  Vienna,  and  thence 
went  to  Naples.  He  was  induced  to  return  to 
Russia,  where,  by  the  ukase  of  February  2,  1718,  he 
was  disinherited,  and  an  investigation  was  ordered 
to  detect  all  parties  concerned  in  his  recent  flight 
from  Russia.  His  mother,  Eudoxia,  with  Marie 
Alexiewna,  step-sister  to  the  czar,  and  several  other 
eminent  persons,  were  made  prisoners,  and  either 
executed  or  otherwise  punished.  A.  was  condemned 
to  death,  but  soon  afterwards  received  a  pardon. 
However,  the  terror  and  agitation  of  the  trial  so 
affected  his  health,  that  he  died  June  20,  1718.  The 
czar,  to  avoid  scandal,  ordered  the  trial  to  be 
published.  Other  accounts  assert  that  A.  was 
beheaded  in  prison.  By  his  wife,  Charlotte  Christine 
Sophie,  Princess  of  Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel,  A.  left 
a  son,  who  as  Peter  II.,  was  elevated  to  the  throne. 

ALE'XIUS  COMNE'NUS,  one  of  the  ablest 
rulers  of  the  Byzantine  empire,  was  born  at  Con- 
stantinople in  1048.  He  was  the  third  son  of 
Johannes  Conmenus,  the  brother  of  the  emperor, 
Isaac  Comnenus.  The  family  came  originally  from 
Italy,  and  settled  in  Asia  Minor.  His  father  having 
refused  the  purple  on  the  abdication  of  Isaac,  it  waa 
given  to  one  Ducas,  the  son  of  a  distinguished 
general.  A.  in  his  youth  gave  brilliant  promise  of 
the  vigorous  military  genius  which  he  afterwards 
manifested ;  and  at  length,  after  a  series  of  anarchic 
reigns  of  brief  duration,  his  soldiers  succeeded  in 
elevating  him  to  the  throne,  while  the  old  and  feeble 
Nicephorus  Botaniates,  bis  predecessor,  was  obliged 


ALFIERI— ALFONSO  I. 


to  retire  to  a  iiioiiastcry.  Gibbon  fjraphically  paints 
the  position  and  aciiiovenicnts.  of  A.  in  the  4Sth 
chapter  of  his  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Etnpire. 
Everywhere  he  was  encompassed  with  foes.  The 
Scythians  and  Turks  were  pouring  down  from  the 
north  and  north-east ;  the  fierce  Normans,  who  had 
violently  efTeeted  a  lodgment  in  Sicily  and  Italy, 
were  menacing  his  western  provinces;  and,  finally, 
the  myriad  warriors  of  the  first  crusade  had  burst 
into  his  empire  on  their  way  to  Palestine,  and  had 
encamped  around  the  gates  of  his  capital.  Yet  he 
contrived  to  avoid  all  perils  and  disgraces  by  the 
wisdom  of  his  policy,  the  mingled  patience  and 
promptitude  ot  his  character,  his  discipline  in  the 
camp,  and  his  humanity  on  the  throne.  He 
reigned  for  37  years ;  and  if  it  had  been  possible  to 
preserve  the  weak  and  corrupt  Byzantine  empire 
in  its  integrity,  a  ruler  like  A.  might  have  done  it. 
He  could  only  delay  its  inevitable  destruction.  Un- 
doubtedly, the  great  interest  which  attaches  to  A. 
arises  from  his  relation  to  the  crusaders.  His- 
torians differ  as  to  the  purity  and  sincerity  of  his 
conduct  towards  them.  His  daughter  Anna,  who 
wrote  his  life,  defends  his  '  policy  '  with  filial  piety  : 
but  it  seems  clear  that  he  entertained  a  profound 
dread  and  suspicion  of  the  half-civilized  Franks,  and, 
knowing  the  weakness  of  his  own  empire,  was 
compelled  to  dissimulate.  He  certainly  promised 
them  help,  and  persuaded  them  to  go  oft  into  Asia; 
it  is  equally  certain  that  he  did  not  fulfil  his 
promises,  and  that  he  simply  used  them  as  instru- 
ments to  reconquer  from  the  Turks  the  islands  and 
coasts  of  Asia  Minor.  Perhaps,  however,  little 
apology  is  needed  for  a  monarch  who  '  subdued  the 
envy  of  his  equals,  restored  the  laws  of  public  and 
private  order,  caused  the  arts  of  wealth  and  science 
to  be  cultivated,  and  transmitted  the  sceptre  to  his 
children  for  the  third  and  fourth  generation.'  He 
diediu  1118. 

ALFIERI,  ViTTORio,  Count,  a  modern  Italian 
dramatic  poet,  was  born  at  Asti,  in  Pieilmont,  on 
the  17th  January  1749.  He  received  a  very  defec- 
tive education  in  his  father's  house,  and  was  then 
sent  to  the  academy  of  Turin,  which  he  quitted,  as 
ignorant  and  uninformed  as  he  had  entered  it,  to 
join  a  provincial  regiment.  After  a  hurried  tour 
through  the  greater  part  of  Europe,  he  returned  to 
Turin  in  1772.  He  then  left  the  military  service, 
and  renouncing  idleness  and  unworthy  amours, 
devoted  himself  to  literarj'  occupation.  The  applause 
which  his  first  attempts  received,  encouraged  him  in 
his  determination  to  win  fame  as  a  dramatic  author. 
But  as  he  clearly  saw  the  deficiencies  of  his  educa- 
tion, he  began  at  a  mature  age  to  learn  Latin,  and 
also  to  study  the  Tuscan  dialect,  for  which  purpose 
he  went  to  Tuscany.  On  his  journey  tliitiier,  A. 
made  the  acquaintance  of  the  Countess  of  Albany 
(q.  v.),  to  whom  he  became  deepl/  attached.  To 
render  himself  worthy  of  her  esteem,  he  strove  with 
unremitting  earnestness  after  poetic  excellence;  and 
in  order  to  be  perfectly  free  and  independent  of  all 
other  cares,  he  transferred  his  whole  property  to 
his  sister,  in  exchange  for  an  annuity.  A.  non- 
lived  alternately  in  Florence  and  in  Home.  After- 
wards, when  his  friciid  the  Countess  was  released 
from  other  ties  by  the  death  of  her  husband,  they 
lived  together  in  the  closest  intimacy  in  Alsace 
or  in  Paris,  where  A.  was  constantly  occupied  in 
writing,  revising,  and  publishing  his  works.  There 
appears  to  lio.ve  been  a  marriage,  although  it  was 
never  made  public.  On  tlie  first  outburst  of  the 
French  Revolution,  A.  went  to  England,  but  soon 
returned  to  Paris.  In  1702  he  was  again  forced 
to  flee  from  France,  and  he  then  settled  with  his 
iuseparal)le  companion  in  Florei:ce.  Here  he  died, 
en    the    bth    October   1803.     The    ashes    of  A.  and 


those  of  ills  friend  repose  in  the  church  of  Santa 
Croce,  in  Florence,  under  a  beautiful  monument 
by  Canova,  between  the  tombs  of  Michael  Angelo 
and  Macchiavelli.  As  a  dramatic  author,  A.  has 
attempted  three  difTercnt  departments  of  his  art. 
He  puljlished  21  tragedies,  0  comedies,  and  1  'tra- 
nielogedia,'  a  name  invented  by  himself.  His  dra- 
matic works  show  a  want  of  fresh  imaginative 
vigour,  and  betray  the  laborious  perseverance  with 
which  he  did  violence  both  to  liimself  and  to  art. 
A.  was  inspired  more  by  politics  than  bv  poetrv. 
He  wi^hed  to  breathe  a  spirit  of  freedom  into  tlie 
dormant  minds  of  his  countrymen,  and  considered 
the  theatre  as  a  school  in  which  the  people  might 
learn  to  be  '  free,  strong,  and  noble.'  In  order  to 
preserve  the  purity  of  his  muse,  A.  had  resolved  to 
read  no  other  jjoet.  He  wished  to  produce  an  elVect 
by  the  very  simplest  means,  and,  renouncing  the 
aid  of  ornament,  to  |)lease  by  manly  strength  and 
earnestness  alone.  His  works  are  on  this  account 
cold  and  still",  his  plots  simple  even  to  poverty,  his 
verse  hard  and  unpleasing,  and  his  language  desti- 
tute of  that  magic  s{)lendour  of  colouring  which  stirs 
the  inmost  soul.  Notwithstanding  this,  A.  did  good 
service  to  Italian  tragedy.  He  corrected  the  effemin- 
ate taste  which  had  before  prevailed,  as  well  as  the 
pedantry  of  an  affected  imitation  of  Attic  models. 
Succeeding  writers  endeavoured  to  imitate  his 
strength  and  simplicity.  A.  w^as  more  unsuccessful 
in  his  comedies  than  in  his  trai^edies.  They  manifest 
the  same  serious  political  tendency;  the  invention 
is  poor,  the  development  of  the  plot  uninteresting, 
and  the  characters  are  only  general  sketches,  with- 
out individuality.  The  most  successful  of  his  drama- 
tic works  is  Ahcl,  a  mixture  of  tragedy  and  opera, 
invented  by  himself,  which  he  designated  by  the 
singular  name  of  '  tramelogedia.'  Besides  the  dra- 
matic works  of  A.  we  possess  an  epic  poem,  in  four 
cantos,  written  by  him,  also  many  lyrical  poems, 
16  satires,  and  poetical  translations  of'Terenee,  Virgil, 
and  portions  of  ..'Eschylus,  Sophocles,  Euripides, 
and  Aristophanes.  After  his  death,  appeared  his 
Jfisopal/o,  a  memorial  of  his  hatred  to  the  French. 
The  Countess  of  A.bany  had  a  collected  edition  of 
his  works  published  (35  vols.  4to,  Pisa,  1805 — 1815) 
containing  his  autobiography  ;  Centofanti  published 
Trafjedie  e  Vita  </' ^  ^Vr«  (Florence,  1842). 

ALFONSO  I.,  earliest  king  of  Portugal,  was  the 
son  of  Henry  of  Burgundy,  conqueror  and  Count  of 
Portugal.  He  was  born  in  1110  a.d.,  and  being  only 
two  years  of  age  at  his  father's  death,  the  manage- 
ment of  affairs  fell  into  the  hands  of  his  ambitious 
and  dissolute  mother,  Theresa  of  (^asfile,  from  whom 
he  was  compelled  forcibly  to  seize  it,  on  attaining  his 
majority.  He  then  entered  on  a  war  with  Castile, 
whose  supremacy  he  did  not  recognise,  and  leaguing 
himself  with  Navarre,  made  several  conquests  in 
Galicia,  after  which  he  proceeded  to  attack  the 
Moors,  whose  invasions  he  had  already  begun  to 
cheek  by  building  the  fortress  of  Leiria.  A  battle 
was  fought  in  the  plains  of  Ourique,  July  25,  1139, 
when  victory  declared  for  the  Portuguese,  after 
a  bloody  struggle;  in  which,  it  is  said,  not  less  than 
2tMi,(i(Mi  Moors  perished.  From  that  day  A.  assumed 
the  title  of  king,  which  the  pope  confirmed.  On  the 
25th  October,  1147,  he  took  Lisbon,  by  the  help  of 
the  English  fleet  of  crusaders;  and  in  1158,  after  a 
siege  of  two  moutl  s,  made  himself  master  of  Alcazar- 
de-Sal  and  Evora.  In  1171,  he  took  by  assault  the 
fortress  of  Santarem  from  the  Saracens,  and  an- 
nihilated the  garrison  ;  and  at  the  same  place  he 
defeated  the  AInioliadian  ruler,  Jusuf-ben-Jakub,  in 
1184.  He  invited  to  his  land  the  Knights-Templars 
and  Knights  of  St.  John,  and  established  the  orders 
of  Avis,  and  of  St.  Michael.  The  Portuguese  style 
him  El  Conquixtadiir  (the  Conqueror).    But  he  was 

133 


ALFONSO  VI.— ALFORD. 


also  a  legislator,  et^tahlishiiig  the  Cortes  of  Lainego, 
anil  promulgating  a  code  of  laws  relating  to  tlie  order 
of  succession,  the  privileges  of  the  ii<)l)ility,  the  ad- 
ministration of  justice,  &c.  lie  died  at  Coinibra, 
December  6,  1185. 

ALFONSO  VI.,  king  of  Portugal,  second  son  of 
John  IV.,  was  at  first  destined  lor  the  church,  but 
the  death  of  his  elder  brother  in  1656  altogether 
changed  his  circumstances.  Being  then  a  minor,  tiie 
government  of  the  kingdom  was  intrusted  to  hjs 
mother,  Louisa  de  Guzman,  a  woman  of  great  wis- 
dom and  prudence,  who  felt  it  her  duty  to  retain 
the  power  in  her  own  hands,  even  after  A.  had 
reached  his  majority  ;  for  the  sicivly  and  dissolute 
prince  displayed  little  aptitude  for  business.  But 
the  court  minions,  who  had  their  own  reasons  for 
wishing  him  to  rule,  urged  him  to  remove  his  motiier 
from  her  office.  This  was  accomplished  in  lOtl'i. 
The  minister.  Count  Castel-Melhor,  a  mere  trifler, 
possessed  supreme  autlioriiy.  Nevertheless,  Portu- 
gal was  victorious  in  the  war  wliich  she  undertook 
against  Spain,  although  for  this  she  had  to  thank 
her  English  and  French  allies  In  166f),  A.  married 
Maria-Francisca-EIizalieth  of  Savoy,  who,  however, 
Koon  conspired  with  his  brother  I'edro  against  him. 
The  plot  succeeded.  A.  was  seized  and  imprisoned 
at  Cintra,  where  he  died  on  tlie  LJth  of  September 
1C8.3.  Pedro  then  oWiaincd  tlie  throne,  and  mar- 
ried the  widow  of  his  deceased  brother. 

ALFONSO  III.,  surnamed  Thk  Great,  king  of 
Leon,  Asturias,  and  (ialicia,  born  818  A.n.  He 
succeeded  his  father,  Ordono  I.,  in  86(>,  but  had  to 
maintain  his  rights  by  force  of  arms  against  Count 
Froila,  who  had  usm-ped  the  throne.  Having  caused 
the  latter  to  bo  murdered,  he  proceeded  sternly  to 
reduce  to  obedience  the  powerful  nobility  of  the 
kingdom,  who  looked  with  a  jealous  eye  on  the 
monarchy  remaining  in  one  f  imily  ;  and  then,  car- 
rying his  arms  against  other  enemies,  he  fought 
through  more  than  oU  campaigns,  and  gained  numer- 
ous victories  over  the  Moors.  He  cro.sscd  the 
Louro,  broke  down  the  walls  of  Coimbra,  penetrated 
to  the  Tagus  and  Estreniadura,  enlarged  his  terri- 
tories by  a  portion  of  Portugal  and  Old  Castile,  and 
le-pcoplcd  the  conquered  and  desolated  Burgos. 
But  these  wars  entailed  great  expense  and  misery 
on  the  nation.  In  888,  A.  had  to  endure  the  pain 
of  beholding  at  the  head  of  a  rebel  army,  iiis  own 
.son  (iarcias,  who  wished  to  .seize  the  crown,  although 
liretending  a  .simple  desire  for  the  piosperity  of  the 
coinmonwcalth.  A.  collected  liis  forces,  conquered 
his  son,  and  threw  him  into  prison.  But  Garcias' 
mother,  by  the  help  of  several  of  the  grandees, 
excited  a  new  conspiracy,  which  resulted  in  the 
abdication  of  the  monarch  in  favour  of  his  im- 
prisoned son.  In  order,  however,  to  be  still  useful 
to  his  country,  A.  became  commander  of  Garcias' 
forces  in  an  expedition  against  the  Aloors. 
returning  in  triumph,  he  died  at  Zamora,  910. 

ALFONSO  v.,  king  of  Aragon,  Naples,  and 
Sicily  (141ij — 1458  A.n.),  received  the  surname  of 
'the  Magnanimous,'  b. 'cause  on  his  accession  to  the 
throne  he  destroyed  a  document  ccmtaining  the 
names  of  all  the  grandees  who  were  hostile  to  him. 
His  historical  importance  arises  from  his  having 
brought  Southern  Italy  under  the  dominion  of  Ara" 
gon.  In  1420,  he  attacked  Corsica,  but  speedily 
hastened  to  Naples,  at  the  request  of  Queen  Joanna 
II.,  wlio  besought  his  assistance  against  Louis  of 
Anjou.  For  some  time  he  enjoyed  the  highest  fa- 
vour; but  in  1423,  having  thrown  into  prison  her 
million  Caraccioli,  who  was  his  enemy,  the  queen  de- 
clared for  his  rival,  Louis.  At  her  "death,  in  1435, 
resolved   to  claim   the    kingdom,    but    Rene    of 


after  the  death  of  Louis,  op|)ose(l  him.  Rome  and  Ge- 
noa sided  with  Rene,  and  the  Genoese  fleet  attacked 
and  defeated  that  of  A.,  the  momirch  himself  being 
taken  prisoner.  He  was  sent  to  Duke  Philip  of 
.Milan,  who,  charmed  by  his  manner  and  talent,  set 
him  at  liberty,  and  even  formed  an  alliance  with 
him.  After  several  battles,  and  a  long  mountain- 
war  in  the  Abruzzi,  A.  overthrew  his  adversary,  and 
entered  Naples  in  triumph.  Having  once  firmly 
established  his  power,  he  proceeded  to  suppress  the 
disorders  which  had  sprung  uj)  during  the  worthless 
reign  of  Joanna,  and  honourably  distinguisheti  him- 
self by  his  pitronage  of  letters.  He  died  at  Naples, 
while  his  troops. were  besieging  Genoa,  June  27,  1458. 


Anjou,  whom  Joanna  had  appointed   her  successor 
134 


ALFONSO  X.,  surnamed  '  the  Astronomer,'  '  the 
Philosopher,'  or  '  the  Wise'  {Kl  Saliio),  king  of  Leon 
and  Castile,  born   1221,  succee<led   his  father,  Ferdi- 
nand III.,  in  1252.     As  early  as  the  .storming  of  Seville 
in  1248,  he  had  given  indications  of  his  courageous 
spirit.     But  instead  of  wisely    attempting  to   expel 
the  Moors  and  subdue  the    nobility,  he   lavished  the 
resources  of  his   kingdom    in  fruitless    efforts  to  se- 
cure his  election  to  the  imi)erial  throne  of  Germany. 
Ruilolf  of  llapsburg    was    chosen    in  opposition  to 
him.     Nor    would    Pope    Gregory  X.   recognise    his 
claims  even   to  the  Duchy  of  Swabia.     Soon  after, 
his  throne  was   threatened  by  the  turbulence  of  the 
noiiility,  and  his   wars  with  the  Moors.     The  latter, 
however,  he  defeated  in  12('>3,  in  u  l)loody  battle,  and 
took  from    them  Xeres,  .Medina-Sidonia,   San-Lucar, 
and  a    part  of  Algarve,  uniting   at    the    .sunie    time 
Murcia  wiili  Castile.     In  1271,  an  insurrection  broke 
out  in   his   dominions,  at  the  heail  of  whicli  was  his 
son  Philip.     Tiiree  years  elapsed  before  it  was  finally 
(liielled.     In    the    mildness   with   which    he    treated 
the    rebels,  men   saw  only  indications    of  his  weak- 
ness.    15ut  afterwards  determining  to  employ  more 
stringeiit    measures,  his    son    S.mcho  also    rebelled, 
and   in    1232  deprived  him  of  his  throne.     He  now 
sought   the    help    of  the    Moors,  but    after  fruitless 
eflbits  to  recover  his  power,  he  die<l  at  Seville,  April 
4,  1284.     He    was   the   most   learned    prince  of  his 
time,  and    has    acquired    lasting    faino   through  the 
complelion  of   the  code  of  laws  commenced  (though 
this  is  disputed)  by  his  fither,  and  called  leiius  de  lax 
J^irtidus,  which   in    15nl    became  the  univeisal  law 
of  the  land.     There    are    stiil    extant    several    long 
poems    of   his,    besides    a    work  on  chemistry,  and 
another    on    philosophy.     He  is   also  credited  with 
a  history  of  the    church    and    of  the    criusades,  and 
is  said   to    have    ordered  a  translation   of  the  Bible 
into  Spanish.     He   laboured   much   to   revive  know- 
ledge, incre.ising  both  the  privileges  and  professor- 
ships  of  the  university  of  Salamaiica.      He  sought 
to   improve   the   Ptolenuiic  planetary  tables,   Aviiose 
anomalies    had  struck   observers  e\en  at  that  e.irly 
time.      For   this  |)urpose,  in   1240,  he   assembled  at 
After  I  Toledo  upwards  of  fifty  of  the  most  celebrated  astro- 
nomers of  that  age.     His  improved  tal)les,  still  known 
under  the  name  of  the  Allbnsine  Tables,  were  com- 
pleted   in  1252    at    the    cost    of  4(i,(h»0  ducats — an 
unprecedented  sum  to  be  expended  on  such  a  work 
in   those    days.     The   results  obtained  Ijy  means  of 
the  Alfonsine   Tables    were   no  more  accurate  than 
those  of  the  older  one.s,  for  both  were  based  on  the 
same  erroneous  hypothesis  of  Epicycles  (q.  v.).    The 
OfiHsculos   LerjaUs   of    A.    were    published   by   the 
Royal  Historical  Society  of  Madrid  in  1836. 

ALFORD,  Ret.  Henry,  B.  D.,  a  biblical  critic 
of  the  highest  reputation,  and  also  a  fioet  of  consid- 
erable genius,  was  born  in  London  in  1810,  liut  was 
educated  firstat  llminster  gr^nnmar-school  in  Somer- 
setshire, and  finally  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  took  his  degree,  and  entered  the  Church. 
His  first  volume,  published  at  Cambridge  iu  ISol,  was 


ALFRED. 


entitled  Poems  and  Poetical  Frapne7t(s.  Three  years 
afterwardfi,  the  young  autlior  wiia  elected  a  Fellow 
of  Trinity,  and  in  the  following  year  (18:J5),  appeared 
his  most  popular  work,  'J7(c  iSc/iool  of  the  Heart, 
and  ot/ier  Poems,  which  has  been  frequently  re-issued, 
especially  in  America.  About  "the  same  lime,  A.  was 
appointed  vicar  of  Wymeswold,  Leicestershire,  where 
be  remained  till  1853,  gradually  enlarging  the  circle 
of  his  studies,  and  obtaining  fresh  honours.  In  1841, 
he  published  Chapters  on  the  Greek  poets,  which 
exhibit  both  purity  of  taste  and  breadth  of  scholar- 
ship. He  was  Huisean  Lecturer  in  the  university  of 
Cambridge,  and  E.xaminer  of  Logic  and  Natural 
Philosophy  in  the  university  of  London  from  1841 
to  1842.  In  1844  appeared  tlie  first  volume  of  his 
marjnum  opus,  the  Greek  Testament  with  notes  and 
various  readings;  the  second  was  not  published  till 
1852.  Both  have  been  re-issued  within  the  last  few 
year.*.  In  1853,  A.  was  removed  to  Quebec  Street 
Chapel,  London,  whei-e  he  continued  until  1857,  when 
upon  the  death  of  Dean  Lyall,  he  was  appointed  by 
Ix)rd  Palmerston  to  the  deanery  of  Canterbury.  His 
poetry  is  characterized  by  freedom  fi-om  affectation,  ol> 
scnrity,  or  bombast.  It  is  calm,  quiet,  meditative,  and 
chastened  by  a  pure  religious  sentiment.  His  Greek 
Testament  occupies  the  first  rank  among  English 
editions. 

ALFRED,  snrnamed  The  Great,  was  born  at 
Wantage,  in  Berkshire,  in  84',t.  His  father  was 
Ethel  wolf,  sou  of  Egbert,  king  of  the  West  Saxons; 
and  though  the  youngest  of  four  sons,  he  succeeded 
to  the  crown,  on  the  death  of  his  brother  Ethelred,  at 
the  age  of  23.  He  had  already  given  decisive 
proofs  of  high  ability  as  a  general  in  repelling  the 
incessant  incursions  of  the  Danes,  at  that  time  the 
most  terrible  warriors  in  Europe.  After  he  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne,  he  redoubled  his  exertions 
to  restore  the  independence  of  his  country.  At  first 
he  strove  without  success,  whilst  the  Danes  con- 
tinued to  pour  fresh  bands  upon  the  coast,  and  the 
Anglo-Saxons  either  bent  to  the  yoke  or  forsook 
their  homes.  In  878,  the  invaders  had  completely 
overrun  the  whole  kingdom  of  the  West  Saxons.  A., 
no  longer  able  to  collect  an  effective  army,  was 
obliged  to  seek  security  in  the  hills  and  forests,  and 
for  some  time  found  refuge  in  a  cowherd's  hut.  He 
still,  however,  kept  up  some  commuidcation  with  his 
friends;  and  as  .soon  as  the  people  began  once  more 
to  arm  against  the  Danes,  he  built  a  stronghold  on 
an  elevation  or  island  (still  known  as  Athelney,  i.  e., 
the  '  island  of  the  nobles,'  or  the  '  royal  island ') 
amid  the  marshes  of  Somersetshire,  to  which  he 
summoned  his  faithful  followers.  From  this  fortress 
he  made  frequent  successful  sallies  against  the 
enemv,  and  after  a  comparatively  short  time,  he 
found  himself  at  the  head  of  a  considerable  army, 
with  which  he  totally  routed  them  (878)  near  Eding- 
ton,  in  Wiltshire.  After  holding  out  for  some  time 
in  a  stronghold  to  which  they  had  retreated,  the 
invaders  capitulated.  A.  accepted  hostages,  and 
their  solemn  oath  to  quit  his  territory  of  We.ssex,  and 
receive  baptism.  Their  king,  Godrun  or  (Juthrun, 
was  baptised,  with  thirty  of  his  followers,  and  ever 
after  proved  faithful  in  his  allegiance  to  A. 

After  this  decisive  victory,  the  power  of  A.  steadily 
increased,  both  by  land  and  sea — for  already  he  had 
built  England's  "first  fleet — he  beat  the  Danes  in 
numerous  battles,  and  gradually  th^ir  posses.^ions 
were  confined  to  tlie  northein  and  eastern  coasts.  In 
886,  A.,  without  any  formal  installation,  became 
recognised  as  the  sovereign  of  all  England,  a  title  to 
which  he  had  proved  his  right  by  the  most  indis- 
putable of  arguments.  During  the  eusuinsr  years  of 
peace,  he  rebuilt  the  cities  that  had  suflered  most 
during  the  war,  particularly  London;  erected  new 
fortresses,  and  trained  the  people  to  the  use  of  arms ; 


while  at  the  same  time  he  encouraged  husbandry 
and  other  useful  arts,  and  founded  those  wise  laws 
and  institutions  whicli  contributed  so  much  to  the 
future  greatness  and  welfare  of  England.  The 
grateful  reverence  of  posterity  has,  as  is  usual  with 
mankind,  become  prodigal  in  its  awards,  ascribing  to 
A.  the  entire  credit  of  having  established  many 
beneficial  institutions,  some  of  which  had  already 
existed  among  the  Anglo-Saxons,  but  were  by  him 
revived,  remodelled,  and  improved.  Of  his  political 
institutions,  little  is  known  beyond  the  fact  that  he 
compiled  a  code  of  laws,  divided  England  into 
counties,  hundreds,  and  tithin^'.^,  and  thoroughly 
reformed  the  administration  of  justice  by  making 
these  tithings,  hundreds,  kc,  so  far  as  was  practi- 
callv  pos.sible,  res[ionsible  for  the  oflenees  committed 
within  their  jurisdiction.  William  of  Malmesbury, 
with  enthusiastic  exaggeration,  declared  that  'a 
pur.se  of  money,  or  a  pair  of  fTolden  bracelets,'  nvght 
in  A.'s  day  be  exjjosed  for  (veeks  in  complete  safety 
on  the  common  highways,  A.  is  also  said — though 
erroneously,  as  is  now  believed — to  have  been  the 
author  of "' trial  by  jury,'  In  an  age  of  ignorance 
and  barbarism,  A.  was  an  accomplished  scholar 
and  a  zealous  patron  of  learning.  No  i)rince 
of  his  age  did  so  much  for  the  dilfusion  of  know- 
ledge, and  few  nionarehs  at  any  time  have  shewn  an 
equal  zeal  for  the  in.struetion  of  their  people.  He 
caused  many  manuscripts  to  be  translated  into 
Anglo-Saxon  from  Latin,  and  himself  translated 
several  works,  such  as  Boethius  on  the  Conxo- 
lation  of  Philoxophj,  the  Jlistori/  of  Orosius,  Bede'.s 
Ecclesiastical  History,  and  Selections  from  the  Solilo- 
quies of  St.  Anr/ustinc.  Among  his  original  woi  ks  in 
the  Anglo-Saxon  language,  are  Lnus  of  the  West 
Saxons,  Institutes,  Chro,)irles,  Meditations,  &c.  All 
his  works  strikingly  indicate  the  serious,  elevated, 
and  yet  practical  character  of  the  man.  In  his 
translations  A.  is  frequently  more  than  a  translator. 
He  adds  his  own  reflections  to  those  of  his  author; 
and  expands  the  geographical  outlines  of  Orosius,  by 
a  chart  of  Germany,  an  account  of  the  Baltic,  and 
the  icy  regions  towards  the  north  pole,  which  aie 
pretty  accurate,  considering  the  means  which  then 
existed  for  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  those  places. 
Several  works  attributed  to  A.  are  believed  not  to  be 
genuine. 

.The  peaceful  labours  of  A.  were,  in  893,  interrupted 
by  a  fresh  invasion  of  Northmen  under  Ha'sien  or 
Hastings,  more  formidable  than  any  that  had  yet 
been  attempted  in  his  reign.  The  defection  of 
the  East  Anglians  and  Northumbrians  added  to 
the  dilRcidties  with  which  he  had  to  contend. 
A.,  however,  was  fully  prepared,  and  though,  dur- 
ing their  protracted "  stay  in  his  dondnions,  the 
invaders  overran  a  large  extent  of  country,  and 
committed  considerable  deiiredation.s,  they  were 
beaten  in  almost  every  encounter  with  the  Eng- 
lish, and  finally  quelled.  A.  dieil  on  the  27th  of 
October  901,  aged  52,  leaving  his  country  in  the 
eiijovinent  of  comparative  peace  and  prospeiity,  the 
fruit"  of  that  wise  and  energetic  rule  which  has 
made  his  memory  dear  to  all  generations  of  English- 
men, as  that  of  their  best  and  greatest  king.  We 
cannot  perhaps  reali.se  the  resolute  patience  of  A., 
in  his  political  and  nulitary  capacity,  for  we  have 
but  a  very  imperfect  knowledge  of  the  obstacles 
which  stoo'd  in  his  way  ;  l)ut  it  must  excite  botii  our 
highest  wonder  and  reverence  to  behold  a  man  pur- 
suTng  solitarily,  iu  the  midst  of  ferocity,  barbarism, 
andlsrnorance,  and  in  spite  of  the  perpetual  pains 
with  whicli  his  body  was  racked,  so  many  vaiious 
and  noble  schemes  for  the  civilization  and  true  glory 
of  his  country. — The  most  authentic  and  interesting 
of  the  original  sources  of  information  on  the  history 
of  A.   is  the  life  by  Asser,  bishop  of  Sherborne,  a 

135 


ALGA  MARINA— ALGJE. 


book  distinguished  by  extreme  simplicity  and  afiFec- 
tion.  The  best  edition  is  that  of  Wise  (Oxford,  178"2). 
Of  the  retBnt  Lives,  the  most  complete  and  careful  is 
that  of  Dr.  PauH,  edited  by  T.  Wright ;  pubhshed  by 
Bentley. 

ALGA  MARINA.     See  Grass  Wrack. 

A'LG.E,  a  natural  order  of  plants,  belonging  to 
the  class  Cryptogamia  of  Liinueus,  and  to  the 
Acoti/ledones  of  the  nutural  system.  It  contains  a 
great  number  of  species,  about  'intio  being  known  and 
described,  and  among  these  there  is  a  great  variety 
of  forms.  They  grow  for  the  most  part  in  water, 
some  in  fresh,  and  some  in  salt  water,  but  some  also 
on  moist  rocks  or  ground  ;  whilst  others  arc  fre- 
quently found  covering  the  glass  and  pots  of  hot- 
houses. Some  species  occur  even  upon  diseased 
animal  tissue,  as  Achlya  prolifera  upon  tlie  gills  of 
fish,  whilst  Sarcinula  ventricidi  (q.  v.)  appears  to  be 
formed  in  the  human  stomach.  They  are  most 
numerous  in  still  and  stagnant  water  and  in  ■warm 
climates.     Their  structure  is  very  various  ;  they  are 


Alga^ 


1.  Alari.i  esculenta. 

2.  Dictyota  dichotoma. 


3.  Himanthalia  lorca. 

4.  Rytiphloea  thuyoides. 


found  of  all  grades,  from  the  little  microscopic 
vesicle,  to  great  sea-weeds,  which  ramify  like  trees. 
The  diversity  in  size  is  as  great  as  in  form  ;  some 
species  being  visible  only  through  the  microscope, 
and  resembling  mould  or  rust ;  some  a  few  inches, 
others  several  feet  in  length  ;  whilst  the  Lami?iarice, 
wjiich  float  in  the  South  American  seas,  measure 
more  than  100  feet ;  and  Macron/sds  pi/rifera  of 
the  Pacific  Ocean  reaches  the  length  of  1500  feet. 
Yet  they  are  seldom  to  be  found  as  thick  as  the 
finger,  or  as  broad  as  the  hand,  although  some  far 
exceed  these  dimensions,  the  trunk  of  Lessnnia 
fusrexcens  attaining  the  thickness  of  a  man's  thigh. 
Some  species  are  firmly  fixed  at  the  bottom  of  the 
water,  some  adhere  to  rocks  and  stones  left  dry  by 
the  retiring  tide  ;  some  frequently  break  loose,  and 
float  about  upon  and  beneath  t;ie  surfiice.  They 
have  in  no  case  proper  roots,  but  merely  processes  for 
their  attachment  to  the  surfaces  on  which  they  are 
fixed  ;  they  seem  to  derive  their  nourishment  by  all 
parts  of  their  surface  from  the  water  or  moist  air  in 
which  they  grow.  The  Gulfweed  (Sarffassian)  floats 
in  long  pieces  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  all  the 
great  seas;  a  large  portion  of  the  sea  between  the 
West  Indies  and  the  Canary  Islands,  is  especially  called 
the  Mer  de  Saryasse.  The  weed  is  carried  in  such 
quantities  by  the  current  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
that  it  covers  the  sea  in  tracts  of  many  miles  in 
breadth,  and  gives  it  the  appearance  of  a  meadow. 
Many  fabulous  stories  were  related  of  this  Gulfweed 
by  the  mariners  of  the  loth  c.  Ships  were  said  to 
have  been  stopped  in  their  course,  and  the  crews 
obliged  to  cut  their  way  through  with  hatchets. 
136 


The  discoveries  of  Columbus  put  an  end  to  these  ex- 
aggerated reports. 

A.  are  entirely  cellular  in  their  structure,  how- 
ever elongated  may  be  their  fronds,  having  no  proper 
vessels,  but  consisting  of 
an  irregular  tissue  of  utric- 
ular cells.  The  fronds 
of  many  are  articulated. 
Some  of  the  simplest  or 
lowest  organisation  are 
propagated  by  spontane- 
ous separation ;  in  others, 
the  reproductive  organs 
consist  of  spores  (see  Aco- 
TYLKDONois  Plants)  en- 
closed in  perispores,  and 
variously  disposed  in  recep- 
tacles of  ditl'erent  kinds ; 
sometimes  in  the  interior 
of  the  cells.  Antheridia 
(q.  V.)  also  occur  in  some; 
and  zoospores,  or  spores 
with  moving  cilia,  which 
exhibit  phenomena  of 
motion  resembling  those 
of  animal  life.  The  JDia-  ^"^"^  vesiculosus  : 
tomnccw,  in  which  the  shi-wins  the  roceptacWs  of  tho 
ordinary  mode  of  repro-  fructiticati.m  <i,  a.  at  the 
diii'tion  is  bv  snontTiifniw  f'"'*  <>f  the  branching  frond; 
auction  IS  t)\  spontaneous    ^  ,,  ,^_  ^^^„^  air-c.-lls  which 

separation,  have  by  some  help  to  float  the  plant, 
been  referred  to  the  ani- 
mal kingdom.  They  are  entirely  microscopic, 
resemble  the  animalcules  called  Infusoria,  and  are 
generally  found  in  still  waters  and  moist  places, 
but  occur  in  prodigious  numbers  in  some  parts  of 
the  Antarctic  Ocean,  where  they  give  a  colour  to 
the  water. 

A.  differ  from  Fungi  (q.  v.)  in  deriving  their 
nourishment  exclusively,  as  it  would  seem,  from  the 
medium  by  which  they  are  surrounded,  and  not  from 
the  substance  upon  which  they  grow.  The  sub- 
stance of  which  they  are  composed  is  also  very 
different.  Yet  it  has  been  felt  not  a  little  difficult 
to  determine  to  which  order  some  of  the  lowest 
forms  of  vegetable  life  should  be  referred. 

As  to  their  substance,  A.  consists  chiefly  of  vege- 
table gelatine,  which  dissolves  in  water  when  they 
are  boiled  in  it.  The  harder  parts  of  their  fronds 
are  sometimes  coriaceous,  or  horny,  or  cartilaginous, 
but  never  really  ligneous.  Their  colour  is  not  always 
green,  but  mostly  brown  or  yellow,  sometimes 
purple  or  violet,  or  rose-colour;  and  many  of  them 
present  a  very  beautiful  appearance  when  examined 
through  a  microscope.  Many  contain  an  abundance 
of  iodine.  Difiercnt  species  of  Wrack  {Fucus), 
(q.  v.),  which  are  cast  on  shore  in  vast  confused 
masses  by  the  waves,  are  gathered  and  burned  in 
the  Orkney  Islands,  in  Normandy,  and  other  parts 
of  the  world,  the  ashes  forming  an  article  of  com- 
merce under  the  name  of  Kelp  (cj.  v.),  and  contain- 
ing much  of  the  iodide  of  sodium.  Sea-weeds  of  all 
kinds  are  an  excellent  manure.  None  of  the  species 
are  poisonous,  and  some  of  them  are  used  for  food, 
as  Carrageen  (q.  v.)  or  Irish-moss,  Dulse  (q.  v.), 
Laver  (q.  v.),  &c.  The  edible  swallows'  nests  of 
the  Indian  Archipelago  are  composed  of  a  species  of 
sea-weed.  Several  kinds  are  eaten  as  articles  of 
luxury  by  the  Chinese.  Plocaria  tenax,  one  of  the 
species  so  used,  furnishes  them  also  with  an  admir- 
able glue,  of  which  great  quantities  are  prepared  and 
brought  to  the  market.  Plocaria  helminthocorton^ 
Corsican  moss,  a  native  of  the  Mediterranean,  and 
Ibund  principally  around  the  shores  of  Corsica,  is 
used  as  a  vermifuge.     See  Plocaria. 

This  natural  order  is  divided  into  five  sub-orders, 
regarded    by    some    as    distinct    orders — namely, 


ALGARDI— ALGEBRA. 


Charack^e  (q.  v.),  Fucacea:  (q.  v.),  Ckuamiace^ 
(q.  v.),  CoxFERVACE.K  (see  Co.nfkuva),  and  Diato- 
MACKJC  (q.  v.).  The  Cli;iiacea3  arc  soinetiincs  sepa- 
rated as  a  distinct  order  of  liigher  organisation, 
whilst  llie  rest  arc  united  under  the  name  A\gx. 
Sec  Kiitzing's  r/ii/c»l.o</ia  OVjtcm/is  (Leip.  1S4:5),  and 
his  Species  Algnruni  (Leip.  I84'.t)  ;  Grcvilk''s  A. 
Britaimica;  (Lond.  ISSn);  and  Harvey's  Manual  of 
British  A.  (Load.  1841). 

ALGA'RDI,  Alessandro,  an  Italian  sculptor 
(b.  at  Bologna  l(j0'2 — d.  1054),  ranked  next  to  Lor. 
Bernini  among  Italian  sculptors  of  the  17th  c, 
and  especially  excelled  in  the  representation  of  nude 
figures.  His  works,  however,  suffered  from  the 
faults  prevalent  in  his  time,  especially  from  a  striv- 
ing after  pathos  and  iiicturesque  effects,  opposed  to 
the  true  character  of  sculpture.  His  most  important 
work  is  a  colossal  relievo  of  Attila  in  St.  Peters, 
Rome.  His  statue  of  the  God  of  Sleep  in  the  Villa 
•Borghcse  has  frequently  been  mistaken  for  an 
antique. 

ALGARO'BA.     See  Carob. 

ALGARO'TTI,  Francksco,  Count,  an  Itnlian 
author,  was  born  at  Venice  in  1112,  studied  in  Rome 
and  BologUM,  and  when  21  years  old,  published  in 
Paris  (1783)  a  work,  entitled  Nnrtonianisiiio  per  le 
Dame  (The  Newtonian  Philosophy  adapted  to  the 
Ladies),  which  was  the  basis  of  liis  subsequent 
reputation.  Until  1739,  he  lived  in  France.  On  his 
return  from  a  journey  to  Russia,  A.  became 
accjuaintcd  with  Frederick  IL  of  Prussin,  who 
elevated  him  to  the  rank  of  count,  and  made  him, 
in  1747,  lord  chamberlain.  He  was  also  patronised 
by  Augustus  III.  of  Poland,  and  lived  alternately  in 
Berlin  and  Dresden  until  1754,  when  he  returned  to 
Italv.  He  died  M;irch  3,  1764,  at  Pisa,  where,  in  the 
Canipo  Santo,  Frederick  the  Great  raised  a  monu- 
ment to  his  memory.  In  his  own  time  he  was  recog- 
nised as  a  good  judge  of  painting  and  architecture, 
and  his  reputation  is  confirmed  by  his  work  /Sflf/(/i 
sopra  le  Belle  Arti  (Essays  on  the  Fine  Arts),  and  by 
the  paintings  he  selected  for  the  Dresden  Gallery. 
His  poetry  displays  no  great  genius ;  but  his  other 
works  shew  that  he  was  an  accomplished  man ;  and 
his  letters  rank  with  the  best  in  the  Italian  language. 

ALGA'RVE,  the  smallest  and  most  southerly  of 
the  provinces  of  Portugal,  lies  between  Andalucia 
and  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  In  ancient  times,  it  was 
much  more  extensive.  It  received  its  name  from 
the  Arabs,  in  whose  language  A.  signifies  '  a  land 
lying  to  the  west.'  It  was  a  Jloorish  province  till 
1253,  when  Alphonso  III.  united  it  to  the  crown  of 
Portugal  as  a  separate  kingdom.  Its  area  is  esti- 
mated at  2730  square  miles,  and  its  population  iit 
130,000.  The  northern  part  of  the  province  is  occu- 
pied by  a  range  of  mountains  of  an  average  height 
of  4000  feet,  which  form  the  continuation  of  the 
Sierra  Moreiui  of  Spain  and  terminate  in  Cape 
St.  Vincent,  the  south-western  extremity  of  Europe. 
The  highest  ridges  are  entirely  destitute  of  vegeta- 
tion ;  and  the  mountainous  tract  in  general  admits 
of  but  little  cultivation.  From  the  main  ridge,  the 
country  slopes  southward  in  jagged  terraces  and  low 
hills,  leaving  a  level  tract  of  a  few  miles  along  the 
coast.  The  soil  of  this  plain  is  but  indifferently 
suited  for  the  production  of  grain,  or  even  of 
pasturage ;  but  it  produces  abundance  of  the  finest 
fruits  of  the  south,  even  plantains  and  dates.  The 
wine  is  also  of  excellent  quality.  The  African  heat 
of  the  climate  is  mitigated  by  the  cool  sea-breeze. 
The  only  river  of  importance  Ls  the  Guadiana,  on 
the  frontiers  of  Spain.  _  The  inhabitants  enqiloy 
themselves  chiefly  in  fishing,  in  manufacturing  salt, 
and  in  cultivating  fruit.     They  arc  considered  the 


The 


best  sailors  and  the  truest  friends  in  Portugal, 
chief  town  is  Faro  (pop.  8500). 

A'LGEBRA  is  a  branch  of  pure  mathematics. 
The  name  is  derived  from  the  Arabs,  who  call  the 
science  Al  (jehr  wal  moknbala—\.c.,  supplementing 
and  equalising — in  reference  to  the  transpo.'^ition  and 
reduction  of  the  terms  of  an  equation.  Among  the 
Italians  in  early  times  it  was  called  Arte  Jfar/oi ore, 
as  having  to  do  with  the  higher  kinds  of  calcul  ition, 
and  still  oftener  Jiegola  de  la  ('osn,  because  tlie  un- 
known quantity  was  denominated  com,  the  '  thing  ;' 
hence  the  name  of  Cossike  Art,  given  to  it  by  early 
English  writers. 

The  term  Algebraical  is  generally  used  somewhat 
vaguely,  to  denote  any  expression  or  calculation  in 
which  signs  arc  used  to  denote  the  operations,  and 
letters  or  other  symbols  are  put  instead  of  numbers. 
But  it  is  perhaps  better  to  restrict  the  name  A.  to 
the  doctrine  of  Equations ((j.  v.).  Literal  arithmetic, 
then,  or  multiplving,  dividing,  &c.,  with  letters  instead 
of  Araliic  ciphers,  is  properly  only  a  preparation  for 
A. ;  while  Analysis  (q.  v.),  in  the  widest  sense,  would 
embrace  A.  as'  its  first  part.  A.  itself  is  divided 
into  two  chief  branches.  The  first  treats  of  equations 
involving  unknown  quantities  having  a  determinate 
value  ;  in  the  other,  called  the  Diophantine  or  Inde- 
terminate Analysis,  the  unknown  quantities  have  no 
exactly  fixed  values,  but  depend  in  some  degree 
upon  assumption. 

The  oldest  work  in  the  West  on  A.  is  that 
of  Diophantus  of  Alexandria,  in  the  4th  c.  after 
Christ.  It  consisted  origiiudly  of  13  books,  and 
contained  arithmetical  problems;  only  six  books 
are  now  extant.  They  are  written  in  (Jreek, 
and  evince  no  little  acutcness.  The  modern  Euro- 
peans got  their  first  acquaintance  with  A.,  not 
directly  from  the  Greeks,  but,  like  most  other 
knowledge,  through  the  Arabs,  who  derived  it,  again, 
from  the  Hindus.  The  chief  European  source  was  the 
work  of  Mohammed  Ben  Musa,  who  lived  in  the 
time  of  Calif  Al  Mamun  (813—833);  it  has  been 
translated  into  English  by  Dr.  Rosen  (Loud.  1*^31)- 
An  Italian  merchant,  Leonardo  Bonaccio,  of  Pisa, 
travelling  in  the  east  about  12o0,  accpured  a  knovy- 
ledge  of  the  science,  and  introduced  it  among  his 
cou'ntrymen  on  his  return  ;  he  has  left  a  work  on 
A.,  not  yet  printed.  The  first  work  on  A.  after  the 
revival  "of  learning  is  that  of  the  Minorite  friar 
Paciolo  or  Luca  Borgo  (Ven.  1404).  Seipio  Ferreo 
in  Bologna,  discovered,  in  1505,  the  solution  ot  one 
case  of  cubic  equations.  Tartaglia  of  Brescia  (died 
1557)  carried  cubic  equations  still  further,  and 
imparted  his  discoveries  to  Cardan  of  Milan,  as  a 
secret.  Cardan  extended  the  discovery  himself,  and 
published,  in  1545,  the  solution  known  as  '  Cardan's 
Rule.'  Ludovieo  Ferrari  and  Boudjclli  (157'.t)  gave 
the  solution  of  biquadratic  etpiations.  A.  was  first 
cultivated  in  Germanv  bv  Christian  Rudolf,  in  a 
work  printed  in  1524  ;"  Slitel  followed  with  his  ^ln</<- 
mefica  Inter/rn{:\  imib.  1544).  Robert  Recorde,  in 
En-land,  and  Pellctier,  in  France,  wrote  al)ont  1550. 
Viela,  a  Frenchman  (died  l(i03),  first  niiide  the  grand 
step  of  using  letters  to  denote  the  known  quantities 
as  well  as  the  unknown.  Harriot,  in  England  (11131) 
and  Girar.l,  in  Holland  (l(i33\  still  further  improved 
on  the  advances  made  by  Vieta.  The  acoiurtne 
(1637)  of  Descart'-s  makes  an  epoch  in  A.;  it  is 
rich  in  new  investigations.  Descartes  applied  A. 
to  Geometry,  and  was  the  first  to  represent  the 
nature  of  curves  by  means  of  equations.  Fermat 
also  contributed  muc'i  to  the  science  ;  and  so  did 
the  Arithmctica  Vnivcrmlis  of  Newton.  To  these 
names  may  be  added  Maclaurin,  Moivre,  Taylor, 
and  Fontaine.  Among  the  chief  promoters  of  A., 
in  more  recent  times,  are  Euler,  Lagrange,  Gauss, 
Abel,  Fourier,  Peacock,  Do  Morgan,  &c. 

137 


ALGECIRAS— ALGERIA. 


ALGECI'RAS,  or  ALCJEZIKAS,  a  town  in 
Spain,  in  the  i)roviiice  of  Cadiz,  on  the  Gulf  of 
Gibraltar.  Its  harbour  is  bad,  but  it  possesses  a 
good  dock,  and  the  inhabitants  are  supplied  with 
fine  atjueducts.  The  citadel  is  in  a  very  dilapi- 
dated condition,  and  the  trade  in  corn  and  brandy 
is  no  longer  important.  The  place,  however, 
which  is  pleasantly  situated,  has  a  picturesque 
appearance.  It  was  the  first  town  in  Spain  taken 
by  the  Moors  (TIM),  i"  whose  possession  it  remained 
for  7  centuries  ;  but  in  1344,  after  a  siege  of  20 
months,  it  was  retaken  by  the  brave  Alfonso  XL, 
king  of  Castile.  It  is  said  that  crusaders  from  all 
parts  of  Europe  were  present  at  this  siege,  which 
was  the  siege  of  the  age,  and  is  spoken  of  as  such. 
Edward  III.  of  England  purposed  coming  in  person 
to  the  assistance  of  the  Spanish  monarch,  whom  he 
greatly  admired.  Alfonso  destroyed  the  old  Moorish 
town  ;  the  modern  one  was  built  by  Charles  III.  iu 
1760.  On  the  Oth  of  .Tune  ISOl,  between  Algi'ciras 
and  Tarifa,  the  p]iigli.sh  admiral  Saumarez  attacked 
the  combined  French  and  Spnnish  lleets  under  Rear- 
admiral  Laiiiois.  He  was  defeated,  but  renewed  the 
engagement  a  few  days  after,  and  gained  a  complete 
viutory.  A.  is  .5  miles  from  Gibraltar,  across  the 
bay  or  gulf,  and  10  round  by  land.     Pop.  11,000. 

ALGERIA  (in  French,  Algkrik),  a  country  on 
the  north  coast  of  Africa,  which  was  a  sub- 
ordii:ate  part  of  the  Tm-kish  Empire  till  18:!(), 
and  is  now  a  French  colony.  It  lii'S  between  2°  8' 
W.  long,  and  8°  32'  E.  long.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  Mediterranean,  on  the  cast  by  Tunis, 
on  the  south  by  Sahara,  ami  on  the  west  by  Marocco. 
The  French  have  extended  their  dominions  more 
than  200  miles  into  the  interior,  but  tiiosc  of  the 
deys — the  former  rulers  of  A. — comprehi'inled  terri- 
tories lying  nearly  twice  as  far  south.  The  area  of 
A.  may  be  estimated  at  2i>n,()(i()  stpiarc  miles,  and 
the  population  at  2,900,no(),  of  which  1To,(M(U  are 
Europeans.  The  chief  towns  are  Algiers,  Rona, 
Constaiitine,  and  Tlemzen.  The  nund)cr  of  acres 
under  cultivation  in  185(i  was  upwards  of  5, ooO, ()(»;). 
Physically,  A.  forms  a  part  of  the  northern  border  of 
the  great  plateau  of  North  Afrira,  wiiieh  here  rises 
from  the  sea  in  three  tei  races.  The  Atlas  Mountains 
run  par.dlel  to  the  coast-line.  Rehiiul  these,  a  va^t 
tract  of  heathy  plains,  called  the  Schk/tns,  interspersed 
with  salt-lakes,  stretches  southwards,  until  bounded 
by  a  second  chain  of  mountains  of  various  heights  ; 
beyond  which,  again,  lies  the  great  desert  of  Sahara, 
extending  to  the  banks  of  the  Niger.  The  plains 
and  valleys  which  open  out  townrds  the  sea  in  the 
north  of  A.,  such  as  those  roiuid  Bona,  Algiers, 
Gran,  <fec.,  are  extremely  iertile,  abound  in  wood  and 
water,  consist  mostly  of  a  calcnreous  soil,  and  are 
well  adapted  for  agriculture.  They  form  the  7e//, 
which  was  once  one  of  the  granaries  of  Italy.  In 
strong  contrast  to  those  are  the  Schkfias  or  lesser 
deserts,  covered  with  herbs  and  brushwood,  but 
almost  destitute  of  fresh  water,  except  where  here 
and  there  they  are  interrupted  by  an  oasis.  The 
most  southern  part  of  the  country  lieyond  the  Atlas 
partakes  of  the  nature  of  the  Sahara,  but  contains 
oases  covered  Aviih  palm-trees,  aiul  well  peopled. 
This  is  a  part  of  the  'date-country,'  or  '  l!lad-el- 
Djerid.'  There  are  no  rivers  of  any  importance  in 
the  entire  colony,  nothing  beyond  mere  coast- 
streams,  which  rise  in  the  neighbouring  Alias.  The 
largest,  is  the  She'.if,  about  230  miles  in  leUL'th.  With 
respect  to  the  climate,  the  heat  in  the  'JcU  is  some- 
times very  great.  On  the  coast  it  is  niiiigated  by 
the  sea-breeze ;  and  among  the  high  mountains  of  the 
interior,  the  winters  are  even  cold.  The  average 
temperature  of  Algiers  is  about  03°  F.  A.  is  not 
unfrcqucntly  visited  by  the  shnooDi,  or  hot  wind, 
called  by  the  Italians,  sirocco,  and  by  the  Spaniards 
138 


snlnno.  Its  mineral  wealth  is  considerable;  iion, 
lead,  copper,  and  manganese  are  found.  The  marble 
of  Nuniidia  was  in  refpiisition  in  ancient  times. 
Extensive  forests  of  oaks,  cedars,  pines,  and  pistachio- 
nut  trees  cover  large  portions  of  tlic  country,  and 
furnish  an  abundant  supply  of  timber  and  resin.  The 
cereals  and  the  olive  are  cultivated  in  the  Tell ;  and 
the  oases  of  Sahara  are  famed  for  their  dates.  The 
domestic  ainmals  of  A.  are  the  ox,  the  sheep,  the 
goat,  and  the  camel ;  but  the  once  noble  race  of 
Xumidian  horses  is  degenerated.  The  population  is 
composed  of  various  elements.  Besides  Europeans, 
there  are  Kabyles  and  Arabs,  who  compose  tiie  bulk 
of  the  people ;  also  Moors,  Negroes,  and  Jews. 

Languarfc. — Four  languages  are  spoken  in  A.  The 
Berber,  the  Arabic,  the  Turkish,  and  the  Negro  dia- 
lects. The  Berber,  which  is  the  most  ancient  of  all, 
has  a  variety  of  dialects,  and  is  spoken  by  all  the 
Kabyle  tribes.  It  possesses  no  literature  written  in 
its  own  alpliabet,  Arabic  characters  alone  being  used. 
The  Arabicisof  course  an  imj)ortation  from  the  East, 
and  has  borrowed  expressions  and  idioms  from  the 
various  native  languages  with  which  it  came  into 
contact  ;  but  its  differences  are  com|)aratively  slight. 
The  Koran  is  the  great  bond  of  union.  The  Turkish, 
since  the  French  conquest,  has  become  almost  ex- 
tinct.    The  Negro  dialects  are  of  little  consequence. 

Jliston/. — In  the  most  ancient  times  we  find  the 
Xumiilians  settled  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  regency, 
lid  the  Moors  (or  Mauri)  in  the  west.  I'nder  the 
llomans,  the  former  was  included  in  the  province  of 
Africa,  while  the  latter  was  cal'.ed  Mauritania  C;esar- 
ieiisis.  Like  the  rest  of  North  Africa,  it  had  then 
reached  its  highest  prosperity.  It  had  nuincious 
cities,  which  were  principally  Roman  colonies.  15ut 
its  concpiest  by  the  Vandals,  under  the  famous 
Genseric  about  44<»,  threw  it  back  into  a  state  of 
barbarism,  from  which  it  only  partially  recovered 
after  the  Mohammed. m  immigrants  had  estab- 
li.shed  their  dominion.  About  the  year  935,  tiie 
city,  Al-Jezira,  i.  e.,  the  island,  and  later  Al-(iazie, 
i.  e.,  the  warlike,  now  called  Algiers,  was  built  by 
an  Arabian  prince,  Zciri,  whose  successors  ruled  the 
lainl  till  1148,  after  which  it  was  governed  by  the 
Almohades  (q.  v.)  till  1209.  It  was  then  split  up  into 
many  small  territories.  In  1492  the  Moors  and 
Jews  who  had  been  driven  out  of  S[)ain,  settled  in 
A.,  and  began  to  revenge  themselves  on  their  perse- 
cutors by  piracy.  Ferdimuid,  the  Spanish  monarch, 
attacked  them  on  this  account,  took  the  city  of 
Algiers  in  l.")00,  and  erected  fortifications  on  the 
island  which  forms  its  harbour.  One  of  the  Algerine 
princes,  tlie  Emir  of  Metiiija,  whose  terriiories  were 
threatened  by  the  Spaniards,  now  invited  to  his 
assistance  the  Greek  renegade,  Iloruk  or  Ilarude 
Barbarossa,  who  had  made  himself  famous  as  a 
Turkish  pirate  chief.  This  laid  the  foundation 
of  the  Turl.ish  dominion ;  for  when  Barbaro.ssa 
arrived  in  l.'iKi,  he  treacherously  turned  his  cors.iir 
bands  against  the  emir,  whom  he  murdered,  and 
then  made  him.self  Sultan  of  Algiers.  His  sul (se- 
quent successes  alarmed  the  Spaniards,  who  marched 
an  army  iigainst  him  from  Gran.  Barbarossa  was 
defeated  in  many  encounters,  and,  at  last,  being 
taken  prisoner,  was  beheaded  in  151S.  His  brother 
was  then  chosen  sultan.  He  put  himself  under  the 
protection  of  the  Ottoman  cou:t,  by  the  help  of 
a  Turkish  arnry  drove  the  Spaiiiards  out  of  the 
country,  aixl  established  that  system  of  ndlitary 
despotism  and  piracy  which  lasted  till  183i\  and 
which  sunk  A.  into  a  state  of  ruinous  degradation. 
In  1541,  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  made  a  bold 
attempt  to  crush  this  nation  of  corsairs.  He  landed 
in  A.  with  a  fleet  of  370  sliips,  and  3  »,n^0  men;  but 
a  fearful  storm,  accompanied  by  earthqualies  an.i 
water-spouts,  destroyed  the    greater  portion  of  the 


ALGERIA. 


former,  and  rendered  the  latter  destitute  of  victuals, 
&e.  ;  so  that  the  expedition  proved  a  failure,  and 
Charles  was  glad  to  rc-eiiibark,  which  he  managed 
to  do  with  extreme  dithculty. 

The  history  of  A.,  under  the  Moslems,  offers  few 
episodes  worthy  of  not'ce.  The  Algerines  continued 
to  carry  ou  their  piratical  war  against  the  powers  ol 


Christendom,  venturing  even  to  land  on  the  Italian 
and  Sjjanish  coasts.  Iidai:d,  too,  they  were  con- 
siantly  tighiing  to  extend  their  territories.  Uefore 
the  end  ol  the  10th  c,  they  had  t-ubdued  the  whole 
country  to  the  ver>;e  of  Maroceo,  with  the  exception 
of  Oran,  which  belonged  to  !?paiu.  The  i^paiiiards 
were    invariably    unsuccessful    in    their  attempts    at 


reprisals.  Emboldened  by  success,  the  Algerinps 
pushed  their  piratical  expeditions  even  beyond  the 
Straits  of  Gibraltar.  In  the  year  IfiDO,  the  Turkish 
janissaries  of  Algiers  obtained  from  the  Constanti- 
nopolitan  court  the  right  to  choose  a  dey  from 
among  themselves,  who  should  shiire  the  power 
with  the  pacha  appointed  by  the  Sultan,  and  bi^ 
their  commandcM'-in-cliief  The  result  of  this  divided 
authority  was  internal  strife  and  confusion.  Never- 
theless, the  insolence  of  the  Algerines  at  sea  in- 
creased. They  attacked  even  the  coasts  of  Provence, 
compelling  Louis  XIV.  to  chastise  them  thrice  ;  which 
he  did,  however,  with  very  little  effect.  An  incident 
occurred  during  the  first  bombardment  of  Algiers 
by  the  French  fleet  in  IGS'i,  which  illustrates  the 
reckless  ferocity  of  these  corsairs.  T5y  way  of  an- 
swer to  the  cannonading  of  his  enemies,  the  dey 
caused  the  French  consul,  Vacher,  to  be  shot  off  from 
the  mouth  of  a  mortar!  After  the  third  bombard- 
ment in  1(587,  the  dey  seornfully  inquired  of  the 
French  how  much  money  the  burning  of  .Moriers  had 
cost  their  master,  and  on  being  told,  coolly  replied 
that  'lie  would  have  done  it  himself  for  half  the  sum, 
and  spared  their  king  the  trouble.'  No  more  decisive 
result  followed  the  attack  of  Admiral  Blake  in  KJ.^.J, 
nor  of  the  English  and  Dutch  fleets  in  1GG9  and 
1670;  yet  the  English  were  the  first  to  form  treaties 
with  the  Algerines.  In  1708,  the  dey,  Ilirahim, 
made  himself  master  of  Oran  ;  and  his  successor. 
Baba-Ali,  succeedt>d  in  effecting  the  virtual  emanci- 
pation of  the  country  from  the  dominion  of  the 
Porte.  He  banished  the  Turkish  pacha;  craftily 
persuaded  the  Sultan  of  Tmkey  to  leave  the  power 
solely  in  his  hands;  carried  on  war,  and  coticlmled 
peace  at  his  own  pleasure,  an<l  paid  no  more  tribute. 
A.  was  now  ruled  by  a  military  oligarchy,  at  the 
head  of  which  stood  the  dey,  and  after  him  the 
powerful  Turkish  tnlHtn,  recruited  from  (\)nstanti- 
nople  and  Smyrna,  because  their  children  by  native 
mothers  could  not  enjoy  the  same  privileges  as 
themselves.     Besides  these,  there  was  a  divan,   or 


council  of  state,  chosen  from  the  sixty  principal 
civil  functionaries.  The  internal  history  of  the 
country  henceforth  presents  nothing  but  a  bloody 
series  of  serag'io  revolutions,  caused  by  the  lawless 
janissaries,  who  permitted  few  of  the  deys  to  die 
a  natural  death.  In  the  year  177.i,  Spain  inider- 
took  her  last  great  expedition  against  A.,  with  44 
sli'ps  of  war,  ,"40  transports,  and  '2.'5,000  soldiers. 
This,  however,  was  as  singularly  unfortunate  as  all 
her  pre\  ions  ones.  Everything  went  wrong,  and  the 
Spaniards  had  to  re-embark  as  speedily  as  possible, 
leaving  behind  them  1800  wounded,  and  all  their 
artillery.  Thus  A.  continued  to  defy  the  greater 
Christian  powers,  and  to  enforce  tribute  from  the 
lesser.  During  the  IVench  Revolution,  and  the  time 
of  the  Empire,  its  piracies  were  much  diminished  in 
conseqtience  of  the  presence  of  ])()werful  Heets  in  the 
Mediterranean  Sea;  but  at  the  close  of  the  war,  they 
were  recommenced  as  vigorously  as  ever.  This 
brought  down  upon  'the  nation  of  corsairs'  (he 
vengeance  of  the  (  hristian  powers.  The  Americans 
took  the  lead,  attacked  the  Algerine  fleet  off  Cartha- 
gena,  on  the  'Jnih  June  1S1.5;  defeated  it,  and  com- 
jielled  the  dey  to  acknowledge  the  inviolability  of 
the  American  flag.  AI)OUt  the  same  time,  the  Eng- 
lish admiral,  Lord  Exmouth,  extorted  from  the  other 
states  of  Barbary  the  recognition  of  an  international 
law  respecting  the  treatment  of  prisoners.  A.  alone 
refused  to  consent  to  it;  and  alter  a  delay  of  si.x 
weeks,  the  English  ami  Dutch  fleets,  under  the 
command  of  Lord  Exmouth,  fiercely  boml)arded  the 
capital.  The  batteries  of  the  pirates  were  soon 
silenced;  and  in  a  few  hours  the  half  of  the  city  lay 
in  ruins  ;  its  naval  force  and  its  magazines  being  all 
destroved.  The  dey,  an  ignorant  and  obsiinate 
l)aibarian,  still  wished  to  protract  the  fight,  but  his 
soldiery  forced  him  to  yield,  and  a  treaty  was  con- 
cluded (ISlC)),  by  which  all  ('hristian  slaves  were 
released  without  ransom  (the  numl)er  was  ]'211), 
and  a  promise  was  given  that  both  piracy  and 
Christian  slavery  should  cease  for  ever.     But  nothing 

139 


ALGERIA. 


could  keep  these  wretches  from  i)iracy.  As  early 
as  1817,  they  ventured  as  far  as  the  North  Sea,  and 
seized  all  ships  in  their  course  not  belonging  to  any 
of  the  powers  who  sent  them  tribute  or  presents,  as 
was  done  by  Sweden,  Denmark,  Portugal,  Spain, 
Naples,  Tuscany,  and  Sardinia.  Nor  did  even  treaties 
avail  to  protect  European  vessels  at  all  times.  The 
Spaiiisli,  the  Papal,  and  in  particular,  the  German  .ship- 
pinjr,  suffered  severely  ;  while  the  dey  mocked  by  his 
insolent  replies  the  remonstrances  addressed  to  him. 
Meanwhile,  the  internal  condition  of  A.  continued 
to. present  the  spectacle  of  a  cruel  pr<x>torian  despot- 
ism. In  the  year  1817,  the  power  of  the  janissaries 
was  greatly  weakened  by  the  skilful  tactics  of  the  dey, 
Ali.  Upon  his  death,  which  was  occasioned  by  the 
plague  in  the  following  year,  Hussein  was  chosen  in 
his  stead,  under  whom  the  Moslem  dominion  was 
terminated  by  a  conflict  with  France.  The  causes  of 
this  conflict  were  various.  A  French  tradiiig-brig 
was  pluudercd  in  Bona  in  1818;  the  dwelling  of  the 
French  consul  was  attacked  in  18-j:>;  Roman  ships 
Bailing  under  the  protection  of  the  French  flag  were 
seized ;  and  even  French  ships  were  detained  and 
plundered.  But  the  chief  cause  of  the  quarrel  was 
a  dispute  about  the  payment  of  a  debt  incurred  by 
the  French  government  to  two  Jewisli  merchants  of 
Algiers  at  the  time  of  the  expedition  to  Egypt.  This 
debt  was  fixed  at  seven  millions  of  francs:  four  and 
a  half  millions  were  immediaiely  paid;  the  rest  was 
reserved  until  the  counter-claims  of  certain  French 
creditors  should  be  decided  in  the  French  law  courts. 
For  three  years  the  lawsuit  dragged  its  slow  length 
along,  till  the  dey  became  impatient — being  himself 
a  principal  creditor  of  the  Jewish-Algeiine  house — 
and  angrily  demanded  payment  from  the  king  of 
France.  To  his  letter  no  answer  was  returned. 
The  feast  of  Beiram  occurring  soon  after,  when  it 
was  customary  for  the  dey  to  receive  all  the  consuls 
publicly,  he  asked  the  French  consul  why  his  master 
had  remained  silent.  The  latter  haughtily  replied 
that  a  king  of  France  could  not  condescend  to  cor- 
respond with  the  dey  of  Algiers.  Upon  this,  the  dey 
struck  him  on  the  face,  and  fiercely  abused  his  sove- 
reign. In  consequence  of  this  insult,  a  French  squad- 
ron was  sent  to  Algiers,  which  received  the  consul 
on  board,  and  blockaded  the  city  (I'ith  June  18'27). 
Six  days  after,  the  dey  caused  the  French  coral- 
fisheries  at  Bona  to  be  destroyed.  For  three  years 
the  blockade  was  listlessly  canied  on  ;  but  in  April 
1830,  during  the  ministry  of  Polignac,  a  warlike  man- 
ifesto appeared  ;  and  a  month  later,  a  fleet  sailed  for 
the  African  coast,  consisting  of  l(i(i  ships  of  war,  and 
357  transports,  having  on  board  an  army  of  .S7,(H1() 
infantry,  4u00  cavalry,  and  a  proportionate  number 
of  artillery,  under  the  command  of  Lieutenant-gen- 
eral Bourmont.  The  landing  was  effected  under 
trifling  opposition.  A  perpetual  skirmishing  then 
took  place  previous  to  the  bombardment  of  Algiers, 
which  commenced  on  the  4th  July.  Next  day,  a 
capitulation  was  agreed  to.  The  Turkish  soldiers 
marched  out — for  such  were  the  conditions — with 
their  families  and  private  possessions,  and  the  French 
took  possession  of  the  place.  Fifteen  hundred  guns, 
17  ships  of  war,  and  .50,000,000  francs  fell  into  their 
hands  as  spoil.  The  dey  retired  to  Port  Mahon, 
with  his  private  property  and  a  train  of  118  persons, 
while  the  greater  number  of  the  Turkish  janissaries 
w-ere  conveyed  to  Asia  Minor.  The  conduct  of  the 
Frencli  soldiery,  however,  it  must  be  confessed,  tar- 
nished the  glory  of  their  conquest.  They  went 
about  phmdering  remorselessly  the  beautiful  villas 
and  gardens  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Algiers,  as 
well  as  the  ancient  valuables  and  works  of  art;  thus 
exciting  a  universal  .«pirit  of  hostility  in  the  natives, 
who  kept  up  an  incessant  guerilla  warfare  outside 
the  capital. 
140 


After  the  revolution  of  July,  Marshal  Bourmont 
resigned,  and  General  Clausel  was  ap{)ointed  his 
successor.  The  latter,  who  was  a  prompt  and 
vigorous  man,  set  about  subduing  the  country,  and 
giving  it  a  regular  government.  His  predecessor 
had  connnitted  a  great  mistake  in  driving  out 
the  Turks,  who  might  have  been  usefully  employed 
in  subordinate  functions  of  authority.  After  their 
banishment,  the  Kabyles  and  Bedouins,  believing 
themselves  emancipated  from  all  subjection,  and 
stimulated  by  intense  fanaticism  against  the  new 
conquerors,  rose  in  rebellion,  or  rather  commenced 
a  .series  of  petty  struggles,  which  obstructed  the 
colonization  of  A.  for  many  years,  and  which  cannot 
be  said  to  have  altogether  ceased  even  yet.  The 
imposition  of  French  laws  and  institutions  was 
made  not  iu  the  wisest  spirit,  most  of  the  old 
Turkish  regulations  being  smnmarily  iibrogated. 
Besides  this  the  natives  were  wounded  in  their 
most  susceptible  point.  Their  mosques  and  burying- 
grounds  were  frequently  desecrated  and  destroyed  ; 
and  Clausel,  whose  vigour  was  more  remark- 
able than  his  justice  or  prudence,  confiscated — 
in  direct  contradiction  to  the  very  words  of  the 
capitulation — all  the  immovable  jiroperty  of  the 
deys,  and  other  exiled  Turks,  and  of  tlie  town- 
ships, besides  various  religious  institutions.  The 
efl'ect  of  these  political  crimes  was  instant.  The 
entire  provinces  determined  obstinately  to  resist ; 
some  even  of  the  provincial  rulers  who  had  pre- 
viously submitted,  now  appeared  in  arms  again. 
Clausel  was  compelled  to  undertake  a  military 
expedition  against  the  refractory  beys ;  but  his 
uncertain  successes  only  inflamed  the  hatred  and 
patriotism  of  the  Kabyles  and  Arabs,  who  opposed 
him  energetically.  A  young  emir  at  last  appeared 
on  the  scene,  Abd-el-Kader  (q.  v.),  who  soon  be- 
came the  rallying-point  of  the  Jad  ('holy  war'), 
which  the  Marabouts  had  begun  to  preach.  I'nder 
these  circumstances,  itbecan;e  impossible  for  Clausel 
to  carry  out  his  scheme  of  colonisation,  and  only 
a  reckless  speculation  in  land  took  place,  which 
was  in  every  way  injurious.  To  strengthen  his 
1  osition  the  French  general,  whose  army  was  now 
gieatly  reduced,  made  a  treaty  with  the  Bey  of 
Tunis ;  but  the  home  government  disapproving  of 
it,  he  was  recalled  in  consequence.  His  successor, 
General  Berthezene,  havhig  achieved  nothing. but 
defeat  and  disgrace  in  spite  of  his  ciuelties,  was 
also  speedily  recalled,  and  Lieutenant-general  the 
Duke  of  Rovigo  appointed  to  the  conunand.  He 
anived  in  Algiers  on  the  '25th  of  December  1831, 
and  established  a  most  severe  and  relentless  system. 
He  scrupled  not  to  perpetrate  the  most  arbitrary  acts, 
cruelties,  and  treacheries.  His  two  most  remarkable 
actions  were,  first,  the  complete  annihilation  of  the 
whole  Arab  tribe  El-Uflia,  when  even  old  men, 
women,  and  children  were  massacred  during  the 
night,  on  account  of  a  robbery  committed  by  someof 
the  members  of  the  tribe;  second,  the  execution  of 
two  Arab  chiefs  who  were  hostile  to  him,  and  whom 
he  had  treacherously  allured  into  the  city  by  the 
written  promise  of  a  safe-conduct.  Such  monstrous 
proceedings  fired  the  entire  nation.  The  most 
peaceful  tribes  flew  to  arms,  and  the  French  were 
attacked  on  all  sides.  The  Emperor  of  Marocco, 
who  secretly  fomented  the  strife,  and  even  medi- 
tated the  conquest  of  Oran,  assisted  the  fierce  and 
imi)etuous  Abd-el-Kader  in  his  designs.  The  health 
of  the  duke  now  declined.  He  returned  to  France 
in  IMarch  1833,  and  the  administration  of  affairs  was 
provisionally  intrusted  to  General  Avizard,  who 
gained  some  credit  by  establishing  the  Bureau 
Arabe.  After  the  death  of  the  duke.  General 
Voirol,  a  man  exactly  the  reverse  of  his  prede- 
cessor, was  made  interim  commander-in-chief.     His 


ALGERIA. 


efforts  were  more  directi-d  to  promote  the  material 
interests  of  the  eoloiiy,  tlian  to  exteiul  the  power  of 
France.  He  met  with  little  opposition  in  the 
province  of  Algiers,  and  in  the  eastern  disti'icts  ; 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  war  raged  fiercely  in  the 
west,  where  Abd-el-Kader  had  either  gained  over  or 
subdued  all  the  tribes  between  Mascara  and  the  sea. 
At  length  a  treaty  was  effected  with  him,  in  which 
he  ])le(lged  himself"  to  make  jieace,  and  to  deliver  up 
all  his  prisoners.  In  return,  he  received  a  monopoly 
of  the  corn-trade,  and  the  right  to  buy  anus  and 
ammunition  in  the  P>eneh  ports.  Towards  the  end 
of  1834,  the  French  government,  having  resolved  to 
retain  permanent  ]iossession  of  the  colony,  organised 
its  administration  anew,  placing  the  supretue  power, 
both  civil  and  military,  in  the  hands  of  a  governor- 
general,  who  received  his  orders  from  the  minister 
of  war.  General  Drouet  d'Erlon  was  the  first 
appointed  to  this  high  dignity.  Under  him  there 
were  a  commander  of  the  troops,  a  commander  of 
the  naval  force,  a  military  intendant,  a  civil  intend- 
ant,  and  a  director  of  finance.  The  administration 
of  justice  was  also  regulated  by  the  erection  of  many 
tribunals.  Frenchmen  and  foreigners  were  to  be 
subject  to  French  laws,  but  the  natives  to  their 
own.  Moreover,  the  old  Algerine  courts  of  justice 
were  still  to  be  kept  up.  D'Erlon  apparently 
desired,  at  first,  to  occupy  liimself  with  the  internal 
administration  of  the  regency,  and,  in  truth, 
deserved  much  credit  for  the  introduction  of  French 
municipal  institutions,  and  the  French  system  of 
education  and  police  arrangements ;  but  a  disgrace- 
ful defeat  suffered  by  the  French  army  at  Makta, 
on  an  expedition  against  Abd-el-Kader,  who  had 
secretly  broken  the  treaty,  caused  the  recall  both 
of  the  officer  in  command  and  of  D'Erlon  himself. 
Clausel  was  now  sent  back  to  A.  with  the  title  of 
marshal.  He  arrived  on  the  10th  of  August,  1835, 
his  first  anxiety  being  to  wipe  away  the  disgrace 
of  the  defeat  at  Makta.  About  three  months 
after,  he  marched  out  at  the  head  of  11,000  men, 
to  attack  Mascara,  the  centre  of  Abd-el-Kader's 
power:  he  had  to  fight  many  petty  battles  on 
his  way,  but  was  always  successful.  On  reaching 
Mascara,  he  resolved  to  set  it  on  fire,  which  he 
did  on  the  8th  December,  and  then  commenced 
his  retreat,  in  which  his  army  suffered  severely 
from  bad  weather,  and  from  perpetiuil  harassments 
by  the  enemy.  Abd-el-Kader  was  soon  more 
powerful  than  ever,  and  General  Bugeaud  had  to 
be  sent  out  from  France  with  reinforcements  ;  but 
nothing  came  of  this  save  a  few  fruitless  victories 
over  Abd-el-Kader,  which  did  the  latter  no  real  harm. 
Bugeaud  was  at  length  compelled  to  make  peace 
on  the  30th  May,  1837.  Abd-el-Kader  recognised 
the  sovereignty  of  France  over  the  regency  :  he 
received,  in  return,  the  government  of  the  provinces 
of  Oran,  Titeri,  and  Algiers,  with  the  excepiion  of 
the  cities  of  Oran,  Arzeu,  Masagran,  Mostaganem, 
Algiers,  Blidah  and  Koleah,  Sahel  (or  the  '  sea- 
coast,)  and  tlie  plain  of  Metidja.  In  exchange  for 
the  city  of  Tlem/.en,  he  delivered  to  the  French 
army  60,0()0  sacks  of  corn,  and  5000  oxen:  he  was 
likewise  permitted  to  buy  arms  and  ammunition  in 
France.  In  February,  1837,  Marshal  Clausel  was 
recalled,  and  Lieutenant-general  Damremont  suc- 
ceeded him.  The  condition  of  the  colony  was  at 
this  moment  desperate,  for  the  disgraces  whic^i 
followed  the  rash  and  even  reckless  measures  of 
Clausel  had  everywhere  lowered  the  prestige  of 
the  French  army.  The  duty  of  the  new  governor- 
general  was  clear,  but  dillicult  :  he  had  to  wipe 
out  the  stain  which  attached  to  the  honour  of  his 
soldiery,  and  to  re-create  the  conviction  of  their 
superiority.  He  first  attacked  the  Kabyles  of 
the  province   of  Algiers,  and  chastised  them  with 


considerable  severity,  and  then  commenced  hia 
great  work  of  taking  Constamine,  from  which  his 
predecessor  had  been  compelled  ignominiousiy  to 
retire.  In  the  month  of  May,  with  an  army  of 
12,<H)()  disciplined  troops,  besides  Znnvi  (originally 
light  infantry  raised  among  the  natives),  Butaillons 
iVAfri(jiie  (convict-battalions  at  first),  the  Tirail- 
leurs (rAfri(fue,  Aud  the  Chasseurs  (TAfriejue,  as 
well  as  the  Spahis  (a  cavalry  corps  composed  of 
native  soldiers  conmiandcd  by  Frei\eh  officers), 
Damremont  marched  to  the  attack  of  Constantine, 
and  in  spite  of  fearful  weather,  succeeded  in 
storming  the  city  on  the  13th.  This  victory  laid 
the  foundation  for  the  entire  subjugation  of  the 
province  of  Constantine,  which  was  com]iIeted  in 
the  course  of  the  two  following  years  without  any 
great  effort. 

On  December  1,  1837,  General  Valee  was  ap- 
pointed governor-general  in  the  stead  of  Daniremotit, 
who  had  fallen  at  the  storming  of  Constantine.  He, 
like  the  others,  misunderstood  the  character  of 
Abd-el-Kader  when  he  considered  it  possible  for 
him  to  remain  quiet.  New  treaties  were  made, 
which  only  delayed  hostilities.  Meanwhile,  the 
work  of  colonisation  went  on  in  spite  of  numerous 
obstacles.  The  province  of  Constantine  was  much 
improved  by  the  building  of  towns  and  the  making 
of  roads;  but  suddenly,  in  OctoV)er  1839,  A!)d-el- 
Kader,  whose  power  had  now  become  formidable  to 
an  unprecedented  extent,  violated  the  treaty  on  an 
insignificant  pretext,  and  fell  upon  the  unprepared 
French  with  an  overwhelming  force.  The  European 
settlements  in  the  open  plain  were  attacked  and 
laid  waste,  bodies  of  French  troops  were  surprised 
on  their  march  and  cut  to  pieces,  small  outposts  and 
encampments  were  taken  in  a  moment,  aiul  by  the 
24th  of  November,  the  dominion  of  the  French  was 
confined  to  the  fortified  cities  and  camps.  Even  the 
settlements  in  the  plain  of  Metidja  were  lost.  Forty 
thousand  Arabs  swept  over  it,  and  threatened 
Algiers  itself  This  state  of  things  demanded  ener- 
getic measures.  The  spring  campaign  was  vigorously 
opened  on  both  sides  :  everywhere  the  French  gained 
splendid  successes ;  while  the  heroic  defence  of  the 
fort  of  Masagran,  near  Mostaganem  (gariisoned 
by  only  123  men),  against  from  12,000  to  15,000 
Arabs,  who  stormed  it  incessantly,  and  with  the 
utmost  fury,  for  three  <l.iys,  raised  the  prestif/e  of 
the  invaders  higher  than  ever.  Still,  however, 
nothing  was  really  accomplished.  After  repeated 
bloody  defeats,  the  native  tribes  again  rushed  to 
arms,  swept  the  plains,  and  rendered  life  insecure  at 
the  very  gates  of  Algiers.  The  only  thing  of  any 
practical  importance  which  took  place  during  the 
whole  year,  was  the  beginning  of  the  circumvallation 
by  which  the  fertile  plain  of  Metidja  was  to  be 
secured  against  the  hostile  incursions  of  the  Arabs. 
Marshal  Valee  was  now  recalled,  and  Lieutenant- 
general  Bugeaud  appointed  his  successor.  The 
latter  arrived  at  Algiers  on  February  22,  1841,  and 
adopted  a  new  system,  which  was  completely  suc- 
cessful. A  brave,  inexoral)le,  and  unscrujjidous  man, 
he  resolved  to  employ  any  and  every  means  for  the 
attainnuuit  of  his  purpose.  He  wearied  out  the 
enemy  by  incessant  ra.-:.zins  (predatory  excursions) 
against  individual  tribes,  corrupted  them  (not 
a  difficidt  thing  to  do)  by  all  the  arts  of  brib- 
ery, and  on  special  occasions  undertook  great 
expeditions  to  annihilate  the  regular  power  of 
Abd-el-Kader,  whose  strong  defensive  positions  he 
destroyed,  and  whose  authority  he  spared  no  pains 
to  undermine.  The  French  army  was  raised  to 
80  or  100,000  men.  Its  operations  were  carried 
on  from  three  principal  points.  Victory  followed 
Bugeaud  wherever  he  went.  He  relieved  and 
victualled   hard-pressed  garrisons ;   intimidated  the 

141 


ALGERIA. 


Btirrouiidiiig  coiintr  i  ;  |)i'ii'ti;itc(l  to  Tekedcmpt — the 
very  stroiijjliold  of  Alxl-cl-Kailer  himsflf — which 
lie  laid  ill  ;xshcs  ;  marched  thince  to  Mascara,  wliich 
Was  also  taken  ;  and  on  all  sides  received  the 
enhmission  of  the  terrified  Ara))s.  Even  the  hottest 
period  of  the  summer  was  made  use  of.  Bugeaud 
lirihed  and  seduced  from  their  allegiance  those 
Arabs  who  were  under  the  sway  of  Abd-el-Kader. 
The  autumn  campaign  was  for  the  time  decisive. 
Saida,  the  last  fortress  belonging  to  the  gallant 
emir,  was  utterly  destroyed,  and  now  almost  the 
ontii-e  country  was  subdued.  Abd-el-Kader  retired 
into  Marocco,  where  he  raised  a  new  army,  for 
his  old  one  had  been  conij)letely  annihilated.  He 
was,  however,  defeated  by  (icneral  Bedeau,  and 
again  compelled  to  retreat  into  Marocco,  from  which, 
however,  he  issued  a  second  time,  in  the  summer  of 
IS-t'i,  and  contrived  to  maintain  a  fierce  but  desultory 
Marfare,  for  two  or  three  years,  aided  bv  the  Sultan 
of  Ifaroeco.  At  last,  however,  deserted  by  most 
of  his  followers,  pursued  by  his  late  ally,  and,  in 
fiict,  hemmed  in  on  all  sides,  he  was  forced  to  sur- 
render to  General  Lumoriciere,  at  the  close  of 
December  1847.     See  Ann-EL-IvAnKR. 

The  revolution  of  February  184S,  somewhat  dis- 
turbed tlie  progress  of  conquest  and  subjugation  in 
A.  That  superb  race  of  mountaineers,  tlie  Kabyles, 
descendants  of  the  ancient  Numidians,  and  possessed 
of  the  same  fiery  and  dauntless  spirit,  bioke  out  into 
a  new  insurrection,  which,  however,  was  speedily 
cpielied.  The  National  Assembly  now  offered  to  the 
European  population  of  A.  to  incorporate  the  country 
with  the  republic  of  France,  and  to  grant  it  all 
the  accompanying  political  privileges  of  a  French 
province  ;  but  intelligent  men  of  all  parties  acknow- 
ledged the  uselessness  and  danger  of  this  step.  It 
was,  therefore,  simply  declared  to  be  a  permanent 
possession  of  the  republic.  Four  deputies  from  the 
colony  were  permitted  to  take  a  part  in  all  discus- 
sions in  the  National  Assembly  on  Algerian  affairs. 
Jleanwhile,  the  work  of  conquest,  colonisation,  and, 
in  some  respects,  civilisation  went  on.  The  French 
troops  penetrated  into  the  far  south,  almost  to  the 
borders  of  Sahara,  sternly  reducing  to  oliedience  the 
desert  tribes,  who  inanifested  a  not  uimatural 
antipathy  to  these  inroads,  and  in  some  cases  fiercely 
resisted  the  invaders.  Various  tribes  of  the  Kabyles, 
too,  opposed  every  attempt  at  organised  taxation, 
and  the  imposiiion  of  civilised  discipline  ;  the  result 
of  which  patriotic  obstin;icy  was,  a  new  canip-.iign 
against  them  by  the  French  general,  Bugia.  Fortune 
again  declared  for  the  invaders ;  but  the  most 
alarming  insurrection  was  that  excited  by  the  Cherif 
Eou-zian,  who  fled  for  freedom  to  Zaatcha  in  the 
oases.  The  French  pursued  him  thither ;  but  were 
beaten,  and  had  to  retreat.  Some  months  after, 
they  returned,  largely  reinforced,  and  in  spite  of  the 
broad  belt  of  palm-trees  which  hindered  their 
operations,  and  the  wild  and  strenuous  heroism  of 
the  besieged,  the  place  was  stormed  and  destroyed. 
The  defenders  all  perished. 

Since  185(),  the  French  governments  have  devoted 
considerable  attention  to  A.  ;  but  the  French  people 
are  proverbially  bad  colonists.  Of  late,  however, 
it  must  be  admitted  that  their  success  has  ex- 
ceeded general  expectation ;  still,  the  enormous 
military  establishment  maintained,  and  the  numer- 
ous civil  functionaries  employed  to  administer  the 
affairs  of  the  colony,  'divert  the  stream  of  help 
from  the  colonist,  and  embarrass  the  treasury.' 
The  Kabyles,  who  inhabit  the  mountainous  region 
lying  between  Algiers  and  Constantine,  and  number 
150,000  fighting-men,  are,  or  rather  were,  the 
great  foes  of  the  French.  Most  of  the  tribes 
are  now  subdued;  but  the  struggle  has  been  a 
sanguinary  and  barbarous  one  on  both  sides.  Nor 
142 


hiis  it  been  at  all  popular  in  the  colony,  for  the 
Kabyles  arc  by  far  the  most  intelligent  and  in<lus- 
trious  of  the  Algerian  tribes.  Every  inch  of  their 
ground  that  will  bear  the  slightest  cultivation  is 
made  use  of;  their  carpets  arc  superb,  their  woollens 
almost  as  good  as  English  ;  while  their  own  gun[.owdcr 
was  believed  by  the  French  to  be  of  English  manu- 
facture. Yet  these  fine  highlatiders,  who  naturally 
love  liberty  with  the  keen  relish  of  a  liigii-s|)iritcd 
TMce,  have  been  sulijected  repeatedly  to  horrors  that 
cover  the  French  army  vith  disgrace;  '  tluir  homes 
burned,  their  women  violated,  and  their  land 
rendered  desolate.'  Their  retaliations  have,  no 
doubt,  been  savage  enough — mutilating  and  roasting 
those  of  t lie  enemy  who  have  fallen  into  their  hands; 
but  nothing  can  excuse  the  brutal  excesses  of  the 
French  trooj'S.  With  the  exception  of  the  few 
Kabyle  districts  that  still  maintain  a  precarious 
independence,  the  whole  of  A.  is  now  t-o  comjiletely 
subdued,  (hat  one  may  travel  through  any  part  of 
it  with  perfect  sectu'ity.  Besides,  the  province  has 
been  divided  into  districts,  which  are  ruled  both  by 
French  and  native  officers,  who  arc  responsible  for 
all  offences  committed  within  the  region  o\er  which 
their  authority  extends.  A  native  ci-.icf  possessed 
of  this  perilous  dignity  is  sometimes  deposed,  fined, 
or  imprisoned  for  negligence  in  the  performance  of 
his  duty,  or  connivance  at  the  escape  ol  the  oll'ender. 
The  con(inest  of  Algeria  has  cost  France  the  enor- 
mous sum  of  .5,n()(),0()(),0U()  francs. 

Since  the  subjtigation  of  A.,  the  French  have  con- 
ferred various  benefits  on  the  colonists  and  native 
tribes,  not  the  least  important  of  which  has  been  the 
digging  of  Artesian  wells  ((|.  v.)  in  districts  formerly 
very  destitute  of  water,  by  means  of  which  waste 
lands  have  been  reclaimed,  and  made  richly  fertile. 
In  Jlay  185t>,  a  '  lioring'  was  commenced  in  an  oasis 
of  the  Sahara  or  desert  of  the  province  of  Constantine. 
A  civil  engineer,  a  sergeant  of  Spahis,  and  a  detach- 
ment of  soldiers  of  the  Foreign  Legion,  succeeded  in 
bringing  to  light  a  splendid  fountain  or  river,  yield- 
ing not  less  than  4010  quarts  of  water  per  minute,  at 
a  temperature  of  '7(/°  F.  The  work  was  considered 
a  miracle.  From  all  quarters  the  Arabs  flocked  to 
behold  and  enjoy  it.  The  native  priests  blessed  it, 
naming  it  the  'Fountain  of  Peace.'  Another  well 
was  termed  the  '  Fountain  of  Benediction.'  In  the 
oasis  of  Sidi-Rached,  unproductive  for  want  of 
water,  a  well  was  dug,  and  at  a  depth  of  54  metres, 
yielded  4300  quarts  per  minute.  It  is  known  as  the 
'  Fountain  of  (iiatitude.'  The  enthusiasm  excited  at 
its  ojjening  was  boundless.  '  The  Arabs,'  says  a 
recent  writer  on  the  subject,  'sprang  in  crowds  to 
the  spot,  laving  themselves  in  the  welcome  alnindance, 
into  which  mothers  dipped  their  children,  whiie  the 
old  sheikh  fell  upon  his  knees  and  wept,  and 
returned  thanks  to  Allah  and  the  French.'  Else- 
where, the  new  wells  have  been  made  the  centres  of 
settlements  by  previously  nomadic  tribes,  who  have 
constructed  villages,  and  planted  date-trees  in  the 
vicinity.  Tlie  official  report  of  General  Desnaux, 
published  in  the  Monilcur  Alcilrien,  states  that  the 
best  results  may  be  expected  from  these  '  borings.' 
The  wandering  habits  of  many  of  the  tribes  arc 
being  eradicated,  and  an  attachment  to  French  rule 
will  probably  spring  up  by  and  by.  The  idea  of  pro- 
viding such  wells  has  lightly  been  considered  'a 
stroke  of  strong  political  wisdom.' 

Nevertheless,  it  would  be  too  much  to  affirm 
that  the  colonisation  of  A.  is  rapidly  advanciiig. 
The  French  government  has  acted  neither  very 
liberally  nor  very  promptly  towards  the  settlers ; 
and  the  number  of  formalities  which  require  to  be 
gone  through  before  one  can  properly  secure  the 
land  which  he  has  purchased,  often  disgusts 
the   poor   farmer.      Labour    is    dear ;     and    as    a 


ALGHERO— ALGOA  BAY. 


conscciuencc,  provittioiis  are  the  saiiio.  However,  a 
l.uj^o  j)Oi-tio!i  of  the  plain  of  Mctidjii  is  already  well 
drained  and  well  farmed.  '  (ii  iil)i)iiii^,  tiiinj;,  and 
di-auiing  are  going  on,'  while  new  villaf^es  arc  spring- 
ing up  even  on  the  edge  of  the  highland  distiict.s  ; 
but  although,  aeeording  to  a  reeent  report  of  the 
minister  of  war,  '  the  natives  are  more  than  ever 
turaing  their  attention  to  agrieultnral  pursuits,  thev 
nvc  not  making  so  much  iin[)r()venient  as  eould  he 
wished  in  their  system  of  eultivation.  Tlu>y  fear 
that  as  eolonisatioii  by  Europeans  advanees,  they 
shall  be  dispossessed  of  the  ground  they  now  hold.' 
Tlie  report  state.s  that  'the  country  i.s  in  a  state  of 
tranquillity,  roads  in  the  course  of  construction, 
cultivation  on  the  incres'se — in  1855,  the  number  of 
hectares  (2^  acres  each)  sown  in  the  provinces  of 
Algiers,  Oraii,  and  Constantinc,  was  l,7G5,t)71  ;  in 
lS5i'>,  2,08i,52i  ;  showing  an  increase  of  347,-15.'? 
hectares — public  works  in  progress,  crimes  and 
transgressions  diminishing,  and  the  Arab  population 
more  inclined  to  obedience;'  while  from  the  heart 
of  the  desert,  tribes,  it  would  seein,  have  come  to 
witness  the  'power  and  the  glory'  of  France,  and 
have  returned,  promising  to  assist  in  the  opening  up 
of  new  commercial  relations  with  Central  Africa. 
J'inally,  it  may  be  mentioned  as  an  illustration  of 
how  the  stern  antipathy  of  the  Mohannnedans  to 
the  social  freedom  of  the  '  infidels '  is  gradually 
disappearing  under  the  amenities  of  civilisation,  that 
the  Comtesse  de  Randou  (wife  of  the  governor- 
general)  has  on  various  occasions  induced  some  of 
the  principal  Moors  to  bring  their  ladies  to  witness 
her  e\eniiig  assemblies — a  perilous  thing  for  the 
whole  'domi'stic  theory  '  of  the  Mohammedan  ;  while 
in  Algiers,  Constantinc,  Bona,  Blidah,  Mostaganein, 
&c.,  a  number  of  Mohammedan  schools  for  instruc- 
tion in  French  and  Arabic  have  been  established,  and 
are  regularly  attended  by  about  12i>0  pupils  of  both 
sexes,  who  learn  to  read  and  write  fluently  in  the 
French  language,  and  to  keep  accounts.  In  Algiers 
itself  tlieie  are  four  of  these  schools  where  the 
female  children  are  taught  the  art  of  sewing ;  and 
European  workmen  who  will  take  Arab  boys  as 
apprentices  are  paid  for  so  doing  by  government. 
Thus,  although  progress  is  slower  than  niight  have 
been  anticipated,  'it  is  real,  and  its  pace  accelerat- 
ing.' When  fierce  memories  have  been  softened  by 
time,  and  such  atrocities  as  those  of  Dahra  (q.  v.) 
have  been  ibrgotten  in  the  substantial  blessings  which 
an  enlightened  civilisation  cannot,  fail  to  bestow,  the 
presence  of  the  French  in  A.  will  cease  to  be  deplored 
by  the  natives. 

ALGIIE'RO  or  ALGRERI,  a  seaport  on  the  west 
coast  of  the  island  of  Sardinia,  15  miles  S.  W. 
fro:n  Sassari.  It  is  well  defended  towards  the  sea, 
being  built  on  a  rocky  point,  and  surrounded  by 
thick  walls,  but  is  commanded  by  some  hills  which 
overhang  the  town.  A.  has  a  cathedral,  several  con- 
vents, a  college,  and  public  schools.  It  ex|)orts  wine, 
tob.icco,  anchovies,  skins,  coral,  bones,  &c.  It  was 
a  favourite  residence  of  Charles  V.,  in  whose  time 
it  belonged  to  Spain.     Pop.,  8()0U. 

ALGIERS  (Arabic,  Al-jezira,  the  island),  the 
capital  of  Algei-ia,  was  built  about  9.35  A.n.  by  an 
Arab  chief.  It  rises  from  the  sea-shore  up  the 
sides  of  a  precipitous  hill  in  the  form  of  an  equi- 
lateral triangle.  The  apex  is  formed  by  the  Casbah, 
the  ancient  fortress  of  the  deys,  which  is  50i)  feet 
above  the  sea-level,  and  commands  the  whole  town. 
The  base  is  a  mile  in  length.  The  present  city  may 
be  regarded  as  divided  into  two  parts  :  the  old,  or  high 
town  ;  and  the  new,  or  low  town.  AVith  the  excep- 
tion of  some  mosques,  the  latter  consists  of  wharfs, 
Wii rehouses,  government  houses,  squares,  and  streets, 
principally  built    and    inhabited     by  the    French ; 


while  the  former  is  almost  wholly  Moorish  both  in 
its  edifices  and  inhabitants.  The  great  centre  of 
bustle  and  activity  in  A.  is  the  Place  Royale — a 
laige  oblong  s[)ace  in  the  centre  of  the  town,  planted 
with  orange  and  lime  trees,  and  surrounded  by 
houses  in  the  European  style.  Here  may  he  found 
as  motley  a  crowd  as  anywhere  in  the  world,  deni- 
zens of  all  nations — Arabs,  Moors,  Jews,  French, 
Spaniards,  Maltese,  Gernuins,  Italians,  &c.  The  city 
is  intersected  by  two  large  parallel  streets.  Bab-cl- 
Ouad  and  Bab  azoun,  running  north  and  south  for 
more  than  half  a  mile.  They  are  flanked  by  colon- 
nades, but  are  very  narrow,  and  therefore  inconve- 
nient for  tratlic ;  as  pronn-nades,  however,  nothing 
could  be  more  agreeable.  In  1833,  A.  had  upwards 
of  KiO  mosques  and  marabouts.  The  mosques  are 
divided  into  two  classes — the  djamas,  or  principal 
mosques,  an  J  the  mesjids,  or  inferior  mosques.  The 
marabouts  arc  the  toml)3  and  sanctuaries  of  saints. 
Everywhere  A.  wears  the  aspect  of  a  rising  colonial 
city.  Other  towns  in  the  province  still  retain  their 
oriental  character,  with  the  exception  of  a  few 
military  buildings;  but  the  new  town  of  A.  tnight 
deceive  the  traveller  into  the  behef  that  he  is  still 
in  Europe,  were  it  not  for  the  throng  of  swarthy 
faces  he  meets.  The  streets  are  regular,  spacious, 
and  elegant;  some  of  them  as  handsome  as  the 
Parisian  Boulevards,  and  adorned  with  arcades.  The 
shops,  too,  are  occasionally  very  good.  The  houses 
are  in  some  instances  five  stories  high,  which,  though 
it  gives  a  massive  and  imposing  appearance  to  the 
city,  is  yet  a  very  perilous  iiuiovation  in  a  place 
which  has  suffered  dreadluUy  from  earthquak(>s. 

But  perhaps  greater  interest  attaclies  to  the  old 
Moorish  town,  which  is  connected  with  the  new  by 
a  steep,  narrow,  jagged-looking  street  called  the 
Casbah,  leading  down  from  the  fortress  of  the  deys. 
The  houses  are  S((uare,  substantial,  flat-roofed ;  rise 
irregularly  one  over  the  other ;  and  have  riO  win- 
dows, but  only  peep-holes,  which  are  intended  to 
exclude  impertinent  eyes,  and  are  therefore  fortified 
with  iron  gratings  instead  of  glass,  so  that  the  houses 
have  a  very  prison-like  appearance.  Although  the 
streets  at  first  contrast  unfavourably  with  tho>e  of 
Europe,  on  account  of  their  narrowness,  the  coolness 
which  this  secures  soon  reconciles  the  traveller  to 
other  inconveniences.  The  inhabitants  have  recourse 
to  their  flat  roofs  or  terraces  in  the  evening,  to  enjoy 
the  delicious  sea-breeze.  The  French  have  introduced 
many  useful  reforms.  There  are  conduits  in  every 
part  of  the  city,  public  baths,  coffee-houses,  hotels, 
omnibuses,  &c.  The  markets  are  held  in  the  S(|uai'es 
de  Chartres,  Mahon,  and  d'Isly.  Ilorsc-racii;;;  is 
the  great  amusement.  The  Arabs  arc  passionately 
fond  of  it.  The  French  have  also  improved,  at  great 
expense  and  labour,  the  port,  whicli  was  in  a  pre- 
carious condition.  The  town  has  suprcni;'  courts 
of  justice,  a  chamber  and  tribumil  of  commerce, 
a  college  and  schools,  a  Catholic  cathedral  and 
several  churches,  a  French  Protestant  church,  a 
synagogue,  a  bazaar  for  the  exhibition  of  native 
industry,  theatres,  and  a  bank. 

A.,  which  had  been  wretcJiedly  mi.sgoverned  by  a 
long  succession  of  Turkish  deys,  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  P'rench  in  183  )  (see  Alokisia),  who  swept 
away  every  trace  of  the  ferocious  despotism  that  had 
prevailed.  The  Turks  withdrew  in  great  numbers 
to  Tuids  and  Alexandria  ;  a  small  remnant,  however, 
is  still  left.  Pop.  in  1857,  52,455,  of  which  33,733 
were  Europeans. 

ALGO'A  BAY,  an  extensive  inlet  at  the  east  ex- 
tremity of  the  south  coast  of  Africa,  being  intersected 
by  the  parallel  of  Cape  Town,  from  which  it  is  dis- 
tant about  8  degrees  of  longitude.  Its  anchoraae  is 
sheltered,  excepting  on  the  south-east,  the  holding- 
ground  being  excellent.     It  receives  two  rivers,  the 

143 


ALGOXQUIXS— ALI  PASHA. 


Sunday  and  the  Baasher.  At  tlie  mouth  of  the 
latter  is  Port  Elizabctli.  A.  B.  is  the  harbour  of  tlie 
eastern  province,  by  far  tlie  most  llourishiii"^  section 
of  the  colony  ;  and  it  will  ever  be  locally  memorable 
as  the  landing-place  of  about  40()0  souls  in  18'20,  the 
lirst  British  emigration  to  this  once  Dutch  possession. 
Since  then,  the  trade  of  the  bay  has  steadily  and 
rapidly  increased.  See  further,  Cape  of  Good 
Hope. 

ALGO'NQUINS.  The  A.  formed  the  most  prom- 
inent of  the  three  aboriginal  races  that  the  French 
found  in  the  great  basin  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  They 
were  then  the  lords  not  merely  of  the  best  part  of 
Canada,  but  of  much  adjacent  territory  to  the  north 
and  west.  At  the  present  day,  the  A.,  as  well  as 
the  Hurons  and  the  Iroquois,  exist,  at  least  within 
the  pale  of  settlement,  only  as  the  shadow  of  a 
mighty  name,  being  chiefly  confined  to  several 
miserable  villages,  with  luirdiy  anything  of  civilisa- 
tion but  its  individual  helplessness.  This  deplorable 
result,  from  whatever  causes  it  may  have  arisen,  is 
certainly  not  to  be  imputed  cither  to  oppression  or 
to  indifference  on  the  part  of  the  French,  who,  polit- 
ically, religiously,  and  socially,  have  always  treated 
the  red  man  with  consideration  and  humanity.  On 
this  interesting  subject,  see  further  under  the  general 
head  of  Amkkica. 

A'LGUACIL,  or  ALGUAZIL  (derived  from  the 
Arabic  Wasil,  i.  e.,  the  'power'  derived  from  the 
king),  is  the  general  name  in  Spain  of  the  officers 
intrusted  with  the  execution  of  justice.  There  arc 
'  Alguacilcs  mayores,'  who  cither  iuiierit  the  office 
of  executing  justice  in  a  town  as  a  hereditary  right 
belonging  to  their  families,  or  aie  chosen  to  the 
office  by  the  municipality  ;  formerly,  tiie  name  was 
also  given  to  the  officers  that  executed  the  sentences 
or  orders  of  tribunals,  such  as  the  tribunal  of  the 
Inquisition,  and  of  the  various  orders  of  knights. 
But  usually,  under  the  name  of  A.,  is  understood 
the  '  Alguacilcs  menores,'  or  '  ordinarios,'  that  is  to 
say,  the  attendants  or  officers  of  the  courts  of  justice, 
gens  d'armes,  bailiffs — in  short,  all  the  inferior 
officers  of  justice  and  police. 

ALHA'GI.     See  Manna. 

ALII  AM  BRA  is  the  name  given  to  the  fortress 
which  forms  a  sort  of  acropolis  or  citadel  to  the  city 


Entrance  to  the  Court  of  the  Lions— Alhambra. 

of  Granada,  and    in  which  stood  the  palace  of  the 
ancient  Moorish  kings  of  Granada.     The  name  is  a 
corruption    of    the  Arabic   KuP-at  al   hamra,  'the 
U4 


I  red  castle.'  It  is  surrounded  by  a  strong  wall,  more 
than  a  mile  in  circuit,  and  studded  with  towers. 
The  towers  on  the  north  w;ill,  which  is  (lefendcd  i)y 
nature,  were  used  as  residences  connected  with  the 
palace.  One  of  them  contains  the  famous  //((//  of 
the  Ambassadors.  The  remains  of  the  Moorish 
palace  are  called  by  the  Spaniards  the  Casa  Ileal. 
It  was  begun  by  Il)nu-l-ahniar,  and  continued  by  his 
successors  (I'iis — l;;4S).  The  portions  still  stand- 
ing are  ranged  round  two  oblong  courts,  one  called 
the  Court  of  the  F'n^h-poiid,  the  other  the  Court  of 
the  Lions.  They  consist  of  porticos,  pillared  halls, 
cool  chambers,  small  gardens,  fountains,  mosaic 
pavements,  &c.  The  lightness  and  elegance  of  the 
columns  and  arches,  and  the  richness  of  the  orna- 
mentation, are  unsurpassed.  The  colouring  is  but 
little  altered  by  time.  The  most  characteristic  parts 
of  the  Casa  Real  have  been  reproduced  in  the 
'  Alhambra  Court '  of  the  Crystal  Palace  at  Syden- 
ham. A  great  part  of  the  ancient  j)alace  was 
removed  to  make  way  for  the  palace  begun  by  Charles 
v.,  but  never  finished.  It  is  long  since  any  part  of 
the  Moorish  palace  was  inhabited  ;  but  it  is  kept  in 
a  state  of  i)reservation  as  a  work  of  art,  and  as  a 
memorial  of  the  tragic  legend  of  the  Abencerrages 
(q.  v.). 

ALI  PASHA,  one  of  the  most  ferocious  and 
unscrupulous  men  that  even  the  east  has  produced, 
was  descended  from  an  Albanian  pasha,  who  perished 
at  the  siege  of  Corfu  in  1716.  He  was  born  at 
Tepelen,  a  small  place  at  the  foot  of  the  Klissoura 
Mountains,  in  Albania,  in  1741.  His  mother  was  a 
vindictive  and  merciless  wonum,  who  never  hesitated 
to  ein])loy  the  most  revolting  means  of  accomijlishing 
her  ])uri)()ses.  Having  lost  liis  father,  a  comparatively 
quiet  and  eidightened  man,  his  education  necossiirily 
devolved  upon  her;  and  she  did  not  fail  to  inspire 
him  with  the  same  remorseless  sentiments  that 
animated  herself.  His  youth  was  passed  in  extreme 
peril  and  hardship,  for  tlie  neighbouring  pashas  com- 
bining, had  robl>ed  his  father  of  nearly  all  his  pos- 
sessions, in  the  effort  to  recover  which,  young  Ali  was 
repeatedly  defeated,  and  at  last  had  to  Vjctake  him- 
self to  the  mountains,  and  even  to  pledge  his  sword 
to  save  himself  from  dying  of  hunger.  These 
calamities  were  not  calculated  to  soften  the  native 
ferocity  of  his  disposition ;  they  only  nurtured  a 
mingled  boldness  and  cunning,  which  afterwards 
developed  itself  in  a  variety  of  qualities,  such  as 
subtlety,  dissimulation,  foresight,  treachery,  vigour, 
and  diabolical  cruelty.  It  is  said  that  the  change  in 
his  fortune  arose  from  his  having  accidentally  dis- 
covered a  chest  of  gold,  with  which  he  raised  an 
army  of  '2000  men,  gained  his  first  victory,  and 
entered  Tepelen  in  triumph.  On  the  very  day  of  his 
return,  he  murdered  his  brother,  and  then  imprisoned 
his  mother  in  the  harem  on  the  charge  of  poi.-ouing 
him,  where  she  soon  after  died.  He  next  reconciled 
himself  to  the  Porte  by  helping  to  subdue  the  rebel- 
lious Vizier  of  Scutari ;  and  thus  acquired  not  only 
the  lands  that  had  been  wrested  from  his  father,  but 
likewise  several  Greek  cities.  He  also  attacked  and 
slew  (with  the  permission  of  the  sultan)  Selim,  Pasha 
of  Delvino,  and,  as  a  reward,  was  appointed  lieu- 
tenant to  the  new  Pasha  of  Derwend  ;  but  instead  of 
attending  to  the  security  of  the  high  roads  (wliit'h 
was  his  office),  he  rendered  them  more  insecure  than 
ever,  by  participating  in  the  plunder  which  the 
klephtis  (robbers)  were  allowed  to  make.  The  resuU 
was,  his  deposition  by  the  Porte ;  but  he  speedily 
purchased  back  its  favour,  for  he  was  a  master-hand 
at  bribery.  Shortly  after  this,  he  acquired  a  high 
reputation  as  a  soldier,  and  did  such  good  service  to 
the  Turks  in  their  Austro-Russian  war  of  1787,  that 
he  was  named  Pasha  of  Trikala  in  Thessaly ;  at  the 
same  time  he  seized  Janina  or  Joannina,  of  which  he 


ALIBAUD— ALIEN. 


got  himself  appointed  paslia  by  the  instrumentality 
of  terror,  a  forg<'cl  liriiiaii,  and  bribery.  It  must  be 
ad.iiittcd  that,  as  a  ruler,  he  now  displayed  many 
exeellciit  qualities.  He  swef)!  his  old  friends,  the 
robbers,  from  the  mountain-roads,  incorporated  them 
into  military  troops,  (|uelled  the  wrctclied  faetions 
that  prevailed,  and  everywhere  introdu<;ed  order  in 
the  plaee  of  anarehy,  by  the  vigour  and  vigilance  of 
his  administration. 

A  .-hort  time  after  this,  he  entered  into  an  alliance 
with  Napoleon  IJonajiarte,  who  sent  him  engineers. 
When  Bonaparte  was  defeated  in  Egypt,  Ali,  in  1798, 
toolc  the  places  in  Albania  possessed  by  the  French. 
After  a  three  years'  war,  he  subdued  the  Suliotes, 
for  which  the  Porte  promoted  him  to  be  governor  of 
Romania.  About  this  time,  he  revenged  upon  the 
inhabitants  of  (iardiki  an  injury  done  to  his  mother 
forty  years  befoie,  by  the  murder  of  7:)'J  male 
descendants  of  the  original  oficnders,  who  them- 
selves were  all  dead. 

In  the  interior  of  his  dominions,  Ali  maintained 
the  strictest  order  and  justice.  Security  and  peace 
reigned,  high  roads  were  constructed,  and  industry 
flourished,  so  that  the  European  travellers,  with 
whom  he  willingly  held  intercourse,  considered  him 
an  active  and  intelligent  governor.  From  the  year 
1807,  when  he  once  more  entered  into  an  alliance 
with  Napoleon,  the  dependence  of  Ali  on  the  Porte 
was  merely  nominal.  Having  failed,  however,  in  his 
principal  object,  which  was  to  obtain,  at  the  peace  of 
Tilsit,  through  the  influence  of  Napoleon,  Parga,  on 
the  coast  of  Albania,  and  the  Ionian  Islands,  he  now 
entered  into  an  alliance  with  the  English,  to  whom 
he  made  many  concessions.  In  return  for  these, 
they  granted  Parga,  nominally  to  the  sultan,  but 
really  to  Ali.  As  he  now  considered  his  power  to  be 
securely  established,  he  caused  the  commanders  of  the 
Greek  Armatolcs  (or  Greek  militia),  who  had  hitherto 
given  him  assistance,  to  be  privately  assassinated 
one  by  one,  while  at  the  same  time  he  put  to  death 
the  assassins,  to  save  himself  from  the  suspicion  of 
having  been  their  instigator.  The  Porte  at  length 
determined  to  put  an  end  to  the  power  of  this  daring 
rebel;  and  in  1820,  Sultan  Mahmoud  sentenced  him 
to  be  deposed.  Ali  resisted  for  a  time  several  pashas 
that  were  sent  against  him  ;  but  at  last  surrendered, 
on  the  security  of  an  oath  that  his  life  and  property 
woidd  be  granted  him.  Regardless  of  this,  he  was 
put  to  death,  February  5,  1822.  Ali  possessed, 
indisputably,  great  natural  gifts;  but  along  with 
them,  a  character  of  the  worst  description.  He 
never  scrupled  to  use  any  means,  provided  it  speedily 
secured  his  end.  Yet  we  can  hardly  help  admiring 
the  singular  talent  which  he  invariably  displayed. 
Like  many  other  half-civilised  monarchs  and  chiefs 
wlio  have  lived  within  the  sphere  of  European  influ- 
ence, he  was  keenly  alive  to  whatever  transpired 
among  the  powers  of  Christendom.  Though  utterly 
illiterate  himself,  he  had  all  the  foreign  journals 
translated  and  read  to  him.  He  watched  every 
political  change,  as  if  conscious  that  the  interests  of 
his  little  region  depended  for  their  future  prosperity 
on  the  west,  and  not  on  the  east ;  and  made  friendly 
advances  to  both  the  French  and  the  English, 
recognising,  with  a  sagacity  remarkable  in  a  bar- 
barian, that  the  practical  dominion  of  the  world  had 
passed  from  the  Crescent  to  the  Cross. 

ALIBAUD,  Louis,  notorious  for  his  attempt 
to  murder  King  Louis-Philippe,  was,  at  the  Revo- 
hition  of  July,  quarter-master  in  the  15th  regiment 
of  the  line.  Having  been  degraded  subsequently  for 
an  accidental  brawl  in  the  streets  of  Strasbourg,  he 
demanded  his  discharge  in  1831,  and  went  to  live  at 
Perpignan,  and  then  at  Barcelona,  where,  having 
become  a  fanatical  republican,  he  returned  to  Paris, 
with  the  determination  to  murder  the  king.  A 
10 


weariness  of  life  had  also  seized  him,  so  great, 
that  he  thought  of  suicide.  It  was  on  the  2.5tli 
of  June  18:i(),  at  the  moment  that  the  king,  when 
driving  through  the  gate  of  the  Tuileries,  bowed  to 
the  national  guard  as  they  presented  arms,  that 
A.  fired  the  ^^L■d-aimed  ball,  which  passed  close 
by  the  king's  head.  Being  immediately  seized,  he 
regretted  nothing  but  the  failure  of  his  attempt. 
Alter  a  short  trial,  he  was  sentenced  to  death,  and 
was  guillotined  on  the  11th  of  July. 

ALI-BEN'-ABI-TALEB,  the  first  convert  to 
^lohanniu'danism,  and  fourth  calif,  was  the  bravest 
and  most  faithful  follower  of  the  Prophet,  whose 
daughter,  Fatima,  he  married.  Being  made  calif  in 
the  place  of  the  murdered  Othman,  lie  was  victori- 
ous over  the  rebels  in  ninety  engagements.  He  took 
prisoner  Ayslia,  the  young  widow  of  Mohammed, 
and  his  greatest  enemy,  in  the  battle  of  the  Camel 
— so  called  because  Aysha  appeared  in  the  field 
riding  on  a  camel.  Ali  was  murdered  by  a  faiuitic 
in  the  year  660.  He  was  buried  near  Kufa,  where 
a  monument  was  afterwards  erected  to  him, 
to  which  his  votaries  still  go  on  pilgrimage,  and 
which  caused  the.  building  of  the  city  Medjed  Ali. 
The  religious  sect  formed  by  the  followers  of  Ah, 
called  Shiites  (q.  v.),  has  spread  exten.sively  under  that 
name  in  Persia  and  Tartary.  The  descenrlanis  of  Ali 
and  Fatima,  called  the  Fatimites  (q.  v.),  although  much 
persecuted  by  the  Ominaiades,  have  nevertheless 
ruled  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile  and  of  the  Tagus,  in 
Wed  Africa  and  in  Syria.  The  best  edition  of  the 
Proverbs  or  IMaxims  ascribed  to  Ali  has  been  pub- 
lished by  Fleischer  (All's  Hundred  Proverbs,  Arabian 
and  Persian,  Leip.  1837);  All's  Divan,  the  mo.st 
complete  collection  of  his  lyrical  poems,  mostly  on 
religious  subjects,  appeared  lately  at  Bulek,  near 
Cairo. 

A'LIBI,  Lat.,  signifying  'elsewhere.'  This  is  a 
defence  resorted  to  in  criminal  prosecutions,  when  the 
party  accused,  in  order  to  prove  that  he  could  not 
have  committed  the  crime  with  which  he  is  charged, 
tenders  evidence  to  the  effect  that  he  was  in  a  dif- 
ferent place  at  the  time  the  offence  was  committed. 
When  true,  there  can  be  no  better  proof  of  innocence  ; 
but  as  offering  the  readiest  and  most  obvious  oppor- 
tunity for  false  evidence,  it  is  always  regarded  with 
suspicion.  In  the  case  of  crimes  the  place  of  commit- 
ting which  is  immaterial — as,  for  exam])le,  the  act  of 
fabricating  the  plates,  or  of  throwing  oil"  the  spurioas 
notes,  in  a  case  of  forgery — a  proof  of  -1.  is  of  no 
avail. 

ALICA'NTE,  chief  town  of  a  province  of  the 
same  name  in  Spain.  The  province,  formed  of  parts 
of  the  old  kingdoms  of  Valencia  and  JIurcia,  contains 
about  3'.  3,000  inhabitants.  The  town,  one  of  the 
most  considerable  seaports  of  Spain,  has  lO.ooO  inha- 
bitants, and  is  the  staple  place  lor  the  products  of 
Valencia,  especially  soda,  cotton  and  linen  fabrics, 
ropes,  corn,  oil,  silk,  and  the  wine  of  the  neighbour- 
ing district,  known  as  A.  or  vino  Unto,  .on  account  of 
its  dark  colour.  A.  is  the  residence  of  numerous 
consular  agents,  and  the  terminus  of  the  A.  and  Mad- 
rid railway,  282  miles  in  length.  In  1.3.3)  the  town 
was  besieged  by  (he  Moors;,  and  agaiir  by  the 
French  under  Asfeld  in  17t)9,  when  the  English 
commandant  of  the  citadel,  Colonel  Richards,  with 
all  his  staff,  perished  by  the  explosion  of  a  mine. 

A'LIEN  (Lat.  alienus, .  belonging  to  another, 
foreign).  The  citizen  of  another  state,  when  resident 
in  England,  unless  naturalised  (see  Natur.\lis.\tion), 
is  an  A.  The  condition  of  an  A.  is  not  necessarily 
the  result  of  foreign  birth,  for  the  son  of  a  natural- 
born  or  naturalised  Englishman  is  not  an  A.,  wherever 
he  may  be  born  (4^  Geo.  IL  c.  21,  s.  1).  This  privilege 
even  extends  to  the  second  generation  on  the  father's 

145 


ALIGNMENT— ALIMENTARY  CANAL. 


side;  and  thus  a  man  wliose  paternul  grandfather 
was  an  Engli.sliman,  is  an  Engh^hnian  himself,  unless 
either  his  father  or  grandfather  be  liable  to  the 
jienalties  of  lelony,  have  been  attainted  of  treason, 
or  be  serving  in  the  army  of  a  prince  at  war  with 
England  at  the  period  of  his  birth  (13  Geo.  III.  c.  21, 
s.  1 ).  By  the  same  enactment,  it  is  declared  that 
this  privilege  shall  not  be  afiected  by  the  fact  that 
the  mothers  of  such  persons  were  foreigners.  The 
children  of  aliens  born  in  England,  except  in  the 
case  of  an  invasion  by  the  Queen's  enemies,  are 
natural-born  subjects ;  liut  the  children  of  English 
women  by  aliens  are  aliens,  miless  born  within  the 
British  dominions.  By  7  and  8  Yict.  c.  CO,  s.  16, 
A.  women  married  to  natural-born  subjects  are 
naturalised.  The  allegiance  due  by  an  A.  or  stranger 
to  the  prince  in  whose  dominions  he  resides,  is 
usually  called  local  or  temporar;/  allecfiance.  It 
differs  from  natural  allegiance  chiefly  in  this,  that 
whereas  natural  allegiance  is  perpetual,  and  unaffected 
by  change  of  residence,  local  allegiance  ceases  the 
instant  the  stranger  transfers  himself  to  another 
kingdom.  See  Allegiance.  In  171)2  and  17'.)o,  in 
consequence  of  the  influx  of  foreigners  caused  by  the 
French  Revolution,  several  acts  of  parliament  were 
]  assed,  which  are  known  by  the  name  of  the  A.  Acts. 
The  object  of  these  acts  was  expressly  to  confer  on 
the  crown  the  power  of  banishing  aliens  from  the 
realm  ;  a  power  which  there  is  reason  to  think  was 
included  in  the  general  prerogative  which  the  crown 
possesses  of  declaring  war  against  the  whole  or  any 
portion  of  the  inhabitants  of  a  foreign  state.  These 
enactments  have  been  superseded  by  the  Peace  A 
Act  (6  Will.  IV.  c.  11,  1836).  By  this  statute,  a  decla- 
ration is  required  of  the  masters  of  ships  arriving 
from  foreign  ports,  of  the  names  and  number  of 
foreigners  on  board  (mariners  navigating  the  ship 
excepted),  and  aliens  are  bound,  under  a  penalty,  to 
produce  their  passports  to  the  chief-officer  of  Customs, 
lor  which  they  receive  a  certificate,  which  they 
must  deliver  up  on  their  departure  from  the  realm'. 
This  act  does  not  affect  foreign  ministers  or  their 
servants,  or  aliens  under  fourteen  years  of  age  ;  and 
as  it  contains  no  provision  for  recovering  the  penalties 
which  it  imposes,  it  is  generally  disregarded  by 
foreigners.  The  rights  of  aliens  to  hold  property  in 
England  are  now  regulated  by  7  and  8  Vict.  c.  66, 
s.  4.  Every  A.  being  the  subject  of  a  friendly  state  is 
thereby  authorised  '  to  take  and  hold  every  species 
of  personal  property,  except  chattels  real  (heritage), 
as  iully  and  effectually  as  if  he  were  a  natural-born 
subject.  And  every  A.  residing  in  this  kingdom 
may  (by  any  mode  of  acquisition)  take  and  hold  any 
lands,  houses,  or  other  tenements  for  the  purpose  of 
residence,  or  of  occupation  by  himself  or  his  servants, 
for  the  purpose  of  any  business,  trade,  or  manufac- 
ture, for  any  term  of  years  not  exceeding  twenty-one, 
as  fully  and  effectually — except  the  right  to  vote  at 
elections  for  members  of  parhament — as  if  he  were  a 
natural-born  subject. 

Till  recently,  the  only  mode  of  naturalisation 
(q.  V.)  was  by  act  of  parliament ;  but  it  may  now 
be  effected  either  by  letters-patent  of  denization 
from  the  crown,  or  by  a  certificate  of  a  secretary 
of  state  under  the  statute  last  mentioned.  Letters 
of  denization  confer  only  an  imperfect  sort  of 
naturalisation,  for  ihou-gh  a  denizen  may  purchase 
and  transmit  lands,  he  cannot  succeed  to  them. 
The  powers  conferred  by  certificate  are  more  ample, 
including  all  the  rights  and  capacities  of  a  natural- 
born  subject,  except  those  of  being  a  member  of 
parliament  or  of  the  privy-council  (exceptions  which 
even  an  act  of  naturalisation  does  not  remove), 
or  such  as  may  be  specially  excepted  in  the  certifi- 
cate. Aliens  desirous  of  obtaining  a  certificate  of 
naturalisation  must  present  a  memorial  to  one  of  the 
UG 


secretaries  of  state,  who,  after  con.sideration,  may 
issue  the  certificate,  which  must  be  enrolled  for  pre- 
servation in  Chancery.  The  A.  nnist  take  the  oath 
of  allegiance  within  sixty  days,  and  obtain  a  further 
certificate  to  that  eil'ect.  Certain  privileges  as  to 
naturalisation  are  conferred  on  foreign  Protestant.s 
and  Jews.  E\ery  foreign  seaman  who  serves  two 
years  on  board  a  British  ship  in  time  of  war  is  ipso 
facto  naturalised  by  13  Geo.  II.  c.  3.  A  man  who 
has  been  naturalised  in  one  state  without  losing  his 
citizenship  in  that  to  which  he  formerly  belonged, 
in  the  event  of  a  war,  if  he  take  an  active  part 
on  either  side,  will  be  guilty  of  treason  to  the 
other.  The  right  of  merchants  to  reside  in  England 
for  commercial  purposes,  and  as  a  necessary  conse- 
quence, to  possess  goods,  money,  and  other  personal 
effects,  is  recognised  by  Magna  Charta  (Art.  48).  See 
Conspiracy  Bill. 

ALIGNMENT,  a  term  used  in  military  tactics, 
equivalent  to  'in  line.'  Thus,  the  A.  of  a  battalion 
is  effected  when  the  men  are  drawn  up  in  line ; 
the  A.  of  a  camp  is  a  rectilinear  arrangement  of  the 
tents,  according  to  some  prearranged  plan. 

A'LIMENT  (Lat.  allmentum),  that  which  feeds  or 
nourishes.  A.  is  not  known  as  a  technical  term  in 
the  law  of  England.  In  the  law  of  France  and  in 
that  of  Scotland,  it  has  retained  the  meaning  which 
it  possessed  in  the  Roman  law  {Dig.  34,  1,  6),  and 
signifies  the  food,  dwelling,  clothing,  and  other 
things  necessary  to  the  support  of  life,  or  such 
money  as  may  be  judicially  demanded  in  lieu  of 
them.  In  this  sense,  it  is  applied  in  Scotland  to  the 
allowance  granted  to  a  wife  deserted  by  her  hus- 
band, or  whilst  an  action  of  divorce  is  in  dependence, 
whether  it  be  at  his  instance  or  at  hers,  to  a  pauper 
by  his  parish,  to  a  prisoner  for  debt  by  his  creditors, 
and  the  like.  Alimentary  allowances,  being  gen- 
erally barely  sufficient  for  the  support  of  the  recip- 
ient, and  made  to  him  in  consequence  of  his  being  in 
want  of  such  support,  are  not  attachable  by  Arrest- 
ment (q.  v.). 

ALIME'NTARY  CANA'L,  in  Mammalia,  is  that 
portion  of  the  digestive  apparatus  through  w  hich  the 
food  pa.sses  after  mastication.  It  is  lined  l)y  a 
mucous  membrane,  which  extends  from  the  lips  to 
the  anus,  being  modified  in  each  region.  See 
Mucous  Membrane.  The  A.  C.  really  begins  at  the 
back  of  the  mouth,  in  the  lower  part  of  the  bag 
called  the  pharynx,  which  communicates  with  the 
nostrils  above,  and  the  gullet  or  oisophagus  below, 
and  also  with  the  mouth  and  the  larynx.  The 
pharynx  is  surrounded  by  three  muscles,  the  con- 
strictors, which  grasp  the  food,  and  Ibrce  it  into  the 
next  portion  of  the  A.  C,  the  a?sophagus.  This  is  a 
tube  composed  of  an  outer  layer  of  longitudinal 
muscular  fibres,  and  an  inner  of  circular,  which 
extend  down  to,  and  spread  out  upon  the  stomach. 
These  fibres,  by  a  series  of  peristaltic  contractions, 
carry  the  morsel  of  food  along  into  the  stomach. 
In  vomiting,  there  is  a  reversal  of  these  actions, 
which  ruminating  animals  can  accomplish  at  will. 
The  tt'sophagus  passes  through  an  opening  in  the 
diaphragm,  and  joins  the  stomach,  which  is  a  pouch 
curved  with  the  concavity  upwards,  expanded  into 
a  cid  de  sac  on  the  left  side  (the  cardiac  extremity), 
and  gradually  narrowed  to  the  right  or  pyloric  end. 
It  consists  of  muscular  fibres  continuous  with  those 
of  the  oesophagus,  which  become  thicker  towards  the 
pylorus.  Its  external  surfaces  are  covered  by  peri- 
toneum, and  it  is  lined  by  a  thick  soft  mucous 
membrane,  which,  when  the  stomach  is  empty,  lies 
in  folds.  Between  the  muscular  and  mucous  layers 
is  a  fibrous  layer,  in  which  the  blood-vessels  lie 
before  they  pass  into  tlie  mucous  layer.  See 
Stomach.       At    its   pyloric   or  left  exti'cmity    the 


ALIMONY— ALISON. 


stomach  coiiiinunicates  with  tlie  small  intestine, 
which  is  about  20  feet  in  length,  becoming  gradually 
narrower  towards  its  lower  end,  and  arranged  in 
numerous  convolutions,  which  occupy  the  middle  of 
the  abdominal  cavity,  and  are  kept  in  position  by 
the  peritoneum,  which  attaches  them  to  the  back  of 
the  abdomen. 

The  small  intestine  is  subdivided  into  three  parts. 
The  first  10  inches  from  the  stomach  is  the  duodenum, 
into  which  open  the  duct  of  the  pancreas  and  the 
common  bile  duct ;  of  the  remainder,  the  jcjiniian 
includes  about  two-fifths,  and  the  -i/einii,  three-fifths. 
The  differences  between  these  last  two  arc  not 
visible  externally,  but  con.sist  in  modifications  of 
their  internal  structure.  The  tube  consists  of 
peritoneum,  longitudinal,  and  circular  muscular  fibres, 
a  fibrous  layer,  and  the  mucous  membrane.  See 
Intestines,  Small. 

The  ileuiTi  ends  at  the  right  iliac  region  in  the 
large  intestine,  which  is  from  .5  to  *3  feet  in  length. 
It  begins  at  the  pouch  called  tlie  blind  gut  (caput 
cascum  coli)  or  cul  de  sac  (see  C.«cl'm)  which  has  a 
small  worm-like  appendage  (appendix  vermiformis); 
a  double  valve  guards  the  opening  of  the  small  into 
the  large  intestine.  The  colon  passes  upwards  on 
the  right  side  to  below  the  liver  (ascending  colon), 
then  crosses  from  the  right  hypochondrium  across  the 
upper  umbilical  region  to  the  left  hypochondrium 
(transverse  colon),  then  descends  to  the  left  iliac  fossa 
(descending  colon),  when  it  bends  twice  like  an  S 
(sigmoid  flexure),  and  then  joins  the  rectum  at  the 
left  margin  of  the  true  pelvis.  The  colon  is  distin- 
guished by  its  pouched  or  saccidated  appearance,  the 
sacs  being  separated  by  three  flat  hands  of  longitu- 
dinal muscular  fibres.  The  peritoneum  only  covers 
it  in  parts.  See  Colon.  The  Rectum  is  not  saccu- 
lated, but  its  muscular  coat  becomes  much  thicker  ; 
at  its  lower  end  the  longitudinal  fibres  stop,  but 
the  muscular  become  more  numerous,  forming  the 
internal  sphincter  muscle.  The  rectum  is  not 
straight,  but  takes  a  curved  course. 

The  A.  C.  thus  consists  of  a  continuous  passage 
lined  by  mucous  membrane,  w-hich  rests  on  a  fibrous 
and  muscular  basement.  Its  length  is  generally 
about  five  or  six  times  the  length  of  the  body, 
or,  in  other  words,  about  thirty  feet.  It  begins 
below  the  base  of  the  skull,  and  passes  through  the 
thorax,  abdomen,  and  pelvis,  and  consists  shortly  of 
the  mouth,  pharynx,  oesophagus,  stomach,  small 
intestine,  and  large  intestine.  The  above  is  the 
description  of  tlie  A.  C.  in  human  anatomy  ;  its 
parts  are  variously  modified  in  different  animals, 
as  will  be  found  in  the  articles  on  its  several 
subdivisions. 

A'LIMOXY  signifies,  in  English  law,  the  allow- 
ance which  a  married  woman  is  entitled  to  receive 
out  of  her  husband's  estate,  on  separation  or  divorce 
a  mensd  et  thoro.  It  is  generally  proportioned 
to  the  rank  and  quality  of  the  parties.  Where 
the  wife  elopes  and  lives  with  an  adulterer,  the 
law  allows  her  no  A.  By  Scotch  legal  writers, 
the  term  is  sometimes  used  as  synonymous  with 
Aliment  (q.  v.). 

A'LIQUOT  PART.  One  quantity  or  number  is 
said  to  be  an  A.  P.  of  another,  when  it  is  contained 
in  this  other  an  exact  number  of  times  witliout 
remainder.  Thus  2,  2^.  4,  and  5  are  A.  parts  of  20, 
being  contained  in  it  10,  8,  5,  and  4  times.  The 
consideration  of  A.  parts  occurs  chiefly  in  the  rule  of 
Practice.  Suppose  we  have  to  find  the  price  of  a 
number  of  articles  at  Gf</.  :  since  f ■/.  is  tlie  8th  part 
of  6(/.,  to  the  price  at  6(/.  (which  is  fomid  at  once  in 
shillings,  by  taking  half  the  number  of  articles),  add 
■^  of  that  price. 

ALISMA'CE^E,  a  natural   order  of  monocotyle- 


donous  phints,  consisting  of  herbaceous  plants  either 
floating  in  water  or  growing  in  swamps.  The  leaves 
have  parallel  veins,  even  if  expanded  inio  a  broad 
blade.  The  flowers  are  in  umbels,  racemes,  or 
panicles  ;  the  sepals  .3,  the  petals  3,  the  number  of 
stamens  definite  or  indefinite.  The  ovaries  are  several, 
superior,  one-celled,  distinct  or  united;  the  styles 
and  stigmas  eqiuil  to  them  in  number.  The  fruit 
is  dry,  with  one  or  two  seeds  in  each  carpel ; 
the   seeds    exalbuminous. — There    are    about  fifty 


^^^ 


^yater  Plantain  (Alisma  plantago). 

known  species,  excluding  tne  natural  order  Junca- 
GINE.S:,  which  is  very  nearly  allied,  and  is  included 
in  this  by  some  botanists.  The  species  of  both 
orders  are  chiefly  natives  of  the  northern  parts  of 
the  world.  Water  Plantain  {Alixina  plantago) 
is  a  very  common  plant  in  stagnant  waters  in 
Britain,  and  is  not  destitute  of  beauty.  Its  leaves, 
which  have  long  footstalks,  shoot  up  above  the 
water,  and  amongst  them,  but  far  above  them,  rises 
the  erect  scape  or  leafless  stem,  dividing  into  slender 
whorled  branches  and  branclilets,  among  which  the 
little  flowers  appear  to  be  thinly  scattered.  The 
fleshy  rhizome,  or  root-stock,  is  eaten  by  the  Cal- 
mucks,  after  it  has  been  deprived  of  its  acridity  by 
drying.  The  corms  of  the  Arrowhead  (Sac/ittaria) 
possess  somewhat  similar  properties.  See  Arrow- 
head. 

A'LISON,  Rev.  ARCHinALn,  was  born  in  Edin- 
burgh in  1757.  He  studied  at  the  university  of 
Glasgow,  and  afterwards  at  Oxford.  lie  took 
orders  in  the  church  of  England  in  1784,  and  sub- 
sequently held  several  preferments,  among  others, 
a  prebendal  stall  in  Salisbury,  and  the  perpetual 
curacy  of  Kenley,  in  Shropshire.  From  1800,  Mr. 
A.  ceased  to  reside  in  England,  and  ofticiated 
in  a  chapel  in  his  native  city,  where  he  died  in 
1839.  A.  is  principally  known  by  hi.s  K'^xai/s  on  the 
Nature  and  J'rinr'iples  of  Taxlc,  first  published  in 
1790.  The  second  edition,  in  1811,  gave  occasion 
to  an  article  by  Jeflrey,  in  the  L\li)iburijh  lievien; 
which  brought  the  book  more  before  the  public. 
It  has  since  gone  through  several  editions,  and 
been  translated  into  German  and  French.  The 
.Enitai/s  advocate  what  is  called  the  '  association ' 
theory  of  the  sublime  and  beautiful,  and  are  distin- 
guisiied  for  their  pleasing  and  elegant  style,  and  the 
fine  feeling  tliat  p^'rvadcs  them.     See  tEsthetics. 

ALISON,  Sir  AnrHinALn,  Bart.,  born  at  Kenley, 
Shropshire,  in  1792,  was  the  eldest  son  of  the  Rev. 
Archibald  A.,  author  of  the  Assays  on  the  Xaturs 

147 


ALISON— ALKALIMETER. 


and  Principles  of  Ta.'itc.  His  mother  was  Dorotliea 
Gregory,  daughter  of  Dr.  John  Gregory  of  Edin- 
burgh. In  18u0,  his  father  removed  to  the  Scottish 
metropolis,  where  he  had  accepted  the  senior 
charge  in  the  Episcopal  chapel  in  tlie  Cowgate,  and 
thus  A.  had  the  advantage  of  studying  in  a  city 
then,  as  now,  distinguished  for  its  politeness  and 
learning.  At  Edinburgh  university  he  obtained 
the  highest  honours  in  Greek  and  mathematics. 
After  he  had  finislied  his  curriculum,  he  became  a 
member  of  the  Scottish  bar  in  1S14,  but  spent  a 
considerable  number  of  years  on  the  continent, 
before  devoting  himself  to  legal  avocations.  In 
1822,  he  was  named  advocate-depute,  wliich  office 
he  held  till  1830.  He  now  began  to  appear  as  a 
writer  on  law,  politics,  and  literature.  His  Prin- 
ciples of  the  Criuiinal  Law  of  Scotland,  published  at 
Edinburgh  in  1832,  is  considered  a  standard  authority 
on  tlie  subject.  In  the  following  year  he  published 
a  sequel  to  the  work,  entitled  77/e  Practice  of  the 
f'riminal  Law.  In  18.']4,  he  was  appointed  sheriff 
of  Lanarkshire,  by  Sir  Robert  Pee!;  in  1845,  the 
students  of  Aberdeen  elected  liitn  'Lord  Kector'  of 
Marischal  College;  in  18.51,  ho  received  the  same 
honour  from  the  students  of  Glasgow  Universitv,  and 
subsequently,  the  title  of  D.'  ".L.  from  the  university 
of  Oxford.  His  great  work  is  undoubtedly  The 
History  of  Europe  durinq  the  French  Revolution 
(10  vols.  *8vo.,  1839 — 42),  'which  narrates  the  events 
that  transpired  from  1780  to  181.5;  a  continuation, 
under  the  title  of  The  History  of  Europe  from  the 
Fall  of  Napoleon  to  the  Arcrtxion  of  Louis  Xnpoleon 
(9  vols.)  was  completed  in  1860.  He  has  also  pub- 
lished a  Life  of  the  Duke  of  Marlhorovfih,  The  Prin- 
ciples of  Population,  &c..  Free  Trade  and  Protection, 
England  in  1815  and  1845,  besides  contributing  for 
many  years  to  Blackwood's  Magazine  a  series  of 
tedious  articles  on  Tory  pohtics.  It  is  very  diflicult 
to  characterise  Sir  Archibald's  mar/nwn  opus,  77ie 
History  of  Europe.  Although  a  work  of  immense 
and  varied  industry,  of  very  respectable  accuracy, 
written  with  great  animation  and  tolerable  candour, 
it  has  failed  to  impress  critics  with  a  high  idea  of 
Sir  Archibald  A.'s  abilities.  The  style  is  at  times 
excessively  wordy,  and  evon  when  animated,  it  is 
never  picturesque.  Nevertheless,  as  his  work  sup- 
plied a  felt  want  of  the  community,  and  is  sufficiently 
entertaining  for  a  large  class  of  readers,  it  met  with 
an  unbounded  popularity.  It  has  gone  through  nu- 
merous editions,  and  has  been  translated  into  German, 
French,  Arabic,  and  other  languages.  Sir  Archibald 
died  May  23,  1867. 

ALISON,  "William  Pultent,  M.D.,  political 
economist,  physician,  and  professor  of  the  practice 
of  melicine,  in  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  from 
which  last  office,  however,  he  retired  in  1855,  was  a 
younger  brother  of  the  historian.  He  was  extremely 
popular  Avith  all  classes,  from  the  amiable  and  humane 
disposition  which  he  invariably  sho^^■ed  in  his  efforts 
to  alleviate  the  sufferings  of  the  poor.  A  pamphlet 
published  by  Dr.  A.  in  1 840,  to  shew  how  the  inade- 
quate provision  for  the  poor  in  Scotland  led  to  deso- 
lating epidemics,  Mas  the  jirincipal  means  of  bringing 
alx)ut  an  improved  poor-law  for  that  country.  His 
other  writings  are — Outlines  of  Physiology,  and 
Outlines  of  Pathology  and  Practice  of  Medicine.  In 
a  work  pmblished  at  Edinburgh,  in  1850,  entitled  a 
Dissertation  on  the  Reclamation  of  Waste  Lands,  he 
fully  examines  the  subject,  and  recommends  the  colo- 
nisation of  these  by  paupers  and  cruninals.  He  died 
Sept,  23,  1859. 

ALIAVA'L,  a  village    near   the   southern  bank  of 

the   Sutlej,  and  not  far  from  the  town  of  Loodianah, 

in  lat.  30°  57'  N.,  long.  75°  36'  E.     It  was  the  scene 

of   a  fierce  conflict    between  the  British  and    Sikh 

148 


forces  on  the  28th  of  January  1S4(;.  The  latter 
having  crossed  the  river  lor  the  purpose  of  foraging 
or  otherwise  obtaining  supplies,  had  threatened 
Loodianah,  wlien  they  were  attacked  by  Sir  Harry 
Smith,  defeated,  and  driven  back  with  great  slaugh- 
ter. The  victory  of  A.  is  said  by  good  judges  to 
have  been  'without  a  fault. ' 

ALKAHEST,  or  ALCAIIEST,  the  universal 
solvent  of  the  alchemists.     See  Alchemy. 

A'LKALIES.  The  word  alkali  is  of  Arabic  origin, 
kali  being  the  name  of  the  plant  from  the  a.^hes  of 
which  an  alkaline  substance  was  first  procmed. 
The  name  now  denotes  a  class  of  substances  having 
similar  properties.  The  alkalies  proper  are  lour  in 
number — potash,  soda,  lithia,  and  ammonia.  The 
first  three  are  oxides  of  metals;  the  last  is  a  com- 
pound of  nitrogen,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  and,  l)eing 
in  the  form  of  a  gas,  is  called  the  volatile  alkali. 
Potash,  Ijcing  largely  present  in  the  ashes  of  plants,  is 
called  the  vegetable  alkali;  and  soda,  predominating 
in  the  mineral  kingilom,  is  designated  the  mineral 
alkali.  The  alkaline  earths,  as  they  are  called — 
lime,  magnesia,  baryta,  and  strontia — arc  distin- 
guished fiom  tlie  former  by  their  carbonates  not 
being  soluble  in  water.  The  distinguishing  property 
of  alkalies  is  that  of  turning  vegetable  blues  green, 
and  vegetable  yellows  reddish  brown.  IMues  red- 
dened by  an  acid  are  restored  by  an  alkali.  The 
alkalifs  have  gi-eat  affinity  for  acids,  and  combine 
with  them,  forming  salts,  in  which  the  peculiar  quali- 
ties of  l)oth  alkali  and  acid  are  generally  destroyed  ; 
hence  they  are  said  to  neutralise  one  another.  In 
a  pure  state,  alkalies  are  extremely  caustic,  and  act 
as  corrosive  poisons.  Combined  with  carbonic  acid, 
especially  as  bi-carlionates,  they  are  used  to  correct 
acidity  in  the  stomach;  but  the  injudicious  and  con- 
tinued use  of  them  is  attended  with  great  evil. 

ALKALI'METER.  Commercial  potash  and  soda 
always  contain  greater  or  less  quantities  of  foreign 
substances,  such  as  sulphate  of  potash,  common  salt, 
silicates,  oxideof  iron,  water,  &c.,  which  diminish  the 
percentage  of  real  alkali  in  a  given  weight.  It  is 
important,  then,  for  the  manufacturer  to  have  some 
simple  and  ready  means  of  d 'terminiiig  the  propor- 
tion of  pure  carbonate  of  potash  or  soda  contained  in 
any  sample,  that  he  may  be  able  to  judge  of  its 
value.  Ordinary  chemical  analy.-is  takes  too  much 
time.  The  A.  serves  this  purpose.  It  consists  of  a 
graduated  glass  tube,  fille.l  with  diluted  sulphuric 
acid,  and  containing  as  much  absolute  sulphuric  acid 
as  would  neutralise  a  given  weight,  say  100 grains,  of 
carbonate  of  potash.  100  grains  of  the  article  to  be 
judged  of  is  then  dissolved  in  water,  and  as  much 
acid  is  gradually  added  to  it  from  the  tube  as  to 
neutralise  the  solution,  that  is,  take  up  all  the 
alkali.  The  application  of  coloured  tests  determines 
when  the  neutralisation  iscomp.lete.  The  purer  the 
article,  the  more  of  the  acid  will  be  required ;  and 
if  the  tube,  which  is  divided  into  100  degrees,  has 
been  emptied  to  the  80°,  the  impure  article  contains 
80  per  cent,  of  pure  carbonate  of  potash. 

This  method  of  determining  the  strength  of  alkalies 
is  called  the  alkalimetry  process  ;  but  the  instrument 
is  not  confined  in  its  use  to  the  estimation  of  the 
strength  of  alkaline  substances.  It  is  likewise 
employed  in  the  determination  of  the  strength  of 
acids,  such  as  sulphuric  acid,  hydrochloric  acid,  nitric 
acid,  and  acetic  acid  (vinegar).  For  this  end,  the 
graduated  instrument  is  charged  with  a  solution  of 
an  alkali  of  known  strength,  su<h  as  a  given  weight 
of  crystallised  carbonate  of  soda  (washing  soda), 
dissolved  in  water,  and  according  to  the  number  of 
divisions  of  the  liquid  poured  from  the  A.,  the 
strength  of  the  acid  into  which  the  alkaline  liquid  has 
been  decanted,  is  calculated.     The  latter  applicalioa 


ALKALOIDS— ALLAH. 


of  this  instruiiient  is  called  aciiliinrtri/.  Again, 
the  same  graduated  glass  tube  has  been  receiiily 
employed  in  many  otiier  ways,  sueh  as  the  deter- 
mination of  the  strength  of  a  solution  of  silver,  by 
charging  the  instrument  with  a  known  or  standard 
solution  of  common  salt ;  and  for  this  purpose  it  is 
used  largely  by  the  assayers  to  the  Royal  Mint,  and 
other  nietallurgic  chemists.  This  mode  of  analysis  is 
every  day  becoming  of  more  and  more  importance*, 
and,  in  fact,  has  given  rise  to  a  new  department  of 
analytical  chemistry,  which  has  been  designated 
volumetric  analysis. 

A'LKALOTDS  form  an  iinportant  class  of  sub- 
stances discos-ered  by  modern  chemistry.  They  are 
divided  into  two  classes — namely,  natural  and 
artificial.  The  natural  A.  are  i'ound  in  plants  and 
animals,  and  are  often  designated  organic  bases. 
Tiiose  obtained  from  plants  are  likewise  called 
vejcto-alkalies.  They  are  composed  essentially  of 
carbon,  hydrogen,  and  nitrogen;  besides  which, 
the  greater  number  contain  oxygon.  The  A.  have 
generally  an  energetic  action  on  the  animal  system, 
and  hence  are  every  day  employed  in  small  doses 
as  medicine;  whilst  in  comparatively  large  doses 
they  are  powerful  poisons.  They  have,  although  in  a 
low  degree,  the  characteMstic  alkaline  properties  on 
veg^taljle  colours,  &c. ;  have  generally  a  bitter,  acrid 
t:iste  ;  and  form  the  active  principles  of  the  plants  in 
which  they  are  found.  Such  are  morphia,  codeine, 
and  narcotine,  found  in  o|)ium;  quinine  and  chinco- 
nine,  in  chincona  biuk;  st-ychnine,  in  nux-vomica; 
hyoscyamiue,  in  henbane;  nicotine,  in  tobacco; 
piperine,  in  black  pepper;  caffeine  or  theine,  in 
collee  and  tea,  kc. 

The  animal  A.  are  few  in  number,  the  more 
important  being  urea,  found  in  the  urine  of  the 
mammalia;  and  kreatine  and  kreatinine,  two  of 
the  constituents  of  the  juice  of  flesh.  The  arti- 
ficial A.  are  those  organic  bases  which  are  not  found 
in  any  known  plant  or  animal,  but  of  which 
the  later  researches  of  chemists  have  contrived  to 
form  a  large  number.  As  the  artilicial  A.  do  not 
difi'cr  essentially  from  the  natural  A.  in  composition, 
structure,  or  properties,  it  is  confidently  believed 
that  the  day  is  not  i'ar  distant  when  all  of  the  A. 
will  be  prepared  artificially  ;  indeed,  recently  several 
of  the  natural  A.  have  been  manufactured  on  the 
small  scale  without  the  intervention  of  the  living 
plant  or  animal.  For  instance,  urea  can  be  formed 
from  the  sunplest  form  of  dead  organic  nitrogenous 
matter. 

A'LKANET  (Anchuxa),  a  genus  of  plants  belong- 
iig  to  ilie  natural  order  Uorar/inea;  and  having  a 
5-partite  calyx,  a  fuiuiel-shaped  or  salver-sluqied 
corolla,  with  five  scales  closing  its  mouth,  five 
stamens,  an  obtuse  stigma,  and  ovate  aclucnin,  which 
are  surrounded  at  the  base  by  a  plaited  tumid 
ring.  The  species  are  herbaceous  plants,  rough 
with  stiff  hairs,  and  having  lanceolate  or  elongato- 
ovate  leaves,  and  spike-like,  bractealed,  lateral  and 
terminal  racemes  of  flowers,  which  very  much 
resend)le  those  of  the  species  of  Jfi/osotis,  or 
Forget-me-not. — The  Common  A.  (.-1.  officinalis) 
grows  in  dry  and  sandy  places,  and  by  waysides, 
in  the  middle  and  north  of  Europe.  It  is  rare 
and  a  very  doubtfid  native  in  Britain.  The 
flowers  are  of  a  deep  purple  colour.  The  roots, 
leaves,  and  flowers  were  formerly  used  in  medicine 
as  an  emollient,  cooling,  and  soothing  applicalioii. 
— The  EvKiuiUEEN  A.  {A.  xonpervirenx^  is  also  a 
native  of  Euiope,  and  a  doubtful  native  of  Britain, 
although  not  uncommon  in  situations  to  which  it 
may  have  escaped  from  gardens,  being  often  culti- 
vated for  the  sake  of  its  beautiful  blue  flowers, 
which  appear  early  in  the  season,  and  for  its  leaves, 


which  retain  a  pleasing  verdure  all  winter.  It 
is  a  plant  of  humble  growth,  rising  only  a  few 
inches  above  the  ground. — A 
number  of  other  species  are 
occasionally  seen  in  our  flower- 
borders. — A.  tinctoria,  to  which 
the  name  A.  or  Ai-Kanna  (Arab. 
Al-chcinich)  more  strictly  be- 
longs, is  a  native  of  the  Levant 
and  of  the  south  of  Europe,  ex- 
tendiu'^  as  far  north  as  Hungaiy. 
The  root  is  sold  under  the  name  of 
A.or  Alkannaroot;  it  is  sometimes 
cultivated  in  England;  but  the 
greater  part  is  imported  from  the 
Levant  or  the  south  of  France. 
It  appears  in  conntierce  in  pieces 
of  the  thickness  of  a  quill  or  of 
the  finger,  the  rind  blackish  ex- 
ternally, but  internally  of  a  beau- 
tiful dark-red  colour,  and  adher- 
ing rather  loosely  to  the  whitish 
heart.  It  contains  chiefly  a  resin- 
ous red  colouring-matter,  called 
Alkanna  Tied,  Aiwliusic  Acid,  or 
Anchusine.  The  colour  which  it 
yields  is  very  beautiful,  although 
not  very  durable.  It  is  readily  Alkanet  {AncTitim 
soluble  in  oils,  and  is  therefore  officmalis). 
in  very  general  use  amongst  perfumers  for  colouring 
oils,  soaps,  pomades,  lip-salves,  &c,  It  is  extensively 
used  for  colouring  spurious  port-wine.  It  also  enters 
into  compositions  for  rubbing  and  giving  colour  to 
furniture.  Its  soluiions  in  oils  and  alcohols  have 
almost  a  carmine  red  colour,  although  to  water  it 
gives  only  a  brownish  hue.  It  combines  with  alka- 
lies, forming  blue  solutions ;  with  chloride  of  tin,  it 
becomes  of  a  carmine  red;  with  acetate  of  lead, 
blue;  with  sulphate  of  iron,  dark  violet;  with 
alum,  purple;  and  with  acetate  of  alumina,  violet. 
— Virginian  A.  (^-1.  Virginica)  yields  a  similar 
colouring-matter,  and  is  used  iii  the  same  way. 

ALKA'NXA  {Al-heruia)  is  also  a  name  given  to 
a  colouring-matter  prepared  from  the  leaves  of 
Lawsonia  i?ierini.i,  and  used  by  oriental  ladies  to 
give  a  red  colour  to  their  nails.     See  Henna. 

ALKII A A'B,  an  old  town  in  the  province  of  North 
Holland,  in  the  Netherlands,  situated  on  the  Ilelder 
Canal,  20  miles  N.N.W.  of  AmsterdaTu,  in  lat.  52° 
38'  N.,  Ion.  4"  43'  E.  Fop.  9800.  It  is  well  built,  has 
very  clean  streets,  and  is  intersected  by  broad  canals. 
It  possesses  a  towidiouse,  ornamented  with  curious 
Gothic  carving.  The  inhabitants  support  themselves 
by  important  manufactures  of  sail-cloth,  sea-salt, 
&c.,  as  well  as  by  trade  in  grain,  butter,  and  cheese. 
A.  is  said  to  export  more  of  the  last-mentioned  com- 
modity than  any  other  town  iu  the  world ;  9,000,000 
lbs.  annually  is  the  (luantity  specified.  It  is  the 
birthplace  of  Henry  of  A.  See  Reinekk  Fuciis. 
Here,  on  October  18,  1799,  the  Duke  of  York  signed 
a  not  very  honourable  capitulation,  after  his  lUisso- 
British  army  had  been  twice  defeated  by  the  French 
general  Brune. 

A'LLA  BREVE.  In  old  music,  the  breve  |  =  |, 
as  the  longest  note,  was  equivalent  to  oiu-  semi- 
breve,  o,  the  longest  note  connnoidy  used  in  modern 
music.  Consequently,  the  minims  anciently  used 
were  equivalent  to  our  crotchets.  Music  written 
with  four  minims  in  a  bar  is  signed  Alia  Breve, 
which  implies  that  the  four  minims  must  be  sung  as 
four  crotchets.  The  difference  between  the  two  styles 
of  writing  is  merely  formal.  Other  signs  for  A.  B. 
lime  are — 2,   -^,  or  -^,  or  Alia  Capclla. 

A'LLAII  (coiupounded  of  the  article,  al  and 
ildli — i.  e.,    'the    worthy    to    be    adored')    is    the 

149 


ALLAHABAD, 


Arabic  name  of  the  one  God,  to  whose  worship 
Jloliumnied  pledged  his  followers ;  and  the  word 
has  passed  into  all  languages  wherever  the  name 
of  Islam  has  been  heard.  The  notions  of  the 
eharaeler  of  this  God  given  by  Mohammed  in  the 
Koran  bear  manifest  traces  of  Jewish  and  Christian 
influence,  and  are  much  superior  to  the  national 
superstitions  and  impassioned  fancies  of  the  orientals 
in  general.  Above  all  other  things,  Mohammed 
inculcated  the  unity  of  God  in  the  strictest  sense, 
in  opposition  not  only  to  idolatry,  but  also  in  some 
points  to  the  belief  of  the  Jews  and  Christians,  as  is 
seen  in  the  following  formula  or  creed :  '  There  is 
no  God  but  the  God  (Allah).  This  only  true,  great, 
and  highest  God  has  his  existence  of  himself,  is 
eternal,  not  begotten,  and  begets  not,  suffices  for 
himself,  fills  the  universe  with  his  infinity,  is  the 
centre  in  wh-om  all  things  unite,  manifest  and 
concealed,  Lord  of  the  corporeal  and  spiritual 
worlds,  creator  and  ruler,  almighty,  all-wise,  all- 
good,  merciful,  and  his  decrees  are  irrevocahle.' 
Mohammed  has  ventured  on  very  bold  illustrations 
of  the.se  attributes  for  popular  representation,  as  in 
the  pas.sage  of  the  Koran  where  he  says:  'If  all 
the  trees  on  earth  were  pens,  and  if  there  were 
seven  oceans  full  of  ink,  they  would  not  suffice  to 
describe  the  wonders  of  the  Aimighty.'  The  differ- 
ent attributes  of  God,  divided  under  his  ninety-nine 
names,  and  connected  together  in  a  certain  order  in 
a  litany,  form  the  rosary  of  the  Moiiainmedans,  which 
concludes  with  the  name  A.,  as  the  hundredth,  in- 
cluding in  itself  all  the  former  epithets. 

A'LLAHABA'D,  a  British  district  in  the  North- 
west Provinces  of  India,  between  lat.  24°  49',  2.5° 
44' ;  long.  81°  14',  82°  2(5'.  It  is  85  miles  in  length 
by  50  in  breadth — area,  2801  square  miles.  The 
surface  of  the  country  is  in  general  level,  with  a 
slope  towards  the  S.E.  The  principal  rivers  are 
the  Ganges  (flowing  partly  within  it,  and  partly 
dividing  it  from  Oude  and  Mirzapore),  and  its  great 
affluent  the  Jumna,  which  joins  it  at  the  city  of 
A.  The  district  is  well  watered,  and  vegetation  is 
luxuriant.  The  native  agriculture  at  the  end  of  the 
last  century  was  singularly  rude  and  deficient,  but  the 
efforts  of  IBritish  residents  have  done  much  for  its 
improvement.  The  principal  products  of  the  district 
are  cotton  and  salt ;  and  there  is  a  brisk  transit- 
trade  by  the  Jumna  in  cotton,  indigo,  and  sugar. 
The  population,  in  1848,  was  '710,2(5.3,  chiefly  agricul- 
tural, of  whom  95,740  were  Mohammedans  and 
others  not  Hindus.  The  four  principal  towns  are 
Allahabad,  Shahzadpore,  Bhugeisur,  and  Adanipore. 
— The  Province  or  'Division'  of  A.  comprehends  tlie 
districts  of  Cawnpore,  Futtehpoor,  Humeerpore,  and 
Calpee,  Banda,  and  A.  It  is  bounded  N.  by  Oude 
and  Agra,  E.  by  Behar,  S.  by  Gundwana,  and  W. 
by  Malwah.  Its  length  is  about  270  miles;  breadth, 
120;  area,  11,839  square  miles  ;  popidation,  in  1849, 
0,2]  9,087.  It  comprises  one  of  the  most  populous 
and  productive  territories  in  India. 

ALLAHABAD.  This  '  city  of  God  '—for  that  is 
the  meaning  of  its  variously  pronounced  name — 
occupies  the  fork  of  the  Ganges  and  Jumna,  lat. 
25°  26'  N.,  long.  81°  85'  E.,  thus  forming  the  lowest 
extremity  of  the  extensive  region  which,  as  lying 
befween  those  natural  boundaries,  is  distinguished 
as  the  Doab,  or  the  country  of  Two  Rliers — an 
analogous  term  to  the  Punjab,  or  the  country  of 
Five  Jiiveis.  The  situation  of  A.,  at  the  confluence 
of  the  holy  streams  of  India,  besides  giving  the  city 
its  sacred  appellation,  has  rendered  it  a  much-fre- 
quented place  of  pilgrimage  for  the  purpose  of 
ablution,  some  of  the  devotees  sinking  themselves 
with  weights  to  rise  no  more.  In  point  of  appear- 
ance, A.  was  scarcely  Avorthy  of  its  character  and 
150 


renown.  With  the  exception  of  a  few  ancient 
monuments  of  costly,  elaborate,  and  tasteful  work- 
manship, the  native  part  of  the  city  consists  of 
mean  houses  and  narrow  streets.  As  in  the  towns 
geneially  of  India,  the  European  quarter,  on  the 
whole,  is  vastly  superior.  Its  nucleus  appears  to 
have  been  the  native  fort,  which,  on  the  east  and 
south,  rises  directly  from  the  banks  of  both  rivers, 
while  towards  the  land  its  artificial  defences,  of 
great  strength  in  themselves,  are  not  commanded 
from  the  neighbourhood  by  any  higher  ground.  This 
citadel,  described  by  Ilelier  as  having  been  at  one 
time  '  a  very  noble  castle,'  has  lost  much  of  its 
romance  by  having  had  its  lofty  towers  primed  down 
to  bastions  and  cavaliers.  The  Europeans  of  the 
garrison  occupy  wcllconstructed  barracks.  Beyond 
the  fort  are  the  cantonments  for  the  native  troops. 
In  comiection  with  these  are  numerous  villas  and 
bungalows,  few  other  spots  in  India  boasting  such 
handsome  buildings  of  this  kind  ;  and  these  showy 
retreats  are  rendered  still  more  attractive  and 
agreeable  by  avenues  of  trees,  which  wind  between 
them,  and  connect  them  with  the  fort,  the  city,  and 
several  of  the  circumjacent  localities. 

Such,  at  least,  was  A.  before  the  summer  of  1857. 
On  tlie  6th  of  June  of  that  year,  the  Insurrection, 
which  had  begun  at  Meerut  on  10th  May,  ex- 
tended itself  to  A.  Though  the  Europeans  con- 
tinued to  hold  the  fort,  yet  tlie  mutineers  were, 
for  some  days,  undisputed  masters  of  all  beyond ; 
and  between  the  ravages  of  the  marauders  and 
the  fire  of  the  garrison,  the  city  soon  became  little 
better  than  a  heap  of  blackened  ruins.  In  the 
history  of  this  fearful  outbreak,  A.  must  be  '  a 
magic  word'  to  every  English  ear,  as  the  spot 
where  tlie  fiery  Neill  entered  on  his  brief  career 
of  glory.  So  advantageously  situated  as  it  is,  both 
for  commerce  and  for  war,  A.  must  speedily  re- 
cover from  its  disasters.  It  commands  the  navi- 
gation both  of  the  Ganges  and  of  the  Jumna.  It  is 
on  the  direct  water-route  between  Calcutta  and  the 
Upper  Provinces;  and  it  is  a  main  station  not  only 
on  the  Grand  Trunk  Koad,  but  also  on  the  East 
Indian  Ivailway.  This  matchless  position  seems  to 
be  fully  aiipieciated  by  the  government;  the  fol- 
lowing outline  of  its  views,  however  much  it  may 
be  modified  by  time  or  circumstances,  conveying  a 
tolerably  correct  idea  of  the  future  of  A.  On  the 
land  side  it  has  been  proposed  to  construct  a 
line  of  intrenchment  from  river  to  river,  which, 
extending  four  miles  in  length,  would  consist  of  three 
redoubts — two  at  the  extremities,  and  one  in  the 
middle — communicating  with  each  other  by  an 
embankment  of  earth.  In  the  middle  of  the  square 
thus  enclosed — with  the  military  cantonment  on  one 
side  and  the  native  town  on  the  other — would  be 
erected  the  European  city,  backed  by  the  fort  as  a 
last  refuge  for  the  European  population.  Accordingly, 
on  May  5,  1858,  within  less  than  a  year  from  the 
beginning  of  the  insurrection,  Mr.  Thornhill,  officiat- 
ing commissioner,  proposed  to  lease  land  in  the 
English  quaiter  for  building  purposes — the  lots  to  be 
three  acres  each,  at  £3  a  year  per  acre,  and  the  term 
not  to  exceed  fifty  years.  These  conditions  were 
evidently  framed  with  the  view  of  converting  A.  into 
a  grand  and  safe  emporium  of  trade ;  and  if,  since 
1801,  when  it  permanently  became  British,  the  city 
has  augmented  its  population  from  20,000  to  70,000 
souls,  it  bids  fair,  through  the  united  influence  of 
steam-navigation  and  railways,  to  rival  in  the  east 
the  growth  and  prosperity  of  the  commercial  capitals 
of  the  western  hemisphere.  Thus  w  ill  A.  become  a 
centre  of  civilization  through  the  same  peculiarity 
which  has  so  long  elcA'ated  it  into  a  temple  of 
superstition — the  confluence  of  the  Jumna  and  the 
Ganges — streams  which,  if  there    be  a  holiness   in 


ALLAMANDA— ALLANTOIS. 


beneficence,  will  then  have  a  higher  claim  to  venera- 
tion tlian  before.  A.  is  distant  from  Cuk'Utta,  by 
land,  lyf)  miles  ;  by  water,  8(t8  miles  in  the  rainy 
season  ;  by  water,  985  miles  in  the  dry  season. 

ALLAMA'NDA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Apocynacece  (q.  v.),  distinguished  by  a  5- 
parted  calyx  without  glands,  a  fuiinel-.sliaped  corolla 
with  its  limb  campanulate,  and  the  iruit  a  prickly 
capsule.  A.  cathartica,  a  native  of  the  West  Indies, 
is  a  shrub  with  whoiled  or  opposite  oblong  leaves, 
and  large  yellow  flowers  on many-floweied  footstalks. 
It  has  violently  emetic  and  purgative  properties ; 
but  in  small  doses,  an  infusion  of  the  leaves  is 
esteemed  a  valuable  cathartic  medicine,  especially  in 
the  cure  of  painter's  colic.  All  the  species  are 
natives  of  the  tropical  parts  of  America. 

A'LLAN,  Bridge  of,  a  beautiful  village,  con- 
sisting chiefly  of  lodging-houses,  lying  within  the 
shelter  of  «.  spur  of  the  Ochila,  on  the  road  from 
Stirling  to  Perth,  from  the  former  of  which  towns 
it  is  only  three  miles  distant.  It  is  situated  on  the 
banks  of  the  Allan,  which,  like  the  heights  behind 
the  place,  are  richly  wooded.  It  owes  its  prosperity 
partly  to  its  mineral  (saline)  wells,  and  partly  to  its 
sheltered  situation  and  mild  climate,  which  render 
it  a  favourite  resort  of  invalids,  especially  in  spring 
and  autumn.  There  are  two  excellent  hotels,  and 
abundance  of  good  lodgings. 

ALLAy,  David,  a  distinguished  Scottish  painter 
of  domestic  subjects,  in  which  he  was  the  fore- 
runner of  Wilkie,  was  born  at  Alloa  in  1744. 
In  1755,  he  entered  the  academy  for  drawing, 
painting,  and  engraving,  cstal)lished  in  Glasgow 
by  the  celebrated  printer  Fowlis,  where  he  studied 
for  seven  years.  The  liberality  of  friends  enabled 
him,  in  1764,  to  go  to  Rome,  where  he  resided 
for  sixteen  years.  In  1773,  he  gained  the  gold 
medal  given  by  the  Academy  of  St.  Luke  for 
the  best  historical  composition.  The  subject  was 
the  '  Origin  of  Painting,'  the  old  legend  of  the 
Corinthian  maid  who  drew  her  lover's  profile  from 
the  shadow.  This  picture,  the  highest  effort  of 
Allan's  powers,  was  engraved  by  Cunego.  Of  his 
other  pictures  executed  at  Rome,  the  best  known 
are  four  humorous  pieces  illustrating  the  Carnival, 
which  were  engraved  by  Paul  Sandby.  In  1777, 
A.  came  to  London,  where  he  painted  portraits  ; 
after  a  year  or  two,  he  removed  to  Edinburgh ; 
and  in  178ti,  succeeded  Runciman  at  the  head  of 
the  art  academy  established  there  by  the  Board  of 
Manufactures.  His  works  subsequent  to  this  date 
were  chiefly  of  a  humorous  description,  and  illus- 
trative of  Scottish  domestic  life.  Ills  illustrations 
of  Allan  Ramsay's  Gentle  Shepherd  became  very 
popidar,  but  are  of  no  great  merit.  A.  died 
at  Edinburgh  in  1706.  'His  merits,'  says  Allan 
Cunningham,  '  are  of  a  limited  nature  ;  he  neither 
excelled  in  line  drawing  nor  inharmonious  colouring  ; 
and  grace  and  grandeur  were  beyond  his  reach. 
His  genius  lay  in  expression,  especially  in  grave 
humour  and  open  drollery.' 

ALLA>i[,  Sir  William,  a  distinguished  Scottish 
historical  painter,  was  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1782. 
He  was  educated  at  the  High  School ;  and  having 
early  displayed  a  taste  for  drawing,  was  entered  as 
a  pupil,  in  the  School  of  Design  connected  with  the 
Royal  Institution,  with  the  intention  of  becoming  a 
coach-painter.  Among  his  fellow-students  and  friends 
were  David  Wilkie,  John  Burnet,  and  others  w  ho  after- 
wards rose  to  eminence.  He  subsequently  studied  for 
some  time  at  the  Royal  Academy  of  London.  Poind- 
ing difficulties  in  the  way  of  professional  advance- 
ment in  the  metropolis,  he  determined  to  go  abroad; 
and  in  lSt>5,  set  out  for  St.  Petersburg,  where  the 
friciidly  interest  of  his  countryman,   Sir  Alexander 


Crichton,  the  imperial  fiimily  physician,  soon  pro- 
cured him  employment.  In  the  Russian  capital,  he 
spent  several  years,  diligently  pursuing  his  profes- 
sional lal)ours,  and  nuiking  occasional  tours  to  the 
south  of  Russia,  the  Crimea,  Turkey,  and  Circassia, 
where  he  nuide  numerous  sketches,  some  of  which 
supplied  the  materials  of  his  best  known  works.  In 
1814,  he  returned  to  Edinburgh,  and  soon  after 
exhii)ited  his  '  ('ircassian  Captives,'  a  large  picture, 
distinguished  by  the  i)ictures(iueness  of  the  subject; 
and  tlie  elaborate  fidelity  and  spirit  of  its  treatment. 
He  had  exhibited  several  pictures  before  this,  hut 
not  till  now  was  his  reputation  as  an  artist  fairly 
established.  The  remuneration  of  his  labours,  how- 
ever, was  not  so  ready  as  the  public  acknowledgment 
of  their  worth.  The  i)\irchase  of  two  of  his  pictures 
by  the  Grand  Duke  Nicholas,  afterwards  em|)cror, 
when  on  a  visit  to  Edinburgh,  contributed  in  no 
small  degree  to  promote  the  sale  of  his  works.  A 
severe  attack  of  ophthalmia  obliged  him  for  a  time 
to  suspend  his  exertions.  He  em|)loyeil  his  leisure 
in  visiting  Italy,  Turkey,  Greece,  and  Asia  Minor. 
On  returning  home,  he  resumed  his  brush,  and  for 
many  years  laboured  with  great  assiduity.  In  18'26, 
he  was  elected  an  associate  of  the  London  Academy ; 
in  1835,  an  Academician.  In  1838,  on  the  death  of  Mr. 
George  Watson,  the  Royal  Scottish  Academy  elected 
him  as  its  president,  and  on  t'le  death  of  Sir  David 
Wilkie  in  1841,  he  was  appointed  Limner  to  Her 
Majesty  for  Scotland.  He  was  at  the  same  time 
knighted.  At  intervals,  he  made  excursions  into  the 
continent,  visiting  Spain  and  Marocco  in  1834,  St. 
Petersburg  in  1841,  and  Germany  and  Belgium  in 
1847.  At  St.  Petersburg,  he  received  a  commission 
from  the  Emperor  to  paint  a  large  picture  of  '  Peter 
the  Great  teaching  Shipbuilding  to  his  Siibjects ;' 
it  was  exhibited  at  London  in  1845,  and  is  now  in 
the  Imperial  Winter  Palace.  For  some  time  before 
his  death,  he  had  been  diligently  working  at  a 
great  picture  of  '  Bruce  at  B:innockburn.'  He  died 
in  his  painting-room,  to  which  his  bed  had  been 
removed,  on  the  '1-d  of  February,  1850.  The  great 
merits  of  Sir  W.  A.  as  a  painter  consist  in  his 
conscientious  fidelity,  his  skill  in  composition,  and 
the  dramatic  force  of  his  representations.  The 
impulse  contributed  by  him  to  historical  painting, 
especially  of  national  subjects,  entitles  him  to  a  very 
high  place  in  the  history  of  Scottish  art.  Among 
his  chief  works,  many  of  which  are  well  known 
through  engravings,  are — '  John  Knox  admonishing 
Queen  Mary,'  1823;  'Queen  Mary  signing  her 
abdication,'  1824;  'Death  of  the  Regent  Moray,' 
1825;  'Polish  Exiles,'  18.34;  'The  Slave-market  at 
Constantinople,'  1837  ;  '  Battle  of  Prcstonpans,'  1842  ; 
'Waterloo,'  two  i)ictures,  from  the  French  and 
English  positions,  the  first  of  which  was  bought  by 
the  Duke  of  AVellington. 

ALLA'NTOIS,  a  delicate  membranous  bag, 
which  makes  its  appe^irance  in  the  eggs  of  birds 
during  incubation,  and  is  a  provision  chiefly  for 
the  aeration  of  the  blood  of  the  embryo  or  chick. 
It  sprouts  from  the  lower  part  of  the  intestine  of 
the  chick,  and  rapidly  enlarges,  so  as  almost  com- 
pletely to  enclose  it,  lining  nearly  the  whole  extent 
of  the  memhrana  pnfaniinis — the  double  membrane 
which  is  immediately  within  the  cgg-.shell.  It  is 
covered  with  a  net-work  of  arteries  and  veins, 
corresponding  to  the  umbilical  artery  and  vein  of 
Mammalia  ;  and  the  aeration  of  the  blood  is  accom- 
plished by  the  air  wdiich  enters  thrci.gh  the  pores  of 
the  shell ;  but  as  the  lungs  become  capat)le  of  their 
function,  the  circulation  in  the  A.  diminishes,  and 
its  footstalk  contracts,  and  at  last  divides,  leaving 
onlv  a  ligamentous  remnant.  In  the  eggs  of  Rep- 
tiles, the  A.  is  developed  as  in  those  of  Birds,  but 
it  does  not  make  its  appearance  in  thos3  of  Fishes. 

151 


ALLARD— ALLEGORY. 


In  tlio  Mammalia,  it  is  superi-eileil  as  an  organ  for 
the  aeration  of  tlie  blood  at  an  early  period  of  foetal 
life  by  other  contrivances,  but  continues  to  exist  in 
the  lower  animals  for  the  reception  of  the  urinary 
secretions  through  the  urachus,  a  purjjose  which  it 
serves  in  Birds  and  Reptiles  likewise.  In  the  human 
species,  it  disappears  very  early,  only  a  minute 
vesicle  remaining  to  indicate  its  previous  existence. 

ALLA'RD,  generalissimo  of  the  army  of  Lahore, 
and  previously  adjutant  to  Marshal  Brune  under 
Napoleon,  was  born  in  1783.  After  the  murder  of 
Marshal  Brune  (q.  v.),  A.  left  France  (1815), 
intending  to  emigrate  to  America;  but  changed 
his  plan,  entered  into  the  service  of  Abbas-Mirza 
of  Persia,  and  afterwards  went  to  Lahore  (18211), 
where  he  engaged  in  the  service  of  linnjeet  Singh 
(q.  v.),  by  whom  he  was  made  generalissimo,  and 
whose  forces  he  organized  and  trained  in  the 
European  modes  of  warfare.  Having  married  a 
native  of  Lahore,  he  identified  himself  with  the 
interests  of  his  adopted  country,  but  could  not  en- 
tirely ibrget  France.  The  July  revolution  brought 
him  back  to  Paris,  where  he  was  received  with 
distinction,  and  was  made  French  charcie  d'affaires  in 
Lahore.  He  presented  to  the  Royal  Library  of  Paris 
a  valuable  collection  of  coins,  and  returned  to  Lahore 
(183(i),  leaving  his  wife  and  children  in  Paris.  In 
the  subsequent  battles  of  Rmijeet  Singh  with  the 
Afghans,  A.  repeatedly  distinguished  himself,  and 
died  at  Peshawur,  January  23,  1S:;9.  Ills  remains 
were,  according  to  his  own  wish,  buried  with  military 
honours  at  Lahore. 

ALLEGIIA'NIES,  a  name  perhaps  originally  limit- 
ed to  the  mountain  cradle  of  the  river  next  mention- 
ed, but  often  jiopularly  extended  to  the  whole  chain, 
otherwise  called  the  Appalachians  (q.  v.). 

ALLEGIIA'Xy,  a  river,  which,  rising  in  the 
north  part  of  Pennsylvania,  unites  with  the  Monon- 
gahela  at  Pittsburg  to  form  the  Ohio.  Though  it 
flows  through  a  hilly  country,  yet  it  is  navigable 
for  nearly  2nO  miles  above  Pittsburg,  whence  again, 
with  a  trifling  impediment  near  Louisville,  which 
has  been  overcome  by  a  short  canal,  the  navigation 
embraces,  down  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  95u  miles 
on  the  Ohio,  and  1216  on  tlie  Mi.ssi.ssippi.  What 
a  suggestive  fact  is  a  steam-boat  channel  of  23(;6 
miles  in  one  section  of  a  continent,  equal  in  length 
to  the  longest  line  that  can  be  drawn  in  Europe, 
whether  from  Brest  to  Astrakhan,  or  from  Cape 
Matapan  to  North  Cape  ! 

ALLE'GIANCE  (Fr.  alUgeance,  from  Lat.  allirfo 
or  ad-li<jo,  to  bind  to,  or  attach).  'A.,'  says  Black- 
stone,  '  is  the  tie  or  lir/amen  which  binds  the 
subject  to  the  sovereign,  in  return  for  that  protection 
which  the  sovereign  affords  the  subject.'  In  the  eye 
of  the  law,  A.  is  the  highest  duty  of  a  subject, 
and  consequently  its  violation,  treason  (q.  v.),  is 
the  highest  legal  offence.  A.  is  of  three  kinds : 
1.  Natural  or  implied  A.,  which  every  native 
or  naturalised  citizen  owes  to  the  community  to 
which  he  belongs.  Independently  of  any  express 
promise,  every  man,  by  availing  himself  of  the 
benefits  which  society  affords,  comes  under  an 
implied  obligation  to  defend  it  from  danger,  and 
this  equally  whether  the  threatened  attack  be  from 
without  or  from  within.  In  lime  of  war,  this  obli- 
gation involves  the  duty  either  of  bearing  arms  in 
defence  oi  the  state,  or  of  contributing  to  the  addi- 
tional taxes  and  ot!ier  impositions  which  the  support 
of  a  standing  army  may  render  necessary.  In 
peaceful  times,  it  will,  by  the  generality  of  men,  be 
adequately  fulfilled  by  a  conscientious  and  efficient 
performance  of  ordinary  citizen  am]  social  duties. 
JUxpress  A.  is  that  obligation  which  arises  from 
an  expressed  promise,  or  oath  of  A.  The  old 
152 


English  oath  of  A.  corresponded  in  the  case 
of  the  sovereign,  as  absolute  superior  of  all  the 
lands  in  England,  to  the  oath  of  lealiy  which,  by 
the  feudal  law,  all  vassals  were  re(|uired  to  take 
to  subject  superiors:  '  As  administered  for  upwards 
of  six  hundicd  years,  it  contained  a  piomise  to  be 
true  and  faithful  to  the  king  and  his  heiis,  and  truth 
and  faith  to  bear  of  life  and  limb  and  terrene  honour, 
and  not  to  know  or  hear  of  any  ill  or  damage  intended 
him,  without  defending  him  tlierefrcmi.' — Blackstone, 
Kerr's  edition,  vol.  i.  3ti8.  This  oath  being  thought 
to  iavour  too  much  the  notion  of  non-resistance,  the 
i'ollowing  form,  now  in  use,  was  introduced  by  the 
Convention  Parliament :  *  I  do  sincerely  promise 
and  swear  that  I  will  be  faithful  and  bear  true  A. 
to  Her  Majesty  Queen  Victoria.'  From  the  reign  of 
Queen  Elizabeth  down  to  the  present  lime,  the  oath 
of  A.  has  been  required  from  all  public  functionaries 
before  entering  on  their  res[)eclive  offices,  and  by 
all  professional  persons  before  being  permitted  to 
practise.  3.  Local  or  temporary  A.  is  that  obe- 
dience and  temporary  aid  due  by  an  alien  (q.  v.)  to 
the  state  or  community  in  which  he  resides.  Local 
differs  from  the  higner  ninds  of  A.  in  this,  that 
it  endures  only  so  long  as  the  alien  resides  within 
the  Queen's  dominions,  whereas  natural  A.,  whether 
implied  or  expressed,  is 'perpetual,  following  not 
only  the  individual  himself,  but,  unless  in  special 
circumstances,  to  be  explained  under  Alien,  his 
children  and  grandchildren,  wherever  they  may 
be  locally  situated.  '  An  Englishman  who  removes 
to  France  or  Ciiina,  owes  the  same  A.  to  the  king 
of  England  there  as  at  home,  and  twenty  years 
hence  as  now  ;  for  it  is  a  principle  of  universal  law, 
that  the  natural-born  subject  of  one  prince  cannot, 
by  any  act  of  his  own,  no,  not  by  swearing  A. 
to  another,  put  off  or  discharge  his  natural  A.  to 
the  former  ;  for  this  natural  A.  was  intrinsic  and 
primitive,  and  antecedent  to  the  other,  and  cannot 
be  divested  without  the  concurrent  act  of  that 
prince  to  whom  it  was  first  due. — Blackstone, 
Kerr's  edition,  vol.  i.  p.  370.  The  same  is  believed 
to  be  the  law^  of  the  United  States  of  America  (see 
Kent's  Conunen/ariis,  vol.  ii.) 

By  the  law  of  England,  and  agreeably  to  the  spirit 
of  the  constitution,  a  usurper  in  uiidisputed  po.ssession 
of  the  crown,  or  king  de  facto,  is  entitled  to  A., 
because  he  then  represents^  not  the  sovereign  whom 
he  has  dispossessed,  but  the  general  will  in  which 
the  ultimate  sovereignty  of  England  resides.  This 
doctrine  was  applii'd  w  hen  Edward  IV.  recovered  the 
crown  from  the  House  of  Lancaster,  and  treasons 
committed  against  Henry  VI.  were  capitally  pun- 
ished. The  rule,  however,  would  scarcely  ajiply  if 
the  usurpation  were  the  result,  not  of  civil  war,  but 
of  foreign  conquest.  The  sovereign  may  by  pro- 
clamation se.mmon  his  subjects  to  retmn  and  take 
part  in  the  defence  of  the  kingdom,  wiien  menaced 
or  endangered.  Of  this,  an  instance  occurred  in 
1807,  when  all  seamen  and  seafaring  men  who 
were  natural-born  subjects  were  recalled  from 
foreign  service. 

A'LLEGORY,  as  a  figure  of  rhetoric,  signifies 
properly,  the  embodiment  of  a  train  of  tlsought  in  a 
visible  form,  by  means  of  sensible  images,  having 
some  resemblance  or  analogy  to  the  thoughts.  A., 
therefore,  is  one  of  the  Tropes  (q.  v.),  for  it  involves 
a  transfer  of  meaning.  It  differs  fiom  metaphor 
chiefly  in  extent ;  metaphor  is  confined  to  a  single 
expression,  or  at  most  to  a  sentence,  A.  is  carried 
through  the  whole  representation.  It  is  not  abstract 
ideas  alone  that  are  adapted  to  allegorical  treatment ; 
not  only  may  virtue  i'.nd  vice,  for  instance,  be 
personified  and  treat' d  r.ll."gorieally,  but  real  persons 
may  be  represented  by  allegorical  persons. 

We  find  A.  in  use  from  the  earliest  ages.     Oriental 


ALLEGORICAL  INTERPRETATIOX— ALLIACEOUS  PLANTS. 


people  are  especially  I'oiul  of  it.  As  examples  from 
antiquity  may  be  cited,  the  coiiipaiisoii  of  Israel  to 
a  vim-  ill  the  8uth  l^aliii ;  the  IJeaiitiful  passage  in 
Plato's  Plubdrux,  whcie  the  soul  is  compared  to  a 
charioloer  drawn  by  two  horses,  one  while  and  one 
black  ;  tlie  description  of  Fame  in  the  4tli  Book  of 
the  ^'Itield.  Bunyan's  FiUirinCs  Progress  is  perhaps 
the  most  fully  carried  out  A.  of  modern  times. 
— A.  is  not  confined  to  language,  but  is  carried 
into  painting  and  srulptuie,  and  also  into  scenic 
represeutiition — as  in  the  ballet  and  pantomime ; 
the  consideration  of  it  is,  therefore,  of  importance 
in  the  line  arts  geiierally. 

Alligoric.vl  Inteiu'Uktation  is  that  hind  of 
interpretation  by  which  tlic  literal  significance  of  a 
passage  is  either  transcended  or  set  aside,  and  a  more 
spiritual  and  pi'ofound  meaning  elicited  than  is  con- 
tained in  the  form  or  letter.  The  common  idea  is 
that  it  originated  wiih  the  Alexandrine  school, 
but  this  is  by  no  means  the  case,  as  we  find  it 
employed  by  the  older  Hindus.  From  the  schohirs  of 
Alexandria,  however,  it  was  adopted  by  the  Jews  of 
Palestine,  a  sect  of  whom  in  particular,  n;imely, 
the  Essenes,  made  abundant  use  of  it.  The  apostle 
Paul  himself  allegorises,  or  at  least  spiritually 
interprets  the  history  of  the  free-born  Isaic  and 
the  slave-born  Ishuiai-l  (Gal.  iv.  24).  Allegorical 
interpretation,  however,  with  reference  to  the 
Old  Testament,  was  most  extensively  em[)loyed  by 
Philo  Judivns,  a  philosophical  Jew  of  Alexandria, 
and  a  contemporai'y  of  Jesus  Christ.  His  writings 
stimulated  the  allegorising  tendencies  of  the  AK'X- 
andriue  school  of  Christian  theologians,  the  most 
famous  of  whom  are  Clemens  Alexandrinns  and 
Origen.  The  latter  went  so  far  as  to  say  that  '  the 
Scriptures  are  of  little  use  to  those  who  understand 
them  as  they  are  wiitten.'  As  a  specimen  of  his 
method  of  Ijiblical  interpretation,  we  may  adduce 
the  following:  He  maintained  that  the  Mosaic 
account  of  the  Garden  of  Eden  was  allegorical;  that 
Paiadise  oi;ly  symbolist  d  a  high  primeval  spirit- 
uality ;  that  the  fall  consisted  in  the  loss  of  such 
through  spiritual  and  not  material  temptation  ;  and 
that  the  expulsion  from  the  Garden  lay  in  the  soul's 
being  driven  out  of  its  region  of  original  purity. 
The  Neo-platonists  were  at  first  averse  to  allego- 
rising, but  gradually  acquired  a  relish  for  it  from 
the  Jews  and  Christians,  and  apjilied  it  to  the 
ancient  myths. 

ALLE'GRO,  the  fourth  of  the  five  principal 
degrees  of  movement  in  music,  implying  that  the 
piece  is  to  be  perl'ormed  in  a  quick  or  lively  style. 
A.,  like  all  the  other  degrees  of  movement,  is  often 
modified  by  other  tern;s,  such  as  A.  von  ianto,  A.  via 
Hon  iroppo,  A.  tnodarato,  iiiaetiioso,  giusto,  commodo, 
vivace,  assia,  di  inolto,  cm  brio,  &c.  As  a  substan- 
tive, A.  is  used  as  the  name  of  a  whole  piece  of 
music,  or  a  movement  of  a  symphony,  sonata,  or 
quaitet. 

A'LLEMAXDE,  the  name  of  a  dance  invented 
by  the  French  in  the  time  of  Louis  XI \'.,  and  which 
again  became  popr.lar  at  the  Pari.-ian  theatres  during 
the  reign  of  the  first  emperor.  It  has  a  slow  waltz 
kind  of  tempo,  and  consists  of  three  steps  Qius 
marc/iis)  made  in  a  slidir.g  manner,  backwards  and 
forwards,  but  seldom  waltzing  or  turning  round. 
The  wliole  charm  of  the  dance  lies  in  tlic  graceful 
manner  of  entwining  aiul  detaching  the  arms  in  the 
different  steps.  Both  the  dance  and  the  music  are 
said  to  have  originated  in  Alsace;  and  thus  the 
introduction  of  the  A.  at  the  court  of  Versailles  was 
a  sort  of  artistic  way  of  symbolising  the  incorpora- 
tion of  the  newly  acquired  German  provinces. 

A'IjLEX,  Bog  of,  a  general  name  applied  to 
a  congeries  of  morasses  cast  of  the  Shannon,  in  King's 


County  and  Kildarc,  Ireland,  comprising  in  all 
about  2?8,5()0  J^tig.  acres.  The  strips  of  arable  land 
which  intersect  this  bog  are  occas  onally  watered  by 
ri\ers  which  have  their  sources  in  the  coniiguoua 
fens,  such  as  the  Barrow,  Boyne,  and  Brosna  ;  tiie 
(irand  Canal  also  j)asses  thiough  it.  The  average 
elevation  of  the  morasses  is  -.ioit  feet  above  the 
sea-level.  They  approach  to  within  17  miles  of 
Dublin  on  the  east,  and  almost  to  the  Shaimon  on 
the  west.  The  depth  of  the  peat  found  in  them  is 
about  2j  feet. 

ALLEN',  Joii\,  51. D.  a  litterateur  of  con.sider- 
able  talent,  was  born  at  Redfurd,  in  tl'.e  parish  of 
Colinton,  near  Edinburgh,  in  177ii.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  university  of  Edinbin-gh,  where  he 
took  his  degree  at  the  age  of  twenty-one.  Four 
years  later,  he  entered  the  lists  .-igaiiist  Dr.  Gregory 
in  defence  of  Hume's  speculations  on  liberty  and 
necessity.  In  ISdl,  he  published  An  Introduction 
to  t/ie  Stud;/  of  the  Animal  Kconomii,  translated  from 
Cuvier.  About  a  year  after,  along  witii  his  friends, 
Lord  and  L;:dy  Holland,  he  set  out  on  a  tour 
through  Franee  and  Spain,  where  he  resided  till 
18(i5.  On  his  return,  he  devoted  himself  to  the 
discussion  of  political  questions  in  the  pages  of  the 
Edinburgh  Eevietu.  He  was  a  keen  reibrmer,  and 
brought  to  bear  upon  constitutional  questions  a 
wealth  of  research,  closeness  ol'  reasoning,  and 
a  vigour  of  understanding  that  rendered  him  a  for- 
midable adversary.  He  is  said  to  have  contributed 
upwards  of  forty  articles  to  the  Kdinbin-gh  Rei'icw, 
chielly  on  British,  French,  Spanish,  and  South 
American  politics.  His  most  valualde  work  is  con- 
sidered to  be  his  Inquiry  into  the  Rise  and  Growth 
of  t/ic  Iloval  Prerogative  in  England  (1830).  On 
one  or  two  occasions,  he  held  temporary  political 
ollices,  and  was,  in  addition,  for  some  time  Master  of 
Dulwich  College.     lie  died  in  IH'-L 

ALLEXTOWN,  capital  of  Lehigh  county,  Penn- 
sylvania, on  the  Lehigh  river,  8.5  miles  from  Ilar- 
risburg,  and  .51  from  Philadelphia.  Tlie  canal  of 
the  Lehigh  Coal  Company,  ami  the  I>ehi<ih  \'alley 
Railroad  pass  through  it,  and  another  railroad  leads 
to  lieading.     Poji.,  SU25. 

ALLEYX,  EpwAP.n,  a  distinguished  actor,  the 
contemporary  and  friend  of  Shakspc\ire,  was  born  in 
\ISM',  and  died  in  1026.  His  ecmnection  uith  the 
English  stage  during  the  period  of  its  highest  pros- 
perity, invests  his  liie  with  interest  to  the  student  of 
literary  history  ;  but  it  is  as  the  mnnilicent  and  pious 
founder  of  Dulwich  College  (q.  v.)  that  he  principally 
claims  the  remembrance  of  posterity.  The  building 
of  the  college  was  begun  in  1013,  and  in  1C19  the 
institution  obttiincd  the  royal  charter,  after  some 
obstruction  on  the  part  of  Lord  Bacon,  who  wished 
the  king  to  apply  i)art  of  the  grant  to  the  foundation 
of  two  lectureships  at  Oxford  aiid  Cambridge.  A. 
himself  took  up  his  quarters  in  the  college  as  master, 
living,  with  his  wife  as  a  pensioner,  on  equal  terms 
with  the  sharers  of  his  bounty.  He  also  founded  nu- 
merous almshouses  in  London. 

A'LLIA,  a  small  .stream  which  fell  into  (he  Tiber, 
eleven  miles  north  of  Rome.  It  is  celeb:au'd  as  the 
scene  of  the  defeat  of  the  Roman  army  by  the  Gauls 
under  Brennus  in  387,  or,  according  to  others,  390 
n.  c.  Immediately  afterwards,  Rome  was  taken, 
Ijlundered,  and  burnt.  It  is  dilficidt  to  identify 
the  A.  with  any  of  the  modern  streams;  but  the 
evidence  seems  in  favour  of  the  Scolo  del  Casale. 

ALLIA'CEOUS  PLAXTS  are  those  of  the  genus 
Alllinn  (q.  v.),  or  others  neai'ly  allied  to  it.  The 
term  is  generally  employed  to  denote  not  only  the 
possession  of  certain  l)otanical  characters,  but  also  of 
a  certain  smell  and  ta<te,  well  known  by  the  term 
alliaceous,  and  of  which  examples  are  read.ly  found 

153 


ALLIANCE— ALLIGATOR. 


in  the  onion,  leek,, garlic,  and  other  familiar  species 
of  AUium,  much  employed  for  culinary  purposes. 
These  plants  contain  free  phosphoric  acid,  and  a 
sulphuretted  oil,  which  is  partly  dissipated  in  boiling 
or  roasting.  The  A.  flavour  is,  however,  found  also, 
although  in  comparatively  rare  instances,  in  plants 
of  entirely  different  botanical  affinities — for  example, 
in  Alliaria  officinalis,  of  the  natural  order  Cniciferce 
(see  Alliaria),  in  the  young  shoots  of  Cedrela 
Migibstifolia,  a  tropical  American  tree  of  the  natural 
order  Cedrelaccce,  allied  to  mahogany  ;  and  in  certain 
species  of  Dysoxylon  and  Ilartif/iixra,  of  the  kindred 
order  Meliacew,  the  fruit  of  which  is  used  instead 
of  garlic  by  the  mountaineers  of  Java. 

ALLI'ANCE,  a  compact  between  independent 
families  or  nations.  See  Treaty,  Holy  Alliance, 
Triple  Allianck. 

ALLIA'RIA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Cniciferce  (q.  v.),  closely  allied  to  iSini/nibrium 
and  Uri/sivium,  but  ditfering  from  both  in  having  the 
stalks  of  the  seeds  fiat  and  winged.  The  best 
known  species  is  A.  officinalis  (Erysimum  A.  of 
LinnaBus,  and  ranked  by  some  botanists  in  the  genus 
Sisi/mhrium'),  known  by  the  popular  names  of  Sauce- 
alone  and  Jack-by-the-IIedge.  It  is  a  native  of 
Britain,  not  unfrequently  found  on  hcdg(!-banks  and 
in  waste  places  in  dry  rich  soils,  and  is  common  in 
most  parts  of  Europe.  It  is  a  biennial,  with  a  stem 
2 — 3  feet  high ;  large,  stalked,  heart-shaped  leaves ; 


Alliaria  officinalis. 

a,  upper  part  of  stem,  with  leaves  and  flowers ;  6  extremity 

of  a  branch,  in  fruit. 

white  flowers,  and  pods  much  longer  than  their 
stalks,  which  are  somewhat  spreading.  It  is  remark- 
able for  its  strong  alliaceous  odour,  is  occasionally 
used  as  a  pot-herb  in  Britain,  and  very  generally, 
at  least  by  the  poorer  classes,  in  some  continental 
countries.  It  seems  more  deserving  of  cultivation 
than  many  other  plants  which  have  long  received 
the  constant  care  of  the  gardener,  being  wholesome, 
nutritious,  and,  to  most  persons,  pleasant.  The 
powdered  seeds  were  formerly  employed  as  a  ster- 
nutatory. 

ALLICE,  or  ALLIS.     See  Shad. 

A'LLIER,  a  river  in  France,  a  tributary  of  the 
Loire,  has  its  source  in  tlie  water-.shed  of  the  east 
of  the  department  of  Lozere;  flows  with  a  northerly 
course  through  Haute-Loire,  Puy-de-Dome,  and 
Allier  ;  and  after  a  course  of  more  than  200  miles, 
falls  into  the  Loire  below  the  town  of  Nevers.  It 
is  navigable  for  a  considerable  portion  of  its  length. 
154 


ALLIER,  a  department  in  the  centre  of  France, 
has  an  area  of  27.30  square  miles,  and  a  pop.  of  352,240. 
It  is  a  hilly  district,  especially  in  the  south,  sloping 
down  towards  the  river  Loire  in  the  north,  and  is 
partly  woody,  but  generally  well  cultivated,  pro- 
ducing the  usiuil  kinds  of  grain  with  wine  and  oil.  It 
is  also  rich  in  minerals,  especially  iron,  coal,  antimony, 
manganese,  and  marble.  There  is  some  manufac- 
turing industry  in  cotton,  wool,  linen,  carpets, 
pottery,  and  glass ;  but  the  majority  of  the  popu- 
lation is  engaged  in  agriculttire.  Mineral  springs 
are  found  at  Vichy,  Neris,  and  IJourbon-rArcham- 
bault.  The  chief  town  is  Moulins.  Other  important 
places  are  Montluyon,  La  Palisse,  Gannat.  At 
(■hantellele-Chateau  are  the  extensive  ruins  of  King 
Pepin's  Castle. 

ALLIGATION",  from  a  Latin  word  signifying  '  to 

bind  together,'  is  a  rule  in  arithmetic  which  teaches 

to  solve  such   questions  as  the  follow  ing ;  3  lbs.  of 

sugar  at  6d.  are  mixed  with  5  lbs.  at   HkL;  what  is 

the  price  of  a  pound  of  the  mixture?  or:     In  what 

proportion  must  sugar  at  6d.  be  mixed  with  sugar  at 

lOd.,  to  produce  a  mixture  at  S^d.?     The  solutioQ  of 

.1     /.    ..3x6-}-5xl0      oi7 
the  first  IS --^^ =  S^a. 

In  the  second,  the  proportional  number  for  one 
ingredient  is  the  difference  between  the  price  of  the 
other  and  that  of  the  mixture  ;  the  number  for  the 
cheap  sugar  is  therefore  1^,  and  for  the  dear,  2-J-, 
which  are  as  3 :  5,  so  that  there  must  be  3  lbs.  at  6^. 
for  every  5  lbs.  at  lOd.  If  there  are  more  than  two 
ingredients,  the  problem  becomes  indeterminate; 
that  is,  it  admits  of  a  variety  of  answers.  Thus :  Of 
three  metals,  whose  specific  gravities  are  10,  15,  and 
16,  it  is  required  to  compose  an  alloy,  whose  specific 
gravity  shall  be  14.  The  conditions  will  be  answered 
by  mixing  them  in  any  of  the  following  proportions: 
i;2,  1;    2,2,3;    6,  2,  11,  &c. 

ALLIGATOR  a  genus  of  saurian  reptiles,  of 
the  family  of  the  Crocodilklce,  formerly  embracing  the 
genera  Alligator  and  Jacare,  to  which  Perosuclius  has 
been  recently  added,  which  together  include  about 
ten  existing  species.  An  extinct  A.  has  been  found  in 
the  British  Eocene,  which  resembles  a  true  Crocodile. 
The  alligators  differ  from  the  true  crocodiles  in  the 
shorter  and  flatter  head,  the  existence  of  cavities  or 
pits  in  the  upper  jaw,  into  which  (and  not  into  mere 
notches  between  the  teeth,  as  in  the  crocodiles)  the 
long  fourth  teeth  of  the  under  jaw  are  received,  and 
the  much  less  webbed  feet.  In  consequence  of  the 
different  manner  in  which  provision  is  made  in  the 
upper  jaw  for  the  reception  of  the  longest  teeth  of 
the  lower,  the  head  of  the  alligators  is  broader 
and  the  snout  more  obtuse  than  in  the  crocodiles. 


Alligator. 

Their  habits  are  less  perfectly  aquatic  ;  they 
frequent  swamps  and  marshes,  and  may  be  seen 
basking  on  the  dry  ground  during  the  day,  in 
the  heat  of  the  sun.  They  are  most  active  during 
the  night,  and  then  make  a  loud  bellowing.  They 
have  great  strength  in  their  tails,  with  which  the 
larger  ones  can  easily  upset  a  light  canoe.  TheJ 
feed  chiefly  on  fish,  but  do  not  object  to  otlief 
animal  food.  The  females  lay  their  eggs,  20 — 60 
in  number,  in  the  mud,  and  leave  them  to  be 
hatched  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  but  keep  wafrch  over 
the  spot,  and  shew  much  affection  for  their  youn/ 


ALLIGATOR  APPLE— ALLIUM. 


ones,  many  of  which,  however,  fall  a  prey  to  the  old 
males,  and  to  vultures  and  fishes.  There  are  several 
species,  varyiiifij  from  two  to  twenty  feet  and  upwards 
in  length.  Perhaps  the  most  fierce  and  dangerous 
is  that  found  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  United 
States,  as  far  up  the  Mississippi  as  the  Red  River, 
A.Lucius.  The  snout  is  a  little  turned  up;  and 
its  resemblance  to  that  of  a  pii<e  has  led  to  the 
specific  name  Lucius.  In  cold  weather,  these  animals 
bury  themselves  in  the  mud,  and  become  so  torpid, 
that  they  may  be  cut  to  pieces  without  showing  signs 
of  sensibility  ;  but  a  few  hours  of  bright  sunsliineare 
enough  to  revive  them.  Like  the  other  species,  they 
are  so  protected  by  their  mailed  plates,  that  they  are 
not  easily  killed,  except  by  a  shot  or  blow  over  the 
eyes.  A  very  strong  kind  of  leather  is  prepared 
from  the  skin,  which  is  used  for  making  saddles. 
It  is  said  tliat  a  considerable  quantity  of  oil  can 
be  extracted  from  an  A.,  which  is  transparent  and 
burns  well.  The  alligators  of  South  America  are 
there  very  often  called  Caymans^  probably  an  Indian 
name,  and  some  of  them  bear  the  name  of  Yacare.i 
particularly  A.  sclerops,  also  distinguished  as  the 
Spectacled  Cayman,  on  account  of  a  prominent  bony 
rim  surrounding  the  orbit  of  each  eye.  This  species 
appears  to  be  widely  distril)uted  over  tropical 
America,  and  attains  a  great  size.  Alligators  are  not 
known  to  exist  in  any  quarter  of  the  world  except 
America,  in  which,  however,  true  crocodiles  are  also 
found.  But  among  the  fossils  of  the  south  of 
England  are  remains  of  a  true  A.  (A.  Hantoniensis') 
in  the  Ilordle  beds.  The  flesh  of  alligators  is  eaten 
by  Indians  and  negroes.  It  has  a  musky  flavour. 
— The  origin  of  the  name  is  uncertain,  but  it  is 
supposed  to  be  a  corruption  of  tiie  Portuguese 
laijarto,  a  lizard.  Cuvier  adopted  it  as  a  scientific 
name. 

ALLIGATOR  APPLE.     See  Ccstard  Apple. 

ALLIGATOR  PEAR.     See  Avocado  Pear. 

ALLITERA'TION  is  the  frequent  occurrence  in 
a  composition  of  words  beginning  with  tlie  same 
letter.  In  Old  German,  Anglo-Saxon,  and  Scandina- 
vian poetry,  A.  took  the  place  of  rhyme.  This  kind 
of  verse,  in  its  strict  form,  required  that  in  the  two 
short  lines  forming  a  couplet,  three  words  should  be- 
gin with  the  same  letter,  two  in  the  first  line  or  hem- 
istich, and  one  in  the  second;  as  in  the  following 
couplet  of  Anglo-Saxon  poetry  : 

i^irum  /oldan 

J^rea  aliiiihtig. — Ccedmon. 

A.  has  not  quite  disappeared  from  Icelandic  poetry 
to  this  day.  Alliterative  poems  continued  to  l)e 
written  in  English  after  it  had  assumed  its  modern 
form  ;  the  most  remarkable  is  Pierce  Plowman,  a 
poem  of  the  14th  c.,  of  which  the  following  is  a 
specimen,  the  two  heraistitchs  being  written  in  one 
line : 

Mercy  hisht  that  »naifl.  |  a  week  thinz  withal, 
A  full  teniga  iunl,  |  and  iuxum  of  si>eech. 

Even  after  the  introduction  of  rhyme,  A.  continued 
to  be  largely  used  as  an  embellishment  of  poetry, 
and  is  so,  though  to  a  less  extent,  to  this  day  : 

The  fair  ftreczo  7Ao\v,  the  whito  yi>aiTi  /low, 
The  /urrow  /ollowed  free.— Coleridge. 

Besides  the  Gothic,  there  are  other  nations  widely 
separated  from  each  othei',  among  whom  the  essen- 
tial distinction  of  verse  is  A.  ;  the  Finns,  for  instance, 
and  the  Tamuls  in  the  south  of  India. 

But  A.  is  not  confined  to  verse  ;  the  charm  that 
lies  in  it  exercises  great  influence  on  human  speech 
generally,  as  may  be  seen  in  many  current  phrases 
and  proverbs  in  all  languages:  Ex.,  'life  and  liml>;' 
'house  and  home,'  'wide  wears,  tight  tears,'  &c. 
It  often  constitutes  part  of  the  point  and  piquancy 


of  witty  writing.  Among  modern  writers  this  appli- 
cation of  A.  is  perhaps  most  felicitously  exemphfied 
by  Sidney  Smith,  as,  Avhen  in  contrasting  the 
conditions  of  a  dignitary  of  the  English  Church  and 
of  a  poor  curate,  he  speaks  of  them  as  '  the  Right 
Reverend  Dives  in  the  palace,  and  Lazarus-in-ordeis 
at  the  gate,  (/octored  )jy  Jogs  and  comforted  with 
crumbs.' 

In  the  early  part  of  the  ITth  c,  the  fashion  of 
hunting  after  aliiierations  was  carried  to  an  absurd 
excess;  even  from  the  pulpit,  the  chosen  jieople  of 
God  were  addressed  as  '  the  chickens  of  the  church, 
the  sparrows  of  the  si)irit,  and  the  sweet  swallows 
of  salvation.'  Ane  Ncw-i/ear  Gift,  or  address,  pre- 
sented to  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  by  the  poet,  Alex- 
ander Scott,  concludes  with  a  stanza  running  thus : 

Fresh,  fulgent,  flonrist.  fracrrant  flower  forraose, 

Lantern  to  love,  of  ladies  lamp  and  lot. 

Cherry  maist  chaste,  chief  carbuuelo  and  chose,  &c. 

In  the  following  piece  of  elaborate  trifling,  given 
(but  without  naming  the  author)  in  II.  Southgate's 
Jlani/  Thoughts  on  Many  Things,  Alliteration  is  com- 
bined with  Acrosticism : 

A  n  Austrian  army,  awfully  arrayeH, 

B  oldly  by  battery  besieged  IJi-liirade  ; 

C  ossack  commanders  caimonadins  come, 

D  ealing  destruction's  devastating  doom ; 

E  very  endeavour  engineers  essay 

F  or  fame,  for  fortune,  forming  furious  fray. 

G  aunt  gunners  grapple,  giving  gashes  good; 

H  eaves  high  his  head  heroic  hardihood  ; 

I   braham.  Islam,  Ismael,  imf)S  in  ill, 

.T  ostle  John  Jarovlitz,  .Jem,  Joe,  Jack,  Jill; 

K  ick  kindling  Kutusoff,  kings'  kinsmen  kill 

L  abour  low  levels  loftiest,  longest  lines; 

M  en  march  'raid  moles,  'mid  mounds,  'mid  murd'rous 

mines. 
N  ow  nightfall 's  near,  now  needful  nature  nods, 
O  pposed.  opposing,  overcoming  odds. 
P  oor  peasants,  partly  purchased,  partly  pressed, 
Q  uite  quaking,  'Quarter!  quarter!'  quickly  quest. 
It  eason  returns,  recalls  redundant  rage, 
8  aves  sinking  soldiers,  softens  signiors  s-age. 
T  ruce,  Turkey,  truce  !  truce,  tre.aeh'rous  Tartar  train! 
IT  nwise,  unjust,  unmerciful  I'kraine, 

V  anish,  vile  vengeance!  vanish,  victory  vain  ! 

W  isdom  wails  war — wails  warring  words.     What  were 
X  erxes,  Xantippo,  Xinunes,  Xavier? 

Y  et  Yassy's  youth,  ye  yield  your  youthful  yest. 
Z  ealously,  zanies,  zealously,  zeal's  zest. 

A'LLIUM,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Liliaccce  (q.  v.),  containing  a  large  number  of  species, 
perennial — more  rarely  biennial — herbaceous  plants, 
more  or  less  decidedly  bulbous-rooted,  natives  chiefly 
of  the  temperate  and  colder  regions  of  the  northern 
hemisphere.  Tlie  flowers  are  umbellate,  enclosed  in 
a  spathe,  and  the  umbel  often  bears  also  small  bulbs 
along  with  its  flowers.  The  pei:anth  is  of  six  spread- 
ing pieces,  resembling  pet.ds,  having  the  stamens 
inserted  in  their  base.  The  fruit  is  a  triangular 
capsule,  and  the  seeds  are  angular.  The  leaves  are 
generally  narrow,  although  in  some  species,  as  A. 
ursiiLicni,  they  are  rather  broad,  and  in  a  considerable 
number  they  are  rounded  and  fistulose.  Garlic 
(q.  v.),  O.MON  (((.  T,),  Leek  (q.  v.).  Shallot  (q.  v.), 
Chive  (q.  v.),  and  Rocambole  (q.  v.),  are  species  of 
this  genus  in  common  cultivation.  The  first  four 
are  cultivated  in  the  gardens  of  India  as  well  as 
of  Europe,  along  with  A.  tubcrosioii ;  and  the  hill- 
people  of  India  eat  the  bulbs  of  ji.  lejttophtilluni,  and 
dry  the  leaves,  and  preserve  them  as  a  condiment.  A 
number  of  other  species  are  occasionally  used  in 
different  countries. — Eight  or  nine  species  are  natives 
of  Britain,  of  which  the  most  common  is  Ramso.ns 
{A.  tirsinum),  a  species  with  nmch  broader  haves 
than  most  of  its  congeners.  It  is  most  frequently 
found  in  moist  woods  and  hedge- banks;  but  occa- 
sionally in  pastures,  in  which  it  proves  a  trouble- 
some weed,  communicating  its  powerful  odour  of 
garlic   to   the   whole    dairy   produce.     Crow    Garlic 

155 


ALLOA— ALLOTMENT  OF  LAND. 


(A.  vineale),  another  British  species,  i-s  sometimes  | 
very  troublesome  in  the  same  way,  in  diier  pastures. ; 
Both  are  perennial,  and  to  get  lid  of  them,  their  [ 
bulbs  must  be  perscveiingly  rooted  out,  when  the  [ 
leaves  begin  to  appear  in  spring.  I 

A'LLOA,  a  seaport    town    in    Clackmannanshire, 
Scotland,  is  situated  on  the  left   bank  of  the   Fortli,  i 
where  the  river  widens  into  its  estuary,  7   miles  (by  j 
road)  below  Stirling.     Population,  in  is.jl,  G076.     It; 
is  a  town  of  considerable  antiquity,  and  is  an  active  j 
centre   of  trade    and  manufactures.     Tiie   principal 
articles  manufactured  are  whisky  and  ale,  the  latter 
of  which  is  highly  esteemed.     There   are  extensive 
glass,  iron,  and   brick  works,  and   two  ship-building 
yards.     Copper  utensils,  shawls,  and  I)lankets,  leath- 
er, tobacco,  and  snulf,  are  manufactured  to  a  consid- 
erable extent;  and  a  large  cpiantity  of  coal  is  regu- 
larly exported  from  the  pits  in  the  immediate  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  town.     Tliis  latter  forms  one  of  the 
chief  items  in  the  coasting  traf'.e,  besides  which  there 
is  a   considerable    foreign    trade,   chiefly   outwards. 
The  total  tonnage  registered  at  the  port  amounts  to 
about  2ii,0<'0  tons.     The   harbour   is  good,  with   10 
feet  of  water  at  neap,  and   22  at  springtides;  it  is' 
furtiished  with  a  dry-dock.     There  is  a   steam-boat 
ferry  across  the   Forth,  connecting  the    town  by  a 
short  j'lnction  line  with  the  Scottish  Central  Railway,  j 
It  is  also    connected  with  that   line,  and  with    the  j 
Edinburgh    and    Korthern  Railway,  by  the   Stirling ' 
and   Duuferndinc  branch.     There  is  regidar  steam- 1 
comnmnication    by    the    river  with    Edinburgh   and  j 
Stirling.     In    the  neighbourl)0od  is  Alloa  Tower,  i^'J 
feet  high,  supposed  to  have  been  built  in  th(>  1-lth  c, 
once  the  residence  of  the  Erskines,  and  at  diilcrent 
times  of  Scottish  princes. 

ALLOCUTION,  which  simply  means  an  'address,' 
is  applied,  in  the  language  of  the  Vatican,  to  denote 
specially  the  address  delivered  by  the  pope  at  the 
College  of  Cardinals  on  any  ecclesiastical  or  political 
circumstance.  It  may  be  considered  as  correspond- 
ing in  some  measure  to  the  oflicial  explanations 
which  constitutional  ministers  give  when  questions 
are  asked  in  parliiment,  or  to  the  political  messages 
of  the  French  emperor.  The  court  of  Rome  makes 
abimdant  use  of  this  method  of  address,  when  it 
desires  to  guard  a  principle  wdiich  it  is  compelled  to 
give  up  in  a  particular  case,  or  to  reserve  a  claim 
for  the  future  which  has  no  chance  of  recognition  in 
the  present. 

ALLODIUM,  or  ALLDODIAL  TENURE  (in 
Law\,  is  the  free  and  absolute  right  of  property  in 
land,  independent  of  any  burden  of  homage  or  fidelity 
to  a  supeiior.  When  the  principal  landholders  of 
England  subnntted  to  the  yoke  of  ndlitary  tenure, 
and  surrendered  their  lands  into  the  hands  of  the 
Conqueror  at  the  council  of  Sarum,  ieudality,  the 
previous  existence  or  non-existence  of  which  has 
been  a  subjcet  of  much  discussion,  was  formally 
recognise<l,  and  it  henceforth  became  a  fundnmental 
maxim  in  the  law  of  real  property,  that  'the  king 
is  the  universal  lord  and  original  proprietor  of  all 
the  lands  in  his  kingdom,  and  that  no  man  doth 
or  can  possess  any  part  of  it,  but  what  has  mediately 
or  immediately  been  derived  as  a  gift  from  him  to 
be  held  upon  feudal  services '  (Blackstone,  vol.  ii. 
p.  51,  Kerr's  edition).  This  maxim,  though,  as 
Blackstone  remarks,  it  was  even  at  first  little  more 
than  a  fiction,  was  not  peculiar  to  England,  but 
prevailed  wherever  the  feudal  system  obtained, 
and  still  forms  what  may  be  called  the  starting- 
point  in  all  feudal  tenures  of  land.  Even  where 
sul)infeudations  have  prevailed  to  the  greatest 
extent,  every  title  is  traceable,  in  the  last  instance, 
to  t!ie  paramount  and  universal  superiority  of  the 
«;rown.      See  Feudal  System.      The   surrender    of 

15a 


lands  in  England  being  the  result  of  political 
measures,  w  a.-,  otie  universal  national  act,  and,  conse- 
quently, allodial  tenures  at  once  ceased  to  exist ;  but 
in  many  other  countries  it  was  accomplished  by 
private  ariangements  between  the  allodial  jiroprietora 
and  the  prince,  tlie  former  being  anxious  to  exchange 
their  nominal  independence  for  the  greater  security 
enjoytnl  by  the  vassals  of  the  sovereign,  the  latter 
being  w  illing  to  receive  them  as  dependents,  for  the 
sake  either  of  their  jjcrsonal  services  in  war,  or 
latterly,  for  the  equivalents  of  these  services  in 
money  or  the  produce  of  the  lands.  In  such 
countries,  feudality,  though  general,  was  not  uni- 
versal; and  allodial  tenures  consequently  continued 
to  subsist  alongside  of  those  oiiginating  with  the 
crown.  In  this  position  was  Denmark,  and  it  is 
curious  that  the  only  extimplesof  allodial  tenures  to 
be  met  with  in  Great  Britain  are  the  I'dal  rights  in 
the  islands  of  Orkney  and  Shetland,  which  foimerly 
belonged  to  that  country.  'When  these  islands,' 
says  Ml'.  Erskine,  '  were  first  transferred  from  the 
crown  of  Denmark  to  that  of  Scotland,  the  right  of 
their  lands  was  held  by  natural  possession,  and 
might  be  proved  by  witnesses,  without  any  title  in 
writing,  which  had  probably  been  their  law  formerly 
while  tliey  were  suliject  to  Dennnirk- ;  and  to  this 
day,  the  lands,  the  jiroprietors  of  which  h;ive  never 
applied  to  the  sovereign,  or  those  diM'iving  light  from 
him,  for  charters,  are  enjoyed  in  this  nuinner.'  By 
the  law  of  Scotland,  all  luoperty  and  superiorities 
belonging  to  the  crown  itself,  and  all  churches, 
churchyards,  manses  and  glebes,  the  right  to  which 
does  rot  flow  from  th-^  crown,  are  regarded  as 
allodial  ;  and  the  term  in  a  wider  sense,  as  opposed 
to  fcudiil  geneially,  is  sometimes  used  with  reference 
to  movable  property. 

The  etymology  of  the  word  A.  has  been  much 
discussed,  and  both  Celtic  and  Teutonic  origitis  have 
been  assigned  to  it.  The  latter  seem  the  more 
probable  conjectures,  as  the  word,  in  senses  closely 
resembling  that  which  we  attach  to  it,  is  to  be 
found  in  all  Scandinavian  and  Cermanic  languages. 
On  this  supposition,  its  derivation  from  all  (nil, 
or  wholly)  and  od  (property),  seems  probable. 
Another  conjecture  assigns  it  to  all  and  oede  (waste). 
That  adopted  by  Mr.  Erskine,  of  its  having  been 
composed  of  a  privative,  and  Inide  or  leufe,  people 
(taken  from  tln^  people),  seems  wholly  inadtnissihle, 
as  being  inconsistent  with  the  forms  of  Teutonic 
speech. 

ALLO'PATHY.     See  HoMffioPAxnT. 

ALLOTMENT  OF  LAND,  although  not  a 
technical,  is  a  well  understood  expression  in  the  law 
of  England ;  and  under  the  (iiencral  Enclosure  Act 
(41  Geo.  III.  c.  loi)),  is  used  to  denote  the  kind  of 
conveyance  or  distribution  directed  to  be  made  to 
the  person  or  persons  who  at  the  time  of  the  di^ision 
and  enclosure  shall  have  the  actual  possession  of  the 
lands,  tenements,  or  hereditaments,  in  lieu  of,  or  Ln 
right  of  which  the  allotment  is  made,  but  without 
prejudice  to  any  question  of  title.  By  the  ancient 
Statute  of  Merton  (20  Henry  III.  c.  4),  the  lord  of 
the  manor,  or  any  other  owner  of  a  common,  may 
enclose  so  much  of  the  waste  as  he  pleases  for  tillage 
or  wood-ground,  provided  sufficient  is  left  for  other 
parties  entitled  to  the  use  of  the  same.  This  right 
to  enclose  common  fields  and  waste  lands  has  in 
modern  times  been  very  generally  extended  through- 
out England  by  means  of  local  acts  of  paihament,  a 
numbei"  of  the  regulations  of  which  have  been  con- 
solidated by  the  act  above  referred  to,  by  .section  7 
of  which  commissioners  are  appointed  to  make  the 
allotment. 

Generally  speaking,  this  term,  as  a  legal  word, 
may    be    considered    as    signifying    the    grant    or 


ALLOTROrY— ALLOWANCES,  OFFICERS'. 


allowance  of  a  portion  of  land  too  inconsiderable  to 
be  made  tlic  sulijcct  of  a  formal  (.•onvevuuce ;  and  in 
this  sense  it  lia3  been  used  to  denote  the  system  or 
species  of  agriciiltin;il  holdinn;  whieh  prevailed  to 
fioiiie  extent  in  Eni;huid  to'.vards  tlio  close  of  tiie 
last  century,  but  which  was  not  in  common  use 
throiiuhout  tlie  country  till  1S30,  when  the  agricul- 
tural labours  in  many  counties — owing  to  the  use 
of  tlirashing-machincs  and  other  improvements, 
which  they  dreaded  would  lower  their  wages — 
rose  in  insurrection  against  their  em|)loycrs.  To 
meet  this  danger  the  A.  system  was  resorted  to, 
and  diliercnt  societies  were  established  for  its 
promotion;  and  by  the  comparative  contentment 
and  comfort  it  produced,  it  may  be  considered 
to  have  been  successful  in  its  object.  It  has  been 
stated  to  have  diminished  crime  among  the  peas- 
antry, and  genei-ally  to  have  improved  and  ele- 
vated their  character.  By  the  form  of  agreement 
usually  signed  by  A.  tenants,  the  use  of  the  spade 
in  the  cultivation  of  land  is  insisted  upon,  and  the 
plough  prohibited,  and  there  are  other  conditions 
of  the  occupancy  more  or  less  capricious.  The  A. 
may  be  forfeited  for  non-payment  of  the  rent,  the 
tenant's  misconduct  or  crime,  or  wilful  neglect  of 
his  land  ;  but  it  has  been  thought  unadvisable  to 
exclude  any  one  from  enjoying  an  A.  on  account 
of  his  previous  bad  character,  as  from  the  nature  of 
the  industrious  occupation  which  the  A.  necessitates, 
there  is  the  chance  of  his  reclaiming  his  character. 
See  Spade  Husbandry. 

ALLO'TROPY  is  the  term  applied  in  chemistry 
to  the  existence  of  the  same  elements  in  various 
forms,  each  of  which,  though  containing  no  extra- 
neous substance,  possesses  different  properties  from 
the  others.  The  various  conditions  in  wiiich  a  single 
element  can  be  obtained  are  known  as  its  allo- 
tropic  modifications,  and  though  as  yet  only  a  few- 
elementary  substances  have  been  observed  to  exhibit 
such  modifications,  yet  it  is  generally  believed  that 
every  element  is  capable  of  existing  in  several  allo- 
tropic  forms.  Phosphorus  afibrds  an  excellent 
illustration  of  this  doctrine.  Li  ordinary  circum- 
stances, and  when  freshly  prepared,  phosphorus  is  a 
pale,  yellow  solid,  of  the  consistence  and  aspect  of 
wax,  and  to  some  extent  flexible  and  translucent. 
It  requires  to  be  placed  in  a  vessel  with  water  to 
keep  it  from  taking  fire  spontaneously.  At  any 
Oidinary  natural  temperature  it  appears  luminous, 
and  e\  olves  an  alliaceous  odour  when  exposed  to  air, 
owing  to  a  slow  process  of  combustion  taking  place  ; 
and  when  warmed  to  140°  F.,  it  bursts  into  flame, 
and  burns  vividly.  Common  phosphorus  is  soluble 
in  alcohol,  ether,  the  fixed  and  volatile  oils,  and 
especially  in  bisulphuret  of  carbon,  100  parts  of 
which,  when  warm,  dissolve  20  parts  of  phosphorus. 
But  the  same  element,  when  dried  and  kept  for  some 
days,  with  little  or  no  access  of  air,  at  a  temperature 
ranging  from  44G°  to  482°  F.,  passes  weight  for 
weiglit — without  addition  or  subtraction  of  matter 
— into  a  reddish  suljstance,  which  is  known  to  chem- 
ists as  amorphous  phosphorus.  The  colour  of  this 
new  variety  is  scarlet,  brownish  red,  or  even  blackish 
red ;  and  it  exists  as  a  powder  or  cake,  which  does 
not  evolve  any  odour,  or  readily  take  fire,  and  there- 
fore needs  not  to  be  preserved  under  water.  When 
heated  to  140°,  antl  even  to  a  temperature  little 
short  of  482°,  it  refuses  to  burn  ;  and,  in  f;ict,  it  is 
questionable  if  phosphorus  in  this  condition  will  take  ! 
fire  at  all ;  though  at  482°,  and  above,  the  red  variety  \ 
passes  back  again  to  the  ordinary  or  yellow  phos-  | 
phorus,  and  then  bursts  into  flame.  Moreover,  amor-  i 
phous  phosphorus  is  insolulile  in  alcohol,  ether, 
the  fixed  and  volatile  oils,  and  even  in  bisulphuret  • 
of  carbon.  Probably  the  most  striking  difference 
between  these  two  forms  of  the  same  substance  is,  | 


that  ordinary  phosphorus  is  a  deadly  poison,  as  is  too 
often  evidenced  in  the  death  of  chihben  from  sack- 
ing the  ends  of  lucifer-matches ;  whilst  the  red  or 
amorphous  phos[)iiorus  is  not  known  to  be  poi- 
sonous at  all. — Besides  the  two  varieties  already 
mentioned,  and  which  are  best  known,  there  are  b!ack 
phusphoyus,  wldte  pliospho)-ux,  and  xcali/  phosplun'ux. 
The  only  manner  of  accounting  for  the  dif.'erence  of 
piopcrties  evinced  by  ordinary  and  red  phosphorus, 
is  to  refer  the  change  to  an  absorption  of  heat  during 
the  passage  of  the  ordinary  into  the  red  variety.  It 
is  an  observed  fact  that  such  absorption  or  disap- 
pearance of  heat  does  then  take  jilace ;  whilst, 
when  the  red  phosphorus  is  heated  till  it  passes  back 
to  the  ordinary  kind,  a  very  rapid  disengagement  of 
heat  occurs. 

Sulphur  furnishes  another  example  of  A.  In  the  or- 
dinary condition  of  roll-sulphur,  itis  a  pale  yellow,  brit- 
tle, crystalline  solid  ;  insipid  to  taste,  odourless  when 
cold,  and  evolving  a  peculiar  odour  when  heated  or 
rubbed.  It  dissolves  in  small  quantity  in  turpentine 
and  the  fixed  oils,  and  to  the  extent  of  3.5  per  cent, 
in  bisulphuret  of  carbon.  When  common  sulphur 
is  heated  to  232°,  it  fuses,  and  forms  a  thin,  yellow, 
limpid  liquid  like  olive-oil ;  at  48t)°,  it  passes  into  a 
thick,  dark-brOwn,  viscid  liquid,  resembling  in  con- 
sistence ordinary  treacle;  and  if,  at  this  stage,  it  be 
poured  into  water,  the  sulphur  forms  itself  into  a 
thread-like  mass  or  network,  possessing  great  elasti- 
city, hke  india-rubbiu',  not  at  all  brittle,  and  so  soft, 
that  it  can  be  moulded  by  the  fingers  into  casts  and 
seals.  Again,  this  clastic  form  of  sulphur  is  not 
soluble  in  turpentine  and  the  fixed  oils,  or  even  in 
bisulphuret  of  carbon.  There  are  also  other  allo- 
tropic  forms  of  sulphur. 

Oxygen  may  be  taken  as  a  third  illustration  of  the 
same  doctrine.  In  the  ordinary  form  in  which  oxygen 
exists  in  the  atmosphere  and  elsewhere,  it  is  a  gas 
with  no  odour,  no  bleaching  properties,  and  no  dis- 
infectant powers.  To  a  certain  extent,  it  oxidises 
metals,  &c. ;  but  comparatively,  it'may  be  regarded 
as  a  feeble  oxidising  agent.  By  several  processes — 
namely,  the  introduction  of  a  heated  glass  rod  into  a 
jar  containing  ordinary  air  and  a  little  ether ;  or 
the  presence  of  clean-scraped  sticks  of  phosphorus 
in  a  glass  vessel  with  a  confined  portion  of  air; 
or  the  passage  of  electric  discharges  through  or 
round  a  glass  tube  or  bottle  with  air — the  oxygen 
of  the  atmospheric  air  is  transformed  into  an  allo- 
tropic  form  called  ozone.  In  the  latter  condition, 
oxvgen  ]iossesses  a  very  strong  and  peculiar  odour, 
long  known  as  the  electiical  odour;  has  great  bleach- 
ing powers,  and  is  regarded  as  the  agent  in  the  air 
widch  bleaches  clothes  on  the  household  blcaching- 
green  ;  and  possesses  such  powerful  disinfecting 
properties,  that  tainted  meat  introduced  into  ozonised 
air,  has  the  disagreeable  odour  destroyed,  and  smells 
fresh  when  taken  out.  Ozone  is  doubtless  the  great 
natural  agent  which  removes  many  deleterious  gases 
and  vajwurs,  and  destroys  infections  matter  floating 
in  or  dilfused  through  the  air.     See  OzoxE. 

ALLOWANCES,  0fficer.s'.  In  the  Briti.sh  army 
— and  to  various  degrees  in  the  armies  of  other 
countries — military  officers,  besides  their  recog- 
nised pav,  receive  certain  A.  for  special  duties,  or 
when  placed  under  exceptional  circumstances.  With- 
out detailing  the  actual  amoimt  of  these  A.,  it  may 
be  well  to  enumerate  the  principal  modes  in  which 
they  arise.  An  officer  commanding  and  paying  a 
troop  or  company,  receives  a  contingent  allowance 
as  an  indemnification  for  the  expense  of  repairing 
arms,  swords,  and  scabbards  ;  for  burials  ;  and  for 
the  debts  of  soldiers  who  become  non-effective.  A 
kind  of  general  average  is  struck  for  the  probable 
amount  of  these  charges.  An  officer  on  duty  in 
the  United   Kingdom,  in  a  situation   entitUng   him 

157 


ALLOW  AY  KIRK— ALLOY, 


to  be  lodged   at   the   public   expense,   and  whose 

lodging  is  not  otherwise  paid  for  by  the  public, 
receives  an  allowance  as  '  lodging-money,'  varying 
in  amount  according  to  his  rank.  An  officer  niai'ch- 
ing  with  troops  in  tlie  Uniteil  Kingdom,  on  a  route 
determined  by  competent  autVioiity,  if  unable  to 
mess  with  his  regiment  or  detachment  on  a  particular 
day,  receives  an  allowance  in  compensation.  An 
officer  sent  on  permanent  or  temporary  duty  from 
one  place  to  another,  receives  a  travelling  allowance 
of  so  much  per  mile.  An  officer  serving  on  a  court- 
martial  receives  an  allowance  at  so  much  per  day, 
besides  a  travelling  allowance  if  the  place  be  distant. 
An  officer  temporarily  detached  on  duty,  where  he 
cannot  join  his  regimental  mess,  has  an  allowance 
for  mess-money.  Besides  those  here  enumeiated, 
there  are  A.  for  detention  at  ports  of  embarkation, 
&c.,  and  others  of  a  minor  kind. 

A.  or  extra  payments  to  private  soldiers  and  non- 
commissioned officers,  will  be  noticed  under  Pay, 
Pension,  &c. — The  daily  food  served  out  at  the  pub- 
lic expense,  which  is  called  a  ration  by  soldiers, 
is  more  usually  known  to  sailors  as  an  allowance.  See 
Ration. 

A'LLOWAY  KIRK,  an  old  ruined  church  in  the 
parish  of  Ayr,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Doon,  celebrated 
in  Burns's  Tain  O^Shantcr.  At  very  short  distances 
from  it  are  the  cottage  in  which  the  poet  wa.s  born, 
the  monument  erected  to  his  memory  in  1823,  and 
the  "Twa  Brigs,'  'the  Auld  Brig  o'  Doon,'  and  the 
new  bridge  over  that  river. 

ALLOY'  (in  Chemistry)  is  a  mixture  of  two  or 
more  metals,  either  natural,  or  produced  artificially 
by  melting  them  together.  The  A.  or  mixture  has 
often  different  pro])erties  from  the  component  metals, 
and  bears  a  distinct  name.  Thus  bell-uietal  is  an  A. 
of  copper  and  tin  ;  tombak,  of  copper  and  zinc  ; 
brass,  of  copper,  with  a  large  proportion  of  zinc, 
&c.  Alloys  are  generally  harder  than  the  metals 
that  compose  them,  and  this  is  the  motive  for  alloy- 
ing the  precious  metals.  Both  gold  and  silver,  when 
pure,  are  very  soft,  and  easily  worn  away  by  use  ; 
and  therefore,  a  certain  proportion  of  copper  is 
added,  to  give  these  metals  tlie  re(]uisite  hardness. 
In  this  case  the  word  '  alloy  '  signifies  the  inferior 
metal  added,  and  not  the  mixture.  P'or  coin,  the 
proportion  of  copper  to  be  added  is  fixed  by  law 
(see  the  following  article),  and  differs  in  different 
states.  It  has  been  found  by  experiment  that  Vio  of 
A.  gives  the  greatest  durability.  This  is  exactly  the 
proportion  in  British  gold  coin,  a  pound  troy  of  the 
metal  containing  11  parts  gold  and  1  part  copper. 
The  A.  in  our  silver  coin  is  somewhat  less,  being  18 
dwt.  in  the  pound  instead  of  20  dwt.  For  conveni- 
ence in  reckoning,  the  standard  of  the  coinage  in 
France,  and  other  countries  that  adopts  its  monetary 
system,  as  well  as  in  the  United  States,  is  made  ', lo 
pure  metal  and  Vio  A.,  usually  stated  900  (in  lOOd) 
parts  fine.  Our  gold  and  silver  standards  similarly 
stated  would  be  917  and  925  respectively.  Gold  is 
sometimes  alloyed  with  silver,  or  with  a  mixture  of 
silver  and  copper.  The  colour  of  gold  and  silver  is 
affected  by  the  nature  and  amount  of  the  A.  A 
strong  A.  of  copper  makes  gold  red  ;  of  silver,  green ; 
and  a  still  stronger  of  silver,  a  bright  yellow.  A 
compound  of  mercury  with  another  metal  is  an 
ji.mnlr/am  (q.  v.). 

Alloys  seldom  possess  the  density  which  theory  or 
calculation  from  the  specific  gravity  of  their  con- 
stituents would  indicate.  Thus,  many  alloys  possess 
a  greater  density  than  the  mean  density  of  their  con- 
stituents, whilst  others  have  a  less  density.  The 
increase  in  density  of  the  A.  indicates  that  the 
metals  have  contracted ;  in  other  words,  that  the 
metallic  molecules  have  approached  each  other  more 
158 


closely  ;  whilst  the  decrease  in  density  denotes  a 
separation  of  the  molecules  to  greater  distances  from 
each  other. 


ALLOYS 

which  exhibit  a  greater  densi- 
ty than  the  iiuan  density  of 
tile  metals  coin])Osiug  them. 

Gold    and  Zinc. 
•'     Tin. 
"        "    Bismuth. 
"        "    Antimouy. 
"        "     Cobalt. 

Silver    "    Zinc. 
"     Tin. 
"         "     Bismuth. 
"         "     Antimony. 

Copper "     Zinc. 
"     Tin. 
"         "     Palladium. 
"         "     Bisnuith. 

Lead      "     Antimouy. 

J'latiuum  &  ^folybdenum. 

Palladium  "  Bismuth. 


The  strength  or  cohesion  of  an  A.  is  generally 
greater  than  that  of  the  mean  cohesion  of  the  metals 
contained  tlierein,  or  even  of  that  of  the  most  cohesive 
of  its  constituents.  Thus  tlie  breaking  weight  of  a 
bar  of  copper  or  tin  (meaning  the  longtitudinal 
strain  it  can  liear)  is  very  much  lower  than  the 
breaking  weight  of  a  bar  composed  of  an  A.  of  tin 
and  copper.     The  following  tables  represent  the 

COHESION      OF      METALS. 

Bar,  one  inch  square, 
breaks  witli 
lbs. 


ALLOYS 

which 

possess  a  less  density 

than 

the  mean   density  of 

the  metals  composing  them. 

Gold 

and  Silver. 

" 

"     Iron. 

" 

"     Lead. 

" 

"     Copper. 

" 

"     Iridmm. 

" 

"     Nickel. 

Silver 

"     Copper. 

Iron 

"     Bismuth. 

" 

"    Antimony. 

" 

"     Lead. 

Tin 

"     Lead. 

" 

"     Palladium. 

" 

"     Antimouy. 

Nickel 

"    Silver. 

Zinc 

"    Antimony. 

Barhary  Copper, 
Japan  " 

English  Block  Tin, 

Banca  Tin, 

Malacca  Tin, 

Bismuth, 

Zinc, 

Antimony, 

Lead, 


22,570 
20,272 
6,050 
5,322 
3,079 
3,211 
3,008 
2,689 
1,060 
885 


When  any  two  of  the  above  metals  combine  to- 
gether, they  generally — though  not  always — yield 
an  A.  which  is  nmch  stronger  than  we  should  expect  •. 
thus  the 

COHESION      OF      ALLOTS. 


Bar,  one  inch  squarB, 
yields  with 


10  parts  of  Copper  and  1  part  of  Tin, 


Lead, 


8 

.i                I 

6 

"                 "                1 

4 

(<                 i<                I 

2 

"                 "                1 

1 

<<                       u                      I 

4 

"  Ensrlish  Tin  and  1 

4 

"  Banca       "       "     1 

4 

"       "           "       "     1 

4 

"  English  Tiu,  "     1 

4 

"       "          "       "     1 

lbs. 

32,093 

36,088 

44,071 

3r.,739 

1,017 
725 

10,607 


Antimony,  13,480 
Bismuth,"  16,692 
Zinc,  .  10,2.")S 
Antimony,  11,323 


The  power  of  conducting  electrical  currents  is 
not  so  great  in  an  A.  as  the  mean  conducting-power 
of  its  components. 

The  composition  of  the  more  commonly  occurring 
and  commercially  important  alloys,  is  as  follows: 
Plumber's  solder,"  1  tin  and  2  lead;  soft  solder,  2  tin 
and  1  lead ;  common  pewter,  4  tin  and  1  lead  ; 
gun-metal,  9  copper  and  1  tin ;  bronze,  9  copper  and 
1  tin  and  zinc ;  cymbals  and  Chinese  gongs,  4  copper 


ALLOY— ALLSTOX. 


and  1  tin ;  bell-metal,  3  copper  and  1  tin  ;  speculum 
metal,  2  copper  and  1  tin  :  pot-metal  or  cock-metal, 
2  copper  and  1  lead;  gildiiifj-uietal,  lt>  copper  and  1 
to  1^  zinc ;  Mannlieiin  gold — pinchbeck  or  bath- 
metal,  16  copper  and  4  zinc ;  Bristol  brass  for 
soldering,  16  copper  and  6  zinc;  ordinary  brass, 
for  casting,  16  copper  and  8  zinc  :  Muntz  sheatliing- 
metal,  16  copper  and  InJ  zinc  ;  spelter  solder,  for 
copper  and  iron,  16  copper  an<l  I'i  zinc  ;  spelter  solder 
for  brass-work,  16  copper  and  16  zinc;  Mosaic  gold, 
16  copper  and  16^  zinc  ;  hardest  silver  solder,  -i  silver 
and  1  copper  ;  hard  silver  solder,  3  silver  and  1 
copper ;  soft  silver  solder,  2  silver  and  1  copper  ; 
German  silver,  100  copper,  60  zinc,  and  40  nickel; 
type-metal,  ordinary,  15  lead,  4  antimony,  and  1 
tin,  or  14  lead,  5  antimony,  and  1  tin — small  types, 
4  lead  and  1  antimony — large  types,  6  lead  and 
1  antimony  ;  stereotype  metal,  48  lead,  6  antimony, 
and  1  tin  ;  Britannia  metal,  50  tin,  4  antimony,  4 
blsnmth,  and  1  copper. 

ALLOY,  or  ALLAY  (in  Law),  the  term  used  to 
denote  the  base  metal  mixed  with  gold  and  silver  in 
the  coinage  of  the  realm.  The  gold  and  silver  to  be 
converted  into  sovereigns,  half-sovereigns,  shillings, 
and  the  other  current  silver  coins,  must  be  of  the 
true  standard,  or  of  sterling  quality,  as  it  is  called  ; 
and  by  the  statute  25  Edward  III.  c.  13,  all  the 
coin  of  the  kingdom  must;  be  made  of  such  ster- 
ling metal.  By  the  56  Geo.  III.  c.  68,  gold  coin — 
with  certain  exceptions  recited  in  the  act — is  declared 
to  be  the  only  legal  tender  for  payments,  and  that 
such  gold  coin  shall  be  of  the  weight  and  fineness 
prescribed  by  the  indenture  with  the  Master  of  the 
Mint ;  and  according  to  the  standard  thus  indicated, 
the  pound  troy  of  gold,  consisting  of  twenty-two  carats 
■ — or  twenty-fourth  parts — fine,  and  two  of  A.,  is 
divided  into  forty-four  guineas  and  a  half,  of  the  pre- 
sent value  of  twenty-one  shillings  each.  In  the  case 
of  silver,  the  pound  troy  is  declared  by  the  same 
.ict — extended  by  a  recent  statute,  the  12  and  13 
Vict.  c.  41 — to  consist  of  eleven  ounces  two  penny- 
Aveights  of  fine  silver,  and  eighteen  pennyweights 
of  A.,  and  in  weight  to  be  divided  into  sixty-six 
shillings.  The  regulation  of  the  coinage  forms  part 
of  the  prerogative  of  the  crown,  although  parliament 
also  exercises  a  control  over  it ;  indeed,  since  the 
Revolution,  the  coinage  has  been  chiefly  regulated 
by  the  authority  of  parliament.  iSee  Coixage  and 
Mint. 

ALL-SAINTS'  BAY,  in  the  province  of  Bahia, 
Brazil,  in  12°— 13°  S.  lat.,  and  38°— 39°  W.  long. 
It  ibrms  a  superb  natural  harbour,  in  which  the 
navies  of  the  whole  world  might  anchor.  Its  length 
from  N.  to  S.  is  37  miles  ;  its  breadth  from  E. 
to  W.  27.  It  contains  several  islands,  the  largest  of 
which,  Itapariea,  is  18  miles  long,  and  3  broad.  The 
entrance  to  the  bay  is  easy.  The  town  of  Bahia 
(q.  V.)  Ues  just  within  it,  on  the  right  hand. 

ALL-SAINTS'-DAY,  in  old  Enghsh,  All-Hal- 
lows, All-Hallowmas,  or  simply  Hallowmas,  a  festival 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  introduced  because  of 
the  impossibility  of  keeping  a  separate  day  for  every 
saint.  As  early  as  the  4th  c,  on  the  cessation  of 
the  persecution  of  the  Christians,  the  Sunday  after 
Easter  was  appointed  by  the  Greek  Church  for 
conmiemorating  the  martyrs  generally  ;  and  in  the 
Church  of  Rome  a  similar  festival  was  introduced 
about  610  A.n.,  when  the  old  heathen  Pantheon  (the 
present  Rotonda,  or  Santa  JIaria  dei  Martiri)  was 
consecrated,  on  the  13th  of  March,  to  Mary  and  all 
the  Martyrs.  But  the  real  festival  of  All  Saints  was 
first  regularly  inst-ituted  by  Gregory  IV.,  in  83.1,  and 
appointed  to  be  celebrated  on  the  1st  November.  It 
was  admitted  into  England  about  870.  The  choice 
of  the  day  was    doubtless   determined   by  the   fact, 


that  November  1,  or  rather  the  ere  or  night  preceding 
it,  was  one  of  the  four  great  festivals  (1st  February, 
1st  May,  1st  August,  and  1st  November)  of  the 
heathen  nations  of  the  north;  for  it  was  the  policy 
of  the  church  to  sup[)lant  heat  lien  by  Christian  obser- 
vances.    See  Bki.tank  and  Hallow-eve. 

ALL-SOULS'-DAY,  a  festival  of  the  Roman 
Catliolic  Cluirch,  which  falls  on  the  2d  of  Novem- 
ber. The  oliject  of  it  is,  by  prayers  and  almsgiving 
to  alleviate  the  suficrings  of  the  souls  in  purgatory. 
It  was  first  instituted  in  the  monastery  of  Clugny, 
993,  and  the  following  is  the  account  given  of  the 
circumstance  in  whii.-h  it  originated  :  A  pilgrim  return- 
ing fiom  the  Holy  Land,  was  compelled  by  a  storm 
to  land  on  a  rocky  island  somewhere  between  Sicily 
and  Thessalonica.  Here  he  found  a  hermit,  who  told 
him  that  among  the  cliffs  of  the  island  was  situated 
the  opening  into  the  under  world,  through  which 
I  huge  flames  ascended,  and  the  groans  and  cries  of 
souls  tormented  by  evil  angels  were  audible.  The 
hermit  had  also  frequently  heard  the  complaints 
and  imprecations  of  the  devils,  at  the  numl)er  of 
souls  that  were  torn  from  them  by  the  prayers 
and  alms  of  the  pious  ;  they  were  especially  enraged, 
he  said,  against  the  Abbot  and  monks  of  Clugny. 
The  pilgrim  on  his  arrival  acquainted  Odilo,  Abbot 
of  Clugny,  with  what  had  come  to  his  knowl- 
edge, and  the  abbot  thereupon  appointed  the  day 
after  All  Saints  to  be  kept  in  his  monastery  as 
an  annual  festival  for  '  All  Souls. '  The  observance 
was  quickly  adopted  by  the  whole  Catholic  world. 
By  another  account,  the  scene  of  the  incident  is 
transferred  to  Sicily,  and  the  institution  to  the 
year  998. 

In  some  parts  of  the  west  of  England  it  is  still  '  the 
custom  for  the  village  children  to  go  round  to  all 
their  neighbours  souling,  as  they  call  it — collecting 
small  contributions,  and  singing  the  following  verses, 
taken  down  from  two  of  the  children  themselves : 

Ponl !  soul !  for  a  soul-cake; 
Pray,  good  mistress,  for  a  soul-cake, 
One  for  Peter,  two  for  Paul, 
Three  for  Them  who  made  us  all. 

Poul  !  soul !  for  an  apple  or  two; 

If  you've  got  no  apples,  pears  will  do, 

Up  with  your  kettle,  and  down  with  your  pan  : 

Give  me  a  good  big  one,  and  I'll  be  gone. 

The  soul-cake  referred  to  in  the  verses  is  a  sort  of 
bun,  which,  until  lately,  it  was  an  almost  general 
custom  for  people  to  make,  and  to  give  to  one 
another  on  the  2d  of  November.' — NoteR  and  QucricK, 
First  Series,  vol.  4. 

A'LLSPICE,  a  name  frequently  given  to  the 
kind  of  S[iice  called  Pimenta  (q.  v.)  or  Jamaica 
\)c\)\)Qr,  XXk  irmi  oi  Eitrienia  pimenta  and  E.  aerix. 
The  name  originated  in  its  being  supposed  to  coin- 
bine  the  flavour  of  different  spices,  particularly 
cinnamon,  nutmeg,  and  cloves. — Tiie  name  Carolina 
A.,  or  American  A.,  is  given  to  the  aromatic  bark  of 
Calycanthus  floridns  (see  Calycanthus),  whose  dull 
broANTi  flowers,  when  crushed,  exhale  more  or  less  the 
fragnince  of  strawberries.  Tlie  berries  of  Benzoin 
odoriferum,  of  the  natural  order  Lauracece,  are  said 
to  have  been  used  lor  A.  in  the  same  country  during 
the  war  with  Great  Britain. 

ALLSTON,  WAsnixGTON,  one  of  the  best  known 
of  the  painters  and  poets  of  America,  was  born  at 
George  Town,  South  Carolina,  in  1779.  He  at  first 
prosecuted  the  study  of  medicine,  but  was  after- 
wards induced  by  his  acquaintance  with  the  painter 
Malbone  to  devote  himself  to  art.  When  he  had 
completed  his  studies  in  America,  he  went  to  Loudon, 
where  he  became  a  friend  of  his  countryman  ^Yest, 
who  was  at  that  time  president  of  the  Academy. 
In  the  year  1804,  he  proceeded  to  Rome,  where  he 

159 


ALLUVION— ALMAGRO. 


lived  for  some  years  in  the  closest  intimacy  with  J.  i 
Vandei'lyn,  Thorwaldsen,  and  Coleridge.  After  a 
short  stay  in  America,  to  which  he  returned  in  1809, 
he  oiice  more  visited  Engliind  in  ISll,  when  ho 
gained  the  2U0-guine:i  prize  of  the  r.ritisli  Institution. 
In  1817  he  went  to  Paris  with  Leslie,  and  the  year 
after  returned  to  America.  In  1819  lie  was  elected 
an  Associate  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Loinlon.  He 
now  permanently  fixed  his  residence  at  Cambridge 
Port,  near  Boston,  where  he  lived,  cultivating  his  art 
and  the  muses,  till  his  death  on  the  8th  of  July 
1843.  His  pictures  are  very  numerous.  Thesul'jects 
of  them  are  mostly  taken  from  Scripture,  such  as, 
Jacob's  Dream,  Elijah  in  the  Wilderness,  Paul  and 
the  Witch  of  Endor,  the  Deliverance  of  Peter  out  of 
Pri.son,  &c.  The  style  of  A.  is  noble,  his  ideas 
are  imaginative,  and  many  of  his  paintings  evince  a 
true  poetic  spirit.  In  colouring,  he  comes  nearer  the 
old  masters  than  most  modern  painters  do.  Among 
his  printed  works,  the  most  remarkable  and  best 
know^n  is  the  poem,  Tlie  Si/Iplis  of  the  Sca'<07i.<t, 
(published  first  in  London,  isio),  and  the  art-novel, 
Monaldi  (Boston,  1842). 

ALIiU'VIOX.  This  is  a  legal  term,  signifying 
land  gained  from  the  sea  by  the  washing  up  of  sand 
and  earth  so  as  to  make  it  terra  Jirma.  The  right 
of  property  thus  arising  is  regulated  as  follows  in 
the  laws  of  England  and  Scotland :  By  the  law  of 
England,  if  the  addhion  to  the  soil  thus  made  be  by 
little  and  little,  by  small  and  imperceptible  degrees, 
it  goes  to  the  owner  of  the  land  immediately 
behind  ;  but  if  the  A.  be  a  sudden  and  considerable 
acquisition  from  the  shore,  the  ground  acquired 
shall  belong  to  the  crown.  Where,  however,  the 
crown  may  have  made  a  grant  to  a  subject  cmn 
littore  maris — that  is,  the  space  between  the  high 
and  low  water  marks — it  would  seem  that  a  sudden 
or  consideiablc  increase  of  lands  by  A.  within  these 
limits  must  belong  to  the  grantee.  In  the  Scotch 
law,  again,  if  the  A.  is  made  insensibly,  it  is  said  to 
'  accresce  '  to,  or  become  the  property  of  the  owner  of 
the  ground  to  which  the  addition  is  made  ;  but  if  it 
be  caused  by  a  violent  flood,  or  by  any  convulsion 
of  nature,  the  ground  so  added  to  the  soil  does  not 
belong  to  the  owner  of  the  latter,  but  remains  the 
property  of  the  person  of  whose  land  it  originally 
formed  part.  The  Scotch  law  does  not  recognise 
such  right  in  the  crown  on  this  subject  as  is  allowed 
by  the  law  of  England.  In  Scotland,  the  shore  is  not 
considered  to  be  the  property  of  the  .sovereign  ;  but 
it  is  presumed  to  be  granted  as  a  part  and  pertinent 
of  the  adjacent  land,  under  the  burden  of  the  crown's 
right  as  trustee  for  the  public  uses,  of  wliich  naviga- 
tion and  fishing  are  the  chief. 

ALLU'VIUM,  a  term  originally  applied  to  those 
deposits  which  were  supposed  to  have  been  formed 
subsequently  to  the  Flood,  while  Diluvium  (q.  v.) 
included  its  products.  In  modern  geological  classifi- 
cation, these  two  terms,  in  this  sense,  have  been 
abolished,  as  their  connection  with  the  Deluge  is 
denied.  The  diluvial  and  alluvial  deposits  are 
included  under  the  Pleistocene  formation  (q.  v.) 
The  name  is  now  given  to  those  deposits  of  mud, 
soil,  sand,  gravel,  &c.,  which  are  brought  down  by 
streams  and  rivers  and  spread  over  lower  lands. 
See  Delta  ;  Denudation. 

ALLYGU'RH,  a  fort  in  the  district  of  the  same 
name  in  India.  I^t.  2*7°  56'  N.,  long.  78°  8'  E.  It 
lies  on  the  route  between  Agra  and  Delhi,  being 
55  miles  from  the  former,  and  74  from  the  latter. 
Partly  to  this  commanding  situation,  and  partly  to 
the  strength  derived  from  its  surrounding  marshes, 
it  owes  any  importance  that  it  possesses.  It  was 
stormed  by  the  British  in  1803,  being  then  the 
principal  depot  of  the  French  party  in  the  Doab — 
160 


an  exploit  of  sufficient  consequence  to  be  commem- 
orated by  a  medal  in  1851.  But  within  six  years 
after  18.51,  A.  became  the  arena  of  a  still  more 
desperate  struggle.  Ten  days  after  the  outbreak  at 
Moerut,  the  native  troops  in  garrison  mutinied. 
Fortunately,  the  Europeans  escaped  with  compara- 
tively little  sacrifice  of  life.  But  the  temporary 
loss  of  the  place  was  severely  felt  far  beyond  the 
immediate  neighbourhood,  as  aln;ost  cutting  ofF 
the  communications  between  the  south-east  and  the 
north-west. 

A'LMA,  a  river  in  the  Crimea,  rising  at  the  foot 
of  the  Tchadir  Dagh,  and  flowing  westwai'd  into  the 
Bay  of  Kalamaita,  about  h.dl-v.ay  between  Eupatoriu 
and  Sebastopol.  On  tlie  steep  banks  of  this  stream, 
through  the  channel  of  which  the  British  troops 
waded  amidst  a  shower  of  bullets,  a  brilliant  victory 
was  won  on  the  2(Uh  of  September  1854-,  by  the 
allied  armies  of  Britain  and  Prance,  under  Lord 
Raglan  and  JIarshal  St.  Arnaud,  over  the  Russian 
army  commanded  by  Prince  Jlcnschikoff. 

A^jMACK'S.  a  suite  of  assembly-rooms  in 
King  Street,  St.  James's.  They  were  Iniilt  in  1765 
by  Almack,  a  tavern-kecpei-,  and  were  hence  called 
Almack's  Rooms;*  they  are  now  generally  called 
Willis's  Rooms,  from  the  name  of  the  present  pro- 
prietor. The  name  of  A.  is  chiefly  associated  with 
the  balls  that  have,  since  the  opening  cf  the  rooms, 
been  held  there  under  the  management  of  a  com- 
mittee of  ladies  of  high  rank ;  and  has  become 
synonymous  with  aristocratic  exclusiveness.  See 
Chambers's  Journal,  First  Series,  vol.  fi,  p.  125. 

ALMADE'X  or  ALMADEX  DEL  AZOGUE 
(Arabic,  'the  mine  of  quicksilver'),  a  town  in  Spain, 
50  miles  S.W.  of  Ciudad  Real,  is  the  Cisapona 
Cctobrix  of  the  Romans,  and  is  situated  between  two 
mountains  in  the  chain  of  the  Sierra  Moremi.  Pop. 
8015.  It  is  famous  for  its  quicksilver  mines,  the 
richest  in  the  world,  producing  annually  about 
2,000,000  lbs.  These  mines  were  worked  by  the 
ancient  Iberians  ;  afterwards  by  the  Romans.  They 
were  rented  by  the  Fuggers  of  Augsburg  in  the  16th 
c,  but  were  taken  under  the  care  of  the  Spanish 
government  in  1045.  Recently,  the  firm  of  Roths- 
child has  undertaken  the  working  of  these  mines. 
There  is  a  school  of  mines  in  the  place. 

A'LMAGE.ST,  the  name  given  by  the  Arabs  to 
the  great  work  of  Ptolemy  the  astronomer  (q.  v.) 

ALMAGRO,  Diego  d',  a  Spanish  conquistador 
— i.  e.,  adventurer — in  the  conquest  of  South  America, 
was  born  in  1464.  He  was  a  foundling,  and  derived 
his  name  from  the  town  in  the  vicinity  of  which  he 
was  found.  Along  with  many  other  adventurers, 
he  went,  as  was  common  in  those  days,  to  seek  his 
fortune  in  the  new  world  which  Columbus  had 
opened  up.  There  he  amassed  considerable  wealth 
by  plunder,  and  became  one  of  the  most  influential 
persons  in  the  new  colony  of  Darien,  when  he  was 
persuaded  to  join  Pizarro  in  his  attack  on  Peru. 
The  undertaking  was  crowned  with  astonishing 
success.  He  was  now  appointed,  in  the  absence 
of  Pizarro,  who  had  returned  to  Spain  with  rich 
presents,  governor  of  the  conquered  country,  and 
received  permission  from  the  Spanish  court  to  conquer 
for  himself  a  special  province  south  of  the  territory 
subdued  by  Pizarro.  In  1534,  therefore,  he  marched 
on  Chili,  penetrated  deeply  into  the  land,  and 
returned  in  1536,  just  when  the  Peruvians  had 
flown  to  arms  under  their  young  Inca,  Mango  Capac, 
and  shut  up  the  Spaniards  in  Cuzco  and  Lima.  As 
these  towns  la.y  south  of  Pizarro's  district,  they  were 


*  Almack.  it  is  saifl,  was  originally  a  poor  Scottish  High- 
lander, namert  M'Call.  As  a  premi'atorv  step  to  risinsi  into 
importance  in  London,  he  inverted  the  syllables  of  his  name. 


ALMALEE— ALMANAC. 


claimed  hy  A.  He  disjiersed  tlie  Peruvian  army 
before  Cuzeo,  and  advanced  with  his  forces  against 
Lima,  hoping  to  make  himself  sole  master  of  the 
country.  But  the  crafty  Plzarro  contrived,  by  means 
of  a  truce,  to  gain  time  for  collecting  his  forces. 
On  the  ()th  of  April  1538,  a  despeiate  engagenient 
took  place  near  Cuzco,  in  which  A.  was  defeated 
and  taken  piisoner.  He  was  condemned  to  death  ; 
and  on  the  2r,th  of  the  same  moiitli,  he  was  strangled 
in  prison,  and  his  corpse  beheaded  in  the  market- 
place of  Cuzco.  His  son,  Diego  d'A.,  gathering 
together  several  hundreds  of  his  father's  followers, 
stormed  the  palace  of  Pizarro,  whom  he  assassinated 
(1541);  he  then  proclaimed  himself  captain-general 
of  Peru;  but,  the  friends  of  the  murdeicd  governor 
resisting  his  claims,  Baca  de  Castro  was  sent  o>it 
from  Spain,  as  supreme  arbiter,  to  quell  all  disturb- 
ances. Diego  was  now  requested  to  submit ;  and 
on  his  refusing,  was  attacked  by  the  troops  of  Baca, 
when  the  bloodiest  battle  took  place  that  had  ever 
been  known  in  America  (lot'i).  Diego,  having 
been  defeated  and  taken  prisoner,  was  executed  along 
with  forty  of  his  companions. 

ALMALEE',  or  ALMALI',  a  large  town  of  Asiatic 
Turkey,  in  the  pashalic  of  Anatolia.  It  is  situated 
on  the  river  ^lyra,  about  25  miles  from  the  sea,  and 
is  much  frequented  by  European  merchants  from 
Smyrna,  &c.,  who  purchase  the  various  products  of 
the  place.  A.  has  numerous  mills  pro]iellcd  by 
water,  tan-yards,  dye-works,  and  factories.  The 
inhabitants  are  very  industrious,  and  everywhere 
may  be  seen  indications  of  their  prosperity — in  the 
clean  and  comfortable  houses,  neat  apparel,  excellent 
roads,  fences,  bridges,  &c.  A.  is  built  in  a  picturesque 
valley  at  the  edge  of  a  large  plateau,  5000  feet  above 
the  sea,  and  is  embosomed  in  gardens,  which,  together 
with  the  minarets  and  lofty  poplars  interspersed 
through  the  town,  give  it  a  striking  appearance. 
Pop.  20,000. 

A'LMA  MATER  (Lat.  nourishing  mother)  is  a 
name  given  to  a  university  in  relation  to  those  who 
have  studied  at  it,  to  distinguish  it  from  inferior 
schools  of  learning.  The  word  Alma  (nourishing, 
sustaining  or  kind)  was  applied  by  the  Latin  authors 
to  such  of  the  deities  as  were  friendly  to  men — Ceres, 
Venus,  &c.,  and  also  to  the  earth,  the  light,  the  day, 
wine,  and  the  soil. 

A'LMANAC,  from  the  Arabic  article  al  and 
manah,  to  count,  a  word  received  by  the  European 
nations  from  the  east,  denoting  a  book  or  table  con- 
taining a  caleiular  of  the  civil  divisions  of  the  year, 
the  times  of  the  various  astronomical  phenomena, 
and  other  useful  or  entertaining  information.  Till  a 
comparatively  modern  date,  this  additional  matter 
consisted  of  astrological  predictions  and  other  analo- 
gous absurdities;  it  now  embraces,  in  the  best 
almanacs,  a  wide  variety  of  useful  notes  and  infor- 
mation, chronological,  statistical,  political,  agricul- 
tural, &c. — The  Alexandrian  Greeks  had  almanacs. 
The  time  at  which  they  first  appeared  in  Europe  is 
not  precisely  known.  The  oldest  of  which  copies  (in 
manuscript)  still  exist,  are  of  the  14th  c.  ;  there 
are  specimens  in  the  libraries  of  the  British  Museum 
and  of  Corpus  Christi  College,  Cambridge.  The 
earliest  European  A.  worthy  of  notice  was  compiled 
hy  the  celebrated  astronomer  Purbach,  and  appeared 
between  the  years  1450  and  14(il  ;  but  the  first 
printed  A.  was  that  composed  by  his  pupil,  Regio- 
niontanus,  for  the  thirty  years  from  1475  to  150fi, 
for  which  he  received  a  munificent  donation  from 
Mathias  Corvinus,  king  of  Hungary.  Bernard  de 
Granolachs  of  Barcelona  commenced  the  publication 
of  an  A.  in  1487;  the  printer  Engel  of  Vienna,  in 
1491 ;  and  Stoffler  of  Tiibingen,  in  1524.  Copies  of 
these  arc  now  very  rare.  In  15G3  Rabelais  published, 
11 


at  Lyon,  his  A.  for  that  year,  and  renewed  the 
pul>lication  in  1535,  1548,  and  1550.  Tiie  fame  and 
po[iuIarityof  the  cclei)rated  astrologer,  Xostriidannis, 
who  i)ropiiesied  minutely  the  di-ailt  of  Henry  IL  of 
France,  the  execution  of  Charles  L  of  England,  the 
great  fire  of  London,  the  Restoration,  &c.,  gave 
such  an  imj)ulse  to  the  publication  of  predictions, 
that,  in  157St,  Henry  HI.  of  France  prohibited  the 
in.'iertion  of  any  political  prophecies  in  almanacs — a 
prohibition  renewed  by  Louis  XIII.  in  ItViS.  Before 
this,  in  the  reign  of  Charles  IX.,  a  royal  ordnnnnnce 
required  every  A.  to  be  stamped  with  the  approval 
of  the  diocesan  bi.shop. 

Prophetic  almanacs  still  circulate  to  an  incredible 
extent  in  France  in  the  rural  districts,  and  among 
the  uneducated.  The  most  popular  of  all  these  is 
the  Almnnach  Lifcjcoix,  a  venerable  remnant  of 
superstition.  It  was  first  published  at  Liege — 
according  to  the  invariable  title-page  which  takes  no 
note  of  time — in  163G,  by  one  Matthieu  Laen-bergh, 
whose  existence,  however,  at  any  time  seems  very 
problematical.  The  Almnnach  Liegeois  is  a  most 
convenient  one  for  tho-^e  who  are  unable  to  read,  for 
by  certain  symbols  attached  to  certain  dates,  the 
most  unlettered  persons  can  follow  its  instructions: 
thus  the  rude  representation  of  a  phial  announces 
the  proper  phase  of  the  moon  under  which  a  draught 
of  medicine  should  be  taken ;  a  pill-box  designates 
the  planet  most  propitious  for  pills  ;  a  pair  of  scis.sora 
points  out  the  proper  period  forcutting  hair,  a  lancet 
for  letting  blood.  Of  course,  amidst  innumerable 
predictions,  some  may  naturally  be  expected  to 
come  to  pass.  So  in  1774,  this  A.  predicted  tluit  in 
the  April  of  that  year  a  royal  favourite  would  play 
her  last  part.  Madame  Dubarry  took  the  prediction 
to  herself,  and  repeatedly  exclaimed :  '  I  wish  this 
villanous  month  of  A[)ril  were  over.'  In  May  Louis 
XV.  died,  and  Madame  Dubarry's  last  part  was 
really  played.  The  credit  of  old  Matthieu  was  es- 
tablished more  firmly  than  ever.  In  1852  a  number 
of  commissioners,  appointed  by  M.  Maupas,  minister 
of  police,  having  examined  between  7000  and  8000 
of  the  national  chapbooks,  which  included  a  great 
number  of  almanacs,  pronounced  them  .'O  deleterious, 
that  it  became  necessary  forcibly  to  check  tlieir  cir- 
culation. Although  still  in  vogue  amongst  the  ig- 
norant peasantry,  it  is  gratifying  to  learn  that  their 
popularity  is  greatly  on  the  wane,  and  that  various 
periodicals  on  a  better  plan  have  started  up  in  France 
of  late  years. 

In  England,  so  far  was  any  restraint  from  being 
put  upon  the  publication  of  prophetic  almanacs,  or 
'Prognostications,'  as  they  were  usually  called,  that 
the  royal  letters-patent  gave  a  monopoly  of  the 
trade  to  the  two  I'niversities  and  the  Stationers' 
Company,  under  whose  patronage,  and  with  the 
imprimatur  of  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  such 
productions  as  Jfoore^s  A,  and  Poor  Jlobiiis  A. 
flotirishcd  vigorously ;  although  '  it  would  be  dilli- 
cult  to  find,  in  so  small  a  compass,  an  equal  quan- 
tity of  ignorance,  profligacy,  and  imposture,  as  was 
condensed  in  these  publications.'  The  memory 
of  Partiidge,  long  employed  as  the  prophet  of  the 
Stationers'  Company,  is  preserved  in  the  lively 
diatribe  of  Swift,  writing  under  the  name  of  Bicker- 
staff.  In  1775,  a  decision  of  the  Court  of  Common 
Pleas,  in  favour  of  a  bookseller  named  Carnan, 
abolished  the  monopoly  of  the  Stationers'  Company. 
In  1770,  Lord  X'orth  brought  in  a  bill  renewing 
their  privileges.  After  a  powerful  speech  against 
the  measure  by  Erskine,  who  exposed  the  ])crnicious 
influence  of  the  productions  published  under  the 
monopoly,  it  was  rejected.  The  Stationers'  Com- 
pany, however,  still  maintained  their  ground  by 
ijuying  up  all  rival  almanacs ;  and  it  was  not  until 
the  publication,  in  1828,  of  the  British  A.  by  the 

161 


ALMANAC— ALMEIDA. 


Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowlefle;e,  that 
the  eyes  of  the  English  public  became  opened  to  the 
irrational  and  deleterious  nature  of  the  commodity 
which  their  own  indifference  or  folly,  as  much  as 
the  selfishness  of  their  purveyors,  had  hitherto 
maintained  in  existence.  The  success  of  this  admir- 
able publication — which  still  continues  to  appear 
annually — stimulated  the  Stationers'  Company  to 
improvement,  and  they  accordiucjly  published  the 
Englifihman^s  A.,  which  is  entirely  free  from  the 
superstitious  absurdities  of  its  predecessors. 

In  Scotland  the  earliest  almanacs  seem  to  have 
been  produced  about  the  bcginnin,!^  of  the  IGth  c. 
Shortly  after  the  beginning  of  the  17th  c,  the 
Almanacs  or  '  Prognostications'  pubiislied  at  Aber- 
deen had  begun  to  establish  that  celebrity  which  is 
hardly  yet  extinct.  About  the  year  1677,  they  were 
sold  for  a  pJack  each  ;  and  the  annual  circulation 
amounted,  on  an  average,  to  50,000  copies.  In  1()83 
appeared  a  rival  publication,  under  the  title  of 
Edinburgli's  True  Almanack,  or  a  New  Prognosti- 
cation. For  a  long  time  the  Scottish  Almanacs  con- 
tinned,  like  all  others  of  that  age,  to  contain  little 
besides  a  calendar,  with  a  list  of  fairs,  and — what 
constituted  the  great  attraction — predictions  of  the 
weather.  But  something  more  instructive  and  com- 
prehensive became  requisite,  and  the  Edinlnirgh  A. 
seems  to  have  been  among  the  first  to  respond  to  this 
requirement  of  advancing  civilization;  for,  by  vari- 
ous additions,  such  as  a  list  of  the  Scottish  members  of 
parliament,  it  had,  in  1745,  been  extended  from  the 
original  16  pages  to  36.  In  twelve  years  from  that 
date,  it  had  swelled  to  72  pages;  in  1770  it  had 
reached  252  pages.  Since  1837,  it  has  been  published 
under  the  title  of  Oliver  and  £oi/d's  Neto  Edin- 
burgh A.,  and  now  (1859)  extends  to  800  pages.  It 
contains  an  amount  of  information  on  all  public 
matters,  especially  on  those  connected  with  North 
Britain,  which,  in  its  completeness,  leaves  little  to  be 
desired. 

What  Oliver  and  Bof/d^s  Edinburgh  ^.  is  to  Scot- 
land, is  Thomh  Iriah  A.  to  Ireland — a  work  not  less 
excellent,  and  even  more  extensive. 

Alinanacs,  containing  astrological  and  other  pre- 
dictions, are  still  published  in  Great  Britain,  but 
Iheir  influence  is  extremely  limited,  even  among 
the  most  ignorant  portion  of  the  community,  and 
their  contents  arc  fitted  to  excite  amusement  rather 
than  any  stronger  emotion. 

Of  important  national  almanacs  are  tne  French 
Almanack  Imperial,  begun  in  1679,  a  bulky  octavo 
volume,  full  of  useful  information ;  the  Belgian 
Royal  A.,  very  similar  in  character ;  the  Prussian 
Royal  A. ;  and  the  American  A.  (afterward  the 
National  A.,  but  discontinued  in  1864.)  ITie  Alma- 
nack de  Ootka,  begun  in  1 763,  has  a  European,  or  rather 
a  cosmopolitan,  character.     See  Gotha,  A.  DE. 

The  most  important  astronomical  A.  published  in 
Britain  is  the  Nautical  A.,  projected  by  the  astro- 
nomer-royal, Dr.  Maskelyne,  and  first  published, 
with  the  authority  of  government,  in  1767.  After 
his  death  it  gradually  lost  its  character,  and  in 
1830,  in  consequence  of  the  numerous  complaints 
made  against  it,  the  government  requested  the 
Astronomical  Society  to  pronounce  upon  the  sub- 
ject. The  suggestions  of  the  Society  were  adopted, 
and,  in  1834,  the  first  number  of  the  new  series 
appeared,  with  such  additions  and  improvements  as 
the  advanced  state  of  astronomical  science  rendered 
neces.sary.  Still  older  than  this  A.  is  the  French 
Connoissance  des  Temps,  commenced  in  1679  by 
Picard,  and  now  published  under  the  authority  of  the 
Bureau  des  Longitudes.  Its  plan  is  similar  to  that 
of  the  Nautical  A.,  but  it  contains  a  larger  amount 
of  original  memoirs,  many  of  them  of  great  value. 
Equally  celebrated  is  the  Berlin  ^/i<?»iem,  published 
162 


under  the  superintendence  of  Professor  Eneke,  being 
an  improvement  on  the  Astronomisckes  Jahrbuch,  so 
long  conducted  by  his  predecessor  Bode. 

Another  kind  of  A.,  which  has  especially  flour- 
ished in  Germany  and  France,  belongs  rather  to  the 
class  of  publications  known  in  Britain  as  Annuals. 
Such  are  the  Almanack  des  Aluses,  des  Dames, 
Populaire,  Icaricn,  Napoleonien,  &c.,  the  latter  of 
which  are  .specially  devoted  to  the  interests  of  parti- 
cular parties,  political  or  religious.  Of  this  kind  the 
examples  in  Britain  are  innumerable,  and,  in  fact, 
the  publication  of  an  A.  has  now  become  a  favourite 
medium  of  advertising  and  puffery. 

The  heavy  stamp-duty  of  fifteenpencc  per  copy,  to 
which  almanacs  were  long  liable  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  was  abolished  in  1834,  since  which  time, 
the  character,  number,  and  circulation  of  this  class 
of  publications  have  strikingly  advaiu'cd.  There  is 
now  a  very  large  sale  of  almanacs  in  Great  Britain 
for  popular  use,  at  not  more  than  one  penny  each. 

Almanac  is  also  the  term  applied  by  antiquaries 
to  calendars  found  carved,  usually  on  staves,  but 
also  on  tablets  of  wood,  scabbards  of  swords,  handles 
of  hatchets,  &c.  The  inscribed  characters  are 
sometimes  the  Runic — hence  the  name  of  runstaffs, 
Scipiones  Runici — and  sometimes  the  Gothic.  The 
saints'  days  are  denoted  by  symbols,  as  a  pair  of 
shoes  for  St.  Crispin's  Day.  These  primitive  almanacs 
were  in  use  among  the  Scandinavian  nations,  and  the 
examples  of  them  found  in  Britain  are  thought  to 
have  been  introduced  by  the  Norsemen. 

ALM.VNSOR,  or,  with  his  full  name,  Abu-Jafer- 
Abdallah  -  ben  -  Mohammed  -  al  -  Mansor  (al  -  mansor, 
'  helped  by  God'),  the  second  calif  of  the  house  of  the 
Abbasides  (q.  v.),  reigned  from  754  to  775.  Warfare, 
treachery,  and  murder  were  his  steps  to  the  throne, 
and  his  whole  rule  was  as  cruel  as  its  beginning. 
He  especially  persecuted  the  Christians  in  Syria  and 
Egypt.  In  war  against  external  foes,  he  had  but 
little  success.  lie  removed  the  seat  of  the  califate 
from  Kufa  to  Bagdad,  which  he  built  at  immense 
cost,  raising  the  money  by  oppressive  taxation.  He 
introduced  the  pernicious  custom  of  making  his  freed 
slaves,  mostly  foreigners,  rulers  of  provinces.  The 
best  feature  in  his  character  was  his  patronage  of 
learning.  He  caused  the  Elements  of  Euclid  to  be 
translated  from  the  Syriac,  and  the  famous  fables  of 
Bidpai  (q.  v.)  from  the  Persian  language.  A.  died 
during  a  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  in  the  sixty-third  year 
of  his  age. 

ALMEI'DA,  one  of  the  strongest  fortified  places 
in  Portugal,  is  situated  on  the  river  Coa,  on  the 
Spanish  frontier,  in  the  province  of  Beira.  Pop. 
60O0.  In  1762,  it  was  captured  by  the  Spaniards, 
who  soon  afterwards  surrendered  it.  Here,  in  1810, 
when  the  French,  under  Marshal  Ney,  attempted  to 
cross  the  Coa  into  Portugal,  the  English  colonel. 
Cox,  defended  the  town  against  Marshal  Massena; 
but  the  explosion  of  a  powder  magazine  compelled 
him  to  capitulate.  In  their  retreat  from  Portugal, 
1811,  the  French,  under  General  Brenier,  destroyed 
a  great  portion  of  the  fortifications  of  A. ,  which, 
however,  were  speedily  repaired  by  the  English. 

ALMEIDA,  Don  Francesco  d',  a  famous 
Portuguese  warrior,  who  flourished  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  loth  and  beginning  of  the  10th  c.  He 
was  the  seventh  son  of  the  Count  of  Abrantea,  and 
at  an  early  period  distinguished  himself  in  the  wars 
with  the  Moors,  but  especially  at  the  conquest  of 
Granada,  in  1492.  In  1505  his  sovereign,  Emanuel 
I.,  in  consideration  of  his  great  abilities,  appointed 
him  viceroy  of  the  Portuguese  possessions  in  the 
East  Indies.  On  the  25th  of  March,  he  .set  sail 
from  Lisbon  with  a  fleet  of  36  vessels,  containing 
1500  men,  many  of  whom   were  noblemen,  and  all 


ALMERIA— ALMOND. 


of  good  family.  On  the  22d  of  July,  he  reached 
Qiiiloa,  on  the  Mozami)iqtie  coast,  where  he  was 
soon  involved  in  a  (luarrol  with  the  king  of  that 
citv,  the  result  of  which  was  that  A.  deprived  hitn 
of  his  crown,  huilt  a  fortress  to  overawe  the  inhabit- 
ants, and  proceeding  to  Zanzibar,  destroyed  the 
town  of  Monibaza.  lie  then  sailed  i'or  the  Indies, 
asserting  everywhere  the  superiority  of  the  Portu- 
guese flag.  At  Cananor,  Cochin,  Coulan,  Ceylon, 
and  Sumatra,  he  either  built  fortresses,  to  protect 
the  factories  and  connnercial  interests  of  his  nation, 
or  established  new  factories.  With  the  king  of 
Malacca,  a  coiniiicrcial  treaty  was  formed  about  the 
same  time.  His  son,  Lorenzo,  carried  on  several 
expeditions  as  his  father's  lieutenant,  visiteil  Ceylon 
and  discovered  the  Maldive  Islands  and  Madagascar. 
The  chief  design  of  A.  was  to  make  the  Portuguese 
sole  masters  of  the  Indian  seas,  and  by  blockading 
the  Persian  and  Arabian  gulfs  to  exclude  the 
Egvptians  and  Venetians  from  commerce  with  the 
east.  To  frustrate  his  endeavours,  the  Egyptian 
sultan  fitted  out,  by  the  help  of  the  Venetians,  a 
large  fleet,  which,  under  the  command  of  the 
Persian,  Mir-IIakim,  (or  Ilosscin,  according  to 
others),  was  sent  to  the  assistance  of  the  king  of 
Calicut.  In  the  port  of  Chaid,  young  Lorenzo  was 
attacked  in  very  disadvantageous  circumstances  by 
Mir-IIakim.  lie  fought  with  astonishing  bravery  ; 
his  ships  had  all  but  made  their  escape  out  to 
the  open  sea,  when  his  own  was  separated  from 
the  others,  and  struck  upon  a  rock ;  one  chance 
shot  carried  off  one  of  his  legs,  and  another,  tearing 
away  a  part  of  his  side,  killed  him.  His  father 
speedily  took  measures  to  revenge  the  death  of 
his  son  upon  the  hated  Alussulmans,  when  Alfonso 
d' Albuquerque  appeared  on  the  scene  (15;t7,  having 
been  sent  out  by  the  Portuguese  government  to 
supersede  A.,  whom  it  had  begun  to  distrust,  on 
account  of  his  brilliant  successes.  The  latter  refused 
to  recognise  Albuquerque  as  viceroy,  and  for  some 
months  kept  him  prisoner  at  Cochin.  He  now- 
sailed  along  the  coasts,  burning  and  plundering 
various  seaports,  amongst  others  Goa,  and  at  length 
utterly  destroyed  the  Egyptian  fleet  at  Diu.  From 
this  fierce  and  avenging  expedition,  he  returned  to 
Cochin,  resigned  his  office  into  the  hands  of  his 
successor,  and  set  out  on  his  homeward  voyage, 
November  13,  1508.  But  he  was  not  destined  to 
see  his  native  land  again,  for  he  was  slain  in  an 
obscure  affray  with  the  savages  at  Cape  Sahlanha, 
in  the  south  of  Africa,  where  his  men  had  landed. 
He  was  a  man  of  stern,  vigorous,  and  yet  impulsive 
character,  capable  of  severe  retaliation  of  injuries, 
but  not  destitute  of  clemency  and  generosity. 

ALMERI'A  (Arab.  Al-:Meryah,  'the  conspicu- 
ous'), anciently  Murgis,  or  Portus  Magnux^  the 
chief  town  in  the  Spanish  province  of  the  same 
name,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Almeria.  It  has  a 
■well-defended  harbour,  a  cathedral,  besides  26 
churches  and  monasteries,  and  a  grammar-school. 
In  the  time  of  the  Moors,  it  was,  next  to  Granada, 
the  richest  and  most  important  town  in  the  kingdom, 
and  flourished  alike  in  arts,  industry,  and  conmierce, 
being  the  'great  port'  of  trafhc  with  Italy  and  the 
east.  At  one  time,  it  was  as  terrible  a  nest  of 
pirates  as  Algiers  itself,  under  the  Moorish  chief  Ibn 
Mayman,  when  even  Granada,  according  to  the 
proverb,  was  merely  its  'farm.'  Now,  it  has  only  a 
few  trifling  manufactures,  although  it  still  keeps  up 
considerable  trade  in  cochineal,  rod  sillc,  lead,  grapes, 
and  especially  wine.  The  cotton-tree  has  been 
planted  in  the  environs  of  A.  by  English  merchants. 
Pop.  20,000. 

ALMOHADES,  the  name  of  a  dynasty  that 
rnled  iu  Africa  and  Spain  during  the  12th  and  13th 


centuries.  The  word  is  Arabic,  and  signifies  Uni- 
tarians. It  was  taken  as  a  term  of  distinction  ;  for 
the  A.  considered  themselves  the  only  Mohanunedans 
who  worshipped  God  properly.  The  founder  of  this 
sect,  which  at  first  was  religious  rather  than  polit- 
ical, was  called  Mohammed  Ibn-Touiuert,  a  native 
of  the  Atlas  region.  He  was  a  man  of  a  bold  and 
subtile  intellect,  and  extremely  ambitious.  He  had 
travelled  nmch,  and  acquired  a  manifold  knowledge 
and  experience.  His  first  measures  were  extremely 
l)rudent.  He  commenced  preaching  with  great  zeal 
the  reformation  of  all  abusi's,  affecting  himself  an 
austere  and  unselfish  life.  He  went  about  covered 
with  rags,  prohil)iling  wine,  music,  and  all  pleasures. 
At  first  his  denunciations  were  generally  held  in 
contempt  ;  but  at  length  his  partisans  became  so 
numerous,  that  All,  king  of  Maroceo,  was  compelled 
to  take  measures  against  him.  It  was,  liowever, 
too  late.  The  Arabs  and  Berbers  flocked  to  his 
standard  ;  and  at  the  end  of  a  few  years,  he  was 
master  of  the  provinces  of  Fez,  Maroceo,  Tlemzen, 
Oran,  and  Tunis.  Mohammed  imposed  on  his 
disciples  new  ceremonies,  and  composed  for  their 
benefit  a  special  treatise,  entitled  On  the  Unit;/  of 
God.  The  A.  extended  their  conquests  into  Spain, 
subjugating  Andalucia,  Granada,  Valencia, and  a  part 
of  Aragon,  and  Portugal  as  far  as  the  Ebro  and 
Tagus.  Mohammed  was  succeeded  in  his  authority 
bv  Abdelmoumen,  who  had  formerly  been  his  lieu- 
tenant. Under  him  and  his  descendants,  Jussufand 
Jacob,  the  dynasty  of  the  A.  continued  to  flourish 
in  great  splendour.  But  in  1212  they  were  com- 
pletely de'eated  by  the  Spaniards  in  the  famous 
battle' of  Tolosa,  the  result  of  which  was  a  general 
revolt  of  the  Christian  provinces  under  their  sway. 
The  power  of  the  A.  was  destroyed  in  Spain  in  12o7, 
and  in  Africa  in  12G9. 

A'L;\I0ND  (Amiigdalus)  a  genus  of  the  natural 
order  Rosacea  (q.  v.),  snh-orCn'v  Annjridalccn  or  I)rup- 
acece,  consisting  of  trees  or  shrubs,  distinguished  by 


Almond  {Ami/(jdalut  communis). 

the  coarsely  furrowed  and  wrinkled  shell  {endocarp 
or  putamcn)  of  the  drupe,  and  by  the  you..g  leaves 
being  conduplicate,  or  having  their  sides  folded 
together.  According  to  the  greater  number  of 
botanists,  it  includes  the  Pk.4CH  (q.  v.),  con.sti- 
tuted  by   some  into  a   distinct   genus,    Pcrdca,  in 

163 


ALMONDS,  FIXED  OIL  OF— ALMONDS,  VOLATILE  OIL  OF. 


■nliich  the  drupe  has  a  fleshy  covering  [sarcocarp],  ' 
whereas,  in  the  species  to  which  the  name  A.  is 
coninionly  given,  this  part  is  a  dry  fibrous  husk, 
which  shrivels  as  the  fruit  ripens,  and  finally  opens 
of  its  own  accord.  The  A. -tree  {Aimigdalus  cotn- 
mu7il!i)  is  very  similar  to  the  peach-tree,  and  is 
distinguished  from  it  principally,  besides  the  differ- 
ence of  the  fruit,  by  the  fine  gliindiilous  serratures 
of  the  leaves,  the  stalk  of  which  equals,  or  even 
exceeds,  in  length  the  breadth  of  the  blade.  It  is  a 
tree  about  20 — 30  feet  high,  a  native  of  the  East 
and  of  Africa,  but  has  now  become  completely  wild 
in  the  whole  south  of  Europe.  Even  in  the  more 
northern  parts  of  Germany  and  of  Britain  it  is 
planted  for  the  sake  of  its  bcautifid  flowers,  which 
are  produced  in  great  abundance,  and  resemb.'e  those 
of  the  peach  in  form  and  often  in  colour,  although 
generally  paler  and  sometimes  white.  Tiie  blossoms 
appear  before  the  leaves,  and  are  very  ornamental 
in  shrubberies  in  March  and  April;  and  even  when 
frosts  destroy  the  germ  of  the  fruit,  the  brilliancy  of 
the  flower  is  not  impaired.  The  wood  of  the  A. -tree 
is  hard,  and  of  a  reddish  colour,  and  is  used  by 
cabinet-makers,  &c.  But  it  is  chiefly  valued  on 
account  of  the  kernel  of  its  fruit,  well  known  by  the 

name  of  Almonps, 
and  forming  an  im- 
portant article  of 
commerce,  for  the 
sake  of  which  it  is 
extensively  culti- 
vated in  the  .«outi) 
of  Eiiropcand  other 
countries  of  similar 
climate.  It  is  men- 
tioned in  the  Old 
Testament,  and  ap- 
pears to  have  been 
cultivated  from  a 
very  early  period. 
It  was  introduced 
into  Britain  as  a 
fruit-tree  before  the 
middle  of  the  If.th 
c. ;  but  it  is  only  in  the  most  favoured  situations  in 
the  south  of  England  that  it  ever  produces  good 
fruit. — Almonds  are  either  sweet  or  bitter.  The 
bitter  appear  to  be  the  original  kind,  and  the 
sweet  to  be  an  accidental  variety,  perpetuated  and 
improved  by  cultivation.  S\vkp:t  ALMONns  contain 
a  large  quantity  of  a  very  bland,  fixed  oil,  emulsion, 
gum,  and  mucilage  sugar,  are  of  a  very  agreeable 
taste,  and  very  nutritious,  and  are  used  in  the 
dessert,  in  confectionary,  and  medicinally  in  an 
enmlsion,  which  forms  a  pleasant,  cooling,  diluent 
drink.  Bitter  Almonds  contain  the  same  sub- 
stances, and,  in  addition,  a  substance  called  amyg- 
dalin,  from  which  is  obtained  a  peculiar  volatile  oil. 
(For  the  oils  derived  from  almonds,  see  the  following 
articles.) — The  muddy  water  of  the  Nile  is  clarified 
by  rubbing  bitter  almonds  on  the  sides  of  the  water 
vessels,  in  the  same  way  in  which  the  nuts  of  the 
Strt/chnos  potatorum  (see  CLEAniNG  Nut)  are  used 
in  India.  The  principal  varieties  of  A.  in  cultivation 
are — the  common  sweet  A.,  with  thick  hard  shell ; 
the  brittle-shelled,  with  a  very  thin,  almost  leathery 
biittlo  shell,  and  sweet  kernels;  the  iii/er  A.,  with 
"  thick  hard  shell  (sometimes  also  with  a  brittle 
shell),  and  bitter  kernels  ;  the  large-frtiited,  with 
large  flowers  of  a  whitish  rose-colour,  and  very 
large  sweet  fruit  ;  the  small-fruited,  with  very  small 
sweet  fruit  ;  and  the  peach  A.,  with  a  slightly  suc- 
culent blackish  sarcocarp  (see  above),  yellow  shell, 
and  sweet  kernels.  The  sarcocarp  is,  in  the  different 
varieties,  more  or  less  dry,  or  somewhat  fleshy  and 
juicy,  so  that  some  authors  have  disputed  even  the 
164 


Almond. 


specific  distinction  between  the  A.  and  the  peach.  In 
commerce,  the  long  almonds  of  Malaga,  known  as 
Jordan  almonds,  and  the  broad  almonds  of  Valencia, 
are  most  valued.  Large  quantities  of  almonds  are 
annually  imported  into  Britain  and  America  from 
France,  Spain,  Italy,  and  the  Levant.  Bitter 
almonds  are  brought  to  Britain  chiefly  from  Moga- 
dore. — The  Dwarf  A.  {A.  nana')  is  very  similar  to 
the  common  A.,  except  that  it  is  a  low  shrul),  seldom 
more  than  2  or  3  feet  in  height.  Its  fruit  is  also 
similar,  but  much  smaller.  It  is  common  in  the 
plains  of  the  south  of  Russia,  and  is  frequently 
planted  as  an  ornamental  shrub  in  Britain,  flowering 
freely  in  March  and  April,  but  not  producing  fruit. 
It  is  very  beautiful  when  covered  with  its  pink 
flowers  in  spring,  and  deserves  to  be  more  frequently 
planted  tlian  it  is.  A  sheltered  but  sunny  situation 
is  favourable  to  it. — Other  species,  little  known,  but 
very  similar  to  these,  are  found  in  the  east,  and  one 
on  arid  hills  in  Mexico. 

ALMONDS,  Fixed  Oil  of.  When  almond.s 
are  subjected  to  pressure,  a  fixed  greasy  oil  exudes. 
Either  bitter  or  sweet  almonds  may  be  employed  ; 
but  the  former  are  generally  used,  as  they  are  cheaper 
than  the  sweet  almonds,  and  the  expressed  cake  is 
valuable  in  the  preparation  of  the  essential  oil.  1  cwt. 
of  the  almonds  generally  yields  48  to  52  lbs.  of 
the  fixed  oil.  'When  first  obtained  it  possesses  a 
turbid  or  milky  appearance  ;  but  when  allowed  to 
stand  at  rest,  the  impurities  settle,  and  a  clear,  light, 
yellow  oil  remains  above.  It  has  the  specific  gravity 
of  yi8,  and  solidifies  when  reduced  to  — l.'i°  F.  It 
has  no  odour,  and  to  the  taste  is  truly  oleaginous  and 
bland.  The  fixed  oil  of  A.  is  used  in  medicine,  and 
possesses  a  mild  laxative  property,  when  administered 
in  large  doses.  It  is  often  given  to  newly  born 
infants,  mixed  with  sirup  of  violets  or  sirup  of 
roses.  It  is  beneficial,  also,  in  allaying  troublesome 
coughs,  when  administered  with  confection  of  roses 
and  sirup  of  poppies. 

ALMONDS,  Volatile  Oil  or  E.ssential 
Oil  of.  The  cake  which  is  left  after  the  expres- 
sion of  the  fixed  oil  from  bitter  A.,  contains, 
among  other  matters,  a  portion  of  two  substances, 
called,  respectively,  amygdalin,  and  emulsin  or 
synaptase.  When  the  cake  is  bruised  and  made 
into  a  paste  with  water,  the  synaptase  acts  as  a 
ferment  upon  the  amygdalin,  and  1  atom  of  the 
latter  resolves  itself  into  2  atoms  of  volatile  oil  of 
bitter  A.,  1  atom  hydrocyanic  (prussic)  acid,  1  atom 
of  grape-sugar,  2  atoms  formic  acid,  and  7  atoms  of 
water.  This  paste  is  placed  in  a  retort,  and  allowed 
to  stand  for  24  hour.';,  when  heat  is  cautiously 
applied,  and  distillation  carried  on.  The  volatile  oil 
rises  in  vapour,  and  passes  over  into  the  receiver, 
accompanied  by  much  water,  and  contaminated 
with  a  considerable  amount  of  prussic  acid.  The 
oil  is  not  originally  present  in  the  bitter  A.  ;  in  fact, 
the  latter  do  not  contain  a  trace  of  the  oil  ready 
formed,  so  that  the  oil  is  purely  the  product  of  the 
fermentation  of  amygdalin,  100  parts  of  which 
yield  47  of  crude  oil.  Commercial  oil  of  bitter  A. 
iias  a  golden  yellow  colour,  but  may  be  purified  so 
as  to  be  almost  colourless.  The  crude  oil  is  very 
poisonous,  owing  to  the  prussic  acid  dissolved 
therein,  and  many  fatal  cases  have  occurred  from 
the  wilful,  accidental,  and  careless  use  of  the  oil. 
It  is  unfortunate  that  the  manufacturers  of  the 
volatile  oil  should  not  subject  the  crude  oil  to  the 
action  of  lime  and  an  iron  salt,  and  then  re-distil, 
when  the  prussic  acid  would  be  left  fixed  by  the  lime 
and  iron,  and  the  pure  volatile  oil  be  alone  obtained 
in  the  receiver.  As  so  procured,  the  pure  oil  is  not 
a  dangerous  poison.  The  oil  has  an  agreeable  odour, 
an  acrid,  bitter  taste,  and  burns  with  a  smoky  white 


ALMONER— ALOES. 


flame.  It  is  heavior  tlian  water,  being  of  the  den- 
sity of  1083  ;  is  soluble  in  water  to  the  extent  of 
1  part  in  30  parts  of  water,  and  is  very  soluble  in 
alcohol  and  ether.  Heated  to  35G°  F.,  it  boils,  and 
distils  over  unaltered;  and,  exposed  to  the  air,  it  is 
gradually  oxidised  into  benzoic  acid.  The  oil  is 
called  by  the  chemist  the  hydride  of  benzoyle.  In 
medicine,  the  volatile  oil  is  used  in  place  of  prussic 
acid,  but  is  very  variable  in  strengtii,  being  some- 
times four  times  the  strength  of  medicinal  prussic 
acid.  The  dose  is  a  quarter  of  a  drop  to  a  drop  and 
a  half  in  an  emulsion.  The  cook  and  confectioner 
employ  the  oil  for  flavouring  custards,  &c.,  and  the 
perfumer  uses  it  for  scenting  toilet-soap,  &c. 

A'LJIONER  is  the  name  given  originally  to  that 
member  of  a  religious  order  who  had  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  money  and  other  things  set  apart  for 
alms,  which,  by  canonical  law,  was  to  amount  to  at 
least  a  tenth  of  the  revenues  of  the  establishment. 
Afterwards,  those  ecclesiastics  also  received  this 
name  who  were  appointed  by  princes  to  the  same 
office  in  their  households.  The  Grand  A.  of 
France  was  one  of  the  principal  officers  of  the  court 
and  of  the  kingdom,  usually  a  cardinal,  and,  in  right 
of  his  office,  commander  of  all  the  orders,  and  also 
chief  director  of  the  great  hospital  for  the  blind. 
Queens,  princes,  and  princesses  had  also  their 
almoners,  and  bishops  were  usually  appointed  to  this 
office.  In  England,  the  office  of  H<rcditarii  Grand 
Almoner  is  now  a  sinecure,  his  only  duty  being 
to  distriliute  the  coronation  medals  among  the 
assembled  spectators.  The  Lord  Hujh  Almoner, 
who  is  usually  a  bishop,  distributes  twice  a  year 
the  Queen's  bounty,  which  consists  in  giving  a  silver- 
penny  each  to  as  many  poor  persons  as  the  Queen  is 
years  of  age. 

A'LMUG  TREE,  or  ALGITM  TREE.  This 
name,  occurring  in  the  Old  Testament,  was  formerly 
supposed  to  denote  a  species  of  Acacia,  or  a  conifer- 
ous tree  like  the  cypress  ;  but  it  is  now  thought  more 
probable  that  it  was  one  of  the  kinds  of  Sandal-wood 
(q.  v.),  the  Santalura  album,  a  native  of  India. 

ALNUS.     See  Alder. 

A'LXWICK  (town  upon  the  Alne),  the  county 
town  of  Xortliiiinberland,  is  situated  in  lat.  5.3°  25' 
N.,  long.  1°  A'l'  \V.,  and  is  distant  about  34:  miles 
from  Newcastle.  The  streets  are  broad,  well  paved, 
and  well  lighted,  the  houses  modern,  built  of  stone, 
and  in  some  instances  handsome.  A  large  market- 
place occupies  the  centre  of  the  town.  The 
town-hall  is  a  spacious  building  crowned  with  a 
tower.  A.  was  at  an  early  period  a  fortified  town, 
and  some  fragments  of  the  ancient  walls  even  yet 
remain.  An  ancient  gate,  built  by  Hotspur,  still 
forms  one  of  the  entrances  to  the  city.  A.  Castle, 
the  residence  of  the  Dukes  of  Northumberland, 
stands  at  the  north  entrance  of  the  town.  It  was 
repaired  sotne  years  ago,  and  is  considered  one  of 
the  most  magnificent  baronial  structures  in  England. 
During  the  middle  ages,  it  was  a  bulwark  against  the 
invasions  of  the  Scots,  who  thrice  besieged  it.  A. 
is  the  election  town  for  the  north  division  of  the 
county.  It  has  various  charity  schools,  a  mechanics' 
institute,  a  theatre,  &c.,  but  the  trade  is  insignificant. 
Pop.  in  1861,  7350.     * 

A'LOE  {Alo'i^,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the 
natural  order  Lilincece  (q.  v.)  sub-order  Aloinc(e,  dis- 
tinguished by  a  legular  cylindrical  perianth  in  six 
pieces,  expanded  at  the  mouth,  and  nectariferous  at 
the  base,  the  stamens  liypogynous,  or  springing 
from  beneath  the  gernien,  the  ovules  indefinite  in 
number,  the  fruit  a  membranous  three-celled  capsule. 
The  species  are  numerous,  natives  of  warm  coun- 
tries, especially  of  the  southern  parts  of  Africa. 
About  fifty  miles  from  Cape   Town  is  a  mountainous 


tract  completely  covered  with  aloes,  and  the  hilla 
on  tiie  west  side  of  Socotra  exhibit  them  in  similar 
profusion.  The  species  all  have  stems,  but  vary 
ill  height  from  a  few  inches  to  thirty  feet.  They 
have  permanent  succulent  leaves.  The  negroes  of 
the  west  coast  of  Africa  make  cords  and  nets  of  the 
fibres  of  their  leaves,  and  stockings  are  woven  from 
the  fibres  of  a  species  found  in  Januiiea.  But  aloes 
are  chiefly  valuable  for  their  medicinal  properties. 
The  well-known  drug  called  Aloi;s  (q.  v.)  is  the 
inspissated  juice  of  the  leaves  of  several  almost  tree- 
like species,  and  particularly  of  A.  Socotrina,  a 
native  of  the  island  of  Socotra  ;  A.  pvrpnrancenx ;  A 
spicaia,  and  A.  fritt/cosa,  which  principally  yield  the 
Cape  aloes  ;  A.Iiidica;  A.  rnhe^cen^  ;  A.Arabka; 
A.  luir/uaformis ;  A.  Commelun  ;  and  A.  vuh/aris, 
which  is  found  in  the  East  and  West  Indies,  in  Italy, 
and  in  sonic  of  the  islatids  of  the  Mediterranean, 
being  the  only  species  which  can  be  reckoned  Euro- 
pean, although  it  also  is  probably  an  introduced 
plant.  The  extract  prepared  from  its  leaves  ia 
known  as  Hepatic  aloes,  or  as  Barbadoes  aloes. 
The  bitter  principle  of  aloes  has  been  called 
Aloesin.  It  forms  several  compounds  with  oxygen, 
which  possess  the  properties  of  acids. — The  juice  of 
aloes  was  anciently  used  in  embalming,  to  preserve 
dead  bodies  from  putrefaction.  In  tlie  East  Indies, 
it  is  employed  as  a  varnish  to  prevent  the  attacks  of 
insects ;  and  has  even  been  applied  to  bottoms  of 
ships  to  protect  them  from 
marine  worm.«.  A  beau- 
til'ul  violet  colour  is  ob- 
tained from  the  leaves  of 
the  Socotiine  A.,  which 
does  not  require  any  mor- 
dant to  fix  it.  It  also 
aflbi  ds  a  fine  transparent 
colour  for  miniature  paint- 
ing.—  Mohainniedan  pil- 
grims suspend  an  A.  over 
their  doors  on  their  re- 
turn from  Mecca,  to  sig 
nify  tliat  they  have  per- 
formed their  pilgrimage. 

The  American  A.  is  a 
totally  different  plant.  See 
Ag.vve. 

A'LOES  is  a  drug  of 
great  antiquity,  for  we 
find  Dioscorides  (50  a.d.) 
make  mention  of  Aloe 
as  a  substance  obtained 
I'rom  a  plant,  and  pos- 
sessing cathartic  proper- 
ties. The  great  demand 
for  A.  in  Britain  has  led 
to  its  importation  from 
numerous  sources,  includ- 
ing Bombay,  Araliia,  Socotra,  Madagascar,  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  the  Levant,  and  the  West  Indies. 
The  drug  is  the  inspissated  juice  of  various  species 
of  Aloe  (q.  v.).  All  tiiese  are  characterised  more 
or  less  by  producing  large,  thick,  flrshy  leaves,  stiff 
and  brittle,  pointed,  and  generally  terminating  in 
a  strong  spine,  filled  witli  a  mucilaginous  pulp 
internally,  and  containing  in  the  proper  vessels  of 
their  exterior  portion  an  intensely  bitter  juice, 
which  yields  the  medicinal  substance  A.  It  is 
obtained,  sometimes  in  the  form  of  tears,  by  incision, 
spontaneous  exudation,  and  inspi<sation  upiui  the 
plant;  sometimes  by  spontaneous  evaporation  of  the 
juice  which  drops  or  exudes  by  pressure  from  the 
leaves  when  cut  away  near  the  base  ;  sometimes  by 
evaporating  the  same  juice  with  the  aid  of  heat  ; 
and,  lastly,  by  evaporating  together  the  juice  and  a 
decoction  of  the  leaves. 

105 


Aloe  fruticosa: 
h,  the  tlower. 


ALOES  WOOD— ALOYSIA. 


Owing  to  the  great  difficulty  of  determining  the 
true  botanical  source  of  any  given  s;ini])lc,  the  fol- 
lowing names  are  made  use  of  in  commerce  to  denote 
the  various  kinds  of  A.  found  in  tlic  market — namely, 
Socotrine,  Clear,  Cape,  East  Indian,  Barbadoes,  and 
Cabulline  A.     The  most  important  arc  : 

1.  Socotrine  A.  {Alc/e  Socotrina),  so  called  from 
its  supposed  source,  the  island  of  Socotra,  near  tlic 
mouth  of  the  Arabian  Gulf.  This  is  the  most  esteem- 
ed of  all  the  varieties  used  in  medical  practice. 
Many  hold  that  this  is  only  a  fine  variety  of  East 
Indian  A.,  but  the  characters  given  in  the  Fdhi- 
lurfjh  Fharmacopaia — a  garnet-red  translucency  in 
thin  pieces,  and  almost  complete  solubility  in  spirit 
of  the  strength  of  sherry — define  a  particular  ppecies 
which  is  the  true  Socotrina  A.  of  pharmacologists. 

2.  East  Indian  A.  {Aloe  Indica),  also  called  Hepatic 
A.,  from  its  liver-brown  colour,  is  imported  into 
Bombay  from  Arabia  and  Africa,  and  is  known  in 
India  by  the  name  of  Bombay  A.  A  considerable 
portion  is  probably  obtained  from  the  same  sources 
as  the  Socotrine  A.,  vhich  it  resembles  in  colour; 
and  according  to  Dr.  Pereira,  'the  two  are  some- 
times brought  over  intcrmi,\ed,  the  Socotrine  occa- 
sionally forming  a  vein  in  a  cask  of  IIei)atic  A.' 

3.  Barbadoes  A.  [Aloe  Barbadensis)  is  prepared  in 
the  West  Indies  from  A.  Socotrina,  and  iVom  a 
variety  of  A.  vulgaris.  We  learu  from  Browne's 
Natural  History  of  Jamaica  that  the  largest  and 
most  succulent  leaves  are  placed  upright  in  tubs, 
that  the  juice  may  dribble  out.  This  evaporated, 
forms  what  is  sold  as  Socotrine  A. ;  but  the  com- 
mon A.  is  obtained  by  expressing  the  juice  out  of  the 
leaves,  boiling  it  with  water,  evaporating  and  pour- 
ing it  into  gourds ;  whence  this  kind  is  often  called 
gourd  A.  It  is  much  used  for  veterinary  medicine, 
and  thus  brings  a  high  price  in  the  market. 

Caballine  A.  {Aloe  caballiiia)  is  a  very  coarse 
kind,  and  is  so  called  because  it  is  considered 
fit  only  for  horses.  It  contains  many  impurities, 
sucli  as  wood,  sand,  and  charcoal,  and  evidently  con- 
stitutes the  lowest  stratum  in  the  vessels  in  which 
the  better  sorts  are  allowed  to  cool.  It  is  now  in  a 
great  jneasure  superseded  in  veterinary  practice  by 
Barbadoes  A. 

All  kinds  of  A.  are  remarkable  for  their  disagree- 
able taste.  The  odour  is  peculiar,  and  is  more  per- 
ceptible when  the  drug  is  breathed  upon.  A.  is  in  a 
great  measure  soluble  in  water,  and  more  so  in  hot 
than  cold  water.  A.  was  ibrmerly  considered  to  be 
a  gum-resin  ;  but  the  portion  which  was  thought  to 
be  of  the  nature  of  gum  is  now  regarded  as  a  variety 
of  extractive,  and  to  it  the  name  of  Aloesin  has  been 
given. 

Action. — When  employed  in  small  doses,  A.  exerts 
a  tonic,  and  in  larger  doses,  a  cathartic  action.  It 
is  considered  by  some  authorities  to  stimulate  the 
liver,  and  also  to  supply  the  place  of  deficient  bile 
in  torpidity  of  the  intestinal  canal,  and  more  espe- 
cially towards  its  lower  part.  Both  taken  singly, 
and  also  in  combination  with  other  cathartics,  A.  is 
perhaps  the  most  important  and  the  most  extensively 
used  of  vegetable  remedies  of  its  class  ;  and  there  is 
no  end  to  the  variety  of  cases  in  which  it  may  be 
employed  with  advantage. 

ALOES  WOOD  (called  also  Agila  Wood,  Eagle 
Wood,  or  Agallochuni)  is  the  inner  part  of  the  trunk 
oi  Arjuilnria  ovata  and  A.  Ar/alloc/mm,  trees  of  the 
natural  order  A(pdlariacefe  (q.  v.),  natives  of  the 
tropical  parts  of  Asia,  and  supposed  to  be  the  aloes 
or  lign  aloes  of  the  Bible.  They  are  large  spreading 
trees  with  simple  alternate  leaves.  Aloes-wood  con- 
tains a  dark-coloured,  fragrant,  resinous  substance, 
and  is  much  prized  in  the  east  as  a  medicine,  and 
for  the  pleasant  odour  which  it  diffuses  in  burning. 
It  has  been  prescribed  in  Europe  in  cases  of  gout 
166 


and  rheumatism.  The  resinous  substance  is  found 
only  in  the  inner  part  of  the  trunk  and  branches  ;  the 
younger  wood  is  white,  and  almost  scentless.  A 
similar  sul)Stance,  still  more  csteenicd,  is  obtained 
in  the  south-eastern  parts  of  Asia  and  the  adjacent 
islands,  fiotn  the  central  part  of  the  trunk  of  Aloexi/lon 
Afjalloc/iu}n,  an  upright-growing  tree  with  simple 
alternative  leaves,  and  terminal  panicles  of  small 
flowers,  of  the  natm-al  order  Lcrjuiiiiiioacp,  sub-order 
C'(csnlpi7iicce.  This  tree  abounds  jiarticularly  on  the 
highest  mountains  of  Cochin-China  and  the  Moluccas; 
a  character  of  sacredness  is  attached  to  it,  and  it  is 
cut  with  religious  ceremonies.  The  A.  W.  which 
it  yields  is  not  only  nnich  psized  in  the  cast  as  a 
perfume,  but  many  medicinal  virtues  arc  ascribed 
to  it.  The  ancients  ascribed  to  it  similar  virtues, 
and  so  valued  it  for  these  and  its  fragrance,  that 
Herodotus  says  it  once  sold  for  more  than  its  weight 
in  gold.  It  was  regarded  almost  as  a  universal 
medicine.  Its  very  fragrance  was  supposed  to  have 
a  beneficial  influence,  and  it  was  therefore  worn 
about  the  persot).  As  it  admits  of  a  high  polish  and 
exhibits  a  beautiful  graining,  precious  gems  were  set 
in  it;  and  it  was  cut  into  fantastic  forms  and  worn 
in  head-dresses,  <fec.  There  seems  to  be  allusion  to 
a  similar  use  of  it  in  Psalm  xlv.  8,  'All  thy  garments 
smell  of  myrih  and  aloen  and  cassia.'  Or  peihaps 
this  merely  refers  to  its  being  employed  to  perfume 
clothing.  It  was  also  irom  a  very  early  period  much 
used  to  perfume  the  apartments  of  the  great.  The 
fragrance  continues  undiminished  for  years.  Liqn 
Aloes  is  a  corruption  of  Lif/iuoii  Aloes  (Aloes  Wood). 

ALONG-SHORE,  a  phrase  applied  in  navigating 
near  a  coast,  to  denote  a  passage  near  to,  and  parallel 
with,  the  shore.  'Aiong-shore-nien,'  or  "long-shore- 
men,' is  a  peculiar  designation  given  to  some  of  the 
humbler  and  rougher  men  employed  about  docks 
and  .shipping,  in  the  Thames  and  other  rivers. 

ALOOF  at  sea,  is  simply  'at  a  distance.'  To 
'  keep  the  loof,'  or  '  keep  the  luff,'  is  a  command 
given  to  the  man  at  the  helm. 

ALOPECU'RUS.     Sec  Fo.xtail. 

ALO'SA.     Sec  Clupkid^  and  Shad. 

ALOST  (the  name  signifies  'to  the  cast,'  and 
was  probably  given  to  the  town  because  it  lay 
near  the  eastern  frontier  of  the  province),  a  town 
in  Belgium,  the  old  capital  of  the  province  of  East 
Flanders,  is  situated  on  a  tributary  of  the  Scheldt, 
called  the  Dender,  which  is  here  converted  into 
a  canal.  It  is  a  walled  city  with  five  gates,  has 
considerable  trade  in  hops,  corn,  &c.,  and  large 
manufactures,  besides  numerous  breweries,  distil- 
leries, bleach-fields,  print-works,  copper  and  iron 
foun<lries,  flax  and  cotton  mills,  &c.  The  finest 
building  in  A.  is  the  church  of  St.  Martin,  an 
unfinished  edifice,  but  one  of  the  grandest  in 
Belgiimi,  and  containing  a  famous  painting  by 
Rubens — '  St.  Roch  beseeching  our  Saviour  to  stay 
the  Plague  of  A.,'  and  also  the  mausoleum  of  Thierry 
.Martens,  who  was  born  here,  and  wlio  introduced 
the  art  of  printing  into  Belgium,  1475  .a.d.  A. 
has  a  town-hall  (founded  in  1200  a.d.),  a  college, 
a  hospital,  chamber  of  commerce,  academy  of  design, 
&c.     Pop.  15,0oO. 

ALOYSIA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Verbenacecc  (q.  v.),  to  which  belongs  a  slirub,  A. 
citriodora,  much  cultivated  in  greenhouses  and  apart- 
ments in  Britain  for  the  grateful  fragrance  which 
its  leaves  emit  when  slightly  bruised.  It  is  fre- 
quently to  be  seen  in  the  windows  of  cottagers,  and 
is  by  them  generally  named  Verbena.  It  was  for- 
merly known  to  botanists  as  Verbena  triphi/lla,  and 
has  also  been  referred  to  the  allied  genus  Lippia. 
The  leaves  are  in  whorls  of  three.  It  is  a  native  of 
Chili.      In  the  Channel  Islands   and  the   south  of 


ALP— ALP-ARSLAN. 


Ireland,  it  becomes  a  luxuriant  shrub  in  the  open 
air,  reaching  a  height  of  10—25  feet,  with  osier-like 
shoots. 

ALP,  ALB,  also  called  the  Rauhe  or  Swabian  Alp, 
is  a  chain  of  mountains  above  00  miles  in  length, 
and  from  12  to  15  in  breadth,  situated  between  the 
Neckar  and  the  Danube.  It  forms  the  water-shed 
between  these  two  rivers  and  the  basin  of  the 
Rhine,  and  lies  almost  entirely  within  the  kingdom 
of  WUrtemberg.  It  is  also  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Black  Forest,  but  presents  a  totally  difleront 
appearance,  on  account  of  its  being  clothed  with 
forests  of  hard  wood  instead  of  pine.  It  forms  a 
table-land  intersected  by  a  few  narrow  deep  vulleys. 
The  average  height  of  the  system  is  rather  more 
than  2000  feet.  On  the  north,  it  descends  to  the 
Neckar  in  ridges  of  rocky  clifts,  and  abrupt  pointed 
headlands;  but  on  the  south,  it  gradually  slopes 
away  to  the  level  of  the  valley  of  the  Danube. 
The  scenery  is  often  very  picturesque,  for  the  sharp, 
precipitous  crags  are  frequently  crowned  with  the 
ruined  castles  and  strongholds  of  tlie  fiimous  old 
German  families,  sucli  as  the  IlohenzoUerns,  Hohen- 
staufens,  &c.  The  geological  formation  of  the  Alp 
is  calcareous,  and  presents  a  regular  stratification. 
Caverns  of  a  very  remarkable  character  abound 
among  the  rocks.  '  The  valleys  at  the  base  of  the 
hills  a're  fertile,  and  produce  abundance  of  wine  and 
fruit,  but  the  high  table-land  has  an  extremely  poor 
and  barren  soil. 

ALPA'CA,  or  PACO  {Auchenia  Paco ;  see 
AuCHENi-O,  an  animal  of  the  same  genus  with  the 
Lama  (q.  v.),  and  so  closely  allied  to  it,  that  many 
naturalists  regard  it  as  a  variety  rather  than  a 
distinct  species.  It  is  remarkable  for  the  length  and 
fineness  of  the  wool,  which  is  of  a  silken  texture,  and 
of  an  uncommonly  lustrous,  almost  metallic  appear- 
ance. Tiie  A.  is  smaller  than  the  lama  ;  the  legs 
and  breast  arc  destitute  of  callosities.  In  form,  it 
somewiiat  resembles  the  sheep,  but  with  a  longer 
neck  and  more  elegant  head.  It  carries  its  long 
neck  erect  ;  its  motions  are  free  and  active,  its 
ordinary  pace  a  rapid  bounding  canter.  The  eyes 
are  very  large  and  beautiful.  The  wool,  if  regularly 
shorn,  is  supposed  to  grow  about  six  or  eight  inches 
in  a  year  ;  but  if  allowed  to  remain  upon  the  animal 
for  several  years,  attains  a  much  greater  length, 
sometimes  even  thirty  inches,  and  not  unfrequently 
twenty.  Its  colour  varies  ;  it  is  often  yellowish 
brown  ;  sometimes  gray,  or  approaching  to  white  ; 
sometimes  almost  black. 

The  A.  is  a  native  of  the  Andes,  from  the  equator 
to   Tierra  del   Fuego,  but  is  most  frequent  on  the 


Alpaca. 

highest  mouPtains  of  Peru  and  Chili,  almost  on  the 
borders  of  perpetual  snow,  congregating  in  flocks  of 


one  or  two  hundred.  In  a  wild  state,  it  is  very  shj 
and  vigilant ;  a  sentinel  on  some  elevated  station 
gives  notice  of  the  approach  of  danger  by  snorting 
to  alarm  the  flock.  Alpacas  seem  instinctively 
to  know  when  a  storm  is  coming  on,  and  seek  the 
most  sheltered  situation  within  their  reach.  Flocks, 
the  property  of  the  Peruvian  Indians,  are  allowed  to 
graze  throughout  the  whole  year  on  the  elevated 
pastures,  and  are  driven  to  the  huts  only  at  s^hear- 
ing-time.  When  one  is  separated  from  the  rest,  it 
throws  itself  on  the  ground,  and  neither  kindness  nor 
severity  will  induce  it  to  rise  and  advance  alone. 
It  is  only  when  brought  to  the  Indian  huts  very 
young,  that  they  can  be  domesticated  so  as  to  live 
"without  the  companionship  of  the  flock  ;  but  then 
they  become  very  bold  and  familiar.  Their  habits 
are  remarkably  cleanly. 

The  Indians  have  from  time  immemorial  made 
blankets  and  ponchos  or  cloaks  of  A.  wool.  It  is 
not  quite  thirty  years  since  it  became  an  article  of 
commerce,  but  its  use  for  the  manufacture  of  shawL«, 
coat-linings,  cloth  for  warm  climates,  umbrellas,  &c., 
has  gradually  increased,  and  more  than  .3,0(M),()O0lbs. 
are  now  annually  imported  into  Britain.  The  credit 
of  introducing  and  raising  to  its  present  magnitude, 
the  Alpaca  wool-manufacture  in  Britain,  is  due  to 
Mr.  Titus  Salt  of  Bradford,  Yorkshu-c. 

Attempts  have  been  made  to  introduce  the  A.  into 
Europe  ;  but  not  yet  with  very  satisfactory  results. 
The  only  considerable  flock  known  to  exist  is  in  the 
Pyrenees.  There  seems  no  reason,  however,  to  doubt 
that  the  mountains  of  Wales  and  Scotland  are 
suitable  for  this  branch  of  husbandry  ;  and  it  is  to 
be  hoped  that  enterprise  such  as  has  l)een  directed 
to  the  manufacture  of  A.  wool  in  Britain,  will  soon, 
and  with  equal  success,  be  directed  to  the  production 
of  it.  There  are  probably  not  yet  more  than  two 
or  three  hundred  alpacas  in  Britain,  and  these 
mostly  in  parks  connected  with  the  residences  of 
noblemen  and  gentlemen,  not  in  the  situations  for 
which  they  seem  to  be  peculiarly  adapted.  An 
attempt  was  made  in  1821  to  introduce  the  A.  into 
the  United  States.  A  fund  was  raised  in  184G  to  aid 
their  introduction,  and  a  cargo  of  Lmnas  and  Alpacas 
was  shipped  to  Baltimore  in  18.57,  but  the  attemi)ts  to 
acclimatize  them  have  not  been  successful. 

A.  wool  is  straighter  than  that  of  the  sheep, 
very  strong  in  proportion  to  its  thickness,  and 
breaks  little  in  combing.  The  fibre  is  small,  and  it 
is  very  soft,  pliable,  and  elastic— The  flesh  of  the 
animal  is  said  to  be  very  wholesome  and  pleasant. 

ALF-ARSLA'X,  a  Persian  sultan,  the  second  of 
the  Scljukide  dynasty,  born  in  Turkestan  in  1028 
or  1030.  In  105:5,  he'  ascended  the  throne  of  Khor- 
assan,  after  the  death  of  his  father  Daoud,  and  in 
1063  he  also  succeeded  his  uncle.  His  first  act 
was  to  unite  the  whole  of  his  dominions  in  one  vast 
monarchy.  He  next  embraced  Islamism,  and  it 
1  was  on  tiiis  occasion  that  he  took  the  surname  of 
Alp-Arshin  (the  Lion-heart),  his  real  name  being 
Mohannned-Lhaz-ed-Dyn-Abou-Chouiija.  The  Calif 
of  Bagdad  gave  him  the  title  of  Adhad-eddin 
(Defender  of  the  Faith),  with  this  cxtrcnu  honoiir 
—namely,  that  prayer  should  be  made  in  his 
name.  He  had  an  excellent  vizier,  Nisam-al-Mulk, 
one  of  those  lettered  ornaments  of  early  Moham- 
medanism. This  vizier  was  the  founder  of  all  the 
colleges  and  academies  in  the  kingdom.  While 
he  directed  the  internal  administration  of  affairs, 
A.  made  war  successfully.  He  suppressed  revolts, 
and  extended  the  northern  boundaries  of  his 
dominions.  In  1007  and  1O08  he  pursued  the  course 
of  his  conquests,  carrying  off  the  gates  of  the  church 
of  St.  Basil  at  Ca?sarca,  which  were  enriched  with 
gold  and  pearls,  and  overthrowing  the  Greeks  under 
Nicephorus  Botoniates.  In  lu69,  he  invaded 
^  167 


ALPES— ALPHABET. 


Armenia  and  Georgia,  at  that  time  Christian  king- 
doms. The  most  remarkaltle  incident  in  this  expe- 
dition was  the  blockade  of  the  convent  of  Mariani- 
Nishin,  situated  on  an  island  in  the  middle  of  a  lake, 
and  considered  impregnable.  An  earthiiuake  over- 
threw the  walls  during  the  siege,  when  it  imme- 
diately surrendered.  He  next  proceeded  against  the 
Greeks  who,  under  their  brave  emperor,  Romanus 
IV.,  had  thrice  driven  back  the  Turks  beyond  the 
Euphrates.  In  August  1071,  a  bloody  battle  was 
fought  near  the  fortress  of  Malaskerd,  between  the 
towns  of  Van  and  Erzeroum.  A.  gained  the  victory. 
The  Greek  emperor  was  taken  prisoner,  and  only 
obtained  his  Uberty  l)y  a  ransom  of  £l,nOO,0()0,  and 
an  annual  tribute  of  £1G0,()00.  Rather  more  than 
a  year  after  this  (December  15,  1072),  A.  perished 
at  Berzem  in  Turkestan  by  the  poniard  of  Jussuf 
Cothuol,  whom  he  had  insulted.  He  was  buried  at 
Merve,  in  the  tomb  of  his  ancestors. 

ALPES  is  the  name  of  two  departments  in 
France,  the  Basnes-Alpes  (or  Lower  Alps),  and  the 
Hautes-Alpes  (or  Upper  Alps).  The  department 
of  the  B.VSSKS-ALPES  occupies  the  N.E.  part  of 
Provence,  and  includes  an  area  of  '2()80  square 
miles.  It  is,  for  the  most  part,  mountiiinons,  con- 
sisting of  spurs  or  offshoots  from  the  Slaritime 
Alps,  whicli  run  in  numerous  chains  towards  tlie 
Rhone.  In  tlie  north,  the  climate  is  cold,  the  soil 
poor,  and  the  cultivation  bad  ;  in  the  south,  the 
climate  is  much  better — almcmds,  apricots,  peaches, 
and  various  other  choice  fruits  are  grown,  amongst 
which  tiic  plums  of  Bigiiollcs  form  a  well-known 
article  of  commerce.  The  wines  of  this  region 
are  reckoned  excellent.  On  the  sides  of  the  Alps, 
oxen  and  sheep  find  admirable  pasturage.  The 
mines  produce  lead,  green  marble,  <tc.  At  Digne 
and  Grcoulx  there  are  hot  mineral  springs.  Pop. 
146,368  ;  the  trade  carried  on  is  insignificant.  The 
department  is  watered  by  the  Durance.  The  chief 
town  is  Digne  ;  pop.  in  1861,  .5.'544. 

The  Hautks-Alpks.  lying  north  of  the  Basses-A., 
and  forming  a  part  of  the  old  province  of  Dauphine, 
is  traversed  by  the  chief  range  of  the  Cottian 
Alps,  which  here  rise,  in  Mount  Pelvoux,  to  the 
height  of  14,000  feet,  and  Mount  0!an  to  13,120 
feet.  The  scenery,  especially  along  the  course 
of  the  impetuous  Durance,  is  singularly  picturesque. 
The  Jlautes-A.  is  the  highest  department  in  France  ; 
the  fierce  north  wind  and  the  perpetual  snow  on  the 
lofty  peaks,  make  the  climate  severe  and  the  winter 
long,  so  that  the  barren  soil  will  yield  little  else 
than  potatoes,  a  little  rye,  oats,  and  barley.  Here 
and  there,  in  the  most  southerly  valleys,  nut-trees, 
chestnuts,  vines,  and  other  choice  fruits,  thrive.  Only 
horned  cattle,  asses,  and  mules  are  bred  profitably. 
The  most  important  roads  through  this  department 
are:  1st,  The  road  from  Grenoble  to  Briangon  ; 
2d,  The  road  from  Briangon  to  Susa,  in  Piedmont, 
over  the  Col-de-Genevre  (which  has  recently  been 
used  to  transport  masses  of  French  soldiery  into 
Italy)  ;  3d,  The  road  from  Gap  to  Marseille.  The 
area  is  2136 square  miles;  pop.  12.5,400.  The  inhabit- 
ants are  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  leather, 
linen,  and  woollens.  A  nmnber  are  likewise  engaged 
in  the  mines,  which  produce  lead,  copper,  iron,  and 
anthracite.  About  4<H»0  leave  the  department 
annually  to  seek  employment.  Chief  town,  Gap; 
pop.  in  1861,  8219. 

A'LPHABET.  The  A.  of  any  language  is  the 
series  of  letters,  arranged  in  a  fixed  order,  with 
which  that  language  is  written.  Picture-writing  was 
doubtless  the  earliest  method  invented  of  conveying 
thought  tiirough  the  eye.  The  idea  of  an  ox  was 
readily  expressed  by  a  sketch  of  the  animal,  or, 
for  shortness,  by  an  outline  of  his  head  and  horns. 
163 


Or  the  picture  was  used  symbolically  ;  a.s  the  figure 
of  an  eye,  to  express  the  action  of  seeing,  or  the 
attribute  of  wisdom.  In  process  of  time,  some  of 
those  pictures  came  to  be  used  phonetically — i.e.,  to 
represent,  not;  ideas,  but  sounds.  But  the  sounds 
so  represented  would  at  first  be  whole  words,  or,  at 
all  events,  syllables;  and  the  important  step  was 
yet  to  be  taken  of  analysing  syllables  into  their 
elementary  sounds,  and  of  agreeing  upon  some  one 
unvarying  picture  or  sign  (a  letter)  to  re])resent 
each.  This  constituted  tlio  invention  of  the  A.  By 
what  steps  alphabetic  writing  most  jjrobably  rose 
out  of  fiicture  writing,  will  be  seen  under  the  head 
of  Hieroglyphics.  See  also  Chinese  Language  and 
Cuneiform  Characters. 

The  Phoenician  A.  is  the  oldest  of  which  we  have 
any  account;  and  from  it  have  oiiginatcd,  directly 
or  indirectly,  all  the  modes  of  writing  now  in  use  in 
the  world.  It  is  the  foundation  of  llie  Greek,  the 
Latin,  and  the  Arabic  alphabets;  and  the  great 
influence  of  the  nations  speaking  these  tongues 
accounts  for  the  wide-spread  similarity.  Taking 
both  ancient  and  modern  times  into  account,  as 
numy  as  40i)  alphabets  have  been  enumerated ;  but 
of  tliose  now  in  use,  if  we  set  aside  slight  variations 
of  form,  the  number  does  not  exceed  50.  Aucr's 
iSy»-rtt7(/m//rt  (Vienna,  181'.')  contains  a  ricli  collection 
of  alphabets.  We  must  confine  ourselves  here  to 
those  more  immediately  connected  with  the  history 
of  the  English  A. 

A  point  of  considerable  importance  is  the  order 
of  the  letters.  In  modern  aljdiabets,  this  appears 
at  first  sight  to  be  quite  arbitrary  ;  but  traces  of  a 
principle  of  arrangement,  or  natural  system  accord- 
ing to  which  tiie  series  grew,  have  recently  been 
brought  to  light.*  The  evidences  of  such  a  natural 
order  are  best  seen  in  the  Hebrew  A.,  which  was 
almost  identical  with  the  Phoenician.  The  following 
table  exhibits  the  Hebrew  letters,  with  their  names, 
and  sounds  or  powers  ;  and  also  the  names  of  the 
letters  composing  the  early  Greek  A.,  as  borrowed 
from  the  Phoenician : 

HEBREW.  GREEK. 

Name.  Sound  or  Power. 

(   ^  Alcph,     a  vowel  or  breathing.  Alpha. 
.  J    ^  Beth,        B.  Beta. 


^    Gimcl,     G  (gun). 
"7  Daleth,    D. 


Gamma. 
Delta. 


a  vowel  or  breathing.  E(psilon). 


3  1 


4:{ 


1  Vau, 
[(     Zayn, 

n  Khoth, 

D  Thcth, 

'>  Yod, 
[3  Kaph, 

^   Lamed, 

0  Mem, 
J    Nun, 

.  [D  Samckh,  S,  variety  of.] 

J7  Ayn,  a  vowel. 

Q  Po,  P. 

[V  Tsadi,  TS.] 

Ti  Koph,  K  or  Q. 

[^  Resh,  R.] 

[t»«Sin,  S.] 

n  Tau,  T. 


V  or  F. 

Z.l 

KlI  or  Cn. 

TU. 

J. 

K,  variety  of.] 

L. 

M. 

N. 


F=V(digamma). 
Zctx 
Eta. 
Thcta. 
Iota. 
Kappa. 

Lambda. 

Mu. 

Nu. 

Sigma. 

Oi^mikron). 

Pi. 

Koppa. 
Rho. 
San. 
Tau. 

Leaving  out   of  account    the    letters     enclosed  in 
brackets,  which  are  not  easily  accounted   for,   and 

*  The  theory  was  first  propounded  in  1S33.  hy  Piofcssor 
Key,  of  University  College,  London,  i'l  the  Paimy  Oyclo- 
pmdia,  art.  '  Alphabet.' 


AT.rilARKT. 


are  possibly  later  interpolations,  the   whole  fall  into  I  cycle  of  the  sharps  is  pretty  perfect  in  the  English 


four  f^roiips,  the  law  of  which  will  best  appear  in  the 
following  scheme 


m 

_2 

■n 

=s 

0 

j3 

^ 

c 

1— 

K-1 

;-* 

M 

a 

b 

ff 

d 

Flats  or  medials. 

e 

V 

ch 

th 

Aspirates. 

c 
i 

P 

k 

t 

Sharps. 
Liquids. 

I 

m 

n 

Without  entering  at  present  into  the  nature  of  the 
relation  between  tlie  letters  in  the  several  rows, 
horizontal  and  vertic;il,  of  the  scheme  (for  which  see 
Letters),  it  will  be  seen  that  group  (1)  in  the  Hebrew 
A.  consists  of  a  vowel  followed  by  three  mute  letters, 
all  having  one  character  (flats  or  medials);  that 
group  (2)  consists  of  a  vowel  followed  by  three 
mutes,  also  having  one  character  (aspirates) ;  and 
that  group  (3)  consists  in  like  manner  of  a  vowel 
followed  by  three  mutes,  all  of  the  same  character 
(sharps.)  "  The  order,  moreover,  according  to  the 
orsan  of  utterance,  in  which  the  mutes  follow  in 
each  group,  is  invariable:  the  labial  (lip-sound) 
coming  first;  the  palatal  (palate-sound),  second;  and 
the  dental  (tooth-sound),  last.  This  principle  of 
arrangement  is  characterised  by  Dr.  Latham  as  a 
circulatirui  order.  Group  (4)  likewise  consists  of  a 
vowel  and  four  consonants  of  one  character  (liquids) ; 
but  in  this  case  the  order  of  the  vocal  organs  is  not 
observed — at  least  in  the  form  in  which  the  Hebrew 
A.  is  known  to  us;  in  order  to  be  symmetrical  with 
the  other  groups,  the  sequence  would  require  to  be 
ffi,  I,  n. 

The  nucleus  of  the  original  A.  would  thus  seem 
to  have  con.sisted  of  si.\teen  letters,  grouped  in  four 
tetrads  or  quaternions,  on  an  organic  principle  of 
arrangement.  This  principle  is  obscured  in  English 
and  other  modern  alpliabets,  by  some  of  the  letters 
having  gradually  come  to  represent  quite  other 
sounds  than  their  original.  There  is  sufficient 
evidence,  for  example,  that  in  the  earliest  Latin 
alphabet,  from  which  the  Enghsh  is  derived,  the  third 
letter,  C,  had  the  power  of  G  (in  r/itn).  There  was 
a  subsequent  period  in  the  development  of  that 
language  when  the  distinction  between  the  sharp 
and  flat  palatal  sounds  seems  to  have  been  lost,  and 
when  two  syllables  like  kam  and  r/nm  would  have 
been  both  pronounced  alike  (kam).  C  thus  acquired 
the  power  of  K,  and  the  letter  K  itself  went  almo:^t 
out  of  use.  But  about  the  time  of  the  First  Punic 
War  (264 — 241  B.C.),  the  distinction  between  the 
sharp  and  the  fl;at  sounds  revived ;  and  while  the 
original  C  continued  ever  after  to  have  the  power 
of  K  (Cicero,  for  instance,  was  pronounced  Kikero), 
a  new  character  (G)  was  formed  from  it,  by  a  very 
slight  alteration,  to  express  the  flat  sound.  Again, 
the  modern  II,  which  has  in  most  cases  becojue  a 
mere  evanescent  breathing,  can  be  traced^  back 
until  it  becomes  a  strong  guttural,  like  CH  in  the 
Scotch  word  loch.  The  place  of  the  third  consonant 
in  the  cycle  of  aspirates  is  a  complete  blaidc  in  the 
alphabets  derived  from  the  Latin;  because  that 
language  being  originally  destitute  of  the  soutul, 
dropped  the  sign  of  it,  from  the  first.  The  Latjns 
were,  in  fiict,  completely  destitute  of  the  genuine 
aspirato  sounds ;  for  even  the  letter  F  had  not  the 
sound  we  give  it.  Therefore,  when  they  had  to 
represent  the  aspirate  consonants  of  the  Greek 
language,  (h,  y,  0,  they  had  recourse  to  the  combina- 
tions p; ,  c/( ,  </; — a  clumsy  expedient  still  followed 
in  modern  alphabets  derived  from  the  Roman,  and 
constituting  one  of  their  most  serious  defects. — The 


alphabet,  for  Q  is  only  a  variety  of  K. 

It  is  easy  to  conceive  a  language  represented  by 
sixteen  characters  of  the  nature  above  described. 
The  most  serious  deficiency  would  seem  to  be  the 
want  of  J-  and  s  But  the  sound  of  th  is  very  nearly 
allied  to  that  of  .t  (witness  'loves  or  love</i ;'  also 
the  pronunciation  of  a  person  wh.o  li^//p//(  i,  and  one 
character  might  be  made  to  stand  for  both,  as  easily 
as  in  English  c  is  made  to  represent  two  .'-ounds  so 
different  as  those  cxemplilied  in  cat  and  city.  Some 
nations,  again,  are  said  to  make  no  distinction  be- 
tween r  and  /,  so  that  one  character  might  stand  foi 
both  these  sounds. 

But  whether  or  not  the  Phoenician  A.  had  origin- 
ally only  sixteen  letters,  it  is  evident  that  when 
transplanted  into  Greece,  it  had  twenty-one  letters, 
if  not  twenty-two.  In  accommodating  itself  to  the 
necessities  of  the  Greek  tongue,  it  gradually  under- 
went a  series  of  changes.  Some  of  the  letters  were 
modified:  //e  became  e ;  Che(h,ce;  Sir/ma  became 
f=.r,  and  the  name  Sir/ma  was  transferred  to  San. 
Other  letters  were  altogether  dropped,  as  Difjamma 
(^v)  and  Koppa.  On  the  ofhi'r  hand,  for  such 
siiriple  sounds  as  had  no  rcpre.'^entativcs  in  the 
Phduician,  new  characters  were  invented,  and  an- 
nexed to  the  end  (u,  0,  x.  »{'.  <^)- 

Another  important  change  was  in  the  direction  of 
the  writing.  In  the  PhoMiicinn  and  other  Semitic 
languages,  the  writing  proceeded  from  right  to  left. 
The  Greeks,  on  borrowing  the  Phunician  A.,  also 
wrote  for  some  time  from  right  to  left.  The  mode 
called  hustroiihedon  (turning  like  an  ox  in  ploughing), 
of  writing  alternately  from  right  to  left  and  from 
left  to  right,  was  then  introduced;  and  fin;dly  the 
direction  from  left  to  right  prevailed  throughout  the 
West,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  other  modes. 

In  the  classical  period  of  the  Greek  language,  the 
A.  had  come  to  consist  of  twenty-four  letters,  as  in 
columns  2,  S,  4  of  the  following  table.  Column  1 
(copied  from  Ballhorn's  A/phnhc/e)  gives  some  of 
the  earlier  forms  of  the  Greek  letters,  ibund  on  coins 
and  other  inscriptions,  of  the  period  when  writing 
still  proceeded  from  right  to  left ;  column  2  is  from 
the  Alexandrian  Codfx  (q.  v.),  as  given  in  Key's 
Alphabet;  and  Nos.  3  and  4  are  the  modern  printed 
forms  of  capitals  and  small  letters.  The  small 
characters  are  merely  cursive  forms  or  variations  of 
the  capitals;  and  itwould  not  be  difficult  to  shew 
how,  in  each  case,  the  endeavour  to  trace  the  capital 
on  soft  material  rapidly  and  without  lilting  the 
hand,  would  give  rise  to  the  form  now  used  as  the 
small  letter. 

GREEK  ALniABET. 
12  3       4 


A 

^ 

^ 

& 

A 

r 

V 

^ 

^ 

6 

^ 

I 

z: 

B 

H 

0 

0 

^_ 

L 

)i 

1^ 

B     /S 


r    7 

A     5 


z    C 

H     V 

0   e 


Xiime. 

Power, 

Alpha 

a 

Beta 

b 

Gamma 

g 

Delta 

d 

Ep&i'.on 

c  (short) 

Zeta 

ds 

Eta 

c  (long) 

Theta 

th 

Iota 

i 

Kappa 

k 

169 


ALniABET. 


Maine.      Power. 


1 

:s. 

A 

M 

N 

O 

n 
p 

2 
T 
T 
* 
X 

\ 

1 

0 

■K 

P 

or  s 
T 

V 

<P 
X 

4' 

u 

Lambda 
My 
Ny 
Xi 

Omikron 
Pi 

Rho 

Sigma 

Tau 

Ypsilon 

Phi 

Chi 

Psi 

Omega 

1 

N\ 

K/l 

m 

N 

IM 

n 

t 

^ 

X 

0 

O 

0  (short) 

1 

•1  I 

P 

9 

S 

P 

r 

A^ 

c 

B 

T 

T 

t 

Y 

ii 

CD 

fph 

X 

ch 

4- 

P3 

UJ 

0  (long) 

With  regard  to  tho  firpires  or  shapes  of  the  letter.", 
it  is  believed  that  they  all  arose  out  of  pictures  or 
hicroglypliic  cliaraclers.  Tiie  names  of  tlie  Hebrew 
letters  are  also  the  names  of  material  objects  ;  and 
the  letters  tliemselves  were  at  first,  in  all  i)robability, 
rude  outlines  of  the  olijects.  Aleph,  for  example, 
moans  an 'ox,'  and  the  letter  was  in  its  origin  an 
outline  of  an  ox's  liead.  The  history  of  Gimel, 
wliich  means  '  camol,'  is  prot)ably  similar.  The 
Hebrew  characters  icnown  to  us  are  believed  to  be 
comparatively  modern,  and  much  corrupted  from 
their  original  forms,  and  the  likenesses  are  more 
difficult  to  trace  in  them  than  in  the  Samaritan  and 
the  early  Greek,  or  even  in  the  Latin.  Mem,  again, 
is  the  Hebrew  word  for  '  water,'  and  some  of  the 
earliest  forms  of  tlie  letter  M  are  zigzag  lines,  similar 
to  the  sign  oi'  A  (jiiarias  (cX")  in  the  zodiac,  intended 
no  doubt  to  represent  the  undulations  of  water. 
Ayn,  the  name  of  the  Hebrew  letter  equivalent  to 
0,  also  means  an  '  eye,'  and  the  picture  of  an  eye 
would  naturally  degenerate  into  a  circle,  first  with  a 
dot  in  the  centre  (wliich  some  ancient  O's  actually 
have),  and  then  without  a  dot. 

The  A.  came  into  Italy  not  directly  from  Phoenicia, 
but  from  Greece,  and  that  at  a  time  when  the  Greek 
A.  had  undergone  some  of  the  changes  described 
above,  although  not  all  of  them ;  v,  cp,  and  x  ''f^d 
been  added,  but  not  \\i  and  oi.  Moreover,  there 
must  have  been  distinct  and  independent  importa- 
tions into  more  than  one  part  of  Italy,  and  that, 
probably,  from  different  parts  of  Greece,  or,  at  all 
events,  at  dill'crent  periods.  The  Etrurian  A.  is  evi- 
dently an  earlier  importation  than  the  more  southerly 
Latin,  as  it  departs  less  from  the  Phoenician.  There 
are  even  differences  in  different  parts  of  Etrurla 
itself.  The  alphabets  of  Etruria  north  of  the  Apen- 
nines (for  nuuicrous  inscriptions  recently  discovered 
shew  that  this  remarkable  race  must  have  extended 
at  one  time  as  far  north  as  the  Alpine  valleys  of 
Provence,  Tyrol,  Graubiindten,  and  Styria)  differ 
slightly  from  the  alphabets  of  the  inscriptions  in 
Etruria  proper,  which  are  demonstrably  taken  from 
the  A.  of  the  Greek  colony  of  Caere. 

The  Latin  A.,  which  became  that  of  Rome,  and 
thus  of  the  whole  western  world,  was  borroweii  from 
a  newer  form  of  the  Greek — namely,  that  imported 
170 


I  by  the  Dorian  Greeks  of  Cumse  and  Sicily.  The 
writing  in  tlie  oldest  Latin  inscriptions  is  never 
from  right  to  left,  as  is  mostly  the  case  in  Etrurian. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  Kaph  and  the  Koph  (K  and 
Q)  of  the  Phoenician,  which  disapjx'ar  in  Etrurian, 
are  retained  in  Latin.  The  Gieek  A.  of  Cumai  had 
not  yet  received  the  addition  of  i|/  and  to;  but  it  still 
retained  the  representative  of  the  Phoenician  Vau, 
the  Digamma,  and  also  Koppa,  and  thus  consisted  of 
twenty-four  letters.  The  Latin  tongue,  being  desti- 
tute of  aspirate  sounds,  dropped  the  three  letters  0, 
(p,  Xi  ^o  t'''^t  '■''C  original  Latin  A.  consisted  of 
twenty-one  letters,  the  forms  of  which,  as  seen  on 
the  oldest  inscriptions,  were  as  in  the  following  table. 
See  Corssen's  AusKprache,  Voralismns  und  Dctonung 
der  Lateinischen  Sprache  (Leip.  1858). 

\.  a    A,A,  A,  A.12.  m  M,W,AV.  nil. 
2.  b      ^,  B. 


3.  c 

<x,z 

A.  d 

D. 

5.  c 

E,ll. 

C.  f 

I|  F. 

7.  z 

Z. 

8.  h 

H. 

9.  i 

1. 

10.  k 

K.(t) 

13. 

n    N,  N. 

11. 

0  0,  <^,  0,  o 

15. 

p  n  R 

IC. 

^1  Q. 

17. 

^  \^,  R. 

18. 

«  ^.  ^.  s. 

19. 

t  n  T. 

20. 

v(ll).V. 

21. 

-  X. 

''■'    kA,L. 


Z  was  early  dropped,  and  the  new  letter  G  (see 
above)  substituted  ibr  it;  and  thus  the  Latin  A. 
continued  to  the  last  to  consist  of  twenty-one  letters 
until  it  was  applied  to  the  modern  tongues  of  ^Vesle^n 
Europe.  The  distinction  made  between  u  and  v, 
and  between  i  and  ;',  in  printing  Latin  hooks,  is  a 
modern  innovation  ;  and  no  Latin  word  contains 
cither  y  or  z.  The  five  additional  letters  that  make 
up  the  twenty-six  of  the  English  A.,  arose  from  the 
addition  of  .?,  and  the  development  of  i  into  j,  and 
of  u  into  iv,  V,  and  y. 

The  Anglo-Saxon  A.  had  two  useful  letters,  which 
have  disappeared  from  modern  English — namely, 
one  for  the  soiuid  of  th  in  thin,  and  one  (or  rather 
two)  for  that  of  ih  in  thive.  These  were  derived,  in 
all  ])robability,  from  the  Moeso-Gothic  A.,  which  (as 
well  as  the  Russian  and  other  Slavonic  alphabets) 
was  founded  on  the  Greek  rather  than  the  Latin. 
The  loss  of  these  letters  is  owing  to  the  influence  of 
the  Norman-French,  the  alphabet  of  which  is  exclu- 
sively Latin.  The  forms  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  letters 
are  as  under  :  ^ 

N        n 

0        o 


A 

-    (K) 

M 

ce(^) 

B 

b 

C 

c(C) 

D 

d(b) 

E 

e  (e) 

P 

fCp) 

G 

s{^Z) 

n 

M)^^) 

I 

i 

L 

1 

M 

m  /r^\ 

R 

r     (P) 

S 

8  (r) 

T 

t  (fc) 

U 

u 

W 
X 

X        ' 

Y 

y 

P 

J>  th  (tli'm) 

J) 

it  th  (i/tine) 

ALPHEIUS— ALPINE  PLANTS. 


'  The  characters  between  brackets  were  written  by 
the  An£;lo-S,ixons,  but,  being  (or  the  most  part  mere 
corruptions  of  the  Rom;in  forms,  are  now  seldom 
printed.' — Vernon's  Anglo-Saxon  Graiiviiar. 

The  peculiarities  of  the  several  letters  will  be 
noticed  in  their  proper  places.  For  tiu-ir  classifica- 
tion, and  the  defects  and  redundancies  of  the 
English  A.,  see  Lettkrs  and  Articulate  Sounds. 
Other  points  connected  with  this  subject  will  be 
found  under  Bf.ack-Letter,  ORTiiOGUAi'iir,  and 
Phonetic  Spelli.sg. 

ALPHEIUS  (now  Rufea,  Rufia,  or  Rofui)  is  the 
chief  river  of  Peloponnesus  (Morea),  rising  in  the 
south-east  of  Arcadiii,  and  liowing  west  througli  Elis, 
and  p:ist  the  famous  Olynipia,  into  the  Ionic  Sea. 
This  river  is  one  of  the  most  celebrated  in  ancient 
song,  and  is  connected  with  a  beautiful  and  charac- 
teristic Greek  legend.  The  nature  of  the  upper 
course  of  the  A.  was  calculated  to  affect  strongly  the 
imagination  of  the  Greeks.  In  its  passage  through 
Arcadia,  a  country  consisting  of  cavernous  limestone, 
and  abounding  in  shut-in  basins  and  valleys,  it 
repeatedly  disappears  under  ground  and  rises  again. 
After  these  feats,  it  was  capable  of  anything — even 
of  flowing  under  the  sea — and  tho(jrcck  colonists  of 
Sicily  thought  they  recognised  it  in  tlieir  new  coimtry. 
Close  on  the  margin  of  the  sea  in  the  island  of  Ortygia 
(the  site  of  Syracuse),  there  was  a  beautiful  and 
copious  fountain;  and  just  where  the  water  of  this 
fountain  joined  the  sea,  another  stroug  spring  bubbled 
up  under  the  salt  water.  This  could  only  be  another 
freak  of  the  A.  ;  and  it  was  popularly  believed  that 
the  sweepings  of  the  temple  of  (Jlympia,  after  the 
great  festival,  when  thrown  into  the  river,  reappeared 
in  the  springs  at  Ortygia.  Strabo  asserts  as  a  fact 
that  a  cpp  did  so. 

This  wonderful  phenomenon  found  its  explanation, 
as  usual,  in  a  myth,  connecting  it  with  the  history  of 
the  gods.  The  river-god  Al|)hcius  became  enamoured 
of  tlie  nymph  Arethusa  while  bathing  in  his  stream. 
To  escape  him,  she  prayed  to  Diana,  who  clianged 
her  into  a  fountain,  and  opened  up  an  underground 
passage  for  her  to  Ortygia.  The  river  still  pursued 
the  object  of  his  love,  passing  from  Greece  to  Sicily 
below  the  sea,  without  mingling  his  waters  with  it, 
and  appearing  iu  the  spring  that  bubbles  up  by  the 
shore. 

A'LPIXE  nUSBANDRY.  The  characteristic 
feature  of  A.  farming  is,  that  the  preparation  of 
fodder  is  the  chief  object,  and  the  cultivation  of 
grain  only  secondary.  In  the  less  elevated  regions 
bordering  on  the  flat  country,  it  is  the  practice  to 
break  up  the  grass  from  time  to  time,  and  take  a 
succession  of  grain  crops.  In  more  elevated  districts, 
the  moisture  of  the  climate  and  the  shortness  of 
the  season  of  vegetation,  prevent  crops  re(iuiring 
tillage  from  coming  to  perfection,  and  there  the 
whole  attention  is  devoted  to  pasturage  and  the 
preparation  of  meadow-hay.  The  top-dressing  of 
the  plots  devoted  to  hay-growing,  with  the  solid  and 
liquid  manure  of  the  cattle,  the  cutting  and  making 
of  the  hay,  and  transporting  it  to  the  farm-offices, 
occupy  a  great  part  of  the  labour  of  the  po|)ulation 
of  the  Alps.  They  turn  to  account  for  hay-making 
those  shelves  and  crevices  among  the  moiuitains 
which  are  inaccessible  to  cattle,  and  even  goats;  the 
herbage,  which  often  grows  luxuriantly  in  such  situ- 
ations, is  cut,  bound  up  in  cloths  or  nets,  and  carried 
down  difficult  paths  on  the  head,  or  is  flung  over  the 
precipices. 

The  grass-lands  in  the  lower  regions  near  the 
dwellings  being  mostly  reserved  for  liay,  the  cattle 
are  pastured  in  summer  in  those  regions  that  lie  tor) 
high  or  too  remote  to  be  inhabited  in  winter.  These 
pastures  consist  of  plateaus  and  slopes,  which  imme- 1 


I  diately  on  the  disappearance  of  the  snow,  become 
j  clothed  with  a  rich  carpet  of  herbage  and  flowers. 
Each  separate  locality  or  pasture  is  called  an  Alp. 
Some  of  these  'alps'  belong  to  individuals;  othera 
to  the  commune  or  parish.  The  more  rocky  and 
s'.eep  places  are  pastured  by  sheep  and  goats.  Tliere 
are  three  zones  or  stages  in  the  A.  pastures.  The 
cattle  are  driven  to  the  first  and  lowest  stage  about 
the  end  of  May  ;  about  a  month  later,  they  ascend 
to  the  'middle  Alps';  and  by  the  end  of  July,  they 
reach  the  Upper  Alps.  As  the  days  shorten,  they 
descend  in  the  same  gradual  way,  so  that  the  whole 
'Alp-time' lasts  about  20  weeks.  The  pastures  are 
provided  with  huts  for  those  who  have  charge  of 
the  Cattle,  who  also  convert  the  milk  into  cheese. 
Little  butter  is  made.  The  departure  for  the  'Alps' 
in  spring,  and  the  return  in  autumn,  arc  made  the 
Ov'casion  of  popular  festivals. 

ALPINE  PLAXTS.  This  appellation  is  given 
not  only  to  those  plants  which  are  found  in  eleva- 
tions approaching  the  limits  of  perpetual  snow  in  the 
Alps  of  Central  Europe,  but  also  to  plants  Ijclonging 
to  other  mountainous  regions  in  any  part  of  the 
world,  whose  natural  place  of  growth  is  near  snows 
that  are  never  melted  even  by  the  beams  of  tl'.e 
summer's  sun.  As  the  elevation  of  the  snow-line, 
however,  varies  very  much  in  diifcrent  countries, 
according  to  the  l.ititude,  and  also  from  peculiar 
local  circumstances,  the  term  A.  P.  is  not  so  nuich 
significant  of  the  actual  elevation  of  the  habitat,  as 
of  the  average  temperature  which  prevails  there. 
On  the  Andes,  near  the  equator,  at  an  elevation  of 
12,000 — 1.5,1100  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  many 
kinds  of  plants  are  found,  of  humble  growth,  resem- 
bling in  their  general  appearance  those  which  occur 
in  Germany  and  Switzerlai'.d  at  an  elevation  of  (JuOO 
feet ;  and  these,  again,  either  resemble,  or  are  even 
identical  with,  the  .species  which  in  Lapland  grow 
upon  hills  of  very  little  elevation,  or  whicii,  in  the 
northern  parts  of  Siberia,  are  foimd  at  the  level  of 
the  SCM.  Similar  plants  occur  also  in  the  Himalaya 
Mountains,  at  elevations  varying  remarkably  within 
very  narrow  geographical  liiniis  from  local  causes, 
which  also  create  great  diflerenccs  iu  the  general 
dryness  or  humidity  of  the  atmosphere.  The  l.iws  of 
this  natural  distribution  of  plants  have  been  in  our 
own  day  for  the  first  time  investigated  and  elucidated 
by  Humboldt,  Wahlenberg,  Schouw,  Decandolle,  and 
others,  and  form  the  most  essential  part  of  a  branch 
of  science  still  in  its  infancy,  and  much  requiring 
further  study,  phytogcography,  or  th,'  science  of  the 
geographic  distribution  of  plants.  When  the  A.  P. 
of  Central  Europe  are  spoken  of,  those  are  meant 
which  grow  at  an  average  height  of  Ooi.O  feet,  mark- 
ing what,  in  the  language  of  phytogeographic  science, 
is  called  a  zone.  This,  on  its  northern  limit,  the 
Riesengebirge,  or  Giants'  llotmfains,  falls  as  low  as 
4000  feet,  and  rises,  in  the  southern  Alpsand  Pyrenees, 
to  an  elevation  of  9000  feet,  and  sometimes  even 
above  it.  Although  very  rich  in  forms  peculiarly  its 
own,  this  zone  contains  many  plants  which  are  like- 
wise found  on  much  lower  hills,  and  even  in  the 
plains.  The  number  of  these,  however,  diminishes, 
as  the  elevation  increases.  Hence  the  small  spaces 
clear  of  snow  in  the  highest  regions  possess  a  very 
characteristic  flora,  the  plants  of  which  are  distin- 
guished by  a  very  low  diminutive  habit,  and  an 
inclination  to  form  a  thick  turf,  frequently,  also,  by 
a  covering  of  woolly  hairs,  whilst  their  stems  are 
very  often  either  partly  or  altogether  woody,  and 
their  flowers  are  in  proportion  remarkably  large,  of 
brilliant  colours,  and  in  many  instances  very  odori- 
ferous, upon  which  accounts,  they  remarkably  attract 
and  please  the  occasion.nl  visitors  from  the  plains. 
In  t'le  Alps  of  Central  Europe,  the  eye  is  at  once 
caught  by  gentians,  saxifrages,  rhododendrons,  and 

171 


ALPIXIA— ALPS. 


various  species  of  piiinrose.  With  tlicse  and  otlier 
phaueroganious  plants,  are  associated  a  number  of 
delicate  ferns  and  exceedingly  beautiful  mosses. 
The  highest  mountains  in  Scotland  exhibit  a  some- 
what similar  Hora,  and  beautiful  plants,  both  phane- 
rogamous and  cryptogamous,  arc  found  on  them, 
whicli  never  appear  in  lower  situations,  as  the 
Alpine  Speedwell  (  Veronica  Alpina),  the  small  Alpine 
Geniian  [Gentiana  nivalix\  the  Kock  Scorpion  Grass, 
or  Alpine  Vorr^ct-mc-nol  (^Afi/osotis  Alpestris),  Azalea 

Sroruinbenfi,  Woodsia  Itvensis  and  hijperborea,  &c. 
'any  A.  P.  arc  limited  to  a  very  small  district. 
Thus,  the  flora  of  Sttitzerland  differs  considerably 
from  tliat  of  (Jermany,  the  latter  being  now  known 
to  contain  3400  phaneroganious  plants,  of  wliich  the 
former  contains  2"20<\  and  along  with  them  also  120 
species  which  have  hitherto  been  found  only  in  the 
Swiss  Alps. — Tliere  are,  moreover,  particular  species 
of  phints  which  are  foiuid  only  in  single  localities,  as 
Hypericum  corix,  upon  the  mountain  of  Wiggis  in  the 
canton  of  Glarus;  Wulfcnia  Carinthinca,  upon  the 
Kiiweger  Alp,  in  Upper  Carinthia,  and  many  others. 
There  are,  however,  many  species  which,  occurring 
on  the  mountains  of  Central  Europe,  appear  also  in 
those  of  Ihitaiii  and  of  Scandinavia  ut  lower  altitudes, 
but  are  not  found  in  tlic  intervening  plains.  See 
Species,  DisriuncTiON  of. — Cryptogamic  plants  are 
generally  fourd  in  Alpine  regions  in  nuicli  grenter 
abundance  tluui  elsewhere.  The  transplanting  of  A. 
P.  into  gardens  is  attended  with  great  dilliculties, 
and  is  rarely  successful.  Their  great  beauty,  even 
when  dried,  makes  them  favourites  with  those 
plant-collectors  who  have  amusement  more  in  view 
than  the  mere  interests  of  science.  Small  herbaria 
of  them  are  oficred  for  sale  everywhere  in  Switzer- 
land ;  and  in  some  places,  large  collections  have 
been  prepared  and  thrown  open  to  the  pubUc. 

ALPI'NIA.     See  Galaxgale. 

A'LPXACIT,  or  ALPXACIIT,  a  Swiss  village,  in 
the  canton  of  Unterwalden,  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Pilatus,  IJ  miles  from  that  part  of  L:ike  Lticerne 
called  Lake  A.  It  is  known  principally  on  account 
of  its  celebrated  '  slide.'  This  was  a  sort  of  wooden 
trough  by  which  the  felled  timber  of  Mount  Pilatus 
was  conveyed  with  amazing  velocity  from  a  height 
of  25j0  feet  down  to  the  lake.  In  order  to  prevent 
friction,  the  trough  was  perpetually  lubricated  by  a 
slender  rill  of  water.  It  is  no  longer  used,  the  wood 
being  now  drawn  down  by  horses  and  oxen.  Pop- 
ulation of  A.,  1500. 

ALPS,  the  most  extensive  system  of  lofty  moun- 
tains in  Europe,  raise  their  giant  masses  on  a  basis 
of  90,1  »00  square  miles,  between  G°  40'  and  18°  E. 
long.,  and  extending  in  some  places  from  the  44th 
to  the  48th  parallel  of  latitude.  The  word  Alp 
or  Alb,  signifying  in  the  Celtic  language  '  white,' 
was  the  name  givea  to  these  mountains  on  account 
of  their  tops  being  perpetually  covered  with  snow. 
The  Alpine  system  is  bounded  on  the  X.  by  the 
hilly  ground  of  Switzerland  and  the  upper  plain 
of  the  Danube ;  on  the  E.,  by  the  low  plains  of 
Hungary  ;  on  the  S.,  by  the  Adriatic  Sea,  the  plains 
of  Louibardy,  and  the  Gulf  of  Genoa;  and  on  the 
W.,  by  the  plains  of  Provence  and  the  valley  of  the 
Rhone.  A  string  of  lakes  encircles  both  the  northern 
and  .southern  bases  of  these  mountains,  the  former  at 
an  elevation  of  1200 — 2()(J0  feet ;  the  latter,  GOO — 700 
feet.  The  varied  natural  scenery  of  France,  Italy, 
German}-,  and  Hungary  has  a  common  centre  of 
union  in  this  lofty  region.  Valleys  open  out  in  all 
directions,  sending  tlieir  melted  snows  on  one  side 
into  the  Xorth  Sea,  on  another  into  the  lilack  Sea, 
and  on  another  into  the  Mediterranean. 

The  waier-s;/sfcm  of  the  A.  may  be  thus  briefly 
sketched :  1.  In  the  basin  of  the  Khine,  there  is 
172 


the  Rhine  itself,  which  partly  forms  the  Lake  of 
Constance,  at  the  north-eastern  extremity  of  Switzer- 
land, and  receives  on  the  left  the  important  tribu- 
taries of  the  Thur  and  the  Aar;  the  latter  of  which 
(lows  tlirough  Lakes  Dri(>nz  and  Thun,  and  is  itself 
augmented  by  various  afllucnts,  the  largest  of  which 
are  the  Keuss  and  the  Linunat.  2.  In  the  basin 
of  the  Danube  there  flow  from  the  south  the  Iller, 
Lech,  Isar,  and  the  Inn.  Still  further  east,  the 
Danube  has  for  its  tributaries  the  Traun,  the  Ens, 
the  Raab,  the  Drave,  and  the  Save,  the  last  three  of 
wiiich  have  their  sources  in  the  extreme  I^astern 
A.  3.  In  the  basin  of  the  Po,  there  are  numerous 
streams,  which  rise  in  the  Southern  A. ;  tiie  prin- 
cipal of  these  are  the  Dora  Baltea,  the  Sesia,  the 
Ticino  from  Lake  Maggiore,  the  Mincio  from  Lake 
Garda,  and  the  Adige.  4.  In  the  basin  of  the  Rhone, 
there  are  the  Rhone  (flowing  througii  the  Lake  of 
Geneva),  and  various  Alpine  tributaries,  the  most 
important  of  which  are  the  Arve,  the  Iscre,  and  the 
Durance.  5.  The  Var  is  the  princi|)al  Liguiian 
coast-stream  ;  the  Piave,  and  the  Tagliamento,  the 
largest  of  those  which  fall  into  the  Adriatic  from  the 
Southern  A. 

Divisions. — In  order  to  give  a  clear  view  of  the 
manifold  ranges  of  this  mountain-land,  a  distinction 
is  generally  made  between  the  East,  the  West,  and 
the  Middle  A. ;  the  last  of  which  is  again  divided 
into  a  northern,  central,  and  southern  chain;  while 
a  natural  sep. nation  by  river  valleys  into  groups  is 
also  made.  I.  West  A. — The  principal  ranges  of 
these  are:  1.  The  Maritime  A.,  extending  froui  the 
middle  Durance  southwards  to  the  Mediterranean, 
and  rising  in  the  Col  Robuient  to  the  height  of 
'.'400  feet.  2.  The  Cottian  A.,  north  of  these,  whose 
highest  summit,  Monte  Viso,  is  13,590  feet.  3.  The 
Graian  A.,  forming  the  boundary  between  Savoy 
and  Piedmont,  and  attaining  in  Mont  Iseran  an 
elevation  of  13,272  feet,  and  in  Mont  Cenis,  an 
elevation  of  11,457  feet.  II.  MinDLE  A.  Central 
Chain. — 1.  The  Pennine  A.,  between  the  plains  of 
Lombardy  and  the  valley  of  the  Rhone.  Highest 
summits:  Mont  Blanc,  15,744  feet;  Monte  Rosa, 
15,151  feet;  Mont  Cervin,  14,830  feet.  2.  The 
Lepontian  or  Helvetian  A.,  from  the  depression  of 
the  Simplon,  along  the  plateau  and  masses  of  St. 
Gothard  (12,000  feet),  to  the  pass  of  Mont  Spliigen. 
3.  The  Rhietian  A.,  between  the  Inn,  the  Adda,  and 
the  Upper  Adige.  Nortlicrn  Cham. — 1.  The  Bernese 
A.,  between  the  Rhone  and  the  Aar;  highest  sum- 
mits: Finsteraarhorn,  14,02(i  feet;  Jungtrau,  13,710 
feet ;  Schreckho:  n,  13,3'.t7  feet.  2.  The  A.  of  the 
Four  'Forest  Cantons,'  the  Schwytz  A.,  &c.  Ttie 
Southern  Chain. — 1.  The  Oertler  A.,  between  the 
Adda  and  the  Adige ;  higlicst  summit,  Oertlerspitz, 
12.822  feet.  2.  The  Trientine  A.,  between  the 
Adige  and  the  Piave;  highest  summit.  La  Marmo- 
lata,  9802  feet.  III.  East  A. — The  principal  chains 
of  these  are :  1.  The  X'oric  A.,  between  the  plains 
of  tiie  Drave  and  the  Danube;  higl'.est  summit, 
Gioss-GIockner,  12,431  feet.  2.  The  Carnic  A., 
between  the  Drave  and  the  Save.  3.  The  Julian 
A.,  between  the  Save  and  the  Adriatic  Sea;  highest 
summit,  Mont  Terglu,  9306  feet. 

Elevation. — With  respect  to  height,  it  is  a  general 
rule  that  the  A.  are  lowest  where  the  system  is 
broadest,  that  is,  in  the  E.,  and  highest  where  the 
system  is  narrowest,  that  is,  towards  the  "W. 
Making  a  threefold  distinction  of  crests,  summits, 
and  passes,  the  principal  ranges  may  be  characterised 
as  fodows.  The  crest-line  (1)  of  West  A.,  OOOO — 
1 1,000  feet ;  (2)  of  Middle  A.,  900O— 13,000  f.-et ;  (3) 
of  East  A.,  3601) — 9000  feet.  The  summits:  (1)  of 
West  A.,  9000—14,000  feet  ;  (2)  of  Middle  A., 
iinOO — 15,800  feet ;  (3)of  East  A.,  OOOn — 12,0o0  feet. 
Height  of  the  passes:  (1)  of  West  A.,  40u0— 8000 


ALPS. 


feet;  (2)   of  Middle  A.,  6500— 11,000   feet;    (:i)   of 
East  A.,  3')00— 6000  feet. 

A  coinpri'hrnsive  classification  loads  to  a  division 
of  the  olevntioiis  into  three  regions:  1.  The  lower 
range  forming  the  buttresses  of  the  main  masses,  and 
reaching  a  height  of  "2500 — 0000  i'oct ;  that  is,  to  the 
extreme  limit  of  the  growth  of  wood.  2.  The  middle 
zone  lying  between  the  former  limit  and  the  snow- 
line, at  the  elevation  of  8000—9000  feet.  3.  The 
high  A.,  rising  to  15,74-i  feet.  Tiie  middle  zone  forms 
tlie  region  of  moimtain-pasturages,  wheie  the  charac- 
teristic Ali)ine  dairy-farming  is  carried  on.  These 
pastures  consist  of  a  rich  carpet  of  grass  and  flowers. 
This  threefold  division  of  heights,  however,  does  not 
everywhere  coincide  with  the  same  phenomena  of 
vegetation:  the  line  of  perpetutil  snow  descends 
lower  on  the  north  side,  and  the  boundaiies  of  the 
zones  above  described  vary  accordingly.  1.  Tlie  line 
of  demarcation  between  the  region  of  mosses  and 
Alpine  plants  and  that  of  perpetual  snow,  is  from 
80OO — 9(100  feet  on  the  northern  declivities;  but 
on  the  southern,  it  approaches  10,000  feet.  2.  The 
highest  limit  to  winch  wood  attains  on  the  north  is 
about  GOOD  fi'et,  while  on  the  south  it  is  nearly  7000 
feet.  3.  Grain,  beech,  and  oak,  on  the  nortli,  disap- 
pear at  the  elevation  of  4000  feet;  on  the  south, 
they  contrive  to  exist,  some  hundreds  of  feet  higher. 
4.  The  region  of  the  vine,  as  well  as  of  maize  and 
chestnuts,  extends  to  an  elevation  of  1900  feet  on  the 
northern  declivity  ;  and  on  ihe  southern  declivity, 
to  2500  feet.  The  ranges  of  outlying  lower  moun- 
tains which  flank  the  high  central  Alps  on  the  N., 
E.,  and  W.,  are  mostly  wanting  on  the  S.,  especially 
where  the  Middle  A.  descend  into  the  plains  of 
Lombardy.  Thus  the  A.  rise  in  steep  rocky  preci- 
pices from  the  level  of  the  flat  plains  of  the  Po, 
whilst  they  sink  more  gradually  into  the  plains  on 
the  north  ;  hence  their  mighty  inasses  closely  piled 
together  present  an  aspect  from  the  south  more 
grand  and  awful;  from  the  north,  more  extended 
and  various. 

Valleys. — The  variety  In  the  valleys  as  to  form 
and  arrangement  is  not  less  striking  than  in  the 
elevations.  Most  worthy  of  notice  is  the  chaiacteristic 
form  of  the  wide  longitudinal  valleys  that  lie  at  the 
foot  of  the  high  central  chains.  On  the  E.  side, 
they  open  directly  into  the  plain ;  on  the  N.,  they 
are  coimected  Avith  the  plain  through  transverse^ 
valleys  which  often  end  in  lakes.  The  transverse' 
valleys  on  the  S.  side  are  mostly  in  the  shape  of 
steep  rocky  ravines,  forming  in  some  parts  long- 
stretching  lakes.  Besides  the  deep-sunk  principal 
valleys,  there  are  extensive  series  of  basin-shaped 
secondary  valleys,  which  are  the  scenes  of  Alpine 
life,  properly  so  called.  Many  of  the  Alpine  valleys 
have  names  distinct  from  the  rivers  flowing  through 
them.  Thus,  the  valley  of  the  Rhone  is  styled  the 
Upper  and  Lower  Valiais  ;  that  of  the  Adda,  the 
Valteline  ;  of  the  Arve,  Chaniotniix. 

Communicationa — Passes. — The  valleys  of  the  high 
A.  form  the  natural  means  of  communication.  Some 
are  more  accessible  than  others.  The  entrance  into 
a  longitudinal  valley  is  almost  always  smooth  and 
easy ;  art  has  often  had  to  force  an  entrance  into 
a  transverse  valley.  On  many  of  the  high  roads 
which  link  the  principal  with  the  secondary  valleys, 
it  has  been  found  necessary  to  blow  up  long  ridges 
of  rock,  to  build  terraces,  to  make  stone-bridges 
and  long  galleries  of  rock  as  a  protection  against 
avalanches,  as  well  as  to  erect  places  of  shelter 
{hospices')  from  storms.  The  construction  of  these 
roads  may  be  reckoned  among  the  boldest  and  most 
skilful  works  of  man.  In  crossing  the  A.,  several 
defiles  (usually  seven)  have  to  be  traversed  ;  for  in 
addition  to  the  pass  of  the  main  crest,  there  are 
other  defiles  on  both  sides,  at  the  entrances  of  the 


different  valleys.  In  the  E.,  the  number  of  these 
narrow  pa.s-ses  or  defiles  is  considerably  increased. 
The  names  applied  to  the  Alpine  pa.sses  vary  accord- 
ing to  their  natural  features  or  the  local  dialect ;  as 
Pass,  Sattel  (Saddle),  Joch  (Yoke)  Scheideck,  Klausc 
("ol,  Cliiusa.  The  traveller  on  these  bea\itil'ul  moun- 
tain-roads passes  in  ashorttime  through  the  phenom- 
ena of  the  various  seasons.  In  the  course  of  a  day's 
journey,  he  experiences  a  succession  of  climatic 
changes,  which  is  accompanied  with  an  equal  variety 
in  the  maimers  of  the  people. 

No  lofty  mountains  in  the  world  can  boast  of 
being  so  easily  crossed  as  the  European  A.  Hence 
we  can  understand  how  the  plains  of  Upper  Italy, 
accessible  from  the  French,  German,  and  Hungarian 
sides,  have  been  the  theatre  of  bloody  strife  for  ages. 
The  passage  of  the  Wkst  A.  is  made  by  five  principal 
roads.  1.  The  military  road,  La  Corniche,  a  coast- 
road  at  the  foot  of  the  A.  from  Nice  to  Genoa. 
2.  The  causeway  over  the  Col-di-Tenda,  between 
Nice  and  Coni,  made  in  1778;  highest  point,  5890 
feet.  .3.  The  high  road  so  much  used  in  ancient 
times  over  Mount  Genevre,  connecting  Provence 
and  Dauphine  with  Turin  ;  highest  point,  G.j  JO  feet. 
4.  The  carriage-road  made  by  Napoleon  in  1S05, 
over  Mount  Cenis,  connecting  Savoy  with  Piedmont ; 
highest  point,  6770  feet.  5.  The  p  iss  of  t!ie  Little 
St.  Bernard,  connecting  Geneva,  Savoy,  and  Pied- 
mont; highest  point,  7190  feet.  By  this  pass, 
Hannibal  crossed  into  Italy.  It  is  not  much  used 
now.  Besides  these  great  roads,  there  are  many 
smaller  ones  branching  off  from  them,  which  form 
a  pretty  close  net-work  of  communication.  The 
passage  of  the  Midple  A.  is  made  by  eight  i)rincipal 
roads.  1.  That  of  the  Great  St.  Bernai-d,  con- 
necting the  valley  of  the  Rhone  wiih  Piedmont; 
highest  point,  8170  feet.  It  was  crossed  by  Napoleon 
in  1800.  2.  The  magnificent  road  over  the  Simplon, 
constructed  by  Napoleon,  I'-Ol — 1806,  aiul  connect- 
ing the  Valiais  with  the  confines  of  Piedmont  and 
Lombardy;  highest  point,  6570  feet.  3.  Between 
the  Great  St.  IJernard  and  Monte  Rosa  is  the  Col 
of  Mont  Cervin,  the  loftiest  pass  in  Europe,  being 
nearly  11,200  feet,  connecting  Piedmont  with  the 
Valiais.  4.  The  pass  of  St.  Gothard,  connecting 
Lucerne  with  Lago  Maggiore ;  highest  point,  68o0 
feet.  This  road  passes  through  scenery  of  exquisite 
beauty.  5.  The  Bernardin  Pass,  made  1819—1823, 
by  the  Swiss  Grisons  and  Sardinia ;  highest  point, 
6800  feet.  6.  The  Spliigcn  Pass,  repaired  in  1822, 
connecting  the  sources  of  the  Rhine  uitli  the  Adda. 
This  pass  was  the  one  used  by  the  Romans  in  their 
intercourse  with  the  countries  bordering  on  the 
Danube  and  the  Rhine,  and  also  by  the  German 
armies  on  their  marches  into  Italy  in  the  middle 
ages.  7.  The  Wormscr  Joch,  also  called  the  Ortclcs 
Pass,  or  road,  opened  by  Austria  in  1824.  It 
is  the  loftiest  carriage-road  in  Europe,  and  con- 
nects the  Tyrol  with  Lombardy.  8.  The  Brenner 
Pass,  known  to  the  Romans.  It  also  connects  the 
Tyrol  with  Lombardy ;  highest  point,  4650  feet. 
Besides  these  great  roads,  leading  south  into  Italj-, 
there  are  two  which  leadnorth  from  the  valley  of  the 
Rhone,  and  cross  the  Bernese  A.,  over  the  (irimsel 
Pass,  6500  feet  high,  and  the  Genuui  Pass,  7400  feet 
high.  The  roads  over  the  East  A.  are  much  lower, 
and  also  much  more  numerous  than  those  in  the 
Mrnni.E  or  Wkst  A.  The  principal  are — 1.  The 
road  from  Venice  to  Salzburg,  crossing  the  Noric  A. 
at  an  elevation  of  rather  more  than  5l0()  feet. 
2.  The  road  over  the  Carnic  A.,  which  divides  into 
three  branches — the  first  leading  to  Lnybach  ;  the 
second,  to  the  valley  of  the  Isonzo ;  and  the  third 
to  the  valley  of  the  Taglamento.  3.  The  roads  from 
the  Danube  at  Linz  to  Laybach. 

Geolor/y. — The  A.  offer  a  rich  field  for  geological 

173 


ALPS— ALPUJARRAS. 


investigations,  .the  results  of  which  hitherto  may  be 
thus  summed  up :  The  highest  central  mass — the 
Primary  A.,  as  they  are  called — that  rises  from  tlie 
plain  to  the  S.  W.  of  Turin,  and  stretches  in  a 
mighty  curve  to  the  Neusiedlersee,  in  Hungary, 
consists  chiefly  of  the  crystalline  rocks  Gneiss  and 
Mica-slate,  with  a  much  smaller  proportion  of  Gran- 
ite. Enclosed  among  the  Central  A.  appear  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Carboniferous  and  Jura.-sic  forma- 
tions ;  but  so  altered  and  become  so  crystalline  that 
their  age  can  only  be  guessed  from  a  few  remaining 
petrifactions,  which  are  accompanied  here  and  there 
by  garnets.  In  the  Graian,  Pennine,  and  Rhajtian 
A.  occur  great  masses  of  serpentine ;  in  the  N. 
of  Piedmont,  and  in  the  upper  valley  of  the  Adige, 
quartz-porphyry.  In  the  E.  there  arc,  on  the  N. 
and  S.  sides  of  the  chief  range,  vast  deposits  of 
clay-slate  and  grauwacke  mixed  with  transition  lime- 
stone. 

Beginning  on  the  Mediterranean  coast,  and  follow- 
ing in  general  the  direction  of  the  central  chains,  a 
belt  of  sedimentary  rocks  runs  along  the  W.  and  X. 
sides  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Vienna.  On  the  south 
side,  a  similar  belt  runs  from  Lake  Maggiore  to 
Agram.  The  undulating  curves  and  colossal  disloca- 
tions presented  by  these  regions,  shew  that  the 
form  of  their  mountains  must  have  been  the  result 
of  a  mighty  force  acting  northwards  and  southwards 
from  the  Central  A.  In  respect  of  age,  these  sediment- 
ary or  calcareous  A.  include  all  the  members  of  the 
series  of  formations  from  magnesian  limestone  up  to 
the  lowest  strata  of  the  tertiary  group.  The  south- 
eastern portion  of  these  calcareous  mountains,  form- 
ing tlie  Julian  A.,  mostly  consist  of  cavernous  rocks 
of  the  Jurassic  and  chalk  groups;  and  are  continued 
with  this  character  into  Dalmatia. 

M'merah. — Precious  stones  are  found  in  abund- 
ance in  the  trap  and  primary  mountains,  especially 
in  the  region  of  the  St.  Gothard.  The  rock-crystal 
of  St.  Gothard  has  a  world-wide  reputation.  Mining 
and  smelting  become  more  and  more  productive  as 
we  advance  eastward.  Switzerland  itself  is  poor  in 
useful  ores.  Gold  and  silver  are  found  in  Tyrol, 
Salzburg,  and  Carinthia  ;  there  are  also  silver-inines 
in  Styria  and  Illyria,  and  one  near  Grenoble,  in 
France.  Copper  is  found  in  the  French  A.,  in  Tyrol, 
and  Styria.  Tlie  lead-mines  near  Villach,  in  Car- 
inthia, yield  yearly  about  35,000  cwt.  The  yield  of 
iron  in  Switzerland,  Savoy,  and  Salzburg  is  trifling ; 
Carinthia,  on  the  other  hand,  produces  2(50,000  cwt., 
and  Styria  4.50,000  cwt.  Quicksilver  is  extracted  at 
Idria,  in  Carniola,  to  the  amount  of  1000 — 1500 
cwt.  Tiie  Alpine  region  is  rich  in  salt,  especially 
at  Hall  in  Tyrol,  and  Hallein  in  Salzburg.  Coal 
is  found  in  Switzerland,  in  Savoy,  and  in  the  French 
A.,  but  in  no  great  quantity  ;  the  Austrian  A.  arc, 
again,  richer  in  this  important  mineral.  The  mineral 
springs,  hot  and  cold,  that  occur  in  the  region  of 
the  A.  are  innumerable.  See  Aix,  Iscul,  Leuk, 
Baden,  &c. 

Auiinah. — The  Alpine  mountains  present  many 
peculiarities  worthy  of  notice  in  the  animal  as  well 
as  in  the  vegetable  kingdom  (see  Alpine  Plants). 
On  the  sunny  heights,  the  number  of  insects  is 
very  great;  the  butterflies  are  especially  numerous. 
There  are  few  fishes,  although  trouts  are  sometimes 
caught  in  ponds  even  6U0O  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  Although  the  lofty  mountains  are  inha- 
bited by  eagles,  hawks,  and  various  species  of 
owls ;  yet  the  birds  are  few  in  comparison  with 
the  numbers  in  the  plains,  and  those  few  are 
mostly  confined  to  the  larger  valleys.  Among  the 
quadrupeds,  the  wild  goat  is  sometimes,  though 
rarely,  to  be  met  with  ;  the  chamois  is  more  fre- 
quently seen,  chiefly  in  the  eastern  districts.     The 


marmot  inhabits  the  upper  Alpine  regions. 
174 


are  seen  more  frequently  in  the  west  than  in  the 
east;  in  the  latter,  on  the  other  hand,  bears,  lynxes, 
and  wild-cats  are  found,  although  constantly  dimin- 
ishing in  number.  Of  the  domestic  animals,  goats 
and  oxen  are  scattered  everywhere  in  large  herds. 
There  are  fewer  sheep  and  horses,  and  these  are  not 
of  good  breeds.  Mules  and  asses  are  used  more 
fiequently  iii  the  south  than  in  the  north,  especially 
as  beasts  of  burden.  Swine  and  dogs  are  not 
common ;  the  latter  are  used  almost  solely  by  the 
herdsmen,  or  are  kept  in  the  hospices,  to  assist  in 
searching  for  the  unfortunate  wanderers  who  may 
be  lost  in  the  snow. 

The  Alpine  mountains  are  rich  in  singularly  beau- 
tiful natuial  scenery,  of  which  the  inhabitants  of 
flat  countries  can  scarcely  form  an  idea.  Nature  in 
the  A.  has  an  infinite  variety  of  aspects.  Here  the 
hardened  masses  of  the  icy  glacier  cover  the  naked 
rock,  avalanches  are  hurled  into  immeasurable 
abysses,  the  fall  of  rocks  or  mountain-slips  overwhelm 
tlie  dwellings,  and  cover  the  fields  in  the  valleys; 
and  in  the  east  the  bora,  with  its  hurricane  strength, 
hurls  before  it  the  upraised  masses  of  snow.  There 
the  sun  glances  upon  the  scattered  silver  threads 
of  a  water-fall,  or  mirrors  himself  in  the  peaceful 
waters  of  a  glassy  lake,  while  his  rising  and  his 
setting  are  announced  to  the  expectant  traveller  by 
the  ruddy  glow  on  the  snow  y  mountain-tops.  The 
inhabitant  of  the  A.,  sin-rounded  on  every  side  by 
mountains,  is  unconsciously  subdued  by  their  pres- 
ence, and  receives  irom  them  a  peculiar  stamp  of 
character;  their  dangers  fascinate  him  as  well  as 
their  charms.  The  most  ceaseless  variety  of  occupa- 
tion demands  all  his  time  and  his  thoughts ;  in 
the  mountains  he  acknowledges  his  only  despots, 
who  seize  his  soul,  and  lead  It  unresistingly.  In 
his  constant  struggle  with  the  elements,  the  Alpine 
dweller  strengtliens  both  his  mind  and  body  ;  he 
opens  his  heart  to  the  impressions  of  nature  ;  he 
gives  utterance  to  his  childlike  gladness  in  simple 
songs,  and  at  the  same  time  defends  with  self- 
sacrificing  devotion  his  mountain-fortresses  against 
foreign  aggression.  But  the  manners  and  spirit  of 
the  neighbouring  plains  liave  penetrated  into  the 
larger  valleys  along  with  the  dust  of  the  highway. 
There  the  true  Alpine  life  has  more  and  more 
passed  away.  The  simplicity  and  characteristic 
industry  of  the  Alpine  farms  are  now  preserved  only 
in  the  higher  secondary  valleys. 

Six  states  share  the  A.  The  western  portion  is 
shared  by  France  and  Sardinia.  Switzerland  claims 
the  Middle  A.  almost  exclusively  for  her  own. 
Bavaria  has  only  a  small  share.  Austria  has  the 
largest  share  of  the  A. — in  Lombardy,  the  Tyrol, 
Illyria,  Styria,  and  the  archduchy.  The  wide  valleys 
opening  to  the  east  allow  the  civilisation  of  the 
plains  to  enter  easily  among  the  mountains.  The 
value  of  the  minerals,  and  the  fertility  of  the  soil, 
have  permitted  mining,  manufactures,  and  agricul- 
ture to  tidvc  firm  root,  and  a  flourishing  trade 
has  caused  large  towns  to  usurp  the  phice  of  mere 
Alpine  villages.  In  the  Tyrol,  the  pastoral  life  of 
the  mountains  has  long  been  mixed  up  with  the 
working  of  mines  of  salt  or  other  minerals.  The 
inhabitants  of  whole  valleys  are  occupied  in  various 
branches  of  industry  to  a  greater  extent  than  in  any 
other  district  of  the  A.,  and  their  sons  travel  far 
and  near  as  arti.sans.  See  H.  and  A.  Schlagintweit, 
Researches  into  the  Phi/sical  Geography  of  the  A. 
( Unterfiuchunrien  itber  die  Physikalisclie  Geoyraphie 
tier  A/pen),  Leip.  1850. 

ALPUJA'RRAS(a  corruption  of  an  Arabic  word 
which  signifies  'grass' — an  allusion  to  the  splendid 
pasturage  on  the  north  side),  a  range  of  mountains 
parallel  to  the  Sierra  Nevada,  and  approaching  the 


Wolves  I  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea.     Their  southern  side 


ALSACE— ALTAI. 


is  precipUous,  but  the  northern  slopes  awuy  into 
broad  valleys,  beyond  which  rises  the  Sierra  Nevada. 
They  eomiiiencc  in  the  west  at  Motril,  where  tliey  are 
sep;i'rated  by  the  (iuadalfeo,  from  the  lower  Sierra 
de  Iloluear,  and  the  adjacent  vine-covered  hills  of 
Mala^!',  and  stretch  as  iiir  east  as  the  river  Almoria. 
The  range  is  divided  into  two  parts  by  the  Adra, 
each  of  which  bears  a  particular  name.  The  highest 
peaks  roach  an  elevation  of  7UitO  feet.  On  the 
north  side,  owing  to  the  eopio'is  rains,  there  is  the 
richest  pasturage,  l)oth  in  the  deep  valleys  and 
on  the  uiilands.  The  southern  slope,  however,  is 
almost  destitute  of  trees  or  shrubs,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  fertile  valleys  near  the  sea,  which  are 
abundantly  watered  by  numerous  little  streams. 
Here  f.o  irish,  under  an  almost  tropical  climate,  all 
the  p"oducts  of  the  south,  even  the  date-palm  and 
the  sugar-cane.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  employed 
in  rearing  sheep,  and  in  cultivating  the  vine  and 
other  fruits.  A  little  mining  also  goes  on.  Lead, 
antimony,  and  silver  are  got.  The  Moorish  element 
is  still  quite  discernible  in  the  population  of  this 
mountain  region. 

ALSA'CE,  a  province  of  France,  now  forming  the 
departments  of  the  Upper  and  Lower  Rhine.  It  hes 
between  the  Ilhine  on  the  east,  and  the  Vosges  moun- 
tains on  the  west,  extending  south  to  Switzerland, 
and  nor;h  to  Rhenish  Bavaria,  and  occupying  33G0 
English  square  miles.  It  is  one  of  the  most  fertile 
parts  of  France;  rich  also  in  mines  and  manufac- 
tures, and  contains  the  important  cities  of  Strasburg, 
Colmar,  and  Miihlhausen.  In  Cffisar's  time,  A.  was 
occupied  by  Celtic  tribes ;  but  during  the  decline  of 
the  empire,  the  Alemanni  and  other  tribes  from 
beyond  the  Rhine  occupied  and  completely  tJerman- 
ise'd  it.  It  afterwards  i'ormed  part  of  the  German 
empire,  under  various  sovereign  dukes  and  princes, 
latterlv,  of  the  House  of  Hapsburg ;  till  a  part  of  it 
■was  ceded  to  France,  at  the  peace  of  Westphalia, 
and  the  rest  fell  a  prey  to  the  aggressions  of  Louis 
XIV.,  who  seized  Strasburg  (1081)  by  surprise  in 
time  of  peace.  By  the  peace  of  Ryswick  (1697),  the 
cession  of  the  whole  was  ratified.  Thus — as  the 
Germans  complain — was  this  fine  land,  and  one  of 
the  noblest  branches  of  the  race,  alienated  from  the 
German  people,  and  the  command  of  the  German 
Rhine  disgracefully  surrendered  to  the  enemy  in  the 
time  of  misfortune,  and  more  disgraceful  still,  not 
demanded  back  when  fortune  favoured.  German  is 
still  the  language  of  the  people,  and  all  newspapers 
are  printed  in  both  languages.  See  Eiiin,  Haut- 
and  Bas-. 


A'LSEX  (Dan.  Als),  an  island  in  the  Baltic 
belonging  to  the  Duchy  of  Schleswig,  and  extend- 
ing from  the  Apcnrade  to  the  Flensborg  Fiord, 
is  separated  from  the  mainland  by  the  Sound  of 
A.,  in  part  very  narrow  but  deep.  Its  greatest 
length  is  nearly  20  miles;  its  greatest  breadth 
about  12;  pop.  24,000;  lat.  54'  46'  N.,  long.  9° 
52'  E.  The  island,  one  of  the  finest  in  the  Bajlic,  has 
a  picturesque  appearance,  is  very  fertile,  with  rich 
woods,  and  numerous  lakes  abounding  in  fish.  Its 
fruit-trees  are  celebrated  over  all  Schleswig.  The 
Gravenstein  apple,  in  particular,  forms  an  important 
article  of  commerce.  The  chief  towns  are  Sonder- 
borg  or  Siidborg  (South  Town),  and  Norborg  or 
Nordburg  (North  Town).  The  former  has  an  excel- 
lent harbour,  with  a  population  of  33(»0,  and  possesses 
more  than  SO  vessels.  Close  to  the  harbour  are  the 
ruins  of  an  ohl  and  famous  castle,  belonging  to  the 
Augustenborg  familv,  which  even  yet  owns  a  large 
portion  of  the  island.  Here  Christian  II.  of  Den- 
mark and  Norway  was  confined  from  1532  to  1549. 
During  the  Schleswig-IIolstein  war,  A.  was  a  place 
of  considerable  military  importance. 


ALSTER,  a  river  in  Ilolstein,  is  formed  by  the 
confluence  of  three  streams,  and,  in  the  mighbour- 
hood  of  Hamburg,  spreads  itself  out,  and  forms  a 
lake,  called  the  Great  or  Outer  A.,  and,  within  the 
town,  tlie  Inner  A.  It  flows  by  several  canals  into 
the  Elbe. 

ALSTR(EMERIA,  or  ALSTRCEMER'S  LILY,  a 
genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Ainart/llt- 
dece  (q.  v.),  and,  according  to  Lindley,  of  the  tribe 
Ahtrmmcriea,  which  is  distinguished  by  fibrous— not 
bulbous — roots,  and  by  having  the  outer  segments 
of  the  perianth  different  in  form  from  the  inner.  In 
this  genus,  the  two  lower  segments  are  somewhat 
tubular  at  the  base,  the  capsules  do  not  gape  when 
ripe,  are  3-valved  or  pulpy  within,  and  the  seeds 
globose.  The  leaves  are  twisted,  so  that  what  should 
be  the  upper  surface,  becomes  the  lower.  The 
species  are  numerous,  natives  of  the  warmer  parts 
of  America.  Many  of  them  have  tuberous  roots. 
Some  are  sufficiently  hardy  to  endure  the  open  air  in 
Britain,  and  are  admired  ornaments  of  our  flower- 
gardens.  Some  have  chmbing  or  twining  stems; 
amongst  these  is  the  salsilla  (.1.  sakilla),  a  plant  of 
great  beauty,  with  lanceolate  leaves,  a  native  of 
Peru,  which  is  cultivated  in  the  West  Indies,  and  its 
tubers  eaten  like  those  of  the  potato.  In  Britain,  it 
requires  the  stove  or  a  hot-bed.  A.  orata,  also  a 
beautiful  plant,  with  a  slender  twining  stem,  and 
ovate  leaves,  is  cultivated  in  Chili  for  its  tubers, 
which  are  used  as  food.  It  has  been  introduced  into 
Britain,  but  its  cultivation  has  made  little  progress. 
The  tubers  weigh  from  3  to  6  ounces.  A  kind  of 
arrow-root  is  also  prepared  in  Chili  from  the  succu- 
lent roots  of  ^.  pallida  and  other  species. 

ALTA'i  (i.  e.,  gold  mountain)  is  the  term  vaguely 
applied  to  the  high  range  in  the  east  of  Asia,  forming 
the  northern  border  of  that  vast  table-land  known 
bv    the    name    of    Chinese    Tatary,   and    extending 
from  80°  to  142°  E.  long.     The  A.  mountains  con- 
stitute   the     boundary    between    the    Russian    and 
Chinese  empires,  or  between  the  long  icy  lowlands 
of  Siberia,  stretching  away  to  the  Arctic  Sea,  and 
the    variegated    central    plateau    that    lies   south   of 
them.       Their    general    direction    is   from    east    to 
west.       They    are    divided   into   many   ranges   and 
groups,    each    having    a    distinctive    name.        From 
the   Sea   of  Okhotsk,    in  the  extreme  east  of  Asia, 
they  e.xtend  in  a  broad   and  winding   mass   to  the 
plains  of  Turkestan,  a  little  to   the   west  of  Lake 
Zaisan,  or  Zaizang,  a  distance  of  more  than    3<i00 
miles.     The  breadth  of  the  svstem  is,  in  some  places, 
not    less    than   SnO- 900    miles.        From    Okhotsk 
to  tlic  Lena,  it  is  called  the  Aldan  Chain ;  it  is  nest 
separated   into   three  groups  by  the  valleys  of  the 
Amur,  Yenisei,  and  Irtish,  the  last  of  which  is  called 
the  Little  A.,  to    distinguish  it  from  the  spur  that 
strikes  off  into  Chinese  Tatary  in  a  south-easterly 
direction,  and  which  is  called  the  Great  A.,  a  range 
tliat  in  some  places  towers  into  the  region  of  per- 
petual snow,  and  whose  most  easterly  cliffs  abruptly 
disappear  in  the    dark  clouds    which  overhang    the 
sandy  steppes  of  Gobi.      The  Russian  A.,  between 
Semipalatinsk    and    the    sources   of  the   Obi,   have 
been  colonised  by  the  Russians,  and  as  they  rival 
the  Ural    Mountains  in    their  mineral    wealth,  they 
have  already   become    one  of  the    most    important 
districts  of  the  Russian  empire.     This  chain  consists 
of  a  broad  Alpine  range  on  the  north-western  edge  of 
Chinese   Tatarv,  and   is   called   the  Altai-Bjelki,  or 
Snowy  Mountains.     It  reaches   in  its  highest  peaks 
an  elevation  of  nearly  11,000  feet.    Little  is  known  of 
the  geology  of  the  Altaian  system.     Jasper  is  found 
in  conside"rable  abundance  near  the  summit.s,  red  por- 
phyry lower  down,  and  granite  still  lower.     Around 
Laice"  Baikal   there   are   numerous   granitic  masses, 

176 


ALTAR— ALTEX. 


interspersed  with  newer  igneous  formations,  but 
active  vok-anoes  do  not  appear  until  tlie  range  reaches 
Kamtchutka.  Tlie  mines  arc  rich  in  gohJ,  silver, 
copper,  and  lead.  The  botany  of  the  mountains  is 
as  imperfectly  known  us  the  geology,  but  it  seems  to 
be  worthy  of  closer  attention.  North  of  the  A.- 
Bjelki,  lies  the  broad  zone  of  the  A.  mineral  districts, 
the  inhabitants  of  which  are  employed  as  miners 
and  agricultural  labourers,  over  whom  a  strict  watch 
is  kept.  The  south-east  is  peopled  by  tht;  Calmucks 
of  the  mountains,  a  Mongolian  race.  They  are 
heathens,  and  their  government  is  a  patriarchal  one. 
They  lead  a  nomadic  life,  encamping  in  summer 
aniong  the  rich  pastures  on  the  mountain-terraces, 
and'  in  winter  within  the  sheltered  recesses  of  the 
woody  glens. 

A'LTAR  (Lat.  altare,  from  alht><,  high),  the  place 
whereon  offerings  were  laid  both  by  Jews  and 
heathens.  The  lirst  on  record  is  that  which  Noah 
built  on  leaving  the  ark.  The  Israelites,  after  the 
giving  of  the  Law,  were  commanded  to  make  one. 
We  find,  from  the  Old  Testament  (1  Kings,  iii.  3; 
1  Kings,  xi.  7  ;  and  2  Kings,  xxiii.  15),  that  altars 
were  often  erected  on  high  places — sometimes,  also, 
on  the  roofs  of  houses.  Both  in  the  Jewish  taber- 
nacle and  temple  there  were  two  altars,  one  for 
sacrifices,  and  another  for  incense.  For  a  minute 
description  of  these,  see  Exodus,  Leviticus,  and 
Numbers.  The  Jewish  and  oriental  altars  were  gener- 
ally either  square,  oblong,  or  approximating  to  such  ; 
those  of  Greece  and  Rome,  on  the  other  hand,  were 
often  round.  Sacrifices  were  offered  to  the  infernal 
gods,  not  on  altars,  but  in  cavities  dug  in  the  ground. 


Roman  Altars. 

The  word  has  been  transferred  into  the  Christian 
system.  For  upwards  of  five  centuries,  altars  in  the 
Christian  churches  weie.  for  the  most  part,  made  of 
wood;  but  in  509  A.n.,  it  was  decreed  by  a  council 
held  at  Epone,  in  France,  that  none  should  be  con- 
secrated with  chrism  except  those  built  of  stone.  In 
the  first  ages  of  Christianity,  there  was  only  one 
A.  in  a  church  ;  but,  from  a  very  early  time,  the 
Lntins  have  used  more  than  one.  In  the  12th  c.,  the 
adorning  of  churches  with  images  and  numerous 
altars  was  cairied  to  a  great  extent,  and  they  were 
embellished  with  gold,  silver  and  precious  stones. 
The  Greek  Church  use  but  one  A.  Altars  were  fre- 
quently placed  at  the  west  end  of  the  ancient  churches, 
instead  of  the  east,  but  in  England  almost  uniformly 
in  the  east.  The  only  perfect  A.  of  the  old  times 
in  England  is  the  high  A.  of  Arundel  Church,  Sussex. 
The  slab  is  12  feet  6  inches  long,  by  4  feet  wide,  and 
2|  inches  thick.  The  support  is  of  solid  stone,  qi.ite 
plain,  and  plastered  over.  For  300  years  after  the 
time  of  Christ,  the  word  A.  was  constantly  used  to 
describe  the  table  of  the  Lord  ;  subsequently,  '  table' 
and  'altar'  were  ;ised  indiffcFently.  In  the  first 
Prayer-book  of  King  Edward,  1549,  the  word  A.  was 
used  in  the  Rubric,  and  the  Lord's  Supper  was  still 
called  the  Mass;  but  in  1550,  an  order  was  issued 
for  the  setting  up  of  tables  instead  of  altars,  and  in 
the  second  Prayer-book  of  1552,  the  word  altar  was 
everywhere  replaced  by  table.  The  table  was  further 
176 


ordered  to  be  of  wood,  and  movable.  In  Mary's 
reign  the  altars  were  re-erected;  l)ut  in  Queen 
Elizabeth's,  some  were  rioiously  pulled  down,  and 
injunctions  were  then  issued  directing  that  this 
should  not  be  done,  except  under  the  oversight  of 
the  curate  and  at  least  one  churchwarden.  It  was 
charged  against  Archbishop  Laud  that  he  had  con- 
verted communion-tables  into  altars.  What  he  really 
did  was  to  remove  the  tables  out  of  the  body  of  the 
church,  and  place  them  '  altarwise,'  i.  c.,  north  and 
south,  at  the  upper  end  of  the  chancels,  where  the 
altars  formerly  stood  ;  and  a  dog  having  on  one  occa- 
sion run  away  with  a  piece  of  the  consecrated  bread, 
he  directed  that  rails  should  be  erected  to  jirevent 
such  desecrations  in  future.  The  old  stone  altars 
used  frecpiently  to  be  made  in  the  shape  of  tombs, 
and  they  enclosed  relics ;  this  was  fiom  the  early 
Christians  having  often  celebrated  the  cucharist  at 
the  tombs  of  the  martyrs,  or,  as  others  say,  they 
were  thus  nuide  with  the  design  of  representing 
Christ's  humanity  as  having  been  real,  and  vouched 
for  by  the  fact  of  his  body's  lying  in  the  tomb.  The 
Credence  Table  and  Piscina  are  adjuncts  of  an 
A.  By  the  judgment  in  the  Arches  Com-t,  1845,  in 
the  case  of  Faulkner  v.  Litchfield,  it  was  decided 
that  altars  may  not  be  erected  in  ch\irches.  This 
case  arose  out  of  the  erection,  by  the  Cambridge 
Camden  Society,  of  a  stone  A.  in  the  Church  of  the 
Holy  Sepulchre  in  that  town. 

The  old  English  divines,  and,  indeed,  all  Pro- 
testant ecclesiastical  writers  of  any  importance,  are 
luianimous  in  the  opinion,  that  among  Christians 
the  woid  cannot  mean  what  the  Jews  and  heathens 
expressed  by  it.  The  later  fatliers  used  various 
phrases  to  denote  thj  solemnity  which  should 
attach  to  the  communion-table,  such  as  '  the 
Mystical  and  Tremendous  Table,'  '  the  Mystical 
Table,'  '  the  Holy  Table,'  &c.  And  they  termed  it  an 
A.,  because,  fr^t,  the  holy  eucharist  was  regarded  as 
a  kind  of  commemorative  sacrifice,  or,  more  properly, 
a  consecrated  memorial  before  God  of  the  great 
sacrifice  on  Calvary  ;  and,  ftecond,  the  prayers  of  the 
communicants  were  held  to  be  in  themselves 
sacrifices  or  oblations — sacrifices  of  thanksgiving,  as 
it  were.  This  is  the  view  of  these  who  hold  High 
Church  opinions,  but  does  not  exclude  the  other  view. 
Again,  they  termed  it  a  table  when  the  eucharist 
was  considered  exclusively  in  the  light  of  a  sacra- 
ment, to  be  partaken  of  by  believers  as  spiritual 
food.  In  the  former  case,  the  sacrifice  was  com- 
memorated ;  in  the  latter,  it  was  applied  :  in  the 
former,  it  expressed  more  directly  the  gratitude;  in 
the  latter,  more  directly  the  faith  of  the  Christian. 

A'LTDORFER,  Albrecht,  painter  and  engraver, 
was  born  at  Altdorf,  in  Bavaria,  1488,  and  died  at 
Ratisbon,  1538.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a  pupil 
of  Albert  Diirer ;  but  this  is  not  certain.  He  belongs, 
however,  to  that  religious  school  of  artists  of  which 
Diirer  was  the  head.  His  pictures  are  also  animated 
by  a  glowing  and  romantic  spirit  of  poetry,  which  is 
delightful  to  any  one  who  appreciates  the  conditions 
of  old  German  life.  The  landscape  is  delineated 
with  the  same  truth  and  tenderness  as  the  figures; 
a  rich  manifold  life  pervades  the  scenes,  and 
everything  is  handled  with  the  utmost  delicacy. 
His  master-piece,  now  in  Munich,  is  'The  Victory 
of  Alexander  over  Darius,'  a  painting  which,  it  is 
said,  affects  the  beholder  like  a  heroic  poem.  As  an 
engraver,  Altdorfer  is  reckoned  among  the  lesser  mas- 
ters. 

A'LTEN,  Karl  August,  Count  of,  one  of  the 
ehief  Hanoverian  generals  in  the  French  and 
German  war,  was  born  October  20,  17(J4;  entered 
the  army  in  17S1,  and  gained  distinction  at  the  siege 
of  Yalencienncs,  and  in  the  decisive  engagement  at 


ALTENBURG— ALTO. 


Iloiulscliooteii.  lie  was  fir.-t  lieutenatit  in  1800,  but 
on  account  of  the  uiiliap])y  eapitiihition  at  Lauen- 
burp,  found  it  advisable  to  leave  Hanover,  and  came 
to  Enf:;;Ian(l.  Here  lie  was  made  commander  of  the 
first  liglit  battalion  in  the  Gernum  Legion  (1803). 
In  1803  he  assisted,  as  general  of  brigade,  in 
covering  the  retreat  of  General  Moore  to  Corunna, 
and  in  the  following  year  commanded  the  troops 
stationed  in  Sussex.  Li  1811,  he  took  part,  under 
General  Beresford,  in  the  siege  of  Bad;ijoz  and  the 
battle  of  Albuera,  and  in  the  following  year  was 
promoted  by  the  Duke  of  Wellington.  In  almost 
all  the  engagements  of  the  Spanish  war  of  libera- 
tion— at  Salamanca,  Vittoria,  the  Pyrenees,  NivcUe, 
Nive,  Orthez,  Toulouse,  &c.,  A.  took  a  piominont 
part,  and  had  the  connnand  of  a  corps  of  ;;o,0()0 
men,  stationed  near  Madrid,  in  1812.  lie  fought 
with  great  distinction  at  Quartre-Bras  and  at  Water- 
loo, where  he  was  severely  wounded  ;  his  eftorts 
greatly  contributed  to  the  decision  of  the  battle. 
After  his  return  to  Hanover,  he  was  nuide  min- 
ister of  war,  and  in  this  capacity  died,  April  20, 
1840. 

A'LTENBURG,  the  capital  of  the  duchy  of 
Saxc-Altenburg,  is  situated  in  a  fertile  country 
about  24  miles  from  Leipsic,  and  contains  H),nuO 
inhabitants.  Standing  on  an  almost  perpendicular 
rock  of  porphyry,  the  old  castle  of  A.  forms  a 
striking  feature  in  the  landscape.  Its  foundations 
are  probably  as  old  as  the  11th  c.  It  is  remarkable 
as  the  scene  of  the  historical  incident  known  as  the 
Prinzenraub  (q.  v.).  Brushes,  gloves,  and  cigars  are 
among  the  chief  niunnfactures  carried  on  in  A.,  and 
the  book-trade  is  considerable.  A  railway  connects 
it  with  Leipsic  and  Bavaria. 

A'LTEXGAARD,  or  ALTEX,  a  seaport  town  iu 
the  province  of  Finmarken,  Norway,  situated  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Alten,  in  lat.  69°  55'  N.,  and 
long.  2.3°  4'  E.  Beyond  this  point,  no  cultivation  is 
attempted  ;  and  even  here,  potatoes  and  barley  alone 
are  produced.  A.  has  a  harbour  and  considerable 
trade.  It  is  visited  principally  by  Russian  and 
Norwegian  vessels. 

ALTEX-OTTING,  or  ALTOTTING,  a  place  of 
pilgrimage  not  iar  from  the  Inn,  is  situated  in  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  and  fertile  plains  of  Upper 
Bavaria.  It  is  frequented  by  thousands  of  Roman 
Catholics  from  Austria,  Bavaria,  and  Swabia,  on 
account  of  a  famous  image  of  the  Virgin  Mary 
(the  '  Black  Virgin')  which  it  possesses,  and  may 
be  called  the  Lwetto  of  Germany.  The  Redemp- 
torist  fathers,  who  were  invited  hither  in  1838, 
have  built  an  educational  institution,  which  may 
be  held  as  a  virtual  revival  of  the  old  Jesuit  col- 
lege erected  in  1773.  A.  was  originally  a  villa  rcgia. 
Several  German  emperors,  such  as  Henry  III.  and 
Henry  IV.,  held  their  court  here.  The  emperor 
Leopold  I.,  and  other  princes  of  the  House  of 
Hapsburg,  made  pilgrimages  to  it.  It  also  con- 
tains the  tomb  of  Count  Tilly,  who  was  buried 
here,  at  his  own  request.  This  tomb  is  called  Tilly's 
Chapel,  and  is  held  in  such  high  veneration,  that 
Maximilian  I.,  and  numerous  other  princes  and 
princesses  of  the  Bavarian  family,  have  had  their 
hearts  interred  in  it. 

A'LTERATIVES,  in  Medicine,  a  term  applied  to 
remedies  that  have  the  power  of  changing  the  state 
of  the  living  solids  of  the  body,  and  consequently 
altering  the  functions  which  they  perform.^  It  is 
generally  applied,  however,  to  medicines  which  are 
irritant  in  full  doses,  but  which  almo.st  imperceptibly 
alter  disordered  actions  or  secretions  ;  acting  speci- 
ally on  certain  glands,  or  upon  absorption  in  general, 
when  they  are  given  in  comparatively  small  doses, 
the  treatment  being  continticd  for  a  considerable 
12 


length  of  time.  For  example,  mercury  is  an  irritant 
in  some  of  its  preparations;  l)ut  when  small  doses  of 
blue  pill,  Plumnu'r's  pill,  or  corrosive  sublimate  are 
given  at  intervals  for  some  length  of  time,  they  'pro- 
duce alteration  in  disordered  actions,  so  as  to  cause  an 
improvement  in  the  nutrient  and  digestive  functions, 
the  disappearance  of  eruptions,  and  the  removal  of 
thickening  of  the  skin  or  of  other  tissues'  (Royle); 
and  they  will  etlect  these  changes  without  otherwise 
affecting  the  constitution  or  inducing  salivation.  So 
iodine,  also  an  irritant  in  concentrated  doses,  and 
poisonous  in  some  form.s,  is  most  useful,  when  given 
in  small  dose.«,  in  effecting  the  removal  of  enlarged 
glandular  organs,  and  need  not  cause  iodism,  if 
carefully  given. 

The  preparations  of  gold  are  likewise  stimulants 
of  the  absorbents,  and  are  used  in  cases  of  scrofula. 
Some  preparations  of  arsenic  are  powerful  A.  in  cases 
of  skin-disease.  So  also  are  the  decoctions  of  the 
ivoods  and  their  substitutes,  such  as  decoction  of 
sarsaparilla,  and  the  like,  which,  when  taken  iu  large 
quantities  of  water,  must  0[)erate  partly  by  their 
diluting  and  solvent  properties,  and  partly  by  the 
stimulant  effect  of  'he  active  principles  of  the 
several  ingredients  in  these  diet-diinks,  conveyed 
into  the  capillaries. 

It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  the  term  A.  rather 
implies  the  method  in  which  some  drugs  are  admin- 
istered, than  any  special  alterative  action  possessed 
by  them.  The  most  useful,  it  may  be  added,  are 
also  the  most  dangerous  in  unskilled  hands. 
ALTERNATE,  in  Botany.  See  Leavks. 
ALTILE'A.  See  Marsh  Mallows  and  IIollt- 
nocK. 

A'LTITUDE,  in  Astronomy  is  the  height  of  a 
heavenly  body  above  the  horizon.  It  is  measured, 
not  by  a  linear  distance,  but  by  the  angle  which  aline 
drawn  from  the  eye  to  the  heavenly  body  makes 
with  the  horizontal  line,  or  by  the  arc  of  a  vertical 
circle  intercepted  between  the  body  and  the  horizon. 
Altitudes  are  taken  in  observatories  by  means  of  a 
telescope  attached  to  a  graduated  circle  (see  Circlk), 
which  is  fixed  vertically.  The  telescope  being  di- 
rected towards  the  body  to  be  observed,  the  angle 
which  it  makes  with  the  horizon  is  read  off  the 
graduated  circle.  The  A.  thus  observed  must  re- 
ceive various  corrections — the  chief  being  for  par- 
allax (q.  v.)  and  refraction  (q.  v.) — in  order  to  get 
the  true  A.  At  sea,  the  A.  is  taken  by  means  of  a 
sextant  (q.  v.),  and  then  it  has  further  to  be  cor- 
rected for  the  dip  of  the  visible  horizon  below  the 
true  horizon  (.see  Horizon).  The  correct  determina- 
tion of  altitudes  is  of  great  importance  in  most  of 
the  problems  of  astronomy  and  navigation.  See 
Longitude.— An  Altitude  and  Azimuth  In.stuumk.nt 
consists  essentially  of  a  vertical  circle  with  its  tele- 
scope so  arranged"  as  to  be  capable  of  being  turned 
round  horizontally  to  any  point  of  the  compass.  It 
thus  differs  from  aTransit  Circle  ((i-  v.),  which  is  fixed 
in  the  meridian.     See  Azimuth. 

ALTO  {contralto  deriso)  is  the  deepest  or  lowest 
species  of  musical  voice  in  boys,  in  eunuchs,  and 
best  of  all  in  females,  where  its  beauty  of  tone 
gives  it  the  preference.  The  quality  of  the  human 
voice  has  been  too  much  neglected  by  modern  com- 
posers and  singing-masters.  The  powers  of  expres- 
sion which  it  possesses  are  quite  peculiar,  and 
cannot  be  supplied  by  any  other  kind  of  voice.  Its 
tone-character  (timbre)  is  serious,  spiritual,  tender, 
and  romantic.  The  low  A.  in  particular  has  a  fulness 
of  tone  combined  with  power  in  the  lower  range.  No 
other  voice  expres-sesso  decidedly  dignity,  greatness, 
and  religious  resignation :  it  can  also  represent 
youthful  manly  power  as  well  as  romantic  heroism. 
The    high   A.    has    generally    the    same    range    of 

177 


ALTON— ALTO-RELIEVO. 


compass  as  the  mezzo  soprano,  but  differs  from  it  in 
the  position  of  the  cantaitile  and  in  its  character  of 
tone.  A.  voic(^s  generally  consist  of  two  registers, 
the  lowest  beginning  at  F  or  G  beloiv  middle  C,  and 
reaching  as  high  as  the  A  or  B  above  the  octave  C. 
The  higher  notes  np  to  the  next  F  or  G  partake  more 
of  the  character  of  the  soprano.     See  Voick. 

ALTON  Jos.  WiLHELM  Eduard  d\  Professor  of 
Archaeology  and  the  History  of  Art  at  Bonn,  was 
born,  1772,  at  Aquileia,  and  died  in  1840.  In  early 
years,  his  attention  was  directed  to  natural  history, 
especially  that  of  the  horse,  on  which  he  published 
a  splendid  illustrated  work  [Naturgcxchiclde  dea 
Fferdes,  Bonn,  1810),  which  was  completed  in 
1817.  In  concert  with  his  friend  Pander,  he  pro- 
jected an  extensive  work  on  comparative  osteology, 
of  which  the  first  division  was  published  at  Bonn 
1821 — 1828.  His  etchings  of  animals,  &c.  are 
esteemed  as  valuable.  Albert,  Prince  Consort  of 
Queen  Victoria,  was  a  pupil  of  A.  in  the  History  of 
Art. 

A'LTONA,  the  largest  and  richest  city  of  Schles- 
mg-IIolstein  (Prussia),  is  situateil  on  the  p]lbe, 
so  near  Hamburg  that  the  two  cities  are  only  di- 
vided by  the  state  boundaries.  It  contains  40,000 
inhabitants.  A.  lies  higher  than  Hamburg,  and  is 
much  healthier ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  destitute 
of  the  numerous  canals  so  necessary  for  the  transport 
of  goods,  with  which  Hamburg  is  so  abundantly  pro- 
vided. In  a  commercial  point  of  view,  it  forms  one 
city  with  Hamburg.  Its  trade  extends  to  England, 
France,  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  the  West 
Indies.  There  are  many  important  industrial  estab- 
lishments in  A. ;  among  others,  the  manufacture  of 
tobacco  is  largely  carried  on,  one  factory  working  up 
000,000  lbs.  yearly.  A.  is  a  free  port,  and  enjoys 
many  privileges  in  respect  of  trade,  and  also  of  civil 
freedom ;  all  sects  arc  allowed  the  free  exercise  of 
their  religion.  The  city  is  coimected  by  a  railway 
with  Kiel,  Rendsburg,  and  Gliiekstadt.  The  obser- 
vatory is  a  private  institution,  which  has  gained  a 
great  reputation  under  the  direction  of  Schumacher, 
who  died  in  1851.  The  rise  of  A.  to  its  present 
importance  has  been  recent  and  rapid,  for  a  conti- 
nental town. 

A'LTORF,  the  chief  town  in  the  Swiss  canton 
Uri,  is  situated  in  a  sheltered  spot  at  the  base  of  the 
Grunbcrg,  about  two  miles  from  the  head  of  the 
Lake  of  the  Four  Cantons,  and  contains  about  2000 
inhabitants.  It  is  a  well-built  town,  having  several 
open  places,  a  church,  a  nunnery,  and  the  oldest 
Capuchin  monastery  in  Switzerland.  The  little 
tower  on  which  the  exploits  of  William  Tell  are 
painted  in  rude  frescoes,  is  known  to  be  older  than 
the  legend  of  Tell.  The  lime-tree  under  which  the 
scene  of  the  shooting  of  the  apple  was  laid,  was 
removed  in  1G57,  and  a  stone-fountain  erected  in  its 
stead.  Situated  on  the  St.  Gothard  road,  A.  has 
some  transit  trade,  but  little  or  no  industry  of  its 
own. 

A'LTO-RTLTE'VO  (Ital.),  high-relief,  the  term 
used  in  sculpture  to  designate  that  mode  of  repre- 
senting objects  by  which  they  are  made  to  project 
strongly  and  boldly  from  the  background,  without 
being  entirely  detached.  In  Alto-Rilievo,  some  por- 
tions of  the  figures  usually  stand  quite  free,  and  in 
this  respect  it  differs  not  only  from  baxso-rilievo,  or 
low-relief,  but  from  the  intermediate  kind  of  relief 
known  as  inezzo-rilievo,  in  which  the  figures  are  fully 
rounded,  but  where  there  are  no  detached  portions. 
In  order  to  be  in  high-relief,  objects  ought  actually 
to  project  somewhat  more  than  half  their  thickness, 
no  conventional  means  being  employed  in  the  style 
to  give  them  apparent  prominence.  In  bass-relief, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  figures  are  usually  flattened :  ' 
178 


but  means  arc  adopted  to  prevent  the  projection 
from  ai)pearing  to  the  eye  to  be  less  than  half; 
because  if  an  object  projects  less  than  half,  or,  to 
state  it  otlierwise,  be  more  than  half  buried  in  the 
background,  it  is  obvious  that  its  true  outline  or 
profile  cannot  be  represented.  This  rule,  that  in  all 
reliefs  there  shall  be  either  a  real  or  an  apparent 
projection  of  at  least  half  the  thickness  of  round 
objects,  was  strictly  observed  in  the  best  period  of 
Greek  art,  but  it  has  been  often  neglected  in  the 
execution  of  reliefs  in  later  times,  and  hence  attempts 
have  been  n>ade  at  foreshortening  and  perspective, 
which  have  necessarily  resulted  in  partial  failure. 

Relief  forms  a  kind  of  intermediate  stage  between 
plastic  art  and  painting,  the  mode  of  representation 
being  borrowed  from  the  former,  whilst  the  mode  of 
arrangement,  to  a  certain  extent,  is  in  accordance 
with  the  latter.  The  plastic  principle  occupies  the 
most  prominent  place  in  the  simple  and  tranquil 
reliefs  of  the  earlier  art  of  Greece,  whereas  the 
pictorial  principle  preponderates  in  the  crowded  and 
often  excited  scenes  represented  in  the  later  Roman 
reliefs.  In  such  reliefs  as  have  been  produced  in 
modern  times,  the  one  element  or  the  other  has 
prevailed,  according  as  the  one  model  or  the  other 
lias  been  followed.  Tiie  works  which  have  been 
recovered  from  the  ruins  of  Persepolis,  Nineveh, 
and  Babylon,  still  attest  the  extensive  employment 
of  relief  in  Persian  and  Assyrian  art.  Of  the  latter, 
which  usually  belongs  to  the  class  of  mezzo-rilievo, 
some  of  the  finest  specimens  in  existence  arc  now  to 


Winged  Bull. 

be  seen  in  the  British  Museum.  Though  never 
exhibiting  the  life  and  freedom  of  classical  or  modern 
European  art,  the  elaborately  executed  and  maji-stic 
reliefs  of  these  semi-oriental  nations  are  greatly 
in  advance  not  only  of  the  whimsical  distortions 
of  nature  exhibited  by  the  Hindus,  but  of  the 
inanimate  and  motionless  representations  of  the 
Egyptians. 

The  earliest  Greek  reliefs  possessed  a  hard  and 
severe  char;i^ter,  somewhat  approaching  to  the  art 
of  those  earlier  nations  of  which  we  have  ju.st 
spoken,  and  were  very  slightly  raised.  Of  this  we 
have  an  example  in  the  two  lions  over  the  gate 
at  Mycenas — probably  the  oldest  Greek  relief  in 
existence.  It  was  Phidias  who  gave  to  relief  its  true 
character,  and  finally  brought  it  to  a  degree  of  perfec- 
tion which  it  has  never  since  attained.  The  alti- 
rilievi  which  adorned  the  metopes  of  the  Parthenon 
at  Athens,  and  the  Temple  of  Apollo  at  Phigaha  in 
Arcadia,  now  pres-erved  in  the  British  Museum,  are 
still  not  only  unsurpassed,  but  tmapproached  as 
examples  of  the  style.  In  none  of  those  do  we  see 
any  attempt  at  perspective,  and  even  foreshortening 
for  the  most  part  is  avoided. 

Under    the    Romans,    sculpture    was    employed 


ALTO-RELIEVO— ALUM. 


to  an  enormous  extent  in  the  decoration  of 
tombs  and  sarcophagi,  whole  streets  of  such  monu- 
ments being  constructed,  as,  for  example,  on  tlie 
Appian  Way.  The  result  of  the  demand  thus  created 
was,  that  sculpture  became  a  manufacture  rather 
than  an  art,  and  attempts  were  made  to  supply  l)y 
technicil  execution  and  nieie  mass  what  had  been 
lost  in  thought  and  spirit.  Relief  was  now  applied, 
often  by  Greek  artists  resident  in  Italy,  to  purposes 


Panathenaic  Frieze. — From  the  Parthenon. 

for  which  the  Greeks,  in  their  own  land  and  in  their 
better  times,  had  rightly  conceived  it  to  be  unsuited. 
Behind  figures  standing  nearly  free,  a  second  rank 
was  introduced,  and  those  numerous  examples  of  a 
false  style,  still  to  be  found  in  every  gallery  in 
Europe,  were  produced,  the  imitation  of  which  after- 
wards led  to  such  a  lavish  expenditure  of  artistic 
talent  in  Italy.  The  attempt  which  the  Romans  had 
made  to  invade  the  province  of  painting,  by  means 
of  sculpture,  was  carried  still  further  by  the  Floren- 
tine artists  of  the  l(5th  and  17th  c.  Not  only  were 
several  rows  of  figures  represented  in  perspective, 
but  even  landscape  was  introduced  with  a  success 
which,  in  the  hands  of  such  artists  as  Ghiberti,  was 
positively  marvellous.  If  the  highest  perfection  in  the 
true  plastic  style  of  relief  was  attained  by  Phidias 
in  the  metopes  of  the  Parthenon  at  Athens,  a  corre- 
sponding merit  may  be  claimed  as  regards  the 
degenerate  pictorial  style  by  Ghiberti  in  the  cele- 
brated bronze  doors  of  the  Baptistery  of  San 
Giovanni  at  Florence.  Even  Canova's  reliefs  partook 
to  far  too  great  an  extent  of  the  character  of  paint- 
ings in  stone;  and  to  Flaxman,  and  above  all,  to 
Thorwaldsen,  must  be  assigned  the  merit  of  restoring 
this  style  of  art  to  its  genuine  and  original  prin- 
ciples. It  is  to  be  remembered,  in  studying  the 
reliefs  of  classical  times,  that  studiously  as  the 
Greeks  avoided  a  pictorial  conception  of  their  sub- 
ject, they  did  not  eschew  the  use  of  colour  where  it 
could  be  employed  to  heighten  the  eftect  of  their 
reliefs.  There  is  reason  to  believe  that  in  many 
excellent  examples  the  background  was  painted 
blue,  and  that  the  hems  of  the  garments  of  the 
figures,  and  the  like,  were  often  coloured  or  gilded. 

A'LUM,  a  whitish,  astringent,  saline  substance; 
properly  it  is  a  double  salt,  being  composed  of 
sulphate  of  potash  and  sulphate  of  alumina,  which, 
along  with  a  certain  proportion  of  water,  crystallise 
together  in  octahedrons  or  in  cubes.  Its  formula 
is  KOS03-f-Al3033S03-l-24HO.  A.  is  soluble  in 
eighteen  times  its  weight  of  cold  water,  and  in  its 
own  weight  of  hot  water.  The  solution  thus  obtained 
has  a  peculiar  astringent  taste,  and  is  strongly  acid 
to  coloured  test  papers.  When  heated,  the  crystals 
melt  in  their  water  of  crystallisation;  and  when  the 


water  is  completely  driven  off  by  heat,  there  is  left 
a  spongy  white  mass,  called  buint  A.  or  anhydrous 
A.  A.  is  much  used  as  a  mordant  in  dyeing.  This 
property  it  owes  to  the  alumina  in  it,  which  has  a 
strong  attraction  for  textile  tissues,  and  also  for 
colouring  matters;  the  alumina  thus  becomes  the 
means  of  fixing  the  colour  in  the  cloth.  The  manu- 
facture of  the  colours  or  paints  called  lakes  depends 
on  this  property  of  alumina  to  attach  to  itself  certain 
colouring  matters.  Thus,  if  a  solution  of  A.  is 
coloured  with  cochineal  or  madder,  and  ammonia  or 
carbonate  of  soda  is  added,  the  alumina  of  the  A.  is 
precipitated  with  the  colour  attached  to  it,  and  the 
li(iuid  is  left  colourless.  Alumina,  the  basis  of  pure 
clay — which  is  a  silicate  of  alumina — derives  its 
name  from  being  fir?!  extracted  from  A.  A.  is  also 
used  in  the  preparation  of  leather  from  skins,  and, 
in  medicine,  as  a  powerful  astringent  for  arresting 
bleeding  and  mucous  discharges.  Its  use  in  the 
making  of  bread,  to  give  a  white  appearance  and 
more  pleasing  con?istence  to  bread  made  from 
indifferent  flour,  is  highly  objectionable.  A.  rarely 
occurs  in  nature,  except  in  a  few  springs  and  in  some 
extinct  volcanoes,  where  it  appears  to  be  formed  from 
the  action  of  sulphurous  acid  vapours  upon  felspathic 
rocks.  In  this  country,  it  is  prepared  artificially  from 
A. -shale,  obtained  from  coal-mines  at  Hurlett  and 
Campsie,  near  Glasgow  ;  and  alum-slate,  which  occurs 
at  Whiiby,  in  Yorkshire,  and  there  forms  precipitous 
cliffs,  extending  about  thirty  miles  along  the  east 
coast  of  England.  The  alum-slate,  shale,  or  schist, 
consists  mainly  of  clay  (silicate  of  alumina),  iron 
pyrites  (bisnlphuret  of  iron),  and  coaly  or  bituininous 
matter.  When  the  shale  is  exposed  to  the  air — as  it 
is  in  the  old  coal-xcantes  or  mines  from  which  the 
coal  has  been  extracted — the  oxygen  of  the  air, 
assisted  by  moisture,  effects  a  decided  change  upon 
it.  The  original  hard  stony  substance  begins  to 
split  up  into  thin  leaves,  and  becomes  studded  over 
and  interspersed  with  crystals.  The  latter  are  the 
result  of  the  oxidation  of  the  sulphur  of  the  pyrites 
into  sulphuric  acid,  and  the  iron  into  oxide  of  iron, 
both  of  which  in  part  combine  to  form  sul[)hate  of 
iron,  whilst  the  excess  of  the  sulphuric  acid  unites 
with  the  alumina  of  the  clay,  and  produces  suliihate 
of  alumina.  When  the  alum-shale  thus  weathered 
is  digested  in  water,  there  dissolve  out,  the  sulpliatc 
of  alumina  (AlaOsBSOj)  and  sulphate  of  iron 
(FeOSOa);  this  solution  is  treated  with  chloride 
of  potassium  (KCl),  which  decomposes  the  sulphate 
of  iron,  forming  sulphate  of  potash  (KOSOa)  and 
chloride  of  iron  (FeCl).  When  this  liquid  is  eva- 
porated to  concentration,  and  allowed  to  cool, 
crystals  of  A.  separate,  consisting  of  sulphate  of 
alumina,  sulphate  of  potash  and  water,  thu.s, 
KOS03  +  Al2033^'03-t-'J4HO,  and  the  chloride  of 
iron  is  left  in  the  solution  or  mother-llqufir.  The 
crystals  of  A.  obtained  from  the  first  crystallisation 
are  not  free  from  iron,  and  hence  require  to 
be  redissolved  in  water,  reconcentrated,  and  re- 
crystalliscd.  This  oi)eration  is  generally  repeated 
a  third  time  before  the  A.  is  obtained  pure. — 
As  the  preliminary  weathering  of  the  shale  takes 
some  years  to  proceed,  a  more  expeditious  method 
is  now"  largely  resorted  to.  The  shale  is  broken  into 
fragments,  and  piled  up  over  brushwood  in  long 
ridges,  shaped  like  h  igh  potato-pits,  and  the  hrusli- 
wood  being  set  fire  to,  the  coaly  matter  of  the  shale 
begins  to  burn,  and  the  whole  ridge  undergoes  the 
process  of  roasting;  the  results  of  which  are  the 
same  an  that  of  the  weathering  operation — namely, 
the  oxidation  of  the  sulphnr  and  iron,  and  the  for- 
mation of  sulphate  of  alumina  and  sulphate  of  iron. 
This  material  is  afterwards  worked  up  as  previo'isly 
described.  The  roasting  operation  is  so  much  more 
expeditious  than  the  weathering  process,  that  months 

i:<j 


ALUM  BAGII— ALUMINA. 


suffice  for  yeai's.  A  new  and  valuable  soui'ce  of  A.  is 
the  cryolite  of  Greenland,  'llie  Pennsylvania  Salt 
Company,  which  introduced  thi.s  niincrnl  to  our  notice, 
manufactui-es  at  Pittsburfjj,  I'a.,  a  sulphate  of  alumina 
containing  2.82  parts  of  suljihuric  acid  to  1  part  of 
alumina.  Tliis  is  exceedingly  well  adapted  to  the 
wants  of  paper-makers,  calico-printers  and  others  re- 
quiring an  A.  entirely  free  from  iron.  ITie  potash  in 
A.  can  be  rej^laced  partly  or  altogether  by  soda  or  am- 
monia;  the  alumina  by  oxide  of  chromium, or  scsqui- 
axide  of  manganese  ;  or  the  sulphuric  acid  by  chromic 
acid,  or  proto.vide  of  iron,  without  altering  the  form  of 
the  crystals.  Tliere  arc  thus  soda,  ammonia,  chrome, 
&c.,  alums,  forming  a  genus  of  salts  of  which  common 
A.  is  only  one  of  the  species.  The  mor«  important 
members  of  the  class,  expressed  in  symbols,  are : 

K0S03  +  AUO3r,SO3  + 24110,  potash  A. 
NaOS03-l-Al503SS03  + 124110,  soda  A. 
.NHiOSOj  +  AUOsi^Oa  +  'JlIlO,  ammonia  A. 
KOS03  +  Cr.,03r',S03-i-24HO,  chromic  potash  A. 
FeOS03  +  Alj03aS03  + 24110,  ferrous  A. 

ALUM  BATiII,  a  fort  rendered  famoui?,  during 
the  battles  and  sieges  arising  out  of  the  Indian 
mutiny  in  18.'J7,  by  the  indomitable  resolution  of  its 
defenders.  The  A.  B.  ('Garden  of  the  Lady  Alum, 
or  Beauty  of  the  Soul  'j  was  a  domain  aljout  four 
miles  from  tlie  city  of  Lncknow,  near  the  Cawnpore 
road.  It  comprised  several  buildings,  including  a 
palace,  a  mosque,  and  an  enianbarra  or  private  temple, 
bounded  by  a  beautiful  gurdcn,  which  wa.s  itself  in 
the  middle  of  a  park,  and  the  park  enclosed  l)y  a 
wall  with  corner  towers.  It  had  belonged  to  some 
members  of  the  royal  family  of  Oiide;  but  when  the 
wars  of  the  mutiny  had  been  fairly  begun,  the  A.  B. 
was  converted  by  the  rebels  inio  a  fort.  It  was 
large  enougli  to  contain  a  powerful  military  force, 
and  might  have  become  a  formidable  stronghold,  if 
well  defended ;  but  it  proved  ])owerIess  against  a 
small  British  force.  In  September,  Outram,  Ilave- 
loek,  and  Neill  crossed  the  Ganges  from  Cawnpore, 
marched  rapidly  towards  Luckiiow,  and  captured 
the  A.  B.  on  the  way.  About  IJuO  soldiers  were  left 
at  the  place,  with  four  guns,  a  number  of  sick, 
wo\uided,  and  4000  native  camp-followers,  under 
Colonel  M'Intyrc;  while  the  three  generals  pro- 
ceeded with  the  main  body  of  their  force  to 
Lucknow.  It  was  intentlfd  that  M'Intyre  should 
soon  be  relieved  or  reinforced  ;  but  Havelock  and 
Outram,  shut  up  for  two  months  within  the 
Residency  at  Lucknow,  could  scarcely  send  even 
a  small  note  in  a  quill  to  the  A.  B.  Not  until 
the  close  of  November  did  the  British,  under  Sir 
Colin  Campbell,  relieve  both  Lucknow  and  the 
A.  B.  He  brought  away  all  the  garrison  from  the 
former  place,  but  left  Sir  James  Outram,  with  3500 
men,  to  hold  the  A.  B.  It  was  at  that  time  the 
only  spot  in  the  whole  province  of  Oude  in  the 
hands  of  the  British  ;  and  during  the  whole  winter, 
Sir  James  had  to  defend  it  against  the  enemy.  On 
the  12th  of  January  18.58,  he  was  attacked  by  an 
armed  rabble  of  sepoys  and  other  malcontents, 
amounting  to  30,000  men.  These,  however,  he 
completely  defeated.  They  attacked  him  again  with 
20,000  men  on  the  21st  of  February,  at  a  time  when 
his  small  force  was  weakened  by  the  absence  of  a 
detachment  employed  in  escorting  a  convoy  of  pro- 
visions and  stores  from  Caw  npore  ;  he,  however,  met 
them  with  the  same  heroic  resolution,  and  eflFectuahy 
repulsed  them.  In  the  next  following  month,  Sir 
Colin  Campbell  re-conquered  Lucknow ;  and  the 
garrison  at  the  A.  B.  was  relieved  from  its  perilous 
isolation.  Although  only  a  domain  converted  tem- 
porarily into  a  fort,  the  A.  B.  must  ever  occupy  a 
memorable  place  in  military  history. 

ALUM  ROOT.  This  "name  is  given  in  the 
180 


United  States  to  two  plants,  natives  of  that  country, 
very  difl'erent  from  one  another,  but  agreeing  in  the 
remarkable  astringency  of  their  roots,  which  are 
medicinally  used.  One  of  these  plants  is  Geranium 
iiiacaliitum  (see  Gkranium),  a  plant  of  general  habit 
and  appearance  very  nuich  resembling  .^ome  of  the 
species  of  geranium  which  are  conmion  weeds  in 
Britain.  The  root  contains  more  tannin  than  kino 
((].  v.)  does.  The  tincture  is  of  use  in  sore  throat  and 
ulcerations  of  the  mouth,  and  is  also  administered 
in  various  diseases. — The  property  of  astringency 
belongs,  in  an-  inferior  degree,  to  some  other  specie.'^ 
of  (reraiiiui/i,  and  of  the  kindred  genera,  Eroclium  and 
Pelargonium. — The  other  American  plant  to  which 
the  name  A.  R.  is  given  is  Hcmhera  Americana,  a 
plant  of  the  natural  order  Saxifrar/ece  (q.  v.),  an  order 
in  which  also  astringency  is  a  prevalent  property. 
The  genus  Ilcuchera  has  the  calyx  5-cleft,  tiie  petals 
undivided,  five  stamens,  and  the  styles  remarkably 
long.  //.  Americana  is  everywhere  covered  with  a 
clammy  down;  the  leaves  are  ioundi>h,  lol)ed,  and 
toothed  ;  the  peduncles,  dichotomous  and  straggling. 
Tile  root  is  a  poNverful  styptic,  and  is  used  to  form 
a  wash  for  wounds  and  obstinate  ulcers. 

ALU'.MIXA,  the  most  abundnnt  of  the  earths 
(q.  v.),  is  the  oxide  of  the  metal  Aluminium  (q.  v.), 
the  formula  being  AI2O3.  It  occurs  in  nature 
abundantly  in  comliination  with  silica,  associated 
with  other  bases.  The  most  familiar  of  its  native 
compounds  is  felspar,  a  silicate  of  A.  and 
potass  (Alo03,3Si03  4-KO,.Si03).  This  is  one  of 
the  constituents  of  granite,  and  of  several  other 
igneous  rocks.  Certain  varieties  of  these,  by  expo- 
sure to  the  atmos[)here,  become  comjjletely  disinte- 
grated, passing  from  the  state  of  hard,  solid  rock, 
such  as  we  are  accustomed  to  see  in  building-granite, 
into  soft,  crumbling,  tarthy  masses.  It  is  the  felspar 
which  nndeigocs  the  change ;  and  it  appears  to  be 
owing  to  the  action  of  rain-water  charged  with  car- 
bonic acid,  which  dissolves  the  potass  and  some  of 
the  silica  of  the  felspar,  leaving  the  excess  of  silica 
and  the  A.  still  united.  It  is  not  known,  howe\er, 
why  certain  specimens  of  granite  are  rapidly  cor- 
roded and  crumbled  down,  whilst  others  have 
resisted  for  ages  tiie  same  causes  of  decay.  By 
such  a  process  of  disintegration  as  we  have  described, 
the  clays  of  our  arable  soils  are  produced.  Clay 
consists  of  silica  and  A.  in  a  state  of  chemical 
combination.  It  never  is  pure  A.,  but  the  quan- 
tity of  silica  united  to  the  latter  is  variable. 
When  it  is  pure,  clay  is  quite  white,  as  we  see  in 
the  porcelain  clay  of  Devonshire  and  Cornwall,  which 
is  derived  from  colourless  felspar.  More  iVequently, 
clay  is  red,  owing  to  the  presence  of  oxide  of  iron; 
or  black,  from  the  diffusion  through  it  of  vegetable 
matter. 

From  alum,  A.  is  prepared  by  adding  to  a 
solution  of  the  former,  water  of  ammonia,  as  long 
as  it  occasioiiS  a  precipitate.  The  A.  appears  as  a 
voluminous,  white,  gelatinous  substance,  consisting  of 
the  oxide  of  the  metal  combined  with  water.  AVhen 
A.  is  precipitated  from  a  solution  containing  colour- 
ing matter,  such  as  logwood,  ic,  it  carries  down  the 
colour  chemically  united  to  the  flocculent  precipi- 
tate ;  in  this  way  are  formed  the  coloured  earths, 
called  lakes  (q  v.).  A.  in  the  state  of  precipitate, 
after  being  gently  dried,  is  readily  soluble  in 
acids  and  in  alkalies;  but  if  heated  to  whiteness, 
it  loses  the  associated  water,  contracts  greatly  in 
bulk,  and  forms  a  white,  soft  powder,  not  at  all 
gritty,  and  with  difficulty  soluble  in  alkalies  and 
acids.  A.,  as  generally  prepared,  whether  hydratcd 
or  anhydrous,  is  insoluble  in  water,  pos.^esses  no 
taste,  and  does  not  alter  colouring  matters ;  but 
recently  Mr.  Walter  Crum  has  obtained  A.  in  an 
allotropic   form,   in   which   it   is   soluble   ia   water. 


ALUMINIUM— ALURED. 


It  is  quite  different  therefore,  in  properties  from 
the  alkiiline  eaitiis,  and  is  a  niucli  weaker  base. 
In  the  anhydrous  state  it  alisorbs  water  with  great 
readiness  without  combining  with  it,  so  that  it 
adheres  to  the  tongue,  and  is  felt  to  paroh  it.  Clay 
retains  this  property  ;  and  the  ends  of  tobaeco-pipes 
are  glazed,  to  ])revent  adhesion  to  the  lips  or  tongue. 
A.  is  not  fusible  by  a  forge  or  hirnace  heat,  but  it 
melts  before  the  oxyhydrogen  blow-pipe  into  a  clear 
globule,  possessing  great  hardness.  It  occurs  in 
nature  in  a  similar  state.  The  more  coarsely  crys- 
tallised specimens  form  the  emery  whieh  is  used  lor 
polishing;  the  transparent  crystals,  when  of  a  blue 
colour,  owing  to  a  trace  of  metallic  oxide,  constitute 
the  precious  gem  the  sapphiie,  and,  when  red,  the 
ruby.  A.,  in  common  with  other  sesquioxides,  is  a 
feeble  base.  The  salts  it  forms  with  the  acids  have 
almost  all  a  sour  taste,  and  an  acid  action  on  colour- 
ing matter. 

ALUMI  NIUM  is  one  of  the  metals  present  in  clay, 
granite,  and  other  roeUy  and  earthy  substances.  It 
was  discovered  by  Wohler  in  1828,  and  was  re- 
examined by  him  in  184ti,  when  he  obtained  the 
metal  in  minute  globules  or  beads,  by  healing  a  mix- 
ture of  chloride  of  A.  and  sodium.  Within  the 
last  five  years,  however,  the  subject  has  been  re-in- 
vestigated by  Deville  and  others,  and  it  appears 
probable  that  the  metal  A.,  recently  so  rare  and 
costly,  will  soon  rank  among  the  more  common 
metals  both  in  use  and  price.  The  original  experi- 
ments of  Deville  were  made  at  the  cost  of  Napoleon 
III.,  who  subscribed  £1510,  and  was  rewarded  by 
the  presentation  of  two  bars  of  the  metal.  The  pro- 
cess followed  by  Deville  was  the  same  as  that  sug- 
gested by  \V older,  and  appears  to  have  been  so  suc- 
cessful, that  the  metal  could,  in  1857,  be  purchased 
in  Paris  at  the  price  of  7s.  Cd.  an  ounce.  In  1855, 
Rose  announced  to  the  scientific  world  that  A. 
could  be  more  readily  and  cheaply  prepared  from  a 
mineral  called  cryolite,  found  in  Greenland  in  large 
quantity,  and  cargoes  of  which  are  regularly  im- 
ported into  Germany,  and  also  into  Philadelphia,  by 
the  Pennsylvania  Salt  Company.  This  mineral  is  a 
double  fluoride  of  A.  and  sodium,  is  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  caustic  soda  ("  Saponifier")  and  the 
salts  of  alumina,  and  only  i-equires  to  be  mixed 
•with  an  excess  of  sodium  and  heated,  when  the  metal 
A.  at  once  separates.  The  latter  process  for  the  pre- 
paration of  the  new  metal  is  about  to  be  carried  out 
on  the  large  scale  at  works  which  are  now  in  ])rogress  of 
erection  at  Battei'sca,  London  ;  and  it  is  ex];ected  that 
the  price  will  not  exceed  3s.  9d.  per  ounce.  In  1862,  the 
price  of  A.  had  fallen  to  70  cents  per  ounce,  being 
gi-eatly  influenced  by  the  cheajicr  jiroductiou  of  sodium. 

The  properties  of  A.  are,  that  it  is  a  white  metal, 
somewhat  resembling  silver,  but  possessing  a  bluish 
hue,  which  reminds  one  of  zinc.  It  is  very  malleable 
and  ductile,  and  in  tenacity  it  approaches  iron. 
When  heated  in  a  furnace,  it  fuses,  and  can  then  be 
cast  in  moulds  into  ingots.  Exposed  to  dry  or  moist 
air,  it  is  unalterable,  and  does  not  oxidise  so  much 
as  lead  and  zinc  do.  Cold  water  has  certainly  no 
action  upon  it,  and  in  the  majority  of  experiments, 
hot  water  has  not  sensil)ly  affected  it.  Sulphuretted 
hydrogen,  the  gas  wiiicli  so  readily  tarnishes  the 
silver  in  households,  forming  a  black  film  on  the 
surface,  does  not  act  on  A.  When  fused  and  cast 
into  moulds,  it  is  a  soft  metal  like  pure  silver,  and 
has  a  density  of  2.56  ;  but  when  hanmiered  or  rolled, 
it  becomes  as  hard  as  iro!i,  and  its  density  increases 
to  2.67.  It  is  therefore  a  very  light  metal,  being 
lighter  than  glass,  and  only  one-fourth  as  heavy  as 
silver.  This  property  has  been  taken  advantage  of 
by  Napoleon  III.,  who  some  time  ago  ordered  the 
eagles  surmounting  the  standards  of  the  French 
army  to  be  made  of  A.  instead  of  silver ;  and  thus 


the  same-sized  eagle  was  reduced  to  one-fourth  of  its 
former  weight.  A.  is  very  sonorous  ;  and  when  a 
rod  or  small  bell  made  of  it,  is  struck,  it  gives  out  a 
very  sweet  dear  ringing  sound ;  hence  it  has  been 
suggested  that  the  metal  would  be  useful  in  making 
bells,  gongs,  &c.  A.  forms,  with  copper,  several 
light,  very  hard,  while  alloys,  which  will  doubtless 
soon  find  their  way  iitto  our  manufactures  of  spoons, 
tea-kettles,  dish-covers,  &c.;  and  also  a  yellow  alloy, 
which,  though  much  lighter  than  gold,  is  very  simi- 
lar to  it  in  colour,  and  in  being  faintly  acted  on  by 
i;cids.  With  iron,  the  new  metal  yields  two  alloys, 
one  of  which,  though  containing  7.5  per  cent,  of 
iron,  yet  will  not  rust  when  exposed  to  a  damp  at- 
mosphere, and  may  therefore  be  useful  in  making 
steam-pipes,  &c.  Ornaments  for  the  mantel-piece, 
the  arm,  and  the  neck,  have  been  fashioned  of  A., 
but  hitherto  they  have  proved  unacceptal)le  to  the 
public  eye,  on  account  of  its  peculiar  blue  or  zinc 
hue ;  but  recently,  Dr  Stevenson  Macadam,  of  Edin- 
burgh, has  suggested  a  process  of  immersing  the  A. 
in  a  heated  solution  of  potash,  which  partially  eats 
into  the  surface  of  the  metal,  and  produces  a  fine 
white  frosted  appearance,  like  that  of  frosted  silver. 
A  number  of  medals  of  A.  have  been  frosted  in  this 
way,  and  after  a  year's  exposure,  have  not  lost  their 
original  beauty. 

ALU'NNO,  NiccoLO,  or  Niccolo  of  Euligno,  one 
of  the  old  Umbrian  painters,  whose  works  first 
indicated  the  qualities  discernible  in  that  school. 
His  earliest  known  piece  is  a  'Madonna  with  Angels 
and  Saints,'  1458  a.  r>.  There  is  also  a  gonfalon — a 
banner  used  in  religious  jirocessions — of  the  year 
1466,  in  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  Nuova  at 
Perugia,  which  A.  painted  for  the  brotherhood,  as 
the  inscription  testifies:  ^  Societas  Annnnciamenta 
fecit  Jieri  hoc  ojms.'  It  is  a  work  of  peculiar  beauty, 
displaying  deep  religious  feeling  and  exquisite  sweet- 
ness. A.  painted  several  of  these  gonfalons.  Some 
of  his  pictures  were  carried  off  by  the  French,  and 
sent  to  Paris ;  but  at  the  restoration  of  artistic 
spoil,  'The  Nativity,'  'The  Resurrection,' ilc,  were 
returned,  although  'The  Agony  in  the  Garden'  still 
remains  in  the  Louvre.  There  is  also  a  'Madonna 
between  Two  Angels,'  of  the  year  1499,  to  be  seen  in 
the  parish  church  of  the  village  of  Bastia.  Frag- 
ments, too,  are  still  in  existence  of  an  altar-piece 
for  the  cathedral  of  Assisi.  The  picture  repi-esented 
a  Pieta,  with  two  angels  bearing  torches,  and, 
according  to  Vasari,  weeping  so  naturally,  that  'no 
one,' he  thinks,  'could  have  painted  them  better.' 
A.  is  not  so  remarkable  for  the  originality  or  fertility 
of  his  invention,  as  for  his  selection  of  details,  warmth 
of  feeling,  purity,  and  devout  faith.  His  earnest- 
ness, however,  leads  him  at  times  into  exaggeration. 

ALURED,  or  ALRED,  of  Beverley,  in  Yorkshire, 
an  old  English  historian  of  the  time  of  Henry  I. 
Little  is  known  regarding  him  ;  but  he  is  .said  to 
have  been  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  to  have 
greatly  distinguished  himself  by  the  variety  of  his 
learning.  It  is  also  stated  that  he  had  enriched  his 
mind  by  travel,  both  in  France  and  Italy,  and  that 
at  Rome  he  became  domestic  chaplain  to  Cardinal 
Othoboni.  His  permanent  office,  however,  appears 
to  have  been  that  of  canon  and  treasurer  of  the 
church  of  St  John  in  his  native  town  of  Beveriey, 
where  he  wrote  his  Annah.  This  work  commences 
with  a  fabulous  period  of  British  history,  and  ex- 
tends down  to  the  twenty-ninth  year  of  Henry  I. 
It  was  published  at  Oxford  in  1716  by  Thoma.s 
Hearne,  and  is  a  remarkable  production,  for  various 
reasons.  Its  Latin  is  extremely  good,  and  even 
elegant,  while  its  accuracy,  especially  in  date.s,  is  un- 
usual for  the  age  in  which  its  author  lived.  He 
is  said,  though  it  is  very  doubtful,  to  have  written, 

181 


ALVARADO— AMADEUS. 


besides  the  Annah,  a  work  on  tlie  liberties  or  privi- 
leges of  tl.c  church  of  St  John  of  Beverley.  The 
work,  whoever  wrote  it,  is  a  tninslation  of  old 
Saxon  documents,  charters,  &c.,  relative  to  that  edi- 
fice, and  is  still  in  manuscript.    A.  died  in  1128  or  112'J. 

ALVARA'DO,  Pedro  db;,  a  famous  companion  of 
Cortes,  was  born  at  Badajoz  in  Spanish  Estrema- 
dnra,  towards  the  close  of  the  loth  c.  In  1517  or 
1518,  he  sailed  for  the  new  world,  and  in  the  same 
year  was  despatched  from  Cuba,  by  Velasquez,  the 
governor  of  that  island,  to  explore,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Grijalva,  the  shores  of  the  American  con- 
tinent. The  expedition  touched  at  Acozamil  (tlie 
Isle  of  Swallows),  and  at  various  places  in  Yucatan. 
Ascending  also  the  rivers  Tabasco  and  Banderos, 
Grijalva  was  so  enchanted  with  the  beauty  of  the 
country,  its  fine  cultivation,  and  the  numerous  traces 
of  advanced  civilisation,  that  he  named  it  Ncrn 
Spain.  Now,  for  the  first  time,  the  Sjianiards  heard 
of  the  riches  of  Montezuma,  and  of  his  vast  empire. 
A.  was  ordered  to  return  to  Cuba,  and  inform 
Velasquez  of  the  result  of  the  expedition.  The 
sight  of  the  gold  which  A.  brought  with  him,  stimu- 
lated the  covetousness  and  ambition  of  Velasquez,, 
w!io  became  greatly  incensed  against  Grijalva,  be- 
cause the  latter  had  not  penetrated  fartiier  into 
the  new  region,  and  on  his  return  to  Cuba  deprived 
him  of  his  command.  In  February  1519,  Cortes 
failed  from  Havanna,  solely  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
quest, with  eleven  ships,  containing  5(»8  soldiers,  and 
1()9  seamen.  A.  commanded  one  of  these  ships; 
but  a  storm  se])arating  tlie  fleet,  he  arriveil  at  the 
rendezvous,  lAa  of  Swallows,  three  days  earlier  than 
the  others.  Here  the  coiujuest  of  Mexico  was 
planned  by  these  intrepid  adventurers.  A.  figured 
in  every  conspicuous  incident ;  he  was,  indeed, 
hardly  less  distinguished  than  the  sagacious  Cortes 
himself,  who  knew  his  worth,  and  whom  he  served 
with  unfaltering  zeal  and  fidelity-.  'While  he  held 
the  city  of  Jlexico,  during  the  absence  of  his  chii'f, 
lie  massacred,  in  the  midst  of  a  fete,  a  great  number 
of  Aztec  nobles,  which  act  is  said  to  have  excited 
the  indignation  of  Cortes  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand, 
it  is  asserted  that  the  Mexicans  had  plotted  the  de- 
struction of  the  Spaniards,  and  that  A.  had  become 
cognizant  of  the  scheme.  In  the  famous  niglit- 
retreat  of  1st  July  152(\  A.  coninianded  the  rear- 
guard. After  the  conquest  of  Mexico,  he  was  sent, 
in  1523,  at  the  head  of  3(H)  foot,  100  horse,  with 
4  pieces  of  cannon,  and  a  troop  of  Mexican  auxilia- 
ries, to  subdue  the  tribes  on  the  coast  of  the  Pacific 
in  the  direction  of  Guatemala.  He  was  completely 
successful,  receiving  everywhere  the  submission  of 
the  native  chiefs,  while  the  people  brought  him 
presents,  in  token  of  the  sincerity  of  their  friend- 
ship. He  now  returned  to  Spain,  where  the  emperor, 
Charles  V.,  gave  him  a  splendid  reception,  and  ap- 
pointed him  governor  of  (iuatemala.  On  departing 
again  for  the  new  world,  he  was  accompanied  by 
numerous  friends  and  cavaliers  desirous  of  making 
their  fortune.  His  adventurous  spirit  soon  launched 
him  into  new  enterprises.  Pizarro  and  Aliuagro 
were  prosecuting  a  brilliant  career  of  conquest  in 
South  America.  A.  resolved  not  to  intrude  upon 
their  territories.  He  considered  the  province  of 
Quito  to  be  without  the  limits  of  these,  and  so, 
embarking  with  a  force  of  500  soldiers,  227  of  whom 
were  cavaliers,  he  landed  at  Bahia  de  los  Caraques, 
near  Cape  San  Francisco,  whence  he  penetrated  into 
the  heart  of  the  country,  crossing  the  Andes  by  as 
bold  and  hazardous  a  march  as  it  is  possible  to  con- 
ceive. In  the  plain  of  Rio  Bamba  he  was  met  by 
some  of  the  troops  of  Pizarro,  headed  by  Almagro ; 
but  instead  of  disputing  by  force  of  arms  his  right 
to  the  possession  of  the  country  in  which  he  found 
182 


himself,  he  agreed  to  retire,  on  receiving  an  indemnity 
for  his  arduous  undertaking.  He  therefore  retired  to 
IIoii<lui-as,  and  aided  the  colonists  in  establishing  new 
settlements,  amongst  others,  Gracias-a-I)ios  and  San 
Juan  de  Puerto  de  Caballos.  Meanwhile,  Pizarro, 
loaded  with  wealth,  went  back  to  Spain  in  1534,  and 
niisieijresented  the  conduct  of  A.  to  the  emperor; 
but  tile  latter  following,  vindicated  himself  so  suc- 
cessfully, that  he  received  the  government  of  Hondu- 
ras in  addition  to  (Jnatemala.  Again  he  embarked 
for  the  new  world,  and  pursued  his  course  of  dis- 
covery and  conquest ;  but  in  an  aflVay  with  the  In- 
dians u])on  the  coast  of  Michoacan,  in  1541,  he  was 
accidentally  killed  by  his  horse  falling  upon  liim  and 
crushing  him.  In  the  same  year,  an  inundation,  ac- 
companied by  a  frightful  tempest,  overthrew  the 
walls  of  the  town  of  San  Jago,  when  his  wife  and 
children  all  perished. 

ALVAREZ,  Don  Jose,  a  Spanish  sculptor,  was 
born  April  23,  1768,  at  Piiegn,  in  the  jirovince  of 
Cordova.  During  youth  he  laboured  with  his  father, 
a  stone-mason ;  and  when  twenty  years  old,  began 
to  study  drawing  and  sculpture  in  the  academy  at 
(iranada.  His  early  essays  in  sculpture  secured  for 
him  the  patronage  of  the  Bi.-hop  of  Cordova,  and 
in  171)4,  he  was  received  into  the  academy  of  San 
Fernando,  where,  in  17i)9,  he  gained  the  first  prize 
in  the  first  class.  Subsefiuently,  he  gained  the  seiond 
prize  for  sculpture  in  the  Institute  of  Paris,  and  in 
1804,  increased  his  celebrity  by  a  plaster-model  of 
Ganymede,  which  proved  that  he  could  rival  Canova 
in  gracefulness  of  style.  lie  now  attempted  greater 
works  in  the  more  severe  style,  and  prepared  a  model 
for  a  wounded  Achilles,  which  was  accidi  ntally 
broken.  Having  removed  to  Rome,  he  was  here 
emp'oyed  by  Napoleon  to  design  bass-reliefs  for  the 
tjuiiinal  Palace  on  Monte  Cavallo;  but,  on  account 
of  jjolitical  changes,  his  works  were  not  allowed  to 
occupy  the  places  for  which  they  had  been  destined. 
In  Rome,  where  he  lived  on  terms  of  friendship  with 
Canova  and  Thorwaldsen,  he  executed,  among  other 
works,  liis  Grupo  Colo.ial  de  Zarar/oza,  now  in  the 
Royal  Museum  of  Madrid,  representing  a  scene  in 
the  defence  of  Saragossa.  This  work  alone  is  suf- 
ficient to  establish  A.'s  fame.  Clearness  of  design, 
dignified  siinjilicity  in  execution,  trueness  to  nature, 
and  deep  sentiment,  mark  the  sctdptures  of  A.,  who, 
next  to  nature  and  classical  antiquity,  studied  the 
works  of  Michael  Angelo.  He  died,  in  Madrid, 
November  2i5,  1827. 

AMADE'US  (i.  e.  Love-God),  a  common  name  in 
the  House  of  Savoy.  The  first  who  bore  it  was 
Count  A.,  eldest  son  of  Count  Humbert,  who  lived 
about  the  commencement  of  the  11th  c.  His  suc- 
cessors gradually  enlarged  their  paternal  dominions; 
but  the  first  to  make  an  important  figin-e  in  history 
was  A.  v.,  who  was  born  in  1249,  succeeded  his  uncle 
Filippo  in  12S5,  and  died  in  1323.  He  ac(iuiied  the 
dignity  of  a  prince  of  the  empire.  He  had  a  brother 
who  resided  for  a  long  period  in  England,  and  while 
there,  built  the  Savoy  Palace  in  London. — His  son, 
A.  VI.,  the  'Green  Count,'  born  in  1334,  succeeded 
his  father  in  1343.  He  was  a  sagacious,  moderate, 
and  vigorous  ruler,  won  various  jilaces  from  the 
Dauphin  of  France,  became  lord-paramount  of 
Piedmont,  and  through  the  favour  of  the  emperor 
Charles  IV.,  obtained  the  viceregency  over  a  great 
part  of  Upper  Italy.  His  influence  among  the  Italian 
states  was  very  great.  He  died  in  1383. — A.  VIII.. 
born  in  1383,  was  at  first  under  the  guardianship 
of  his  grandmother,  a  woman  of  superior  talents; 
but  in  1398  he  assumed  the  reins  of  government 
himself,  and  displayed  a  spirit  of  moderation,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  a  love  of  order,  which  augured 
well   for    his    people.      The    zeal    with    which    he 


AMADIS— AMADOU. 


aided  the  policy  of  the  Emperor  Sisisiiuind  secured 
him  the  imperial  fiivour,  and  the  elevation  of  Savoy 
into  a  duchy  (1410).  On  the  extinction  of  its 
native  dynasty,  in  141S,  Piedmont  chose  him  for  its 
ruler,  as  he  was  next  of  kin.  But  a  religious  melan- 
choly taking  possession  of  his  mind,  he  (November 
7,  1434)  laid  down  his  authority,  and  along  with 
six  of  his  knights,  betook  himself  to  a  monastic 
hermitage  which  he  had  caused  to  be  built  on  the 
shores  of  the  L:ike  of  Geneva.  He  was  elected  pope 
in  14;>',),  when  he  assumed  the  name  of  Felix  V. ; 
but  he  resigned  the  papal  chair  in  1448,  and  died 
three  years  afterwards  at  Geneva. — A.  IX.,  alter 
governing  for  four  years,  handed  over  his  authority 
to  his  wife  Jolanthe,  on  account  of  ill  health  ;  but 
she  used  it  very  imprudently.  While  he  lived,  A. 
was  a  mere  tool  in  the  hands  of  grasping  factions. 
He  died  in  1472. 

A'MADIS,  a  much-used  heroic  name  in  chivalric 
poetry.  At  the  head  of  those  heroes  of  romance, 
stands  A.  of  Gaul,  called  the  Lion  Knight,  from  the 
device  on  his  shield,  and  also  Beltenebros,  or  the 
.Darkly  Beautiful.  The  other  Amadises  that  figure 
in  romance  are  represented  as  descendants  more  or 
less  remote  of  A.  of  (iavd.  He  himself  was  what  the 
Germans  call  a  love-child  of  the  fabulous  Kiiigl'crion 
of  France  and  of  Elisena,  a  princess  of  Bretagne.  The 
relationship  of  several  of  the  other  Amadises  to  the 
princes  and  princesses  of  Colchis,  Trebisond,  Greece, 
and  Cathay,  that  figure  as  their  parents,  is  of  the 
same  unsanctioned  kind.  Nor  do  such  irregularities 
seem  at  all  to  have  shocked,  in  these  fabulous 
regions,  or  to  have  derogated  from  the  digniiy  of 
any  of  the  personages  concerned.  The  romance 
which  narrates  the  adventures  of  A.  of  Gaul  is  both 
the  most  ancient  and  the  best  of  all  the  A.  romances. 
It  even  found  favour  in  the  sight  of  Cervantes,  who 
won  immortal  honour  by  overthrowing  the  long 
usurped  dominion  of  this  'evil  sect.'  This  one,  how- 
ever, has  maintained  its  reputation  even  to  the  pres- 
ent day,  not  only  because  it  was  regarded  by  him  as 
a  literary  curiosity,  but  also  from  its  own  merits,  as 
the  original  production  of  a  creative  fancy. 

The  question  which  was  early  raised,  and  cannot 
yet  be  demonstratively  settled,  as  to  whether  this 
romance  was  originally  a  Portuguese,  a  Spanish,  or 
a  French  production,  proves  at  least  the  absence  in 
it  of  all  national  peculiarities,  and  the  entire  want  of 
all  national  traditions  connected  with  it ;  and  hence 
the  want  also  of  a  living  historical  bac]<grouud, 
which,  in  the  case  of  all  really  national  legends,  is 
discernible  through  the  purely  epic  structure.  It 
may  be  asserted  with  certainty,  both  from  internal 
and  external  evidence,  that  this  romance  is  the  pure 
subjective  creation  of  the  fancy  of  a  single  individ- 
ual ;  and  that  it  was  composed  at  a  time  when  the 
genuine  epic  style  of  chivalric  writing  was  near  its 
decline,  consequently,  not  earlier  than  the  14th  c. 
It  is  also  apparent  that  this  romance  must  have  been 
originally  written  in  prose,  and  intended  to  be  read, 
and  not  to  be  recited.  Lastly,  it  is  not  to  be  doubt- 
ed that  the  author  was  well  acquainted  with  the 
earlier  legendary  poetry,  and  has  imitated  it  in  many 
things,  but  has,  nevertheless,  struck  out  for  himself 
a  perfectly  new  path,  in  an  opposite  direction,  which 
naturally  tended  to  lead  his  less  gifted  imitators  into 
a  bottomless  abyss,  and  at  last  brought  about  the 
extinction  of  the  whole  class.  For  these  chivalric 
romances — doubtless,  unintentionally — became  by 
degrees  more  and  more  of  an  ironical  cast  ;  and 
only  a  genius  like  Cervantes  was  wanting  in  order  to 
complete  their  extinction,  by  making  the  comic  cle-  ; 
ment  the  fuudauK'ntal  tone,  and  exaggerating  the  | 
incongruity  Luhercnt  in  such  compositions.  1 

The    Spanish     A.  romances     consist    of  fourteen  j 
books,  of  which  the  first  four  contain  the  history  of, 


A.  of  Gaul.  Yet  according  to  the  researches  of  tbo 
learned  Clomencin,  as  stated  in  his  Commentary  on 
Don  Qnij-otc  (.Madrid,  1833),  it  can  scarcely  be 
doubted  that  this  most  ancient  part  was  originally 
written  in  the  Portuguese  language,  by  the  knight 
Vasco  de  Lobeira  of  Oporto,  who  died  in  1403  ;  and 
that  it  must  have  been  composed  l)etween  1342  and 
1307.  The  original  manuscri|)t  is  said  to  have  been 
first  in  the  possession  of  the  Infant  Alfonso  of  Portu- 
gal, the  son  of  .John  I.,  the  fouiuler  of  the  House  of 
Braganza,  who  died  in  1401  ;  and  last,  in  that  of  ihe 
Duke  of  Aveiro,  and  to  have  been  destroyed  during 
the  earthquake  in  Lisbon  in  1755.  At  least,  these 
first  four  books  have  only  been  preserved  in  the 
Spanish  translation  which  was  made  by  Garcia 
Ordonez  dc  Montalvo,  about  140O,  and  was  first 
printed  between  1 1',»2  and  l.'jiio.  The  same  Montalvo 
added  to  it  the  fifth  book.  Lax  Strr/as  [crr/as,  i.  e., 
actions  or  deeds]  de  Eiiplandian,  Wjo  dc  Amaam  de 
Odida.  lie  began  this  book  in  1483,  but  did  not 
complete  it  till  1492.  The  books  fiom  the  Oth  to 
the  14th  contain  the  Exploits  and  Adventures  of 
Florisando,  by  Paez  de  Ribcra  ;  of  Lisuarte  of 
Greece,  and  of  Pcrion  of  Gaul,  by  Jium  Diaz ;  of  A. 
of  Greece,  of  Florisel  of  Nicea,  and  of  Anaxartc, 
by  Feliciano  de  Silva  ;  of  Rogel  of  Greece,  and  of 
Silves  de  la  Selva,  by  the  same ;  of  Lepolemo,  and 
of  Leandro  the  Fair,  by  Pedro  de  Lujaii ;  and  lastly, 
of  Penelva,  by  an  anonymous  Portuguese.  The 
French  translators  and  continuators,  beginning  with 
Nicolas  de  Herbcray,  Sieur  des  Essarts,  who  pub- 
lished the  first  eight  books  between  l.")4U — 1548, 
have  increased  this  series  of  romances  to  twenty- 
four  books.  Gilbert  Saunier,  Sieur  de  Duverdier, 
has  written  a  conclusion,  in  several  large  volumes,  to 
all  the  adventures  begun  in  the  whole  scries  of 
legends,  whic'i  he  has  called  Le  Roman  des  Romanx. 

How  popular  and  widely  circulated  these  romances 
were  i:i  their  daj',  may  be  proved  by  the  many 
editions  of  single  legends,  and  the  translations  of 
most  of  them  into  Italian,  English,  German,  and 
even  into  Dutch,  and  also  by  the  numerous  chivalric 
romances  written  in  imitation  of  them.  As,  never- 
theless, a  change  came  over  the  public  taste,  they 
almost  all  fell  into  oblivion,  and  indeed  justly  so, 
because  of  their  want  of  intrinsic  merit.  They  were 
transferred  from  the  Temple  of  the  Muses  to  the 
literary  lumber-room,  where  now  at  best  they  only 
serve  to  feast  the  eyes  of  bibliomaniacs.  A.  of  Gaul 
has  been  deservedly  excepted  from  this  fate,  and  has 
not  only  found  readers  in  the  present  day,  but  luas 
been  in  modern  times  translated,  revised,  and  imi- 
tated. The  Portuguese  Gil  Vicente,  and  the  Span- 
iard Andres  Rei  de  Artieda,  extracted  from  it  the 
materials  for  two  Spanish  comedies.  De  Lvibcrt  and 
Count  Tressan  revived  this  romance  in  tasteful  ex- 
tracts ;  and  as  Bernardo  Tasso  formerly  did  in  his 
Auiadifji,  so  now  Creuze  de  Lesser  and  ^Villiam  Stew- 
art Rose  have  extracted  from  it  the  materials  for 
epic  poems:  A.  de  Gaule,  Fok'iic  fa/sa>tt  suilc  aux 
Chevaliers  de  la  Table  rondc  (Paris,  1813),  and  A.  of 
Gaul,  a  poem  in  three  books  (London,  1803).  On 
the  other  hand,  Wieland's  Ncucr  A.  has  nothing  in 
common  with  the  more  ancient  Amadises,  except  the 
title,  and  the  multitudes  of  adventures  encountered 
by  the  hero. 

A'MADOII,  a  name  given  to  Polyporust  ir/niarius 
and  1\  foMcntarivx,  fungi  of  the  tribe  or  division 
Hijmcnovnicetes,  and  formerly  included  in  the  genu<» 
Boletus.  They  grow  upon  old  trees  in  Britain,  and 
on  the  continent  of  Europe.  The  pileus  is  complete- 
ly blended  with  the  hymeniuni,  which  is  pierced  with 
thin-sided,  rather  angular,  tubular,  vortical  passages 
— the  whole  fungus  thus  appeared  as  a  leathery 
or  fleshy  mass;  the  under  side  of  which  is  pierced 
by  deep  pores.     /*.  i(^7iiariiis  is  called  Hard  A.,  or 

183 


AMAIN— AMALGAM. 


Toiicliwood.  P.  fo)iicnl(trhis  is  called  Soft  A.,  or 
German  Tinder.  Tliey  arc  used  as  sty[)tics  for 
Blanching  slif^ht  wounds;  and  when  steel  and  flint 
were  in  geneial  use  for  striking  fire,  were  much 
employed  as  tinder,  being  prepared  for  this  purpose 
by  boiling  in  a  solution  of  nitre.  The  soft  A.  is  used 
for  making  small  surgical  pads,  for  which  its  elas- 
ticity peculiarly  fits  it.  P.  finnentarmx^  or  a  very 
simiiar  species,  is  I'ouiid  in  Iiulia,  and  used  there  as 
in  Europe.  It  is  al.<o  employed  by  the  Lajjlanders 
and  others  for  moxa  (q.  v.).  It  is  sometimes  made 
into  razor-straps,  and  this  use  is  likewise  made  of  P. 
betulinns. — /-•.  officinalix,  the  Af/aricon  of  Dioscori- 
des,  which  grows  upon  larch-trees  in  the  sourh  of 
Europe,  is  a  drastic  jiurgative,  now  rarely  employed. 
P.  siiaveofcnx,  which 'giows  upon  stems  of  willows, 
and  is  easily  recognised  by  its  auisc-like  smell,  was 


Polyporus  suaveolcns. 

formerly  employed  in  medicine,  in  cases  of  consump- 
tion, under  the  name  of  Fuiif/us  aalici^.  All  these 
species  arc  very  similar  in  appearance.  Another 
species  of  the  same  genus,  P.  destructor,  is  one  of 
the  fungi  known  by  the  name  of  Dry  Rot  (q.  v.) — 
The  remarkable  light  wood  of  Hernandia  Giiiancnsis, 
a  shrub  of  the  natural  order  Tlitimelccacece  (q.  v.),  is 
readily  kindled  by  flint  and  steel,  and  is  used  in 
Guiana  as  A. 

AMAI'N,  a  peculiar  phrase  applied  by  sailors  to 
signify  at  once  or  suddenlif ;  in  such  orders  or  direc- 
tions as  '  lower  amain,'  '  strike  amain,'  &c. 

AMALEKITES,  one  of  the  most  fierce  and  war- 
like of  the  Canaanitish  nations.  They  dwelt  '  in  the 
land  of  the  south '  (Numbers,  xiii.  21>),  that  is,  in  the 
land  south  of  Palestine,  or  between  Idumea  and 
Egypt.  From  the  very  first,  they  manifested  an 
uncompromising  hostility  to  the  Israelites,  whose 
rear-guard  they  smote  after  the  passage  through 
the  Red  Sea.  In  consequence  of  this,  they  received 
no  mercy  at  the  hands  of  the  Israelites,  when  the 
latter  had  established  themselves  in  Palestine.  Saul 
(1  Samuel,  xv.  2)  nearly  annihilated  them.  Twenty 
years  later,  David,  while  dwelling  amongst  the  Phil- 
istines, penetrated  into  their  land,  and  made  dread- 
ful slaughter  of  them.  After  this,  they  made  a  lust 
desperate  reprisal,  but  were  overtaken  by  David  in 
the  midst  of  their  drinking  and  dancing  ;  and  'from 
twilight,  even  unto  the  evening  of  the  next  day,' 
he  smote  them,  'and  there  escaped  not  a  man  of 
them,  save  400  young  men  who  rode  upon  camels 
and  fled.'  The  descendants  of  these  were  finally 
extirpated  in  the  days  of  Ilezekiah,  king  of  Judah, 
by  the  Simeonites. 
184 


AMA'LEI,  a  seaport  on  the  Gulf  of  Salerno,  on 
the  E.  coast  of  the  kingdom  of  Nafiles,  contains 
about  3000  inhabitants  ;  has  a  very  ancient  cathedral, 
and  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop.  It  is  said  to  have  been 
founded  under  Constantino  the  (ircat,  and  during 
the  middle  ages,  was  once  a  republic  ;  afterwards,  it 
was  ruled  by  dukes  of  A.  ;  and  about  the  close  of 
the  11th  c,  fell  under  the  power  of  the  Normans. 
The  maritime  laws  of  A..  (Tabula  Amalphilann)  once 
[)reviiiled  tiironghout  Italy.  Tlic  nniciue  manuscript 
of  the  pandects  (q.  v.)  was  discovered  at  A.  ;  and 
Flavio  Gioja,  the  inventor  of  the  compass,  and 
Masaniello,  were  born  there. 

AMALGAM  is  the  term  applied  to  that  class  of 
alloys  (q.  v.)  in  which  one  of  the  combining  metals 
is  mercury.  On  the  nature  of  the  union,  it  has  been 
observed  that  'on  adding  successive  small  quantities 
of  silver  to  mercury,  a  great  variety  of  fluid  amal- 
gams are  apparently  produced  ;  but  in  reality,  the 
chief,  if  not  the  sole  compound,  is  a  solid  A.,  which 
is  merely  ditt'used  througliout  the  fluid  mass.'  The 
fluidity  of  an  A.  would  thus  seem  to  depend  on 
there  being  an  excess  of  mercury  above  what  is 
necessary  to  form  a  definite  compound.  Mercury 
unites  readily  with  gold  and  silver  at  the  usual  tem- 
perature. It  has  no  disposition  to  unite  witli  iron 
even  when  liot.  A  solid  A.  of  tin  is  used  to  silver 
looking-glasses. 

Amalgamation  is  employed  on  a  small  scale  in 
some  processes  of  gilding  the  silver  or  other  metal 
being  overlaid  with  a  film  of  gold  A.,  and  the  mer- 
cury being  then  driven  off'  by  heat.  But  its  most 
extensive  use  is  in  separating  gold,  and  especially 
silver,  from  certain  of  their  ores.  The  mercury  dis- 
solves the  ])articles  of  the  metal,  and  leaves  the 
earthy  particles  ;  it  is  then  easily  sejiarated  from  the 
gold  or  silver.  This  process,  discovered  in  Mexico 
in  15j7  by  Bartolome  de  Medina,  is  very  extensively 
used  in  Mexico  at  the  present  time,  and  has  lately 
been  introduced  with  great  success  into  the  Cal- 
ifornian  and  Australian  gold-fields.  The  mode  of 
ap|)lication  is  to  crush  the  quartz  rock  which 
serves  as  the  matrix  in  which  the  small  par- 
ticles of  gold  are  embedded ;  place  the  fragments 
in  a  barrel  or  revolving  drum  with  mercury, 
and  agitate  for  some  time.  The  mercury  attaches 
all  the  gold  particles  to  itself ;  and  in  the  appara- 
tus, when  fully  agitated,  there  is  found  a  semi- 
fluid n)a.ss,  which  is  the  mercury,  appearing  half 
congealed,  and  containing  all  the  gold.  It  is  only 
necessary  to  place  this  A.  in  a  retort  arid  apply  heat, 
when  the  mercury  sublimes  over — and  can  be  rc-cra- 
ploycd  for  fuither  amalgamation — and  leaves  the 
gold  in  the  body  of  the  retort.  This  process  is  the 
only  known  method  of  separating  the  finer  particles 
of  gold  from  a  mass  of  rock,  and  is  always  used  by 
the  gold-crushing  companies.  Indeed,  it  is  now  be- 
lieved that  this  truly  commercial  mode  of  gold-seek- 
ing is  the  only  one  whiA;h,  in  a  few  years,  will  be  had 
recourse  to. 

Several  amalgams  may  be  regarded  as  definite 
chemical  compounds.  Thus,  when  gold-leaf  is  placed 
in  mercury,  and  the  A.  so  produced  filtered  by 
being  squeezed  in  a  chamois-leather  bag,  the  uncom- 
bined  mercury  oozes  through  the  skin,  but  a  definite 
A.  of  2  of  gold  and  1  of  mercury  remains  behind  in 
the  leather  filter.  Tin  A.  is  employed  in  silvering 
looking-glasses,  and  is  formed  by  laying  a  sheet  of 
tin-lbil  on  a  tabte,  covering  it  with  mercury,  and 
then  placing,  by  a  sUding  movement,  the  sheet  of 
glass  over  it.  This  A.  contains  3  of  mercury  and  1 
of  tin  ;  glass  balls  are  silvered  with  an  A.  of  10 
mercury,  1  tin,  1  lead,  and  2  bismuth.  A  .silver  A. 
highly  crystalline^ — and,  from  the  clusters  of  crystals 
soinewhai  resembling  a  tree,  called  Arbor  Diame,  or 
Tree   of    Diana — is   prepared  from   3   parts    of    the 


AMALIA— AMARANTH. 


Stronjiest  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver,  2  parts  of 
solution  of  proto-nitrate  of  mercury  added  to  an 
A.  of  7  mercury  and  1  silver.  In  a  day  or  two,  the 
arborescent  appearance  presents  itself,  and  the 
crystals  contain  0.5  per  cent,  mercury,  and  3.5  silver. 
The  A.  used  for  frictional  electric  machines  is  made 
from  1  tin,  1  zinc,  and  3  mercury,  to  which  sand  is 
afterwards  added. 

AMALIA,  Anna,  Duchess  of  Saxe-Weimar,  an 
amiable  lady,  and  generous  patron  of  literature,  was 
born  in  1739,  and,  during  the  latter  part  of  the  18th 
c,  was  the  centre  of  the  court  of  Weimar.  Left  a 
widow  in  the  second  year  of  her  marriage  (1758),  her 
judicious  rule,  as  guardian  of  lier  infant  son,  enabled 
the  country  to  leeoxer  from  the  eflects  of  tlie  Seven 
Years'  Wnr  ;  wliile  her  cflbrts  were  no  less  effectual 
in  promoting  the  education  of  the  people.  She 
appointed  Wieland  tutor  to  her  son,  afterwards 
Duke,  and  attracted  to  Wiemar  such  men  as  Herder, 
Goethe,  Kiiebel,  IJiittiger,  Musjeus,  Schiller  ;  forming 
a  galaxy  of  genius  such  as  no  single  court,  periiaps, 
was  ever  graced  with.  How  much  tlie  fine  qualities 
of  head  and  heart  possessed  by  the  duchess  heiself 
contributed  to  this  success,  was  shewn  by  tlie  fact 
that  when  she  resigned  the  government  into  the 
hands  of  her  son  in  1775,  she  continued  to  be  sur- 
rounded by  the  same  society.  She  has  the  high 
distinction  of  having  honoured  and  encouraged  the 
greatest  writers  that  Germany  has  produced.  The 
battle  of  Jena  is  said  to  have  broken  her  hca''t  ;  she 
died  (ISOT)  six  months  after  that  event. 

AMALIE,  JIauie,  the  wife  of  Louis  Philippe, 
king  of  the  P'rench,  was  the  daughter  of  King 
Ferdinand  L  (IV.)  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  and  was  born 
April  26,  1782.  When  she  married  Louis  Philippe 
(then  Didce  of  Orleans),  he  was  a  political  exile, 
without  a  hope  of  ever  rising  to  the  throne  of 
France.  It  'was  a  marriage  of  personal  choice  on 
both  sides,  and  was  consequently  happy.  After 
Louis  Philippe's  elevation  to  the  throne,  the  queen 
avoided  interference  in  political  affairs,  and  devoted 
her  attention  to  plans  of  beneficence.  In  her 
domestic  relations,  her  conduct  was  highly  exem- 
])lary,  and  won  the  esteem  of  all  parties  ;  indeed, 
the  only  charge  ever  preferred  against  her,  was  her 
supposed  excess  of  piety.  She  shared  the  fortune 
of  her  exiled  husband,  and  was  very  respectfully 
received  in  England.  Louis  Philippe,  shortly  before 
his  death  (at  Claremont,  1850),  gave  expression  to 
the  love  and  esteem  with  which  he  regarded  his 
faithful  wife. 

AMANDE   DE   TERRE.     See  Cypkrus. 

AMANITA,  a  genus  of  Fungi,  nearly  allied  to 
Agaricua^  but  bursting  from  a  volva.     A.  imiscaria, 


Amanita  Muscaria, 
in  a  youug  state. 


Amanita  Muscaria, 
full-growu. 


which  is  pretty  common  in  woods,  especially  of  fir 
and  beech,  in  Britain,  is  one  of  the  most  dangerous 
fungi.  It  is  sometimes  called  Fly  A(iARit;,  being 
used  in  Sweden  and  other  countries  to  kill  flies  and 
bugs,  for  which  purpose  it  is  steeped  in  milk.  The 
pileus  or  cap  is  of  an  orange-red  colour,  with  white 
warts,  the  gills  white,  and  the  sten\  bidbous.  It 
grows  to  a  considerable  size.  Notwithstanding  its 
very  poisonous  nature,  it  is  used  by  the  Kamchat- 
kadales  to  produce  intoxication,  and  it  imparts  au 
intoxicating  property  to  the  urine  of  those  who 
swallow  it,  of  which  they  or  others  ofieu  avail 
themselves,  when  abundance  of  the  fungus  is  not  ut 
hand. 

AMARANTH  (Amaran/Jms),  a  genus  of  plants 
of  the  natural  order  Amaranthaccof.  This  order 
contains  nearly  SO'i  known  species,  natives  of  tropical 
and  temperate  countries,  butchietly  aboiniding  within 
the  tropics.  They  are  herbs  or  shrubs,  with  simple 
exstipulate  leaves,  and  flowers  in  heads  or  spikes ; 
the  perianth  usually  coloured,  3 — 5-i)artite,  hyjiogy- 
nous,  scarious,  persistent,  generally  surrounded  with 
small  brnctcio  ;  the  stamens  hypogynous,  cither  5, 
and  opposite  the  segments  of  the  perianth,  or  some 
multiple  of  5,  distinct  or  united  into  a  tube,  some- 
times partly  abortive  ;  the  anthers  either  2-celled 
or  1-cellcd ;  the  ovary  single,  superior,  1-celIed  with 
1  or  few  ovules,  which  hang  from  a  free  central 
cord  ;  style  single  or  absent  ;  stigma  simple  or  com- 
I)Ound ;  fruit,  a  small  membranous  bag  or  utricle, 
or  a  caryopsis  (q.  v.),  rarely  baccate  ;  seeds  lense- 
shaped,  externally  crustaceous,  embryo  curved 
round  the  circumference  ;  albumen  farinaceous. 
— The  genus  Avtaratithus  has  mostly  nionrecious 
flowers  (although  the  order  is  generally  hermaphro- 
dite), with  two  or  three  stigmas,  and  a  1-celled, 
1 -seeded  utricle,  bursting  all  round  transversely. 
Some  of  the  species  are  naturally  of  singular 
form,  and  others  assume  singular  but  monstrous 
forms  through  cultivation. — A.  caudnlns  (Lovc-lies- 


Lovc-lies-blecdmg  {Aniarani/iu,<:  cnudaius). 

bleeding),  yl.  crueiilus,  A.  li/pochondriacns  (Vvmce's 
Feather),  and  other  species,  are  conmion  annuals 
in  our  flower-gardens.  The  spikes  of  A.  caudatus 
are  sometimes  several  feet  in  length.  The  dry  red 
bracts  whieli  surround  the  flower  retain  th(>ir  fresh- 
ness for  a  long  time  after  being  gathered  ;  for  which 
reason   the  plant  has  been   employed  by  poets   as 

'iSo 


AMARAPURA— AMARYLLIS. 


an  eiiiblom  of  iiumortalily. — The  Globe  A.  {O'oiii- 
phroia  (ilol)osn)  and  the  Cockscomb  (q.  v.),  well- 
known  tender  annnals,  belong  to  the  .^ainc  natural 
order.  The  (Jlobo  A.  is  iiuich  cultivated  in  Toitupd 
and  other  Ronian  Catholic  countries  i'or  adorning 
churclics  in  winter.  Its  flowers,  which  are  of  a 
shining  purple,  retain  their  beauty  and  freshness  for 
several  years.  S'o  species  of  the  order  can  be  regarded 
as  a  true  native  of  Britain,  although  Amarant/iu.i 
BlUnm  is  now  found  in  waste  places  near  London 
and  elsewhere.  xi.  Blituni,  A.  olcravcux  (Chusan 
Han-tsi),  and  other  species,  are  used  as  pot-herbs  ; 
but  rarely  in  iiritain.  A.  liybridus  and  A.  retroflexus, 
the  common  i)ig-wccd  of  American  gardens,  were  in- 
troduced from  tropical  America.  The  seeds  of  Amaran- 
thusfrumentaccns  (called  Kicry)  and  of  A.  annrdhana 
are  gathered  as  corn-crops  in  India. — Medicinal 
properties  arc  asciibcd  to  some  species  of  the  order, 
particularly  to  Go)iiphrcna  otfici)i<dh  vtacroccphala, 
which  have  a  high  and  probably  exaggerated  reputa- 
tion in  Brazil  as  cures  lor  many  diseases. 

AMARAPU'RA,  or  L'MMERArOOR.V,  a  town 
of  Burniah,  on  tlie  left  bank  of  the  Irrawaddy,  0  miles 
north-east  from  Ava,  in  lat.  21°  57',  long.  W,°  7'.  It 
was  founded  in  17815,  and  made  the  capital  of  the 
empire,  an  honour  which,  in  181'.^,  was  restored  to 
the  city  of  Ava.  It  was  burned  to  the  ground 
in  1810.  Tlie  jiopulation  at  that  time  was  estimated 
at  170,000;  in  1827,  it  had  sunk  to  aO,U(i().  In 
1830,  it  was  again  almost  destroyed  by  an  earth- 
quake. The  whole  city  is  built  of  bamboo,  with  the 
exception  of  some  temples  ;  the  most  celebrated  of 
which  is  that  containing  a  colossal  bronze  image  of 
Guadama. 

AMARA-SIXIIA,  a  celebrated  Hindu  gram- 
marian of  great  antiquity,  who  wrote  a  variety 
of  works,  only  one  of  which  has  come  down  to 
us,  i\\G  Amara-KosJin,  or  Thesaurus  of  Amara;  some 
times  called  tlic  I'rikanda,  i.  e.,  the  Tripartite. 
Regarding  tlie  author's  life,  little  is  known,  nor 
is  the  precise  period  during  which  he  flourished 
definitely  ascertained.  He  is  generally  supposed  to 
have  been  one  of  the  'nine  gems'  who  adorned  the 
throne  of  King  Vikramaditya  I.  (•')(>  n.c).  But  Mr. 
Bentlcy  (Asiatic  Jiesrarc/itu)  places  him  as  late  as  tlie 
lithe.  A.D.,  while  Mr.  Colebrooke  assigns  the  close 
of  the  5th  as  tlic  most  probable.  He  is  known  to 
have  been  a  Buddhist  ;  and  it  is  universally  believed 
that  his  writings  perished  during  the  fierce  persecu- 
tion to  which  that  sect  was  subjected  by  the  orthodox 
Brahmins,  in  the  od,  4th,  and  5th  centuries.  This 
tradition  harmonises  with  the  earliest  of  the  three 
ages  in  which  he  is  said  to  have  lived. 

The  Aviara-h'ns/ia  is  a  Sanscrit  vocabulary, 
divided  inio  3  books  and  18  chapters,  and  containing 
in  all  about  1(>,000  words.  The  words  are  classed 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  things  signified  by 
them.  Almost  all  the  grammarians  of  Hindustan 
imitate,  translate,  or  comment  upon  the  work  of  A. 

An  excellent  edition  of  the  Aiimra- Kasha,  with 
notes  in  English  and  an  index,  was  puldished  by 
H.  T.  Colebiooke,  Serampore,  1808  ;  reprinted  in 
1829  ;  the  Sanscrit  text  at  Calcutta  in  1813  ;  and  in 
1839  a  French  tratislation  appeared  in  Paris. 

AMARI,  MiciiELE,  an  Italian  historian  and 
orientalist,  was  born  at  Palermo,  July  7,  180fi.  At 
the  age  of  sixteen,  he  entered  a  government  office ; 
and  shortly  after — his  father  being  condemned  to 
thirty  years'  imprisonment  for  a  political  crime — the 
duty  of  siip]iorting  his  mother  and  the  other  mem- 
bers of  the  family  devolved  upon  him.  His  straitened 
circumstances  som-ed  him  ;  and  he  even  meditated 
becoming  a  bandit,  but  was  roused  from  his  morbid 
wretchedness  by  falling  passionately  in  love  with  an 
English  lady.  Although  he  did  not  win  her  hand, 
186 


he  secured  a  knowledge  of  the  English  language,  the 
first  result  of  which  was  a  translation  of  Sir 
\  Walter  Scott's  Mai-miou,  pul)lishcd  at  Palermo  in 
1832.  A.  soon  became  a  political  '  susficct  :^  and 
although  he  liad  conducted  himself  during  the 
tumult  of  1837  with  exemplary  moderation,  he  was 
summarily  transferred  to  a  situation  in  Naples, 
where  he  remained  four  years,  and  wheie  he  pur- 
sued with  the  utmost  diligence  his  historical  inves- 
tigations. In  18-4  2  api)carcd  his  J.<i  O'licrra  del 
]'i'sj>ro  Siciliotio  (The  War  of  the  Sicilian  Vespers), 
which  has  been  often  republished,  and  remains  the 
master-piece  of  its  author.  Its  great  merit  arises 
from  its  having  successfully  combated  tlie  common 
notion,  that  the  terrible  massacre  so  named  was  the 
result  of  a  deep  and  ramified  conspiracy  on  the  part 
of  the  nobles.  A.  proves  fioma  letter  of  Charles  of 
Anjou  himself,  as  well  as  from  numerous  otlicr 
sources,  that  it  was  a  popular  or  national  outbreak, 
occasioned  by  the  tyranny  of  the  foreign  rulers,  that 
really  brought  about  the  deliverance  of  Sicily.  The 
book  was  quickly  prohil)ited,  and,  as  a  consequence, 
widely  read.  It  was  translated  into  German  by  Dr. 
Schroeder  of  Hildesheim,  and  into  English  by  Lord 
Ellesmere.  A.  was  now  ordenMl  to  Naples,  but  fled 
to  Prance,  w  here  he  gave  himself  up  to  the  study  of 
Arabic  and  modern  Greek,  and  to  the  preparation  of 
his  7Iisto)\i/of'(/ic  Mits.<suliiw}is  in  S/ci/i/.  At  the  revo- 
lution of  18-18,  he  returned  to  Palermo,  where  he  had 
been  appointed  professor  of  public  law,  but  shortly 
after  his  airival  was  elected  vice-president  of  the 
connnittoe  of  war.  He  was  next  sent  on  a  d.plomatic 
mission  by  the  jnovincial  government  to  Prance  and 
England.  In  181',',  he  published  at  Paris  a  hrochure, 
entitled  La  SIci/c  ct  Ics  Boiirhons,  the  aim  of  which 
was  to  shew  the  incompatibility  between  the  rights 
of  the  Sicilians  and  the  pretensions  of  the  Nea|  olitan 
sovereign.  After  the  Sicilian  insurrection  liad  been 
([uelled,  A.  took  vip  his  residence  in  Paris,  where  he 
has  since  published  a  number  of  learned  papers  upon 
the  language  and  history  of  the  Arabs,  in  the  Revue 
Arc/ii'olof/ii/he,  Le  Journal  Aniatiijuc,  kc,  besides  an 
English  translation  of  the  Solwan  of  Ibn  Djafcr 
(London,  1852). 

AM.\RYLLl'DEyE,  or  AMARYLLIDA'CE.1^,  a 
natural  order  of  Monocotyledonous  plants,  including 
many  species  distinguished  by  the  beauty  of  their 
flowers.  They  are  herbaceous  plants,  or  when,  as 
in  the  genera  Ar/ave  and  Foiircroi/a,  they  form 
woody  stems,  they  have  still  the  ciiaracter  of  gigantic 
herbaceous  plants  rather  than  of  shrubs.  The 
greater  part  are  bulbous-rooted.  The  leaves  are 
sword-shaped,  with  parallel  veins  ;  the  flower.s  have 
spathaceous  bracts.  The  perianth  is  regular,  0-cleft, 
sometimes  with  a  corona.  The  stamens  are  6, 
arising  from  the  perianth,  sometimes  cohering  by 
their  dilated  bases;  the  anthers  bursting  inwardly. 
The  ovary  is  inferior,  S-cclled,  with  1,  2,  or  many 
anatropal  ovules  ;  the  style  is  .single  ;  the  .stigma, 
o-lobed.  The  fruit  is  a  S-cclled,  3-valvcd  capsule, 
or  a  1 — 3-seeded  berry.  The  seed  is  albuminous, 
with  the  embryo  nearly  straight — There  are  al)0ut 
400  known  species  of  this  order,  natives  of  tropical 
or  subtropical,  and  more  sparingly,  of  temper- 
ate regions — particularly  abundant  at  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope.  A  few  species  only  are  European. 
Many  of  them  are  much  prized  ornaments  of 
our  gardens  and  hot-houses.  Amongst  these  are 
different  species  of  Narcissus  (q.  v  ),  Amauyllis 
(q.  v.),  Crinum  (q.  v.),  Alstrocmkria  (q.  v.),  Nf.rink, 

CODURCIA,      BrI:NSTIGIA,     PaXCRATUTM,     EoURrROYA, 

&c.  To  this  order  belong  the  Snowdrop  (q.  v.)  and 
Snowflake  (q.  v.),  and  it  includes  also  the 
American  Aloe  (Agave,  q.  v.). 

AMARY'LLIS,  a  genus  of  bulbous-rooted  plants 


AMASIS— AMAZON. 


Amaryllis  formosissiina. 


of  the  natural  order  Ainarijllidcic  (q.  v.),  Iiaviiig  a  sim- 
ple t>-partite  perianth, 
and  containing  a  large 
number  of  species,  na- 
tives of  the  warmer  re- 
gions of  the  globe.  Many 
of  them  have  flowers  of 
very  great  beauty.  A 
species  of  this  genus, 
A.  formosissiina,  was 
brought  to  Europe  from 
South  America  in  the 
end  of  the  17th  c,  and 
has  since  been  in  com- 
mon cultivation  as  a  gar- 
den flower.  Its  flowers 
are  of  a  beautiful  red 
colour,  exhibiting  a  play 
of  golden  gleams  in 
the  sunshine.  They  are 
scentless.  A.  a)nabilis, 
A-  Josephiiice,  and  A. 
vittata  are  amongst  the 
most  admired  bulbous-rooted  })lant3.  A.  Saniieiisis 
is  one  of  the  most  haidy  species,  flowering  freely 
in  Guernsey,  with  a  little  protection  during  winter, 
and  commonly  called  Gueinsey  Lily,  although  it  is 
supposed  to  be  a  native  of  Japan.  By  artificial 
impregnation,  a  great  number  of  hybrid  forms  have 
been  produced  in  this  genus. 

AMA'SIS,  a  king  of  Egypt.  Of  humble  origin,  he 
rose  to  be  general  under  Aprie.s,  the  last  king  of  the 
line  of  Psamnietichus.  Being  sent  to  put  down  an 
insurrection,  he  joined  the  rebels,  and  was  prochiimed 
king  (569  is.c).  He  cultivated  the  friendship  of  the 
Greeks,  opened  up  to  them  the  commerce  of  Egypt, 
previously  confined  to  Naucratis,  imirricd  a  Greek 
wife,  and  took  a  body-guard  of  Greeks  into  pay. 
Pythagoras  and  Solon  are  said  to  have  visited  him. 
For  his  alliance  with  Polycrates,  and  the  singular 
reason  for  which  Herodotus  makes  him  break  it  off, 
see  Polycrates.  During  his  reign  of  44  years,  he 
greatly  promoted  the  prosperity  and  adornment  of 
Egypt.  Immediately  after  his  death,  the  country 
was  conquered  by  Cambyscs  of  Persia. 

AMATITLA'X,  a  district  of  Central  America, 
near  Guatemala  city,  embosomed  in  abrupt  moun- 
tains of  volcanic  origin.  It  produces  cochineal 
largely. 

AMAURO'SIS  (Or.  amauros,  obscure)  is  a  blind- 
ness or  obscurity  of  vision  caused  by  disease  of  the 
optic  nerve,  and  this  cause  may  be  situated  either 
at  the  origin  of  the  nerve  in  the  brain,  in  some  part 
of  its  course,  or  at  its  termination  in  the  retina  ;  and 
of  course  the  degree  of  blindness  will  bo  in  propor- 
tion to  the  extent  these  parts  are  involved  by  the 
disease.  See  Optic  Xervk.  A.  may  also  depend 
upon  causes  remote  from  the  organ  of  vision ;  the 
suppression  of  accustomed  discharges  from  the  body 
may  lead  to  congestion  of  the  vessels  of  the  brain, 
and  cause  A. ;  and  it  may  spring  from  many  very 
slight  causes,  if  a  predisposition  to  the  disease  exists. 
This  is  occasionally  hereditary.  Beer  mentions 
several  cases  in  one  family  ;  for  three  successive 
generations,  all  the  females  who  had  not  borne 
children  became  blind  in  middle  age ;  the  males 
shewed  a  tendency  to  the  disease,  but  did  not  become 
blind.  A  common  cause  is  exposure  to  bright  light, 
or  great  heat  and  light,  either  natural  or  artificial, 
occupation  upon  minute  objects,  and  omployment  of 
the  eyes  daring  the  hours  which  ought  to  be  devoted 
to  sleep.  In  many  instances,  a  single  imprudent 
exposure  of  the  eyes  to  the  operation  of  some  such 
cause,  has  been  sufficient  to  extinguish  the  sensi- 
bility  of  the  retina ;    but,  in    general,  it  is   from 


long-continuod  over-excitcmcnt  of  the  organs  of 
vision  that  they  begin  to  fail,  and  at  last  become 
totally  unable  to  continue  their  office.  The  heat  of 
the  sun,  rage,  continued  stooping,  and  fevers  or 
other  causes,  causing  congestion,  inflammation,  or 
serous  effusion  in  the  head,  cause  A.  Some  poisonou3 
substances  cause  A.  suddenly,  as  belladonna,  stra- 
monium, and  other  narcotics  given  in  large  doses ; 
and  others,  applied  to  the  body  every  day  in  small 
quantities,  have  the  same  effect,  but  more  slowly. 
Tobacco  may  be  j  ustly  signalised  as  poison  of  this  sort, 
as  also  mercury  and  lead. 

Exhirustion  of  the  body  and  depressing  mental 
affections  also  are  causes  of  A.  But  we  can  seldom 
attribute  its  occurrence  to  the  influence  of  any  single 
remote  cause,  but  to  a  number  of  circumstances  which 
have  been  acting  for  a  length  of  time  upon  one  in- 
dividual, cither  consecutively  or  together. 

We  recognise  the  presence  of  A.  by  the  history  of 
the  case  and  the  appearance  of  the  eyes.  The  latter 
have  generally  a  vacant,  unmeainng  stare,  dilated 
pupils,  and  do  not  converge  towards  an  ol)ject,  but 
appear  to  be  looking  steadfastly  at  something  in 
the  distance.  The  sclerotic  or  white  of  the  eye  is 
generally  altered  in  colour,  and  crossed  by  enlarged 
blood-vessels.  The  history  of  the  case  varies  with  the 
patient.  Among  the  first  symptoms  are  difficulty  in 
calculating  distances,  as  in  threading  a  needle  or 
pouring  fluid  into  a  glass;  and  sometimes  there 
is  occasional  loss  of  sight  in  one  eye  (ainauro.iis 
va(/n),  confusion  of  vision — sometimes  a  part  of  the 
field  of  vision  will  be  clear,  and  part  obscured. 
There  are  also  present  spectra  or  musae  vo'Umitfi, 
which  sometimes  are  permanent,  arising  from  the 
existence  of  insensible  patches  on  the  retina.  Float- 
ing specks  are  merely  coincident  with  the  disease. 

A.  is  treated  by  depletion  in  the  robust,  altera- 
tives and  tonics  in  the  feeble,  and  by  those  remedied 
which  act  upon  the  nervous  system,  and  counter- 
irritation  by  blisters  or  issues  behind  the  ears,  or  in 
the  neighbourhood.  Except  in  very  recent  cases, 
the  prospect  of  recovery  is  slight. 

AMAXrCHI,  the  capital  of  the  Ionian  island  of 
Santa  Maura  or  Leucadia,  is  built  on  the  edge  of  the 
shallow  lagoons  that  separate  the  north-cast  part  of 
the  island  from  the  mainland.  The  harbour  con- 
structed by  the  Anglo-Ionian  government  is  pro- 
tected by  a  mole,  at  the  end  of  which  is  a  light- 
house, it  is  fitted  only  for  small-craft.  A.  derives 
its  name  from  the  Greek  amaxai,  'cars,'  which  the 
Venetian  garrison  employed  in  bringing  down  the 
oil  and  wine  from  the  inland  districts  to  the  point 
nearest  the  fort  of  Santa  Maura,  where,  subsequent- 
ly, houses  began  to  be  erected.  The  town  has  a 
very  mean  and  poor  appearance ;  the  buildings  are 
partly  of  wood,  on  account  of  the  frequent  earth- 
quakes. Shgbt  shocks  occur  not  scldomer  than  once 
a  month.  Behind  A.  there  is  an  old  olive-wood, 
extending  to  the  base  of  the  neighbouring  hills,  and 
checkered  with  cypresses  and  gardens.  The  town 
is  the  residence  of  a  Greek  archbishop  and  of  a 
British  governor.     Pop.  4UU0. 

A'MAZOX,     MARAXO'N,    or     ORELLA'XA,     a 

river  which,  after  traversing  nearly  the  entire 
breadth  of  South  America,  enters  the  Atlantic 
between  Brazil  and  Guiana,  by  a  mouth  of  about 
150  miles  in  width — a  mouth  which,  though  it 
admits  the  tide  for  nearly  500  miles,  is  yet  so 
far  from  meeting  our  ordinary  notion  of  an  estuary, 
that  it  repels,  or  at  least  overlays,  the  ocean 
to  the  distance  of  more  than  50  leagues.  With 
its  various  tributaries — the  Napo,  the  Putumayo, 
the  Yapura,  and  the  Rio  Negro  from  the  north, 
and  the  lluallaga,  the  Yavari,  the  Jutay,  the  Jurua, 
the    Coary,    the   Purus,    the   Madeira,  the  Tapajos, 

187 


AMAZON— AMAZONS. 


and  the  Xingo  from  the  south — the  A.  drains 
about  2,000,000  square  miles,  an  area  equal  to  that 
of  Europe,  and  is  estimated  to  afford  an  inland 
navigation  of  60,0(i0  miles,  aline  double  the  circum- 
ference of  the  globe.  In  every  respect,  then,  the 
A.  may  well  claim  to  be  the  largest  of  i-ivers, 
excepting  only  that,  in  volume  of  contents  as  distin- 
guished from  volume  of  discharge,  the  St.  Lawrence, 
with  its  computed  mass  of  11,(M)0  cubic  miles,  has 
been  estimated  to  be  equal  to  all  the  other  bodies  of 
fresh  water  on  the  earth's  surface,  from  the  A.  down- 
wards. With  this  exception,  which — as  the  St. 
Lawrence  is  really  a  series  of  lakes — is  ratlier 
apparent  than  real,  the  Amazon  stands  forth 
as  the  king  of  rivers,  whether  trunk  be  com- 
pared with  trunk,  or  branches  with  branches,  alike 
in  essential  features  and  in  the  area  of  basin. 
Viewed  as  one  grand  system,  the  A.,  from  its 
sources,  from  which  the  Pacific  may  be  seen  within 
a  distance  of  60  miles,  to  its  embouchure,  comprises 
a  course  of  about  4000  miles ;  while,  gathering  its 
tribute  fiom  both  sides  of  the  equator  along  more 
than  20°  of  latitude,  it  presents,  perhaps,  between 
south  and  north,  a  longer  line  of  natural  com- 
munication than  even  between  west  and  east. 
Keckoning  from  the  western  range  of  the  Andes,  the 
A.  is  but  httle  better  than  a  mountain-torrent, 
till  it  has  burst  through  the  gorges  of  the  eastern 
range  of  the  chain,  where  it  is  ovc>r]iung  by  peaks 
that  tower  thousands  of  feet  above  its  bed.  But, 
■within  300  miles  from  the  Pacific — a  journey  of 
about  20  days  for  loaded  mules — the  branch 
called  the  Huallaga  is  practicable  for  canoes,  while, 
after  a  run  of  32.5  miles,  it  becomes  navigable  for 
vessels  drawing  five  feet,  growing  deeper  and  deeper, 
and  more  and  more  available  as  it  rolls  its  steadily 
swelling  flood  towards  the  oceaTi.  Nor  is  this  the 
remotest  point  of  cleaf  navigation  from  the  sea,  for 
the  Maranon  itself  is  estimated  by  Herndon  to 
carry  the  clear  navigation  about  one-iifth  higher  up, 
amounting  in  all  to  3360  miles.  What  an  idea  do 
these  single  threads  afford  of  this  matchless  net-work 
of  inland  navigation  !  But  it  is  not  to  its  own  basin 
alone,  vast  as  that  basin  is,  that  the  value  of  the 
A.  is  confined.  The  Rio  Tapajos  has  its  navigation 
separated  only  by  a  portage  of  18  miles  from  1;hat  of 
an  affluent  of  the  Plata;  the  Rio  Branco,  the  main 
tributary  of  the  Rio  Negro,  has  a  water-conmiuni- 
cation  which  is  only  two  hours  distant  from  that  of 
the  Essequibo  ;  while  the  Rio  Negro  itself  is  doubly 
connected  with  the  Orinoco,  reciiving  from  it  the 
navigable  Cassiquiare  (q.  v.),  and  wanting  only  a 
canal  over  a  portage  of  six  hours  to  complete  a  still 
more  useful  bond  of  union,  whose  superior  advan- 
tages will  certainly  one  day  lead  to  the  necessary 
improvement.  In  addition  to  all  this,  the  outlet 
of  this  mighty  river,  besides  washing  Cayenne, 
is  itself,  under  nature's  guidance,  a  feeder,  as  it 
were,  of  that  highway  of  nations,  the  Gulf  Stream. 
Thus  does  the  A.,  "to  say  nothing  more  of  its 
maritime  relations,  bring  its  inland  navigation, 
mediately  or  immediately,  to  bear.  Chili  alone 
excepted,  on  every  country  in  South  America — 
Venezuela,  Ecuador,  New  Granada,  Bolivia,  Peru, 
Brazil,  the  Guianas,  and  the  several  Argentine 
Republics.  This  is  not  mere  prospect ;  not  only 
has  the  basin  proper  of  the  A.  been  more  or  less 
frequently  traversed,  but  also  the  various  joints 
that  knit  it  to  other  basins  have  been  tested  by 
experience.  The  grandest  and  most  singular  of 
them  all,  besides  being  explored  by  Humboldt, 
has  been  phiced  beyond  a  doubt  by  the  denizens 
of  the  country.  The  barge-builders  of  San  Carlos, 
at  the  entrance  of  the  Cassiquiare  into  the  Rio 
Negro,  have  long  sent  vessels,  not  only  down  the 
Rio  Negro  to  Para,  on  the  Lower  A.,  but  hkewise  up 
188 


the  Cassiquiare  to  Angostura,  on  the  Lower  Orinoco ; 
thus  solving,  in  their  own  way,  the  problem  which 
systematic  geographers  were  elsewhere  deriding  as 
worse  than  a  fable — as  a  sheer  impossibility.  But 
still  the  navigation  of  the  A.  is  only  in  its  infancy. 
Para,  its  maritime  emporium,  having  a  business  that 
amounts  in  both  directions  to  only  2,()00,(i(i()  dollars. 
But  the  little  that  exists  has  been  achieved  under 
most  untoward  circumstances.  The  local  craft,  badly 
built  and  badly  rigged,  have  been  worse  manned, 
while  the  rapids  above,  all  safe  and  easy  for  the 
downward  trip,  are  often  rendered  more  ardimus 
to  the  upward  voyager  by  a  depth  which  forbids 
poling,  and  by  banks  which,  if  not  actually  sub- 
merged, are  in  general  too  thickly  tangled  for  towing. 
What  a  noble  field  for  steam!  Brazil  and  Peru 
have  themselves  seen  this  truth.  In  18G7,  the  A. 
and  its  tributaries  the  Tocantins,  San  Francisco, 
Tapajos  and  Madeira  were  opened  to  the  com- 
merce of  all  nations.  Thus  ojiened  to  all  comers, 
the  magnificent  region  of  the  A.  will  become 
the  garden  of  the  world,  teeming  as  it  docs  with 
game,  fish,  coffee,  sugar,  cotton,  tobacco,  maize,  rice, 
sarsaparilla,  cocoa,  indigo,  grapes,  bananas,  spices, 
dyes,  drugs,  india-rubber,  cabinet  woods,  building- 
timber,  and  prec'ous  metals.  Yet  so  feebly  has 
Nature  been  seconded  by  man,  red  and  white  alike, 
that  Herndon,  on  his  long  downward  voyage,  seldom 
got  anything  better  than  farinha  and  salt  fish, 
and  even  of  these  doubtftd  delicacies  not  always 
enough.  What  is  wanted  is  an  inl'u-ion  of  new 
blood.  The  colonists,  themsjclves  sulhciently  indo- 
lent, describe  the  aborigines  as  bad  citizens  and 
worse  slaves.  In  short,  whether  for  trade  or 
for  colonisation,  this  almost  untrodden  world  is 
as  promising  as  it  is  boundless.  In  the  presence 
of  industry,  every  dilliculty  would  vanish.  Steam 
must  there  woik  the  same  wonders  that  it  has 
already  worked  in  siiuilar  wildernesses.  Nor  will 
steam  have  all  the  burden  to  beai'.  In  spite  of  the 
weight  of  the  river,  which  has  been  already  stated  to 
drive  back  the  sea,  as  such,  out  of  sight  of  land,  the 
tide,  as  the  reader  will  remember,  makes  its  inflence 
felt  for  nearly  500  miles  from  the  coast;  while  the 
easterly  trades  arc  re^uly  to  waft  the  adventurer  to 
his  destination  ;  and,  lastly,  what  is  more  than  all, 
the  wind  on  the  river,  ap|)arently  a  continuation  of 
that  from  the  sea,  blows  almost  invariably  upwards, 
so  as  to  be  ready  to  help  the  screw  or  the  paddle 
against  the  adverse  current. 

A'MAZONS,  AMAZONES.  According  to  a  very 
ancient  tradition,  the  A.  were  a  nation  of  women, 
who  suffered  no  men  to  remain  among  them,  but 
marched  to  battle  under  the  command  of  their 
queen,  and  formed  for  a  long  time  a  fornndable 
state.  They  held  occasional  intercourse  Aviih  the 
men  of  the  neighbouring  states.  If  boys  were  born 
to  them,  they  either  sent  them  to  their  fathers,  or 
killed  them.  But  they  brought  up  the  girls  for 
war,  and  burned  off  their  right  breasts,  that  they 
might  not  be  prevented  from  bending  the  bow. 
From  this  custom  they  received  the  name  of  A., 
that  is,  '  breastless.'  Such  is  the  ordinary  tale;  the 
origin  of  which  is  perhaps  to  be  accounted  for  by 
supposing  that  vague  reports,  exaggerated  and  poeti- 
cally embellished,  had  reached  the  Greeks  of  the 
peculiar  way  in  which  the  women  of  various  Cauca- 
sian districts  lived,  performing  military  duties  which 
elsewhere  devolved  on  hu.sbands,  and  also  of  the 
numerous  examples  of  female  heroism  which,  travel- 
lers inform  us,  still  distinguish  the  women  of  that 
region.  In  later  times,  however,  the  word  Amazon 
has  been  supposed  to  have  some  connection  with  the 
Circassian  word  'Maza,'  signifying  the  moon,  as  if 
the  myth  of  the  A.  had  taken  its  origin  in  the 
worship  of  the  moon,  which  prevailed  on  the  borders 


AMBASSADOR. 


of  A^ia.  Tlnei^  nations  of  A.  liave  been  mentioned 
by  the  ancients.  1.  The  Asiatic  A.,  from  whom 
the  others  braaehod  off.  These  dwelt  on  the  shores 
of  the  Black  Sea,  and  among  the  inonntains  of 
the  Cancasus,  especially  in  the  neij;hboin-hood  of 
the  modern  Trebisoiid,  on  the  river  Thermodon 
(now  Termch).  They  are  said  to  have  at  one  time 
subdued  the  whole  of  Asia,  and  to  have  built 
Smyrna,  Ephesus,  Cumte,  and  other  cities.  Their 
queen,  Ilippolyte,  or,  according  to  others,  Antiope, 
was  killed  bv  Hercules,  as  the  ninth  of  the  labours 
imposed  oa  him  by  Eurystheus  consisted  in  taking 
from  her  the  shoulder-belt  bestowed  on  her  by 
Mars.  On  one  of  their  expeditions,  the  A.  came  to 
Attica,  in  the  time  of  Theseus.  They  also  marched 
under  the  command  of  their  queen,  Penthcsilea,  to 
assist  Priam  against  the  Greeks.  They  even  appear 
upon  the  scene  in  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
when  their  queen,  Thalestris,  paid  him  a  visit,  in 
order  to  become  a  mother  by  the  conqueror  of  Asia. 
2.  The  Scythian  A.,  who,  in  after-times,  married  j 
among  the  neighbouring  Scythians,  and  withdrew 
further  into  Sarmatia.  3.  The  African  A.,  who, 
under  the  command  of  their  queen,  Myrina,  subdued 
the  Gorgons  and  Atlantes,  marched  through  Egypt 
and  Arabia,  and  founded  their  capital  on  the  Lake 
Tritonis,  but  were  then  annihilated  by  Hercules. 
See  Nagel,  GeschicJite  der  Amnzonen  (Stuttgart, 
1838.) 

AMBA'SSADOR  is  a  title  by  which  the  highest 
order  of  diplomatic   ministers  is  distinguished,  and 
the  person  holding  such  a  high  commission  may  be 
defined  to  be  an  officer  sent  by  one  sovereign  power 
to  another  to  treat  on  affairs  of  state.     The  creden- 
tials, or  letters  of  credence,  of  an  A.  are  addressed 
directly  by  his  own   sovereiga  to  the  sovereign  to 
whom  he  is  sent,  and  with  whom  he  has  the  privilege 
of  personal  communication.  In  the  performance  of  all 
his  diplomatic  duties,  an  A.  is  understood  to  repre- 
sent, not    only  the   affairs,   but  the   dignity  and  the 
power  of  his  master  ;  and  by  the   law  of  nations,  he 
has  many  important  rights  and  privileges,  the  chief 
of  which  is  exemption  from  the  control  of  the  mu- 
nicipal laws  of  the  nation  wherein  he  is  to  exercise  his 
functions,  an  exemption  that  is  not  confined  to  the  A. 
himself,  but  is  extended  to  all  his  suite,  including  not 
only  the  persons  employed  by  him  in  diplomatic  ser- 
vices, but  his  w  ife,  chaplain,  and  household  generally. 
But  there  is  a  dispute  among  legal  writers  whether 
this  exemption  extends   to   all  crimes,  or  Avhether  it 
is  limited   to    such    offences   as  are  7nala  prohibita, 
as  coining,  and    not  to  those  that    are  mnla  in  se, 
as  murder.     The  law   of  England  appears  to  have 
formerly   allowed   the   exemption    in    the   restricted 
sense    only;     and    in    the    year    1G54,    daring    the 
Protectorate  of  Cromwell,  "the   Portuguese  A.  was 
tried,  convicted,  and  executed,  for  an  atrocious  mur- 
der.    But  now,  according  to  the  general  (jractice  of 
this  country,  as  well  as  that  of  the  rest  of  Europe,  it 
is  considered  that  the  security  of  an  A.  in  conducting 
the  intercourse  of  nations,  is  of  more  importance  than 
the  punishment  of  a  particular  crime,  and  therefore 
few  examples  have  happened  in  modern  times  where 
an  A.  has  been  punished  for  any  offence.     In  regard 
to  civil  suits,  the  privilege  of  exemption  is  clear  and 
undoubted,  and  has  been  expressly  recognized  by  an 
act  of  parliament,   the  7th  Anne    c.  12,  the  history 
of  which,  as   given  by  Blackstone,  is  curious.     That 
learned  commentator'cites  the  opinion  of  Sir  Edward 
Coke,    who    was    disposed    to    qualify    the    absolute 
exemption  of  ambassiidors   in   civil  proceedings,  by 
maintaining,  that  if  an  A.  to  the  English  cotirt  make 
a  contract,  which  is   good  according  to  the  law  of 
nations,  he  shall  answer  for  it  in  England.     Blackstone 
then  proceeds  :      '  But  the  truth  is,  so   few  cases  (if 
auv)  had  arisen,  wherein  the    privilege  was  either 


claimed  or  disputed,  even  with  regard  to  evil  suits, 
that  our  law-books  are  (in  general)  (piite  silent  upon 
it,  previous  to  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne,  w  hen  an  A. 
from  Peter  the  Great,  ("zar  of  Muscovy,  was  actually 
arrested,  and  taken  out  of  his  coach  in  London,  for 
a  debt  of  £'>o^  which  he  had  there  contracted. 
Instead  of  applying  to  be  discharged  upon  his  privi- 
lege, he  gave  bail  to  the  action,  and  the  next  day 
complained  to  the  queen.  The  persons  who  were 
concerned  in  the  an  est  were  examined  before  the 
privy-council  (of  which  the  Lord  Chief-justice  Holt 
was  at  the  same  time  sworn  a  member),  and  seven- 
teen were  conmiitted  to  prison,  most  of  whom  were 
prosecuted  by  information  in  the  Court  of  Queen's 
Bench,  at  the  suit  of  the  Attorney-general;  and  at 
their  trial  before  the  Lord  Chief-justice,  were  con- 
victed of  the  facts  by  the  jury  ;  reserving  the  ques- 
tion of  law,  how  far  those  facts  were  criminal,  to  be 
afterwards  argued  before  the  judges ;  which  question 
was  never  determined.  In  the  meantime,  the  Czar 
resented  this  affront  very  highly,  and  demanded  that 
the  sheriff  of  Middlesex,  and  all  others  concerned  in 
the  arrest,  should  be  punished  with  instant  death. 
But  the  queen  (to  the  amazement  of  that  despotic 
court)  directed  her  secretary  to  inform  him,  that  she 
could  inflict  no  punishment  upon  an)/  the  meanest  of 
her  subjects,  imless  warranted  b;/  the  law  of  the  land; 
and  therefore  was  persuaded  that  he  xcoidd  not  insist 
upon  impossibilities.  To  satisfy,  however,  the  cla- 
mours of  the  foreign  nunisters,  who  made  it  a  com- 
mon cause,  as  well  as  to  appease  the  wrath  of  Peter, 
a  bill  was  brought  into  parliament,  and  afterwards 
passed  into  a  law  (the  7th  Anne  c.  12),  to  prevent 
and  punish  such  outrageous  insolence  for  the  future ; 
and  with  a  copy  of  this  act  elegantly  engrossed  and 
illuminated,  accompanied  by  a  letter  from  the  queen, 
an  A.  extraordinary  was  commissioned  to  appear  at 
Moscow,  who  declared,  that  though  her  majesty  could 
not  inflict  such  a  punishment  as  teas  rerjuired,  because 
of  the  defect  in  that  particular  of  the  former  established 
const Itiit ions  of  her  kingdom,  yet,  with  the  u7tanimous 
consent  of  the  parliament,  she  had  caused  a  new  act  to 
be  passed,  to  serre  as  a  law  for  the  future.  This 
humiliating  step,'  says  Blackstone,  '  was  accepted  as 
a  full  satisfaction  by  the  Czar;  and  the  offenders, 
at  his  reipiest,  were  discharged  from  all  further 
prosecution.' 

But  although  an  A.  ia  'not  amenable  to  any 
tribunal  of  the  country  ho  resides  in,  he  cannot  mis- 
conduct himself  with  impunity.  He  must  respect 
the  laws  and  customs  of  the  country  in  which  he  is 
officially  resident;  and  if  he  violates  or  offends  these 
laws  and  customs,  he  may  be  complained  of  to  the 
court  or  government  which  he  represents;  or  if  the 
offence  is  of  a  very  serious  nature,  his  recall  may  be 
demanded,  or  the  sovereign  to  whom  he  has  given 
such  offence  may  dismiss  him  peremptorily,  and 
further  require  that  he  be  brought  to  trial  in  his  own 
countrv.  It  hardly  need  be  added,  that  if  an  A.  is 
guilty  of  an  offence  which  threatens  the  safety  of 
the  state,  he  ceases  to  enjoy  the  privileges  of  the 
exemption  in  question. 

There  arc  some  other  and  inferior  privileges  which 
are  very  generally  allowed  to  ambassadors  :  they 
are,  for  instance,  permitted  the  free  exercise  of  their 
reli"-ion  ;  they  are,  in  general,  exempted  from  direct 
taxation'  they  have  special  letter-bags,  and  they 
are  usually  allowed  to  import  their  goods  without 
paying  any  cuslom-honsc  duties — a  privilege,  how- 
ever, "which,  being  liable  to  abuse,  has  sometimes 
been  limited. 

Ambassadors  are  of  two  kinds — first,  those  who 
reside  regularly  at  the  court  to  which  they  are 
accredited ;  and,  secondly,  those  who  are  sent  on 
special  occasions,  when  they  receive  the  designation 
of  Amdassadors  Extraordinary. 

189 


AMBER— AMBO. 


There  are  otlicr  inferior  diplomatic  agents,  wlio, 
according  to  tlic  nature  of  their  duties,  receive  the 
title  of  Charge  d'affaires,  Minister  Plenipoten- 
tiary, or  Envoy  (q.  v.). 

A'MBER,  a  substance  analogous  to  the  vegetable 
resins,  and,  in  all  probability,  derived  from  an 
extinct  coiuforous  tree,  although  now  appearing,  like 
coul,  in  connection  with  beds  of  which  it  is  usually 
found,  as  a  product  of  the  mineral  kingdom.  It  is 
usually  of  a  palc-yollow  colour,  sometimes  reddish 
or  brownish,  is  sometimes  transparent,  sometimes 
almost  opaque.  It  occurs  in  round  irregular  lumps, 
grains,  or  drops;  has  a  perfectly  conchoidal  fracture, 
is  slightly  brittle,  emits  an  agrecal)le  odour  when 
rubbed,  melts  at  550°  F.,  and  burns  with  a  bright 
flame  and  pleasant  smell.  It  becomes  negatively 
electric  by  friction,  and  possesses  this  property  in  a 
high  degree — which,  indeed,  was  first  observed  in 
it,  and  the  term  electricity  is  derived  from  elcktron, 
the  Greek  name  of  A.  The  specific  gravity  of  A. 
is  I'O — 1"1.  It  is  ultimately  composed  of  carbon 
73,  hydrogen  10-5,  and  oxygen  lOS.  An  acid  called 
succinic  acid  (named  from  the  Lat.  sncciniDH,  amber) 
is  obtained  from  if.  A.  had  formerly  a  higti  reputa- 
tion as  a  medicine,  but  the  virtues  ascribed  to  it 
were  almost  entirely  imaginary.  An  antispasmodic 
volatile  oil  is  obtained  from  it  by  distillation. 
A.  is  employed  in  the  arts,  for  the  manufacture  of 
many  ornamental  articles,  and  for  the  preparation 
of  a  kind  of  varnish.  Great  quantities  are  con- 
sumed in  Mohammedan  worship  at  Mecca,  and  it 
is  in  great  demand  throughout  the  east.  It  was 
obtained  by  the   ancients   from  the   coasts   of  the 


I  is  well  built,  with  double  walls  and  five  strong  gates, 

land    contains    11,0(10   inhabitants.      It   is   the  seat 

I  of  the  court  of  appeal  for  the   district,  possesses  a 

library  of  34,(»iO  volumes,  a  lyceum,  an  agricultural 

1  and   industrial   school,    a   house    of  correction,    an 

j  arsenal,   &c.      The   principal   f)roducls  are   firearms, 

earthenware,  woollen  cloths,  ironmongery,  and  beer. 

A.  has  14  breweries,  a  large  cattle  and  swine  market, 

a   market   for   hops,  and   an    important   salt-trade. 

Many  of  the  inhabitants  are  employed  as  miners  in 

the    neiglibouring    mountains.      The     suburbs    are 

adorned  with  beautiful  gardens  and  shaded  alleys. 

A'MBERGRIS  (i.  c.,  gray  amber),  a  fatty  sub- 
stance, of  an  ash-gray  colour,  with  yellow  or  reddi.sh 
striae,  like  those  of  marble,  whieh  is  found  in  lumps 
of  from  half  an  ounce  in  weight  to  lOO  lbs.  and 
upwards,  floating  on  the  sea,  or  cast  upon  the  sea- 
shore in  ditVerent  parts  of  the  world,  and  is  also 
taken  by  whale-fisheries  from  the  bowels  of  the 
spermaceti  whale  {Plujseter  inacroccjiltalns:).  Much 
A.  is  obtained  from  the  coasts  of  the  Bahama 
Islands ;  it  is  also  brought  from  diflerent  parts  of 
the  East  Indies,  and  the  coast  of  Africa  and  Brazil. 
It  is  probable  that  all  of  it  is  produced  by  the 
spermaceti  whale,  and  that  it  is  a  morbid  secretion 
in  the  intestinal  canal  of  that  animal,  derived  from 
the  bile.  It  is  highly  valued,  upon  account  of  its 
agreeable  smell,  and  is  much  used  in  perfumery. 
The  price  is  about  20.<(.  an  oimce.  It  has  been 
strongly  recommended  for  medieinal  uses,  but  is 
scarcely  employed  in  Europe ;  although,  in  some 
parts  of  Asia  and  Africa,  it  is  much  used  as  a 
medicine,  and  also  in  cookery  as  a  condiment.  The 
specific  gravity  of  A.  is  scarcely  more  than  0'9.  It 
almost  always  contains  black  spots,  which  appear 
to  be  caused  by  the  presence  of  beaks  of  the  Srpia 
octopodia,  the  principal  food  of  the  spermaceti  whale. 
It  consists  in  great  part  (85  per  cent.)  of  a  peculiar 
brilliant  white  crystalline  substance  called  Ainbre'in, 
which  is  obtained  from  it  by  treating  it  with 
alcohol. 

A'MBO  (Lat.),  a  kind  of  reading-desk  or  pulpit, 
which,  in  early  churches,  was  placid  in  the  choir. 
The  Gospels  and  Epistles  were  read  from  the  A.,  and 
sermons  were  sometimes  preached  from  it,  although 
the  more  usual  practice  in  the  primitive  church  was 
for  the  preacher  to  stand  on  the  steps  in  front  of 


Amber,  with  enclosed  insects. 

Baltic  Sea,  where  it  is  still  found,  especially  between 
Konigsberg  and  Memel,  in  greater  abundance  than 
anywhere  else  in  the  world.  It  is  there  partly  cast 
up  by  the  sea,  partly  obtained  by  means  of  nets, 
and  partly  dug  out  of  a  bed  of  bituminous  wood.  It 
is  found  elsewhere  also  in  coal,  and  occasionally  in 
diluvial  deposits,  as  in  the  gravel  near  London  ;  but 
it  is  very  rare  in  Britain.  It  is  obtained  in  small 
quantities  from  the  coast  of  Sicily  and  the  Adriatic, 
and  is  found  in  different  parts  of  Europe,  in  Siberia, 
Greenland,  <fcc.  It  sometimes  encloses  insects  of 
species  which  no  longer  exist.  Leaves  have  also 
been  found  enclosed  in  it.  Specimens  which  contain 
insects  or  leaves  being  much  valued,  fictitious  ones 
are  often  manufactured  and  imposed  upon  collectors. 
According  to  an  ancient  fable,  A.  is  the  tears  of  the 
sisters  of  Phaethon,  who,  after  his  death,  were 
changed  into  poplars.  The  ancients  set  an  immense 
value  upon  it.  Pieces  of  A.  have  occasionally  been 
found  of  12  or  13  lbs.  weight,  but  such  pieces  are 
extremely  rare. 

A'MBERG,  the  old  capital  of  the  Upper  Palatinate 
in  Bavaria,  35  miles  east  of  Kiirnberg,  and  32  north 
of  Ratisbon.     It  is  situated  on  both  sides  of  the  Vilz, 
190 


Ambo,  St.  Clement's  Church,  Rome. 

the  altar.  The  A.  is  still  to  be  found  in  oriental 
churches,  and  specimens  of  it  may  be  seen  in  Rome. 
The  A.  had  two  ascents — one  from  the  east,  and  the 
other  from  the  west.  In  the  Roman  churches,  there 
were  two  anibos,  one  on  each  side  of  the  choir,  from 
one  of  which  the  Gospel  was  read,  and  from  the 
other,  the  Epistle.  Where  two  such  ambos  were 
used,  their  construction  was  somewhat  ditVerent. 
The  name  A.  was  also  given  to  the    analogium  or 


AMBOISE— AMBROSE. 


reading-desk  used  in  nlOIla^^tic  choirs,  which  was 
usually  ill  the  form  of  an  eagle. 

AMBOrSE,  a  town  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Loire, 
in  the  deijartnient  of  Indre-et-Loire,  France.  It  is 
15  miles  by  railway  east  of  Touis,  and  lies  in  a  region 
so  rich  in  vineyards  that  it  has  been  called  'the 
Gaiden  of  France.'  Its  manufactures  are  unim- 
portant. A.  jx)ssesses  a  castle,  in  which  several  of 
the  French  kings  have  resided.  Chark-s  VIII.  was 
born  here.  It  was  also  the  scene  of  his  death.  The 
town  is  memorable  as  the  place  in  which  the  religious 
wars  that  devastated  the  kingdom  during  the  IGth 
c.  broke  out,  and  where  the  word  '  Huguenot' was 
first  applied  to  the  Protestant  party.  The  castle  of 
A.  was  much  improved  by  Louis  Philippe,  and  was 
the  residence  of  the  gallant  Arab  chief,  Abd-el- 
Kader,  during  his  captivity  in  France.     Pop.  42G0. 

AMBOISE,  George  d',  cardinal  and  prime- 
minister  under  Louis  XII.  of  France,  was  born,  1460, 
at  Chaumont-sur-Loire.  When  only  fourteen  years 
old,  he  was  made  Bishop  of  Montauban,  and  almoner 
to  Louis  XL,  and,  in  1493,  was  made  Archbishop  of 
Rouen.  Initiated  in  early  years  into  the  intrigues  of 
court,  he  soon,  by  his  zealous  services,  secured  the 
confidence  of  Louis  of  Orleans  (Louis  XII.),  by  whom 
he  was  made  premier  in  1498.  From  this  time,  A. 
became  the  prime  mover  in  all  the  political  affairs  of 
France.  By  his  advice,  the  king  undertook  the 
capture  of  Milan,  which  had  such  great  influence  on 
the  fortunes  of  France.  After  the  death  of  Pope 
Alexander  VI.,  A.  endeavoured  to  raise  himself  to 
the  papal  see,  and  having  failed,  became  the  danger- 
ous enemy  of  the  succeeding  popes,  Pius  III. — who 
occupied  the  papal  chair  only  27  days — and  Julius 
II.  To  secure  his  own  election,  A.  encouraged  a 
schism  between  the  F^rench  Church  and  the  See  of 
Rome,  and  convened  a  separate  council,  held  first  at 
Pisa,  afterwards  at  Milan  and  Lyon  ;  but  his  plans 
were  frustrated  by  the  failures  of  the  French  army 
in  Italy.  He  died  at  Lyon,  May  25,  1510.  The 
Cardinal  A.  was  a  dexteious  and  experienced  states- 
man;  but  was  accused  of  avarice,  vanity,  and 
ambition,  and  it  was  said  that  his  vast  fortune  of 
11,000,000  livres  had  not  been  accumulated  by 
over-scrupulous  means.  His  biography  was  written 
by  Montagnes  (1631)  and  Legendre  (Rouen,  1724). 

AMBOY'NA,  one  of  the  Molucca  or  Spice  Islands 
in  the  Eastern  Archipelago.  It  is  the  chief  of  a 
group  of  which  the  next  in  importance  are  Ceram, 
Puhi-Buru,  Haruco  or  Oma,  &c.,  and  lies  in  lat. 
3°  26—3°  48'  S.,  long.  127°  50'— 128°  15'  E.  It  is 
about  32  miles  long,  with  an  average  breadth  of  10, 
and  is  irreguhir  in  shape,  being  nearly  divided  in  two 
by  the  deep  Bay  of  Binnen ;  it  is  mountainous,  well 
watered,  and  thickly  w  ooded.  The  climate  is  healthy 
— average  temperature,  82°  F. ;  lowest,  72° — but  the 
monsoons  bring  deluges  of  rain.  It  is  worthy  of 
remark  that  the  mon.-oons  are  quite  reversed  on 
the  opposite  sides  of  120°  long.,  the  east  nion?oon 
bringing  rain  and  storm  in  A.,  while  in  Borneo  it 
brings  fair  weather  ;  and  vice  verm,  the  west  monsoon 
bringing  sunshine  in  the  Moluccas,  and  tempest  in 
Java.  This  island  produces  the  usual  spices  and 
fruits  of  these  regions,  but  has  been  specially  appro- 
priated l)y  its  possessors,  the  Dutch,  to  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  clove,  to  secure  the  monopoly  of  which 
they  have  stooped  to  the  most  contemptible  expe- 
dients, extirpating  all  the  trees,  except  in  particular 
localities,  where  they  are  carefully  numbered.  The 
annual  produce,  which  varies  considerably,  averages 
about  500,000  lbs.,  each  tree  yielding  from  2  to  6 
lbs.  The  cajeput  tree,  Avhich  yields  a  valuable 
medicinal  oil,  grows  in  A. ;  and  the  sago-palm,  which 
aftbrds  the  chief  food  of  the  inhabitants,  is  exten- 
sively cultivated.     Fine  indigo  is  also  raised.     The 


principal  wild  animals  are  hogs  and  deer.  The  prc- 
dondnant  race  are  the  Malays.  The  aboriginal  race, 
the  lloraforas,  live  in  a  wild  state  in  the  forests.  The 
Chinese  form  a  small  but  important  section  of  the 
population,  being  the  principal  merchants  ;  and  still 
fewer  are  the  ruling  race,  the  Hutch. 

Amiioyna,  the  principal  town  in  the  island, 
on  the  souih-cast  shore  of  the  Bay  of  Binnen,  is 
clean  and  well  built,  and  contains  9(iOo  inhabitants. 
It  is  protected  by  Fort  Victoria,  an  irregular  hexagon, 
with  a  horn-work  towards  the  sea,  and  a  ditch  and 
covered-v.-ay  on  the  land  side,  conmiandcd,  however, 
by  two  neighbouring  heights. 

The  population  of  the  whole  group  of  islands,  of 
which  A.  is  the  chief,  was,  by  the  last  official  return, 
282,000.  A.  was  discovered  by  the  I'ortuguese  in 
1511,  and  16  years  afterwards  they  formally  took 
possession  of  this  among  the  rest  of  the  Moluccas. 
In  16  >7,  their  oppressive  sway  was  succeeded  by 
that  of  the  Dutch.  The  English  East  India  Company 
formed  a  settlement  here  in  1612,  which  was  extir- 
pated in  1622  by  the  Dutch,  with  those  circun\- 
stances  of  diabolical  cruelty  which  made  the  '  A. 
massacre '  long  memorable.  For  this  barbarous 
proceeding  due  retiibution  was  exacted  many  years 
after  by  Cromwell.  The  island  was  taken  by  tlie  Brit- 
ish in  1796,  restored  at  the  peace  of  Amiens,  recap- 
tured in  1810,  and  again  given  up  to  the  Dutch  in 
1814,  whose  rule,  though  mitigated  from  its  former 
severity,  is  still  characterised  by  an  intolerance  and 
harshness  unworthy  of  a  civilized  nation. 

A'MBROSE,  S.\iNT,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of 
the  ancient  fathers  of  the  church,  was  born  about 
the  year  340,  prol)al)ly  at  Treves,  where  his  fiither, 
as  Prefect  of  Gaul,  was  wont  to  reside.  A.  received 
a  fortunate  omen  even  in  his  cradle  :  a  swarm  of 
bees  covered  the  slumbering  boy  ;  and  the  astoni.shed 
nurse  saw  that  the  bees  clustered  round  his  mouth, 
without  doing  him  any  harm.  His  lather,  perhaps 
remembering  a  sinnlar  wonder  related  of  Plato, 
foreboded  from  this  a  high  destiny  for  A.  He  received 
an  excellent  education,  and  went  with  his  brother 
Satyrus  to  Milan,  in  order  to  follow  the  legal 
profession.  He  soon  distinguished  h.imsclf  so  much, 
that,  in  369,  he  was  appointed,  by  Valentinian,  Prefect 
of  Upper  Italy  and  Milan.  In  this  oHice,  his  gentle- 
ness and  wisdom  won  for  him  the  esteem  and  love  of 
the  people,  whose  prosperity  had  been  much  injured 
by  the  troubles  caused  by  Arianism.  Accordingly, 
by  both  Arians  and  Catholics,  he  was  unanimously 
called  to  be  Bishop  of  Milan,  in  374.  A.  long  re- 
fused to  accept  tills  dignity,  and  even  left  the  city; 
yet  he  soon  returned,  was  baptised,  as  hitherto  he 
iiad  been  only  a  catechumen,  and  was  consecrated 
eight  days  afterwards.  The  anniversary  of  this  event 
is  still  celebrated  as  a  fete  by  the  Catholic  Church. 
As  a  bishop,  A.  won  the  universal  reverence  of  all, 
by  his  mild  and  gentle,  though,  towards  wickedness 
of  every  kind,  severe  and  unbending  character. 
Thus,  he  re[)ulsed  the  Emperor  Theodosius  himself 
even  from  the  door  of  the  church,  on  account  of  his 
having  caused  the  rebellious  Thessaloidans  to  be 
cruelly  massacred  by  Rutinus,  excommunicated  him, 
and  only  restored  him  to  the  church  after  eight 
months  of  severe  penance.  A.  died  in  .397.  The 
best  edition  of  his  works,  in  which  he  followed  in 
many  things  the  Greek  theological  writers,  is  that 
published  by  t'.ie  Benedictines  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1686 — 
1690).  The  hymn,  7c  Deum  Laudrvnus,  is  usually 
ascribed  to  A.,  but  it  is  proved  to  have  been  written 
100  years  later.  The  Ambrosian  ritual  has  also 
received  his  name,  only  because  A.  had  made  some 
changes  upon  it,  which  are  retained  at  the  present 
day  in  the  Milanese  Church.  A  commentary  on 
the  epistles  of  Paid,  which  was  formerly  ascribed  to 
A.,  was  probably  composed  by  the  Roman  deacon 

191 


AMBROSIA— AMBULANCE. 


Ililarius,  and  is  usually  quoted  as  the  Coiumeatary 
of  the  Ambrosiastei\  A.  is  the  patron  saint  of 
Milan,  and  tlie  Anibrosian  Library  received  its  name 
in  honour  of  hiui. 

AMBROSIA,  in  Greek  and  Roman  Mythology,  is 
the  name  of  the  food  of  the  gods,  which  conferred 
immortal  youth  and  beauty.  It  was  brought  by 
doves  to  Jupiter,  and  was  occasionally  bestowed  upon 
such  human  beings  as  were  the  peculiar  favourites 
of  the  gods.  A.  was  also  used  as  a  fragrant  salve, 
wliich  the  goddesses  employed  to  heighten  their 
beauty;  with  which  Jupiter  himself  anointed  his 
locks ;  and  which  had  the  property  of  preserving 
bodies  from  corruption.  Hindu  mythology  has  also 
its  amrita  (from  a,  signifying  'wiliiout'  or  '  not,' 
and  the  Sanscrit  root,  allied  to  the  Lat.  inort,  and 
Greek  brof),  or  liquor  of  immortality,  that  resulted 
from  the  churning  of  the  ocean  by  the  gods ;  and 
the  gods  of  the  Scandinavian  pantheon  were  preserved 
in  perpetual  vigour  by  eating  the  apples  guarded  by 
Idun. 

AMBRO'SIAN  CHANT,  the  choral  music  of  the 
early  Christian  Church,  introduced  from  the  eastern 
church  into  the  western  by  St  Ambrose,  Bishop  of 
Milan,  in  the  4th  c. ;  it  was  founded  on  the  first 
lour  authentic  modes  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  and  was 
sung  antiphonally.  It  continued  in  use  until  the 
6th  c,  when  Pope  Gregory  the  Great  reformed  the 
nuisic  of  the  church  by  introducing  the  Gregorian 
chant.  There  exists  still  another  specimen  of  music 
by  Ambrosius,  which  is  now  known  only  in  the 
German-Lutheran  Church  by  Luther's  translation  of 
the  words,  Ahin  kommt  der  Heiden  Heiland ;  it  is 
beyond  a  doubt  1400  years  old,  and  remains  to  this 
day  a  beautiful  specimen  of  melody,  expressive  of 
filial  humility  and  subnussion.  The  A.  C.  continued 
to  be  still  sung  in  the  catliredal  at  Milan  long  after 
Gregory's  reformation,  and  till  this  day,  it  is  said,  it 
may  be  heard  there. 

AMBROSIAN  LIBRARY,  a  library  in  Milan, 
£0  named  in  honour  of  St  Ambi'ose,  the  patron  saint 
of  that  city.  It  was  established  in  16(i9  by  the 
Cardinal  Archbishop  Federigo  Borromeo,  a  lover  of 
art,  who  employed  learned  men  to  collect  books  both 
in  Europe  and  Asia.  This  Library  was  ai'terwards 
enriched  by  the  acquisition  of  the  MSS.  of  the 
Pinelli  collection.  Borromeo  intended  to  establish, 
:n  connection  with  the  Library,  a  college  of  sixteen 
learned  men,  each  having  charge  of  a  particular 
department,  whose  duty  should  be  to  make  known  the 
works  contained  in  the  Library,  and  assist  strangers 
in  their  researches.  The  want  of  funds  limited 
this  college  to  two  members,  who  bear  the  title  of 
Doctores  Bibliothecai  Ambrosianas.  The  library 
contains  above  60,000  printed  books  and  15,000 
MSS.  Among  the  many 
rarities  belonging  to  it, 
besides  the  Palimpsests, 
and  other  as  yet  unedited 
MSS.  discovered  by  Maio, 
Castiglione,  and  Mazzu- 
chelli,  it  contains  a  '  Vir- 
gil,' in  which  Petrarch 
had  written  an  account 
of  his  first  meeting  with 
Laura. 

A'MBRY,    ATJMERY, 

ALMERY   (supposed  by 

.'ome  to  be  a  corruption 

Ambry,  Rushden,  North-    of  Almonry),  a  niche  in 

umptoiishire— 14th  century,  the  wall  of  a  church,  shut 

in  by  a  door ;  or  a  small 

cabinet  of  wood   placed  by  the  side  of  the  altar,  for 

the  purpose  of  holding  the  vestments  and  utensils, 

102 


such  as  the  chalices,  basins,  cruets,  &c.,  used  for  the 
service  of  the  mass.  In  monastic  buildings,  ambries 
were  used  for  various  purposes,  such  as  keej)ing 
plate,  hanging  towels  for  tlie  monks  to  dry  their 
liands  with  before  dinner,  and  the  like.  In  this 
sense,  the  term  A.  seems  to  have  been  applied  to  any 
kind  of  cupboard  which  was  closed  in  and  locked, 
and  it  is  so  used  in  Scotland  at  the  present  day. 

AMBULACRA  (from  the  Latin  ambidare,  to 
walk),  the  name  given  to  peculiar  organs  of  locomo- 
tion with  which  star-fishes  and  other  Evhiimdermata 
are  furnished.  They  are  fleshy,  more  or  less  elon- 
gated, and  terminated  by  suckers.  They  pass  through 
orifices  in  the  shell  or  other  external  integument  of 
the  animal,  and  are  generally  arranged  in  rows. 
Those  of  the  Echini^  or  Sea-urchins,  are  long  enough 


Ambulacra  of  Star-fish, 

As  soon  in  a  lonpitndinni  and  vertical  section  of  one  of  the 
r.iys;  and  three  of  them  in  a  separate  tiiriire  on  a  larj;er 
scale,  in  which  they  are  shewn  in  different  conditions: 
a.  <i.  a,  tuliiilar  feet:  h,  h,  h,  internal  ve.-icles;  c,  the  or{;an 
which  sui)i)lies  the  fluid  with  which  they  are  filled. 

to  extend  beyond  the  point  of  the  spines,  and  by 
means  of  them  the  animal  is  able  to  climb  a  perpen- 
dicular rock.  They  are  tubular,  and  each  has  at  its 
base  a  vesicle,  filled  with  a  fluid  which,  on  the  con- 
traction of  the  vesicle,  is  forced  into  the  tube, 
dilating  it  to  its  full  extent,  whilst,  on  the  contrac- 
tion of  the  tulie,  the  fluid  returns  again  into  the 
vesicle.  The  fluid  is  not  secreted  by  these  vesicles 
but  provided  for  them  by  distinct  secreting  organs. 

A'MBULANCE,  a  military  term  which  is  some- 
what differently  applied  in  different  countries.  In 
France,  an  A.  is  a  portable  hospital,  one  of  which  ia 
attaeh.ed  to  every  division  of  an  army  in  the  field, 
and  provided  with  all  the  requisites  for  the  medical 
succour  of  sick  and  wounded  troops.  Such  an  A. 
is  stationed  at  some  spot  removed  from  immediate 
danger;  and  soldiers  are  sedulously  employed  after 
a  battle  in  seeking  out  those  w  ho  have  fallen,  and 
conveying  them  to  the  A.  Baron  Larrey,  during 
the  great  wars  of  the  First  Napoleon,  brought  this 
department  of  medical  business  to  a  high  degree  of 
rfticiency,  and  set  an  example  to  the  rest  of  Europe. 
When  England  engaged  in  war  witli  Russia  in  1854, 
the  A.  arrangements,  like  many  others  relating  to  the 
army,  were  in  a  very  imperfect  state.  In  the  English 
army,  an  A.  sometimes  means  a  litter  for  carrying 
from  the  field  of  battle  those  who  have  been  placed 
/lors  de  combat;  while  at  other  times  the  name  is 
applied  to  a  four-wheeled  wagon  or  a  two-wheeled 
cart  fitted  up  for  the  reception  of  wounded  men. 
When  Lord  Rnglan  was  about  to  be  sent  out  with 
the  army,  Dr.  Guthrie,  President  of  the  College  of 
Surgeons,  devised  a  new  form  of  A.  cart ;  while 
Dr.  Andrew  Smith,  Director-general  of  the  Arniy  and 
Ordnance  Medical  Department,  invented  a  new  A. 
wagon.    Annexed  is  a  figure  of  Dr.  Guthrie's  A.  cart. 


AMBULANCE  CORrS— AMENDMENT. 


The  badly  wouirKcI  were  laid  on  it  at  full  k-iigth, 
while  those  slij^htly  hurt  snt  in  front  and  rear, 
and  on  the  sides.  A  stretcher  is  slung  from  the 
top   for    the   accoraniodatiou    of  the   former.     The 


Ambulance  cart. 

back-board  is  let  down  for  cases  requiring  ampu- 
tation. The  hospital  chests  are  lashed  under- 
neath. Many  of  Smith's  A.  wagons  and  of 
Guthrie's  A.  carts  were  at  once  made  and  sent 
out  to  the  East ;  but  they  were  not  at  the  proper 
place  when  most  wanted.  After  the  battle  of  the 
Alma,  in  which  1986  British  officers  and  soldiers 
were  killed  or  wounded,  Lord  Raglan,  who  was 
almost  without  A.  and  draught-animals,  was  much 
embarrassed  for  the  means  of  dealing  with  his  poor 
suffering  men;  the  conveyance  of  them  down  to 
the  beach  for  shipment  to  the  military  hospitals  at 
Scutari,  was  a  work  of  delay  and  misery  to  all 
concerned.  The  French,  who  had  1360  Icilled  or 
wounded  at  the  same  battle,  had  a  large  number  of 
cacolets,  which  had  been  suggested  to  them  by  their 
experience  in  Algeria.  Each  of  these  consists  of  a 
sort  of  easy-chair — or  rather  two  easj-'chau-s — slung 
in  panniers  across  the  back  of  a  mule  :  they  are  com- 
fortable to  the  wounded  men,  and  are  available  along 
tracks  where  no  wheel-carriage  conld  pass.  During 
the  siege  of  Sebastopol,  the  English  were  much  dis- 
tressed in  their  A.  arrangements  liy  the  want  of  men, 
draught-animals,  forage,  and  vehicles.  In  the  recent 
war  in  the  U.  S.,  great  improvements  were  made  in 
the  construction  of  A. ;  and  hospital  R.  R.  cars  and 
steamboats  were  fitted  up  for  the  purpose  of  trans- 
porting the  sick  and  wounded  to  points  remote  from 
the  scenes  of  hostilities. 

AMBULANCE  CORPS.  When  the  A.  wagons 
and  carts,  noticed  in  the  last  article,  were  ordered 
for  construction,  the  War  authorities  made  arrange- 
ments for  supplying  a  body  of  men,  to  drive  the 
vehicles  and  to  attend  the  sick  and  wounded.  These 
men  were  to  constitute  an  A.  C,  to  which  there  had 
been  nothing  before  analogous  in  the  English  army. 
The  experiment  was  unsuccessful ;  and  at  a  later 
period  of  the  war,  the  A.  C.  was  superseded  by  the 
Land  Transport  Corps ;  which,  since  the  conclusion 
of  the  war,  has  given  way  to  the  Military  Train. 
See  Land  Tkanspokt  Corps,  Military  Train. 

A'MBULATORY.  A  name  occasionally  given  in 
architecture  to  the  cloisters  of  a  cathedral,  college, 
or  the  like. 

A'MBUSCADE  is  one  of  the  manoeuvres  adopted 
in  war.  The  original  Italian,  jmioscate  ('concealed 
in  a  wood  '),  denotes  the  general  nature  of  the  A.  ; 
but  the  meaning  is  now  much  more  extended,  seeing 
that  it  applies  to  any  attempt  to  attack  an  enemy 
by  lying  in  wait  and  corning  upon  him  unexpectedly. 
In  former  days,  when  soldiers  fought  hand  to  hand 
more  frequently  than  at  present,  the  A.  was  much 
resorted  to ;  but  the  tactics  of  modern  times  render 
it  less  available.  It  was  by  an  A.  on  the  part  of  the 
revolted  sepoys  that  so  many  British  soldiers  were 
killed  and  wounded  in  that  adventure  which  was 
known,  during  the  wars  of  the  Indian  mutiny,  as 
13 


the  '  disaster  at  Arrah,'  in  July  1S.J7.  An  A.  is 
neither  an  '  attack '  nor  a  '  surprise,'  in  military 
language  ;  it  is  something  more  sudden  and  unex- 
peetedtlian  either. — Ambush  is  another  name  for 
ambuscade. 

AMELANCHIER,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Rosaccce  (q.  v.),  sub-oider  Pomew, 
distinguislfed  by  having  five  ovaries,  each  of  which 
is  divided  into  two  cells,  with  one  ovule  in  each 
cell,  the  ripe  fruit  including  3 — 5  carpe  s.  It  con- 
sists of  a  few  species  of  small  trees  with  deciduous 
simple  leaves,  abundant  racemes  of  white  flower.s, 
and  small  fruit  of  the  size  of  a  pea,  or  a  little  larger, 
but  soft,  juicy,  and  agreeable.  The  conunou  A. 
{A.  vulgaris)  is  a  native  of  the  Alps,  Pyrenees,  &c. 
The  other  species  are  n;itives  of  North  America. 
A.  Canadensis  is  sometimes  called  June-berry,  from 
its  fruit  ripening  in  June,  before  that  of  any  other 
tree  or  shrub  ;  and  A.  oralis  produces  a  very  pleas- 
ant fruit,  which  makes  excellent  puddings.  The 
amelanchicrs  are  planted  in  Britain  merely  as  orna- 
mental trees.     They  are  very  hardy. 

A'ME'N,  a  Hebrew  word  of  asseveration,  is  equiv- 
alent to  '  Yea,'  '  Truly,'  and  has  been  commonly 
adopted  in  the  forms  of  Christian  worship.  In 
Jewish  synagogues,  the  A.  is  pronounced  by  the 
congregation  at  the  conclusion  of  the  benediction 
given  at  parting.  Among  the  early  Christians,  the 
prayer  ottered  by  the  presbyter  was  concUided  by 
the  word  A.  uttered  by  the  congregation.  Mention 
IS  made  of  the  practice  in  the  1st  Epistle  to  the 
Corinthians  (xiv.  16).  Justin  Martyr  is  the 
earliest  of  the  fathers  who  alludes  to  the  use  of 
the  response.  '  In  speaking  of  the  sacrament,  he 
savs  that,  at  the  close  of  the  benediction  and 
prayer,  all  the  assembly  respond  "  A."  Accord- 
ing'to  TertuUian,  none  but  the  faithful  were  per- 
mitted to  join  in  the  response.'  A  somewh.at  noisy 
and  irreveient  practice  prevailed  in  the  celebration 
of  the  Lord's  Supper  until  the  6th  c.,  after  which  it 
was  discontinued.  '  Upon  the  reception  both  of  the 
bread  and  of  the  wine,  each  person  uttered  a  loud 
"  A. ;  "  and  at  the  close  of  the  consecration  by  the 
priest,  all  joined  in  shoutinrf  a  loud  "  A."  '  The  same 
custom  was  observed  at  baptism,  where  the  sponsora 
and  witnesses  responded  vehemently.  In  the  Greek 
Church,  the  A.  was  pronounced  after  the  name  of 
each  person  of  the  Triidty  ;  and  at  the  close  of  the 
baiitismal  formula,  the  people  responded.  At  the 
conclusion  of  prayer,  it  signifies  (according  to  the 
English  Church  Catechism)  So  be  it ;  after  the  repe- 
tition of  the  Creed,  So  is  it. 

AMENDMENT  is  a  term  used  both  in  judicial 
and  parliamentary  proceedings.  In  the  former,  it  is 
a  jiower  of  correction  of  any  errors  in  actions,  suits, 
or  prosecutions,  wliich  has  been  greatly  extended  of 
late,  and  which  has  largely  improved  and  simpli- 
fied the  administration  of  the  law,  both  in  England 
and  in  Scotland.  In  parliament,  the  word  A.  is 
used  when  it  is  intended  to  oppose,  vary,  or  qualify 
a  question  or  resolution;  and  in  the  case  of  bills,  it 
is  employed  as  a  courteous  method  of  dismissing  the 
bill  from  any  further  consideration,  by  moving  that 
instead  of  '  now,'  it  be  read  at  the  end  of  three  months, 
six  months,  or  any  other  term  beyond  the  probable 
duration  of  the  session.  It  is  also  competent  to  a 
member  to  move  as  an  A.  to  the  question  a  resolution 
declaratory  of  some  principle  adverse  to  that  of  the 
bill,  provided  it  be  strictly  relevant,  as  was  lately 
done  successfully  by  Lord  John  Russell,  when  he 
moved  and  carried,  as  an  A.  to  the  motion  for  the 
second  reading  of  the  Reform  Bill  of  Lord  Derby's 
government,  a  resolution  declaratory  of  a  principle 
which  the  supporters  of  that  measure  considered  to 
be  subversive  of  it. 

19» 


AMEXTACE^— AMERICA. 


AMENTA'CE^E,  according  to  tome  botanists,  a 
natural  order  of  dicotyledonous  or  exogenous  plants, 
consisting  entirely  of  trees  and  shrubs,  whose  flowers 
are  unisexual,  the  male  flowers,  and  very  often  also 
the  female  flowers,  disposed  in  amenta  or  Catkins 
(q.  v.),  and  the  perianth  either  wanting  or  incomplete. 
This  order,  whiuli  contains  many  well-known  and 
important  trees,  is  divided  into  a  number  of  sub- 
orders, which  by  many  have  been  erected  into 
distinct  orders,  forming  the  Amental  Alliance  of 
Lindley.  Under  A.  are  ranked  Salicincie  or  Sali- 
caccce  (see  Willow),  Muricuc  (see  Candlebekry 
Myrtle),  Casuarinacece  (see  Casuakina),  Betulaccce, 
(see  Birch),  Altinrjiacece,  called  also  Balxamaccce, 
but  not  to  be  confounded  with  Bal.iaininaceo!,  or 
Bahamincce  (see  Liqitidambar)  ;  by  sonic  also 
Corylacece  or  Cupnlifcne  (q.  v.),  and  Platanew  (sec 
Plane),  both  of  which  Lindley  excludes  from  his 
Amental  Alliance,  associating  the  former  with 
Juglandacece  (see  Walnut),  as  a  distinct  allinnce, 
and  referring  the  latter  to  the  Urtical  Alliance. 
See  Urticace^.  On  the  other  hand,  h.e  unites  with 
the  Amental  Alliance  the  order  Elitagnaceie.  See 
El^agnus. 

AMEXTHES,  an  Egyptian  mythological  word 
equivalent  in  meaning  to  the  Greek  word  JIacks, 
the  unseen  world.  Plutarch  explained  it  as  signify- 
ing '  the  giving  and  taking,'  an  interpretation  gener- 
ally adopted,  but  erroneously.  A.  literally  means 
'  the  hiding'  (-place  understood).  On  Egyptian  mon- 
uments we  find  the  god  Anubis  leading  to  A.  the 
Fouls  which,  in  the  form  of  birds,  nre  escaping  from 
the  body  through  the  mouth.  He  conducts  them 
before  the  throne  of  Osiris,  who  sits  as  judge,  with 
a  council  or  jury  of  forty-two  persons.  The  female 
deity.  Anient,  represented  on  monuments  in  Upper 
Egypt,  is  merely  a  female  form  of  Amnion,  and  lier 
name  has  no  connection  with  that  of  A. 

AME'RICA,  one  of  the  four  quarters  of  the  globe; 
being  smaller  than  Asia,  but  larger,  pcrhiips,  than 
both  fairope  and  Africa  taken  together.  It  is  the 
only  one  of  the  four  main  divisions  of  the  land  tliat 
is  washed  by  all  the  four  great  oceans — the  Northern, 
the  Atlantic,  the  Southern,  and  th«  Pacific. 

If  Ticrra  del  Fucgo  and  Greenland  are  included 
— as  ought  to  be  done  on  geological  grounds — A. 
occupies  about  150°  of  long.,  and  about  135°  of  lat. 
Speaking  generally,  its  extreme  length  may  be  said 
to  be  on  a  meridian,  and  its  extreme  breadth  on  a 
parallel — facts  which,  in  tlic  light  of  analogy,  look 
more  like  a  law  tlian  an  accident.  As  the  map  will 
shew,  similar  coincidences  occur  in  South  A.  by  itself ; 
in  Africa,  in  Europe,  in  Asia,  and  in  Australia.  As 
between  Asia  and  A.,  moreover,  it  deserves  to  be 
noticed  that  the  meridional  semicircles,  along  which 
run  their  respective  lengths,  form,  with  an  interval 
of  18t/°,  one  and  the  same  meridional  circle. 

Like  the  old  continent,  A.  has  been  divided  by 
nature  into  two  peninsulas — Darien  and  Suez  being 
the  isthmuses,  while  South  A.  corresponds  with  Afri- 
ca, and  North  A.  with  Asia  and  Europe.  Even  to 
this  extent,  however,  the  resemblance  is  by  no  means 
close.  In  tlie  new  world,  the  whole  of  the  lower 
peninsula  is  to  the  south  of  the  whole  of  the  U[)pcr 
one,  while  Asia  overlaps  half  the  latitude,  and  more 
than  half  the  magnitude,  of  Africa. 

Of  the  northern  half  of  A.,  the  soutnern  section, 
on  account  of  essential  differences  in  character  and 
appearance,  is  in  general  contemplated  by  itself 
under  the  name  of  Central  A. — the  most  convenient 
limit,  perhaps,  being  a  line  drawn  from  the  mouth  of 
Rio  Bravo  del  X^orte  to  the  lower  end  of  peninsular 
California  ;  and  this  line,  besides  its  geographical 
propriety  on  both  coasts,  has  the  recommendation 
of  marking,  on  the  nearer  coast,  the  international 
194 


boundary  of  the  United  States  and  Mexico.  Central 
^■1.,  it  is  to  be  observed,  has  a  political  signification 
as  well  as  a  physical  one,  comprising  in  the  former 
sense,  the  comparatively  small  states  between  Mexi- 
co and  New  Granada — Guatemala,  Honduras,  San 
Salvador,  Costa  Rica,  and  Nicaragua. 

Physically,  however,  these  three  subdivisions  of 
A.  may  be  regarded  as  one,  being  knit  together  on 
the  west  side  by  a  backbone,  as  it  were,  of  moun- 
tains, which,  under  various  names  and  various  as- 
pects, stretches  fiom  the  extreme  south  at  Cajjc  Horn 
to  nearly  the  extreme  north  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Mackenzie.  To  this  mountain-system  we  shall  have 
occasion  to  refer  under  the  distinct  heads  oi  Andes, 
Cordilleras  of  Central  A.,  and  I^ocky  Molntains, 
restricting  ourselves  at  present,  in  accordance  with 
the  general  aim  of  this  article,  to  such  features  of 
the  entire  chain  as  may  incidentally  come  under  our 
notice  in  connection  with  earthcpiakcs,  volcanoes, 
climate,  or  hydrography ;  and  with  regard  to  this 
article  generally,  the  subject  being  A.  as  a  whole, 
we  shall,  as  seldom  and  as  little  as  po-sible,  antici- 
pate details,  which,  even  if  anticipated  here,  must 
still  bo  repeated  under  the  respective  heads  of  their 
proper  localities. 

.  In  thus  treating  of  A.,  we  shall  consider  separately 
its  (arth(jnnkcs  and  rolcanocK^  its  climate,  its  hi;dro- 
(jrapfu/,  its  hintori/ — coui[)rchending  its  discovery  and 
its  colonisation,  but  excluding  anytliing  like  the  an- 
nals of  any  individual  state — and,  lastly,  its  ycology, 
botany,  and  zoology. 

The  eartlupiakes  and  volcanoes  of  A.  are  to  be 
found  chielly  in  the  backbone  of  mountains  already 
mentioned.  In  South  A.  they  may  be  said  to  be 
exclusively  so  found,  being  confined  to  the  Andes 
projier,  that  skirt  the  Pacific,  and  to  ilie  Vene- 
zuelan spur  or  branch  of  the  main  range.  The 
same  remark  may  be  applied  to  Central  A.  But  in 
North  A.,  the  energy  which  produces  both  classes 
of  phenomena  appears  to  have  followed  rather  the 
coast,  than  the  continuous  chain  which  diverges 
gradually  from  it — earthquakes  being  often  felt  in 
the  maritime  towns  of  Upper  Calilornia,  and  vol- 
canoes having  left  their  traces  behind  them  on  the 
islands  of  Russian  A.  The  agency  in  question  seems 
to  have  travelled  from  north  to  south  along  the  coast, 
having  exhausted  itself  in  its  more  ancient  seats ; 
and  this  view  derives  support  from  the  obvious 
formation  of  the  Sandwich  Islands,  which  are  as 
nearly  as  possible  parallel  with  the  west  coast  of 
A.,  between  Bohring's  Strait  and  the  equator. 
On  this  interesting  subject  we  quote  from  Sir 
George  Simpson's  Overland  Journey :  'The  whole 
group  appears  to  have  been  thrown  up  from  the 
deep  by  volcanic  action  advancing  from  the  north- 
west to  the  south-east,  and  increasing  in  force  as  it 
advanced ;  so  tliat,  while  island  rose  after  island, 
each  grew  at  once  in  height  and  in  breadth  according 
to  the  intensity  of  tlie  power  that  heaved  it  upwards 
from  the  waters.  Thus  Bird  Island,  a  barren  rock 
taking  its  name  from  its  only  inhabitants,  must  be 
considered  as  the  germ  of  the  archipelago,  as  the  first 
fruits  of  a  submarine  energy  that  was  here  only 
kindling  its  fires;  while  the  other  links  in  the  chain, 
Kauai,  Woahoo,  Mowee,  and  Hawaii,  not  only  ditter, 
as  I  have  just  mentioned,  at  once  in  extent  and  in 
elevation,  but  also  present,  as  they  pioceed,  less  and 
less  evidence  of  antiquity  in  their  gradually  diminish- 
ing proportions  of  land  capable  of  cultivation — a 
proof  the  more  conclusive,  inasmuch  as  the  soil  of  the 
whole  group  undeniably  consists  of  the  successive 
gifts  of  years  and  ages  and  centuries.  Moreover, 
the  visible  laboratories  of  the  subterranean  fire, 
which  are  scattered  over  the  archipelago,  confirm 
the  same  view:  the  craters  are  all  extinct,  excepting 
on  Hawaii ;    and  even  on  Hawaii,  Mouna  Loa,  tlie 


AMERICA. 


most  .eouth-cnsterly  of  its  tlirce  great  safety-valves', 
iilouc  bears  living  testimony  to  the  creative  impulse 
that  has  called  the  whole  chain  into  existence,  and 
bears  it,  too,  only  through  its  lateral  volcano  of 
Kilauoa,  which,  besides  itself  looking  to  the  east, 
appears,  by  the  gradual  advance  of  subsidiary  out- 
lets down  its  eastern  declivities,  to  be  rolling  the 
hidden  sources  of  its  strength — pcradventuie  there 
to  forge  fresh  islands — under  the  bed  of  the  ocean.' 

Climate. — In  comparing  A.  with  the  older  con- 
tinent, we  must  contrast  not  cast  and  west  with 
each  otlier,  but  west  with  west,  and  east  with  east — 
neither  Newfoundland  with  England,  nor  British 
Columbia  with  Kamtchatka,  but  Kamtchatka 
with  Newfoundland,  and  England  with  British 
Columbia.  Such  a  comparison  shows  that  the 
difference  lies  not,  as  is  often  assumed,  between 
the  two  continents,  but  between  the  opposite 
shores  of  either  continent  within  itself.  For  instance, 
at  Naiii,  in  Labrador,  the  mean  temperature  is  7^ 
F.  below  freezing ;  while  at  Archangel,  in  Russian 
A.,  it  is  Vl°  above  freezing.  This  ditference  of  19° 
between  the  east  and  west  coasts  of  the  New  WorM, 
is  only  a  very  little  less  than  the  difference  between 
the  east  coast  of  the  New,  and  the  west  coast  of  the 
Old  ;  for  the  temperature  of  Gottcnburg,  in  Sweden, 
is  only  21°  higher  than  that  of  Nain.  It  is  to  be 
remarked,  however,  that  this  difference  between  the 
opposite  coasts  of  the  two  continents  diminishes  as 
we  proceed  southwards.  New  York  is  only  7°  colder 
than  Naples  ;  and  Florida  has  the  same  temperature 
as  Cairo. 

In  illustration  of  the  contrast  between  the  cast  and 
west  coasts  of  A.,  we  are  told,  by  the  traveller  already 
cited,  that,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  River, 
the  first  half  of  December  presented  one  deluge 
of  rain  after  another  from  the  south-east,  this 
weather  winding  up  on  the  10th  of  the  month 
with  a  storm  of  thunder  and  lighting;  'while,  to 
mark  the  difference  of  climate  between  the  two 
sides  of  the  continent,  the  good  folks  of  Montreal, 
though  occupying  a  lower  parallel  than  ourselves, 
were  sleighing  it  merrily  through  the  clearest  and 
driest  of  atmospheres.'  Nor  is  the  difference,  ac- 
cording to  the  same  authority,  less  palpal)le  in  the 
old  continent  than  in  the  new.  '  To  jilace  in  the 
most  striking  light  the  contrast  in  point  of  climate 
between  the  opposite  shores  of  the  old  continent, 
Kamtchatka  and  the  British  Isles  may  be  said,  with 
sufficient  accuracy  for  this  purpose,  to  lie  in  the  same 
latitudes,  and  to  present  the  same  area,  and  even  to 
occupy  the  same  position  with  respect  to  the  prox- 
imity of  water;  and  yet,  while  the  British  Isles,  with 
but  little  foreign  aid,  feed  at  least  25,ii(i(t,0()(»  inhabi- 
tants, Kamtchatka,  with  the  help  of  extraneous  sup- 
plies, can  barely  prevent  its  population  of  4000  souls 
from  starving.' 

But  whatever  influences  may  be  common  to  the 
climates  of  both  continents,  the  climate  of  A.  is 
subject  to  two  peculiar  influences — that  contincmt's 
prolongation  southward,  and  its  backbone  of  momi- 
tains.  Willi  respect  to  the  former  point,  A.  ad- 
vances at  least  'i(_i°  further  southward  than  Africa — 
fdlly  more  than  half  the  interval  between  the  latter 
and  antarctic  ice ;  so  that  the  southern  breezes, 
which,  in  summer,  bring  freshness  and  delight  to 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  waft  cold  and  misery  to 
Cape  Horn.  Two  of  Cook's  peoi)le,  on  his  first 
voyage,  were  frozen  to  death  in  Tierra  del  Fucgo 
towards  the  end  of  January — in  a  month  corre- 
sponding with  our  July,  and  in  a  latitude  the  same  as 
that  of  Edinburgh.  The  backbone  of  mountains, 
again,  that  other  point  which  peculiarly  influences 
the  climate  of  A.,  does  its  work  in  two  ways. 
Throughout  almost  its  entire  course,  its  height  ar- 
rests the  passage  of  the  clouds  and  rains.     Within 


and  about  the  tropics,  these  are  borne  from  the  cast 
by  the  trades;  in  the  more  teniijcrate  regions,  they 
are  brought  from  the  west  by  the  prevailing  counter- 
currents  of  air.  But  in  either  case,  the  windward 
slope  of  the  mountain  barrier  is  a  fertile  garden,  the 
leeward  slope  a  barren  de.sert.  In  the  more  central 
plateaus,  again,  of  Quito  and  Mexico,  the  various 
terraces  present  as  many  climates,  and  bring  to- 
gether, under  the  same  parallel,  all  the  temperatures 
and  energies  of  nature. 

But  there  exist,  more  particularly  in  North  A., 
peculiarities  of  climate  which  cannot,  perhaps,  be 
referred  to  any  known  cause.  On  the  opposite  sides, 
for  instance,  of  the  great  water-shed  between  the  Gulf 
of  Jlexico  and  Hudson's  Bay,  antagonistic  results  are 
said  to  shew  themselves  in  winter.  ()n  the  northern 
side,  the  climate  is  understood  to  improve  as  one  ad- 
vances westward,  the  Saskatchewan,  though  in  a  con- 
siderably higher  latitude,  opening  earlier  in  sj)ring 
than  the  St.  Lawrence  ;  whereas,  on  the  southern 
side,  ice  forms  in  New  Orleans,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Mi.ssissippi,  strong  enough  to  bear  half-grown  boys, 
a  thing  wholly  unprecedented  on  the  corresponding 
parallel  of  the  Atlantic  shore.  Even  in  summer,  at 
least  on  the  northern  side  of  the  water-.shed  in  ques- 
tion, something  of  a  similar  change  of  climate  has 
been  observed,  for  maize,  which,  in  Lower  Canada, 
is  a  precarious  crop,  even  on  the  international  line 
of  45°,  regularly  ripens,  in  Red  River  settlement, 
which,  besides  5^  more  of  latitude,  is  at  least  loOO 
feet  higher  above  the  level  of  the  .sea. 

With  respect  to  that  portion  of  A.  which  is  best 
known,  a  popidar  misapprehension  generally  prevails 
as  to  the  steadiness  of  its  climate  in  any  given  sea.son 
of  the  year.  The  Canadian  sunnner,  for  instance,  is 
supposed  to  be  an  unbroken  period  of  tropical  heat ; 
and  the  Canadian  winter  to  be,  in  its  turn,  an  un- 
broken period  of  hyperborean  cold.  Now,  in  both 
directions,  this  is  a  great  mistake.  The  sunnner 
of  British  A.  is  often  tropical,  and  its  winter  often 
hyperborean,  the  extreme  ranges  of  the  thermom- 
eter, according  to  the  experience  of  credible  inform- 
ants in  localities  to  the  south  of  London,  sometimes 
being,  in  one  and  the  same  year,  lo4°  F.  above  zero, 
and  5'2°  below  it.  But  this  difference  of  15(i°,  which 
rs  measured  probably  by  an  interval  of  six  months,  is 
far  less  remarkable  than  the  diflerences  which 
a  few  days  may  bring  forth.  The  highest  range 
occurred  within  four  days,  after  parlour-fires 
had  been  given  up;  and  the  lowest  fell  on  a 
day  which,  a  year  or  so  before,  had  been  marked 
by  a  powerful  thaw.  In  the  city  of  Montreal  it- 
self, ot)  hours,  or  less,  have  sometimes  exhil)ited 
a  difference,  up  or  down,  of  OO^  F.  in  winter; 
and  even  in  summer,  whether  in  Lower  Canada 
or  in  the  north-west,  one  can  seldom  reckon  on 
any  other  month  than  July  as  free  from  night-frosts. 
In  this  respect  the  Canadian  climate  may  be  taken 
as  a  sample  of  the  climate  of  North  A.  in  general, 
extreme  ranges  of  temperature,  as  prevaihng  re- 
spectively in  summer  and  winter,  l)eing  naturally 
attended  by  more  or  less  considerable  vicissitudes  in 
each  indiviilual  season. 

In  the  tropieal  regions,  however,  of  A.,  whether 
Central  or  Southern,  a  singular  uniformity  of  tem- 
perature does  exist  on  each  of  tlie  various  terraces  of 
the  moimtain  chain.  The  same  parallel,  as  has  been 
alreadv  mentii)ned,  presents  at  once  the  torrid,  the 
temperate,  and  the  frigid  zones.  Such  a  view  of  the 
matter,  however,  is,  to  a  certain  extent,  deceptive, 
for  in  not  one  of  the  three  cases  are  the  vicissitudes 
of  the  respective  zones,  properly  so  called,  found  to 
shew  themselves.  Each  level  is  said  to  be  so  steady 
in  its  temperature  as  to  enfeeble  and  enervate  the 
inhabitants  through  the  monotony  even  of  that 
which    is    in    itself  good ;  and  in  such   cases,    the 

195 


AMERICA. 


salutary  prescription  is  to  ascend  or  to  descend,  for 
a  time,  from  one  terrace  to  another. 

lljldrograpjiii. — With  the  backbone  of  mountains 
as  the  principal  water-shed  of  A.,  the  rivers  on  oppo- 
site sides  of  the  continent  are  still  more  different  than 
the  climates.  Excepting  in  Central  A.,  the  dif- 
ference in  question  is  enormous.  Even  in  North 
A.,  where  it  is  less  than  iu  South  A.,  the  contrast  is 
sufficiently  striking.  On  the  west  side  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  the  only  streams  worthy  of  notice  in  such 
a  summary  as  this  are  the  Colorado,  which  flows 
into  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  California  ;  the  Sacra- 
n)ento,  which  enters  the  haibour  of  San  Francisco; 
and  the  Columbia,  which  empties  itself  into  the 
open  ocean — three  rivers  which,  if  compared  with 
the  waters  of  the  opposite  coast,  are,  in  practical 
value,  inferior  singly  to  the  Hudson,  and  collectively 
to  the  Rio  Bravo  del  Norte.  On  the  east  side,  how- 
ever, there  e.xist  rivers  to  which  the  Rio  Bravo  del 
Norte  and  the  Hudson  are  but  as  brooks.  To  begin 
with  the  extreme  north:  the  Mackenzie,  besides 
draining  a  large  basin  on  its  own  side  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  draws  fiom  beyond  them  two  of  its 
principal  feeders,  the  Peace  and  the  Liarde,  burying 
itself,  however,  under  the  perennial  ices  of  the 
Aictic  Ocean.  Passing,  without  further  notice,  the 
Coppermine  and  the  Fish  River,  of  l)Oth  which  the 
interest  is  purely  historical  in  connection  with  arctic 
discovery,  we  come  to  the  Nelson,  which  Jirings 
down  to  Hudson's  Bay  the  Winnipeg  and  the  Red 
River,  two  streams  bordering  respectively  on  the 
head-waters  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Mississippi, 
and  also  the  two  branches  of  the  Saskatchewan, 
which  all  but  touch  the  sources  of  the  ('olunil)ia 
and  the  Missouri.  Next  in  order  is  that  long  alter- 
nation of  mighty  river  and  mightier  lake — that 
reservoir  of  half  the  lite-blood  of  the  earth — 
which,  under  the  name  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  gradu- 
ally becomes  a  sea.  South  of  the  St.  Lawrence, 
along  the  coast,  we  meet  the  Atlantic  streams  of 
New  Brunswick  and  the  United  States,  all  of  them 
valuable  beyond  their  magnitude,  and  most  of  them 
connected,  more  or  less  closely,  with  the  Alleghanies 
— the  St.  John,  the  Penobscot,  the  Connecticut,  the 
Hudson,  the  Delaware,  the  Susquehanna,  and  the 
Potomac.  Round  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  we 
reach,  besides  many  second-rate  rivers  in  cither 
direction,  perchance  the  most  important  stream  on 
the  face  of  the  globe — a  stream  which,  after  uniting 
the  Mississippi  and  the  Missouri  under  the  name  of 
the  former,  receives  on  the  right  the  Arkansas  and 
the  Red  River,  and  on  the  left  the  Ohio,  enriched,  as 
it  is,  with  the  tributes  of  the  Wabash  and  the  Ten- 
nessee. 

In  South  A.,  again,  the  difference  between  east  and 
west  is  still  more  remarkable.  On  the  west,  the 
Guayaquil,  the  only  stream  worth  mentioning,  is  not 
to  be  compared  even  with  the  rivers  that  flow  from 
the  subordinate  ranges  of  Brazil  or  Guiana  ;  while, 
on  the  east,  the  Andes  send  down,  besides  the  Mag- 
dalena  flowing  into  the  Caribbean  Sea,  the  Orinoco, 
the  Amazon,  and  the  Plata,  into  the  open  ocean 
across  the  almost  entire  breadth  of  the  continent — 
three  networks  of  inland  navigation,  which,  under 
the  head  of  the  Amazon  (q.  v.),  we  have  already 
shewn  to  be  virtually  one,  and,  beyond  that,  to  be 
virtually  linked  with  "the  Essequibo  of  British  Guiana. 
Nor  will  the  disparity  between  the  two  coasts  of 
the  continent  be  less  striking,  if  the  harbours  are 
considered  as  well  as  rivers,  the  external  outlets 
as  well  as  internal  channels.  On  the  Pacific,  South 
A.  possesses,  to  the  north  of  Chili,  only  two  ports 
entitled  to  the  name,  Panama  and  the  Guayaquil 
already  mentioned ;  while,  on  the  same  coast. 
North  A.,  along  a  line  of  3000  miles  up  to  British 
Columbia,  presents  only  five  safe  ajid  convenient 
196 


havens — Acapulco,  Mazatlan,  Magdaleiui  Bay,  San 
Diego,  and  San  Francisco.  But  the  Atlantic  side 
presents  a  contrast  to  which  no  language  can  do 
justice.  To  take  the  divisions  as  they  come:  New- 
foundland has  its  St.  John's,  Cape  Breton  its  Louis- 
burg,  Nova  Scotia  its  Halifax,  New  Brunswick  its  St. 
Andrews,  Maine  its  Portland,  New  Hampshire  its 
Portsmouth,  Massachusetts  its  Boston,  Coiniecticut 
its  Newhaven,  Rhode  Island  its  Newport,  and  so  on. 
Nor  is  this  all.  While  fully  a  third  part  of  the  riv- 
ers of  Europe  and  Asia  are  lost  to  the  conmierce  of  the 
world  at  large  in  the  frozen  seas  of  the  north,  or  in 
such  land-locked  pools  as  the  Aral  and  the  Caspian, 
all  the  cojisiderable  rivers  of  A.,  with  the  Mackenzie 
as  the  oidy  exception,  are,  more  or  less,  channels  of 
communication  between  the  open  ocean  and  the 
interior.  To  take  the  three  grandest  examples — 
The  Amazon,  with  a  basin  estimated  to  contain 
1,500,000  square  miles,  is  navigable  for  steam-vessels 
up  every  one  of  its  main  branches,  nearly  to  the 
eastern  foot  of  the  Andes;  thus  comprising  several 
available  lines  of  2500  miles  each,  and  presenting,  as 
a  whole,  a  network  of  such  lines  to  the  amount  of  at 
least  ten  times  that  length.  The  Mississippi,  again, 
navigable  as  it  is  at  once  to  the  Alleghanies  and  to 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  between  them,  more  to 
the  north,  as  far  as  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony,  has 
been  computed  to  afford  to  the  steam-vessel  an  unin- 
terrupted career  of  SC,000  miles.  But  perhaps  the 
St.  Lawrence,  if  less  extensive,  is  more  marvellous 
still.  Owing  to  British  improvements  of  its  channel. 
New  York  and  Pcinisylvania  have  virtually  a  sea- 
board on  their  inland  shores  ;  while  Ohio,  Indiana, 
and  Illinois,  accessible  to  ships  from  tl  e  Gulf  of 
St.  Lawrence  by  the  lakes,  and  from  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  by  the  Slississippi,  far  eclipse,  in  the  heart 
of  a  continent,  the  peculiar  boast  of  ancient  Corinth 
as  the  mart  of  two  seas. 

To  append  a  few  subordinate  examples  :  nearly  all 
the  considerable  rivers  along  the  coast  between  the 
St.  Lawrence  and  the  Mississippi  possess  far  more 
than  an  average  value,  in  proportion  to  their  lengtlis, 
as  arteries  of  internal  comnmnication.  The  Atlantic 
slope  of  the  Alleghanies,  in  particular,  presents,  as 
a  whole,  perhaps  twice  as  many  facilities  in  this  way 
as  any  other  region  of  equal  extent  on  the  face  of 
the  earth — facilities,  too,  which  have  been  not  less 
zealously  and  successfully  improved  titan  those  of 
the  St.  Lawrence.  The  Hudson  has  been,  at  vast 
expense,  and  with  indomitable  energy,  connected 
with  the  basin  of  the  St.  Lawrence  at  three  points — 
on  Lake  Erie,  on  Lake  Ontario,  and«on  Lake  Cham- 
{)lain  ;  and  the  Susquehanna  has  been  in  like  manner 
connected  with  the  basin  of  the  Mississippi  by  a  canal 
which  terminates  at  Pittsburg  on  the  Ohio. 

But  in  one  part  of  A.,  still  smaller  streams  than 
these  last  are  entitled  to  particular  attention.  We 
allude  to  those  streams,  five  in  number,  which  prom- 
ise to  vie  with  each  other  in  connecting  together  the 
Pacific  and  the  Atlantic  Oceans. 

The  five  rivers  in  question  form  parts  of  three 
different  routes.  The  Atrato  of  the  Atlantic  side 
co-operates  with  the  San  Juan  of  the  opposite  coast 
a  little  below  the  Isthmus  of  Darien ;  the  San  Juan 
of  the  Caribbean  Sea,  with  the  lake  of  Nicaragua, 
and  with  the  smaller  lake  of  Leon  more  to  the 
westward  ;  and,  lastly,  the  Coatzacoalcos  of  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  with  the  Tehuantepec  of  the  bay  of  its 
own  name. 

To  begin  with  i\\e  first  route  :  the  Atrato  and  the 
San  Juan  flow,  in  contrary  directions,  through  the 
slightly  undulating  country  into  which  the  Andes 
gradually  subside  as  they  approach  the  Isthmus. 
Their  head-waters  are  said  to  be  near  to  each  other, 
the  Atrato  being  already  navigable  for  small  vessels, 
and  the  San  Juan,  manifestly  a  considerable  stream. 


AMERICA. 


entering  the  sea  by  several  mouths,  after  a  course  of 
150  miles.  "With  such  streams  separated  by  such  a 
country,  a  ship-channel  between  the  two  oceans 
does  not  by  any  means  appear  to  be  impracticable. 
Next,  as  to  the  second  route,  which,  as  well  as  the 
third,  is  already  in  actual  use  as  a  place  of  transit : 
the  San  Juan  itself,  about  100  miles  long,  has  a 
gentle  current,  which,  though  in  some  places 
impeded  by  short  rapids,  is  stated  to  be  always 
navigable  throughout  for  boats  of  10  tons,  and  for 
much  larger  vessels  to  a  considerable  distance  from 
the  sea.  Lake  Nicaragua,  again,  said  to  measure 
140  miles  by  40,  is  adapted  for  ships  of  any  burden, 
being  fifteen  fathoms  deep.  At  its  west  end  it 
receives  the  Tipitapa  from  Lake  Leon,  wliich,  with 
a  length  of  35  niilos,  and  a  breadth  of  15,  is  only  28 
feet  higher  than  itself,  or  156  above  the  level  of  the 
Pacific.  Two  schemes  seem  to  be  agitated  with 
respect  to  the  more  westerly  portion  of  the  route — 
one  scheme  proposing  to  avail  itself  of  Lake  Leon, 
and  tlie  other  to  carry  the  ship-canal  at  once  from 
Lake  Nicaragua.  Lastly,  as  to  the  tldvd  route, 
where  the  intervening  land,  actually  designated  as 
an  isthmus,  is  only  130  miles  wide:  the  Coatzacoalcos 
alone  is  said  to  traverse  nearly  the  entire  breadth  ; 
while  the  Tehuantcpec,  wliich  gives  name  to  the 
isthmus,  goes  far  to  complete  what  the  other  has 
begun. 

The  practical  value  of  the  enterprise  of  connecting 
by  navigation  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  Oceans  is 
already  evidenced  by  the  fact,  that,  in  the  face  of 
the  competition  of  the  last  two  routes,  the  Panama 
Railroad  is  perhaps  the  most  profitable  undertaking 
of  the  kind  in  the  new  world.  In  fact,  the  comple- 
tion of  any  one  of  those  three  routes  for  sea-going 
ships,  would  be  to  realise  Columbus's  idea  of  a 
western  passage  to  the  East. 

Of  the  Lakes  of  A.  a  brief  notice  will  be  sufficient. 
In  North  A.,  besides  the  vast  reservoirs  of  the  St. 
Lawrence,  a  line  drawn  north-west  from  the  centre 
of  Lake  Superior,  appears,  on  the  face  of  the  map,  to 
intersect  a  kindred  series — Lake  Winipeg,  Lake  Atha- 
basca, Great  Slave  Lake,  and  Great  Bear  Lake — the 
first  of  the  four  being  connected  with  the  Nelson, 
and  the  remaining  three  with  the  Mackenzie.  It 
may  not  be  out  of  place  to  observe,  that  the  general 
direction  indicated  is  pretty  nearly  parallel  with  the 
Pacific  coast,  just  as  the  general  direction  of  the 
St.  Lawrence  from  the  great  bend  at  the  head  of 
Lake  I^rie  is  pretty  nearly  parallel  with  the  Atlantic 
shores.  As  to  the  secondary  lakes  of  North-west  A., 
their  name  is  legion,  almost  every  stream,  whether 
large  or  small,  expanding  itself  here  and  there 
vastly  beyond  its  average  width,  and  being,  as  it 
were,  a  St.  Lawrence  in  miniature.  One  lake,  or 
rather  pond,  is  too  singular  to  be  overlooked. 
On  the  Athabasca  Pass  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
where  the  road,  little  better  than  a  succession  of 
glaciers,  runs  through  a  region  of  perpetual  snow,  a 
small  body  of  water,  named  by  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Company's  voyagcurs  as  the  '  Committee's  Punch- 
bowl,' sends  its  tiibute  from  one  end  to  the  Columbia, 
and  from  the  other  to  the  Mackenzie.  To  proceed 
southwards  along  the  continent.  Central  A.  abounds 
in  lakes.  The  Leon  and  the  Nicaragua  have  been 
already  noticed.  But  such  bodies  of  water  are 
perhaps  most  numerous  on  the  table-land  of  Mexico, 
or  as  it  is  often  termed,  the  plateau  of  Anahuac. 
The  largest  of  these  is  Chapala,  estimated  to  con- 
tain 13()0  square  miles — an  area  which,  however 
insignificant  in  comparison  with  the  great  lakes 
of  the  north,  is  more  than  equivalent  to  a  circle 
of  40  miles  in  diameter.  Many  of  these  reservoirs 
of  the  table-land  have  no  outlet.  Such  is  the 
case  with  the  various  lakes  of  the  valley  of  Mexico, 
enclosed  as  they  are  by  mountains  at  a  height  of 


7471  feet  above  the  sea-level.     Of  the  same  descrip- 
tion, too,  is   the  Lake    of  Titicaca,    decidedly   the 
largest    in    South    A.      Raised    by    the    table-land 
of  Peru  and  Bolivia  to  a  height  of  12,846  feet,  it  yet 
has  no  outlet  to  the  sea ;  for  the  Desaguadero,  which 
empties  it,  loses  itself  in  the  apparently  land-locked 
Lake  Uros  to  the  southward.     Of  this  great  body  of 
water,    the    magnitude   is   not   so  well   ascertained 
as   its   altitude.      Besides  such   round   numbers   as 
16,000   and    6000   square   miles,    which   are   never 
meant   to  be   accurate,  one  is  perplexed  to   meet 
statements   so   minute,    and   yet   so    discordant,   as 
4032  and  2225  square   miles.  '  But  even  the   lowest 
estimate   is  more  than   equivalent   to   a   square  of 
47  miles  a  side — an  area  which,  with  a  depth  ranging 
up  to  120  fathoms,  exceeds,  perhaps,  anything  to  ba 
found  to  the  south  of  the  btisin  of  the  St.  Lawrence. 
The  vast  advantage  in  point  of  fluvial  communica- 
tion possessed  by  the  new  world  over  the  old,  has 
already   been   adverted   to.     Tiiere    is,  however,   a 
hydrographical   feature   in  which  one  of  the    grand 
diviMons  of  the  eastern  continent  is  decidedly  supe- 
rior to  A.     The  coast-line  of  Europe,  in  proportion  to 
extent  of  surface,  is  incomparably  longer  than  that 
of  even  the  northern  half  of  the  western  continent. 
This  is  at  once  apparent  on  glancing  at  the  two  maps. 
It  is  surely  a  suggestive  fact,  that  the  two  portions 
of  the  earth  which  are  best  fitted  for  human  inter- 
course, are  also  hydrographically  so  connected  as  to 
be  beyond   comparison  the  most   accessible  to  each 
other.     The  dividing  sea,  besides  being  itself  physi- 
cally by  far   the    narrower   of  the    two    interconti- 
nental oceans,  is  virtually  narrowed  .still  more  by  its 
winds  and  its  currents.      Along  a  belt  of  about  30° 
on  either  side  of  the  equator,  the  easterly  trade  with 
its  attendant  current   wafts  the    voyager  westward 
from  Africa;  while  above  that   belt,   the  reaction, 
strengthened  and  accelerated  by  the  peculiar  fornui- 
tion  of  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
is  ready  to  carry  him  round  again  to  Europe,  under 
the  double  pressure  of  the  Florida  stream  and  its 
generally    prevailing   breezes  from  the  south-west. 
Nor  yet  can  the  hydrographical  relations  of  A.  with 
Asiabe  denied  their  proportion  of  significance  and 
influence,    linked   as    the    two    continents    are    by 
Behring's  Strait,  and  twice  bridged  as  is  tlieir  ocean, 
first  by  the   Aleutian  Isles — a  continuation  of   the 
Kuriles   and   Japan— and    then  by    the   Polynesian 
clusters,    that   series   of  oft'shoots,  as  it   were,  from 
the  Indian  Archipelago. 

Hlstori/.—We  propose  to  glance  at  this  under  the 
three  heads  of  Aboriginal  Ages,  Discovery,  and 
Colonisation. 

As  to  the  Aboriginal  Af/es,  there  arises  a  question, 
too  interesting  to  be  overlooked,  and  yet  too  doubt- 
ful to  be  solved,  as  to  the  origin  of  the  native  tribes 
and  peoples  of  A.  Without  prejudicing  the  question 
(which  will  be  considered  under  Inihans)  whether 
the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  A.  are  to  be  considered, 
in  an  ethnological  point  of  view,  as  substantially  of 
one  stock,  it  appears  highly  probable  that  they  did 
not  all  spring  from  one  and  the  same  primeval  bund 
of  adventurers;  in  other  words,  that  different  colo- 
nies, voluntary  or  involuntary,  must  have  reached 
the  'new  continent  at  dilferent  times.  This  view, 
to  say  nothing  of  the  direct  testimony  of  loial 
traditions,  seems  to  be  in  itself  more  than  probalde, 
when  we  con-ider  that,  through  the  length  and 
breadth  of  the  universal  ocean,  even  the  most 
insignificant  specks  of  land  had  each  received,  at 
least,  one  influx  of  hiunan  wanderers.  But,  beyond 
such  probabilities,  and  such  traditions,  the  view  ia 
question  is  strengthened  by  facts,  which  it  is  difficult 
otherwise  to  explain— by  diversities  of  language,  by 
different  degrees,  or  kinds,  of  civilisation,  and,  above 
all.  by  monuments,  architectural  or  otherwise,  of 
'    ^  197 


AMERICA. 


dofunct  races  of  bygone  days.  On  this  supposition, 
vhence  came  the  successive  shoals  of  invaders*  To 
this  question  no  direct  answer  can  be  given.  We 
can  only  scan  the  various  routes  by  which,  pre- 
viously to  what  we  call  the  discovery  of  A.,  the  old 
world  was  most  likely  to  people  the  American 
continent.  To  begin  with  the  natural  routes  on  the 
side  of  the  Pacific — Behriug's  Strait,  the  Aleutian 
Isles,  and  the  Polynesian  Archipelagoes — we  can 
hardly  conceive  anything  but  barbarism  having  been 
conducted  to  A.  by  any  one  of  them.  The  country 
which  stretches  back  from  Behring's  Strait  to  the 
Kolyma,  may  be  asserted  to  be,  without  exception, 
the  most  inhospitable  portion  even  of  Siberia ; 
and,  moreover,  the  strait  itself  has  more  prob- 
ably been  a  channel  of  migration  from  America 
than  from  Asia,  the  Tchuktchi  of  the  latter  regard- 
ing themselves  rather  as  a  branch,  than  as  the 
stem,  of  the  Tchuktchi  of  the  former.  With  respect, 
again,  both  to  the  Aleutian  Isles  and  the  Polyne- 
sian Archipelagoes,  the  successive  stepping-stones  in 
cither  series,  instead  of  being  presumed  to  have  been 
so  niiiny  halts  for  Asiatic  Colunibuses  and  Magellans, 
must  rather  be  viewed  as  each  a  mother-country  to 
a  new  colony,  as  each  a  point  of  dejiarture  for  a 
fresh  swarm.  Thus  would  the  ever-aggravating 
blight  of  isolation — exemplified  even  in  the  old 
world  among  the  Laplanders,  the  Kamtchadales, 
and  the  Hottentots — prepare  at  each  remove  a 
deeper  and  deeper  barbarism  to  land  at  last  on 
the  western  shores  of  A.  Further,  if  civilisation, 
as  certainly  appears  to  have  been  the  case,  ever 
did  find  its  way  to  A.,  it  must  have  come  directly 
and  immediately  from  the  old  world,  and  that 
under  circumstances  and  conditions  of  by  no 
means  a  favourable  character.  In  remote  times, 
such  accidental,  or,  to  speak  more  correctly, 
unintentional  visits  of  Euroi)eans  and  Asiatics 
may  have  occurred,  as  we  know  to  have  actually 
taken  place  in  more  modern  days.  Japanese  junks 
have  repeatedly  been  driven,  by  stress  of  weather, 
across  the  Pacific  to  the  new  world ;  and  again, 
on  the  Atlantic,  the  easterly  trades,  within  eight 
years  after  Columbus's  earliest  voyage,  watted  the 
unconscious  Portuguese  to  Brazil,  during  theii- second 
voyage  to  India — the  very  first,  in  fact,  which  they 
liad  attempted  by  steering  clear  of  the  headlands  of 
Africa.  Such  incidents,  however  frequently  they 
might  have  happened,  were  much  more  likely  to 
civilise  existing  coiimiunities  than  to  found  new 
ones;  and  it  is  at  least  a  curious  fact,  that  the  only 
aboriginal  nations  which  could  be  regarded  as  in 
any  sense  civilised  at  the  date  of  the  Spanish  con- 
quest, pointed  in  their  traditions  to  such  events  as 
we  have  endeavoured  to  describe.  Mexico  and  Peru 
had  each  had  its  Cecrops,  or  semi-divine  civiliser 
— the  former  referring  him  to  the  east  across  the 
Atlantic,  and  the  latter  to  the  west,  across  the 
Pacific.  How  far  such  hypotheses  may  account 
for  the  admitted  ftets,  we  are  not  left  altogether 
to  conjecture.  I-=o!ated  individuals  of  our  own 
nation  have  enabled  us  to  bring  the  light  of  the 
present  to  bear  on  the  past.  When  we  consider 
what  William  Adams  achieved  in  Japan,  two 
hundred  years  ago,  and  what  John  Young  and 
James  Brooke  have,  more  recently,  etfected  in  the 
Sandwich  Islands  and  in  Borneo,  we  can  perhaps 
the  more  easily  understand  certain  undeniable 
traces  and  traditions  of  aboriginal  civilisation. 

JJixcoveri/. — Whatever  may  have  been  the  kind 
and  degree  of  aboriginal  civilisation,  A.  was  not 
destined  to  be  the  perpetual  inheritance  of  the  red 
luan.  New  actors  were  to  appear  on  the  scene, 
before  whoni  the  old  possessors  were  in  a  great 
measure  to  pass  away. 

Previously  to  the  times  of  Columbus,  Europeans 
198 


had  certainly  visited  A.  The  Scandinavians,  after 
having  colonised  Iceland  in  875  a.  d.,  and  (ireenland 
in  983,  had,  by  the  year  lOOt"),  discovered  A.  aa 
far  down  as  41°  SO'  N.  lat.,  a  point  near  to  New 
Bedford,  in  the  state  of  Massachusetts.  These 
Scandinavians  afterwards  settled  in  the  neighbour- 
hood— the  mother-country,  most  probably  through 
the  intervention  of  Iceland  and  Greenland,  main- 
taining an  intercourse  with  the  colony  down  to 
the  14th  c.  But  these  enterprises  do  not  appear 
to  have  left  any  special  impress  on  the  character  or 
prospects  of  the  new  continent,  being  more  akin, 
perhaps,  to  similar  incidents  of  yet  earlier  ages,  than 
to  the  long-meditated  and  well-matured  scheme  of 
the  illustrious  Genoese.  Subsequently  to  the  Scandi- 
navian discovery,  and  previous  to  that  of  Columbus, 
A.  is  believed  by  some  to  have  been  visited  by  a 
Welsh  piince.  In  Cardoc's  J/lsiorie  of  Cambria  it 
is  stated  that  Madoc,  son  of  Owen  Gwynncdd, 
prince  of  Wales,  sot  sail  westward  in  1170  with  a 
small  ileet,  and  after  a  voyage  of  several  weeks, 
landed  in  a  region  totally  different  both  in  its  inhab- 
itants and  productions  from  Europe.  Madoc  is 
supposed  to  have  reached  the  coast  of  Virginia. 
Neither  this,  however,  if  true,  nor  the  earlier  Scandi- 
navian exi)C(litions,  can  be  said  even  to  have  ibrmed 
a  connecting-link  between  the  A.  of  the  red  man 
and  the  A.  of  his  white  brother.  Even  if  the  north- 
men  had  possessed  resources  worthy  of  their  heioic 
courage,  the  old  world  was  not  yet  ripe  for  the 
appropriation  of  the  new. 

At  the  end  of  the  15th  c.,  however,  science  and 
politics  were  alike  strengthening  Europe  for  its 
task.  The  mariner's  compass  and  the  astrolabe 
had  facilitated  long  voyages  out  of  sight  of  land ; 
while,  in  almost  every  country  of  Ciiristcndom, 
various  causes  were  consolidating  government,  and 
promoting  the  growth  of  population — a  position 
which  derives,  perhaps,  its  best  illustration  from  the 
fact  that  the  capture  of  Granada — the  last  foothold 
of  the  Moslem  in  Spain — preceded  by  only  a  few 
months  the  discovery  of  A. 

Columbus  (q.  v)  set  out  on  his  great  enterprise  to 
discover  A.  under  the  patronage  of  the  crown  of 
Spain,  on  Friday,  the  .3d  of  August  1492  ;  at  which 
date,  properly  speaking,  begins  the  deeply  interest- 
ing history  of  A.  Had  the  Atlantic  been  broader, 
or  had  not  the  easterly  trades  wafted  Columbus 
almost  on  a  parallel  from  the  Canaries  to  the 
Bahamas,  he  must  have  failed  in  his  bold  attempt; 
and,  in  fact,  those  same  easterly  trades,  assisted  by  a 
still  nearer  approach  of  the  two  continents,  speedily 
proved  their  own  value  in  this  respect  by  carrying 
the  Portuguese,  without  their  own  consent,  to  the 
shores  of  Brazil.  Nay,  Columbus's  discovery  of  A., 
if  not  so  accidental,  was  quite  as  unintentional  as 
that  of  the  Portuguese.  It  was  towards  the  East 
that  his  hopes  directed  his  western  course,  hopes 
whose  supposed  fulfilme'nt  still  lives  in  the  misap- 
plication to  the  new  world  of  the  terms  Indian  and 
Indies.  Much  of  our  subsequent  knowledge  of 
America  has  been  owing  to  the  same  desire  of 
reaching  the  E.  Indies  that  led  to  its  discovery. 
The  gorgeous  East  was  the  aim  alike  of  Davis, 
Baffin,  and  Hudson  at  the  north,  and  of  Magellan, 
Schouten,  and  Loniiiire  at  the  south,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  earlier  enterprise  of  Balboa  on 
the  Isthmus  of  Darien ;  while,  under  a  similar 
impulse,  the  French  of  Canada  were  ascending 
lake  after  lake  as  nature's  ready-made  highway  to 
the  same  goal.  Even  to  more  recent  times  may 
these  remarks  be  applied.  While  the  eastern 
coasts  of  Africa,  and  the  upper  shores  of  Asia,  as 
not  bearing  on  the  grand  question  of  oriental 
traffic,  were  comparatively  neglected  and  forgotten, 
our  own  Cook  and  Vancouver,  in  quest  of  a  passage 


AMERICA. 


between  the  two  ocean?,  surveyed  every  nook  iind  |  the  express  purpose  of  enterfnj;,  if  possible,  Balboa's 
cranny  of  A.  from  Columbia"  River  to  Belirius's  j  (ireat  South  Sea,  found  liis  Avay  into  tlio  La  Plata  or 
Strait.     Nor  yet    have   the  aspirations  of  Columbus  |  Plato,  being  there  slain  by  the  neighbouring  natives. 


and  his  noble  band  of  successors  and  imitators 
been  altogether  disappointed.  That  same  coDtinent 
which,  in  their  case,  barred  a  westward  advance 
along  nearly  the  whole  interval  between  the  arctic 
and  antarctic  circles,  has  to  us  already  become, 
or  is  gradually  becoming,  more  than  a  substitute 
for  the  ocean  which  it  was  found  so  extensively 
to  displace.  By  means  of  the  railway  across  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama,  the  Caribbean  Sea,  whether 
for  passengers  or  for  goods,  is  virtually  nearer  to 
the  Pacific  than  an  open  channel  could  have 
rendered  it  to  any  sea-going  vessels.  Nor  is  it 
merely  across  the  scanty  span  of  Central  A.  that 
art  is  outstripping  nature  in  the  race  ;  for  that  might- 
iest of  the  modern  achievements  of  man,  the  Centi'ul 
Pacific  Railway  and  its  extensions,  in  1869  opened  a 
continuous  road  fi'om  Philadelphia  to  San  Francisco 
of  3,26.3  miles,  over  which  travellers  are  conveyed 
in  6i  days.  Since  October  11,  1492,  the  date  of 
Columbus's  first  discovery,  little  more  than  three 
and  a  half  centuries  have  elapsed ;  and  if  we  look 
at  the  future  in  the  light  of  the  past,  it  seems  not 
unreasonable  to  suppose,  that,  by  1892,  the  locomo- 
tive will,  within  three  days,  connect  together  oceans 
physically  as  distant  from  each  other  as  are  the 
Bahamas  from  the  Canaries. 

But  Columbus  found  something  better  than  what 
he  himself  or  his  successors  and  imitators  looked  for. 
He  had  discovered  a  land  which,  besides  eclipsing 
India  in  the  richness  and  variety  of  its  commerce, 
was  to  confer  on  Europe  a  still  more  solid  benefit. 
Colonisation,  which,  since  the  early  ages  of  Greece, 
had  slumbered  for  2000  years,  received  an  impetus, 
which,  after  building  up  empires  in  the  West,  was 
to  build  up  others  in  an  East  richer  far  than  that 
which  was  so  long  the  loadstar  of  European  naviga- 
tors— an  east  where,  almost  without  a  metaphor,  the 
grass  was  to  be  wool,  and  the  stones  to  be  gold. 

The  first-fruits  of  Columbus's  enterprise  were  the 
Bahamas,  Guanahani,  or  Cat  Island,  being  the  spot 
where  he  landed  on  the  11th  of  October  1492.  With- 
out attempting,  in  so  sunmiary  a  sketch  as  this,  to 
distinguish  the  results  of  each  of  his  four  voyages 
from  each  other,  it  may  be  sufficient  to  state  that 
this  great  man,  besides  Ilispaniola,  or  St.  Domingo, 
Cuba,  Jamaica,  and  others  of  the  Antilles,  discovered 
and  explored  Central  A.  from  Honduras  southward 
along  the  coast  of  Veragua,  and  South  A.  from  the 
mouths  of  the  Orinoco  westward,  as  far  as  Margarita. 
It  was  on  this  last-mentioned  scene  of  his  operations 
that  he  was  followed  by  Hojcda,  whose  pilot, 
Amerigo  Vespucci  (_(\.  v.),  has  been  allowed  to  wrest 
from  Columbus  the  glory  of  giving  his  name  to  the 
new  world.  Within  twenty  years  after  Columl)us's 
first  discovery,  Ponce  de  Leon  discovered  Florida ; 
and,  what  was  certainly  of  far  more  consequence, 
he  ascertained  that,  through  the  strait  which  separ- 
ated that  peninsula  from  the  Bahanias,  there  con- 
stantly ran  a  strong  current  to  the  north-east.  In 
1513,  again,  just  one  year  later,  Vasco  Nunez  de 
Balboa  crossed  the  Isthnuis  of  Darien  to  the  Great 
South  Sea,  or,  as  it  was  afterwards  named,  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  About  thirteen  years  before  this  last  eve^it, 
almost  innnediately  after  Columbus's  own  continental 
explorations,  the  interval  loft  between  his  most 
southerly  point  from  Honduras,  and  his  most  westerly 
point  from  tlie  Orinoco,  w-as,  in  a  groat  measure, 
filled  uj)  by  the  voyage  of  Bastidas.  To  the  south, 
again,  of  the  Orinoco,  Pinzon  and  Soils  sailed  along 
the  continent  down  to  40°  S.  lat.,  between  the  years 
1500  and  1514.  The  former,  after  anticipating,  by  a 
few  months,  the  Portuguese  on  the  shores  of  Brazil, 
had  seen  the  Amazon ;  and  the  latter,  sent  out  for 


Moreover,  to  return  to  the  northward,  by  the  year 
1519,  different  navigators  had  between  them  conv 
pleted  the  examination  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
Within  twenty-seven  years,  therefore,  after  Colum- 
bus's first  departure  from  Spain,  the  eastern  shores 
of  South  and  Central  A.  had  been  almost  continu- 
ously explored  by  the  Spaniards  down  to  within 
15°  of  the  southern  extremity  of  the  continent. 

Nor  had  other  nations  been  idle  in  the  north.     The 
Cabots,  on  behalf  of  England,  had  discovered  New- 
foundland, and  portions  of  the  adjacent  continent, 
in   1497.     In   15O0,   the  Portuguese,  under  the  Cor- 
tereals,  sailed  along  the  coast  of  Labrador  nearly  up 
to  Hudson's  Bay,  having,  it  is  supposed,  entered  the 
Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  long  known  among  them  as 
the   Gulf  of    the    Two   Brothers.       Thus   graduMly 
there   grew   up  the   opinion,  since   proved  to  have 
been  tlie  true  and  sotuid  one,  that  any  practicaljle 
passage  between  the  two  oceans  must  be  looked  for 
towards  the  south  of  the  Plate.       Accordingly,  in 
1519,    Magellan,    a    Portuguese   in    the   service    of 
Spain,    undertook    the   voyage    in   which   was   dis- 
covered the  strait  that   bears  his  name — a  voyage 
which  furnished  the  first  instance  of  the  circtnnna- 
vigation  of  the  globe.     Thus  there  renuiined  little  to 
be  done,  unless  in  the  extreme  north  and  the  extreme 
south.       In  the   extreme  south,  Schouten,  a    Dutch 
navigator,   discovered,  in   IGlO,  the    passage    round 
Cape  Horn  ;   while,  six  years  thereafter,  Lomairc,  a 
mariner   of  the   same   nation,    passed   through   the 
strait  of  his  own  name  between   Staten   Land  and 
Tierra    del    Fuego.     Towards  the   north,  again,  the 
French  and  English  divided  the  labours  and  honours 
of    the    enterprise    between    them.       Scarcely    had 
Magellan's    companions — for   he    had    himself    been 
killed — returned  to  Europe,  when    Verazzani,  under 
the  atispieos  of  Francis  I.  of  France,  sailed  along 
what  are  now  the  Atlantic  shores  of  the  United  States, 
thereby  connecting  the  discoveries  of  the  Cabots  with 
those  of  Ponce  de  Leon  ;  and  again,  about  ion  years 
later,  Jacques  Cartier,  in  the  service  also  of  the  same 
prince,  explored  the  gulf  and  river  of  St.  Lawrence, 
penetrating  as  far  to  the  westward   as  the  island  of 
Montreal.     In  the  extreme  north,  however,  the  Eng- 
lish may  be  said  to  have  been  without  a  rival.     It  is 
mniecessary,  in  this  summary  sketch  to  do  more  than 
mention  names  which  toll  their  own  story  on  every 
map — Davis,  Baffin,  Lancaster,   and  Hudson.     (Sec 
these  Heads.) 

To  pass  now  to  the  western  coast  of  A.  The  con- 
querors of  Mexico  and  Peru  efi'ectod,  in  a  few  years, 
more  perhaps  than  they  left  behind  them  for  future 
ages  to  effect,  ranging  along  the  coast  from  the 
southern  extremity  of  Chili  to  the  peninsula  and  Gulf 
of  California.  Beyond  Lower  California,  the  only 
direction  in  which  there  was  much  to  do,  the  English 
Drake,  whose  voyage  took  place  in  1578,  divided 
with  the  Spaniards  the  credit  of  having  discovered 
I'pper  California.  For  nearly  two  centuries,  excepting 
the  half  fabulous  voyages  of  Fonte  and  Fuca,  the 
Spaniards  and  the  English  alike  slumbered  over  their 
task ;  and  it  was  not  till  towards  the  clo.se  of  the 
last  century,  that  Cook  and  Vancouver  co-operated 
with  Spanish  and  American  navigators  in  dispelling 
the  mystery  that  had  so  long  hung  over  the  north- 
west coast  of  A. 

To  advert  to  inland  discoveries:  As  early  aa 
1537,  within  six  years  after  the  landing  of  I'izarro 
in  Peru,  and  within  two  after  the  founding  of 
Buenos  Ayres,  the  Spaniards  mot  each  other  on  the 
eastern  bortlers  of  Peru,  from  the  opposite  shores  of 
the  continent ;  and,  in  1540,  within  three  years  more, 
thev  sent  forth  that  eastward  expedition  which  ended 

199 


AMERICA. 


in  Oreliana's  exploration  of  the  Amazon,  from  its 
source  to  its  mouth.  In  the  northern  half  of  the 
continent,  similar  enterprises  ivere  of  a  much  later 
date.  It  was  in  1682  that  the  French  first  de- 
scended the  Mississippi ;  it  was  in  1771  that  Hcarne 
traversed  the  wilderness  from  Hudson's  Bay  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Coppermine  ;  and  it  was  respectively 
in  178;»  and  1793  that  Alexander  Mackenzie  reached 
the  mouth  of  the  river  tliat  bears  his  name,  and 
passed  through  wliat  is  now  British  Columbia,  to  the 
shores  of  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

Colonimtiov. — Among  the  European  powers  that 
colonised  A.,  the  most  prominent  were  Spain,  Por- 
tugal, France,  and  England. 

Spain,  of  course,  look  the  lead,  having,  with  few- 
exceptions,  accomplished  its  task  bcfora  any  rival 
state  had  entered  on  its  share  of  the  work.  In  one 
respect,  its  colonics  differed  from  all  others  on  the 
new  continent.  Spain  alone  came  in  contact  with 
civilisation,  such  as  it  was  among  the  aborigines  ; 
and,  accordingly,  in  the  cases  of  Mexico  and  Peru, 
colonisation  required  to  bo  preceded  l)y  sometliing 
like  regular  war  and  formal  conquest.  But,  notwith- 
standing this  peculiar  obstacle,  the  colonies  of  Spain 
grew  at  first  with  a  rapidity  which,  perhaps,  has 
scarcely  found  its  parallel,  even  in  the  somewhat 
congenial  case  of  Australia.  As  au  illustration  of 
this — for  the  statement  needs  no  proof — it  was 
colonial  resources  that  armed  Cortes  and  Pizarro  for 
their  respective  enterprises.  Without  the  direct  and 
immediate  aid,  in  either  instance,  of  the  old  country, 
Cuba,  within  twenty-seven  years  after  the  first  dis- 
covery, eqinppcd  the  conquerors  of  Mexico  ;  while 
the  town  of  Panama,  only  twelve  years  later,  sent 
forth  the  adventurers  that  were  to  subjugate  Peru. 
So  unexampled  a  degree  of  vigour  and  vitality  con- 
tinued to  advance  in  Spain's  transatlantic  possessions, 
precisely  while  they  were  so  organised  and  conducted 
as  to  aftbrd  scope  to  individual  ambition.  Never, 
perha]is,  was  this  scope  sufficiently  free  and  full,  for, 
even  from  the  beginning,  government  olten  embar- 
rassed and  blighted  the  fairest  schemes  by  its  jeal- 
ous and  suspicious  interference.  But,  for  a  time,  it 
generally  found  its  account  in  tolerating  the  unre- 
stricted liberty,  or  licence,  of  its  instruments.  It 
was,  therefore,  only  after  law  and  order  were  estab- 
lished, and  the  original  actors  had  disappeared  from 
the  scene,  that  the  authorities  of  the  mother-country 
stereotyped,  as  it  were,  their  despotism  along  the 
length  and  breadth  of  every  colony.  From  that 
moment,  vigour  and  vitality  were  succeeded  by  stag- 
nation and  torpor.  Still,  with  such  elements  of  pros- 
perity on  every  side — above  the  earth  and  below  it — 
material  interests  could  not  fail  to  flourish.  But 
the  soul  had  fled ;  the  body  alone  remained  behind. 
Under  these  circumstances,  Spain,  though  continuing 
to  claim  the  entire  continent  to  the  north,  more  espe- 
cially on  the  Pacific,  did  very  little  to  enforce  its 
pretensions.  To  this  remark,  New  Mexico  and  Upper 
California  were  the  only  exceptions.  It  was  not 
before  1."j94  that  New  Mexico  was  at  all  occupied; 
and  it  was  not  till  a  century  later  that  the  province, 
after  ten  years  of  bush-fighting,  was  finally  subdued  ; 
while  it  was  only  in  1767  that  the  Franciscans,  on 
behalf  of  Spain,  took  possession  of  Upper  California. 
But  Spain  never  abandoned  the  hope  of  extending 
its  dominions  towards  the  north-west  coast.  As 
late  as  1790,  that  power,  while  restoring  Nootka 
Sound,  and  acknowledging  England's  right  of  plant- 
ing other  settlements,  took  the  precaution,  useless 
as  it  proved,  of  expressly  reserving  a  similar  right  to 
itself;  and  it  was  only  in  1819,  nearly  thirty  years 
later,  tliat  Spain  fonnally  ceded  to  theUnited"  States 
all  its  claims  to  the  coast  above  the  parallel  of  42°. 
See  further  under  the  separate  bead  of  America, 
Spanish. 
200 


The  efforts  of  Portugal,  in  the  cause  of  American 
coloidsation,  were  at  first  less  energetic  than  those 
of  Spain.  In  fact,  Portugal,  which  had  doubled  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  in  the  year  1497,  was  so  zealously 
engaged  in  the  East  as  to  allow  an  age  to  elapse 
before  sending  any  colony  to  Brazil.  The  discovery 
of  the  country  took  place  in  loiiii;  l>nt  its  colonisa- 
tion only  in  1531,  or  rather  1548.  "Within  32  years 
thereafter,  in  1580,  Brazil,  at  the  same  time  as 
Portugal  itself,  was  annexed  to  the  Spanish  monarchy, 
soon  afterwards  falling,  in  this  its  new  character, 
partly  into  the  hands  of  the  revolted  Hollanders. 
In  1640,  Brazil,  as  well  as  Portugal,  threw  off  the 
Spanish  yoke  with  the  help  of  the  Dutch  settlers. 
But  the  continued  presence  of  the  latter  retarded 
the  progress  of  the  colony.  It  was  only  after  their 
expulsion,  that  the  Portuguese,  who  had  lost  nearly 
everything  in  India,  tuined  their  attention  more 
largely  to  Brazil.  It  accordingly  became  the  most 
flourishing  colony,  as  such,  to  the  .south  of  the 
P^nglish  settlements  ;  and,  as  the  refuge  of  the  House 
of  Braganza  fiom  French  domination,  it  received, 
about  fifty  years  ago,  an  impetus  which  has  rendered 
it,  as  an  independent  state,  the  most  flourishing  power 
of  Southern  A. 

P'rance,  as  the  claimant  to  the  basins  of  the  St. 
Lawrence  and  the  Mississippi,  may  be  said  rather  to 
have  pitched  camps  than  to  have  jdanted  coloiues, 
in  those  vast  possessions.  She  regarded  A.  chiefly 
as  a  supplementary  battle-field  for  England  and 
herself.  Every  French  .settlement  was  but  an  inert 
part  of  a  political  machine,  powerful,  indeed,  but 
unwieldy,  expensive,  and  unproductive.  The  govern- 
ment was  everything,  and  the  individual  subject 
was  nothing.  Hence,  neither  Lotnsiana  nor  Canada 
at  all  realised  our  idea  of  a  colony.  In  corrobora- 
tion of  this  may  be  cited  two  authentic  and  official 
facts.  As  an  encouragement  to  marriage,  rewards 
and  exemptions  were  held  out  to  the  jiarents  of  three 
children  ;  and  the  erection  of  a  dwelling  on  a  lot  of 
loss  than  forty  arpents  (about  thirty-two  acres)  was 
prohibited  by  a  royal  ordinance.  In  1762,  France 
gave  up  Canada  to  England,  and,  as  an  indirect  con- 
cession also  to  the  same  power,  transferred  Louisiana 
to  Spain — events  which,  singularly  enough,  did  much 
to  fiicilitate  France's  grand  scheme,  the  separation 
from  England  of  her  old  colonies. 

England,  the  most  energetic  and  successful  of 
all  in  the  work  of  colonisation,  was  the  last  in  the 
field  among  the  four  powers  already  mentioned. 
Among  her  continental  colonies,  to  say  nothing  of 
Newfoundland,  Virginia,  the  oldest,  was  established 
in  1607,  just  four  years  after  the  union  of  the  crowns; 
and  Georgia,  the  youngest,  as  late  as  1733.  AVith 
these  two  exceptions,  the  remaining  eleven  were,  one 
and  all,  founded  during  that  period  of  civil  and 
religious  troubles  which,  in  the  mother-country's 
own  history,  sent  one  Stuart  to  the  scaffold,  and 
drove  another  into  exile.  In  1620,  Massachvisetts 
was  occupied  by  the  Puritan  fathers;  in  1623  and 
1631  respectively,  New  Hampshire  and  Connecticut 
were  first  settled;  in  1634,  Maryland  was  granted 
to  Lord  Baltimore,  a  Roman  Catholic  nobleman  ;  in 
1636,  Rhode  Lsland  became  a  refuge  from  the  sec- 
tarian intolerance  of  Massachusetts ;  in  1653,  North 
Carolina  became  an  offshoot  from  Virginia;  in  1664, 
New  York,  New  Jersey,  and  Delaware  were  taken 
from  the  Dutch;  in  1670,  South  Carolina  was  estab- 
lished; and  in  1681,  Pennsylvania  was  granted  to 
William  Penn,  the  Quaker,  continuing  to  bo  a  proprie- 
tary government  down  to  the  Revolution.  In  nearly 
all  these  cases,  the  civil  and  religious  rbertics  for 
which  chiefly  the  colonists  expatriated  themselves, 
were  secured  by  libera!,  nay,  virtually  rojiublican 
charters.  Subject  only  to  tiie  appointment  of  a 
'  governor  on  the  part  of  the  crown,  every  colony  was 


B.  LtPPiNCi 


f.  CO.    PHILAD--- 


AMERICA. 


practically  a  state  within  itself;  and  it  is  a  sugges- 
tive fact  that  the  very  earliest  assertion  of  legislative 
superiority  on  the  part  of  the  mother-country  was  7 
and  8  Will.  III.  c.  22,  which,  however,  only  operated 
negatively  by  forbidding  every  colony  to  make  laws 
repugnant  to  those  of  England.  Witli  such  aspir- 
ations and  such  institutions,  the  enterprising  inluib- 
itants  of  a  new  home  could  not  fail  to  prosper; 
while  their  prosperity  was  rendered  more  solid  and 
permanent  by  the  comparative  poverty  of  a  region 
where  .steady  industry,  in  agriculture  or  in  °the 
fisheries,  was  as  it  were  a  necessary  of  life.  Under 
these  circumstances,  the  germs  of  political  independ- 
ence were  at  work  long  before  1765 ;  and  it  is  not 
merely  a  probability,  but  a  fact,  that  the  expulsion 
of  the  dreaded  power  of  France  from  Canada  and 
Louisiana,  in  1702,  was  closely  connected  with  tlie 
troubles  which  so  soon  began.  Sue  Amkkica 
British.  ' 

The  colonisation  of  the  West  Indies,  Guiana 
included,  will  be  seen  at  a  glance  in  the  appended 
table  of  American  Governments. 

It  may  be  added,  in  conclusion,  that  the  whole  of 
A.  is  now  in  the  hands  of  European  races,  exceptin"- 
only  the  aboriginal  Araucania  to  the  south  of  Chili^ 
and  the  African  republic  of  llayti,  otherwise  known 
as  Hispaniola  or  St.  Domingo,  the  oldest  amon"-  the 
colonies  of  Spain.  ° 

American  Antiquities. — The  architectural  remains 
to  which  we  have  already  alluded  in  connection  with 
a  general  estimate  of  aboriginal  civilisation,  are   to 
be  found  in  each  of  the  grand  divisions  of  the  new 
continent.     To  begin  from  the  north.      That  portion 
of  the  United  States  which  lies  between  the  Appa- 
lachians and  the  Rocky  Mountains,  presents  in  three 
groups  at  once  the  oldest  and  the  rudest  monuments 
of  bygone  times;  the  first  group  extending  from  the 
sources  of  the  Alleghany  to  the  waters  of  the  Missouri ; 
the  second  occupying  the  Mississippi  Yallcv,  vaguely 
so  defined;  and    the    third    stretching    from  South 
Carolina  to  Texas.     These  several  groups,  apparently 
with  very  little  difference  among  themselves,  consist 
of  numberless  mounds,  and  circumvallations  of  earth 
and  stone— 1500    of  the  latter,  and    10,000  of  the 
former,  being  said  to  stud  Ohio  alone.     The  erections 
themselves  range  from  5  to  80  feet  in  height ;  while 
the  areas  enclosed— generally  of  some  symmetrical 
figure,  such  as  circle  or  ellipse,  rectangular  jjarallelo- 
gram  or  regular  polygon— vary  from  twenty  to  forty 
acres,  though  among  a  few  of  greater  exteiit,  one  iii 
Arkansas  is  stated  to  embrace  a  square  mile.     The 
circumvallations,  moreover,   seem  generally  to  con- 
tain the  mounds ;  and  sometimes  a  smaller  circum- 
vallation  is  surrounded  by  a  larger  one.     Whether 
these  colossal  structures  were  intended  for  worship 
or  for  doi'ence,  it  is  impossible  to  decide  ;  more  prob- 
ably, however,  they  were  of  a  military  character, 
provided  as  they  ordinarily  were  with    cisterns  for 
water.       But   whatever    their    oiigiii,   they    derive 
interest  from  the    analogous  fiict,   that,  within  the 
same  territorial  limits,  have  been  dug  up  vases  of 
earthenware  or  copper  in  elegant  forms,  pipe-bowls 
decorated  with  human  heads  of  the  type  of  the  exist- 
ing aborigines,  or  with  those  of  birds,  &c.,  domestic 
utensils,  personal  ornaments,  hatchets  of  stone,  and, 
lastly,  weapons  of  copper  or  mica,  or  shell  or  obsidian! 
— The  architectural  remains  of  Central  and  South  A. 
are  at  once  of  more  modern  origin  and  more  elaborate 
character,  and  may  be  roughly  compared  with  the 
Cyclopean   ruins  in  Italy  and  Greece.     Uniformly  in 
the  pyramidal  style— a   style    likely  enough    to  be 
indigenous    in    a    region  of   earthquakes— they  are 
composed  of  blocks  generally  huge,  and  sometimes 
enormous;    those   in  the    walls   of    Tiahuanaco    in 
BoHvia  being  equivalent  to  cubes  of  about  16  feet 
each  way.     Between  those  of  South  A.  and  Central 


A.,  however,  there  are  diversities  as  well  as  resem* 
blances.  Those  of  South  A.,  situated,  as  they  are, 
within  the  native  limits  of  Peru,  and  referred,  as 
they  must  be,  to  its  closing  era  under  the  Incas, 
cannot  reach  back  beyond  the  Spanish  conquest  more 
than  800  or  400  years :  the  i)rincipal  ruins  are  those 
of  Tiahuanaco,  already  mentioned ;  of  a  temple  on 
an  island  in  Lake  Titicaca  ;  of  another  edifice  of  the 
kind  at  Pachacamac,  not  far  from  Lima;  and  of  the 
palaces  and  mausoleums  of  the  royal  race.  Tho.se 
of  Central  A.,  again,  are  reckoned  to  be  considerably 
more  ancient,  reaching  five  or  .six  centuries  further 
back,  and  being  partly  the  work  of  the  Aztecs, 
whom  the  Spaniards  conquered,  and  partly  of  the 
Toltecs,  whom  the  Aztecs  had  themselves  supplanted. 
Nor  is  the  fact  aUogether  without  significance,  that 
in  the  two  more  southerly  divisions  of  the  continent 
those  mysterious  records  of  the  past  are  generally 
superior  in  development  in  proportion  as  they  are 
anterior  in  age;  those  of  Central  A.,  as  a  w"hole, 
surpassing  those  of  South  A.  ;  and,  again,  within 
Central  A.  itself,  the  earlier  specimens  of  Oaxaca, 
Guatemala,  and  Yucatan,  eclipsing  the  later  ones  of 
Mexico  Proper.  While  attempting,  in  the  light  of 
these  remains,  to  appreciate  aboriginal  civilisation, 
we  cannot  fiiil  to  be  struck  rather  with  their  niagiii- 


Front  and  back  of  a  stone  idol  found  at  Copan,  in 
Central  America. 


tudo  than  with  their  beauty,  rather  with  the  evidence 
of  despotism  in  the  ruler  "than  with  traces  of  skill  in 
the  subject — Stonehenge  aflbrding  us  infinitely  more 
of  a  parallel  than  Windsor  Ca.sUe  or  Westminster 
Hall.  Nor  does  the  sculpture,  so  often  subsidiary 
to  the  architecture,  lead  to  a  more  favourable  infer- 
ence, being  generally  rude  and  clumsy,  and  .some- 
times grotesque  and  hideous.  The  only  safe  conclu- 
sion is  this,  that,  in  the  new  world  as  in  the  old, 
there  were  ditlcrent  degrees  of  civilisation  ;  souie 
of  them  coni'essedly  higher  than  one  could  have 
expected  in  the  utter  absence  of  the  usefid  metals, 
and  the  almost  utter  absence  of  beasts  of  burden. 
Nor  has  even  this  conclusion  any  neces.sarv  bearing 
on  the  better  organised  communities  at  large.  Stray 
visitors  of  a  higlier  type  might  have  produced  all  the 
phenomena — visitors  precisely  such  asajipear  to  have 
figured  in  the  traditions  both  of  Mexico  and  Peru. 
(Jeolocjy. — The  geology  of  the  new  world  presents 

201 


AMERICA. 


some  remarkable  contrasts  to  that  of  tlie  districts 
in  the  old  world  which  have  supplied  the  types  of 
geological  classification.  None  of  these  is  more 
striking  than  the  enormous  extent  of  country  which 
one  formation  occupies,  and  that  without  interrup- 
tion. It  has  long  been  noticed  that  the  rotk-struc- 
ture  of  islands  is  more  varied  than  that  of  continents ; 
and  thus  it  is  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  British 
Isles  have  been  to  some  extent  compelled  to  become 
acquainted  with  geology.  A  journey  cf  a  few  hours 
presents  to  the  traveller  rocks  v.'hieh,  as  regards 
both  their  mineral  and  fossil  contents,  are  widely 
different.  In  A.,  on  the  other  hand,  one  may  travel 
for  days  over  beds  belonging  to  a  single  epoch. 
American  strata  often  stretch  from  the  Atlantic 
west  beyond  the  Mississippi.  They  have,  on  the 
whole,  been  subjected  to  few  disturbing  agencies  ; 
aa  is  evidenced  by  the  absence  of  any  true  mountain- 
range,  except  the  Appalachians,  east  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  The  rocks  of  Britain,  from  their  dis- 
position and  variety,  have  been,  so  to  speak,  the 
'primer'  and  '  pocket  manual'  of  this  science,  and 
■will  always  continue  to  be  the  '•  vndc  viecina'  of  the 
geologist ;  but  should  he  desire  to  peruse  the  lai  ge 
'  folios  '  tliat  contain  the  stony  records  of  our  earth's 
history,  in  their  order  and  natural  vastness,  he  must 
betake  himself  to  the  new  world. 

It  is  not  many  years  since  attention  was  first 
directed  to  American  geology,  but  during  the  short 
time  that  has  intervened,  its  progress  has  been  very 
remarkable.  This  has  resulted  from  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  geological  staff  in  conn(>ction  with  nearly 
every  province  of  the  United  States,  from  the 
vigorous  operations  of  the  Canadian  survey  under 
Sir  W.  E.  Logan,  and  from  the  observations  of 
arctic  explorer.*,  whose  frequent  visits  to  these 
regions  in  search  of  the  ill-fated  Franklin  have  sup- 
plied data  for  the  exposition  of  their  natural  history. 
Humboldt,  though  the  first,  is  yet  the  most  import- 
ant of  South  American  observers.  The  numerous 
facts  recorded  by  him  have  been  confirmed  and 
added  to  by  recent  travellers.  Data  have  been  thus 
supplied  to  form  an  approximate  estimate  of  the 
geological  structure  of  this  portion  of  the  American 
continent. 

The  names  of  North  American  observers  are 
almost  past  reckoning,  yet  the  various  systems  may 
be  said  to  have  been  eliiefly  laid  open  by  four  sets  of 
observers — Morton  for  the  Cretaceous,  Conrad  for 
the  Tertiary,  Hall  and  the  New  York  geologists  for 
the  Palaeozoic,  and  the  Professors  Rogers  for  the 
Carbonil'erons  strata  and  the  Appalachians. 

In  the  following  rapid  sketch  of  this  subject,  we 
can  do  nothing  more  than  glance  at  the  various 
formations,  and  must  rel'er  for  details  to  the  articles 
under  the  different  divisions  of  A. 

The  oldest  strata  are  a  range  of  Crystalline 
Rocks  which,  in  North  A.,  occupy  an  area  that 
extends  i'rom  the  northern  shores  of  Lake  Superior, 
and  the  banks  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  north-west  to  the 
Arctic  Ocean,  and  lies  between  the  line  of  minor 
lakes  (Slave,  Winnipeg,  &c.)  and  Hudson's  Bay.  The 
average  width  of  this  area  is  about  200  miles,  and  its 
length  from  Lake  Superior  to  its  termination  on  the 
Bhores  of  the  Arctic  Sea  is  more  than  1500  miles.  The 
rocks  are  chiefly  gneiss,  with  granite  and  trap.  They 
form  a  fiat  plateau,  very  little  elevated  above  the 
surrounding  country,  and  only  in  the  Copper  Moun- 
tains rising  to  the  altitude  of  hills,  the  highest  of 
which  is  800  feet  above  the  sea-level.  In  this 
immense  plain  we  have  an  example  of  the  great 
characteristic  of  American  geology — the  tranquil 
operation  of  an  upheaving  force,  exerted  over  a 
wide  uiea,  with  limited  and  regulated  intensity,  and 
constancy  of  direction.  This  series  of  rocks  stretches 
over  nearly  the  whole  of  the  eastern  portion  of 
202 


South  A.,  extending  from  the  northern  shores  to 
the  mouth  of  the  La  Plata,  being,  however,  hidden 
in  the  valley  of  the  Amazon  by  its  alluvial  depusit^. 
The  same  rocks  form  the  western  slopes  of  the 
Andes  and  Rocky  Mountains,  and  tlie  plains  of 
Russian  A.  In  the  central  di.strict,  in  which  we  first 
traced  them,  they  dip  east  and  west  under  the 
Silurian  strata.  They  are  themselves  free  from 
superincumbent  beds,  shewing  that  even  in  the 
Silurian  age  they  formed  dry  land;  and  ever  since, 
although  subject,  like  the  rest  of  the  world,  to  great 
oscillation,  it  has  a|)parcntly  held  its  place  with 
wonderful  stability,  for  it  is  now,  as  probably  then, 
not  far  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

On  either  side  of  this  tract  there  exists,  as  we  have 
said,  a  Silukian  district.  That  on  the  eastern  side, 
reaching  to  Hudson's  Bay,  has  a  low  and  uniformly 
swampy  aspect  ;  the  strata  are  hid  by  superficial 
deposits,  chiefly  boulder  clay  or  drift,  large  boulders 
from  which  are  scattered  along  the  shore.  The 
Silurian  rocks  mider  which  the  crystalline  strata  dip 
on  their  western  limits,  cover  a  large  extent  of  the 
North  American  continent.  They  have  been  traced 
from  Canada  and  New  England,  bounding  the 
southern  limits  of  the  azoic  rocks  along  the  line  of 
the  great  lakes,  and  extending  in  a  broad  band  of 
some  200  miles  parallel  to  the  more  ancient  forma- 
tion, probably  till  they  reach  the  Arctic  Ocean. 
These  rocks  are  only  slightly  developed  in  Southern 
A.,  on  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Andes. 

The  Silurians  have  been  divided  into  Loirer  and 
Upper,  and  each  of  these  contains  three  periods. 
Beginning  with  the  Lower,  we  have  first  the 

J^otsdain  Period,  comprising  beds  of  slate  and 
sandstone,  and  containing  fossils  representative  of 
the  three  great  divisions  of  the  animal  kingdom — 
Molluscs,  Articulates,  and  Radiates.  Next  follows 
the 

Trenton  Period,  a  period  of  limestones  indicating  a 
sea  of  greater  depth,  and  teeming  with  life,  for  some 
beds  are  composed  entirely  of  shells  and  corals. 

Another  change,  and  rocks  of  a  clayey  and  shaly 
structure  are  deposited,  containing  numberless 
zoophytes  and  other  fossils,  and  forming  the  Jludsoti 
Period. 

The  Upper  Silurian  division  also  comprises  throe 
epochs:  The  Medina  and  Clinton,  com])Osed  of  sand- 
stones and  shales;  then  The  Ni<t(tara  and  Oi  ondaga, 
with  limestones  and  saline  rocks;  and,  lastly.  The 
Lover  Helderbery  Period,  a  "ichly  fossiliferous  series 
of  limestone  rocks. 

The  Silurian  beds  on  their  southern  and  western 
borders  dip  under  the  Dkvonian  rocks,  which  are 
developed  to  a  large  extent  north  of  lat.  42°  N., 
where  they  appear  to  rest  upon  the  azoic  rocks. 
They  have  been  divided  into  five  periods:  Orii<kany, 
Uppjer  Hehkrherr/,  Handlton,  Cheiiimn/,  and  Catxkill. 

Vast  beds  of  conglomerate  overlie  the  Devonian 
rocks,  and  form  the  basis  of  the  CAnnoNiFEUous 
strata.  This  formation  covers  large  districts  in  New 
Jersey  and  Pennsylvania,  and  in  the  Ohio  and 
Mississippi  valleys,  with  an  enormous  thickness  of 
limestone,  shale,  and  other  beds,  which  still  con- 
tinue parallel  to  the  previous.  At  the  close  of  the 
carboniferous  epoch,  the  whole  character  of  North  A, 
was  altered  by  the  formation  of  itsmo\mtain  systems. 
No  hill  higher  than  Copper  Mountain  seems  to  have 
existed  at  this  time,  although  the  land  occupied 
much  the  same  area,  and  had  a  similar  ovtline  as  at 
present.  The  Professors  Rogers,  having  with  perfect 
success  unravelled  the  contortions  of  the  Appa- 
lachians, have  shewn  that  the  Silurian,  Devonian, 
and  Carboniferous  strata,  which  were  originally  laid 
out  in  horizontal  layers,  were  afterwards  pressed  on 
to  the  north-westward,  and  folded  up  till  the  folds 
were  of  mountain  height.     To  similar  causes  do  the 


AMERICA. 


Rocky  Moviiuaiiis  and  the  Andes  owe  their  origin — 
onlv  the  directions  of  the  forces  are  difl'erent. 

The  Appalachian  fires  have  long  l)cen  extinguished ; 
they  have,  however,  left  traces  of  their  former  vio- 
lence in  the  highly  metamorphosed  Silurian  and  Car- 
boniferous rocks  of  New  York  and  Pennsylvania, 
vhich  were  long  supposed  to  be  primary  granite,  kc. 
The  igneous  agency,  which  at  first  raised  the  ■western 
range,  is  still  active  at  intervals  throughout  its 
course. 

Permian  deposits  exist  in  Nebraska,  Kansas  and  New 
Mexico,  and  perhaps  in  other  sections.  They  oc- 
cur over  the  great  interior  sea,  the  paleozoic  repre- 
sentative of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Rocks  of  the  Triassic 
period  are  met  with  on  the  Atlantic  border  antl  the 
slopes  of  the  Rocky  Mts.,  and  furnish  the  brown  sand- 
stone esteemed  for  building  purposes.  In  this  formation 
occur  the  impressions  known  ns  "  bird  tracks,"  but 
•which  Prof.  Cope  has  recently  sllo^^■n  to  be  of  reptilian 
oriurin. 

In  the  CRET.iCKors  beds  which  follow,  evidence  is 
given  that  the  Mexican  Gulf  extended  far  up  the 
lilissouri  Valley,  and  sufficiently  deep  to  cover  Texas 
and  Nebraska  with  the  beds  which  belong  to  this 
formation. 

The  Tertiary  formation  is  developed  as  a  band  of 
about  60  miles,  fornung  the  southern  extremity  of 
North  A.,  and  stretching  from  North  Carolina  to  the 
peninsula  of  Yucatan,  leaving  the  coast-line  oidy 
at  the  delta  of  the  Mississippi.  This  formation 
occupies  a  large  amount  of  the  surface  of  South 
A.  From  Patagonia  to  Venezuela  it  can  be  traced 
occupying  the  S]iace  intervening  between  the  base  of 
the  Andes  and  the  azoic  rocks  of  Brazil  and  Guiana. 
The  older  Silurian  and  Carboniferous  deposits  are  not 
found  in  the  positions  they  occupy  in  the  northern 
continent;  the  gneiss,  &c.,  dip  directly  under  the 
tertiaiies. — The  valleys  of  the  Amazon  and  the  La 
Plata,  and  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  contain  ex- 
tensive AlluDial  deposits. 

There  only  remain  two  post-tertiary  beds,  which, 
however,  are  of  considerable  importance — viz.,  the 
Boulder  Claif,  and  the  River  Terraces  or  Locus, 
containing  the  remains  of  the  mastodon  and  of  the 
elephant.  The  boulder  clay  occurs  in  the  country 
north  of  lat.  4(t°  N.,  and  in  Patagonia  in  South  A. 
Its  characteristics  are  the  same  as  that  in  tlie  old 
world — a  stitt'  clav,  containing  boulders  of  all  sizes, 
some  being  as  much  as  one  or  two  thousand  tons'  weight. 
The  origin  of  this  remarkable  deposit  is  ascribed  to  the 
former  existence  of  vast  glaciers  over  the  N.  and  S. 
parts  of  America  down  to  the  line  of  boulder  clay. 

The  pampas  of  Southern  A.  are  covered  with  a 
deposit  of  clay  and  sand,  containing  the  bones  of  the 
megatherium  and  mylodon,  genera  allied  to  the  sloths, 
and  of  the  glyptodon,  a  huge  armadillo.  For  details 
see  Andes,  Appalachians,  Rocky  Mountains. 

Botany. — On  the  discovery  of  A.,  Europeans 
regarded  with  astonishment  its  vegetable  and 
animal  productions,  so  different  from  all  that 
they  had  ever  seen  before.  The  difference^  between 
the  pioductions  of  the  old  and  new  worlds  is 
least  i-emarkable  in  the  most  northern  regions. 
Around  the  north  pole,  a  region  having  a  flora  and 
fauna  which  may  properly  be  designated  arctic, 
includes  portions  of  the  three  continents  of  Europe, 
Asia,  and  A. ;  and  many  productions  are  common 
to  these  three  continents  throughout  this  region, 
whilst  those  wiiieh  are  peculiar  to  one,  are  generally 
represented  in  the  others  by  species  nearly  allied. 
In  A.,  this  region  extends  to  the  northern  shores  of 
Lake  Superior.  The  polar  bear  haunts  the  arctic 
regions  of  the  old  and  new  worlds  alike;  and  further 
south,  in  both,  the  beaver  builds  his  dam,  and  is 
pursued  for  his  skin.  Pine  and  birch  are  the  chief 
trees  of  all  tlie  most  northern  forests,  and  struggle 


on,  dwarfed  and  stunted,  towards  the  regions  of 
perpetual  snow  ;  whilst  the  berries  of  difi'ercnt  species 
of  A'«6«.s- and  Vaccinium  (bilberry,  &c.)  are  the  last 
fruits  which  the  soil  oilers  to  man  during  the  brief 
suimner  of  the  north — alike  to  the  Laplander  and  the 
Esquimaux. 

More  to  the  south,  the  flora  and  fiiuna  of  A. 
become  more  decidedly  difl'erent  from  those  of  the 
old  world ;  yet  the  diflcrence  consists  not  so  mucii 
in  the  api>caranee  of  new  families  as  in  new  species, 
replacing,  so  to  speak,  those  of  Europe  and  of  Asia. 
The  forests  consist  chiefly,  as  in  these  continents,  of 
jiines,  oaks,  birches,  and  willows  ;  but  the  pines,  and 
oaks,  and  biiches,  and  willows,  are  not  the  same  as 
those  which  cover  the])laiiis  and  mountains  eastward 
of  the  Atlantic.  The  same  remark  apjilies  to  poplars, 
elms,  planes,  maples,  hazels,  and  other  kinds  of 
trees,  and  to  plants  of  huinbler  growth,  as  roses, 
brambles,  strawberries,  bilberries,  &c.,  the  pasture 
grasses,  and  the  common  flowers  and  weeds,  altiiough 
umbelliferous  and  cruciferous  plants  are  compara- 
tively rare.  Not  unfre(iuently,  also,  forms  occur 
more  com[)letely  difl'erent  from  those  of  the  oiher 
(|uarters  of  the  world,  and  these  become  more 
numerous  as  we  proceed  southward  ;  although  the 
magnolias,  vhich  ibrm  so  admirable  a  feature  of  the 
flora  of  the  Southern  Alleghanics  and  otiier  southern 
parts  of  North  A.,  have  recently  been  found  equally 
to  characterise  that  of  the  east  of  xVsia  and  of  the 
Himalaya  Mountains,  where  magnificent  species  of 
rhododendron  have  also  been  discovered,  rivalling 
or  excelling  those  which  are  natives  of  the  United 
States,  and  very  difl'erent  from  the  dwarf  shrubs 
which  represent  the  same  genus  on  the  mountains  of 
Europe.  It  is  remarkable  that  no  true  species  of 
heath  is  found  in  A.,  although  many  shrubs  of  the 
same  family  occur,  but  none  of  them  so  strongly 
exhibiting  the  social  character,  or  covering  great 
tracts,  as  the  heaths  do  in  Europe.  AVlicrc  the 
climate  begins  to  assume  a  tropical  character,  how- 
ever, A.  is  distinguished  by  the  abundance  of  the 
Cacti  (the  prickly  pear  and  its  allies),  which  arc 
found  on  its  plains,  often  forming  the  greater  jiartof 
their  vegetation.  The  species  of  this  order,  so  f.u"  as 
is  yet  known,  are  exclusively  American,  alth-)ugh 
some  of  them  have  been  introduced  into  the  warmer 
parts  of  tlio  old  world,  and  are  now  very  common 
in  the  south  of  Europe  and  elsewhere.  The  mountains 
of  Mexico  are,  to  a  large  extent,  clothed  with  oaks 
and  pines,  most  of  them,  however,  difl'erent  not  only 
from  those  of  the  eastern  continents,  but  even  from 
those  of  the  more  northern  p;irts  of  A.  Tiie  flora  of 
tropical  A.  resembles  that  of  Asia  and  Africa  in  its 
palms,  although  these  also  are  with  lew  exceptions 
ilillerent  in  species ;  and  the  species  are  more 
abundant  than  in  any  other  part  of  tiie  world.  It 
appears,  indeed,  that  palm-forests  like  those  of 
South  A.  scarcely  exist  elsewhere.  The  forests  of 
the  hottest  parts  of  South  A.  produce  also  many 
remarkable  trees  of  other  kinds,  among  which  may 
be  mentioned  the  trees  of  the  order  Lcci/l/iidacece 
(q.  v.),  one  of  them  known  as  tlK"  cannon-ball  tree, 
and  all  of  them  producing  huge  fruits,  with  thick  hard 
shells,  which  are  often  used  for  domestic  purposes  ; 
whilst  within  the  shell  of  a  particular  species  are 
packed  together  the  well-known  Brazil  Nuts  (q.  v.) 
of  our  shops.  In  the  waters  of  the  same  region  has 
recently  been  discovered  the  Mctoria  Ju'(/ia,  the 
most  magnificent  of  water-lilies.,  and  for  the  growth 
of  which,  hot-houses  containing  ponds  of  water  have 
been  erected  in  our  own  country.  The  forests  of 
this  part  of  A.  are  so  dense  and  fidl  of  underwood, 
and  the  trees  so  bound  together  by  lianns  or  twining 
plants,  that  they  are  in  many  places  impenetrable, 
and  the  animals  which  inhabit  them  either  find 
their    way   among    the   branches,     or    by    narrow 

203 


AMERICA. 


paths,  whicli  they  kerp  open  by  constant  use.  The 
treeless  [ilains  of  South  A.,  like  those  of  North 
A.,  have,  in  general,  much  of  a  fjrassy  vegetation. 
Part  of  the  elevated  regions  of  the  Corilillera, 
within  the  torrid  zone,  is  remarkably  character- 
ised by  the  presence  of  Cinchon<(\  which  form  its 
principal  botanical  feature,  and  yield  the  celebrated 
Peruvian  bark.  In  still  more  elevated  regions, 
Escallonice  and  Calccolarue  give  a  novel  aspect  to  a 
vegetation  otherwise  very  similar  to  that  of  Europe 
in  its  general  character,  and  containing  saxifrages, 
gentians,  and  many  other  plants  of  genera  common 
in  the  old  world.  The  flora  of  Chili  jirescnts  also 
some  interesting  points  of  resemblance  to  that  of 
New  Holland  and  New  Zealand.  An  Araucaria, 
now  not  unfrequent  in  our  pleasure-grounds,  appears 
as  a  representative  of  the  pines ;  and  its  seeds 
afford  a  large  part  of  the  food  of  the  natives  of  the 
district  in  which  it  abounds.  Towards  the  Strait 
of  Magellan,  vegetation  a;.a;n  assumes  forms  more 
similar  to  those  of  Europe.  The  forests  consist  in 
great  part  of  peculiar  species  of  beech.  Barberries, 
different  from  those  of  other  parts  of  the  world,  but 
very  nearly  resembling  them,  are  particularly  abun- 
dant; and  with  them  occur  brambles,  sa.xifrages, 
gentians,  primroses,  &c.  There  are  also  vegetable 
productions  very  different  and  peculiar,  as  the  Win- 
ter's l)ark,  which  has  obtained  some  reputation  as  a 
medicine.  From  this  region  are  derived  not  a  few 
of  the  fuchsias  now  so  familiar  an  ornament  of  gar- 
dens, greenhouses,  and  cottage  windows  iu  Britain, 
and  which  are  exclusively  American. 

Maize  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  botanical 
productions  of  A.  It  is  the  only  cultivated  grain  of 
American  origin  ;  it  was  in  cultivation  before  the 
discovery  of  A.  by  Europeans,  by  whom,  however, 
its  value  was  soon  recognised,  and  it  has  now  become 
an  important  crop  in  climates  suitable  for  it  iu  all 
quarters  of  the  world.  The  other  grains  have  all 
been  introduced  into  A.  by  Europeans,  with  the 
sugar-cane,  the  banana  and  plantain,  coffee,  cotton, 
flax,  and  many  other  plants  now  generally  cultivated 
both  in  the  tropical  and  temperate  regions.  The 
yam  is  regarded  as  amongst  its  native  productions, 
common  to  its  tropical  regions  with  those  of  other 
quarters  of  the  world.  Tobacco  is  a  native  produc- 
tion of  A.,  the  cultivation  and  use  of  which  extended 
from  it  to  the  old  world,  and  rapidly  became  pre- 
valent among  a  great  part  of  mankind.  (It  is  indeed 
supposed  by  some  that  there  is  a  species  of  tobacco 
indigenous  to  the  furthest  east ;  but  this,  and  the 
question  of  its  use  there  before  it  was  made  known 
from  A.,  are  still  involved  in  uncertainty.)  But  of 
all  the  vegetable  productions  of  A.,  the  potato  is  the 
most  important  and  useful.  We  owe  to  it  also  the 
Jerusalem  artichoke  ;  and  it  produces  several  other 
plants,  valuable  for  their  roots  and  tubers,  as  the 
arracacha,  the  melloco,  &c.,  the  use  of  which  has 
scarcely  yet  extended  beyond  their  native  regions. 
With  them  may  be  mentioned  the  quinoa,  which  is 
not  a  grain  (the  seed  of  a  grass),  but  the  seed  of  a 
species  of  C'/tcnopoduiui,  or  goosefbot,  resembling  the 
seeds  of  the  cereal  grasses  in  its  qualities,  and  exien- 
sively  cultivated  on  the  high  table-lands  of  ChiH  and 
Peru.  Tapioca,  arrow-root,  cocoa,  vanilla,  pimenta, 
or  Jamaica  pepper,  and  Cayenne  pepper,  are  among 
the  native  productions  of  the  tropical  parts  of  A. 
The  Agave  (q.  v.)  or  American  aloe,  valuable  both 
for  its  libre  and  its  juice,  has  now  become  common 
in  the  warm  parts  of  Europe,  and  in  similar  climates 
in  other  quarters  of  the  globe.  The  pine-apple  is  a 
native  of  tropical  A.,  although  now  naturalised,  or 
nearly  so,  in  other  tropical  regions.  Tropical  A. 
and  the  AVest  Indies  produce  also  many  other  fine 
fruits,  among  which  are  the  guava,  difterent  species 
of  anona  or  custard-apple,  and  of  granadilla  or  pas- 
204 


sion-flower. — The  forests  of  North  A.  yield  much 
valuable  timber,  chiefly  consisting  of  different  kinds 
of  oak  and  pine.  The  black  walnut  and  hickory  of 
the  United  States  are  also  much  estetuned.  The 
West  Irulies  and  neighbouiing  parts  of  the  mainland 
yield  mahogany  ;  and  fiom  tlie  same  regions  comes 
hjgwood,  one  of  the  most  useful  of  dyewoods.  The 
tropical  forests  of  South  A.  produce  many  valuable 
timber-trees,  of  which  perhaps  the  most  deserving 
of  notice  are  the  (rreenheart  (q.  v.)  or  Bibiri,  and 
the  Mora.  Brazil  wood  and  Pernanibuco  wood  are 
among  their  dyewoods.  One  of  the  most  remarkable 
productions  of  this  region  is  the  Cow-tree  (q.  v.),  the 
juice  of  which  possesses  many  properties  in  common 
with  milk,  and  is  used  insti-ad  of  it.  The  milky 
juice  of  some  other  tiees  of  tropical  A.  thickens  into 
caoutchouc. — Different  parts  of  South  A.  produce 
Mafe{q.  v.)  or  Paraguay  Tea,  a  species  of  holly,  the 
leaves  of  which  possess  properties  similar  to  those  of 
tea  and  coffee,  and  afford  a  beverage  wliich  is  exten- 
sively used,  although  not  yet  an  article  of  export  to 
other  parts  of  the  worhl;  and  the  Coca  (ci-  v.),  a 
shrul)  of  which  the  leaf  has  been,  from  a  remote 
period,  employed  by  the  Indians  as  a  narcotic. 

Zoolof/i/. — In  the  animal  kingdom,  as  in  the 
vegetable,  all  seemed  strange  and  new  to  Europeans 
when  they  first  set  foot  iu  America.  Yet  here  also 
the  difference  fiom  the  productions  of  Euro{)e  is  not 
so  great  as  in  South  Africa  or  Australia.  In  North 
A.  many  of  the  animals,  as  of  the  plants,  of  Europe 
arc  represented  by  others  of  the  same  genera  or 
families.  A  few  are  common  to  the  old  and  the 
new  world;  and  in  some  which  are  now  regarded 
as  specifically  different,  the  difference  is  not  so  great 
as  readily  to  attract  the  notice  of  unscientific 
observers.  North  A.  has  its  elk  and  its  decrs,  its 
oxen  ('he  bison,  called  buffalo  iu  the  United  States 
and  the  mus!;-ox),  its  sheep  (the  Rocky  Mountain 
sheep),  its  beavers,  hares,  squirrels  (some  of  them 
nuich  sought  after  for  their  fur),  mice,  rats,  weasels, 
bats,  porcupines,  bears,  badgers,  foxes,  wolves,  and 
several  species  of  feline  aniuuils,  among  wiiich  are 
the  puma  and  the  lynx.  The  jaguar,  more  power- 
fid  and  dangerous  than  any  other  of  the  feline 
animals  of  the  new  world,  and  the  only  very  for- 
midable beast  of  prey  which  it  produces,  inhabits 
the  tropical  forests  of  South  A.  The  warm  parts  of 
South  A.  produce  the  great  tapir,  peccaries,  sloths, 
ant-eaters,  armadillocs,  &c.  ;  but  the  elephant, 
rhinoceros,  hippopotamus,  and  boar  of  the  old 
world  liave  no  more  nearly  allied  re[)resentatives. 
The  lama  and  its  congeners,  among  which  is  the 
alpaca,  are  peculiar  to  South  A.,  inhabiting  the 
Andes  of  Chili  and  Peru.  Of  the  animals  of  the  old 
world,  the  most  neaily  allied  to  them  is  the  camel, 
which  is  entirely  wanting  in  the  new;  as  was  also 
the  horse  ("ith  all  its  congeners),  until  it  was 
introduced  by  Europeans — a  sight  of  wonder  and  of 
terror  to  the  Mexicans  and  Peruvians  who  first 
found  themselves  opposed  to  Spanish  cavalry,  but 
now  thoroughly  naturalised  and  roaming  in  vast 
midtitudes  on  the  South  American  plains.  The  dog 
existed  in  A.  before  the  days  of  Columbus;  it  existed 
in  different  varieties  as  a  domesticated  aiumal,  and 
the  same  difficulty  arises  concerning  the  origin  of 
the  domesticated  varieties  as  when  those  of  the 
old  world  alone  are  considered.  The  chinchilla,  so 
valuable  for  its  fur,  is  a  small  quadruped,  peculiar  to 
the  north  of  Chili.  The  opossums  of  North  A.  were 
the  first  known  of  marsupial  quadrupeds — i.  e., 
those  which  have  a  pouch  for  their  young — and  are 
described  as  objects  of  great  curiosity  by  the  earlier 
writers  on  the  new  world  and  its  productions. 
Monkeys  are  numerous  in  the  warm  parts  of  the 
new  world  as  well  as  of  the  old,  and  of  many 
species ;  but  they  are  not  only  of  different  species 


AMERICA. 


from  those  of  Aula  and  Africa;  they  form  a  dilferent 
section  of  the  monkey  family.  There  are  no  apes 
re.<eniblin<^  the  orang-outang  or  ciiimpanzee,  and  no 
baboons;  but  all  of  the  American  monkeys  have 
long  tails,  and  many  of  them  prehensile  tails,  the 
latter  peculiarity  being  found  in  iione  of  those  of  the 
old  world.  The  absence  of  check-pouched  is  another 
character  of  the  American  monkeys. 

Among  the  birds  of  A.  are  eagles  and  others  of 
the  same  family,  vultures  (among  which  is  the  great 
condor  of  the  Andes),  owls,  ravens,  crows,  herons, 
thrushes  of  many  kinds  (of  which  the  mocking-bird 
may  be  mentioned  as  a  species  particularly  interest- 
ing), finches,  spanows,  buntings,  warblers,  wrens, 
larks,  &c.  Few,  however,  are  identical  in  species 
with  those  of  Europe  or  of  Asia.  Few  things  in  the 
natural  history  of  North  A.  are  more  remarkable 
than  its  multitudinous  flocks  of  pigeons.  There  are 
numerous  species  of  grouse  and  parti'idge.  Of  the 
large  gallinaceous  birds,  the  first  place  in  importance 
must  be  assigned  to  the  turkey,  now  so  common  in  a 
domesticated  state  in  Europe,  although  in  a  wild 
state  it  has  almost  disappeared  from  great  part  of 
its  native  regions.  Alectors  and  curassoes  are  large 
gallinaceous  birds  of  Mexico,  Guiana,  and  other  warm 
parts  of  A.  Parrots  abound  in  the  tropical  forests, 
and  although  only  one  species  extends  northward 
into  the  United  States,  yet  in  South  A.,  birds  of 
this  family  range  to  the  southern  extremity  of  tlie 
continent.  Ilunnning-birds  are  peculiar  to  A.,  and 
are  found  not  only  in  its  tropical  but  in  its  temperate 
regions,  of  numerous  species,  and  many  of  them  of 
dazzling  beauty,  passing  like  bees  from  flower  to 
flower,  and  often  constituting  a  characteristic  feature 
of  the  scenes  in  which  they  abound.  Toucans  and 
aracaris  are  among  the  other  kinds  of  birds  peculiar 
to  A.,  and  are  found  in  South  A.  alone.  Swans, 
geese,  and  ducks,  with  other  waterfowl  of  many 
kinds,  exist  in  gieat  numbers  in  North  A.,  and  in 
the  warmer  parts  the  brilliant  colours  of  the  flanungo 
enliven  some  of  the  coasts. 

Serpents  are  numerous.  Among  them  are  boas, 
remarkable  for  their  great  size.  Rattlesnakes,  the 
most  venomous  and  dreaded  of  the  serpent  tribe, 
are  peculiar  to  A.  Alligators  abound  in  the  rivers 
of  the  tropical  and  sub-tropical  regions.  Turtles  are 
caught  in  great  numbers  in  the  West  Indian  seas, 
and  fresh  water  turtles  abound  in  some  of  the  tropi- 
cal rivers.  The  bull-frog  is  a  native  of  the  United 
States,  remarkable  for  the  loud  noise  which  it  makes, 
and  which  those  who  have  been  accustomed  to  it 
from  their  childhood  learn  to  associate  with  all  that 
is  pleasant  in  nature.  The  lakes  and  rivers  of  A. 
abound  in  fish,  of  which  many  are  of  the  salmon 
family,  the  common  salmon  itself  being  found  as  far 
south  as  41°  N.  lat.,  and  some  are  of  the  sturgeon 
family.  The  cod-fisheries  of  the  Bank  of  Newfound- 
land and  of  tlie  coasts  of  Nova  Scotia  are  une(iuallcd 
in  productiveness;  and  herrings,  and  other  species 
of  the  herring  family,  are  taken  in  great  numbers  in 
the  same  seas. 

Some  parts  of  A.  are  grievou.sly  infested  by  mos- 
quitoes and  other  insect  tribes,  the  vast  numbers  of 
\vhi<.h  are  extremely  annoying,  so  that  some  places 
on  the  banks  of  tropical  rivers  are  rendered  almost 
uninhabitable.  Ants  and  termites,  or  white  ants, 
are  very  abundant  in  some  parts  of  South  A.  Many 
species  of  wild  bees  are  found  in  the  forests  of  Brazil, 
some  of  them  very  productive  of  honey  ;  but  the 
common  hive-bee  was  unknown  in  A.  till  it  was 
introduced  from  Europe.  It  has  now  become  natur- 
alised, and  is  found  in  the  forests  far  beyond  the 
settlements  of  white  men.  The  cochineal  insect  of 
the  optuT.ia  is  a  native  of  Mexico  and  Central  A., 
and  the  plant  on  which  it  feeds  has  long  been  culti- 
vated there  and  iu  the  West  Indies  for  its  sake. 


Political  Divisiotis. — The  following  are  tlic  chief 
political  divisions  of  America.  In  North  America, 
strictly  so  called,  are  Kussian  A.,  now  Alaska  — 
a  territory  of  the  United  States,  British  A.,  as 
connnonly  understood,  the  United  States,  and  part 
of  Mexico.  In  Central  A.  are  the  lemainder  of 
Mexico,  Central  A.,  in  its  political  sense,  compris- 
ing Guatemala,  San  Salvador,  Honduras,  Nicaragua, 
and  Costa  Rica ;  and,  lastly,  a  small  portion  of 
New  Granada.  In  South  A.  are  the  rest  of  New 
(Jranada ;  thence  along  the  Pacific  are  Ecuador, 
Peru,  Chili,  and  aborigiiud  Araucania ;  while  round 
by  Patagonia  and  Ticrra  del  Fuogo,  the  Atlantic 
washes  Buenos  Ayres,  Uruguay,  Brazil,  (iuiana, 
and  Venezuela — the  interior  being  occupied  by 
Bolivia,  Paraguay,  and  the  Argentine  Confederation 
Finally,  the  West  Indies  consist  of  the  Bahamas 
the  Greater  Antilles,  and  the  Lesser  Antilles. 

Tlie  annexed  tables  are  fi'om  recent  authorities 
for  1869.  In  the  descriptions  of  the  several  states 
more  recent  statistics  are  given,  so  far  as  possible. 

1.  Governments  of  North  America. 


Governments. 

Area    In 
Square 

Population. 

Capitals. 

Miles. 

Danish  America(Greenlnd) 

769,814 

10,000 

Lichtenfels. 

French  Possessions,     . 

81 

3.536 

St.  Pierre. 

Rupert's  Land,      ]      Or 

1,800,000 

180,000 

York  Factory. 

Ontario  (U.  C),         3' 3 

121,260 

1,802,066 

1  Ottawa. 

Quebec  (L.  C),        i  ■^Q \ 
New  Brunswick,        Sg 

210,020 

1,288.880 

27,105 

295,084 

Vrederickton. 

Nova  Scotia,  &c.        '  g- 

18,660 

368,781 

Halifax. 

Prince  Ed.'s  Isld., 

2,100 

91,443 

Charlotte  T'n. 

Newfoundland, 

40,200 

130,001) 

St.  J(diu'8. 

British  Columbia, 

213,500 

13,671 

New  Westm'r. 

U.  States  of  N.  A.  (1869), 

3,578,:j92 

36,74:!,19S 

\\ashington. 

U.  States  of  Mexico,     . 

773,144 

8,137,S.i3 

Mexico. 

San  Siflvador,     . 

7,3.35 

600,000 

San  Salvador. 

Nicaragua,     .        . 

58,169 

400,0113 

Managua. 

Honduras,           •        . 

47,092 

350,000 

Coraagagua. 

Guatemala,    . 

44,778 

1,180,000 

Guatemala. 

Costa  Rica, 

21,495 

135,000 

San  Jose. 

Mosquitia, 

6,000 

BlewfieldB. 

Honduras  (Brit,  colony). 
Total, 

13,500 

25,635 

Balize. 

7,736,645 

51,761,147 

2.   West  Indian  Governments. 


Governments. 

Area  in 

Square 
Miles. 

Population. 

Capitals. 

Hayti,           \      San       f 
Dominica,  .  J  Domingo,  \ 

S"^*'„-         1  Spanish,! 
Porto  Rico,    j    *^          '1 

Jamaica,         I  British,   ■[ 
Trinidad,        j                  ( 

Windward  Islands— 
Barbadoes,     . 
Grenada,  &c.,     . 
St.  Vincent, 
Tobago, 
St.  Lucia, 

Leeward  Islands — 
Antigua,  &c., 
Montserrat, 

St.Christph'r  &  Anguilla, 
Nevis, 

Virgin  Islands, 
Dominica, 
Bahama  Islands, 
Turk's  Island, 
Bermuda  Islands, 
Guadalupe,  &c.,         "j  "g  [ 
Martinique,                 (  I   1 
St.  Martin's N.  Side,)  u.  ( 
St.  Martin's  S.Sd.  Dutch) 
Curacoa,  &c.,             "      i 
Santa  Cruz,  &c.,       "|  -S 
St.  Thomas,      .          y°\ 
St.  John's,    .        .     J  o  j 
St.Bartholomews(Swedish) 

Total, 

10,205 
17,826 
48,489 
3,596 
6,400 
1,754 

166 
133 
131 
97 

260 

183 
47 

103 
50 
57 

291 
3,021 

450 
24 

635 

381 
21 

568 

74 

45 

16 

£72,000 
136,500 
1.396.5.30 
583,300 
441,264 
84,438 

152,127 
36,230 
31,755 
15,410 
29,444 

37,125 
7,645 

26,040 
9,822 
6,051 

25,666 

35,487 
4,.372 

11,451 

149,.331 

137,673 

2,200 

33,443 

23,194 

15,037 

2,898 

Port  au  Prince 
San  Domingo. 
Havana. 
San  Juan. 
Kingston. 
Port  of  Spain. 

Bridgetown. 
St.  George's. 
Kingston. 
Scarboro'. 
C;istrie3. 

St.  John's. 
Plymouth. 
Basseterre. 
Charlestown. 

Rosseau. 
Nassau. 

Hamilton. 
Basseterre. 
St.  Pierre. 

Wilhclmstadt. 
Christ'nstadt. 

Gustavia. 

95,023 

4,007,333 

205 

AMERICA,  BRITISH— AMP:RICANISMS. 


3.   Governments  of  South  America. 


Area    in 

GoveramcnCs. 

Squiire 
Wiles. 

Population. 

Capitals. 

Venezuela,  Republic, 

368,235 

2,200,000 

CaraccM. 

Ecuador,            do. 

218,984 

1,300.000 

Quito. 

Bolivia,             do. 

535,760 

l,9S7,3;i2 

Chuciuisaca. 

Peru,                  do. 

610,1(»- 

2,500,000 

Lima. 

Chili,                  do. 

132,624 

2,084,960 

Santiago. 

Colombia  TJ.  St.-ites  of 

357,179 

2,920,473 

Ste  Fe  deBog. 

Argentine  Confcderat'n  \ 
with  Unenog  Avres,     j 

826,828 

1,465,000 

ISuenos  Ayre«. 

Uriiffiiay,  The  Oriental  j 

66,716 

350,000 

Montevideo. 

Keimblic  of,                  J 

I'Hrcif^iiaV,  Kepublic,      . 

126,352 

1,3.37,431 

Asuncion. 

Brazil,  Kinpirc  of, 

3,231,047 

11,780,000 

Rio  (ie. Janeiro 

Guiana  (liritish),  . 

76,000 

155,020 

Georgetown. 

Guiana  (Dutch), 

62,747 

59,078 

Paramaribo. 

Guiana  (French), 

35,nso 

25,137 

Cayenne. 

Patagonia, 

380,000 

120,000 

Falkland  Islands, 

Total, 
Grand  total  of  America, 

7,000 

592 
28,585,049 

Port  Louis. 

6,934,668 

14,766,336 

84,353,529 

AMERICA,  Bp.iTisir.  From  the  small  bc{rintiing.s 
specified  ill  tlie  general  arlicic  above,  British  A., 
in  the  proper  sense  of  tbe  words,  is  now,  in  mere 
extent,  at  least  equal  to  the  American  republic,  and 
vastly  siipeiior  to  any  otlier  state  in  the  western 
bcmisplierc — occupying,  as  it  does,  a  breadth  of 
about  ^)(»°  of  long.,  and  stretching,  with  more  or  less 
uiterruption,  over  a  length  of  l'!(i°.  Besides  touch- 
ing, actually  or  virtually,  every  consideiable  power 
on  the  continent,  England,  in  the  new  world  as  in 
the  old,  commands  nearly  every  turning-]ioint  in 
navigMtion  and  coniii>erce.  In  co-operation  with 
Ireland,  Newfoundland  has  just  linked  together  the 
two  continents  by  a  subniarinc  telegraph.  Again, 
with  tlie  gulf  and  river  of  St.  Lawrence  as  its  main 
artery,  Briii.sh  A.,  in  its  ordinary  acceptation,  com- 
prising Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick',  riiiicc  Edward's 
Island,  and  the  Canadas,  has  received  from  nature 
an  advantage  in  respect  of  the  western  trade,  which 
even  the  energy  of  Pennsylvania  and  New  York 
cannot  counterbalance;  Halifax,  the  Bermudas,  and 
the  Baliamas,  are  so  many  guardians  of  the  gulf- 
stream,  freighted,  as  it  is,  with  the  exports  of  half 
a  continent.  Jamaica  forms  the  fir.st  link  of  a 
chain,  whieh  girds  the  Caribbean  sea;  Trinidad  fronts 
the  Orinoco,  which  is  connected  by  the  Cassiquiarc 
with  the  Amazon;  "Western  Guiana,  also,  as  already 
mentioned  under  another  head,  finds,  up  the  Esse- 
quibo,  its  own  communication  with  the  'King  of 
Waters; '  and,  lastly,  at  least  on  the  Atlantic  .«ide,  the 
Falklands,  with  their  Port  Egmont,  flank  alike  the 
river  Plate  and  the  Strait  of  Magellan.  Round,  again, 
in  the  Pacific,  British  A.  exerts  an  influence  which, 
if  absolutely  les.s,  is  perhaps  relatively  greater.  At 
the  upper  extreniity  of  a  coast,  which,  in  spite  of 
some  splendid  exceptions,  is,  as  a  whole,  singularly 
deficient  in  harbours,  New  Columbia,  with  its  breast- 
work of  islands  from  Vancouver's  upwards,  and  its 
succession  of  indentations  or  arms  of  tlie  sea,  bids 
fair,  luore  especially  with  its  inexhaustible  supplies 
of  timber,  to  become  a  congenial  base  of  operations 
fur  sustaining  the  maritime  greatness  of  Britain. 

AMERICA,  Russian. — now  Alaska,  a  territory  of 
the  U.  S. — was  purchased  from  the  Russian  govern- 
ment in  1867  for  $7,200,000.  It  is  bounded,  on  the 
side  of  British  A.,  above,  between  the  two  bordering 
oceans,  by  the  meridian  of  141°  W.,  and  below,  down 
to  the  parallel  of  54°  4u'  N.,  by  a  conventional  line 
to  be  drawn  at  a  distance  of  30' miles  from  the  con- 
tinental coast.  It  was  discovered  by  a  Russian  expedi- 
tion conducted  by  Behring  (q.  v.),  which  sailed  from 
Kamtchatka  in  1741.  It  is  little  better  than  a  vast 
hunting-ground,  having,  in  this  aspect,  been  long  held 
by  the  Imperial  Fur  Company,  which  differs,  however, 
but  little  from  the  Imperiar  Government  itself.  Its 
206 


only  town,  or  rather  village,  worthy  of  the  name,  is 
New  Archangel,  on  the  island  of  Sitka.  The  most 
noticeable  points  in  geography  are  Cape  Prince  of 
Wales,  on  Beliring's  Strait ;  Kotzebue's  Sound  above  ; 
and  below,  again,  Norton  Sound,  Bristol  Bay,  penin- 
sula of  Alaska,  Cook's  Inlet,  and  Mount  St.  Elias. 

AMERIC.V,  Spanish.— Spanish  A.,  shrunk,  as  it 
is,  into  Porto  Rico  and  Cuba,  now  belongs  rather 
to  history  than  to  geography.  For  many  years  it 
embraced  absolutely  tlic  entire  continent,  liaxing 
in  1580,  absorbed  Brazil,  as  Spain  itself  absorbed 
Portugal,  at  a  date  prior  to  the  intrusion  of  any 
other  European  settlement.  But,  boundless  as  it 
was,  it  contained,  from  the  beginning,  the  seeds  of 
its  ultimate  and  irremediable  decay.  The  colonists, 
as  hunters  after  the  precious  metals,  disdained  that 
steady  industry,  which,  to  their  English  comiiciitors, 
was  a  necessary  of  life ;  while  the  mother  country,  by 
rigorously  excluding  all  but  its  own  actual  natives 
from  public  employments,  did  nothing  to  prepare  its 
dependencies  for  the  rational  use  of  that  independ- 
ence which  was  surjc  at  last  to  come.  At  the  same 
time,  those  very  circumstances  did  tend  to  prolong 
the  subjection  of  S[>anish  A. ;  for  the  colonies  I'ouiid 
their  first  motive  lor  rebellion  in  their  fidelity  to 
their  sovereign,  throwing  oft"  the  yoke  of  Spain 
primarily  on  account  of  Napoleon's  seizure  of  Fer- 
dinand VII.  Similarly,  Brazil,  as  the  chosen  shelter 
of  its  sovereign  from  French  domination,  reinamcd 
faithful  to  the  House  of  Braganza. 

AMERICANISMS  arc  words  and  phrases  current 
in  the  United  States  of  America,  and  not  current  in 
England.  These  peculiarities  are  much  more  promi- 
nent in  conversation  than  in  writing;  indeed,  in  the 
American  writers  that  are  usually  considered  classi- 
cal, it  is  ditTicult  to  detect  anything  of  the  kind. 
The  number  of  alisolutely  new  words  intioduced 
into  the  English  language  in  America  is  remarkably 
small.  As  an  instance  may  be  mentioned  cnxcns, 
for  a  secret  political  assembly.  This  is  a  corruption 
of  calk-lioime,  a  calkcr's  shed  in  Boston,  where  the 
patriots  belbre  the  revolution  had  usually  held  their 
meetings.  The  term  Yankee  (an  Indian  corruption 
of  the  French  Aii<ilais)  is  another.  The  great  i;ody 
of  A.  consist  in  giving  an  unusual  soir<e  to  existing 
words:  as  clever^  in  the  sense  of  amiable,  and  smart 
for  clever;  war/on  for  a  very  light  kind  of  carriage; 
book-atore  for  bookseller's  shop ;  wilted  for  witiiered  ; 
creek  for  a  small  river,  instead  of  a  small  arm  of  the 
sea. 

The  several  divisions  of  the  Union  have  their 
characteristic  peculiarities.  Thus,  in  the  New 
England  States — Vankeeland  pro[ier — 'xgf'J  is  u.>-ed 
for  ill-natured  ;  //'w'^u/.s"  for  relations  (so  used  also 
in  Scotland)  ;  and  r/uciix  for  a  great  variety  of  things 
— to  think,  presume,  suppose,  kc.  This  use  of  (jncxs 
is  confined  to  New  England ;  the  inhabitants  of  New 
York  and  of  the  Middle  States  generally  employ 
expect  in  the  same  way:  while  those  of  the  Southern 
States  reckon;  and  those  ot  the  AVesicrii  State.? 
calcttlate.  Several  words  current  in  the  Middle 
States  are  of  Dutch  origin,  as  loafer  for  a  vaga- 
bond, from  the  Dutch  loopcn,  to  run ;  and  boss 
for  a  head  workman  or  employer.  The  Southern 
States  have  fewer  peculiarities  than  any  of  the 
other  divisions.  In  the  Western  States,  again,  there 
is  hardly  any  recognised  standard  of  speech,  and  in 
some  districts  'it  would  hardly  be  an  exaggeration  to 
say  that  every  prominent  person  has  his  own  private 
vocabulary.'  The  verb  loftx  is  made  to  do  duty  for 
expressing  every  conceivable  kind  of  action.  The 
vague  use  of  this  word  is  conmion  all  over  the  Union, 
but  in  the  West  the  abuse  is  carried  to  the  extreme. 
Help,  in  the  sense  of  servant,  is  common  to  the 
West  and  to  New  England,  but  is  nearly  unknown 


AMERIGO  VESPUCCI— AMERSFOORT. 


in  the  Middle  States.  Tiie  well-known  phrase  go 
ahead  is  a  coinage  of  the  West;  it  is  sufTieiently  ex- 
pressive of  tlie  leading  characteristic  of  tlu;  American 
people.  Postcd-up  in  a  snbject,  for  '  well  informed,' 
is  one  of  a  class  of  metaphors  indicative  of  the 
prominence  of  mercantile  pursuits. 

The  tendency  to  the  use  of  slang  is  excessive  in 
America,  especially  in  the  Western  States.  '  Every 
state,  every  city  has  its  own  flash  vocabulary ;  but 
it  is  in  the  political  world  that  this  tendency  to  cant 
phrases  most  develops  itself.  Every  new  party,  every 
new  modification  of  an  old  party,  is  bound  to  have 
at  least  one  new  iiamc,  either  assumed  by  itself,  or 
attached  to  it  by  its  opponents.' 

A  variety  of  causes  have  been  enumerated  to 
account  for  the  existence  of  those  deviations  from 
standard  English,  such  as,  the  influence  of  the 
Indian  languages;  the  various  tongues  spoken  by 
settlers  from  Europe  other  than  English ;  the  origi- 
nal provincial  peculiarities  of  portions  of  the  English 
settlers,  &c.  But  even  supposing  the  language  of 
the  United  States  were  at  this  moment  in  every 
respect  identical  with  that  of  England,  and  to  be 
henceforth  unalFected  by  the  iniportation  of  foreign 
elements,  the  complete  identity  could  not  be  ex- 
pected to  continue  long.  Not  only  do  new  circum- 
stances and  wants  make  new  terms  necessary,  and 
modify  the  application  of  old,  but  those  cininges 
of  structure  which  constitute  the  organic  growth  of 
every  living  tongue,  are  evolved  more  or  less  rapidly 
according  to  the  industrial  and  political  activity  of 
those  that  speak  it.  To  complain,  then,  that  the 
English  language  in  America,  or  in  any  of  the  British 
colonies,  should  exhibit  deviations  from  the  standard 
of  the  mother  country,  is  as  unreasonable  as  to 
comiilain  that  an  animal  should  exhibit  changes  in 
its  coat  or  its  habits  when  removed  from  one 
climate  to  another.  Nothing  is  more  desirable  for 
the  interests  of  humanity  than  that  the  language 
spoken  by  all  the  sections  of  the  great  Anglo-Saxon 
race  should  continue  to  be  substantially  one.  All 
wanton  innovations  are  to  be  reprobated  ;  but  when 
a  gieat  and  diversified  community  adopt  generally 
any  new  term  or  mode  of  expression,  it  is  to  be 
presumed  that  the  cause  lies  deeper  than  any  that 
can  be  controlled  by  criticism. 

As  the  Americans  of  Anglo-Saxon  origin  do  not 
exceed  one-third  of  the  whole  population  of  the 
United  States,  it  seems  wonderful  that  the  English 
language  should  have  held  its  ground  so  well — that 
it  should  not  have  been  completely  corrupted,  or 
even  in  some  places  extruded  by  other  tongues.  Yet 
there  is  apparently  no  danger  of  this.  The  original 
Dutcli  of  New  York  has  disappeared,  with  the 
exception  of  a  very  few  stray  words  ;  and  although 
French  is  still  spoken  in  one-half  of  the  city  of  New 
Orleans,  it  has  been  preserved  at  the  expense  of  the 
speakers  isolating  themselves  and  losing  their  due 
influence.  The  same  is  the  case  with  those  islands 
of  German-speaking  population  that  still  hold  out 
in  Pennsylvania  and  elsewhere ;  and,  what  is  remark- 
able, the  proximity  of  these  Germans  has  no  sen- 
sible effect  upon  the  language  of  their  English- 
speaking  neighbours;  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  influence  of  the  English  is  reducing  the  language 
of  tl)e  Germans  to  a  corrupt  patois,  swarming  with 
English  words.  Sec  The  English  Language  in  Auicr- 
ica,  in  the  Cambridge  Essays  for  1855  ;  also  Bartlett's 
Dictionary  of  Anicricanis)ns,  New  York,  new  ed. 
1858. 

AMERIGO  VESPUCCI,  a  naval  astronomer, 
from  whom  America  accidentally  received  its  name, 
was  born  at  Florence,  March  9,  1451.  His  father 
was  a  notary.  The  education  of  A.  was  intrusted 
to  his  uncle,  Giorgio  Antonio  Vespucci,  a  monk 
and  apparently  a  man    of  superior   enlightenment. 


The  youth  nnide  but  indifferent  progress  in  his 
Latin  grannnar,  though  he  shewed  great  aptitude 
and  liking  for  natural  philosophy,  astronomv,  and 
geography — at  that  period,  favourite  olijccts  of 
study,  on  account  of  their  commercial  importance. 
It  is  not  precisely  ascertained  when  he  first  went 
to  Spain.  We  find  him  there,  however,  in  148G, 
engaged  in  mercantile  pursuits.  He  was  at  the 
head  of  a  large  Florentine  firm  in  Seville  in  1490, 
when  Columbus  was  nuiking  preparations  for  a 
second  voyage  to  the  new  world.  The  success  of 
the  great  discoverer  inflamed  A.  with  a  passion  for 
discovery,  and  having  abandoned  'business,'  he 
sailed  from  Cadiz  on  the  20th  May  149;t,  in  the 
expedition  commanded  by  Admiral  Ilojeda,  and, 
after  a  voyage  of  thirty-seven  days,  arrived  at  that 
portion  of  the  continent  of  America  now  called 
Cumana,  explored  the  Bay  of  Paria,  lying  between 
the  isle  of  Trinidad  and  the  mainland,  and  some 
hundreds  of  miles  along  the  coast.  He  returned  in 
the  autumn  of  the  same  year,  but  commenced  a 
second  voyage  under  Admiral  Pinzon  in  December, 
which  resulted  in  the  discovery  of  a  crowd  of  small 
islands  on  the  south  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  He 
was  now  allured  by  piomises  into  the  service  of 
Emanuel,  king  of  Portugal,  and  undertook  two 
other  voyages  with  Portuguese  ships;  the  first  on 
the  10th  of  May  1501,  and  the  second  on  the  10th 
of  May  15n3.  Ilis  purpose  was  to  sail  westward,  in 
iiopcs  of  discovering  a  passage  to  Malacca,  the  ex- 
treme point  of  discovery  in  the  cast.  He  lost  one  of 
his  ships  ;  and  it  was  only  after  encountering  great 
])erils  that  the  other  five  found  refuge  in  All  Saints 
Bay,  on  the  coast  of  Brazil.  The  monarch  gave 
orders  that  some  remains  of  the  ship  Vivtoria,  in 
which  A.  made  his  last  voyage,  should  be  suspended 
in  the  cathedral  of  Lisbon,  but  fulfilled  none  of  the 
promises  which  he  had  made.  A.  conseipiently  re- 
turned to  Spain,  and  in  the  year  1508  succeeded  in 
obtaining  the  office  of  piloto-major.  He  died  at  Se- 
ville on  the  2"2d  of  February  1512. 

The  character  of  A.  V.  has  been  covered  with 
a  great  deal  of  unmerited  obloquy.  He  has  been 
accused  of  endeavouring  to  claim  the  honour  of 
discoveries  which  he  never  made,  and  has  been 
commonly  regarded  as  an  unprincipled  adventurer. 
Humboldt,  however,  has  successfully  vindicated 
him  from  such  aspersions.  He  had  a  very  consid- 
erable knowledge  of  various  branches  of  science, 
and  it  was  on  account  of  his  superior  attainments 
in  these  that  he  was  selected  to  accompany  the 
expeditions  as  naval  astronomer.  He  was  a 
prompt  and  skilful  inspector  of  the  commissariat 
while  under  his  control ;  vigorous,  practical,  and 
severe  in  his  demands  for  increased  knowledge  on 
the  part  of  the  naval  functionaries  under  him ; 
an  earnest  navigator  and  close  friend  of  Columbus 
in  the  last  years  of  the  great  admiral's  life.  How 
America  came  to  receive  its  name  from  him  is  not 
quite  clear;  but  it  is  certain,  from  Humlioldt's  inves- 
tigation, that  A.  himself  had  nothing  to  do  with  it. 
The  name  of  the  new  world  probably  came  from 
Germany.  A  selection  from  A.'s  narrative  of  his 
American  voyages  found  its  way  into  tlvit  country. 
Martin  Waldseemiiller  of  Freiburg  in  Baden  trans- 
lated it  for  a  bookseller  of  St.  Diez  in  Lorraine.  As 
the  first  account  of  the  wonderful  discovery,  it  was 
greedily  dcvomed.  Edition  after  edition  was  printed 
off,  and,  according  to  Humboldt,  it  was  Wald- 
seemiiller who  proposed  that  the  new  world  should 
be  called  America  in  honour  of  the  author.  After- 
wards, this  name  was  generally  employed  by  geo- 
graphical writers,  and  even  the  Spaniards  and  Por- 
tuguese adopted  it. 

A'MERSFOORT,  an  ancient  town  of  the  Nether- 
lands,   province   of  Utrecht.     It   is  situated  on  the 

207 


AMETHYST— AMMAX  ATE. 


Eem,  wliiuh  flows  into  the  Zuiderzee.  Tliere  are 
several  fobaceo  plantations  in  tlie  district,  and  a 
considerable  trade  is  curried  on  both  in  cotton  and 
woollen  goods,  and  in  such  articles  as  corn  and 
dried  herrings.  It  communicates  with  Amsterdam, 
from  which  it  is  distant  24  miles,  by  means  of  barges. 
A.  has  a  Jansenist  college  and  a  court  of  justice. 
It  received  municipal  privileges  in  1250.  It  was 
captured  in  1483  by  the  Archduke  Maximilian,  in 
1()72  by  Montecuculi,  and  in  1785  by  the  French. 
Pop.  13,000. 

A'METIIYST,  a  variety  of  quartz  (q.  v.),  differing 
from  common  quartz  and  rock-crystal  chiefly  in  its 
beautiful  violet-blue  or  iiiirplish  violet  colour — well 
known  AS  aincfhi/stinc — which  is  o«ing  to  the  pres- 
ence of  a  little  peroxide  of  iron  or  of  manganese. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  esteemed  varieties  of  quartz, 
and  is  much  employed  for  seals,  rings,  &c.,  although, 
being  comparatively  al)undaMt,  it  is  much  infeiior 
in  price  to  the  true  gems.  An  amethystine  tinge  is 
frequently  to  be  observed  in  specimens  of  quartz, 
wliich  yet  are  not  perfect  A.  The  tinge  is  often 
very  faint,  and  is  frecpiently  confined  to  the  sum- 
mits or  edges  of  the  crystals.  The  finest  specimens 
of  A.  are  brouglit  from  India,  Ceylon,  and  Brazil. 
It  is,  however,  a  common  mineral  in  Europe,  and 
occurs  in  many  parts  of  Scotland.  It  fre(|ucntly 
occurs  lining  the  interior  of  balls  or  geodes  of  agate, 
and  in  veins  and  cavities  in  greenstone  and  other 
rocks.  The  ancients  imagined  it  to  possess  the 
property  of  jireventing  intoxicat'on,  and  persons 
much  addicted  to  drinking  therclbre  wore  it  on 
their  necks.  The  name  is  derived  from  a  Greek 
word  which  .signifies  unintoxicatcd. — Not  to  be 
confounded  with  this  mineral  is  that  sometimos 
called  the  oriental  A.,  which  is  a  variety  of  spinel 
(q  V.)  having  an  amethystine  colour,  and  is  a  very 
valuable  gem. — False  amethysts  made  of  glass  or 
■pante  are  very  common,  and  in  general  very  coarse  ; 
but  a  very  perfect  imitation  can  be,  and  sometimes 
is  made. 

A'MIIERST,  a  sea-port  of  Tcnasserim,  on  the 
E.  shore  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  in  lat.  10°  4'  N., 
and  long.  O"^  40'  E.,  at  the  entrance  of  the 
Martabaa  or  Saluen.  In  1820,  the  province  having 
been  newly  ceded  by  the  Burmese,  A.  was  founded, 
after  a  special  survey  of  all  the  available  sites,  as 
the  commercial  capital,  being  named  after  the  then 
governor-general  of  India,  and  proclaimed  to  be  an 
asylum  for  the  neighboiu-ing  Peguers,  still  subject  to 
Burmah;  but  policy,  prestige,  and  foresight  alike 
have  in  some  measure  i'ailcd  ;  for  the  harbour,  other- 
wise commodious  enough,  labours  under  two  serious 
defects — difficulty  of  access,  and  exposure  to  the 
south-west  monsoon.  Even  in  trade,  A.  has  been 
distanced  by  Moulmein,  selected  at  first  merely  to 
be  the  military  station  of  the  territory.  Its  exports, 
however,  are  said  to  be  considerable,  consisting 
chiefly  of  teak  from  the  upper  basin  of  the  river, 
and  partly  of  grain  from  I3elu,  an  island  at  its 
mouth. 

A'MHERSTBURG,  a  town  on  the  river  Detroit, 
which  empties  Lake  St.  Clair  into  Lake  Erie.  It  is 
one  of  the  oldest  settlements  in  Upper  Canada,  being 
named  from  Lord  Amherst,  who,  by  the  capture  of 
Montreal  in  IT  GO,  completed  what  General  Wolfe  had 
begun  at  Quebec  in  1759.  It  occupies  the  south-west 
extremity  of  the  province,  the  turning  point  of  cli- 
mate and  character  to  the  basin  of  the  St.  Lawrence, 
the  spot  where  its  waters,  after  having  gained  south- 
ing from  the  50th  to  the  42d  parallel,  suddenly  as- 
sume a  direction  which  pretty  uniformly  carries  them 
back  to  their  original  latitude  above  "the  island  of 
Anticosti.     Pop.  1300. 

AMI'DOGEN    is    a    substance   procured   by   the 
208 


action  of  the  metal  potassium  on  dry  gaseou.s 
ammonia.  The  latter  contains  one  atom  of  nitrogen 
to  three  atoms  of  hydrogen  (NII3),  wliii.st  A. 
contains  one  to  two(NIl2).  A.  forms  a  very  import- 
ant class  of  organic  compounds  called  iu/iidcx,  and 
gives  rise  to  a  number  of  substances  closely  allied 
to  the  alkaloids,  many  of  whicl\  indeed,  may  be 
regarded  as  natural  amides. 

AMIENS,  an  ancient  city  in  the  plain  of  Picardy, 
and  capital  of  the  department  of  Somme ;  it  is  the 
seat  of  a  bishop  and  of  a  court  of  justice,  and 
has  a  citadel  and  fortifications.  It  posse.'^ses  a 
college,  an  academy,  a  theological  seminary,  an 
industrial  school,  a  school  of  medicine,  a  public 
library,  a  picture-gallery,  a  botanical  garden,  and 
several  literary  and  scientific  institutions.  Among 
its  public  buildings,  the  cathedral  is  a  noble 
edifice,  built  in  1220,  and  esteemed  a  master- 
piece of  Gothic  architecture.  Peter  the  Hermit 
was  born  here.  A.  has  considerable  manufactures 
of  velvet,  silk,  woollen,  and  cotton  goods,  ribbons, 
and  carpets.  But  the  place  owes  its  celebrity  chiefly 
to  the  '  Peace  of  A.,'  a  treaty  signed  in  this  city, 
March  27,  1802,  by  Joseph  Bonaparte,  the  .Marquis 
of  Cornwallis,  Azara,  and  Schimmelpennink,  and 
intended  to  settle  the  disputed  jtoiiits  between 
England,  J^rancc,  Spain,  ami  Holland.  By  this 
treaty,  England  retained  possession  of  Ceylon 
and  Trinidad,  and  an  ojien  port  at  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope;  France  received  back  her  colonics; 
the  republic  of  the  Seven  Isl.mds  wa-;  recognised; 
Malta  was  restored  to  the  order  of  the  Knights  of  St. 
John;  Spain  and  Holland  regained  their  colonics, 
with  the  exception  of  Trinidad  and  Ceylon ;  the 
French  were  to  (piit  Rome,  Naples,  and  Ell)a ;  and 
Turkey  was  restored  to  its  integrity  as  before  the 
war.  These  terms  were  not  received  «ith  any 
degree  of  satisfaction  by  the  Eng!i-h,  and  further 
difliculties  arising,  through  the  ambition  and  obstin- 
acy of  the  French,  the  peace  was  dissolved,  and  war 
declared  against  Bonaparte  in  1803.    Pop.  58,780. 

AMLETH,  or  IIAMLETH,  Prince  of  Jutland,  is 
said  to  have  lived  in  the  2d  c.  u.  c.  According  to 
Saxo-Grammaticus,  he  was  the  son  of  Horvendill 
and  Gerutha ;  and  after  the  murder  of  his  father  by 
his  uncle  Fengo,  who  married  Gerutha,  he  feigned 
himself  a  fool,  to  s,avc  his  own  life.  Saxo  relates  a 
number  of  little  things  regarding  A.,  which  are  a 
curious  medley  of  sharp  and  lively  observation,  and 
apparent  madness.  We  are  told  that,  on  one 
occasion,  when  he  visited  his  mother,  suspecting 
that  he  was  watched,  he  commenced  to  crow  like 
a  cock  and  dance  idiotically  about  the  apartment, 
until  he  discovered,  hidden  in  a  heap  of  straw,  a 
spy,  in  the  person  of  one  of  Fcngo's  courtiers,  whom 
he  immediately  stabbed ;  he  then  so  terrified  his 
mother  by  his  reproaches,  that  she  promised  to  aid 
him  in  bis  intended  revenge  on  his  father's  murderer, 
and,  according  to  the  old  chronicler,  re.iUy  did  so. 
Scandinavian  traditions  confirm  the  existence  of  a 
prince  of  this  name.  A  field  is  still  pointed  out  in 
Jutland  with  a  tomb  bearing  the  name  of  A.  In  the 
vicinity  of  Elsinore  is  shewn  the  spot  where  the  father 
of  A.  was  assassinated.  Saxo  himself  does  not  men- 
tion the  manner  or  circumstances  of  his  death;  but 
his  French  translator  says  that  he  was  murdered  at  a 
banquet.  Most  of  the  recent  historians  of  Denmark 
consider  the  hi.story  of  A.  fabulous,  but  Jliiller  thinks 
there  is  a  substratum  of  fact  in  the  old  myth.  It 
is  the  source  of  Shakspcare's  tragedy  of  Hamlet, 
and  thus  possesses  a  perennial  interest  for  all  the 
civilized  world. 

AMMAN  ATE,  Bartoleme'o,  architect  and  sculp- 
tor, born  at  Florence  in  1511,  died  in  1592.  He  was 
at  first  a  pupil  of  Baccio  Bandinelli,  and  afterwards 


AMMIANUS  MARCELLIXUS— AMMONIA. 


of  Sansovino  at  Venice.     In  1550,  he  niariied  I.aiira    resided.— Ilig  second  son.  Frkdeuick    lucr-rrs  \ 
Batdlerri  of  Urbino,  a  lady  celebrated  for  her  poetical  ,  is  well  known  in  Germany  as  an  able   physician    and 
gifts.     Pope  Jnliiis  III.  employed  him  in  the  decora-  '    '  "  "  "       "  .        •    '  • 

tion  of  the  Capitol,  and  Cosmo  de  Medici  appointed 
him  his  architect.  His  principal  works  are,  the 
statncs  which  adorn  the  tomb  of  Sannazar  at  Naples, 


the  tomb  of  Cardinal  de  Monti  at  Rome,  the  bridge 
of  the  Trinity  and  several  foiuitains  at  Florence. 
He  also  completed  the  Pitti  Palace,  commenced  by 
Bninelleschi,  and  ornamentod  the  court  with  three 
orders  of  columns,  which  were  subsequently  imitated 
by  J.  de  Brosse  in  the  palace  of  the  Luxembourg  at 
Paris.  In  the  collection  of  architectural  designs  in  the 
Florence  Gallery,  there  is  one  by  A.,  exhibiting  the 
plans  of  different  buildings,  by  which  a  city  may  be 
rendered  at  once  magnificent  and  convenient.  His 
works  have  all  a.  certain  grandeur  of  character, 
derived,  probably,  from  his  early  admiration  of 
Michael  Angelo,  but  are  somewhat  marred  by  a 
quaint  mannerism.  His  bronzes  are  executed  with 
great  delicacy. 

AMMIA'NITS  MARCELLI'NUS,  a  Roman  his- 
torian of  the  4th  c,  was  present  in  several  campaigns 
in  Gaul,  Germany,  and  the  east,  and  afterwards 
lived  at  Rome,  devoted  to  literature.  Though  a 
Greek  by  birth,  he  wrote  in  Latin  a  history  of  the 
Roman  empire  from  96  to  378  a.d.,  in  31  books, 
of  which  13,  containing  the  years  from  91  to  352, 
are  lost.  This  work,  which  commenced  with  the 
accession  of  Nerva,  may  be  regarded  as  a  continuation 
of  Tacitus,  and  though  the  portions  remaining  have 
many  fiiults  of  style,  they  are  valuable  on  account 
of  the  author's  love  of  truth,  his  careful  descriptions 
of  countries  and  events  from  personal  observation, 
and  especially  his  remarks  on  Germany.  After  his 
time,  Latin  ceased  to  be  employed  by  any  Roman 
writer  in  the  composition  of  secular  history.  The 
best  edition  of  A.  M.  is  that  by  Wagner  and  Erfurdt, 
in  3  vols.     (Leip.  1808.) 

AMMON,  an  Egyptian  deity,  styled  Amun  on 
hieroglyphic  monuments,  was  compared  by  the 
(ireeks  with  their  supreme  deity  Zeus.  The  sacred 
name  of  Thebes,  A.'s  city  Q  I^o-Anunon^  in  the  Old 
Testament),  was  therefore  translated  into  Greek  by 
Dios])olis.  In  the  temples  of  this  town,  his  peculiar 
residence,  A.  is  represented  as  sitting  on  a  throne, 
holding  the  symbols  of  life  and  power,  and  wearing 
a  crown  with  a  pecidiar  ornament  of  two  feathers, 
and  a  band  falling  behind  and  hanging  down  to  his 
feet.  He  was  especially  the  god  of  Thebes ;  though 
his  temples  are  found  in  other  places,  as  at  Meroe, 
and  over  the  whole  of  Nubia  and  Libya.  The  name 
Amun  signifies  the  hidden,  unrevealed  deity,  and,  in 
Egyptian  mythology,  he  held  the  highest  place.  His 
undefined  character  may  serve  to  explain  how  other 
deities  were  identified  with  A.  Aft«r  the  eighteenth 
dynasty,  we  find  in  hieroglyphics  the  name  Amun- 
Ra  frequently  inscribed,  indicating  a  blending  of  A. 
with  the  sun-god  Ra.  Similarly,  the  representation 
of  A.  with  a  ram's  head  shews  the  blending  of  him 
with  Kneph.  Tiie  worship  of  A.  spread  at  an  early 
period  to  Greece,  and  afterwards  to  Rome,  where  he 
was  identified  with  Zeus  and  Jupiter.  Temples  for 
his  worship  were  erected  in  Thebes  (Boeotia),  Sparta, 
Megalopolis,  and  other  places. 

AMMON,  Chris.  Frkp.,  a  German  theologian, 
born  January  16,  1766,  died  May  21,  1850,  is  chiefly 
known  by  his  work  on  the  Development  of  Vhristianity 
as  a  Universal  Religion  (4  vols.,  Leip.  1833 — 1840), 
in  which  he  argues  in  favour  of  such  liberal  develop- 
ment of  doctrine  as  may  keep  theology  in  harmony 
with  the  progress  of  science.  A.  was  a  leader  of 
the  Rationalist  school.  He  was  a  man  of  extensive 
learning,  united  with  great  industry  and  earnestness, 
and  was  generally  respected  in  Saxony,  where  he 
14 


the    writer  of  several   works  on    practical   medicine 
and  surgery.    Born  1799  and  died  in  1861. 

AMMO  NIA,  IIart.shorn,  or  the  Volatile  Alkali,  was 
one  of  the  few  substances   known   to  the   chemistry 
of  the  ancients:  being  referred  toby  Pliny  under  the 
name   of  vehement  odour,  which  he  evolved  bv  mix- 
ing lime  with   nitrum  (probably  sal  ammoniac).      It 
derives  its  name  A.  from  its  being  obtained  from  sal 
ammoniac,    which    was    first    procured    by    heatin" 
camels'  dung  in   Libya,  near  the   temple   of  Jupiter 
Ammon.     The  atmosphere   contains  a  minute  quan- 
tify   of   A.,    amoimting    to    210 — 237    parts    in    the 
10,000,000,000    parts    of   air,   which    is    equal    to    1 
volume  of  A.   in   28,000,000  of  air.     It  is  likewise 
present  in  rain-water  in  variable  proportion.      The 
supply    of   A.    to    the    atmosphere    is    its    evolution 
during   the    putrefaction    of    aninial    and    vegetable 
substances,  during  the  vinous  fermentation,  and  the 
combustion  of  coal.     It  is  likewise  present  in  respired 
air,  and  is  therefore  a  product  of  the  daily  wear  and 
tear  of  the  animal  system.      The  principal  source  of 
A.  at  the  present  time  is  the  destructive  distillation 
of  coal,  as  in  gas-making.     The  materials  which  pa.s3 
over  from  the  retort  are  partly  uneondensable  and 
truly  gaseous,  and  these  are  carried   to  our  gas-jets, 
and   burned;   but  in   other  parts  they  are   condens- 
able, and  are  received  during  the  purification  of  the 
gas,  as  a  ndxed  tarry  and  watery  liquid.     On  allowing 
this  liquid  to  settle,  the  water  portion,  containing  A., 
can  be  separated,  and,  hydrochloric  acid  being  added 
to  it,  there  is  formed  a  compound  of  A.  ami  hvdio- 
chloric  acid,  called  chloride  of  ammonium,  which  can 
be  obtained  dry,  by  evaporating  the  solution  down 
in  shallow  vessels.     Pure   A.   is  manufactured   from 
this  impure  chloride  of  ammonium  by  mixing  it  with 
its  own  weight  of  slaked  lime  in  a  retort,  and  api)ly- 
ing  a  gentle  heat,  when  the  A.  as  a  gas  passes  over, 
and  is  received  in  a  vessel  containing  water.     The 
solubility  of  A.  in  water  is  very  great,  1  vohnne  of 
water    dissolving    670  volumes  of  ammoniacal    gas, 
increasing    in    bulk,    and    forming    a   liquid    {liquor 
arnmonice  of  the  chemist,  and  hartshorn  of  the  shops), 
which  is  lighter  than  water,  its  density  being  875. 
The  solution  of  A.    is  transparent,  colourless,  and 
strongly  alkaline.     In  taste  it  is  acrid,  caustic,  and 
in  odour  very  pungent.     Applied  to  the  skin  in  a 
concentrated  form,  it  blisters.     Exposed  to  the  air, 
the  A.  escapes,  and  the  solution  thus  gets  weaker, 
and,  reduced  to  — 10°  F.,  it  freezes.     As  generally 
obtained,  even  in  the  gaseous  condition,  it  is  in  com- 
bination with  the  elements  of  1  atom  of  water,  and 
contains  1   of  nitrogen,  4  hydrogen,  and  1    oxygca 
(NH4O).     Dry  A.  can   be  procured  by  passing  the 
vapour  of  A.,  as   ordinarily   obtained,    over  fused 
chloride  of  calcium,  when  the  water  is  abstracted, 
and  true  gaseous  A.  is  left,  having  the  composition 
1    nitrogen,    and    3    hydrogen   (NHa).     Gaseous  A. 
can  be  liquefied  under  pressure  and  cold,  and  then 
yields  a   colourless,  clear,  mobile   liquid,    with   the 
characteristic  odour  and  other  properties  of  A.  much 
intensified.     A.  coinbincs  with  acids  to  form  a  class 
of  salts  which  arc  of  considerable  importance.    Thus, 
the  crystalli.sed   sulphate   of    A.    (HO.NHiO.SO,)   is 
very  extensively  used  as  a  top-dressing  by  farmers, 
and  is  also  mixed  with  manures  where  an  increase  of 
ammoniacal   matter   is   desirable.     The  chloride  of 
ammonium  is  al.-io  employed  in  agriculture;   likewise 
largely  by  the  Russian  peasantry,  as  a  condiment  for 
flavouring  food  in  place  of  common  salt. 

In  medicine,  the  gaseous  A.  has  been  rarely  used, 
the  solution  of  A.  is  employed  as  a  means  of  rousing 
the  respiratory  and  vascular  systems;  and  of  the 
speedy  alleviation  of  spasm.  It  is  also  used  as  a  local 
irritant  and  antacid.  It  is  serviceable  in  dyspeptic 

209 


AMMONIACUM— AMMONIUM. 


complaints  with  preternatural  acidity  of  stouiiicii  and 
flatulence;  to  produce  local  irritation  or  destruction 
of  certain  parts,  and  t(^render  comparatively  harm- 
less the  bites  of  poisonous  animals,  such  as  serpents 
and  insects. 

Ammonium  is  a  hypothetical  metal,  which  is  ."said 
to  consist  of  1  volume  of  nitrofien  with  4  of  hydro- 
gen. It  has  never  been  produced  in  an  i.«ohited 
state;  but  a  singular  amalgam  of  A.  and  m.rcury 
may  be  formed,  by  subjecting  a  globule  of  mercury, 
surrounded  by  a"  little  water  of  ammonia,  to  the 
action  of  the  galvanic  current;  when  the  galvanic 
agency  ceases,  this  amalgam  is  decomposed  into 
mercury,  ammonia,  and  water.  A.  may  liUewise  l)c 
prepared  by  acting  on  an  amalgam  of  sodium  an<l 
mercury  with  a  sohition  of  cidoride  of  .\.  A  portion 
of  mercury  is  slightly  heated  in  a  jiorcclain  vessel, 
and  pieces  of  sodium  introduced,  when  the  sodium 
and  merctny  combine,  and  form  an  amalgam  of 
eodium  and  mercury,  which  is  a  send-solid  sub- 
Btance,  and  scarcely  occupies  more  space  than  the 
bulk  of  the  mercury  employed.  If  this  be  intro- 
duced into  a  vessel  containing  a  strong 
or  saturated  .solution  of  cidoride  of  -■V. 
(NIl4('l),  the  cliloriiie  combines  with 
the  sodium  (Xa)  of  the  amalgam,  form- 
ing chloride  of  sodium  (Xa(,'l),  and  the 
A.  unites  with  the  mercury,  Ibrming 
the  amalgam  of  A.  and  mercury.  A- 
the  change  referred  to  proceeds,  tlw 
amalgam  increase.^  in  size  many  times, 
nud  forms  a  spongy  mass  of  the  con- 
Fistence  of  butter,  which  rises  throM;;h 
the  saline  sohition  and  floats  on  tlu'  sur- 
face. The  amalgam  of  A.  and  mercury 
very  readily  decomposes,  and  iicnce  the 
dilHculty  of  deternnuing  its  c.\act  com- 
position. 

AMMONIACUM,  or  AMMO'NIAC,  a  gum  resin, 
used  iu  medicine  on  account  of  its  stimulant  and 
discutient  qualities,  is  obtained  from  Dorema  A., 
•a  plant  of  the  natural  o 'der  Umbellifcne,  a  native 
of  Persia — a  perennial,  about  seven  leet  high,  with 
large  doubly  pinnate  leaves.  The  leaves  are  about  two 
leet  long.  The  whole  plant  is  abundantly  jiervaded 
by  a  milky  juice,  which  oozes  out  upon  the  slightest 
puncture,  and  which  hardens,  and  becomes  A.  The 
A.  e.xudes  from  punctures  made  by  an  insect,  which 
appears  in  great  numbers  at  the  tin\e  when  the 
plant  has  attained  perfection.  Much  of  it  is  sent  to 
.India,  and  is  geiu'rally  imported  into  Britain  from 
Bombay,  although  sometimes  from  the  Levant.  It 
.Occurs  in  commerce  cither  in  tears,  or  iu  masses 
formed  of  them,  but  mixed  with  impurities.  It  is 
whitish,  becoming  yellow  by  exposure  to  the  atmo- 
sphere, is  softened  by  the  heat  of  the  hand,  and  iias 
a  peculiar  heavy  unpleasant  smell,  and  a  nauseous 
taste,  at  first  mucilaginous  and  bitter,  afterwards 
acrid.  It  is  not  fusible,  but  burns  with  white  crepi- 
tating flame,  little  smoke,  and  strong  smell. — It  was 
for  some  time  erroneously  supposed  to  be  the  pro- 
duce of  a  sj>ecies  of  IJerndeum,  the  seeds  of  which 
were  found  enclosed  in  it. — A  similar  substance  is 
obtained  from  Fenda  Tingitana^  an  umbelliferous 
plant,  growing  on  light  sandy  soils  in  the  north  of 
Africa;  and  is  said  also  to  be  obtained  from  F.  Ori- 
eidalis,  a  native  of  Asia  Minor  and  of  Greece.  Both 
these  plants  have  branched  stems,  and  very  com- 
pound leaves,  somewhat  resembling  fennel.  It 
would  seem  that  the  A.  of  the  ancients  was  the  gum 
resin  of  the  Ferula,  which  has  a  more  faint  odour 
and  less  powerful  medicinal  properties  than  that  of 
the  Dorema. 

A'MMONITES,   a  Semitic   race  of  people   living 
on  the  edge  of  the  Syrian  Desert ;  the  descendants 
210 


of  Ben-ammi,  the  son  of  Lot  (Hen.  xix.  38).  They 
inhabited  the  country  lying  to  the  north  of  Moub, 
between  the  rivers  Arnon  and  Jal)bok,  i.  e.  the 
desert  country  cast  of  (Jad.  Th  ir  chief  city  was 
Rabl>ath-Aminon,  to  which  the  (ireel<8  afterwards 
gave  the  name  of  Philadelphia.  The  Israelites  w»re 
often  at  war  with  them  and  their  otiicr  Bedoinn 
coid'cdcrates.  Jcphthah  defeated  them  with  great 
slaughter.  They  were  also  overcome  by  Said,  David, 
Uzziah,  and  Jotham ;  but  after  the  fall  of  the  king- 
dom of  Israid  (7'JO  n.c),  spread  themselves  in  the 
di.stricts  of  Juda-a  on  the  east  of  the  Jordan.  In  682 
they  were  Hul)dued  by  the  Babylonians.  After  th-' 
captivity,  they  recommenced  their  feuds  with  the 
Jews,  but  were  conquered  by  Judas  .Maccaba'us.  The 
intermarriages  of  .lews  with  the  A.,  which  iiad  been 
frequent,  were  prohibited  by  Nehendah.  The  chief 
deity  worshipped  by  the  A.  was  named  Milcom,  who 
in  his  character  seems  to  have  resend)lcd  Moloch. 
Justin  Martyr  atlirms  that  in  his  time  the  A.  were 
still  numerous. 

AMMONITES,    a   genus   of    fossil    shells,    nearly 


Ammonites ; 
L  Aiuini)iiit>'s  obtusus;  2.  Sertlmi  i>f  Auiinonltps  obtusii?,  sliDwlng  tlio 
iutc-rior  clmiiibiTS  uiid  BqiUunclu;  3.  Aniinonitcs  noitosiiii. 

allied  to  the  recent  genus  Xnntihtx,  being,  like  it, 
chandu'red  and  spiral.  The  molluscotis  inhabitant 
ajjpears  to  have  lodged  in  the  last  and  l.irgest  cham- 
btr  of  the  shell,  the  spaces  left  behind  as  it  increa.sed 
in  size  l)eing  successively  converted  into  air-chaiidiers, 
and  all  connected  by  a  tube  {sip/iiincli),  so  that  the 
aidinal  could  at  j»leasure  a-cend  or  descend  in  the 
sea  ;  whilst  the  transverse  plates  dividing  the  cham- 
bers gave  strength  to  the  whole  structure  without 
great  increase  of  weight.  A.  have  long  been  popu- 
larly called  Coriiun  Aiiiiiionix,  from  a  fancied  resi-m- 
blance  to  the  horns  on  sculptureil  heads  of  Jupiter 
Anmion.  They  are  found  throughout  the  entire 
series  of  fossiliferous  rocks  from  the  Devonian  strata 
to  the  chalk.  They  aliound  in  the  cretaceotis  and 
colitic  group.s.  Particular  kinds  distinguish  particu- 
lar formations,  a  circmn-tance  which  renders  them 
of  particidar  interest  and  importance  to  the  gecJogist. 
The  nund)er  of  species  is  very  great,  considerably 
above  two  hundred ;  and  several  genera  have  been 
constituted,  as  Bacnlifcx,  Hatnitex,  Scnphitrs,  Turril- 
itcx,  forming  with  Anononitrx,  the  family  of  Aiiimoni- 
iklv.  A.  are  of  very  different  sizes,  from  a  very 
small  size,  to  two,  or  even  three  or  four  feet  in 
diameter.  The  larger  ones  were  iu  former  times 
ignorantly  mistaken  for  petrified  snakes ;  and  impo- 
sitions have  been  practised  upon  collectors  by  adding 
to  specimens  nicely  carved  snakes'  heads  ;  w  hilst  the 
general  absence  of  the  heads  was  popidarly  accounted 
for  by  a  legend  of  a  saint  decapitating  the  snakes, 
and  turning  them  into  stone. 

AMMO'NIUM,  now  known  as  the  oasis  of  Siwah. 
in  the  Libyan  Desert,  was  in  ancient  times  celebrated 
on  account  of  the  oracle  of  Ammon,  the  unfortunate 
expedition  of  Cambyses,  and  the  subsequent  journeys 
of  Alexander  the  Great  and  Cato.  Besides  the 
temple  of  Jupiter,  placed  in  the  centre  of  a  grove 
of  palms,  the  ruins  of  which  still  exist,  and  which 


AMMONIUS  SACCAS— AMNESTY. 


contained  an  image  of  the  god,  composed  of  smarag- 
dus  and  other  gems,  A.  was  remarkable  for  the  pal- 
ace of  its  ancient  kings,  surrounded  by  a  triple  wall 
in  the  very  heart  of  the  oasis,  and  for  its  '  Well  of 
the  Sun,'  of  which  the  waters  were  coldest  at  noon- 
day, and  warmest  at  midnight.  Here  the  Emperor 
Justinian  built  a  Christian  church.  The  length  of  the 
oasis  is  15  miles,  by  12  broad;  it  is  about  150  miles 
distant  from  the  Mediterranean,  and  is  situated  in  lat. 
29°  N.,  and  in  long.  26°  E. 

AMMO'NIUS  SACCAS,  a  Greek  philosopher,  found- 
er of  the  Neoplatonio  School,  is  said  to  have  been 
in  his  earlier  days  a  porter  in  Alexandria.  His  par- 
ents were  Christian,  but  he  himself  is  said  to  have 
abandoned  his  early  religion,  in  which  he  had  been 
instructed  by  Clemens  Alexandrinus,  and  to  have 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  heathen  philosophy 
under  Athenagoras;  although  both  Eusebius  and 
St.  Jerome  deny  that  he  ever  formally  apostatised 
from  the  Christian  faith.  His  great  endeavour  was 
to  harmonise,  through  a  comprehensive  eclecticism, 
the  various  philosophical  theories  which  prevailed 
in  the  Roman  world,  especially  those  of  Aristotle 
and  Plato.  He  also  laboured  to  amalgamate  with 
these  the  doctrines  of  the  Magi  and  Brahmans ;  but 
instead  of  boldly  announcing  the  result  as  his  own, 
he  claimed  for  his  system  the  highest  antiquity. 
His  most  distinguished  pupils  were  Longinus,  He- 
rennius,  Origen,  and  Plotinus,  the  last  of  whom,  by 
far  the  most  subtle  and  profound  of  the  Neoplatonists, 
alwiiys  expressed  the  highest  repsect  for  his  master. 
A.  died  at  Alexandria,  241  a.  d.  He  left  no  writings 
behind  him. 

A.  is  the  name  of  several  learned  men  in  the  later 
periods  of  Greek  history;  such  as  A.,  the  master  of 
Plutarch,  who  lived  during  the  reign  of  the  Emperor 
Adrian,  and,  like  A.  Saccas,  taught  a  species  of  eclec- 
ticism in  philosophy;  A.,  the  Christian  philosopher 
of  the  3d  c,  who  wrote  a  Harinony  of  the  Goxpels ; 
A.,  son  of  Hermeas,  a  Peripatetic  philosopher  of  the 
5th  c,  and  disciple  of  Proclus;  A.,  the  famous  sur- 
geon of  Alexandria,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus ;  and  A.,  the  Grammarian,  who  was  at 
first  high-priest  in  an  Egyptian  temple,  sacred  to  the 
god  Apis,  and  afterwards  (88^  a.  d.)  became  teacher 
at  Constantinople,  where  he  had  the  church  historian 
Scorates  for  his  pupil. 

AMMO'PHILA,  a  genus  of  Grasses,  closely  allied 
to  Arundo  (see  Reed),  and  distinguished  by  a  spike- 
like panicle,  and  by  the  glumes  being  nearly  equal, 
keeled,  longer  than  the  pnleie  of  the  single  floret, 
and  surrounded  at  the  base  by  a  tuft  of  hairs. — A. 
arundlnacea,  formerly  called  Arundo  arenaria — a 
grass  about  2 — 3  feet  higli,  with  rigid  bluish  leaves, 
the  edges  of  which  are  rolled  in,  and  very  creeping 
roots — is  frequent  on  the  sandy  sea-shores  of  Britain 
and  the  continent  of  Europe.  It  is  sometimes  called 
Sea  Reed  or  Sand  Reed,  and  sometimes  Mat  Grass, 
the  culms  being  wrought  into  foot-mats,  coverings 
for  stairs,  &c.,  in  the  manuftu'ture  of  which  many 
families  residing  along  the  coast  of  Ireland  are 
employed  most  of  the  year.  It  is  also  called  Marum, 
3farruin,  or  Afarram^  by  which  name  it  is  designated 
i  in  laws  both  English  and  Scottish,  by  which  the 
destruction  of  it  was  prohibited  under  severe  penal- 
tic<s,  because  of  its  great  utility  in  fixing  the  shifting 
sand.  In  Holland,  and  in  Norfolk,  it  is  extensively 
employed — along  with  the  Sea  Lyme  Grass  (q.  v.) 
— in  preserving  the  banks  of  sand  which  prevent  the 
inroads  of  the  sea.  It  is  of  little  value  as  food  for 
cattle,  although  they  eat  the  very  young  leaves. 
The  fibre  has  been  used  instead  of  flax,  but  is  too 
short. 

AMMUNITION.  Sometimes  this  name  is  given 
to  cannon  and  mortars,  as  well  as  to  the  projectiles 


and  explosive  substances  employed  with  them ;  but 
more  usually  A.  is  considered  to  apply  to  the  latter 
— such  as  shot,  shell,  gunpowder,  cartridges,  fuses, 
wads,  grenades.  Muskets,  swords,  bayonets,  and 
other  small-arms  are  sometimes,  but  improperly, 
included  under  this  term.  The  Royal  Laboratory  at 
Woolwich  is  the  place  where  A.  is  chiefly  prepared 
for  the  British  army  and  navy.  The  i-annon-balls 
may  be  cast  at  some  of  the  great  iron-foundries  in 
the  north;  the  shells  may  be  cast  or  forged  in  the 
shell-factory  at  Woolwich ;  the  muskets  may  be 
made  at  Birmingham,  and  the  rifles  at  Enfield ;  the 
bullets  at  the  shot-factories  ;  the  gunpowder  at 
Waltham-Abbey — and  so  on ;  but  the  '  making  up ' 
of  the  A.  is  mostly  conducted  at  the  establishment 
above  mentioned.  Bags  of  serge,  in  enormous 
number,  are  cut  out  and  made,  and  filled  to  form 
the  cartridges  for  large  ordnance.  Bags  or  tubes 
of  paper  are  made  and  filled  to  constitute  cartridges 
for  small-arms.  The  tubes  and  combustibles  for  war- 
rockets  and  fuses  are  also  manufactured.  The  cart- 
ridges for  small-arms  (rifles,  muskets,  carbines,  and 
pistols)  are  made  in  millions;  since  it  is  on  those  that 
the  main  offensive  operations  of  an  army  depend.  It 
has  been  calculated  by  the  Woolwich  authorities, 
that  a  British  army  of  60,000  men,  comprising  a  fiiir 
average  of  infantry,  cavalry,  artillery,  and  engineers, 
ought  to  be  provided  with  no  less  than  18,000,000 
ball-cartridges  for  small-arms,  for  six  months'  op- 
erations. These  would  require  1000  A.  wagons, 
and  3600  horses,  to  convey  them  all  at  once.  It 
is  therefore  deemed  better  that,  under  any  such 
circumstances,  there  should  be  established  entrepots 
for  supplying  the  troops  from  time  to  time.  The 
wagons  constructed  for  this  kind  of  service  will 
carry  20,000  rounds  of  small-arm  A.  each  ;  the 
cartridges  are  packed  in  boxes,  and  the  wagons  are 
drawn  by  four  horses  each.  Several  wagons  are 
organised  into  an  '  equipment '  under  the  charge  of 
a  detachment  of  artillery ;  and  there  are  several 
such  equipments  for  an  army  of  the  magnitude 
above  mentioned — one  for  each  division  of  infantry, 
a  small  portion  for  the  cavalry,  and  the  rest  in 
reserve.  It  has  been  laid  down  that  an  army  of 
60,000  men  ought  to  have  2,680,000  cartridges" ?/v7A 
them,  besides  those  in  reserve ;  and  that  the  convt  y- 
ance  of  such  a  quantity,  with  a  iew  forges  and 
stores,  would  require  150  A.  wagons,  830  men,  and 
704  horses.  The  equipment  would  return  to  the 
entrepot  for  a  new  supply  when  needed.  In  the 
Peninsular  War  and  at  Waterloo,  the  English  used 
two-horse  carts,  carrying  about  10,000  rounds  of 
small-arm  A.  each;  but  a  superior  kind  of  wagon 
has  been  since  introduced.  In  the  field,  an  infantry 
soldier  usually  carries  about  60  rounds,  put  in  com- 
partments in  his  pouch ;  the  pouch  having  a  separate 
receptacle  for  percussion  caps.  When  the  word  A. 
is  used  in  connection  with  artillery  matters,  the  '  fixed  ' 
A.  comprises  the  loaded  shells,  cartridges  and  carcass- 
es ;  whereas  the  '  unfixed '  are  the  unfilled  case-shot, 
grape-shot,  and  shell.  During  peace,  the  Woolwich 
Laboratory  serves  out  little  less  than  a  million  lbs.  of 
gunpowder  annually,  in  A.  for  the  army  and  navy, 
for  purposes  of  exercising,  saluting,  &c. :  the  quantity 
in  war  is  of  course  indeterminable. 

The  chief  kinds  of  A.  will  be  found  briefly  described 
under  their  proper  headings. 

A'MNESTY  .signifies  an  act  of  pardon  or  oblivion, 
and  the  effect  of  it  i-;,  that  the  crimes  and  offences 
against  the  state,  specified  in  the  act,  are  so 
ol)literated  that  they  can  never  again  be  charged 
against  the  guilty  parties.  The  A.  may  be  either 
absolute,  or  qualified  with  exceptions.  Instances  of 
the  latter  are  to  be  found  in  ancient  and  modern 
history  ;  thus,  Thrasybulus,  when  he  overthrew 
the     oligarchy    in    Athens,    caused     an    A.    to     be 

211 


AMNION— AMORITES. 


proclaimed,  from  the  operation  of  which  the  Thirty 
Tyrants,  who  had  formed  the  oligarchy,  and  some 
few  persons  who  had  a^-ted  under  them,  were  ex- 
cluded. Again,  Bonaparte,  on  his  return  from  Elba 
in  1815,  issued  a  decree,  which  was  published  at  Lyon, 
declaring  an  A.,  from  the  benefits  of  which  he  excepted 
thirteen  persons  whom  he  named.  And  in  Great 
Eritiiin,  the  historical  reader  will  be  able  to  recall 
the  act  of  indemnity  passed  upon  the  restoration  of 
Charles  II.,  by  which  the  persons  actually  concerned 
in  his  fiitlier's  execution,  were,  as  a  class,  excluded 
from  the  A. 

A'MNION  is  the  membrane  which  immediately 
invests  the  embryo,  appearing  very  early  in  the 
development  of  the  latter,  and  adhering  closely  to 
it.  As  gestation  proceeds,  this  membrane  secretes 
from  its  hmer  surface  a  fluid  which  separates  it  from 
the  fietus.  This  fluid,  the  liquor  amnii,  consists  of 
water,  with  albumen,  salt  of  soda,  and  extractive 
matters  in  solution  ;  it  has  a  specific  gravity  of 
1008.  It  supplies  nutriment  to  the  fu'tus,  preserves 
around  it  an  agreeable  temperature,  and  when  gesta- 
tion is  completed,  by  projecting  the  membrane 
through  the  os  uteri,  is  the  primary  agent  in  opening 
the  way  for  the  fo'tus.  At  this  time,  the  A.  is  thin 
and  transparent,  slightly  flocculent  on  the  side  next 
its  enveloping  membrane,  the  chorion,  but  smooth 
on  the  surface  next  the  foetus.  Within  it,  the  latter 
is  suspended  in  the  fluid  which  not  only  serves  the 
purposes  just  mentioned,  but  protects  it  from  injury. 
For  further  particulars,  see  Embryo,  and  for  many 
curious  superstitions  connected  with  the  subject,  see 
Caul. 

AMO'MUM,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Scitmninece  (q.  v.)  or  Zi7u/iberare(e  distinguished  by 
perennial  stems;  the  flowers  in  close  heads  resem- 
bling cones,  not  upon  the  leafy  stems,  but  arising 
by  themselves  from  the  root,  and  little  elevated  above 
the  ground ;  the  corolla  without  inner  lateral  lobes, 
and  with  a  very  large  flat  lip ;  the  filament  flat,  ex- 
tended beyond  the  anther,  with  two  lateral  lobes,  and 
an  emarginate  middle  lobe.  It  contains  a  number  of 
species,  natives  of  tropical  countries,  and  almost  ex- 
clusively of  the  eastern  hemisphere,  of  which  several 
yield  the  Cardamoms  (q.  v.)  of  commerce,  and  several 
the  spice  known  by  the  name  of  Grains  of  Paradise 
(q.  v.).  The  genus  A.  was  formerly  more  extensive, 
and  included  species  now  forming  the  genus  Zingiber 
(see  Ginger),  &c. 

AMOO'R,  or  AMUR,  a  river  formed  by  the  junc- 
tion (al)out  lat.  53°  N.,  and  long.  120°  E.)  of  the  Siiilka 
and  the  Argoun,  which  both  come  from  the  south- 
west— the  former  rising  in  Russian  Siberia,  near  the 
head-waters  of  the  Yenisei ;  and  the  latter  in  Chinese 
Tartary,  not  far  from  the  sandy  plateau  of  Kobi. 
From  this  starting-post,  the  A.  presents,  on  its  right, 
a  tolerably  symmetrical  curve,  which,  after  receiving, 
at  its  most  southerly  point,  the  Songari  from  beyond 
the  Wall  of  China,  besides  other  considerable  feeders 
on  both  sides  of  either  segment,  enters,  on  nearly 
its  original  parallel,  the  Gulf  of  Saghalien,  about  a 
degree  below  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  properly  so  called. 
For  more  minute  details,  the  reader  must  look 
forward  to  the  steadily  pursued  researches  of  the 
Russians,  who,  according  to  our  latest  information, 
had,  1!ist  season,  fixed  in  position  about  120  points 
in  the  various  sections  of  the  basin  of  the  A. 
But  they  have  already  thrown  much  light  on  a 
stream  which,  always  physically  interesting,  as  the 
only, bond  of  union  between  the  central  steppes  of 
Asia  and  the  world  at  large,  is  now,  by  a  recent 
change  of  its  political  relations,  redeemed  from  an 
isolation  virtually  more  thorough  than  that  of  any  of 
the  tributaries  of  the  Arctic  Sea.  The  Russians,  then, 
have  ascertained  that  the  A.  offers  great  facilities 
212 


for  colonisation,  and  still  greater  for  navigation. 
To  begin  with  the  latter.  They  have  traversed  by 
steam,  in  the  season,  too,  of  low  water,  the  entire 
length  upwards  to  the  grand  fork  of  the  Argoun  and 
the  Shilka,  accomplishing  the  stretch  of  oOUO  versts, 
or  2000  miles,  in  30  days — and  that,  from  want  of 
preparation,  in  spite  of  the  delay  of  cutting  wood, 
and  the  difticulty  of  utilising  it  when  green ;  and 
they  have  discovered  that  even  the  Ciiinese,  near 
one  of  their  motley  garrisons,  have  a  fleet  of  30  or 
40  sailing-craft.  With  respect,  again,  to  colonisation  : 
while  the  stream  itself  is  said  to  be  stocked  like  a 
fishpond,  the  Russians  have  found,  more  particulai'ly 
on  the  lower  A.,  much  land  fitted  for  pasturage  and 
cultivation,  whole  oceans,  as  they  express  themselves, 
of  timber — oak,  elm,  ash,  larch,  pine,  and  maple; 
vast  supjilies  of  limestone,  and  decisive  indications 
of  iron  ore — the  climate,  though  severe  in  both  its 
extremes,  not  being  more  so  than  in  many  thriving 
parts  of  Russia,  whether  European  or  Asiatic.  But 
far  beyond  these  merely  local  considerations,  the 
A.  has  an  extraneous  importance,  and  that  not 
merely  to  .Russia  itself.  Touching,  as  it  nearly  does, 
the  Yenisei,  it  forms  a  far  more  available  continua- 
tion of  the  eastward  route  through  Siberia  than  the 
only  other  possible  line,  which,  crossing  to  the  Lena, 
and  I'ollowing  that  river  to  its  most  easterly  point, 
runs  from  Yakutsk  to  Okhotsk,  by  a  wretched 
bridle-path  of  18  days,  through  a  country  as  rugged 
as  it  is  inhospitable.  Nor  is  the  A.  likely  to  be 
less  valuable  in  connection  with  the  south,  for 
there,  on  an  arena  where  might  will  be  everything, 
its  waters  are  ready  to  cany  the  proverbially 
aggressive  Muscovites  witliin  easy  reach  of  the  Gulfs 
of  Corea  and  IV-che-le.  But  it  is  towards  the  cast 
that  the  A.  assumes  the  most  serviccalile  aspect. 
Already  has  it  been  a  channel  of  traflic  between  the 
outside  world  and  Central  Asia — carrying  down  to 
the  former  the  salted  pork  of  the  region  of  the 
Baikal,  and  bringing  up  to  the  latter  the  produc- 
tions and  commodities  of  more  genial  climes.  Tiiis, 
however,  is  but  as  a  drop  in  the  bucket  to  the 
ambition  of  Ru.ssia.  Even  now,  the  significant 
names  of  Nicholaje.«k  and  Pctrowsk  stand  forth 
as  naval  stations  of  the  empire — the  background, 
as  we  have  seen,  being  one  huge  arsenal  of  naval 
stores — of  timber,  of  iron,  and  doubtless,  at  pleasure, 
of  hemp.  It  was  at  the  commencement  of  the 
reign  of  Peter  the  Great  that  the  indeflitigable 
Russians,  with  the  open  ocean — Russia's  most 
special  want — looming  in  their  mind's  eye,  were 
arrested  on  the  A.  by  the  Chinese;  and  it  was 
fortunate  for  the  Anglo-Saxon  race  that  that 
gigantic  power  did  not  find  the  fulcrum  for  putting 
forth  its  strength  on  the  Pacific,  till  England 
and  America  had  each  established  a  permanent 
foothold  on  its  shores.  Even  here,  however,  Russia 
has  to  foce  its  almost  universal  enemy,  the  ice  of 
winter.  As  in  the  White  Sea,  as  in  the  Baltic, 
and  as,  to  some  extent,  in  the  Euxine,  the  frost 
encumbers  this,  the  newest  and  noblest  outlet;  for, 
in  the  last  four  springs,  or  rather  summers,  it  has 
chained  the  A.,  on  an  average,  down  to  the  21st  of 
May. 

A'MORITES,  a  powerful  nation  of  Canaan,  ex- 
tending on  both  sides  of  the  Jordan.  They  were 
vanquished  by  the  Hebrews  under  Moses,  and  their 
lands  beyond  Jordan  were  distributed  among  the 
tribes  of  Gad,  Reuben,  and  Manasseh.  Their  two 
most  famous  kings  were  Sihon,  king  of  Heslibon, 
and  Og,  king  of  Bashan.  Og  was  the  last  of  the 
giants,  or  at  least  of  that  gigantic  race,  the  Rephaim. 
In  Deut.  iii.  11,  his  iron  bedstead  is  mentioned 
as  measuring  13^  feet  in  length;  but  the  whole 
of  this  verse,  with  the  exception  of  the  first  clause, 
is  considered  by  some  an  interpolation.     The  Rabbins 


AMOKOSO— AMPHIRIA. 


bold  this  bedstead  to  have  boon  Og's  cradle,  and 
UiVum  that  his  full-frrowu  stature  was  UO  feet! 
Joshua  subdued,  but  did  not  wholly  cxteriniiiato,  tl.e 
Aniorites  in  Canaan.  The  residue  of  this  people 
leeaiue  tnl)Utarv  under  Solomon.  (Gen.  x.  15 — 'io; 
XV.  I'J— -Jl  ;  Numb.  xiii.  29 ;  xxi.  13  ;  Deut.  xx.  16  ; 
xii.  31 ;  Joshua,  ix.) 

AMOROSO,  in  Music,  affectionately,  tenderly. 
AMO'RPHA.     See  Isdigo. 
AMORPIIOPITALLUS.     See  Arlm. 
AMORPHOUS    (Or.     a,     priv.,    morphc,    form), 
shMpeloss.       In    chemistry,    the    term  A.  is  used  to 
describe  the  unerystaliiscd,  in  opposition  to  the  crys- 
ta  lised,  condition   of  bodies.     There  are  substances 
whicli,  in  certain   conditions,  are  capable    of  crystal- 
lisation, but  in  other  conditions  remain  A.     Thus, 
pur<!  supar  contains  carbon,  which  appears  as  an  A. 
Bubstance    after   the    sugar    has    beei\_  burned  in  a 
platina  cruciljle.     The    same    substarice,  carbon,  ap- 
jicars  in  its  crystallised  form  in  the  diamond. 

A'MOS,  the  Hebrew  prophet,  was  a  herdsman  of 
Tekon,  in  the  neighbourliood  of  Bethlehem,  and  also 
a  dresser  of  svcamore  trees.  During  the  reigns 
of  Uzziah  in  Judah,  and  Jeroboam  in  Israel^  (about 
78-1  is.c),  he  came  forward  to  denounce  the  idolatry 
then  prevalent.  His  prophetical  writings,  as  given 
ill  the  Old  Testament,  contain,  the  first  six 
chapters,  denunciations  of  the  Divine  displeasure 
against  several  statis,  particularly  that  of  Israel,  on 
account  of  the  worship  of  idols.  As  Ruckert  poeti- 
cally expresses  it,  the  thunder-storm  rolls  over  all 
the  surrounding  kingdoms,  touches  Judah  in  its 
progress,  and  at  length  settles  upon  Israel.  The  three 
remaining  chapters  contain  his  symbolical  visions  of 
the  approaching  overthrow  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel, 
and  lastlv,  a  promise  of  restoration.  The  style  of  A., 
remarkable  for  its  clearness  and  picturesque  vigour, 
abounds  with  images  taken  from  rural  and  pastoral 
life.  The  canonicitv  of  the  book  of  Amos  is  well 
attested  both  bv  Jewish  and  Christian  authorities. 
Philo,  Josephus,  and  the  Talmud  include  it  in  the  list  of 
inspired  writings.  It  is,  moreover,  twice  quoted  in 
the  New  Testament  (Acts  vii.  42,  and  Acts  xv.  10). 

AMOY',  a  seaport  town  of  China,  in  a  small 
island  of  the  same  name,  in  the  province  of  Fo-kien, 
on  the  sea-coast,  lat.  24°  !<>'  X.,  long.  118°  In'  E. 
It  is  one  of  the  chief  commercial  empornnns  of  the 
cast,  and  contains  a  population  estimated  at  250,o<»t. 
It  is  divided  into  an  outer  and  inner  town,  and  has 
an  outer  and  inner  harbour,  the  entrance  to  the 
former  of  which,  as  well  as  the  inner  town  itself,  is 
strongly  fortified.  In  1841,  it  was  taken  by  the 
British ;  by  the  treaty  of  Nan-king,  a  British  consul 
and  British  subjects  were  permitted  to  reside  there. 
The  trade  is  now  open  to  all  nations.  The  chief 
imports  are  rice,  sugar,  camphor,  raw  cotton,  cotton- 
twist,  and  British  long  cloths ;  the  exports  are  tea, 
porcelain,  paper,  grass-cloths,  &c.  Smuggling  is 
carried  on  extensively.  Mr.  Fortune  describes  A.  as 
one  of  the  dirtiest  towns  in  the  world. 


AMPERE,  AsPRK  Mauik,  a  distinguished  mathc- 
maliciuii  and  naturalist,  was  burn  at  Lyon,  January 
tin,  1775.  The  death  of  his  father,  who  fell  under 
t"he  guillotine  in  17'J3,  made  a  deep  and  melancholy 
impression  on  the  mind  of  young  A.,  who  sought 
for  solace  in  the  study  of  nature  and  antiquity. 
In  1805,  after  he  had  been  engaged  for  some  time 
as  private  mathematical  tutor  at  Lyon,  he  was 
called  to  Paris,  where  he  distinguished  him.-'elf  as  an 
able  teacher  in  the  Polytechnic  School,  and  began 
bis  career  as  an  author  by  his  essay  on  the  Mathe- 
matical Theorv  of  Chances  {Sur  la  Theorie  Matlie- 
matique  da  jcit).  In  1814,  he  was  elected  as  a 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences;  and  iu  1824, 


was  appointed  as  I'rofessor  of  Experimental  Physics 
iu  the  College  de  France.  He  died  June  10,  1836. 
Scientific  progress  is  largely  indebted  to  A.,  espe- 
cially for  his  electro-dynamic  theory  and  his  original 
view's  of  the  identity'of  electricity  and  magnetism, 
as  given  in  his  Rcciuil  (T Ob-serrations  Llecfro-di/imm- 
iiiues  (Paris,  1822),  and  his  llieorie  de  Fhhiow^nes 
h'le<-tro-d>/7iami>/i/cfi  {Viirh,  183n).  These  researches 
prepared'  the  way  f.ir  the  experiments  of  Dr.  Faraday. 
Several  of  A.'s  writings  may  be  found  in  the  AnnaUs 
de  J'hi/sique  et  de  C'himie. 

AMPfeRE,   Jkax   Jacqcks    Antoine,  son    of   the 
above  named.  Professor  of  Modern  Literature  in  the 
College  de  'France,  iit    Paris,    and    member   of  the 
French    Academv,    was    born   at   Lyon,  August   12, 
ISW.     He  acquired  a  very  brilliant    reputation,  on 
account  of  the   keen  and  searching  character  of  his 
manifold  literarv  eflbrts.     After  laying  the  ground- 
work of  his  coiiiprehensivc  studies  in  Paris,  he  pro- 
ceeded   to    Italy,    Germany,    and    Scandinavia.     In 
1829,  when   he  "returned    from    his    travels,  he  saw 
no  prosi)ect  of  becondng  a    professor  in  Paris,  and 
so  consented  to  give  a  course  of  lectures  on  the  history 
of  literature  at  Marseille.     After  the  July  revolution, 
he  succeeded  Andiieux  aa  professor  in  the  College 
de  France,  and  also  took   the   place   of  Yilleinain  in 
the  Normal  School.     In  both  chairs  he  taught  with 
o-reat  success.     He  was  especially  versed  in  the  know- 
fedge    of   German    literature;     while     his     valuable 
wrifings    upon     China,     Persia,    India,    Egyiit,    and 
Nubia,  as  well  as  his  Levantine  voyages,    prove   that 
the  far  east  itself  is  endjraced  within   the   circle  of 
his  studies.     A.   allowed  many  of  bis  hnguistic  and 
historico-hierary  investigations  to  see   the  bght  first 
in  reviews,  especially  the    Jx'evuc   dts   T)cux   Mondcs. 
In  1833  he   published  an   essay   on  the  relations  of 
French  literature  to  that  of  other  countries  in  the 
middle  ages  ;  in  1841,  an  Fxmi/  on  the  formation  of 
the  French  Lanqnaqc—a.  most   valuable  contribution 
to  philologv  in  general;  and  in  185n,  a  work  entitled 
Greece,  Jioiiie,  and  Dante,  which  shews  his  acquaint- 
ance  with   classical   and   south-European    literature. 
Many  of  his  papers  for  periodicals  h.ave  been  collected 
under  the  title  Litterature  etVomacx  (2  vols..  Pans, 
1834)      Deep   research  and  judicious  criticism,  ex- 
pressed in  a  clear  and  classical    style,  distinguish  his 
various  compositions.     He  died  March  27,  I8G4. 

AMPHI'BIA,  in  the  Liniuean  svstem  of  zoology,  a 
class  containing  Reptiles  and  Cartilaginous  Fishee 
The  term  ampUibiom  (Gr.,  having  a  double  hie)  had 
been  previously  emploved,  as  it  still  popularly  is,  to 
denote  animals  capable  of  sustaining  existence  lor  a 
considerable  time  cither  on  dry  land  or  in  water. 
Of  the  animals  of  the  Linnanui  class,  however,  some 
only  are  capable  of  this,  whilst  some  are  strictly 
limited  to  the  one  element,  and  some  to  the  other, 
and  only  a  very  few  are  truly  amphibious,  or 
adapted  by  the  possession  of  lungs  and  gills  at  the 
same  time  for  breathing  either  in  air  or  m  water. 
The  Linnajan  classification  was  soon  altered  by  the 
removal  of  the  Cartilaginous  Fishes  from  the  c  ass 
Anii)hibia,  and  the  name  was  letained  tor  a  class 
consisting  of  Reptiles  alone— the  Reptdia  of  tuyier 
S.'C  Rn-TiLi:s.  Some  recent  naturalists  have  divided 
this  into  two  classes,  Rcptilia  and  Amphibia,  and 
have  based  the  division  on  imjiortant  anatomical 
characters;  the  former  including  the  Chelonian, 
Saui-ian,  and  Ophidian  Reptiles;  the  latter  <mly  the 
Batracbian  Reptiles,  or  the  fornier  order  Batradiia. 
It  must  lie  admitted  that  these  differ  from  he  other 
orders  more  than  they  do  from  each  other,  and 
the  propriety  of  separating  them  as  a  distinct  class 
is  now  acknowledged  by  naturalists  in  general 
Only  a  verv  few  of  them  possess  lungs  and  gills  at 
tbe  same  period  of  their  existence.    See  Batkachxa. 


AMPIIICTYONIC  COtJNCIL— AMPIIITnEATRE. 


A.MPIIIC'TYONIC  COUNCIL.  This  central 
politico-religious  court  of  several  Grecian  tribes,  was 
lield  twice  a  year.  In  spring,  tlie  ineinhers  assenibleil 
in  tlie  Temple  of  Apollo,  at  Delphi ;  in  autumn,  in 
the  Temple  of  Ceres,  at  the  village  of  Anthela,  near 
Thermopylae.  Their  puri)Ose  was  twofold:  1.  To 
determine  questions  of  international  law;  2.  To 
preserve  the  religious  institutions  of  the  Greeks.  As 
there  were  many  amphictyoiiies  in  the  early  days  of 
Greek  history — of  which,  however,  by  far  the  most 
important  was  that  which  forms  the  subject  of  our 
article — it  has  generally  l)ecn  supposed  that  they 
originated  out  of  a  desire  for  social  union,  and  were, 
consequently,  a  result  of  the  national  instinct  for 
civilisaticm.  Like  the  Olympic  games  of  a  later 
period,  their  tendency  was  to  develop  a  spirit  of 
brotherhood  where  it  was  greatly  required.  The 
restless  Greek  intellect,  in  its  application  to  political 
life,  had  naturally  an  excessive  and  perilous  love 
of  individualism,  out  of  which  rose  tlie  numerous 
strifes  and  animosities  of  the  various  states.  These 
councils,  on  the  other  hand,  were  calculated  to 
exert  a  wholesome  centralising  influence.  They 
knit  together,  for  a  time,  the  distracted  tribes  in  a 
bond  of  common  interest  and  piety.  Like  the 
Olympic  games,  too,  they  became  the  occasion  of 
vast  gatherings  of  the  Greek  peoi)les,  who  crowdo<l 
thither  for  every  variety  of  purpose,  sacred  and 
secular  ;  and  thus  a  feeling  of  uidty  and  pure  national 
patriotism  was,  temporaiily  at  least,  excited  in  the 
popular  mind.  The  special  origin  of  the  A.  C.  or 
league  is  unknown,  though  we  know  that  it  was  com- 
posed of  twelve  tribes.  The  ancient  writers  differ  in 
the  names  of  these ;  but  the  list  given  by  the  orator 
JEschines,  though  containing  only  eleven,  is  perhaps 
the  safest  to  atlhere  to ;  the  Thessalians,  Bn'otians, 
Dorians,  lonians,  Derrhiebians,  Magnetes,  Locrians, 
(Eta;ans,  Phthiots,  Malians,  and  Phocians.  Probably 
the  remaining  tiibe  was  the  Dolopians,  who  are 
mentioned  in  other  accoinits.  It  has  been  justly 
concluded  that  the  great  preponderance  of  the 
northern  tribes,  who  were  of  the  old  Pelasgic  race, 
proves  the  antifpiity  of  the  Council.  It  must  have 
been  older  than  the  descent  of  the  Dorians  upon  the 
Peloponnesus,  or  the  emigration  of  the  lonians  to  the 
coasts  of  Asia  Minor.  Each  of  the  twelve  tribes  sent 
to  the  A.  C.  two  members.  These  twenty-four  repre- 
sentatives possessed  equal  authoi-ity,  although  some 
of  the  tribes  were  very  small,  and  hardly  independ- 
ent. They  bound  themselves  by  an  oath  that  '  they 
would  destroy  no  city  of  the  Amphictyons,  nor  cut 
off  their  streams  in  war  or  peace  ;  and  if  any  should 
do  so,  they  would  march  against  him  and  destroy  his 
cities ;  and  should  any  pillage  the  property  of  the 
god,  or  be  privy  to,  or  plan  anything  against  what 
was  in  his  temple  at  Delphi,  they  would  take  ven- 
geance on  him  with  hand,  and  foot,  and  voice,  and 
all  their  might'  (vEschines).  It  is  only  right  to  state, 
what  indeed  most  people  would  naturally  conclude 
for  themselves,  that  so  excellent  an  oath  was  very 
'indifferently  kept.  In  the  primitive  period  of  Greek 
history,  it,  in  all  likelihood,  exerted  the  beneficial 
and  civilising  influence  of  which  we  have  spoken  ; 
but  it  opposed  only  a  feeble  check  to  the  passions 
and  ambition  of  a  more  powerful  age.  The  members 
at  times  connived  and  even  took  part  in  many 
political  crimes,  and  thus  violated  their  oath.  By 
the  time  of  Demosthenes,  the  A.  C.  had  ceased  to 
command  respect ;  in  the  2d  c.  after  Christ,  it  still 
existed,  hut  was  then  just  wavering  on  the  verge  of 
extinction. 

AMPHI'POLIS,  a  city  of  Macedonia,  built  on  an 
island  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Strymon,  which 
flowed  almost  round  the  town,  whence  it  derived  its 
name  (Gr.  amphi,  around,  and  polls,  a  city).  In 
ancient  times  its  co^itiou  must  have  been  invaluable, 
■lU 


as  it  commanded  the  only  safe  entrance  from  the 
Strymonic  Gulf  into  the  broad  Macedonian  jilains. 
It  belonged  originally  to  the  Edonians,  a  Thraciaii 
people,  and  was  called,  on  accoimt  of  the  roads 
which  met  here,  Enni'a  Ilodoi  (Nine  Ways).  The 
first  who  attempted  to  colonise  it,  Aristagoras  of 
Miletus,  was  cut  off  with  his  followers  by  the 
Edonians.  The  Athenians  next  tried  to  gain  posses- 
sion of  it.  Their  first  army,  amounting  to  lo.OOO 
men,  was  utterly  cut  to  pieces  at  Drabescus,  -IGo 
n.c,  but  their  second,  437  it.c,  tmder  Agnon,  son 
of  Xicias,  Avas  successful.  The  Thracians  were  e.\- 
pelled,  and  a  new  city  built,  to  which  Agnon  gavo 
the  name  of  A.  On  account  of  its  situation  as  an 
emporium  for  L'pper  Thrace,  and  of  its  neighbour- 
ing forests  of  timber  for  ship-building,  A.  was  an 
important  place.  In  424  it.r.,  it  was  taken  from  the 
Athenians  by  the  Spartan  Prasidas,  was  restored  to 
Athens  by  the  Aiitalcidfan  treaty  of  peace,  and 
afterwards  was  taken  by  Philij)  of  Macedon.  I'nder 
the  Romans,  it  was  made  the  capital  of  P'ast  Mace- 
donia. In  the  ndddle  ages,  it  was  calle<i  Popolia. 
Its  site  is  now  occupied  by  a  Turkish  town,  but  a  few 
of  its  ruins  are  still  visible. 

AMPHITHEATRE,  a  spacious  building,  gener- 
ally elliptical  in  I'orm,  used  by  the  Romans  for 
exliibiting  gladiatorial  combats,  fights  of  wild  beasts, 
and  other  spectacles.  The  A.  ditlered  from  a  theatre 
for  dramatic  performances  {theotrnw)  in  this,  tiiat 
whereas  the  theatre  had  only  a  semicircle  of  scats 
fronting  the  stage,  the  A.  was  entirely  surnjunded 
Ijy  them;  and  hence  the  name  of  Amphitheatre  (Gr. 
amphi,  'on  both  sides'  or  'all  round').  Till  a 
late  period  at  Rome,  these  erections  were  of  wood, 
and  merely  temporary,  like  a  modern  race-stand. 
They  seem,  however,  to  have  been  of  enormous  size, 
as  Tacitus  mentions  one,  during  the  reign  of  Tiberius, 
which  gave  way,  and  caused  the  death  or  injury  of 
5(»,(iUU  spectators.  Amphitheatres  of  stone  had  begiui, 
however,  to  be  erected  at  an  earlier  period  than  this, 
the  first  having  been  built  at  the  desire  of  Augustus. 
The  Plavian  A.  at  Rome,  known  as  the  Colosseum, 
which    was    begun    by   Vespasian,   and    finished    by 


Colosseum. 

Titus  80  A.D.,  ten  years  after  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem,  was  probably  the  largest  structure  of  the 
kind,  and  is  fortunately  also  the  best  preserved.  It 
covers  about  five  acres  of  ground,  and  was  capable 
of  containing  87,<)i>0  persons.  Its  greatest  length  is 
6'20  feet,  and  its  greatest  breadth  513.  On  the  occa- 
sion of  its  dedication  by  Titus,  5000  wild  beasts  were 


AMPHITRITE— AMPUTATION'. 


slain  in  the  arena,  the  games  having  lasted  for  nearly 
100  day«      The  exterior  is  about  ICO  ieet  ni  height, 
and  consists  of  three  rows  of  columns,  Doric,  lomc, 
and  Corinthian,  and,  above  all,  a  row  of  Corinthian 
pilasters       Between  the  columns  there  are  arches, 
which    form   open    galleries   throughout    the  >vhole 
buildin'^-  and  between  each  alternate  pilaster  of  the 
upper  tTer  there  is  a  window.     There  were  four  tiers 
or  stories  of  seats,  corresponding  to  the  lour  external 
stories.     The  first  of  these  is  supposed  to  have  con- 
tained twentv-four  rows  of   seats ;  and  the  second, 
sixteen.     Tliese  are  separated  by  a  lofty  wall  from 
the  third  story,  which  is  supposed  to  have  contained 
the  populace.     The  podhan  was  a  kind  of  covered 
gallcrv  surrounding  the  arena,  in  which  the  emperor, 
the  senators,  and  vestal  virgins  had  their  seats.    The 
buildin<r   was   covered    bv    a  temporary    awning  or 
wooden  roof,  called  velarmm,  the  mode  of  adjusting 
and  fastening  which  has   given  rise  to   many  anti- 
quarian conjectures.     The  open  space  in  the  centre 
of  the  A.  was  called  arena,  the  Latin  word  for  sand, 
because  it  was  covered  with  sand  or  saw-dust  during 
the  performances.     The  taste  for  the  excitement  ot 
the  A.  which  existed  at   Rome,  naturally  spread  to 
the  provinces,  and  large  amphitheatres  were  erected 
not   only  in  the   provincial    towns    of    Italy,  as  at 
Capua,  Verona,    Pompeii,    &c.,    but    at   Aries    and 
Nismes,  in  France;    and   even    in  this   country,  at 
Cirencester,  Silchester,  and  Dorchester. 

AMPHITRI'Tfi,  the  daughter  of  the  sea-god 
Nereus  and  of  Doris— or,  according  to  Apollodorus, 
of  a  daughter  of  Oceanus— was  the  wife  of  ^'ept""^- 
When  the  latter  demanded  her  in  marriage,  she  fled 
to  Mount  Atlas,  but  was  discovered  by  a  dolphin, 
which  Neptune  had  sent  after  her,  and  borne  back 
to  him.  As  goddess  and  queen  of  the  sea,  she  is 
represented  with  her  husband's  trident  in  her  hand, 
sitting  in  a  car  of  shells  drawn  by  Tritons,  or  on 
a  dolphin,  before  which  a  Cupid  swims. 

A'MPHORA,    among   the    Greeks    and    Romans, 
was  a  large   vessel,  usually  made   of   clay,  shaped 
like  our  pitchers,  with  a  narrow  neck  and 
two    handles  (hence    the    name,  from    Gr. 
,nnpld,  on  both  sides,  and  p/iero,  to  carry), 
:nid   often  ending  in  a  sharp  point  below, 
for    being    inserted    in    a   stand  or  in  the 
ground.     Several  of    this  sort,  and    in  an 
uprin-ht  position,  were  found  in  the  cellars 
at  Pompeii.     The  A.  was  chiefly  used  for  the 
preservation    of  various  liquids,  especially 
wine,  the    age  of  which  was   marked   on 
tickets  affixed  to  the  vessel.      There  is  also 
evidence  that  amphorse  were  employed  as 
.n....-     cineary  urns  and  as  coffins.     The  A.  among 
phora.    the    ancients    was    likewise    a  measure  for 
liquids       In  Greece,  it  contained  about  9  English 
gallons       The   Roman  amphora  was  only  two-tliirds 
of  the  Greek  A.      In  modern  times,  Anfora  is  the 
name  of  a  wine-measure  in  Venice. 

AMPLIFICA'TION,  i.e.,  enlargement,  a  term  in 
Rhetoric,  meaning  that  an  idea,  an  opinion,  or  an 
inierence  is  presented  to  the  mind,  accompanied  by 
accessory  circumstances.  Its  aim  is  to  produce  a 
powerful  and  vivid  impression  through  the  nistru- 
mentalitv  of  epithets,  particulars,  or  other  methods  oi 
elaboration.  Rhetorical  A.  is  generally  produced— 
lst,bv  similitude;  2d,  by  contrast;  3d,  by  illustrat- 
ing the  universal  in  the  particular ;  4th,  by  piling 
up  logical  arguments.  E^cmjgernlion  is  an  illegiti- 
mate kind  of  A.;  being  the  result  of  an  undue 
enlargement  of  particular  facts  and  circumstances. 

A'MPLITUDE  in  Astronomv,  is  the  distance  of 
a  heavenly  body,' at  the  time  of  its  rising  or  setting, 
from  the  east  or  the  west  point  of  the  horizon.  When 
the  sun  is  in  the  equator  (i.  e.,  at  the  time  of  either 


equinox),  he  rises  exactly  east,  and  seta  exactly  west, 
and  therefore  has  no  A.  His  A.  is  at  its  maximum 
at  midsummer,  and  again  at  mid-winter ;  and  that 
maximum  depends  upon  the  latitude  of  the  place, 
being  234°  at  the  equator,  and  increasing  to  the 
Arctic  Circle,  where  it  becomes  90°.  The  A.  of  a 
fixed  star  remains  constant  all  the  year  round. 


Ampullar 


Am- 


AMPULLA  was  a  kind  of  bottle,  used  hf 
the  Romans  for  the  preservation  of 
hquids.  It  was  made  cither  of  earthen- 
ware or  glass,  and  sometimes,  though 
very  rarely,  of  more  costly  materials. 
Great  numbers  of  such  vessels  have 
found  their  way  into  collections 
of  Antiquaries.  They  are  generally 
'  behied,'  i.e.,  approaching  to  globular, 
narrowing  towards  the  mouth,  and 
provided  with  two  handles.  They 
are  frequently  mentioned  in  connec- 
tion with  the  baths  of  ancient  times. 
The  A.  olcaria  was  a  '  bottle  of  oil ' 
which  the  Roman  took  with  him 
when  he  went  to  the  bath,  and  with  which  he 
anointed  himself  after  his  ablutions.  Sometimes 
the  oils  were  perfumed. 

The  A.  Remensh  (the  holy  vessel,  Fr.  la  sainte 
ampoule)  was  the  name  of  that  fomous  vessel  m 
which  was  contained  the  unguent  (believed  to  have 
been  brought  by  a  dove  from  heaven)  that  anointed 
Clovis,  king  of  the  Franks,  at  Rheims  in  49(5  A.n., 
and  with  which  every  succeeding  monarch  of  France, 
down  to  Louis  XVi.,  was  anointed  at  his  corona- 
tion The  A.  Remonsis  was  shattered,  along  with  a 
-reat  many  more  valuable  things,  at  the  revolution 
of  1789;  but  a  fragment  of  it  was  preserved  by 
some  devout  royalist,  and  handed  over  at  X\\& 
Restoration  to  the  Archbishop  of  Rheims.  Curious 
to  sav,  a  httle  of  the  miraculous  substance  still 
remained,  which  was  mixed  up  with  oil,  and  used  to 
anoint  Charles  X.  in  1825. 

AMPUTA'TIOX  (Lat.  amputo,  I  lop  or  prune)  is 
the  cutting  off  of  a  part  which,  by  its  diseased  condi- 
tion, endangers,  or   may  endanger,  the  safety  of  the 
whole  body.     The  A.  of  a  limb  was  in  ancient  times 
attended   with  great   danger  of  the  patient  s  dying 
during  its  performance,  as  surgeons  had  no  ethcient 
means    of    restraining    the  bleeding.       They  rarely 
ventured  to  remove  a  large  portion  of  a  limb,  and 
when  they  did  so,  they   cut  in  the  gangrened  par  s, 
where  they   knew  the  vessels  would  not  bleed  ;  the 
smaller   liinbs   they   chopped  off  with   a  mallet  and 
chisel ;  and  in  both  cases  had  hot  irons  at  hand  with 
which  to  sear  the  raw  surfaces,  boiUng  oil  in  whicti 
to  dip  the   stump,  and   various  resins,   mosses,  and 
fungi,  supposed  to  possess  the  poxyer  of    arresting 
h^m^rrhage.       Some   tightly   bandaged    the    imbs 
they  wished  to  remove,  so   that   they   mortihe.l  and 
dropped    off;    and    others   amputated    with    red-hot 
knives     or    knives    made  of    wood  or  horn  dipped 
in  vitriol.       The    desired   power    of  controlling  the 
haemorrhage  was  obtained  by   the   invention  ot  the 
tourniquet    (q.    v.)    in  1674,  by  a  J rench  surgeon 
Morell      The  ancient  surgeons  endeavoured  to  sa^  e  a 
covering    of    skin    for    the    stuinp,  by    haying    the 
skin  drawn  upwards  by  an  assistant,  previously  to 
using  the    knife.       In    1^79,  Lowdham    ot    Exeter 
suggested  cutting  semicircular  flaps  o^  one  or  both 
sides  of  a  limb,  so  as  to   preserve   a   fleshy  cushion 
o  cover  the  end  of  the  bone.     Both  these  methods 
are    now    in    use,  and  are  known  as  the     circular 
and  the  'flap'  operations:   the    latter   is  most  fre- 
quently used  in  this  country. 

A  'flap'  amputation  is  performed  thus,  ine 
patient  being  placed  in  the  most  convenient  position 
an  assistant  compresses  the  mam  artery  of  Je  limb 


A^!  r.ITSIR— AMSTERDAM. 


with  liis  tliiimb,  or  a  tourniquet  is  adjusteil  over  it. 
Another  assistant  supports  the  limb.  Tlie  surgeon 
•witli  one  hand  lifts  the  tissues  from  the  bone, 
and  transfi.xing  them  with  a  long  narrow  knife, 
cuts  rapidly  downwards  and  towards  the  sur- 
face of  the  !-kin,  forming  a  flap;  he  then  rei)eats  this 
on  the  other  ».de  of  the  limb.  An  assistant  now 
draws  up  these  flaps,  and  the  knife  is  carried  round 
the  bone,  dividing  any  flesh  still  adhering  to  it. 
The  surgeon  now  saws  the  bone.  lie  then,  with  a 
small  forceps,  seizes  the  end  of  the  main  artery,  and 
drawing  it  slightly  from  the  tissues,  an  assistant  ties 
it  with  a  thread.  All  the  vessels  being  secured,  the 
flaps  are  stitched  together  with  a  needle  and  thread, 
and  a  piece  of  wet  lint  is  laid  over  the  wound.  An 
expert  surgeon  can  remove  a  limb  thus  in  from  30 
to  60  seconds. 

AMRITSI'R,  a  city  of  the  Punjab,  in  No.  lat.  31° 
40',  and  E.  long.  74°  45',  contaiinng  11.5,0(10  inhabit- 
ants. It  is  sail!  to  be  larger  than  Lahore,  the  seat  of 
government.  It  is,  in  fact,  the  religious  metropolis, 
a  distinction  which,  along  with  its  name,  it  owes  to 
its  '  pool  of  immortality,'  on  an  islet  of  which  stands 
the  chief  temple  of  the  iSikh  faith.  A.  is  a  favourite 
haunt  of  pilgrims,  to  protect  or  to  overawe  whom 
Runjeet  Singh  built  a  formidable  citadel,  which  the 
British  have  strengthened ;  and  it  was  the  place 
where,  perhaps  to  bind  the  slippery  Sikhs  more 
firndy,  was  signed  the  treaty  of  184t),  for  ceding  to 
the  Rritish  the  territory  between  the  Beas  and  the 
Sutlej.  A.  is  said  to  be  the  richest  and  most  pros- 
perous city  in  Northern  India,  being  connected  with 
the  capital,  distant  36  miles  to  the  west,  by  a  canal, 
possessing  considerable  manufactures  of  cotton,  silks, 
shawls,  &c.,  and  carrying  on  considerable  trade  at 
once  with  Hindustan  to  the  soutii,  and  with  Central 
Asia  to  the  north. 

AMSLER,  S.\MUKL,  professor  of  the  art  of  engrav- 
ing on  copper,  in  the  Academy  of  Arts,  Munich, 
•was  born  December  17,  1791,  at  Sciiinznach,  in 
Switzerland,  received  his  first  lessons  fiom  Lips 
of  Zurich,  and  afterwards  studied  under  Hess,  in 
Munich.  His  first  great  work  was  an  engraving 
from  a  Magdalen  by  Carlo  Dolce.  In  lhil6,  he 
went  to  Rome,  where,  in  several  engravings  of 
statues  by  Thorwaldsen,  he  succeeded  well  in  uniting 
the  characteristics  of  the  originals  with  the  simple 
style  of  Marcus  Antoido.  Aided  by  Barth  and 
Hildburghausen,  he  engraved  a  title-page  for  the 
Lay  of  the  Nibelunrien,  from  a  design  by  Cornelius. 
During  his  second  sojourn  in  Rome  (1820 — 1824),  he 
began  his  gieat  work,  an  engraving  of  '  Alexander's 
Triumphal  Procession,'  by  Thorwaldsen.  At  Munich, 
in  1831,  he  finished  his  large  plate  of  the  'Burial  of 
Christ,'  by  Raphael,  which,  with  his  engraving  of 
a  statue  of  Christ,  by  Dannecker,  displayed  the 
highest  qualities  of  imitative  art.  These  works 
were  followed  by  a  'Holy  Family,'  from  Raphael, 
and  the  '  Madonna  di  Casa  Tempi.'  His  last  great 
work  was  an  engraving  from  Overbeck's  'Triumph 
of  Religion  in  the  Arts.'  A.  died  May  18,  1849. 
His  style  is  marked  by  a  clear  and  noble  treatment 
of  form,  rather  than  by  strong  contrast  of  tones. 
Few  engravers  have  equalled  A.  in  his  deep  know- 
ledge and  faithful  representation  of  the  works  of 
Raphael. 

A'MSTERDAM,  or  AMSTELDAM  (the  dam  or 
dike  of  the  Amstel),  the  chief  city  of  the  Netherlands, 
and  capital  of  the  province  of  North  Holland,  is 
situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  Amstel  with  the  Ij 
or  Y  (pronounced  Eye),  an  arm  of  the  Zuiderzee, 
and  is  divided  by  two  arms  of  the  former,  and 
numerous  canals,  into  94  small  islands,  connected  by 
290  bridges.  Almost  the  whole  of  the  city,  which 
extends  in  the  shape  of  a  crescent,  ia  founded  on 
21« 


piles.  At  the  begininng  of  the  13th  c,  it  was  merely 
a  fishing-village,  with  a  small  castle,  the  residence  of 
the  Lords  of  Amstel.  In  1296,  on  account  of  the 
murder  of  Count  Floris  of  Holland,  the  rising  town 
was  demolished,  and  its  inhabitants  were  compelled 
to  leave  it.  Afterwards,  with  Amsteliand  (the  dis- 
trict on  the  banks  of  the  Amstel),  it  was  taken  under 
the  protection  of  the  Courts  of  Holland,  and  under 
tiieni  enjoyed  several  privileges  which  contributed  to 
its  subsequent  prosperity.  In  1482,  it  was  walled 
and  fortified.  It  soon  rose  to  be  the  first  commercial 
place  in  the  united  states  of  the  Netherlands;  in 
1585  was  considerably  eidarged  by  the  building  of 
the  new  town  on  the  west ;  and  in  1622  had  luo.iiOO 
irdiabitants.  This  prosperity  e.xcited  the  envy  of  ita 
neighbours.  The  English,  under  Leicester,  in  1587, 
and  William  II.,  Prince  of  Orange,  in  1650,  endea- 
voured to  gain  possc.ssion  of  the  flourishing  city  ;  but 
their  designs  were  I'rustrated  by  the  gooil  manage- 
ment of  the  burgomasters  of  A.  In  the  17th  c,  the 
war  with  England  so  far  reduced  the  commerce  of 
A.,  that  in  the  year  1653,  about  4oo()  houses  were 
iHiinhabited.  Piosperity  was  restored  during  the 
next  century,  and,  though  commerce  was  again 
injured  with  the  disputes  with  England  in  1781  and 
1782,  it  once  more  revived.  The  union  of  Holland 
with  France  in  181o  entirely  destioyed  the  foreign 
trade  of  A.,  while  the  excise  and  otlier  new  regula- 
tions imjioverished  its  inland  resources;  but  the  old 
firms  proved  strong  enougii  to  live  through  the  time 
of  difficulty,  and  in  1815  commerce  again  began  to 
expand. 

The  city  has  a  fine  aspect,  when  seen  from  the 
harbour,  or  from  the  high  bridge  over  the  Amstel. 
Numerous  church  towers  and  spires  rise  on  every 
side,  to  relieve  the  flatness  of  the  prospect.  The  old 
ramparts  have  been  pulled  down,  and  wind-mills  for 
grinding  corn,  and  other  purposes,  have  been  erected 
on  the  28  bastions.  Rich  grassy  meadows  surround 
the  city.  On  the  west  side  are  a  great  number  of 
saw-mills.  The  three  principal  streets  in  A.,  each 
of  which  is  two  miles  long,  are  the  Ueerengraaciit, 
Keizergraacht,  and  Prinzensgraacht.  They  are  not 
surpassed  by  any  in  Europe  for  length,  breadth,  or 
general  elegance.  Along  the  middle  of  each,  as  of 
the  other  streets  in  A-i  flow  canals,  the  banks  of 
which  are  lined  witli  rows  of  trees.  The  houses  are 
built  principally  of  brick,  and  some  have  their  gables 
towards  the  streets,  which  gives  them  a  very  pictu- 
resque appearance.  In  old  times,  A.  was  strongly 
fortified ;  but  now  its  oidy  defence  consists  in  the 
sluices,  which  can  flood  in  a  few  hours  the  surround- 
ing land.  A  haid  frost,  however,  like  that  of  1794 — 5, 
when  Pichegru  entered  the  city,  would  render  even 
this  means  of  defence  useless. 

The  population  was  numbered  at  180,000  in  1820; 
but  in  1865  it  amounted  to  261,455,  the  majority 
of  whom  are  Dutch  Calvinists.  Of  the  remainder, 
the  most  numerous  body  are  the  Roman  Catholics, 
next  the  Lutherans,  and  next  the  Jews.  The  chief 
industrial  establishments  are  numerous  dock-yards, 
manufactories  of  sails,  ropes,  tobacco,  cloth,  plush, 
silks,  gold  and  silver  plate  and  jewelry,  colours  and 
chendcal  preparations,  breweries,  distilleries,  with 
export  houses  for  corn  and  colonial  produce.  Among 
the  public  buildings,  the  Stadhuis,  formerly  used  as 
the  palace  of  King  Louis  Bonaparte,  and  still  re- 
tained by  the  present  reigning  fanuly,  is  a  noble 
and  imposing  structure,  raised  upon  13,659  piles,  and 
extending  252  feet  in  length,  by  206  feet  in  breadih, 
surmounted  by  a  round  tower,  rising  327  feet  from 
the  base.  It  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  great  hall, 
111  feet  long,  52  feet  wide,  and  90  feet  high,  lined 
with  white  Italian  marble — an  apartment  of  great 
splendour. 

The  Nieuwe  Kerk  (New  Church),  founded  in  1408, 


AMSTERDAM— AMYGDALOID. 


ia  the  finest  ecclesiastical  sti'uctuie  in  the  city,  aiul, 
as  the  Dutch  think,  in  Europe.  Its  chancel  is  espe- 
cially admired.  It  contains  the  tombs  of  Achniral 
de  Ruyter,  who  sailed  up  the  Medway  and  burned 
the  English  fleet  at  Chatham  ;  of  the  famous  Dutch 
poet  Voiulel,  i^'c,  and  of  various  other  notable  per- 
pons.  The  Old  Church  (Omle  Kcrk),  belonging  to 
the  14th  c,  contains  several  monuments  of  naval 
heioes.  LiteratiH'e,  science,  and  recreation  are  not 
forjrotten  in  the  pressure  of  business;  for  A.  has  its 
academy  of  arts  and  science,  an  excellent  museum 
and  library,  several  harmonic  societies,  a  botanical 
and  also  a  zoological  garden,  and  several  theatres. 
The  hospital  for  aged  people,  the  poor-house,  house 
of  correction,  and  orphan  asylum,  a  navigation 
school,  and  many  benevolent  societies,  are  well  sup- 
ported, and  said  to  be  managed  on  good  principles. 
The  moist  atmosphere  and  mephitic  exhalations 
from  the  canals,  are  unfovourable  to  the  health  of 
the  city,  especially  in  sunim(>r.  The  New  Canal 
(Nicuwe  Diep),  or  Grand  8hip-canal  of  North  Hol- 
land, 21  feet  deep  and  1'2.5  feet  in  breadth,  connect- 
ing the  Buiksloot  with  the  North  Sea  at  the  Helder, 
a  distance  of  51  miles,  so  that  the  perilous  navi- 
gation of  the  Zuiderzee  is  avoided,  has  greatly 
increased  the  facility  of  commerce,  as  even  a  ship  of 
the  line  can  |iass  through  its  sluices;  and  powerful 
steam-tugs  are  employed  to  tow  merchant-vessels 
with  their  full  c.irgoes  out  to  sea.  It  is  the  broadest 
canal  in  the  world.  Its  lock-gates  exceed  in  dimen- 
sions the  largest  in  the  docks  of  Liverpool,  and  are 
founded  upon  jiiles  driven  through  the  muii  into 
sand.  Amsterdam  is  now  connected  by  railway  with 
Rotterdam  and  the  Hague,  as  well  as  with  Prussia. 

AMSTERDAM,  a  barren  islet  in  lat.  38°  5.S'  S., 
and  long.  77°  37'  E.,  the  home  of  sea-birds,  shell-fish, 
and  seals.  It  is  worthy,  however,  of  notice  at  once 
for  its  structure  and  its  situation.  Manifestly  of 
volcanic  origin,  it  still  possesses  a  burning  soil  and 
hot  springs ;  and  along  with  its  single  neighV>our, 
St.  Paul,  60  miles  to  the  north-east,  it  is  about  mid- 
way in  the  direct  line  between  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  and  Van  Diemen's  Land,  being  also  at  nearly 
the  same  distance  from  Cape  Comorin. 

A'MULET,  any  object  worn  as  a  charm.  It  is 
often  a  stone,  or  piece  of  metal,  with  an  inscription 
or  some  figures  engraved  on  it,  and  is  generally 
suspended  from  the  neck,  and  worn  as  a  preserv- 
ative against  sickness,  witchcraft,  &c.  Its  origin, 
like  its  name,  seems  to  be  oriental.  The  ancient 
Egyptians  had  their  amulets,  sometimes  fornnng 
necklaces.      Among  the    Greeks,  such  a  protective 


Egyptian  Amulet. 

charm  was  styled  phylacterinn  ;  among  the  Romans, 
amuletum.  This  word  is  probably  derived  from 
the  Arabic  hamnlrt  ('what  is  suspended').  The 
phylacteries  of  the  Jews  (see  Matthew,  xxiii.  5),  slips 
of  parchment  on  which  passages  of  the  Law  were 
written,  were  evidently  worn  as  badges  of  piety  by 
the  Pharisees ;  but  were  also  regarded  as  wholesome 
preservatives  from  evil  spirits,  and  from  all  manner 
of  harm.  From  the  heathen,  the  use  of  amulets 
passed  into  the  Christian  Church,  the  inscription 
on  them  being  ichthux  (the  Greek  word  for  a  fish), 
because  it  contained  the  initials  of  the  Greek  words 


for  Jesus  Christ,  Son  of  God,  Saviour.  See  An 
ituKViATio.NS.  Among  the  Gnostic  sects,  Abraxas 
stones  (q.  v.)  were  much  used.  Amulets  soon 
became  so  common  among  Christians  that,  in  the 
4th  c,  the  clergy  were  interdicted  from  making 
and  selling  them  on  pain  of  de;)rivatioii  of  holy 
orders;  and  in  721,  the  wearing  of  annilcts  was 
soleiiwdy  condemned  by  the  Church.  Among  the 
Turks  and  imuiy  other  nations  of  Central  Asia, 
every  person  considers  it  necessary  to  wear  a  pic- 
servative  charm.  With  the  spread  of  Arabian 
astronomy,  the  astrological  A.  or  tdisman  ((|.  v.) 
of  the  Arabs  found  its  way  to  Europe.  Koup,  a 
German  author,  has  written  a  work,  Piilftnijrajiltua 
Critim,  on  amulets  and  their  insi-rijjtions.  Among 
aundets  in  repute  in  the  middle  ages  were  the  coins 
aftril)Uted  to  St.  Helena,  the  mother  of  Constantine. 
These  and  other  coins  marked  with  a  cross  were 
thought  specially  efficacious  against  epilepsy,  and 
are  generally  found  jierforated,  for  the  purpose  of 
being  worn  suspended  fiom  the  neck. — The  l)e!ief  in 
the  virtue  of  amulets  is  not  yet  extinct  among  the 
uneducated. 

AMY'CL^E,  an  old  Laconian  town,  was  situated 
on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Eurotas,  20  sta<lia  south- 
east of  Sparta,  in  a  richly  wooded  and  fertile  region. 
It  was  a  famous  city  in  the  heroic  age,  the  abode  of 
Tyndarus  and  his  spou-e  Leda,  who  bore  to  Jupiter 
the  twins,  Castor  and  Pollux  (calleil  Ami/dci  Frafre", 
the  AniycL-ean  brothers),  and  also  Helena.  Long  after 
the  Dorians  had  subjugated  and  peopled  the  rest  of 
the  Peloponnesus,  A.  continued  to  be  a  free  Acha>an 
town.  It  was  conquei-ed  by  the  Spartans  only  before 
the  first  Messenian  War,  and  in  conse(iuence  of  a 
curious  and  abs\n'd  law.  The  inhabitants  were  so 
often  agitated  by  false  rumois  of  the  a]iproach  of 
the  Spartans,  that,  growing  tired  of  living  in  a  state 
of  continual  alarm,  they  decreed  that  no  one  should 
henceforth  mention  or  even  tike  notice  of  the.se 
disagreeable  fictions.  Unfortunately,  the  Spartans 
did  come  at  length,  and  according  to  the  Greek 
saying,  'A.  perished  through  silence.'  Hence  the 
proverb,  Amycl'm  ipx'n  facifnrnior  (More  silent  than 
A.  itself).  After  its  conquest,  A.  became  a  village, 
noted  only  for  its  annual  festival  of  the  Hyacinthia, 
and  its  temple  of  Apollo,  with  the  colossal  statue  of 
the  fod  himself. — A.,  an  ancient  city  on  the  coast  of 
Campania,  Italy,  said  to  have  been  built  by  a  colony 
from  the  Greek  A.  It  had  ceased  to  exist  in  the 
time  of  Pliny. 

AMYGDA'LE.E,  or  DRPPACE/E,  according  to 
some  botanists,  a  natural  order  of  dicot\  ledonous 
plants,  but  more  generally  regarded  as  a  sub-order 
of  RosACK.E.  The  sju'cies  are  all  trees  or  shrubs. 
They  have  the  tulie  of  the  calyx  lined  with  a  disk, 
the  pistil  a  solitary  simple  carpel  with  a  terminal 
style,  the  fruit  a  drupe.  For  other  botanical  charac- 
ters, see  RosACK.K.  The  bark  yields  gum,  and 
hydrocyanic  acid  is  present  in  very  notable  quantity 
ill  difTerent  parts,  as  the  leaves,  kernels,  Arc  The  A. 
are  chiefly  natives  of  the  cold  and  temperate  regions 
of  the  northern  hemisphere.  Some  of  them  yield 
valuable  fruits ;  and  various  products  of  the  order 
are  used  in  medicine.  See  Ai.monh,  Pkach,  Nkcta- 
KiNK,  Pi.fM,  CuKiutv,  and  Ciikiuiy  Laikki,.  This 
order  or  sub-order  contains  about  110  known  species. 

AMY'GDALOID  (from  amyfidahix,  an  almond), 
a  rock,  consisting  of  a  ba.sis  of  some  kind  of  trap 
rock,  verv  frequently  of  greenstone,  forming  numer- 
ous roundish  or  oval  cells,  which  are  tiUi'd  with  nod- 
ules, often  of  calcareous  spar  or  of  zeolitic  minerals. 
The'cells  are  not  of  large  size,  but  even  those  which 
are  almost  adjacent  differ  much  in  this  respect.  The 
nodules  are  evidently  the  restdt  of  a  sublimation 
and  imperfect  crystallisation,  under  the  action  of  the 


AMYLACEOUS— ANABAPTISTS. 


heat  which  formed  the  cells.  Empty  cells  often 
occur  amongst  those  which  are  filU'd  with  minerals. 
The  name  A.  is  sometimes  extended  to  rocks  of  the 
same  character,  althoufrh  the  basis  be  not  of  trap. 

AMYLA'CEOUS  (from  avijjluin,  starch),  a  term 
used  in  Chemistry  and  Botany,  and  e(inivalent  to 
starchy. — ^l.  food  is  food  consisting  at  least  in  great 
part  of  some  kind  of  starch,  as  airow-root,  sago,  &c. — 
A  compound  radical,  called  am;/li%  is  formed  by  the 
decomposition  of  starch  in  a  ])oculiar  fermentation — 
the  amiilic  f,r mentation — but  to  it  the  term  A.  has 
no  reference. 

AMYLIC  ALCOHOL.     See  Fusel  Oil. 

AMYOT,  or  AMIOT,  Jacques,  a  French  writer, 
well  known  by  his  excellent  translations  of  the 
Greek  classics,  was  born  in  1.513,  and  died  in  lofS. 
Racine  highly  esteemed  the  translations  by  A.,  of 
which  the  version  of  Plutarch  is  one  of  the  best,  and 
has  passed  through  several  editions. — Amiot,  Joseph, 
a  celebrated  Jesuit  and  Oriental  scholar,  was  born  at 
Toulon  in  1718,  and  lived  as  a  missionary  in  Ciiina 
from  1750  to  the  time  of  hla  death,  in  17it4.  His 
knowledge  of  the  Chinese  and  Tatar  languages 
enabled  him  to  collect  many  valuable  notices  of 
antiquities,  history,  language,  and  arts,  in  China. 
Many  of  his  writings  may  be  found  in  the  Mhnoires 
conrernantx  V lUxtoire,  Ics  tSriences  et  leu  Arts  de.f 
CAi/'ois  (15  vols.  Paris,  177ti — 17!tl).  His  Diction- 
nnire  Tatar-Mantckou-Franqais  was  edited  by 
Langlfes  in  1789. 

AMYRIDA'CE.E,  a  natural  order  of  dicotyl.-- 
donous  or  exogenous  plants,  consisting  of  trees  and 
shrubs,  natives  of  tropical  countries,  remarkable  for 
the  abundance  of  their  fragrant  balsamic  or  resinous 
juice.  They  have  compound  loaves,  occasionally 
with  stipules  and  pellucid  dots.  The  flowers  are  in 
racemes  or  panicles;  the  calyx  persistent,  with  '2 — 5 
divisions;  the  petals  are  3 — 5;  aestivation  valvate 
or  imbricated.  The  stamens  are  twice  or  four  times 
as  many  as  the  petals.  The  ovary  is  superior,  sessile, 
1 — 5-celled,  inserted  in  a  large  disk ;  the  style  soli- 
tary and  compound,  or  wanting ;  the  stigmas  as 
many  as  the  cells  of  the  ovary ;  the  ovules  in  pairs, 
anatropal.  The  fruit  is  hard  and  dry,  1 — 5-cellcd, 
its  outer  rind  often  splitting  into  valves.  The  seeds 
are  exalbnminous.  About  forty  or  fifty  species  are 
referred  to  the  order  ;  but  many  of  them  are  still 
very  imperfectly  known.  Some  species  afford  valu- 
able timber  ;  but  the  principal  products  of  the  order 
are  fragrant  resins  and  balsams,  as  Myurh  (q.  v.), 
and  different  kinds  of  Fu.\nkincense  (q.  v.),  Olihaxum 
(q.  v.),  Elemi  (q.  v.),  Bdellium  (q.  v.),  Tacamaiiac 
(q.  v.).  Balsam  of  Gilead  (q.  v.),  &c.  Among  the 
more  important  genera  of  the  order  may  be  named 
Amyris,  Bahaniodendron,  Boswellia,  and  Idea. — 
Canarium  eommune,  a  native  of  Java,  which  yields 
a  gum  similar  in  its  properties  to  the  Balsam 
OF  CoPAiVA  (q.  v.),  produces  also  triangular  nuts, 
which  are  oaten  both  raw  and  dressed,  and  fiom 
which  an  oil  is  extracted  for  the  table  arid  for  burn- 
ing. Balanites  Egiiptiaea  is  cultivated  in  Egypt  for 
its  fruit,  a  drupe,  which  is  eaten,  and  from  the  seeds 
of  which  a  fat  oil  is  expressed,  called  Zaehun. 

A'NA,  a  termination  added  to  the  names  of  remark- 
able men,  to  designate  collections  of  their  sayings, 
anecdotes,  &c. ;  as  in  the  works  entitled  Baeoniana, 
Johnsoniana.  Such  titles  were  first  used  in  France, 
where  they  became  common  after  the  publication  of 
Scahgerana  by  the  biothers  Dupuy  (Hague,  ItJOfi). 
In  English  literature,  there  are  many  works  of  this 
kind.  America,  also,  has  its  Washhir/toniana.  A 
tolerably  complete  catalogue  of  works  with  such 
titles  may  be  found  in  Namur's  Bibliop-aphie  des 
Owrar/es  publics  sous  le  Nom  d'Ana  (Brussels, 
1S3',I).' 
-IS 


ANABA'PTISTS,  a  term  applied  generally  to 
those  Christians  who  reject  infant  })aptism,  and 
administer  the  rite  only  to  adults ;  so  that  when  a 
new  mcnd)er  joins  thorn,  he  or  she  is  baptised  a 
second  time,  the  first  being  considered  no  baptism. 
The  name  ((Jr.  to  baptise  again)  is  thus  owing  to  an 
accidental  circumstance,  and  is  disclaimed,  by  the 
more  recent  opponents  of  infant  baptism,  both  on 
the  continent  and  in  Great  Britain. 

The  origin  of  the  sect  cannot  be  distinctly  traced ; 
but  it  is  manifestly  connected  with  tlie  controversy 
about  infant  baptism  carried  on  in  the  early  church. 
Opposition  to  this  doctrine  was  kept  alive  in  the 
various  so-called  heretical  sects  that  went  by 
the  general  name  of  Cathari  (i.  e.,  ptirists),  such  as 
the  Waldenses,  Alhigcnses,  &c.  Shortly  after  the 
beginnitig  of  the  Reformation,  the  opposition  to 
infant  baptism  appeared  anew,  especially  among  a 
set  of  fanatical  enthusiasts  colled  the  Prophets  of 
Zwickau,  in  Saxony,  at  whose  head  were  Thomas 
Miiii/'cr  (q.  v.)(15-J0)  and  others.  Miinzer  went  to 
AValdshut,  on  the  borders  of  Switzerland,  which  soon 
became  a  chief  seat  of  anabaptism,  and  a  centre 
whence  visionaries  and  fanatics  spread  over  Switzer- 
land. Tlu>y  pretended  to  new  revelations,  dreamed 
of  the  establishment  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven  on 
earth,  and  summoned  princes  to  join  them,  on  pain 
of  losing  their  temporal  power.  They  rejected  infint 
baptism,  ami  taught  that  those  who  joined  them  must 
be  baptised  ani'w  with  the  baptism  of  the  Sj)irit ;  they 
also  proclaimed  the  comnnmitv  of  goods,  and  the 
equality  of  all  Christians.  These  doctrines  naturally 
fell  in  with  and  supported  the  'Peasant  War'  (q.  v.) 
that  had  about  that  time  (15'25)  broken  out  from 
real  causes  of  oppression.  The  sect  spread  rapidly 
through  Westphalia,  Holstein,  and  the  Netherlands, 
in  spite  of  the  severest  persecutions.  The  battle  of 
Frankeidiausen  (see  Muxzer)  crushed  their  progress 
in  Saxony  and  Franconia.  Still,  scattered  adherents 
of  the  doctrines  contiimed,  and  were  again  brought 
together  in  various  places  by  travelling  preachers. 
In  this  capacity,  one  Melchior  Hoffmann,  a  furrier  of 
Swabia,  distinguished  himself,  who  appeared  as  a 
visionary  preacher  in  Kiel  in  1527,  and  in  Emden  in 
1528.  in  the  last  town  he  installed  a  baker,  John 
Matthiesen,  of  Haarlem,  as  bishop,  and  then  went  to 
Strasburg,  where  he  died  in  prison.  Jfatthiesen 
began  to  send  out  apostles  of  the  new  doctrine.  Two 
of  these  went  to  Miinster,  where  they  found  fanatical 
coadjutors  in  the  Protestant  minister  Rothmann, 
and  the  burghers  KnipperdoUing  and  Krechting, 
and  were  shortly  joined  by  the  tailor  Bockhold  of 
Leyden,  and  Gerrit  Kippenbrock  of  Amsterdam,  a 
bookbinder,  anil  at  last  by  Matthiesen  himself. 
With  their  adherents,  they  soon  made  themselves 
masters  of  the  city  ;  Matthiesen  set  up  as  a  prophet, 
and  when  he  lost  las  life  in  a  sally  against  the  Bishop 
of  Miinster,  who  was  besieging  the  town,  Bockhold 
and  KnipperdoUing  took  his  place.  The  churches 
were  now  destroyed,  and  twelve  judges  were  ap- 
pointed over  the  tribes,  as  among  the  Israelites; 
and  Bockhold  (1534)  had  himself  crowned  king  of 
the  'New  Sion,'  under  the  name  of  John  of  Leyden. 
The  anabaptist  madness  in  Miinster  now  went 
beyond  all  bounds.  The  city  became  the  scene  of 
the  wildest  licentiousness  ;  until  several  I^otestant 
princes,  uniting  with  the  bishop,  took  the  city,  and 
by  executing  the  leaders,  put  an  end  to  the  new 
kingdom  (1535). 

But  the  principles  disseminated  by  the  A.  were  not 
so  easily  crushed.  As  early  as  1533  the  adherents  of 
the  sect  had  been  driven  from  Emden,  and  taken 
refuge  in  the  Netherlands ;  and  in  Amsterdam  the 
doctrine  took  root  and  spread.  Bockhold  also  had 
sent  out  apostles,  some  of  whom  had  given  up  the 
wild  fanaticism  of  their  master ;   they  let  alone  thu 


AXABASID^— ANABLEPS. 


community  of  goods  and  -women,  and  taught  the 
other  doctriHcs  of  the  A.,  and  the  establisliment  of  a 
new  kingdom  of  pure  Christians.  Tliey  grounded 
their  doctrines  chiefly  on  the  Apocalypse.  One  of 
the  most  distinguished  of  this  class  was  David  Joris, 
a  glass-painter  of  Delft  (1501 — 1556).  Joris  united 
liberalism  with  anabaptism,  devoted  himself  to 
mystic  theology,  and  sought  to  effect  a  union  of 
parties.  lie  acquired  many  adherents,  who  studied 
his  book  of  Miracli^s  {Wunderbuch),  which  appeared 
at  Deventer  in  1542,  and  looked  upon  him  as  a  sort 
of  new  Messiah.  Being  persecuted,  he  withdrew 
from  his  party,  lived  inoffensively  at  Basle,  under  the 
name  of  John  of  Bruges,  and  died  there  in  the  com- 
munion of  the  reformed  church.  It  was  only  in 
1559  that  his  heretical  doctrines  came  to  light,  when 
the  council  of  Basle  had  the  bones  of  Joris  dug  up, 
and  burned  under  the  gallows. 

The  rude  and  fanatical  period  of  the  history  of 
anabaptism  closes  with  the  scandal  of  Miinster.  A 
new  era  begins  with  Menno  Simons.  (See  Menno.) 
Surrounded  by  dangers,  Menno  succeeded,  by 
prudent  zeal,  in  collecting  the  scattered  adherents 
of  the  sect,  and  in  founding  congregations  in  the 
Netherlands,  and  in  various  parts  of  Germany. 
He  culled  the  members  of  the  community  '  God's 
Congregation,  poor,  unarmed  Christians,  brothers ;' 
later,  they  took  the  name  of  Mennonites,  and  at 
present  they  call  themselves,  in  Germany,  Tauf- 
gesinnte  ;  in  Holland,  Doopsgezinden — corresponding 
very  nearly  to  the  English  designation  Baptists. 
This,  besides  being  a  more  appropriate  designation, 
avoids  ofl'ensive  association  with  the  early  Anabaptists. 
Menno  expounded  his  principles  in  his  Fundament- 
buche  von  dem  reehten  Christlichen  Glauben,  1556 
(Elements  of  the  True  Christian  Faith).  This  book  is 
still  an  authority  among  the  body,  who  lay  particular 
stress  on  receiving  the  doctrines  of  the  Scripture  with 
simple  faith,  and  acting  strictly  up  to  them,  and  set 
no  value  on  learning  and  the  scientific  elaboration  of 
doctrines.  They  reject  the  taking  of  oaths,  war, 
every  kind  of  revenge,  divorce  (except  for  adultery), 
infant  baptism,  and  the  undertaking  of  the  office  of 
magistrate  ;  magistracy,  they  hold  to  be  an  institu- 
tion necessary  for  the  present,  but  foreign  to  the 
king:lom  of  Christ ;  the  church  is  the  community  of 
the  saints,  which  must  be  kept  pure  by  strict  dis- 
cipline. With  regard  to  grace,  they  profess  univer- 
salism,  or  hold  it  to  be  designed  for  all,  and  their 
views  of  the  Lord's  Supper  f\xll  in  with  those  of 
ZwingU ;  in  its  celebration,  the  rite  of  feet-washing 
is  retained.  In  Germany,  Switzerland,  and  Alsace, 
their  form  of  worship  differs  httle  from  the  Lutheran. 
Their  bishops,  elders,  and  teachers  serve  gratis. 
Children  receive  their  name  at  birth,  baptism  is 
performed  in  the  place  of  worship,  and  adults  that 
join  the  sect  are  reljaptised. 

But  along  with  these  general  principles,  there  have 
been  endless  diversities  and  splits  in  the  sect,  occa- 
sioned by  difFerencos  as  to  strictness  of  discipline. 
This  cause  divided  the  body,  as  early  as  1554,  into 
the  Mild  and  the  Strict  "Mennonites.  The  first 
are  known  by  the  title  of  Waterliinders,  from  a 
place  in  Holland  ;  the  second  split  again  into  a  mul- 
titude of  subdivisions,  according  to  minute  shades  of 
strictness,  and  their  several  designations,  derived 
from  the  names  of  leaders,  places,  and  even  peculi- 
arities of  dress  (John-Jacob  Cliristians,  Buttoners, 
Hook-and-eye-ers,  &c.),  bewilder  the  student  of  eccle- 
siastical history.  The  purity  of  their  fives,  however, 
commanded  everywhere  respect,  and  their  industry 
made  them  prosperous ;  so  that  they  gradually 
secured  formal  toleration  in  many  places. 

Almost  the  only  split  among  the  early  continental 
Baptists  on  doctrinal  grounds  was  that  which  took 
place  in  Amsterdam  in  1664.     Arminianism  had  not 


been  without  its  influence,  especially  among  the 
Waterliinders,  originally  more  liberal  in  their  views. 
A  leading  congregation  accordingly  divided  into  two 
parties,  one  (Galenists,  from  Galenus,  their  leader) 
advocating  freer  views  in  doctrine  and  discipline  ;  the 
other  (Apostoolists,  from  Samuel  Ajjostool)  adhering 
to  absolute  predestination  and  the  discipline  of 
Menno.  The  liberal  party  rejected  creeds  as  of 
human  invention,  adopted  much  of  the  philosophy 
and  theology  of  England,  and  exercised  no  little 
influence  on  the  intellectual  progress  of  Holland. 
These  two  parties  gradually  absorbed  the  other 
sections  of  the  Baptists  in  the  Netherlands ;  and 
about  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  a 
union  took  place  by  which  all  the  congregations  now 
belong  to  one  body.  In  Holland,  there  are  about  120 
Baptist  congregations. 

In  Germany,  the  Baptists  made  some  attempts 
in  more  recent  times  to  extend  their  church,  but 
without  any  great  success.  In  1852  there  were 
in  Germany  52  congregations,  numbering  about  3000 
members,  more  than  half  of  whom  belong  to  Prussia. 
In  that  country,  various  concessions  had  been  made 
to  them  early  in  this  century,  such  as  exemption 
from  certain  oaths  and  from  military  service.  They 
are  tolerated  in  Bavaria,  Baden,  Wiirtemberg,  Meck- 
lenburg, Russia,  France,  and  Denmark  ;  but  were 
expelled  from  Sweden.  Wherever  they  are  settled, 
they  are  respected  as  quiet,  industrious  .subjects; 
but  several  German  governiuents  have  lately  imposed 
restrictions  on  their  exercise  of  public  worship.  The 
reason  assigned  was  the  tendency  to  visionary  en- 
thusiasm thi.t  had  again  shewed  itself  in  some  con- 
gregations. 

As  the  representatives  of  the  sect  in  Great  Britain 
and  North  America  have  little  or  no  historical  con- 
nection with  the  earlier  A.  of  the  continent,  they 
fall  more  properly  to  be  noticed  under  Baptists. 

ANABA'SID.E,  or  LABYRINTIIIBRANCH- 
ID^E,  a  family  of  Acanthopterygious  Fishes,  charac- 
terised by  a  renuirkable  structure  of  the  upper 
membranes  of  the  pharynx,  which  are  divided  into 
small  irregular  leaves,  containing  between  them 
cellular  reservoirs.  These  retain  water  sufficient  to 
keep  the  gills  moist  for  a  considerable  time,  and  so 
enable  the  fish  to  subsist  out  of  water,  and  to  travel 
some  distance  on  dry  ground ;  some  of  the  species, 
as  the  Climbing  Perch  (q.  v.)  of  India  (Anabas 
sca7idcns),  climbing  steep  banks,  or  even  trees,  by 
means  of  the  spines  of  the  fins,  tail,  and  gill-covers. 
Opkicephalus  marrfinatus  is  often  seen  travelling 
among  the  grass  in  the  beginning  of  the  rainy  season. 
The  fishes  of  this  family  appear  to  leave  the  water 
for  various  reasons ;  but  very  commonly,  it  would 
appear,  upon  account  of  the  drying  up  of  pools  in 
periodical  droughts,  their  peculiar  organisation 
enabling  them  to  go  in  search  of  others.  They  are 
all  fresh-water  fishes,  natives  of  the  south-east  of 
Asia,  continent  and  islands,  and  of  South  Africa. 
The  species  are  numerous,  and  are  arranged  under 
eleven  genera.  Some  of  them  are  much  esteemed 
for  their  delicacy  as  food. 

ANABASIS  (Greek),  literally,  an  ascent  or  a 
march  out  of  a  lower  into  a  higher  country — the 
name  of  two  historical  works:  1.  The  A.  of  C>/rns, 
written  by  Xenophon,  which  gives  a  narrative  of  the 
unfortunate  expedition  of  the  Younger  Cyrus  against 
his  brother,  the  Persian  king  Artaxerxes.  and  of  the 
retreat  of  his  li»,000  Greek  allies  under  the  com- 
mand of  Xenophon;  2.  The  A.  of  Alexander, 
written  by  Arrian,  and  giving  an  account  of  the 
campaigns  of  Alexander  the  Great. 

A'NABLEPS  (from  the  Gr.  anablepx,  to  look  up), 
a  genus  of  fishes  of  the  order  Malacopterygii  Abdmni- 
nales,    family  Cyprinidae   of   Cuvier— of  the  family 

219 


AXACAEDIACE.E— AXACIIROXISM. 


Cyprinodiiut'uhe  (q.  v.)  of  Agassiz — cliaractcrisod  by 
a  structure  of  the  eyes  to  which  tlicre  is  notliiiij^ 
piniiliir  in  any  other  vertebra  ted  animals.  This 
consists  in  a  division  of  the  coniva  and  iris  into  two 
somewhat  unequal  elliptieal  parts,  by  transverse 
bands  formed  of  the  cutijanctira  (see  Eyk),  so  that 
the  animal  appears  to  have  four  eyes,  and  t';ere  are 
really  two  pupils  on  each  side,  the  other  parts  of  the 
eye  being  single.  This  peculiarity  of  structure  is 
supposed  to  l)e  connected  with  a  habit  which  these 
fishes  are  said  to  have  of  swimming  with  the  eyes 
partly  out  of  the  water.  They  are  elongated,  scaly 
fishes,  with  flatfish  rounded  back,  and  depressed 
head.  The  yoiuig  are  brought  forth  alive,  and  in  a 
state  of  considerable  advancement.  The  best  known 
species,  A.  tetropthalmus,  inhabits  the  rivers  of 
Guiana  and  Surinam. 

ANACARDIA'CE.E  (TKRKniNTACE^  of  some 
botanists,  and  part  of  Tkiikiuntace^  of  others),  a 
natural  order  of  dicotyledonous  or  exogenous 
plants,  consisting  of  trees  and  shrubs,  which  abound 
in  a  resinous,  sometimes  acrid  and  poisonous  juiie. 
The  leaves  are  alternate  and  without  dots;  the 
flowers  inconspicuous,  usually  unisexual.  The  calyx 
is  generally  small  and  persistent,  and  has  generally 
five  divisions ;  the  petals  are  perigynous,  equal  in 
number  to  the  segments  of  the  calyx,  indjrieated  in 
ajstivation,  occasionally  wanting.  The  stamens  are 
equal  in  number  to  the  petals,  and  alternate  with 
them,  or  twice  as  many,  or  more  ;  distinct  when 
there  is  a  fleshy  disk,  cohering  at  the  base  when  the 
disk  is  wanting.  The  ovary  is  usually  single,  free  or 
adhering  to  the  calyx,  1-celled;  the  styles  1,  3,  or 
4,  occasionally  wanting;  the  ovule  solitary,  attached 
to  the  bottom  of  the  cell  by  a  cord.  Tht?  fruit  is 
usually  a  drupe,  the  seed  exalbuminous.  The  order 
contains  about  95  known  sjiecies,  chiefly  but  not 
exclusively  tropical,  amongst  which  are  a  consider- 
able number  valuable  for  the  resinous  juices  and 
varnishes  which  they  yield,  as  the  varnish  of  Sylhet, 
varnish  of  Martaban,  Japan  lacker,  &c.,  and  others, 
■which  pioduce  wholesome  and  pleasant  fruits.  See 
Cashew  Nut,  Pistacia,  Mastic,  Tukpkntine  Tree, 
Mango,  Hog  Plum. 

ANACA'RDIUM.  See  Cashew  Xct. 
AXA'CIIARIS,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Jl'idrnchnrldcct  (f[.  v.),  of  which  a  species,  A. 
Canadensis  {L'.'odra  C'liiunlinsix  of  some  botanists), 
has  recently  Itecome 
naturalised  in  Britain, 
suddenly  appearing  in 
so  great  abundance  as 
to  impede  the  naviga- 
tion of  some  rivers  and 
■anals.  It  is  a  native 
of  North  America, 
growing  in  ponds  and 
slow  streams;  and  is 
a  dark-green,  much- 
branched  perennial, 
entirely  floating  under 
watiT,  its  flowers  only 
appearing  above  water 
for  a  very  short  time 
at  the  period  of  fertilis- 
ation, as  in  others  of 
the  order  to  which  it 
belongs.  It  has  numer- 
ous leaves,  which  are 
either  opposite,  or  in 
whoi'ls  of  three  or  four, 
without  foot -stalks, 
3 — i    lines    lonpr.       The 


Anacharia  Canadensis. 


linear-oblong,  transparent, 
female    flowers    are    sessile    in    the     upper     axils, 
and    are    enclosed    in    a    small     2-lobed    epathe ; 
220 


the  slender  tube  of  the  perianth  is  often  two 
or  three  inches  long,  so  as  to  attain  the  surface 
of  the  water,  where  it  terminates  in  thicc  or  six 
small  spreading  segments.  The  male  flowers  are 
seldom  obseived.  Tln^  plant  was  first  found  in 
Britain  in  1842,  by  the  late  Dr.  John.-on  of  Berwick, 
in  the  lake  of  Dunse  Castk; ;  and  again  in  1S47  by 
Miss  Kirby,  in  the  reservoirs  of  a  canal  in  Leicester- 
shire. It  is  now  very  abundant  and  trouble.-ome  in 
the  Trent,  Derweut,  and  other  rivers.  Its  rapidity  of 
growth  is  extraordinary.  Immense  masses  disflgure 
the  shallows  of  the  Trent,  and  cover  the  beds  ol'  the 
deeps.  It  strikes  its  shoots  under  the  nnid  in  a 
lateral  direction  for  six  inches  or  a  foot,  and  then 
rises  and  spreads.  The  stems  are  very  brittle,  and 
every  fragment  is  capable  of  growirg,  so  that  the 
means  usually  adopted  to  get  quit  of  it  serve  rather 
for  its  pro])agati()ii.  It  !ip[)enrs,  how^cver,  that  water- 
fowl are  very  fond  of  it;  and  by  them,  probably,  its 
seeds  may  be  conveyed  from  one  river  to  another.  It 
has  been  found  that  swans  may  be  fed  upon  it  with 
advantasre,  and  its  excessive  growth  ki'pt  down 
more  efl'ectually  in  this  way  than  in  any  otber.  It 
is  supposed  to  be  a  great  impediment  to  the  progress 
of  salmon  ascending  the  rivers  in  which  it  occurs; 
but  for  some  kinds  of  fish,  it  probably  affords  both 
food  and  shelter.  The  numner  of  its  intioduction 
into  Britain  is  unknown,  although  it  has  been  con- 
jectured that  it  nuiy  have  escaped  from  some  garden- 
])oiid — a  conjecture  the  more  doubtful,  from  the 
distance  between  the  localities  in  which  it  was  first 
found  ;  but  its  rajiid  increase  is  of  great  scientific 
interest,  in  coiniection  with  the  important  subject 
of  the  distribution  of  species.  As  being  calcidatcd 
to  block  up  water-courses,  the  plant  involves  some 
serious  economic  considerations. 

ANACIIA'RSIS,  a  Scythian  and  brother  of  King 
Saulios,  visited  Athens  in  the  time  of  Solon,  with 
whom  he  lived  on  terms  of  intimacy,  but  whose 
al)ilities  for  framing  a  constitution  he  does  not  seem 
to  have  estimated  highly.  Incited  by  a  love  of 
learning,  he  subse(piently  travelled  through  several 
countries.  On  account  of  his  clearness  of  under- 
standing, he  was  numbered  among  the  seven  wise 
men ;  and  many  sagacious  proverbs  and  sayings 
were  ascribed  to  liiin.  No  other  'barbarian'  ever 
received  the  Athenian  franchise.  The  letters  which 
bear  his  name  were  wi'itten  long  after  his  time.  It 
is  said  that,  after  his  return  to  his  native  land,  he 
was  put  to  death  by  order  of  the  king,  who  feared 
the  introduction  of  the  mysteries  belonging  to  the 
Greek  religion,  in  which  it  was  supposed  that  A, 
had  been  initiated. 

Under  the  title  Voyage  du  Jeune  Anacharsis  en 
Greece  (Travels  of  the  young  Anacharsis  in  Greece), 
Jean  Jacques  Bartheleniy,  a  well-known  French 
author  (q.  v.),  wrote  a  description  of  Greek  life  and 
manners,  displaying  learning  and  good  taste,  but 
disfigured  by  many  anachronisms.  A.  is  made  to 
visit  Athens  only  a  few  years  before  the  birth  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  and  the  features  of  several 
distinct  periods  in  Grecian  history  are  confusedly 
regarded  as  having  been  contemporaneous.  The 
book,  therefore,  will  not  bear  a  critical  examination; 
but  it  has  contributed  its  share  towards  an  improved 
knowledge  of  ancient  life,  and  has  given  rise  to 
several  similar  works,  such  as  the  Gnllns  and 
Charicles  of  Becker.  The  A.  of  Barthel /my  has 
been  translated  into  English,  and  is  to  be  found  in 
most  old  libraries;  it  is  still  a  deservedly  esteemed 
work,  which  may  be  read  with  advantage  by  the 
young.  . 

ANA'CHRONISM,  an  error  in  chronology. 
Sometimes  an  A.  is  purposely  made  for  the  sake  of 
effect,  or  to  bring  certain  events  withia  convenient 


ANACREOX— AX.ESTHESIA. 


compass  fur  draiiiiitic  purposes.  Shiikspcarc,  in  his 
Julius  Casar,  makes  tlie  ^  clock  ^  strike  three;  and 
Schiller,  in  his  I'iccolotiiini,  speaks  of  a  'lightninj^- 
condiK-tor'  as  existing  aliout  150  years  before  the 
date  of  its  invention.  These  disi-repancies,  however, 
do  not  Si  riously  injure  the  general  tiutli  of  a  poetical 
work.  Tlie  A.  is  more  ott'ensive  when,  in  a  work 
which  pedantically  adheres  to  the  costumes  and  other 
external  features  of  old  times,  we  find  a  modern 
style  of  thought  and  language,  as  in  the  old  French 
dramas  of  Corneille  and  Kacine.  In  popular  ejiic 
poetry,  A.  is  a  common  feature.  Achilles  is  always 
young;  Helena,  always  beautiful.  In  their  versions 
of  old  classic  traditions,  the  writers  of  the  middle 
ages  converted  Alexander,  ^-Eneas,  and  other  ancient 
heroes,  into  good  Christian  knights  of  the  TJth  c. 
In  the  Nihelunrten-licd,  Attila  and  Theodoric  are 
good  friends  and  allies,  though  the  latter  began  to 
reign  some  40  years  after  the  Ibrmer.  At  the  end  of 
the  poem,  the  heroine,  who  must  have  been  nearly 
sixty  years  old,  and  had  jiassed  through  great 
alHiction  and  sorrow,  is  still  '  the  beautiful  Queen 
Kriemhild. ' — Many  ludicrous  examples  of  A.  may 
be  found  in  old  paintings — e.  g.,  Abraham,  Isaac, 
and  Jacob  in  modern  costumes. 

AXA'CREOX,  one  of  the  most  esteemed  lyric 
poets  of  Greece,  was  born  at  Teos,  a  seaport  of 
Ionia,  spi^nt  part  of  his  youth  in  Abdera,  to  which 
place  most  of  his  fellow-townsmen  emigrated  when 
the  city  was  taken  by  the  Persians  in  54n  n.c,  and 
rose  to  fame  as  a  poet  about  530  b.c.  He  was  patron- 
ised by  Polycrates,  the  ruler  of  Sanios,  who  invited 
him  to  his  court ;  and  there  he  sang,  in  light  and 
flowing  strains,  the  praise  of  wine  and  beautv.  After 
the  death  of  Polycrates,  he  went  to  Athens  (.521  B.C.), 
and  was  received  with  distinguished  honour  bv  Hip- 
parchus.  On  the  fall  of  Hipparchtis,  he  left  Athens, 
and  probably  returned  to  Teos,  from  which,  during 
the  insurrection  of  Ionia  against  Darius,  he  fled  to 
Abdera,  where  he  died,  at  the  age  of  So.  Accor- 
ding to  tradition,  he  was  choked  by  a  dried  grape. 
Great  honours  were  paid  to  him  after  his  death  ; 
Teos  put  his  likeness  upon  its  coins,  and  a  statue 
was  raised  to  him  on  the  Acropolis  of  Athens,  which 
represented  him  in  a  state  of  vinous  hilarity. 

Only  a  few  of  his  poems  have  been  preserved.  Of 
five  Books  which  once  existed,  only  68  lyrics  now 
exist  which  bear  his  name  ;  l)ut  of  these,  compara- 
tively few  are  to  be  confidently  regarded  as 
genuine.  They  exhibit  great  simplicity  and  delicacv 
of  expression,  fertility  of  invention,  and  variety  of 
illustration.  Moore,  a  poet  of  congenial  spirit,  trans- 
lated the  Odex  of  A.  into  English  verse. 

ANACY'CLUS.     See  Pellitory. 

AXADYO'MEXE  ('emerging'),  one  of  the  names 
of  Tenus;  a  painting  by  Apelles,  representing  Venus 
rising  from  the  sea,  and  wringing  her  flowing  wet 
ha^r.  Phryne  or  Pancaste  was  supposed  to  have 
supplied  the  model  for  this  master-piece  of  Apelles. 
The  inhabitants  of  the  island  of  Cos  bought  the 
picture,  and  placed  it  in  the  temple  of  ^'Escidapius. 
A\igustus  afterwards  bought  it  for  100  talents  of 
remitted  taxes,  and  ])laced  it  in  the  temple  of  Venus 
Genetrix.  It  is  frequently  described  in  the  Greek 
anthology. 

AX.E'MIA  ( from  a,  privative,  and  aima,  blood)  is 
the  condition  generally  termed  poverty  of  blood,  and 
consists  essentially  of  a  diminution  in  the  fibrine, 
and  especially  in  the  proportion  of  red  corpuscles  of 
the  blood  (see  Blood),  which  in  some  cases  of  A. 
may  be  so  low  as  27  in  1000  parts.  Persons  in  an 
anjemic  condition  have  pale  waxy  complexions,  pallid 
lips  and  tongue,  and  if  blood  be  drawn  from  them, 
it  forms  a  clot  which  is  less  red,  and  also  smaller  in 


proportion  to  the  serum,  than  blood  from  a  healthy 
person. 

They  suffer  from  palpitations,  fainting,  and  head- 
aches, singing  in  the  ears,  and  disturbed  vision; 
and  the  symptoms  may  simulate  organic  disease 
within  the  head  or  of  tlie  heart.  This  A.  condition 
may  be  induced  by  repeated  losses  of  blood,  or  by 
defective  nutrition,  or  by  some  cause,  as  in  chlorosis, 
when  The  balance  is  disturbed  between  the  loss  and 
reproduction  of  the  red  corpuscles. 

The  curative  treatment  of  A.  consists  in  allowin" 
the  patient  fresh  air,  good  nourishment,  and  those 
materials  which  promote  the  formation  of  the  defi- 
cient elements  of  the  vital  fluid.  Of  these,  the  prin- 
cipal is  iron,  of  which  there  are  several  preparations. 
This  remedy  has,  in  some  instances  of  chlorosis.^ 
doubled  the  proportion  of  red  blood  corpuscles  in  a 
very  short  time. 

AN.ESTHESIA  («,  privative,  and  ahtheais,  .sensa- 
tion) is  a  term  used  to  express  a  loss  of  sensibility 
to  external  impressions,  which  may  involve  a  part  or 
the  whole  surface  of  the  body.  In  .some  diseased  con- 
ditions of  the  nervous  centres,  a  part  of  the  body  may 
become  totally  insensible  to  pain,  while  in  another 
part,  sensation  may  be  unnaturally  acute,  or  be  in 
a  state  of  hypera\stliesia.  "When  a' nerve  is  divided, 
the  parts  which  it  supplies  lose  their  sensation ;  and 
in  some  diseases,  as  the  elephantiasis  grcecorum,  a 
loss  of  sensation  in  patches  of  the  skin  is  an  early 
and  characteristic  symptom.  This  insensibility  to 
external  impressions  may  be  either /)«•//>//(  m/~that 
is,  on  the  surface  of  the  body — or  central,  that  is, 
from  a  cause  acting  prinuirily  upon  the  brain  or 
spinal  cord;  and  some  means  of  temporarily  inducing 
either  of  these  has  always  been  earnestly  sought  by 
surgical  practitioners. 

In  ancient  writers,  we  read  of  insensibility  or 
indifference  to  pain  being  obtained  by  means  of 
the  Indian  hemp  (Canabus  Indicn],  either  inhaled 
or  taken  into  the  stomach.  The  Chinese,  more  than 
1500  years  ago,  use<l  a  preparation  of  hemp,  or 
7)ia-i/o,  to  annul  the  pain  attendant  upon  cauterisa- 
tion and  surgical  operations.  Probably,  they  used 
the  hemp  by  inhalation.  The  Greeks  "and  Romans 
used  numdragora  for  a  similar  purpose  {poiciu 
analstlitsion);  and  as  late  as  the  13th  c,  the  vapour 
from  a  sponge  filled  with  mandragora,  opium,  and 
other  .sedatives  was  used.  The  mandragora,  however, 
occasionally  induced  convulsions,  with  other  alarming 
symptoms;  and  though  BuUeyn,  an  English  author 
(1579),  mentions  the  possibility  of  putting  patients 
who  were  to  be  cut  for  the  stone  into  'a  trance  or  a 
deepe  terrible  drcame '  by  its  use,  it  gradually 
became  obsolete  and  banished  from  the  piiarma- 
copoeia  ;  and  although  it  is  probable  that  surgeons 
Occasionally  endeavoured  to  procure  A.  for  their 
patients,  there  was  no  one  means  of  doing  so  in 
general  use.  John  Baptista  Porta,  of  Naples,  in  his 
work  on  Natural  Magic  (IS'.IT),  speaks  of  a  quint- 
essence extracted  from  medicines  by  somniferous 
wenstrua,  the  nature  of  which  he  does  not  mention. 
This  was  kept  in  leaden  vessels,  jjerf'cctly  closed, 
lest  the  aura  should  escape,  i'or  the  medicine  would 
vanish  away.  'When  it  is  used,  the  cover  being 
removed,  it  is  applied  to  the  nostrils  of  the  sleeper, 
who  draws  in  the  most  subtile  power  of  the  vapour 
by  smelling,  and  so  blocks  up  the  fortress  of  the 
senses,  that  ho  is  plunged  into  the  most  profound 
sleep,  and  cannot  be  roused  without  the   greatest 

eflbrt These  things  arc   plain  to  the  skilful 

physician,  but  unintelligible  to  the  wicked.'  Dr. 
Snow  suggests  that  the  evanescent  substance  was 
stdphuric  ether,  which  had  been  described  more  than 
fifty  years  before.  In  1784,  Dr.  Moore,  of  London, 
used  compression  on  the  nerves  of  a  limb  requiring 
amputation,  but  this  method  was  in  itself  productive 

221 


ANAGALLIS— ANAHUAC. 


of  much  pain.  In  1800,  Sir  Hiinipliry  Davy,  experi- 
moiiting  with  the  nitrous  oxide  or  laurriiing-gas, 
suggested  its  u^efuhiess  as  an  anesthetic ;  and 
in  18'28,  Dr.  Hickman  suggested  carbonic  acid 
gas.  As  early  as  179.5,  Dr.  Pearson  had  used  the 
vapour  of  sulphuric  ether  for  the  relief  of  spasmodic 
affections  of  the  respiration.  The  fact  that  sulphuric 
ether  could  produce  insensibility  was  shewn  by  the 
American  phvsicians,  Godwin  (1S22),  -Mitchell  (1832), 
Jackson  (18?,3),  Wood  and  Bache  (1834);  but  it 
was  first  used  to  prevent  the  pain  of  an  operation 
in  1846,  by  Dr.  Morton,  a  dentist  of  Boston.  Dr.  C. 
T.  Jackson  claimed  the  discovery  and  its  suggestion  to 
Dr.  Morton,  and  the  French  academy  awarded  the 
Monthyon  prize  of  2500f.  to  the  former  for  "  his  ex- 
periments," and  a  prize  of  equal  amount  to  Dr.  Morton 
for  his  practical  application  of  the  disco\ery.  This  ma- 
terial was  extensively  used  for  a  year,  when  Dr.  J.  Y. 
Simpson,  of  Edinburgh,  discovered  the  ana'sthetic 
powers  of  Chloroform  (see  Chloroform),  and  intro- 
duced the  use  of  it  into  his  owti  department,  midwifery. 
Since  that  time,  chloroform  has  been  the  anesthetic 
in  general  use. 

New  Anaesthetics  have  since  been  introduced.  Ni- 
trous oxide  has  been  employed  by  dentists,  and  Dr. 
Richardson  has  made  use  of  the  bichloride  of  methy- 
lene, which  combines  the  properties  of  ether  and  chlor- 
oform. Recently  chloralhydrat  has  been  recom- 
mended, but  its  value  has  been  questioned.  Partial 
anajsthesia  is  produced  by  Dr.  Richardson's  '  Spray 
apparatus,'  which  causes  intense  cold  by  the  rapid 
evaporation  of  rhigoline.  The  last  is  applicable  to 
tumours,  &c.,  and  for  other  surgical  operations.  From 
various  causes,  and  especially  the  well-merited 
confidence  of  the  public  in  its  safety,  when  skilfully 
employed,  chloroform  continues  to  occupy  its  high 
place  as  one  of  the  greatest  blessings  granted  to 
man.  It  is  proper,  however,  to  say  that  it  requires 
to  be  used  tmdor  certain  precautions,  and  that  in 
unskilful  hands  its  api)lication  may  be  fatal.  It 
should  be  administered  only  by  expert  practitioners. 

See  Oti  Chloroform  njid  other  Anasthetics,  by  John 
Snow,  Lond.  18.58;  T7ie  Obstetric  Memoirs  and  Con- 
trihutions  of  James  Y.  Simpson,  Edin.  1855;  also  an 
article  on  Ana'sthesia  in  the  Wcstminxter  Review  for 
Jan.  1859. 

ANAGALLIS.     See  Pimpernel. 

A'XAGRAM  (from  the  Greek  ana^  backwards,  and 
grnmma,  writing),  the  transposition  of  the  letters  of 
a  word,  phmse,  or  short  sentence,  so  as  to  form  a 
new  word  or  sentence.  It  originally  signified  a 
simple  reversal  of  tlie  order  of  letters,  but  has  long 
borne  the  seiise  in  wliich  it  is  now  used.  The  Caba- 
lists  attaclied  great  importance  to  anagrams,  believ- 
ing in  some  relation  of  them  to  the  character,  or 
destiny  of  the  persons  from  whose  names  they  were 
formed.  Plato  entertained  a  similar  notion,  and  the 
later  Platonists  rivalled  the  Cabalists  in  ascribing  to 
them  mysterious  virtues.  Although  now  classed 
among  follies,  or  at  best  among  ingenious  trifles, 
anagrams  formerly  employed  the  most  serious  minds, 
and  some  of  the  puritanical  writers  commended  the 
use  of  them.  Cotton  Mather,  in  his  elegy  on  the 
death  of  Joim  Wilson,  the  first  pastor  of  Boston,  in 
New  England,  mentions 

Ilis  oaro  to  p;iii<le  his  flock  and  feed  his  lambs 

By  words,  works,  prayers,  psalms,  alms,  and  anagrams. 

The  best  anagrams  are  such  as  have,  in  the  new 
order  of  letters,  some  signification  appropriate  to 
that  from  which  they  are  formed.  It  was  a  great 
triumph  of  the  mediaeval  anagrammatist  to  find  in 
Pilate's  question, '  Quid  est  Veritas'?''  (What  is  truth?) 
its  own  answer:  ^  £'st  vir  qui  adest''  (It  is  the  man 
who  is  here).  Anagrams,  in  the  days  of  their  popu- 
larity, were  much  employed,  both  for  complimentary 
222 


and  for  satirical  purposes;  and  a  little  straining  was 
often  employed  in  the  oirnssion,  addition,  or  altera- 
tion of  letters,  although,  of  course,  the  merit  of  an 
A.  depended  much  upon  its  accuracy. 

I.  D'Isracli  {Curiosities  of  Literature,  vol.  iii.)  has 
a  chapter  on  anagrams,  which,  as  an  exercise  of 
ingenuity,  he  ranks  far  above  acrostics.  Among  a 
great  many  considered  by  him  worthy  of  record,  are 
the  following:  The  mistress  of  Charles  IX.  of  I'rancc 
was  named  Marie  Touchet ;  this  became  Je  charme 
tout  (I  charm  every  one),  'which  is  historically  just.' 
The  flatterers  of  James  I.  of  England  proved  his 
right  to  the  British  jnonarchy,  as  the  descendant 
of  the  mythical  King  Arthur,  from  his  name  Charles 
James  Stuart,  which  becomes  Claims  Arthur  s  Scat. 
An  atithor,  in  dedicating  a  bocjk  to  the  same 
monarch,  finds  that  in  James  Stuart  he  has  a  jutt 
master.  '  But,  perhaps,  the  ha[)i)iest  of  anagrams 
was  produced  on  a  singular  person  and  occasion. 
Lady  Eleanor  Davies,  the  wife  of  the  celebrated 
Sir  John  Davies,  the  poet,  was  a  very  extraordinary 
character.  She  was  the  Cassaiwlra  of  her  age,  and 
several  of  her  predictions  warranted  her  to  conceive 
she  was  a  proplietess.  As  lier  pro[)hecies  in  the 
troubled  times  of  Charles  I.  were  usually  against  the 
government,  she  was  at  length  brought  by  them 
into  the  Court  of  High  Commission.  The  prophetess 
was  not  a  little  mad,  and  fancied  the  spirit  of 
Daniel  was  in  her,  from  an  A.  she  had  formed  of  her 
name. 

Eleanor  Davies. 
lie  veal,  O  Daniel  I 

The  A.  had  too  much  by  an  /,  and  too  little  by 
an.s;  yet  Daniel  and  reveal  were  in  it,  and  that 
was  sufficient  to  satisfy  her  inspirations.  The  court 
attempted  to  dispossess  the  spirit  from  the  lady, 
while  the  bishops  were  in  vain  reasoning  the  point 
with  lier  out  of  the  Scriptures,  to  no  purpose,  she 
poising  text  against  text;  one  of  the  deans  of  the 
arches,  says  Heylin,  shot  her  through  and  through 
with  an  arrow  borrowed  from  her  ownciuiver;  he 
took  a  pen,  and  at  last  liit  upon  this  excellent  A. : 

Dame  Eleanor  Davies. 

Never  so  mad  a  Lmiie  ! 

The  happy  fancy  put  the  solemn  court  into  laughter, 
and  Cassandra  into  the  utmost  dejection  of  spirit. 
Foiled  by  her  own  weapons,  her  sfiirit  suddenly 
forsook  her ;  and  either  she  never  afterwards  ven- 
tured on  prophesying,  or  the  A.  perpetually  reminded 
her  hearers  of  her  state — and  we  hear  no  more  of 
this  prophetess.' 

On  a  visit  to  King's  Newton  Hall,  in  Derbyshire, 
Charles  II.  is  said  to  have  left  written  on  one  of  the 
windows,  Cras  ero  lux  (To-morrow  I  shall  be  ligh^, 
which  is  the  A.  of  Carolus  Rex. 

ANAHUA'C,  a  Mexican  term,  said  to  signify 
'  near  the  water.'  Its  application  is  vague  in  the 
extreme.  It  is  either  a  plateau  or  a  ridge.  As  a 
ridge,  again  it  oscillates  between  the  continuation 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  below  lat.  4it°  N.,  and 
that  branch  of  the  chain  which  runs  nearly  parallel 
to  the  upper  course  of  the  Rio  Bravo  del  Norte ; 
and  as  a  plateau,  it  designates  either  the  wliole  of 
the  table-land  of  Mexico  or  certain  portions  thereof, 
more  or  less  extensive,  with  the  capital  as  a  common 
centre.  Practically,  if  one  acceptation  is  more 
generally  admitted  than  another,  A.  may  be  re- 
garded as  the  largest  of  those  plateaus — a  defini- 
tion which,  with  reference  to  the  number  of  lakes, 
seems  more  peculiarly  to  suit  the  etymology  of 
the  word.  See  further,  Corpillkkas  of  Cintral 
America — a  description  wliicli,  for  want  of  a  briefer 
and  better  one,  may  be  made  to  enibr:  ce  nil  that 
less  regular  section  of  the  backbone  ot  America 
which  lies   between   the  simple   formations  of  the 


ANAKIM— ANALOGY. 


Andes  to  the  south  aud  tlie  Rocky  Mountaius  to  the 
north. 

A'NAKIM,  a  f^igantic  race  of  people,  whose  strong- 
hold was  Kirjath-urba,  in  the  south  of  Palestine.  In 
the  opinion  of  some  biblical  critics,  they  were  not 
Canaanites,  as  they  are  not  included  in  the  list  of 
devoted  nations ;  others,  again,  conclude  from  the 
fact  that  invariably  mention  is  made  only  of  three 
individuals  or  families,  that  the  name  is  appellative 
rather  than  gentile,  and  that  the  A.  were  merely  par- 
ticular tribes  of  the  wide-spread  and  powerful  Am- 
orites,  distinguished  for  their  unusual  stature.  Be 
that  as  it  may,  the  Israelites  considered  them  too 
dangerous  for  neighbours,  and  consequently  subjected 
them  to  the  same  stern  treatment  as  the  rest  It 
was  the  A.  whose  appearance  so  terrified  the  Hebrew 
spies  who  entered  the  Land  of  Promise  from  Kadesh- 
barnea.  Those  who  escaped  the  sword  of  Joshua 
fled  to  the  country  of  the  Philistines;  and  it  has 
been  conjectured  that  Goliath  and  the  other  Philis- 
tine giants  were  their  descendants;  a  supposition 
probable  enough,  when  we  reflect  that  the  particular 
places  in  which  the  fugitive  A.  took  refuge  were 
Gaza,  Gath,  and  Ashdod.  The  word  Anak  means  a 
necklace  or  neck -chain ;  and  some  have  supposed 
that  these  giants  received  that  name  from  the  circum- 
stance of  their  wearing  such  ornaments  proudly  round 
their  necks ;  others  translate  the  word  A.  by  '  long- 
necked  men,'  or  men  with  long-stretched  necks,  i.  e., 
men  of  great  height.  The  A.,  however,  in  all  pro- 
bability, immediately  derived  their  name  from  Anak, 
the  son  of  Arba. 

ANAKOLU'THON  is  a  term  employed  both  in 
Grammar  and  Rhetoric,  to  denote  the  absence  of 
strict  logical  sequence  in  the  grammatical  construction. 
Good  writers  sometimes  sacrifice  this  logical  sequence 
to  emphasis,  clearness,  or  graceful  arrangement.  In 
colloquial  speech,  nothing  is  more  common  than  ex- 
amples of  A. 

A'NAL  GLANDS.  Under  this  name  may  be 
described  a  large  and  diversified  group  of  glands, 
found  in  many  animals,  and  generally  characterised 
by  the  disagreeable  odour  of  their  secretion.  Those 
to  which  the  name  most  strictly  belongs  are  of  fre- 
quent occurrence  among  carnivora  and  rodents ;  they 
consist  of  follicles  which  pour  their  secretion  into 
sacs  with  muscular  walls  and  narrow  orifices,  placed 
one  on  each  side  of  the  anus.  According  to  the 
most  recent  investigations,  it  appears  that  these 
sacs  are  to  be  considered  as  prolongations  inwards 
of  the  common  integument,  and  that  two  sorts  of 
glands  open  into  them ;  one  of  a  lobulated  struc- 
ture, having  a  fatty  secretion,  and  representing  the 
sebaceous  glands  of  the  skin  greatly  hypertrophied ; 
the  other  crowded  more  at  the  bottom  of  the  sac, 
tubular,  and  elaborating  the  specific  secretion.  In 
the  hyaena,  there  is  a  single  sac,  which  opens  by  a 
transverse  fissure  above  the  vent.  There  is  a  gra- 
du.al  passage  from  true  A.  G.  to  others  of  a  somewhat 
different  character.  Thus,  there  are  glands  called 
inguinal  in  the  hare  and  rabljit — little  bare  places 
pouring  out  an  unctuous  secretion,  which  are  held 
to  be  equiv.alent  to  A.  G.,  only  not  enclosed  in  sacs. 
The  civet  cat  has  an  anal  sac  on  each  side  of  the 
vent ;  and  also  two  other  sacs  opening  by  a  common 
outlet  in  front  of  the  vent ;  and  from  the  latter 
is  derived  the  substance  known  as  civet,  which 
the  negroes  seek  for  on  the  trees  were  it  has  been 
left  by  the  civet  cats.  The  civet  gland  furnishes 
a  natural  link  between  the  A.  G.  and  those  more 
closely  connected  with  the  genital  apertures,  called 
preputial.  The  most  remarkable  are  those  of  the 
beaver,  large  sacs  found  both  in  the  male  and 
female,   and   which  furnish  the   castoreum  of  com- 


merce. The  beaver  has  true  A.  G.  Oesides.  The 
sac  which  contains  the  musk  of  the  musk-deer  lies 
in  the  middle  line  beneath  the  skin  of  the  abdo- 
men, and  opens  at  the  prepuce.  The  secretion 
peculiar  to  badgers,  polecats,  and  skunks,  and  which 
they  use  as  an  instrument  of  defence,  shielding 
them-selves  from  their  adversaries  by  an  overpower- 
ing and  intolerable  odour,  comes  from  a  pouch 
situated  beneath  the  tail.  In  some  atiimals,  we  meet 
with  secretions  similar  to  some  of  the  above,  poured 
out  on  other  parts  of  the  body.  Thus,  in  the  bat, 
there  are  glands  on  the  face  opening  above  the 
mouth,  which  prepare  a  fetid  oily  secretion ;  the 
so-called  lachrymal  follicles  of  ruminants,  and  the 
cutaneous  glands  of  the  tail  of  the  deer,  secrete  a 
dark  unctuous  humour;  aud  the  temporal  gland 
between  the  eye  and  the  ear  of  the  elephant  pours 
out  an  oily  substance  at  rutting-time.  The  pec- 
cary has  an  odoriferous  gland  on  its  back ;  and 
the  crocodile  has  a  musk-sac  under  the  lower 
jaw.  Anal  sacs  opening  immediately  behind  the 
vent  are  also  found  in  the  crocodile  and  in  many 
serpents. 

A'NALOGUE,  a  term  in  Comparative  Anatomy. 
Organs  are  analogous  to  one  another,  or  are  analofjurx^ 
when  they  perform  the  same  function,  though  they 
may  be  altogether  different  in  structure ;  as  the 
wings  of  a  bird,  and  the  so-called  wings  of  the  Hying 
lizaid.  Organs,  again,  are  homologouit^  or  /lomnlopues, 
when  they  .are  corresponding  parts  in  the  skeleton, 
however  different  their  form  and  function.  Thus,  the 
arms  of  a  man,  the  pectoral  fins  of  a  fish,  and  the 
wings  of  a  bird,  are  horaologues  of  one  another.  See 
Homology. 

A'NALOGY,  a  term  originally  Greek,  and  which 
signifies  an  agreement  or  correspondence  in  certain 
respects  between  things  in  other  respects  differ- 
ent. Euclid  employed  it  to  signify  proportion, 
or  the  quality  of  ratios,  and  it  has  retained  this 
sense  in  mathematics;  but  it  is  a  term  little  used 
in  the  exact  sciences,  and  of  very  frequent  use 
in  every  other  department  of  knowledge  and  of 
human  affairs.  In  (irammar,  we  s])eak  of  the  A. 
of  language,  i.  e.,  the  correspondence  of  a  word  or 
phra.se  with  the  genius  of  the  language,  as  learned 
from  the  manner  in  which  its  words  and  phrases  are 
ordinarily  formed.  A.,  in  fact,  supposes  a  rule  in- 
ferred from  observation  of  instances,  and  upon  the 
application  of  which,  in  other  instances  not  pre- 
cisely, but  in  some  respects,  similar,  we  venture,  with 
more  or  less  confidence,  according  to  the  degree  of 
ascertained  similarity,  and  according  to  the  extent 
of  observation  from  which  our  knowledge  of  the 
rule  has  been  derived.  The  opposite  to  A.  is  An- 
oinalt/  (Gr.  irregularity) ;  and  this  term  is  used  not 
only  in  Grammar,  but  with  reference  to  objects  of 
Natural  History  which  in  any  respect  are  excep- 
tions to  the  ordinary  rule  of  tlieir  class  or  kind.  In 
the  progress  of  science,  analogies  have  been  di.«cov- 
ered  pervading  .all  nature,  and  upon  which  conclu- 
sions are  often  based  with  great  confidence  and  safe- 
ty. Reasoning  from  A.  indeed  warrants  only  pro- 
bable conclusions;  but  the  probability  may  be- 
come of  a  very  high  degree,  and  in  the  affairs  of 
life  we  must  often  act  upon  conclusions  thus  attained. 
Reasoning  from  A.,  however,  requires  nmch  caution 
in  the  reasoner.  Yet  even  when  its  conchusions  are 
very  uncertain,  they  often  serve  to  guide  inquiry 
and  lead  to  discovery.  Many  of  the  most  brilli.ant 
discoveries  recently  made  in  Natural  Science  were 
the  result  of  investigations  thus  directed.  Where 
the  proper  evidence  of  truth  is  of  another  kind, 
arguments  from  A.  are  often  of  great  use  for  the 
removal  of  objections.  It  is  thus  that  they  are 
employed  by  Bishop  Butler  in  his  A.  of  ReUcjion^ 

223 


ANALYSIS. 


Natural  and  Jieveahd,  to  the  Constitution  and 
Course  of  Nature.  In  Law,  reasoning  from  A.  must 
often,  to  certain  extent,  he  admitted  in  the  appli- 
cation of  statutes  to  partieulnr  eases.  Upon  similar 
reasoning,  the  practice  of  medicine  very  much  de- 
pends. To  discover  the  meaning  of  any  composi- 
tion, it  is  also  often  necessary ;  the  sense  of  the 
author  in  a  passage  somewhat  obscure  being  in  some 
meas>ire  determined  according  to  passages  in  which 
he  has  expressed  himself  more  clearly.  The  appli- 
cation of  this  rule  to  the  interpretation  of  Scripture 
is  a  point  of  difference  between  Protestants  and 
Roman  Catholics,  the  latter  insisting  upon  the  inter- 
pretation of  difficult  passages  by  ecclesiastical  tradi- 
tion and  authority.  The  extension  of  it  to  the  whole 
Scriptures,  however,  depends  upon  the  admission 
of  their  inspiration;  hut  this,  when  fully  admitted, 
warrants  a  more  confident  use  of  analogical  reason- 
ing than  in  the  case  of  the  works,  or  even  of  a  single 
work,  of  an  uninspired  author.  Protestant  theolo- 
gians have  very  generally  employed,  with  reference 
to  this  rule  of  interpretation,  the  phrase  'A.  of 
Faith,'  deriving  it  from  Rom.  xii.  ^ ;  but  the  meaning 
of  the  expression  in  that  verse  is  disputed.  However, 
the  reality  of  an  A.  of  faith,  and  the  right  of  reason- 
ing from  it,  are  not  affected  by  any  criticism  on  that 
verse. 

ANA'LYSIS  (Gr.),  the  resolution  of  a  whole  into 
its  component  parts.  In  mental  philosophy,  this 
term  is  applied  to  the  logical  treatment  of  an  idea  so 
as  to  resolve  it  into  other  ideas  which  combine  to 
form  it.  A  judgment  or  proposition  may  thus  also 
be  analysed.  The  opposite  of  A.  is  Si/iit/icsis  (q.  v.) ; 
and  the  opposition  of  these  terms  is  common  in  otiier 
branches  of  science  as  well  as  in  mental  philoso- 
phy. We  speak  of  an  aiiah/lic  method  in  science, 
and  of  a  synthetic  method ;  and  both  are  necessary, 
the  one  coming  to  the  assistance  of  the  other  to 
secure  against  error,  and  promote  the  ascertainment 
cf  truth.  The  analytic  method  proceeds  from  the 
examination  of  facts  to  the  determination  of  princi- 
ples ;  whilst  the  synthetic  method  ])roceeds  to  the  de- 
termination of  consequences  from  principles  known  or 
assumed.  The  test  of  perfection  in  a  theory  is  the 
harmony  of  the  results  obtained  by  the  methods  of  A. 
and  synthesis. 

Mathematical  A.,  in  the  modem  sense  of  the  term, 
is  the  method  of  treating  all  quantities  as  unknown 
numbers,  and  representing  them  for  this  purpose  by 
symbols,  such  as  letters,  the  relations  subsisting 
among-  them  being  thus  stated  and  subjected  to  fur- 
ther investigation.  It  is  therefore  the  same  thing 
with  Algebra,  in  the  widest  sense  of  that  term,  al- 
though the  term  algel)ra  is  more  strictly  limited  to 
what  relates  to  equations,  and  thus  denotes  only  the 
first  part  of  A.  The  second  part  of  it,  or  A.  more 
strictly  so  called,  is  divided  into  the  A.  of  Finite 
Quantities,  and  the  A.  of  Infinite  Quantities.  To  the 
former,  also  called  the  Theory  of  Functions,  belong 
the  subjects  of  Series,  Logarithms,  Curves,  &c.  The 
A.  of  Infinites  comprehends  the  Differential  Calculus, 
the  Integral  Calculus,  and  the  Calculus  of  Variations. 
To  the  diligent  prosecution  of  mathematical  A.  by 
minds  of  the  greatest  acuteness,  is  to  be  ascribed  the 
great  progress  both  of  pure  and  applied  mathematics 
within  the  last  two  centuries. 

The  A.  of  the  ancient  mathematicians  was  a  thing 
entirely  different  from  this,  and  consisted  simply  in 
the  application  of  the  analytic  method  as  opposed  to 
the  synthetic,  to  the  solution  of  geometrical  questions. 
That  which  was  to  be  proved  being  in  the  first  place 
assumed,  an  inquiry  was  instituted  into  those  things 
upon  which  it  depended,  and  thus  the  investiga- 
tion proceeded,  as  it  were,  back,  until  something 
was  reached  which  was  already  ascertained,  and 
from  which  the  new  proposition  might  be  seen  by 
224 


necessary  consequence  to  flow.  A  reversal  of  the 
steps  of  the  iiKjuiry  now  gave  the  synthetical  jiroof 
of  the  proposition.  The  modern  mathematical  A. 
affords  a  much  more  easy  and  rajjid  means  of  solving 
geometrical  questions  ;  but  the  ancii  nt  A.  also  afford- 
ed opportunity  for  the  exercise  of  much  acuteness, 
and  was  the  chief  instnuiiciit  of  the  advancement  of 
niatlicmatical  science  until  comparatively  recent  times. 
The  invention  of  it  is  ascribed  to  Plato ;  but  of  the 
works  of  the  ancients  on  geometrical  A.  none  are  ex- 
tant, except  some  portions  of  those  of  Euclid,  Apol- 
lonius  of  Perga,  and  Archimedes. 

ANALYSIS,  in  Chemistry,  is  the  term  applied 
to  that  department  of  experimental  science  which 
has  for  its  object  the  chemical  disunion  or  .separation 
of  the  constituents  of  a  compound  substance  :  th.us, 
the  resolution  of  water  into  its  components  hydrogen 
and  oxygen  ;  of  common  salt  into  chlorine  and  so- 
dium ;  of  marljle  into  lime  and  carbonic  acid  ;  of  rust 
into  iron  and  oxygen  ;  of  sugar  into  carbon,  hydro- 
gen, and  oxygen ;  and  of  chloroform  into  carbon, 
hydrogen,  and  chlorine — are  all  examples  of  chemical 
A.  This  department  of  chemistry,  therefore,  takes 
cognizance  of  the  breaking  down  of  the  niore  com- 
I>lex  or  compound  substances  into  their  more  simple 
and  elementary  constituents,  and  is  antagonistic  to 
eJiemical  npifhesis,  which  treats  of  the  union  of 
the  more  simple  or  elementary  bodies  to  produce 
the  more  complex  or  compound.  Chemical  A.  is 
of  two  kinds :  Qualitative  A.,  which  determines  the 
(piality  or  nature  of  the  ingredients  of  a  compound, 
without  regard  to  the  quantity  of  each  which  may 
be  present ;  and  quantitulive  A.,  which  calls  in  the 
aid  of  the  balance  or  measure,  and  estimates  the 
exact  proportion,  by  weight  or  volume,  in  which 
the  several  constituents  are  united.  Thus,  qualitative 
A.  informs  us  what  water,  marble,  common  salt,  &c., 
are  compo.sed  of;  but  it  remains  for  quantitative 
A.  to  tell  us  that  water  consi.sts  of  1  j)art  of  hydrc.gen 
by  weight  united  with  8  parts  of  oxygen  ;  that  marljle 
is  composed  of  28  parts  of  lime,  and  22  of  carl  ionic 
acid  ;  connnon  salt,  of  35^  parts  of  chlorine,  and  23 
of  sodium  ;  turpentine,  of  30  carbon,  and  4  hydro- 
gen ;  chloroform,  of  12  carbon,  1  hydrogen,  and  100| 
chlorine. 

The  divisions  of  inorganic  (mineral)  chemistry  and 
organic  (vegetable  and  animal)  chemistry  have  led 
to  a  corresponding  classifiation  of  chemical  A.  into 
inorffanic  A.,  comprehending  the  processes  followed 
and  the  results  obtained  in  the  investigation  of  the 
atmosphere,  water,  soils,  and  i-ocks ;  and  organic  A., 
treating  of  the  modes  of  isolation,  and  the  nature, 
of  the  ingredients  found  in  or  derived  from  organised 
structures — viz.,  plants  and  animals.  Both  depart- 
ments afford  examples  of  what  are  called  proximate 
and  ultimate  A.  Proximate  A.  is  the  resolution  of 
a  compoimd  substance  into  components  which  are 
themselves  compound  :  thus,  in  inorganic  chemistry, 
marble  is  resolved  into  lime  (calcium  united  with 
oxygen)  and  carbonic  acid  (carbon  with  oxygen) ; 
whilst  ultimate  A.  comprehends  the  disunion  of  a 
compound  into  its  elements  or  the  simplest  forms  of 
matter :  thus,  lime  into  calcium  and  oxygen  ;  car- 
bonic acid  into  carbon  and  oxygen  ;  water  into  hydro- 
gen and  oxygen.  Organic  chemistry  affords  still 
better  examples  of  each  class :  thus,  ordinary  wheat- 
flour,  when  subjected  to  proximate  A.,  yields,  as  its 
proximate  components,  gluten  (vegetable  fibrin),  al- 
bumen, starch,  sugar,  gum,  oil,  and  saline  matter; 
but  each  of  these  proximate  ingredients  is  in  itself 
compound,  and  when  they  undergo  ultimate  A.,  the 
gluten  and  albumen  yield,  as  their  ultimate  elements 
or  constituents,  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  nitrogen, 
sulphur,  and  phosphorus  ;  and  the  starch,  sugar,  gum, 
and  oil  are  found  built  up  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and 
oxygen. 


ANAM— ANASTASIUS. 


Several  other  terms  are  in  use  in  eheniical  treatises : 
thus,  Gas  A.  is  applied  to  the  processes  employed  in 
the  examination  of  the  various  gases,  and  is  every 
day  becoming  of  more  and  more  iniportanee  and 
interest.  Mdnllurr/ic  A.  includes  the  smelting  of 
metallic  ores,  the  assay  of  alloys  of  gold,  silver,  &c., 
and,  in  general,  everything  that  pertains  to  the 
ultimate  A.  of  metallic  ores  and  compounds.  Afjr/.cul- 
liiral  A.  is  restricted  to  the  examination  of  manures, 
feeding-stuffs,  and  soils;  Medical  or  Pfii/slo/of/ical  A. 
to  the  investigation  of  blood,  urine,  and  other  animal 
fluids  and  juices,  and  the  examination  of  medicinal 
compounds  ;  whilst  Commercial  A.  is  the  term  used 
wliere  great  accuracy  or  nicety  of  detail  is  not  re- 
quired in  an  A.,  but  where  the  commercially  import- 
ant constituents  alone  are  determined,  as  the  separa- 
tion and  recording  of  the  amount  of  phosphates,  am- 
monia, and  alkaline  salts  in  a  sample  of  guano  ;  the 
total  amount  of  saline  matter  in  a  certain  water;  the 
iron  in  an  ironstone,  the  lime  in  a  limestone,  &c. 

Analy'tical  Chemistry  is  that  department  of 
chemistry  which  takes  cognizance  of  analyses.  The 
analytical  chemist  requires  some  peculiar  apparatus, 
together  with  reagents,  generally  solutions,  by  the 
addition  or  reaction  of  which  the  nature  and  amount 
of  the  ingredients  of  a  compound  are  determined. 

ANAM,  a  feudatory  dependency  of  China,  in  the 
east  portion  of  Further  India,  comprising,  from  the 
Celestial  Empire  southwards,  Tonquin,  Cochin  Cliina, 
and  part  of  Cambodia.  It  lies  between  lat.  9(i" 
and  2S°  N.,  and  between  long.  102"  and  109"  E.  Its 
area  is  about  1 98,000  s()uare  miles — considerably  more 
than  that  of  Great  Britain ;  while  its  population 
is  estimated  at  9,000,00il,  all  Buddhists,  excepting, 
what  is  singular  enough,  about  40(),0()0  Christians. 
The  inhabitants,  however,  are  not  noted  for  the 
earnestness  of  their  religious  feelings.  Their  sense 
of  the  supernatural  nianifests  itself  principally  in 
reverence  for  the  dead,  whose  obsequies  are  per- 
formed with  great  splendour.  The  Anamese  lan- 
guage resembles  the  Chinese.  It  is  monosyllabic 
and  harsh,  and  contains  no  literature.  Whatever  of 
this  is  found  in  A.  is  borrowed  from  their  '  Celestial' 
kinsmen  in  the  north.  They  have  a  maritime  taste, 
and  excel  in  ship-building.  The  king  himself  seems 
to  keep  them  busy  in  this  way,  for,  besides  having 
800  war-craft,  he  monopolises,  by  means  of  larger 
vessels,  the  foreign  trade  of  his  dominions.  The 
climate  is  said  to  be  salubrious,  and  the  soil  to  be 
productive — features  which,  combined  as  they  are, 
with  some  of  the  best  harbours  in  the  world,  recom- 
mend A.  alike  for  commerce  and  for  colonisation. 
These  advantages  France  appears  to  appreciate,  for 
in  1862  it  annexed  three  provinces,  and  in  1867  suc- 
ceeded in  obtaining  possession  of  the  whole  of  lower 
Cochin  China. 

ANAMIRTA.     See  Coculus. 

AXA'NAS.     See  Pine  Apple. 

A'XARCHY  (from  the  Gr.  «,  privative,  and  arche, 
government),  the  state  of  society  without  any  regu- 
lar government,  when  a  country  is  torn  by  the  strife 
of  parties,  and  no  law  or  authority  remains.  Com- 
plete A.  is  necessarily  rare  and  of  short  duration  ; 
but  conditions  approaching  to  it  often  arise  after  rev- 
olutions and  gross  abuses  in  government ;  and  in 
such  cases  it  is  apt  to  become,  as  in  the  South  Ameri- 
can states,  a  chronic  or  permanent  evil,  attended 
with  constant  national  decay. 

AXARRHICIIAS.     See  WoLF-nsn. 

A'NAS,  a  Linnsean  genus  of  birds,  included  in  the 
order  Palmipedes  (Web-footed  birds)  of  the  system 
of  Cuvier,  and  divided  by  recent  ornithologists  into 
a  number  of  genera ;  one  of  which,  retaining  the 
name  A.,  contains  the  true  Ducks,  and  others  contain 
15 


the  Swans  (0/7«".<),  Geese(^4nsc»'),  Scoters  (f>^^fe«^rO. 
(xarrots  {Clanfjnla),  flidcrs  {So)/iaferia),  Pochards 
(Fu/if/iila),  Shovellers  {IifiJ/iicnspi.i\  Shicldrakes 
(Tadorna),  Musk-ducks  {('niritin').  Teals  {Querqued- 
»./«), Widgeons  (Afnrecn),  &c.  These,  with  Mergansers 
iMerpnii)  and  Flannngoes  {Phcpnicopterus),  constitute 
the  family  Anatidi^  of  some  ornithologists.  Cuvier 
places  them  in  a  family  called  by  him  Lamellirostres, 
and  distinguished  by  a  thick  bill,  horny  only  at 
the  niiil-like  extremity,  and  elsewhere  invested  with 
a  soft  skin,  the  edges  furnished  with  lamina\  or  with 
small  teeth  particularly  adapted  for  the  purpose  of 
separating  the  food  from  the  mud  which  is  often 
taken  into  the  bill  along  with  it.  The  lamina?,  and 
a  large  and  broad  bill,  are  the  chief  characteristics 
of  the  old  genus  A.  Some,  as  the  true  ducks,  sub- 
sist in  great  part  on  small  insects ;  others,  as  geese 
and  swans,  almost  exclusively  on  vegetalile  food.  The 
species  are  very  numerous,  distril)uted  over  all  parts 
of  the  world,  some  of  them  very  abundant  in  the 
polar  regions.  Some  arc  important  for  their  feathers 
or  down,  others  for  their  flcsli  and  for  their  eggs. 
A  few  have  been  domesticated,  and  are  commonly 
kept  for  economic  uses.  See  Dlck,  Goose,  Swan, 
Eider,  Bernacle,  Teal,  &c. 

AXASTA'SirS  I.,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
was  born  in  the  second  half  of  the  7th  c.  He 
favoured  the  party  of  iconoclasts,  or  image-breakers. 
He  owed  his  elevation  to  the  Emperor  Leon,  who 
exacted  from  him  a  pledge  that  he  would  assist  in 
the  destruction  of  the  images.  A.  kept  his  word ; 
but  having  made  himself  obnoxious  to  the  new 
emperor,  Constantine  Copronynms,  the  latter  (7-13) 
seized  him,  put  out  his  eyes,  and  marched  him 
through  the  hippodrome  (race-course)  mounted  on  an 
ass  with  his  head  to  the  tail.     He  died  in  75:5. 

ANASTASIUS,  Saint,  surnamed  Astric,  apostle 
of  the  Hungai'ians,  was  born  in  9.54,  and  died  in  1(»44, 
A  Frenchman  by  birth,  he  finally  settled,  after  va- 
rious changes,  at  the  court  of  Stephen,  Duke  of  Hun- 
gary, where  he  became  very  influential,  and  was  in' 
trusted  with  the  ecclesiastical  organisation  of  the 
land.  All  his  energies  were  devoted  to  securing  the 
triumph  of  the  Christian  faith. 

ANASTASIUS  I.  was  elected  pope,  or  rather- 
bishop  of  Rome,  in  398  a.  d.  He  succeeded  Siricius, 
one  year  after  the  death  of  Ambrose.  Under  his 
pontificate,  flourished  Chrysostom,  Augustine,  and 
Jerome.  The  most  conspicuous  act  of  his  life 
was  the  reconciliation  of  the  church  of  Antioch 
with  that  of  Rome,  after  a  schism  of  17  years. 
Among  the  epistles  attributed  to  A.,  two  are 
obviously  apocryphal ;  the  one  addressed  to  Nere- 
nianus;  the  other,  to  the  German  bishops.  The 
latter  commanded  the  faithful  to  remain  stand- 
ing while  the  gospel  was  read  in  the  churches,  that 
neophytes  should  receive  holy  orders  only  on  the 
recommendation  of  five  bishops,  and  that  the  Mani- 
chaeans,  who  had  been  expelled  from  Rome,  should 
not  be  admitted  into  Germany.  But  the  first  of 
these  epistles  is  posterior  to  the  death  of  A.,  and  the 
second,  anterior  to  his  accession  to  the  pontificate. 
A.  was  vehemently  opposed  to  the  doctrines  of 
Origen,  one  of  whose  works  (Peri  Arcfion,  i.  e.,  '  Con- 
cerning Principles')  he  condemned  as  heretical.  For 
this,  he  is  praised  by  Jerome,  who  calls  him  a  man 
of  a  holy  life,  of  a  'rich  poverty,'  and  of  an  apostoli- 
cal earnestness.  During  his  life,  several  councils 
were  held,  at  Carthage,  Constantinople,  Ephesiis,  and 
Toledo.  He  died  Dec.  14,  4(il  a.  d. — There  were 
three  other  popes  of  this  name.  Anastasius  II. 
(496 — i98),  Ana.stasics  III.  (911—913),  and  Anas- 
tasu-s  IV.  (115.3—1154).     See  Pope. 

ANASTASIUS    I.,     emperor    of    the    East,    was 
born  in  430  a.  d.,  at  Dyrrachium,  in  Epirus,  of  an 

226 


ANASTATICA— ANATOLIA. 


obscure  family.  The  early  portion  of  his  life  is 
unknown  to  history.  On  the  death  of  Zeno,  he  wa.s 
proclaimed  emperor  by  the  senate,  and  ci'owned  on 
the  11th  of  April  491,  at  the  age  of  60.  He  owed  his 
elevation  to  Ariadne,  widow  of  Zeno,  whom  he 
married.  No  monarch  was  ever  more  notable  for 
his  heresies.  One  of  his  generals,  Vitalian,  taking 
advantage  of  this  unpopular  feature  of  his  character, 
revolted,  ravaged  Thrace,  Scythia,  and  Mocsia,  com- 
pelled Anastasius  to  promise  to  recall  the  ortho- 
dox bishops  whom  he  liad  banished,  and  secured  for 
himself  the  title  of  Governor  of  Thr.ice.  Anastasius, 
however,  had  some  good  natural  qualities,  and  per- 
formed certain  praiseworthy  actions.  He  suppressed 
the  cruel  and  degrading  spectacles  where  men  fought 
with  wild  beasts,  abolished  the  f^le  of  offices,  the 
tax  on  domestic  animals,  which  had  existed  since  the 
days  of  Vespasian,  built  a  wall  on  the  west  side  of 
Constantinople  to  defend  it  from  the  incursions  of 
the  barbarians,  constructed  aqueducts  in  the  city  of 
Ilierapolis,  made  a  harbour  at  Cicsarea,  and  restorefi 
the  'pharos'  or  light-house  at  Alexamlria.  He  died 
8th  July  518. — Anastashs  II.,  emperor  of  the  Kast, 
was  born  about  tlie  middle  of  the  7th  c,  and  died  in 
719  A.  i>.  His  great  aim  was  to  restore  peace  to  the 
chm-cli,  but  his  acts  not  proving  agreeable  to  his 
soldiery,  they  deposed  him.  He  lost  his  life  in  un 
attempt  to  regain  the  imperial  throne. 

ANASTATICA.     See  Kosk  of  Jkrkho. 

ANASTOMOSIS  (Gr.  the  making  of  a  mouth 
or  opening),  an  anatomical  term  used  to  express 
the  union  of  the  vessels  which  carry  blood  or  other 
fluids,  and  also,  for  convenience'  sake,  the  junction 
ot  nerves.  The  veins  and  al)S0i bents  anastomose  to 
form  large  single  trunks,  as  they  approach  their  ulti- 
mate destinations.  The  arteries  break  up  into  small 
branches,  for  the  sup[)Iy  of  the  tissues,  and  each  small 
vessel,    again,   communicates    with  others  given  oft' 

//  above  and   below.       At   each    large  joint 

/  there  is  very  free  A.,  so  that  the  safety  of 

,\_  the  limb  beyond  may  not  be  entirely  de- 
pendent on  the  single  arterial  trunk  pass- 
ing into  it,  exposed  as  it  is  to  all  the  ob- 
structive influences  of  the  difterent  motions 
of  the  limb.  After  the  main  artery  has 
been  permanently  obstructed,  the  anasto- 
mosing vessels  enlarge,  so  as  to  compen- 
sate for  the  loss;  but  after  a  time,  only 
those  whose  course  most  resembles  the 
parent  trunk  continue  enlarged,  and  the 
others  gradually  regain  their  ordinary  di- 
mensions. 

An  idea  of  the  profusion  of  this  anasto- 
mosing system  may  be  formed  from  the 
fact,  th;it  if  the  innominata  artery,  or 
great  vessel  destined  for  the  supplv  of 
the  right  upper  half  of  the  body,  be  tied, 
and  those  on  the  left  side  injected  with 
size  and  vermilion,  the  injection  will  flow 
freely  into  the  arteries  of  the  right  arm, 
through  branches  as  minute  as  they  are 
numerous. 

ANATHEMA  (Gr.,  a  thing  set  or  hung  up  or 
apart — i.  e.,  as  consecrated!,  a  word  originally  sig- 
nifying some  offering  or  gift  to  Deity,  generally  sus- 
pended in  the  temple.  Thus,  we  read  in  Luke 
xxi.  5,  that  the  temple  was  adorned  '  with  goodly 
stones  and  gifts'  (anathemasi).  It  also  signifies  a 
sacrifice  to  God ;  and,  as  the  animals  devoted  to 
be  sacrificed  could  not  be  redeemed  from  death,  the 
word  was  ultimately  used  in  its  strongest  sense, 
implying  eternal  perdition,  as  in  Rom.  ix.  3;  Gal. 
i.  8  and  9  ;  and  other  places.  In  the  Catholic  Church, 
from  the  9th  c,  a  distinction  has  been  made  between 
excommunicatioa   and    anathematisiug ;     the   latter 


'^: 


Arteries 

anastonios 

ing. 


being  the  extreme  form  of  denunciation  against 
obstinate  oft'enders.  The  synod  of  I'avia,  in  8.0(1, 
determined  that  all  transgressors  who  refused  to 
submit  to  discipline,  such  as  penance,  should  be 
not  merely  excommunicated,  but  anathenuitised, 
and  deprived  of  every  kind  of  Christian  hope  and 
consolation.  Such  a  sentence  could  not  be  pro- 
nounced without  the  concurrence  of  the  provincial 
bishops  with  their  metropolitan.     See  Excommuni- 

CATIO.N. 

ANATO'LTA  Gr.  Anatole,  the  East,  i.  e.,  from 
Constantinople)  is  the  modern  name  of  Asia  Minor; 
Turkisli,  Anodoli.  It  nuiy  be  considered  as  coin- 
cident with  the  peninsula;  the  boundary-line  on  the 
ea<t  between  it  and  Armenia  and  M«'sopotnmia,  not 
being  natural,  cannot  be  well  defined.  The  area 
of  the  peninsula  exceeds  '20(t,(i(»)  square  miles. 
It  constitutes  the  western  prolongation  of  the  high 
table-land  of  Armenia,  with  its  border  mountain- 
ranges.  The  interior  consists  of  a  great  plateau, 
or,  rather  series  of  plateaus,  lising  in  gradation  from 
'2400  to  5(>''0  feet,  with  bare  steppes,  salt  plains, 
marshes,  and  lakes;  the  structtire  is  volcanic,  and 
there  are  seveial  conical  motmtains,  one  of  which, 
the  Agridagh  (Arga-us,)  with  two  craters,  rises  l(i,(i(i() 
feet  above  the  plain  of  Kaisarijeli,  which  has  itself 
an  elevation  of  between  'iooO  and  30(iO  feet.  The 
()lateau  is  bordered  on  the  north  by  a  long  train  of 
parallel  moinitains,  varying  from  4iH(0  to  0000  feet 
high,  and  cut  up  into  groups  by  cross  valleys.  These 
mountains  sink  abruptly  down  on  the  north  side  to 
a  narrow  strip  of  coast ;  their  slopes  towards  the 
interior  are  gentler  and  bare  of  wood.  Similar  is  the 
character  of  the  border  ranges  on  the  south,  tlic 
ancient  Taurus,  only  that  they  are  more  continuous 
and  higher,  being,  to  the  north  of  the  Bay  of  Skan- 
derum  or  Issus,  Id — 12,i)00  feet,  and  further  to  the 
west,  8 — 9000  feet.  The  west  border  is  intersected 
by  numerous  valleys,  opening  \ipon  the  Archipelago, 
through  the  highlaiuls  of  the  ancient  ("aria  Lydia, 
and  Mysia,  to  the  northern  part  of  which  Mounts 
l<la  and  Olympus  belong.  Between  the  highlands 
and  the  sea  lie  the  fertile  coast-lands  of  the  Levant. 
The  rivers  of  A.  are  not  considerable;  the  largest 
are  the  Yeshil  Irmak  (Iris),  the  Kisil  Irmak  (Ilalys), 
and  the  Sakkariah  (Sangariusi,  flowing  into  the 
Black  Sea ;  and  the  Sarabat  (Hermus)  and  Minder 
(Masander)  into  the  ^gean. 

The  climate  wears  on  the  whole  a  south -European 
character;  but  a  distinction  must  be  made  of  four 
regions.  The  central  plateau,  nearly  destitute  of 
wood  and  water,  has  a  hot  climate  in  summer,  and 
a  cold  in  winter ;  the  south  coast  has  mild  winters 
and  scorching  summers;  while  on  the  coast  of  the 
.'Egean  there  is  the  mildest  of  climates  and  a  magni- 
ficent vegetation.  On  the  north  side,  the  climate  is 
not  so  mild,  nor  the  productions  of  so  tropical  a  kind 
as  on  the  west;  yet  the  vegetation  is  most  luxuriant, 
and  a  more  deliglitful  or  richer  tract  than  the  coast 
from  the  Sea  of  Marmora  to  Trebizond,  is  hardly  to 
be  found.  The  whole  peninsula,  however,  is  liable 
to  earthquakes. 

In  point  of  natural  history,  A.  forms  the  transition 
from  the  continental  character  of  the  East  to  the 
maritime  character  of  the  West.  The  forest-trees 
and  cultivated  plants  of  Europe  are  seen  mingled 
with  the  forms  peculiar  to  the  East.  The  central 
plateau,  which  is  barren,  except  where  there  are 
means  of  irrigation,  has  the  character  of  an  Asiatic 
steppe,  more  adapted  for  the  flocks  and  herds  of  no- 
madic tribes  than  for  agricult\ne  ;  while  the  coasts, 
rich  in  all  European  products,  fine  fruits,  olives,  wine, 
and  silk,  have  quite  the  character  of  the  south  of 
Europe,  which  on  the  warmer  and  drier  south  coast 
shades  into  that  of  Africa. 

The  inhabitants  consist  of  the  most  various  races. 


ANATOMY. 


Tlie  dominant  nice  are  the  Osnuinli  Turl<s,  who  nuni- 
ber  aljout  l,2()0,i)((0,  and  are  sproad  over  the  whole 
country ;  next  to  these  come  the  Turkomans,  be- 
longing to  the  same  stock,  and  speaking  a  dialect 
of  the  same  language.  These  are  found  chiefly  on 
tire  table-land,  leading  a  nomadic  life;  there  also 
live  hordes  of  nomadic  Kurds.  Among  the  moun- 
tains east  of  Trel)izond  are  the  robber  tribes  of  the 
Lazes.  The  population  of  the  towns,  in  addition  to 
Turks,  consists,  in  the  west,  chiefly  of  Greeks  and 
Jews;  and  in  the  east,  of  Armenians;  the  non- 
Turkish  population,  along  with  Europeans  in  the 
maritime  marts,  have  the  whole  commerce  of  the 
country  in  their  hands.  The  wliole  popidation  of 
the  peninsula  is  supposed  not  to  exceed  6,000,000 ; 
tlie  official  census  of  1844  made  it  10,700,000,  includ- 
ing .\rmenia;  but  this  is  thought  to  be  much  over- 
estimated. The  political  and  social  arrangements 
are  much  as  in  the  rest  of  Turkey  (q.  v.).  One  pecu- 
liarity is  the  old  Turkish  system  of  vassal-dynasties, 
the  Dere-begs  (valley-chiefs),  who,  like  the  feudal 
lords  of  the  middle  ages  in  Europe,  are  hereditary 
rulers  and  ituhtary  commanders  of  tiieir  district,  un- 
der the  »nzerainty  of  the  sultan.  This  institution  is 
in  greatest  force  in  the  northeast  of  the  peninsula. 
The  power  of  these  feudal  chiefs,  however,  was  bro- 
ken by  Sultan  Mahmud. 

The  whole  country  is  divided  at  present  into  eight 
eynlelx  or  governments,  under  governors-general, 
and  each  of  these,  again,  into  several  Randjakx,  or 
provinces,  under  lieutenant-governors.  The  eyalets 
are:  1.  Khudavendkiar,  in  the  north-west,  including 
ancient  Mysia,  the  west  part  of  Bithynia,  and  part 
of  Phrygi'a;  chief  town,  Brussa:  2.  Kastamuni, 
occupying  the  middle  of  the  north  coast,  including 
anrieiit  Paphlagonia,  the  east  of  Bithynia,  and  part 
of  I'ontus  ;  chief  town,  Kastamuni :  3.  Tarabosan  or 
Trabezun  (Trebizond),  the  ancient  Pontus  and  Col- 
chis ;  capital,  Trebizond :  4.  Aidin,  in  the  south- 
west, the  ancient  Lydia,  Caria,  and  Phrygia ;  capital, 
Ismir  or  Smyrna:  5.  Karaman  (Karamania),  east- 
ward from  Aldin,  the  ancient  Lycia,  Pamphylia, 
Pisidia,  Lycaonia,  and  part  of  Cilicia;  chief  town, 
Konieh  (Iconium):  6.  Adana,  comprehending  the 
rest  of  Cilicia,  Kataonia,  and  part  of  Cappadocia; 
chief  town,  Adana:  7.  Bosok,  the  central  part  of 
the  peninsula,  ancient  Cappadocia  and  Galatia ;  chief 
town,  Enguri  or  Angora:  8.  Sivas,  east  from  Bosok, 
embracing  parts  of  Pontus  and  Little  Armenia ;  chief 
town,  Sivas. 

ANA'TOMY  (Gr.,  a  cutting  tip  or  dissecting)  is  the 
science  of  the  form  and  structure  of  organic  bodies, 
and  is  practically  acquired  by  separation  of  the  parts 
of  a  body,  so  as  to  shew  their  distinct  formation, 
and  their  relations  with  each  other.  It  is  generally 
understood  as  applied  to  the  human  body,  while  the 
A.  of  animals  is  styled  Zootomy,  and  that  of  plants, 
Phytotomy.  The  investigation  and  comparison  of 
the  structures  of  the  different  kinds  of  organic  bodies 
is  styled  Comparative  A.  Theoretical  A.  is  divided 
into  Genkral  and  Special. 

General  A.  gives  a  description  of  the  elementary 
tissues  of  which  the  systems  and  organs  of  the  body 
are  composed,  as  preliminary  to  an  exannnation  of 
them  in  their  combined  state  in  the  various  organs: 
it  also  investigates  their  laws  of  formation  and  com- 
bination, and  the  changes  which  they  undergo  in 
various  stages  of  life.  This  branch  of  study  may 
also  be  styled  Structural  or  Analytical  A.,  and  has 
been  the  first  developed  in  recent  times,  especially 
by  Bichat  (1801)  and  Bordeu,  who  have  been  fol- 
lowed by  J.  Midler,  Goodsir,  Mayer,  E.  H.  Weber, 
Schwann,  Valentin,  and  many  others.  In  our  day, 
microscopic  investigation  has  been  successfully  ap- 
plied  to   the   study   of  elementary   textures.      See 

HiSTOLOGT. 


Spkcial  a.  (styled  Descriptive  by  the  French 
writers)  treats  of  the  several  parts  and  organs  of 
the  body  in  res[iect  to  their  form,  structure,  and 
systematic  connection  or  relation  with  each  other. 
The  arrangement  of  the  several  parts  and  organs 
in  an  order  deduced  from  their  sinnlarity  in  struc- 
ture or  use,  constitutes  Systematic  A.  According 
to  this  mode  of  study,  which  is  essential  as  an  intro- 
duction to  physiology,  A.  has  been  divided,  though 
not  with  scientific  precision,  into  six  branches  of 
study.  1.  Osteo/ofji/,  wluch  treats  of  the  bones, 
including  the  cartilages  of  the  joints  (chondrology). 
— 2.  S;/ndefi7Holo(j)/,  which  describes  the  ligaments, 
or  bands,  that  unite  the  bones  of  various  joints. 
The  bones,  with  their  cartilages  and  ligaments, 
form  a  framework,  which  supports  the  external 
soft  parts,  and  within  which  the  vital  organs 
are  suspended  and  protected  from  injury ;  they 
are  also  arranged  in  a  mechanical  system  as  instru- 
ments of  motion. — 3.  Jli/ofor/u  explains  the  system 
of  the  muscles,  which,  by  their  contractile  power, 
serve  to  impart  motion  to  the  bones  and  joints; 
while,  like  the  bones,  they  contribute  to  form  the 
cavities  of  the  body,  and  to  protect  the  internal 
organs.  Their  structure  also  serves  to  produce 
the  external  shape  and  symmetry. — 4.  Anneiolorfj/ 
describes  the  vessels  or  ducts,  with  their  complex 
net-work  and  ramifications,  spreading  over  most 
parts  of  the  body,  and  divided  into  two  great  sys- 
tems: (a),  the  blood-vessels  with  the  heart,  a  fleshy 
organ  pro|)elling  the  blood  through  the  pulsating 
vessels  or  arteries,  from  which  it  returns  to  the  heart, 
after  circulation  through  the  veins;  (/<),  the  lymphat- 
ics, by  which  a  certain  fluid  (lymph)  is  brought  into 
union  with  the  blood  in  the  organs  styled  lymphatic 
glands,  and  is  afterwards  passed  into  the  veins. — 
5.  JVeurolof/)/,  or  the  doctrine  of  the  nerves,  describes 
the  nervous  system,  as  divided  into,  first,  the  two 
central  masses  of  the  brain  and  the  spinal  column  ; 
second,  the  ramifications  of  nerves  running  from  the 
brain  and  spinal  column  to  almost  all  points  of  the 
surface  ;  and  lastli/,  the  order  of  nerves  having  a 
peculiar  structure,  and  styled  the  ganghonic  system 
of  nerves. — fi.  Spla>ic/inoloci>/  describes  the  viscera 
or  organs  formed  by  combination  of  the  distinct 
systems  of  veins,  nerves,  lymphatics,  &c.,  and  most- 
ly situated  in  the  cavities  of  the  body.  These  are 
divided  into  five  groups,  viz. :  («),  the  organs  of  sen- 
sation— sight,  hearing,  smell,  taste,  and  touch;  (b), 
of  voice  and  respiration — nostrils,  mouth,  larynx, 
trachea,  and  lungs,  with  the  thyroid  gland,  the  thy- 
mus gland,  and  the  diaphragm  ;  (<•),  digestive  organs 
— the  mouth,  with  its  salivary  glands,  the  throat, 
gullet,  the  stomach,  the  intestines,  with  the  liver, 
spleen,  and  pancreas;  (d),  the  urinary  organs-  kid- 
neys, ureter,  bladder,  and  urethra;  (c),  sexual  organs 
of  both  sexes. 

Special  A.  may  be  treated  in  another  mode ;  by 
an  arrangement  made  in  accordance  with  natural 
divisions,  or  by  imaginary  lines  dividing  the  body 
into  several  regions — as  the  head,  the  trunk,  and 
the  extremities.  Again,  the  trunk  may  be  subdivid- 
ed into  neck,  thorax,  and  abdomen  ;  and  in  each  of 
the  main  regions,  several  subdivisions  may  be  made. 
This  system  of  arrangement  may  be  styled  Topo- 
graphical A.,  and  is  also  known  as  Surgical  A.,  on 
account  of  its  importance  as  the  basis  of  operative 
surgery.  It  was  the  eldest  of  the  Monroes  of  Edin- 
burgh University  who  first  gave  this  branch  of  the 
study  its  due  prominence. 

Tlie  several  parts  and  organs  of  the  animal  body 
will  be  found  described  under  their  proper  heads. 

Historif  of  A. — It  i.s  difficult  to  determine  the 
date  at  which  this  science  began  to  be  cultivated, 
but  it  is  probable  that  from  the  earliest  times  some 
persons  took  advantage  of  favourable  circumstances 

227 


ANATOMY. 


to  acquaint  themselves  with  it.  The  nruids,  who 
wore  at  once  the  priests,  jiulj^'es,  and  physicians  of 
the  people,  domaiulod  from  those  who  came  for 
their  advice  human  victims  as  sacrifices,  and  were 
themselves  the  executioners;  and  it  is  not  uidikely 
that  they  availed  themselves  of  these  opportunities 
of  acquirinpc  anatomical  knowledge.  It  is  prob- 
able, says  Galen,  that  yp'sculapius,  who  excelled 
in  the  treatment  of  wounds,  dissected  animals 
for  the  instruction  of  his  pupils.  His  descend- 
ants, the  Asclei)iadi's,  cultivated  A.,  or  rather 
zootomy,  and  founded  the  three  famous  schools  of 
Cos,  Kliodes,  and  Cnidos.  The  rabbins  tell  us  that, 
although  among  the  Jews  the  touching  of  a  dead 
body  involved  ceremonial  uncleanness,  they  did  not 
entirely  neglect  A.,  which  they  studied  from  the 
carefully  preserved  bones  of  tlieir  ancestors,  and  the 
necessary  niani])ulations  of  embalming.  They  count- 
ed 248  bones,  and  805  veins  or  ligaments,  wliich  di- 
rision,  according  to  the  rabbins,  has  relation  to  the 
248  precepts  of  the  Mosaic  Law  that  command,  and 
the  Sfifl  that/or/)^. 

Homer  exhibits  a  certain  amount  of  anatomical 
knowledge  in  his  description  of  wounds  in  the  Iliad. 
Pythagoras  first  reasoned  physiologically  from 
observations  made  by  him  wIkmi  in  Kgypt,  where 
he  witnessfMl  tlie  Siicrifices,  and  also  the  Egyptian 
methods  of  emlialming.  Alcuieon  of  Crotona,  a 
disci|>le  of  Pythagoms,  first  dissected  animals  with 
the  view  of  obtaining  comparative  knowledge  of 
human  A.  Demociitus,  who  frcipiented  the  sepul- 
chres, probably  with  anatomical  views,  jiractised 
zootomy,  and  was  engaged  dissecting  animals  when 
visited  by  Hippocrates.  Hipjiocrates  II.,  descended 
in  the  eighteenth  degree  from  .Esculapius,  ami  l)orn 
at  Cos  in  35  a.  m.,  was  the  first  author  who  treats  A. 
as  a  science.  He  caused  a  skeleton  of  brass  to  be 
cast,  wliich  he  consecrated  to  the  Delphian  Apollo, 
with  the  view  of  transmitting  to  posterity  proofs  of 
the  progress  lie  had  made,  and  of  stimidating  others 
to  the  study  of  A.  Aristotle,  who  lived  .S84  n.  c,  does 
not  appear  to  have  dissected  men  ;  and  he  states  that 
the  parts  of  man  are  unknown  to  them,  or  that  they 
posse.ss  nothing  certain  on  the  subject  beyond  what 
they  can  draw  from  the  probaljle  resemblance  of  the 
corresponding  parts  of  other  animals.  He  first  gave 
the  name  aorta  to  the  great  artery. 

Diodes  (380  n.  c.)  was  the  first  who  treated  of  the 
proper  manner  of  conducting  anatomical  examina- 
tions for  purposes  of  demonstration.  But  no  real 
progress  in  A.  was  made,  owing  to  the  researches  be- 
ing confined  to  animals,  till  the  time  of  Erasistratus, 
who  was  l)orn  at  Ci  os  about  300  b.  c,  and  who  was 
the  first  to  dissect  human  bodies.  He  ol)tained  from 
Seleucus  Nicanor  and  Antiochus  Soter  the  bodies  of 
criminals,  and  is  said  to  have  dissected  some  con- 
demned to  death  while  they  were  still  alive.  His 
writings  are  lost,  but  fragments  are  preserved  in  the 
writings  of  Galen.  He  made  many  discoveries, 
among  others,  of  the  lacteal  vessels.  Herophilus, 
who  lived  about  the  same  time,  was  born  at  Carthage, 
but  carried  on  his  anatomical  pursuits  principally  at 
Alexandria.  He  also  is  said  to  have  dissected  living 
subjects.  Parthcnius,  who  lived  200  years  b.  c, 
published  a  book,  entitled.  On  the  Dixxcction  of  the 
Human  Bodif.  In  the  1st  c.  of  the  Christian  era, 
the  dissection  of  human  subjects  was  forbidden, 
under  heavy  penalties.  Rufus  the  Ephesian,  who 
lived  112  A.  D.,  under  the  empire  of  Trajan,  taught 
A.  in  a  more  exact  manner  than  had  been  hitherto 
done,  and  devised  a  more  exact  anatomical  nomencla- 
ture. He  made  use  of  animals  in  his  demonstrations, 
and  mentions  that  '  of  old  they  used  for  that  purpose 
human  bodies.' 

Galen  (131  a.  p.)  dissected  apes,  as  being  most  like 
human  subjects,  though  he  occasionally  obtained 
228 


bodies  of  children  expos(^d  in  the  fields,  or  of  persons 
found  murdered,  which,  ho\ve\er,  he  was  obliged  to 
dissect  in  secret.  There  was  at  (his  time  no  regular- 
ly prejiared  skeleton,  as  there  was  a  law  at  Rome 
forbidding  the  use  of  dead  bodies.  Galen's  writ- 
ings shew  a  knowledge  of  hunuin  A.  Soranus  liad 
extensive  knowledge  of  A.,  derived  from  human 
subjects.  Moschion  had  some  anatomical  illustra- 
tions engraved.  Oribasius  compiled  more  than  70 
volumes,  the  24th  and  25th  being  on  A.,  principally 
from  Galen. 

Xemesius,  Pishop  of  Nemesus,  a  town  in  Phcnnicin, 
cultivated  A.  at  the  end  of  the  4th  c.,  in  which  also 
Meletius  lived,  who  wrote  a  com[ilete  treatise  Oh  the 
Knlnre  and  Strurtnre  of  Man.  Theo()hiIus,  a  monk, 
published  in  the  7th  c.  a  good  abridgment  of  the  A, 
of  Galen. 

A.  made  small  progress  among  the  Arabs,  wliich  is 
accounted  for  by  their  religion  prohibiting  contact 
with  dead  bodies.  AVhen  the  great  Arabian  physi- 
cian, Rlia7.es,  was  about  to  be  operated  on  for  cata- 
ract, lie  discovered  that  the  surgeon  was  ignorant  of 
the  structures  of  the  eye,  and  refused  to  submit  to 
the  operation.  Avicenna  ('.)8()  a.  n.),  born  in  the 
province  of  Khorasan,  was  a  good  osteologi<t,  and 
described  some  structures  not  alluded  to  by  (Jalen. 

A.  wiis  now  neglected  for  a  long  jieriod,  till 
Frederick  II.,  king  "of  Sicily  (1101-1250),  made  a 
law  forbidding  any  one  to  practise  surgery  without 
having  first  acf|uired  some  knowledge  of  A.  He 
founded  a  chair  at  the  solicitation  of  Mariinntis, 
his  chief  physician,  where  the  science  was  demon- 
strated for  five  years;  students  from  all  parts 
crowdi'd  to  it,  and  some  time  after,  a  similar  school 
was  established  at  I'o'.ogna — these  two  were  largely 
attended,  but  no  very  material  progress  was  made 
in  A. 

The  university  of  Montpellier  was  founded  by 
Pope  Nicholas  IV.  in  1284,  and  the  chair  of  A.  was 
filled  by  IJernard  (iordoti  with  gieat  distinction  for 
ten  years.  He  published  a  huge  work,  called  Lilium 
Mcdichur. 

Mundinus,  born  at  Milan,  1315,  profe.s.sed  A. 
there,  and  is  considered  the  real  restorer  of  A.  in 
Italy.  He  publicly  demonstrated  it,  and  published 
a  work  which  was  the  text-book  in  the  academy  of 
Padua  two  hundred  years  after  its  publication. 
Then  came  Guy  de  Cliauli.ic,  who  first  correctly  de- 
scribed the  humerus.  Matha-us  of  Grado  puldished 
several  anatomical  works  about  14Si>.  Gabriel  de 
Zerbns.  in  14'.I5,  {lublished  a  confused  and  imperfect 
work  on  A.  at  Verona.  The  science  continued  to  be 
studied  by  surgeons  such  as  Vigo  (lolii),  Achillinus, 
and  Berenger  (Carpi),  (1518),  who  boasted  of  having 
dissected  at  Bologna  more  than  a  hundred  subjects. 
Reports  were  raised  that  he  dissected  living  Spaniards, 
and  he  fled  or  was  exiled  to  Ferrara. 

Andre  Lacuna  (1535),  Charles  Eticnne,  Gonthier 
(153l'>),  Massa,  Priander  (1537),  Sylvius  (1539), 
Levasseur,  and  Gesner,  were  celebrated  for  A. ;  but 
especially  Andrew  Vesalius,  born  1514,  who  published 
a  great  work  on  A.  before  he  was  28  years  of  age. 
He  had  the  misfortune  to  open  the  body  of  a  young 
Spanish  nobleman  whose  heart  was  found  still  beat- 
ing, and  was  obliged  to  make  an  expiatory  pilgrim- 
age to  Jerusalem.  In  1564,  the  Venetian  senate 
recalled  him  to  succeed,  at  Padua,  the  famous  Fal- 
lopiu.s,  who  had  just  died;  on  his  return,  he  was 
shipwrecked  on  the  island  of  Zante,  where  he  was 
starved  to  death. 

William  Herman  of  Salisbury  wrote,  in  1530,  Ana- 
toniia  Corporia  Ilumani  (A.  of  Human  Body);  then 
came  Ingrassias,  and  others  of  less  note. 

Thomas  Gemini  of  London,  in  1545,  engraved  upon 
copper  the  anatomical  figures  of  Vesalius,  which  had 
appeared  in  Germany  upon  wood.    Gemini  suppressed 


ANATOMY. 


the  name  of  Vesalius,  though  using  his  figures  and 
descriptions.  Thomas  A'ieary,  in  1548,  is  said  to  he 
the  first  wlio  wrote  in  English  on  A.  ;  he  published 
llie  AnglhhmaiCs  Treasure,  or  the  True  A.  of  Man^s 
Bodij.  John  Liganis,  in  1555,  pubhshed  an  anatomi- 
cal treatise  in  Latin  hexameters.  Franco  (1550), 
Yalverda,  Cohimbus,  and  others,  wrote  works  of  great 
merit  on  A.  In  1501,  Gabriel  Fallopius  professed 
it  with  great  distinction  at  Padua,  and  made  many 
original  discoveries. 

In  the  17th  c,  progress  was  rapid:  ITervey,  in 
1619.  discovered  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  and 
the  microscope  was  employed  to  detect  the  structure 
of  niiiuite  vessels.  Aselli,  in  1622,  discovered  and 
demonstrated  the  existence  of  the  lymph-vessels ; 
and  his  conclusions  were  supported  by  the  investiga- 
tions of  Pecquet,  Bartholin,  and  Olaus  Rudbeck. 
The  glandular  organs  were  investigated  by  Wharton, 
while  Malpighi,  Swaminerdam,  and  (in  the  following 
c.)  the  illustrious  Ruysch,  by  the  use  of  injections 
and  the  aid  of  the  microscope,  gave  a  new  impulse  to 
rcsearcdi  in  the  minute  structures.  Eminent  names 
in  the  history  of  A.  are  numerous  in  the  18th  c. 
In  Italy,  which  still  retained  its  former  pre-eminence, 
we  find  Pacchioni,  Valsalva,  Morgagni,  Santorini, 
Mascagni,  and  Totnnni;  In  France,  Winslow,  D'Au- 
benton,  Lieutaud,  Vicq  d'Azyr,  and  Pichat,  the  found- 
er of  General  A.;  in  Germany,  the  accomplished 
Ilaller  and  Meckel  prepared  the  way  for  greater 
achievements  in  the  UUh  c. ;  in  Great  Britain,  Cow- 
per,  Cheselden,  Hunter,  Cruikshank,  Monro,  and 
Charles  Bell  contributed  to  the  progress  of  the 
science;  while  Holland  was  worthily  represented  by 
Boerhaave,  Albinus,  Camper,  Sandifort,  and  Bonn. 
On  the  boundaries  of  the  two  centuries,  we  find  the 
names  of  Summering,  Loder,  Blumenbach,  Hilde- 
brand,  Reil,  Tiedemann,  and  Seller;  nearly  all  con- 
nected with  practical  medicine,  which  was  benefited 
by  their  studies  in  A. 

The  necessity  of  a  union  of  theory  and  practice 
has  led  to  that  zealous  study  of  Pathological  A. 
(the  dissection  and  study  of  structures  as  modified  by 
diseases)  which  has  recently  prevailed.  The  origin 
of  this  branch  of  A.  may  be  traced  back  to  ancient 
times  in  Egypt,  where  post-mortem  examinations 
were  sometimes  made  to  discover  the  seat  of  disease 
and  cause  of  death.  In  the  medical  writings  of  the 
Greeks,  some  anatomico-pathological  observations 
are  found.  During  the  general  revival  of  science  in 
the  16th  c.,  many  notices  of  pathological  A.  occur. 
In  15(i7,  Benevieni  of  Florence  wrote  the  first  book 
on  this  branch  of  science;  and  Bonet,  in  167'.(, 
published  his  compilation  of  numerous  observations. 
Still,  these  were  only  fragmentary  indications  of  a 
possible  science,  and  the  facts  stated  were  often  very 
erroneously  interpreted.  Morgagni  (1767),  who 
must  be  regarded  as  the  true  fouinlerof  Pathological 
A.,  was  worthily  followed  by  Lieutaud,  Sandil'ort, 
Hunter,  Baillie,  and  others.  Meckel  the  Younger, 
in  Germany,  in  his  study  of  malformations,  &c.,  paid 
little  or  no  attention  to  practical  applications  of  the 
science.  The  recent  ch;inge  of  direction  given 
to  the  study  of  Pathological  A.,  which  is  now 
P'operly  regarded  as  a  means  towaids  practical 
improvements  in  medicine,  must  be  ascribed  to 
Bichat  and  the  pupils  of  Broussais,  among  whom 
may  be  mentioned  the  natnes  of  Laennec,  Cruveilhier, 
Loui.s,  Andral,  Lobstein,  Lebert,  Yircliow,  Bennett, 
&c.  In  London  and  other  large  towns  there  are 
societies  devoted  specially  to  the  investigation  of 
pathology. 

Comparative  A.  has  always  preceded  anthro- 
potomy,  or  dissection  of  the  human  subject,  but  was 
first  treated  systematically  as  a  distinct  science  by 
(uvier  and  his  pupil  Meckel  the  Younger.  The 
6/SLem  proposed    by  the  latter  was,  unfortunately, 


never  completed.  Blumenbach,  Tiedemann,  Home, 
Blainville,  Geoflroy  St.  Hilaire,  Carus,  Oken,  Goethe, 
the  German  poet,  Richard  Owen,  John  Goodsir,  and 
Huxley,  must  be  named  as  enunent  contributors  to 
this  branch  of  science  ;  while,  in  late  years,  zootomy 
and  comparative  A.  have  been  studied,  with  an 
especial  reference  to  physiology,  V)y  Miiller,  Wagner, 
Siebold,  Bowman,  Todd,  and  Allan  Thomson. 

A.  Fou  Artists  is  studied  with  reference  to  the 
effects  produced  by  internal  structure  on  the 
external  form,  and  describes  the  organs,  especially 
the  muscles  and  tendons,  not  oidy  in  a  state  of 
rest,  but  also  as  modified  by  passion,  action,  and 
posture.  Consequently,  observation  of  the  nude 
living  form  is  required  in  this  branch  of  studv, 
which  has  been  treated  of  by  Errard  and  Genga 
(1691);  and  in  modern  times,  by  Lavater  (1790), 
Camper  (1792),  Charles  Bell  (1806"),  Salvage  (1812), 
Mascagni  (1816),  Koeck(1822),  Gardv  (1831  i,  Fischer 
(1838),  Salomon  and  Aulich  (1841),  Berger  (1842), 
Seiler  and  Giinther  (185o),  &c. 

Practical  A.  includes  Dia^ection  (q.  v.)and  the 
making  of  Preparations.  Preparation  consists  ia 
dividing  parts  or  organs,  so  that  their  respective  forms 
and  positions  may  be  clearly  shewn.  Organs  or  jjarts 
thus  treated  arc  styled  Aiiafomical  Preparations  of 
bones,  nniscles,  vessels,  nerves,  &c.  For  example, 
a  bone-preparation  is  made  by  clearing  away  all 
nniscular  and  other  adhesions ;  the  whole  structuie 
of  the  bones,  thus  prepared  and  bleached,  when 
connected  by  wires  in  its  natural  order,  forms  an 
artificial  skeleton. 

For  preparations  of  parts  containing  vessels  with 
minute  ramifications,  injections  are  employed.  Some 
coloured  fluid  which  has  the  property  of  gradually 
I)ecoming  solid,  is  gently  injected  into  the  arteries 
or  other  vessels  by  means  of  a  syringe.  Formerly, 
materials  which  required  a  certain  degree  of  warmth 
to  preserve  their  fluidity  were  used;  but  as  these 
were  attended  with  inconvenience,  a  great  improve- 
ment was  made  by  Shaw  and  Weber,  who  intro- 
duced the  use  of  linseed-oil  and  turpentine,  which, 
when  mixed  with  certain  metallic  compounds  in 
due  proportions,  form  a  fluid  which,  after  a  time, 
becomes  solid  in  ordinary  temperatures.  Quiciv- 
silver  and  coloured  lime-water  are  also  used  for 
injection  of  the  finer  vessels.  Preparations  are  eitiier 
dried  and  varnished  or  preserved  iu  spirit. 

A  series  of  such  specimens,  arranged  in  proper 
order,  forms  an  Anatomical  Miisewn.  The  valuable 
collections  made  by  Ruysch,  Ran,  Loder,  Walter, 
John  and  William  Hunter,  Meckel,  Summering,  and 
Dupuytren,  are  all  now  public  property.  There 
is  also  a  splendid  collection  in  the  university  of 
Edinburgh,  collected  and  prepared  for  the  most  part 
by  John  Goodsir.  The  College  of  Suigeons  of 
Edinburgh  also  possesses  a  very  valuable  museum 
of  pathological  preparations.  As  it  is  impossilile  to 
preserve  thus  all  parts  in  their  integrity  for  any 
great  length  of  time,  artificial  copies  in  wood,  ivory, 
and  wax  have  been  made  with  great  exactitude, 
especially  in  Florence  ;  and  recently  Anzou  in  Parij 
has  employed  papiier-mdc/ie  for  the  same  ptirpose. 
But,  apart  from  dissections  and  preparations  of 
the  natural  organs,  the  most  general  and  available 
assistance  in  the  study  of  A.  is  i'ound  in  anatomical 
engravings  and  plates  on  wood  and  copper.  This 
assistance  was  known  in  ancient  times.  Aristotle 
affixed  to  his  works  on  A.  some  anatomical  drawings, 
which  have  been  lost.  In  the  16th  c,  the  greatest 
artists — Leonardo  da  Vinci,  Michael  Angelo,  Raphael, 
Titian,  and  Diirer — gave  their  aid  in  designing 
anatomical  figures ;  but  few  of  their  works,  in  this 
department  of  art,  have  been  preserved.  Lately, 
lithography  has  been  employed.  Among  the  numer- 
ous illustrations   of  A.  which  we  now  possess,  the 

229 


ANATOMY— AN  AXAGORAS. 


old  works  by  Vasal  (1543),  Eustachius  (1714),  Bidloo 
(1085),  Albin  (1747),  Haller  (1743— 175r,),  and  Vicq 
d'Azyr  (1786  -1790),  may  be  mentioned.  The 
present  century  has  supplied  works  of  first- rate 
exoellence  by  "Culdani  (Venice,  ISOl — 1814),  Mas- 
cagni  (Pisa,  18'23),  Langenbeck  (Giittingen,  1820), 
Boiirgery  and  Jacob  (Paris,  183-2),  and  Arnold 
(Ziirich,  1838).  For  general  use,  we  may  commend 
the  plates  of  Loder  (Weimer,  180,3),  Clo(piet  (Paris, 
1826),  Osterreicher  (Munich,  1827— 183o),  Weber 
(Diisseldorf,  183o),  Bock  (Lei[)sic,  1840),  and  D'Alton 
(Leipsic,  1848):  in  Surgical  A.,  the  works  by 
Rosenmiiller  (Weimar,  1805),  Pirogoff  (Dorp.  1840), 
and  Giinther  (Hamburg,  1844):  in  Pathological  A., 
Meckel  (Leipsic,  1817 — 1820),  Cruveilhier  (Paris, 
1828—1841),  P'roriep  (Weimar,  1828),  Albers  (Bonn, 
1832),  Gluge(Jena,  1843— 18.50).  and  Vogel  (Leipsic, 
1843):  in  Comparative  A.,  Cams  (Leipsic,  1826)  and 
Wagner  (Leip.*ic,  1841).  Among  English  works 
may  be  mentioned  those  by  Lizars,  Jones,  and 
Richard  Quain,  in  Special  A.;  by  .Morton  and  Ma- 
clise,  in  Surgical  A. ;  and  by  Baillie  and  Bright  in 
Patliological  A. 

AXATOMY  (in  Law).  Wiiilc  the  study  and 
practice  of  A.,  or  the  art  of  dissecting  the  human  j 
body,  were  necessary  to  the  pursuit  of  surgical 
knowledge,  there  were,  until  the  year  1832,  no 
sufficient  legal  means  in  Britain  of  procuring  dead 
bodies  for  anatomical  purposes;  and  the  conse- 
quence was,  the  evasion,  and  sometimes  even  the  j 
open  violation  of  the  law  by  persons  interested 
in  supplying  the  surgical  profession  with  subjects 
for  dissection.  The  high  prices,  indeed,  given  for 
these  subjects,  may  almost  be  said  to  have  created 
a  lucrative  and  tempting  trade,  which  led  to  the 
most  atrocious  crimes ,  and  nnirders,  with  no  other 
object  than  the  possession  of  the  victim's  l)ody  for 
the  surgeon's  knife,  were  frequently  committed.  The 
■notorious  case  of  Burke,  tried  and  convicted  before 
the  High  Court  of  Justiciary  in  Edinburgh,  in  1828, 
is  a  horrible  illustration  of  the  state  of  the  law  at 
that  time,  and  of  the  position  in  which  it  placed 
surgical  practitioners.  It  was  believed  that  Burke 
and  his  associate  Hare  had  been  the  murderers  of 
sixteen  persons,  whose  bodies  they  sold  to  the 
anatomists.  It  was  their  practice  to  inveigle  poor 
people,  generally  strangers,  into  their  houses,  make 
them  drunk,  and  then  smother  them.  Burke, 
informed  against  by  Hare,  was  condemned  for 
thus  disposing  of  an  old  woman,  and  suffered  the 
last  penalty  of  the  law,  bequeathing  a  new  ver'>, 
to  burke,  to  the  English  language.  To  remedy  this 
state  of  things,  an  act  of  parliament  was  passed 
on  the  1st  of  August  1832,  2d  and  3d  William 
IV.  c.  75,  the  preamble  of  which,  sufficiently 
disclosing  its  necessity,  is  as  follows:  'Whereas 
a  knowledge  of  the  causes  and  nature  of  sundry 
diseases  which  affect  the  body,  and  of  the  best 
methods  of  treating  and  curing  such  diseases,  and  of 
healing  and  repairing  divers  wounds  and  injuries  to 
which  the  human  frame  is  liable,  cannot  be  acquired 
■without  the  aid  of  anatomical  examination :  and 
whereas  the  legal  supply  of  human  bodies  for  such 
anatomical  examination  is  insufficient  fidly  to  pro- 
vide the  means  of  such  knowledge :  and  whereas, 
in  order  further  to  supply  human  bodies  for  such 
purposes,  divers  great  and  grievous  crimes  have  been 
committed,  and,  lately,  murder,  for  the  single  object 
of  selling  for  such  purposes  the  bodies  of  the  persons 
so  murdered  :  and  whereas,  therefore,  it  is  highly 
expedient  to  give  protection,  under  certain  regula- 
tions, to  the  study  and  practice  of  A.,  and  to  pre- 
vent, as  far  as  may  be,  such  great  and  grievous 
crimes  and  murder  as  aforesaid ' — It  is  therefore 
enacted,  that  the  Secretary  of  State  for  the  Home 
Department  in  Great  Britain,  and  the  Chief  Secretary 
230 


in  Ireland,  may  grant  a  licence  to  practise  A.  to  any 
fellow  or  member  of  any  college  of  physicians  or 
surgeons,  or  to  any  graduate  or  licentiate  in  medicine, 
or  to  any  person  lawfully  qualitied  to  practice  medi- 
cine in  any  part  of  the  United  Kingdom,  or  to  any 
professor  or  teacher  of  A.,  medicine,  or  surgery,  or  to 
any  student  attending  any  .school  of  A.,  on  the  appli- 
cation of  such  party  for  such  purpose,  countersigned 
by  two  justices  of  the  peace  acting  for  the  county, 
city,  liorough,  or  place  where  such  party  resides, 
certifying  that,  to  their  knowledge  or  belief,  such 
party  so  api)lying  is  about  to  carry  on  the  practice 
of  A.  The  act  provides  for  the  appointment  of 
inspectors  of  schools  of  A.,  and  directs  them  to  make 
a  quarterly  return  to  the  Secretary  of  State,  or  the 
Chief  Secretary,  as  the  case  may  be,  of  subjects 
removed  for  anatomical  examination  to  every  place 
in  the  inspector's  district  where  A.  is  carried  on, 
distinguishing  the  sex,  and,  as  far  as  is  known  at  the 
time,  the  name  and  age  of  each  person  wliose  liody 
was  so  removed.  The  inspectors  are  further  required 
to  visit  and  inspect  places  within  their  respective 
districts  where  A.  is  practised  ;  and  for  the  perform- 
ance of  all  these  duties,  the  inspectors  are  each  to 
have  an  annual  salary  not  exceeding  £100,  with  a 
further  reasonable  sum  for  their  official  cxpen.ses. 
By  section  7,  it  is  enacted  that  it  shall  be  lawfid  for 
any  executor  or  other  party  having  lawful  possession 
of  the  body  of  any  deceased  person,  and  not  being  aa 
undertaker  or  other  party  intrusted  with  the  body, 
for  the  purpose  only  of  interment,  to  permit  the 
body  of  such  deceased  person  to  undergo  anatomical 
examination,  unless,  to  the  knowledge  of  such  exe- 
cutor or  other  party,  such  person  shall  have  expressed 
his  desiie,  either  in  writing,  at  any  time  during  his 
life,  or  verbally,  in  the  presence  of  two  or  more  wit- 
nesses, during  the  illness  whereof  he  died,  that  hia 
body,  after  death,  might  not  undergo  such  examina- 
tion; or  unless  the  surviving  husband  or  wife,  or 
any  known  relative  of  the  deceased  person,  shall 
require  the  body  to  be  interred  withoutsuch  examina- 
tion :  while,  by  section  8,  it  is  declared  that  the 
wishes  of  persons  who  had  expressed  a  desiie  that 
their  bodies  should  be  subjected  to  anatomical  exam- 
ination shall  be  respected,  unless  the  deceased  person's 
surviving  husband  or  wife,  or  nearest  known  relative, 
or  any  one  or  more  of  such  person's  nearest  known 
relatives  being  of  kin  in  the  same  degree,  shall 
require  the  body  to  be  interred  without  such  exam- 
ination. Bodies  are  not  to  be  removed  for  examina- 
tion until  forty-eight  hours  after  death,  and  without 
a  certificate  by  the  medical  attendant,  stating  accord- 
ing to  the  best  of  his  knowledge  or  belief,  the  manner 
or  cause  of  death.  The  act  contains  a  number  of 
provisions  intended  to  secure  its  sufficient  adminis- 
tration ;  but,  by  section  15,  it  is  provided  that  it 
shall  not  extend  to  or  prohibit  any  post-mortem 
examination  of  any  human  body  required  or  directed 
to  be  made  by  any  competent  legal  authority  ;  and 
it  repeals  an  enactment  in  a  previous  statute,  9 
George  IV.  c.  31,  which  directed  the  bodies  of  mur- 
derers after  execution  to  be  dissected. 

This  act  of  parliament  is  understood  to  have  met 
the  evil  it  was  designed  to  obviate;  and  under  it  the 
supply  of  bodies  of  persons  dying  friendless,  in  poor- 
houses,  hospitals,  and  elsewhere,  is  stated  to  have 
proved  sufficient  for  the  wants  of  the  profession. 

ANAXA'GORAS,  one  of  the  most  eminent  philos- 
ophers of  the  Ionic  school,  was  born  at  Clazomenae, 
in  Ionia,  500  b.  c.  He  belonged  to  a  wealthy 
and  distinguished  family,  which  circumstance  may 
have  enabled  him  to  devote  himself  exclusively  to 
intellectuiil  pursuits.  Yet  he  does  not  seem  to  have 
entered  into  the  possession  of  his  property,  but  left 
it  to  his  relations.  When  only  twenty  years  of  age 
he  went  to  Athens,  where,  in  the  course  of  time,  he 


ANAXIMANDER— AXCELOT. 


acfiiiired  a  liip;h  roputution,  and  liad  several  illus- 
trious p\ipils,  aTiioiig  whom  were  I'erieleH,  Euripides, 
Socrates,  and  Arelielans.  Rut  at  last,  beinj^  accused 
of  impiety  towards  the  gods,  he  w  as  condemned  to 
death.  His  sentence,  however,  was  commuted  into 
banislimcnt  for  lite,  through  tlie  eloquence  of  Pericles. 
He  witlidrew  to  Lampsacus  on  the  Hellespont, 
where  he  died  in  the  73d  year  of  his  age.  The 
old  man  was  accustomed  to  say  proudly,  in  his 
exile  :  '  It  is  not  I  who  have  lost  the  Athenians,  but 
the  Athenians  who  have  lost  me.'  When  on  his 
death-bed,  the  magistrates  of  the  town  asked  what 
funeral  honours  he  desired  :  '  Give  the  boys  a  holi- 
day,' was  the  quaint  reply  of  the  sage  ;  and  for  seve- 
ral centuries  the  day  of  his  death  was  commemorated 
in  all  the  schools  of  Lampsacus. 

It  is  not  easy  to  ascertain  what  were  the  opinions 
of  A.  in  philosopliy.  Fragments  merely  of  his  works 
have  been  preserved,  and  even  these  are  sometimes 
contradictory.  Of  one  thing  we  are  certain,  that  he 
had  a  deeper  knowledge  of  physical  laws  than  any  of 
his  predecessors  or  contemporaries.  The  absurdities 
of  opinion  which  are  attributed  to  him  are  no  proof 
of  the  contrary,  for,  in  his  time,  any  attempt  to 
explain  even  a  moderate  number  of  the  phenomena 
of  nature  was  sure  to  be  attended  with  what  every- 
body now  sees  to  be  extravagant  fictions.  He 
believed  the  heavens  to  be  a  solid  vault ;  the  stars 
to  be  stones  thrown  up  from  the  earth  by  some 
violent  convulsion,  and  set  on  fire  by  the  ether 
which  ever  burns  in  the  upper  regions  of  the 
universe ;  the  milky-way  to  be  the  shadow  of  the 
earth  ;  that  the  soul  had  an  aerial  body  ;  that  the 
sun  was  a  burning  mass  of  stone,  larger  than  the 
Peloponnesus.  But  he  also  arrived  at  some  tolerably 
accurate  conclusions  regarding  the  cause  of  the 
moon's  light,  of  the  rainbow,  of  wind,  and  of  sound. 
His  great  contribution  to  ancient  philosophy,  how- 
ever, was  his  doctrine  as  to  the  origin  of  all  things. 
He  held  that  all  matter  existed  originally  in  the 
condition  of  atoms ;  that  these  atoms,  indefinitely 
numerous,  and  indefinitely  divisible,  had  existed  from 
all  eternity,  and  that  order  was  first  produced  out  of 
this  infinite  chaos  of  minutise  through  the  influence 
and  operation  of  an  eternal  intelligence  (Gr.  nous). 
He  also  maintained  that  all  bodies  were  simply 
aggregations  of  these  atoms,  and  that  a  bar  of  gold, 
or  iron,  or  copper,  was  composed  of  inconceivably 
minute  particles  of  the  same  material ;  but  he  did 
not  allow  that  objects  had  taken  their  shape  through 
accident  or  blind  fate,  but  through  the  agency 
of  this  '  shaping  spirit '  or  Nous,  which  he  described 
as  infinite,  self-potent,  and  unmixed  with  anything 
else.  'Nous,' he  again  says,  'is  the  most  pure  and 
subtle  of  all  things,  and  has  all  knowledge  about 
all  things,  and  infinite  power.'  A.'s  theory  is  thus 
only  one  step  from  pure  theism.  He  makes  the  work 
of  the  Eternal  commence  with  providence,  not  with 
creation. 

The  fragments  of  A.  have  been  collected  by 
Schaubach  (Leipsic,  1827),  and  by  Schorn  (Bonn, 
1829). 

AXAXIMA'NDER,  a  Greek  mathematician  and 
philosopher,  the  son  of  Praxiades,  and  the  discijile 
and  friend  of  Thales,  was  born  at  Miletus  6l(» 
p.  c,  and  died  in  54t).  His  principal  study  was 
mathematics.  He  is  said  to  have  discovered  the 
obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  and  certainly  taught  it.  He 
appears  to  have  applied  the  pnomon,  or  style  set  on 
a  horizontal  plane,  to  determine  the  solstices  and 
eriuinoxes.  The  invention  of  geographical  maps  is 
also  ascribed  to  him.  As  a  philosopher,  he  specu- 
lated on  the  origin  (arc/ie}  of  the  phenomenal 
world,  and  this  principle  he  held  to  be  the  ii-.finite 
or  indeterminate  {to  apriron).  This  indeterminate 
principle  of  A.  is  generally  supposed  to  have  been 


much  the  same  with  the  chaos  of  other  philosophers. 
From  it  he  conceived  all  opposite*,  such  as  hot  and 
cold,  dry  and  moist,  to  proceed  through  a  perpetual 
motion,  and  to  return  to  it  again.  Of  the  manner 
in  which  he  imagined  these  opposites  to  be  formed, 
and  of  his  hypothesis  concerning  the  formation  of 
the  heavenly  bodies  from  them,  we  have  no  accurate 
information.  It  would  seem,  however,  that  he  did  not 
believe  in  the  generation  of  anything  in  the  proper 
sense  of  the  word,  but  supposed  that  the  infinite 
atoms  or  units  of  which  the  atr/ie,  or  primary  matter, 
is  composed,  merely  change  their  relative  positions 
in  obedience  to  a  moving  power  residing  in  it.  Some 
of  his  particular  opinions  were,  that  the  sun  is  in  the 
liighest  region  of  the  heavens,  is  in  circumference 
twenty-eight  times  greater  than  the  earth,  and 
resembles  a  cylinder  from  which  flow  continual 
streams  of  fire ;  that  eclipses  are  catised  by  the 
stopping  of  the  openings  from  which  the  fire  flows  ; 
that  the  moon  is  also  a  cylinder,  nineteen  times 
greater  than  the  earth  ;  and  that  the  moon's  phases 
are  caused  by  obliquity  of  position,  and  eclipses  by 
complete  turning  round.  He  taught  that  the  earth 
is  of  the  form  of  a  cylinder,  and  that  it  floats  in  the 
midst  of  the  universe,  that  it  was  formed  by  the 
dryi:ig  up  of  moisture  by  the  sun,  and  that  animals 
are  produced  from  moisture. 

AXAXI'MENES,  a  Greek  philosopher,  born  at 
Miletus,  flourished  about  55G  n.  ('.  He  held  air  to 
be  the  first  cause  of  all  things,  or  the  primary  form 
of  matter,  from  which  all  things  are  formed  by 
compression. 

A'NBURY,  a  disease  to  which  turnips  are  liable, 
and  which  often  proves  of  serious  importance  to 
farmers,  destroying  the  crop  of  entire  fields.  It  is 
sometimes  called  Cltib-root,  because  of  the  knobs  or 
tubercular  excrescences  which  form  upon  the  root. 
The  root,  instead  of  swelling  into  one  turnip  of  good 
size,  generally  becomes  divided  into  a  number  of 
parts,  each  in  some  small  degree  swelling  separately 
by  itself;  whence  the  popular  name,  Fhir/cm  ami 
Tocx.  The  growth  of  the  plant  is  arrested  ;  the  root 
becomes  woody  ;  the  excrescences  rot,  and  emit  most 
offensive  effluvia,  which,  however,  appear  particularly 
attractive  to  insects  of  various  kinds ;  and.  accord- 
ingly, eggs  and  maggots  in  abundance  are  soon  to  bo 
fouiid  in  them.  It  lias  been  very  generally  supposed 
that  these  insects,  or  some  of  them,  are  the  cause  of 
the  disease  ;  but  the  truth  seems  rather  to  be  that 
they  are  attracted  by  the  diseased  state  of  the  plant. 
A.  has  been  erroneously  confounded  with  the  excres- 
cences, each  containing  a  small  grub,  which  are  fre- 
quent on  the  roots  of  turnips,  as  on  those  of  cabbages, 
and  many  other  cruciferous  i)lants,  although  these 
also  sometimes  effect  the  destruction  of  the  plant 
The  true  nature  and  caiise  of  the  disease  are  not  yet 
well  known.  Much  attention  has  been  devoted  to 
the  subject;  and  premiums  have  been  otl'ered  in  con- 
nection with  it  by  the  Highland  and  Agricultural 
Society  of  Scotland ;  but  hitherto,  without  eliciting 
any  certain  or  satisfactory  information.  It  appears 
probable  that  the  disease  is  in  some  measure  owing 
to  peculiarities  of  soil,  or  of  manure,  and  to  the  too 
freipient  repetition  of  turnip-crops  upon  the  same 
field.  A  much  greater  frequency  of  repetition,  how- 
ever, can  be  safely  practised  in  some  districts,  or  in 
some  fields,  than  in  others.  The  liberal  application 
of  lime  has  been  found  advantageous  as  a  preventive 
of  A. ;  but  even  this  often  succeeds  but  imperfectly; 
and  the  increasing  prevalence  of  this  disease  in 
certain  districts  seems  not  unlikely  to  necessitate  a 
considerable  modification  in  the  system  of  husbandry, 
in  which  the  turnip-crop  has  long  occupied  so  im- 
portant a  place.     See  Turnip. 

ANCELOT,        Jacques  -  Arsene  -  Poltcarpe- 

231 


ANCE  LOT— ANCHOR. 


Francois,  a  Froncli  poet,  born  J'ebiuary  '.»,  17l»4,  at 
Havre,  wliere  his  father  was  clerk  of  the  Cliainber  of 
Commerce.  The  latter  being  a  well-informed  gentle- 
man, delighting  in  verse,  early  taught  his  son  to  recite 
passage.s  from  the  French  poets.  A.  was  from  the 
first  intended  for  active  life  in  connection  with  the 
administration  of  the  navy  ;  and  was  employed,  until 
the  revolution  of  July,  in  the  government  service. 
His  reputation  was  first  established  in  1819  by 
his  tragedy  of  Louis  IX.,  which  was  played  fifty 
nights  in  succession,  and  procured  him  a  pension  of 
2000  francs  from  the  king.  His  ne.xt  piece,  Tlie 
Mayor  of  the  Palace  (1823),  was  not  so  well  received. 
In  1824,  appeared  his  Fiexque,  a  work  which  exhi- 
bited the  great  skill  of  the  author  in  adapting  a 
master-piece  of  Schiller  to  the  French  stage.  In 
1825,  he  gave  to  the  world  an  epic  poem  in  si.x 
cantos,  Marie  de  Brabant;  and  in  1827,  a  clever 
and  graceful  work,  partly  prose  and  partly  verse, 
entitled  Six  Months  in  liussin ;  besides  a  novel  in 
four  volumes,  The  Man  of  the  World.  Ohia,  a 
drama,  was  published  in  182S;  and  Elizabeth  of 
England  in  1829.  Both  of  these  works  were  highly 
successful,  though  neither  met  with  the  brilliant 
reception  of  Louis  LV.  In  18.'?4  appeared  Zcs-  Em- 
prunts  aux  Salons  de  Paris.  The  revolution  of  July 
deprived  him  of  his  pension,  and  also  of  his  situation 
as  librarian  of  Meudon  ;  and  for  the  next  ten  years, 
he  was  compelled  to  su[)p()rt  hiuiself  and  family  by 
the  concoction  of  numberless  vandevilles,  dramas, 
comedies,  anecdotes,  &c.,  sometimes  of  very  ques- 
tionable morality.  In  1841,  the  French  Academy 
chose  him  as  the  successor  of  Boiiald.  Shortly  after 
appeared  his  Familiar  Letters  {Epitres  Fatnilirres),  a 
collection  of  satires  as  remarkable  for  freshness 
of  epigram  as  for  grace  of  style  and  richness  of 
versification.  In  1848,  he  published  La  Eiie — 
Quincampoix.     He  died  in  18.50. 

A.'s  chef-d'ceuvre,  Louis  LX.,  is  a  work  of  genius  ; 
the  versification  is  correct,  elegant,  an<l  harmonious  ; 
the  manners  and  characters  of  the  period  are  deline- 
ated with  great  fidelity  and  brilliancy  ;  the  plot  is 
skilfully  constructed  ;  and  some  of  the  scenes  are 
contrived  with  singular  felicity. 

A'NCIIOR,  an  implement  for  retaining  a  ship  in 
a  particular  spot,  by  temporarily  chaining  it  to  the 
bed  of  a  sea  or  river.  Many  forms  of  A.  were 
made  by  the  ancients;  some  were  inerelv  large 
stones  ;  others,  crooked  pieces  of  wood,  weighted  to 
make  them  sink  in  water.  The  first  iron  anchors 
are  supposed  to  have  been  used  by  the  Greeks. 
As  originally  made,  the  A.  had  only  one  fluke  or  arm 
for  penetrating  the  ground,  but  a  second  was  after- 
wards added ;  it  had  no  stock  (presently  to  be  de- 
scribed), and  was,  on  that  account,  ill  suited  for  in- 
suri;ig  a  firm  gripe  into  the  ground  when  lowered. 
The  Greek  vessels  had  several  anchors,  one  of  which, 
called  the  '  sacred  A.,'  was  never  let  go  until  the  ship 
was  in  dire  distress  ;  something  equivalent  to  this 
was  long  retained  in  the  English  navy,  but  tlie 
designation  is  now  dying  out.  Of  whatever  form 
and  material  the  ancient  anchors  were  made,  they 
■were  lowered  from  tlie  ships'  sides  by  ropes — chain- 
cables  being  a  modern  invention. 

The  maritime  nations  of  Europe,  and  the  United 
States  of  America,  employ  anchors  bearing  a  good 
deal  of  general  resemblance  one  to  another.  A  large- 
sized  modern  A.,  regarded  irrespectively  of  improve- 
ments recently  introduced,  comprises  the  following 
parts :  The  vertical  or  supporting  beam  of  the  A. 
is  the  shank,  B  ;  at  the  upper  end  of  it  is  the  ring,  r  ; 
and  just  below  the  ring  is  a  transverse  piece  called 
the  stock,  s  s ;  the  other  extremity  is  the  crown,  c, 
from  which  branch  out  two  amis  or  bla<ks,  g,  in 
directions  nearly  at  right  angles  to  that  of  the 
stock ;  each  arm  spreads  out  into  a  broad  palm  or 
232 


Aucln 


fluke,  h,  the  sharp  extremity  of  which  is  i\w  j)citk  o.- 
bill,  k.  All  these  parts  bear  special  relation  to  the 
fast-holding  of  the  A.  in  the 
eround.  When  the  A.  is  let  go 
from  the  ship's  side,  the  croun 
first  strikes  the  ground;  it  then 
falls  over  in  such  a  manner  tli:i 
one  end  of  the  stock  rests  upon 
the  ground;  and  the  subsequent 
movements  of  the  ship  and  the 
cable  cause  one  or  other  of  th<" 
flukes  (it  matters  not  which)  to 
dig  vertically  into  the  ground, 
and  maintain  a  firm  hold.  On 
the  firmness  of  this  gripe  de- 
pends the  safe  anchoring  of  the 
ship ;  and  the  sizes  of  all  the 
different  parts  of  the  A.,  as  well  as  the  curve  of 
the  arms  and  flukes,  are  calculated  with  direct  ref- 
erence to  this  comlilion. 

The  number  and  weights  of  anchors  in  British 
slii[)s-of-war  arc  nearly  as  follow:  Men-of-war  have 
four  anchors — the  '  best  bowt>r,'  the  'siuall  bower,'  the 
'  sheet,'  and  the  '  spare.'  For  particular  and  special 
services,  there  arc  also  the  '  stream' and  the  'kedge.' 
Smaller  vessels  have  fewer  and  smaller  anchors  ;  and 
the  '  stream '-A.  of  a  large  shiji  may  conveniently 
serve  as  the  'bower' for  a  smaller.  There  was  at 
one  time  a  rough  ride  in  the  navy,  that  the  chief 
A.  should  weigh  as  many  hundrtHl-weight  as  the  shin 
carried  guns  ;  thus,  an  80  cwt.  A.  for  an  8n-gun  ship. 
In  the  commercial  marine  tliere  was  also  a  kind  of 
rough  fornnda  that  the  ciiief  A.  should  weigh  one- 
twentieth  part  as  many  hundred-weight  us  the  ship 
measured  in  tonnage;  thus,  a  30o-ton  ship  woul  1 
have  an  A.  of  \f>  cwt.  The  weight  of  an  A.  10  feet 
long  used  to  be  laid  down  at  11 '4  cwt.,  and  that  of 
an  A.  14  feet  long,  at  3o  cwt.  It  must  bo  borne  in 
mind,  however,  that  these  numbers  and  ratios  are 
no  longer  strictly  reliable,  seeing  that  new  forms 
of  A.,  the  use  of  chain-cables,  the  introduction  of 
steam-navigation,  and  the  building  of  shi[)S  of  great 
magnitude,  have  rendered  many  old  formulas  inap- 
plicable at  the  present  day. 

Many  important  im|)rovements  in  the  shape  and 
construction  of  anchors  have  been  introduced  within 
the  last  few  years.  Lieutenant  Rodgers,  to  increase 
the  strength,  without  increasing  the  weight,  took  out 
a  patent  for  hollow-shanked  anchors  ;  these  are  not 
strictly  hollow,  however,  for  there  is  a  wooden  core, 
which  is  bound  to  the  iron  of  the  shank  by  iron 
hoops.  Mr.  Pering  introduced  iron  shanks  made  of 
layers  of  flat  bars,  instead  of  solid  iron.  The  same 
inventor  increased  the  strength  of  the  arms,  l)y  mak- 
ing them  in  great  part  a  curved  cotitinuation  of  the 
same  pieces  of  iron  which  form  the  shank. 

The  most  efl'ective  novelty,  however,  is  that  intro- 
duced under  Mr.  Porter's  patent,  about  twenty  years 
ago,  seeing  that  it  is  the  basis  which  supports  all 


Porter's  Anchor  at  "Work. 


the  subsequent  improvements  of  any  note.  The 
arms  are  pivoted  to  the  stock,  instead  of  being 
rigidly  fixed  ;  and  there  is  a  projecting  piece,  called 


ANCHORAGE— ANCHORITES. 


the  tor/r/le,  on  the  convex  part  of  each  arm.  These 
two  additions  or  adjustments  have  a  remarkable  effect 
on  the  action  of  the  A.  The  advantages  of  tliis  A. 
over  those  of  ordinai'V  make  are  very  considerable. 
There  is  less  cliance  of  '  fouling,'  by  the  cable  passing 
over  the  exposed  Huke  of  the  A.,  ■when  the  vessel  is 
swinging  in  a  tide-way  ;  tliere  is  less  danger  of  in- 
jury from  the  uj)per  peak  ;  the  lower  peak  bites 
quickly  into  the  most  stubborn  ground  ;  the  A.  can- 
not lodge  on  its  stock-end  ;  it  is  stronger  in  the  arm 
than  ordinary  anchors  ;  and  it  is  very  conveniently 
stowed  on  shii)board. 

Among  the  modifications  of  Porter's  anchor,  since 
introduced,  are  .  those  of  Trotman  and  Honiball. 
Trotnian's,  to  whicii  most  atteniion  is  at  present 
directed,  has  the  following  advantages:  The  arm  has 
sufficient  length  and  curve  to  deepen  and  set  the 
palm  at  such  aa  angle  as  to  insure  its  biting  or 
penetrating  the  hardest  bottom  ;  the  area  and  sur- 
face of  the  palm  are  greatly  increased,  offering  a  pro- 
portionate resistance  in  soft  ground  ;  the  toggle  or 
projection  at  the  back  of  the  arms  is  rendered  more 
effective  by  its  form  and  position  ;  and  the  mode  in 
Mhich  the  upper  arm  rests  on  the  shank  increases 
both  the  strength  and  the  penetrating  power.  This 
A.  has  been  the  subject  of  a  long  contention  between 


Trotman's  Anchor  at  Work. 

Mr.  Trotman  and  the  Admiralty.  In  1S52,  in  com- 
pliance with  a  requisition  from  numerous  ship- 
owners and  underwriters,  the  Admiralty  appointed  a 
committee,  consisting  of  eleven  experienced  and  im- 
partial persons,  to  make  trial  of  a  large  number  of 
anchors,  with  a  view  of  determining  the  relative 
merits  of  various  forms  and  modes  of  construction. 
The  anchors  were  to  be  similar  in  weight,  and  were 
to  be  tested  in  a  great  variety  of  ways — on  shore,  and 
at  sea,  and  in  reference  to  the  holding,  stowage, 
sweei)ing,  tripping,  fouling,  &c.  There  were  several 
compi'titors,  all  of  whom  were  subjected  to  the  same 
conditions.  Every  one  of  the  recently  invented 
anchors  tried  was  foimd  to  be  better  than  the  ordi- 
nary Admiralty  A.  ;  and  the  one  which  appeared  to 
possess  the  greatest  number  of  good  qualities  was 
Trotman's.  The  patentee  naturally  expected  to 
d'  rive  some  commercial  advantage  from  tlie  favour- 
:;ble  report  of  the  committee;  but  i'rom  1 852  to  18.59, 
the  successive  Boards  of  Admiralty  have  refused  to 
admit  Trotman's  A.  into  the  royal  navy,  except  in 
a  few  isolated  instances.  The  grounds  for  this 
refusal  have  never  yet  been  satisfactorily  made 
known. 

The  weights  of  anchors  hear,  or  ought  to  bear, 
some  definite  relation  to  the  tonnage  of  a  ship. 
Lloyd's  Committee  has  agreed  upon  certain  ratios  to 
recommend,  in  reference  to  the  largo  or  '  best  bower' 
anchors  and  their  chain-cables ;  and  Mr.  Trotman 
has  prepared  a  table,  shewing  the  diminished 
weight  of  his  anchors,  to  render  equivalent  ser- 
vic<-.  The  anchors  are  here  supposed  to  have  iron 
stocks : 


Ship's 

Or 

linary 

Trot 

man's 

PiZl 

of 

Tonnage. 

A  IK 

liors. 

Ano 

lors. 

Chain 

-cables. 

]()() 

7 

cwt. 

5 

cwt. 

0| 

uich. 

•2U0 

12 

" 

9 

" 

1 

" 

4(10 

22 

" 

17 

t« 

If 

n 

7oO 

U 

" 

25 

" 

1| 

il 

looo 

41 

" 

31 

^i 

U 

«' 

14(10 

48 

CI 

37 

n 

2 

" 

2(100 

64 

(I 

46 

(4 

h 

" 

The  manufacture  of  anchors  furnished,  until  recent 
years,  the  most  formidable  excmplitication  of  smith's 
work  anywhere  presented,  on  account  of  the  vast 
dimensions  and  weight  of  the  pieces  of  iron  which 
had  to  be  welded  into  one  mass.  The  anchor-smiths 
wielded  the  most  ponderous  sledge-hammers  known 
to  our  artisans;  and  the  services  of  a  laige  number 
were  needed  to  weld  the  metal  while  in  the  heated 
and  yielding  state.  At  the  present  time,  however, 
the  operations  are  wonderluUy  aided  by  Mr.  Nasmyth's 
steam  hanmier,  which  comes  down  upon  the  A. 
with  a  force  greater  than  that  of  any  available  num- 
ber of  sledge-hammers  wielded  by  men.  At  some  of 
the  government  dockyards,  anclior-making  is  con- 
ducted on  a  great  scale  ;  but  the  larger  portion  of 
the  supply  for  the  navy  is  obtained  by  contract  by 
[)rivate  firms. 

ANCHORAGE  is  a  due  or  toll  levied  on  the 
owner  or  captain  of  a  .ship  for  permission  to  cast 
anchor  at  special  anchoring-grounds.  In  most  in- 
stances, it  is  [layable  to  the  state  ;  but  sometimes  the 
right  is  vested  in  cor])orate  bodies  or  in  individuals. 
The  tariff  varies  greatly,  depending  on  the  size  of  the 
ship,  or  on  the  value  of  the  cargo,  according  to  cir- 
cumstances. In  most  cases,  where  a  vessel  is  driven 
into  poit  by  stiess  of  weather,  and  does  not  discharge 
cargo  there,  it  is  exempt  from  this  toll.  Shore-duea 
dh.er  from  A.  chietly  in  the  fact,  that  a  vessel  pays 
duty  on  entering  a  certain  port  or  harbour,  whether 
she  anchors  or  not;  and,  by  a  siiigular  anomaly, 
these  duties  are  in  certain  instances  vested  in  the 
corporation  of  an  inland  town,  many  miles  distant 
from  the  port  in  question. 

A.  is  a  term  also  sometimes  applied  to  the  whole 
suite  of  anchors  belonging  to  a  ship;  and  still  more 
i'requcntly  it  has  the  same  sense  as  anchor-ground 
(q   v.) 

A'NCHOR-GROUND  is  a  part  of  the  bed  of  the 
sea,  or  of  a  river,  suitable  lor  anchoring.  It  nmst 
not  be  too  deep,  or  the  cable  will  bear  loo  perpen- 
dicularly, and  will  be  likely  to  drag  the  anchor  out 
of  the  groimd.  It  must  not  be  too  shallow,  or  the 
sliip's  bottom  will  be  exposed  to  the  hazard  of 
striking  at  low-waicr,  or  when  the  sea  is  rough.  It 
must  not  be  too  rocky,  or  the  anchor  will  be  liable 
to  break  its  flukes  by  hooking  into  jagged  rocks, 
and  the  cable  to  be  severed  by  rubbing  against  rocky 
edges.  Thus,  a  combination  of  favourable  circum- 
stances is  necessary  for  the  selection  of  a  good 
anchoring-ground. 

ANCHORITES,  or  ANCHORETS  (Gr.  avacho- 
>-t'tai,  literally,  persons  who  withdraw  from  society), 
the  hermits  who  began  to  appear  in  the  Christian 
Church  i.i  the  8d  c,  living  in  solitude,  and  not,  like 
the  nioidvs  or  cenobites,  in  commuinties.  During  the 
first  two  centuries.  Christians  gt;nerally  thought  it 
enough  to  withdraw  from  the  world  by  refusing  to 
jiarticipaie  in  heathen  festivals  and  anuisemcnts ; 
but  extreme  views  became  gradually  prevalent,  and 
were  connected  with  a  belief  in  the  merit  of  celibacy, 
of  abstinence  from  particular  kinds  of  food,  of  self- 
inflicted  tortures,  <fec.  The  persecutions  to  which 
Christians  were  subjected,  drove  some  into  the  soli- 
tude of  deserts;  afterwards,  the  glory  of  a  life  spent 
iu  loneliness  and  austerity   became  a  substitute  for 

233 


AXCIIOYY— ANCOXA. 


that  of  the  martyr's  death.  The  general  corniption 
of  soeiety  also  caused  many  earnest  and  well-mean- 
ing persons  to  flee  from  it ;  the  Ascetics  ((j.  v.)  first 
set  the  example  of  retiring  from  cities  to  rural  dis- 
tricts and  villages;  the  A.  went  further,  and  sought 
to  withdraw  themselves  altogether  from  mankind; 
and  if  the  rei)utation  of  sanctity  which  was  con- 
nected with  a  life  of  solitude  constituted  its  chief 
attraction  to  some,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  many 
chose  it  in  the  hope  of  thereby  attaining  to  real 
sanctity.  Many  of  the  A.  voluntarily  subjected 
themselves  to  the  vicissitudes  of  the  weather,  with- 
out proper  habitation  or  clothing,  restricted  them- 
selves to  coarse  and  scanty  fare,  wore  chains  and 
iron  rings,  and  even  throughout  many  years  main- 
tained painful  postures,  such  as  standing  on  the  top 
of  a  pillar  (see  Stvlites),  thus  displaying  an  earnest- 
ness which  greater  enlightenment  might  have 
directed  to  the  good  of  mankind.  Paul  (q.  v.)  the 
Hermit,  and  Antony  (q.  v.),  were  among  the  first  and 
most  celebrated  A.  The  A.  were  not  able  always  to 
preserve  their  solitude  unbroken.  The  fame  of  their 
sanctity  drew  many  to  visit  them  ;  their  advice  was 
often  sought ;  and  the  number  of  their  visitors  was 
much  increased  by  the  beliicf  that  diseases,  particu- 
larly mental  diseases,  were  cured  by  their  blessing. 
Sometimes,  also,  they  returned  for  a  short  time  to 
the  midst  of  their  fellow-men  to  deliver  warnings, 
instructions,  or  encouragements,  and  were  received 
as  if  they  had  been  inspired  projjhets  or  angels  from 
heaven.  The  number  of  A.,  however,  gradually 
diminished,  and  the  religious  life  of  convents  was 
preferred  to  that  of  the  liermitage.  The  Western 
Church,  indeed,  at  no  time  abounded  in  A.  like  the 
eastern,  and  perhaps  the  reason  may  in  part  be  found 
in  the  difference  of  clinuite,  which  renders  a  manner 
of  life  impossible  in  most  parts  of  Europe  that  could 
be  pursued  for  many  years  in  Egypt  or  Syria. 

ANCHO'VY  [EngrnitHs  Enchraxivholus),  a  small 
fish,  about  a  span  long,  much  esteemed  for  its  rich 
and  peculiar  flavour.  It  is  not  much  longer  than  the 
middle  finger,  thicker  in  proportion  than  the  herring, 
to  which  it  has  a  general  resemblance  ;  the  head  is 
sharp-pointed,  and  the  under  jaw  much  shorter  than 
the  upper;  the  scales  large,  silvery,  and  easily 
removed,  the  tail  deeply  forked.  It  is  occasion- 
ally found  on  the  British  coasts,  and  is  said  to  be 
not  at  all  uncommon  on  the  coast  of  Cornwall  in 
the  latter  part  of  summer  and  beginning  of  autumn. 
It  would  seem  to  have  been  formerly  more  abund- 
ant than  it  now  is  in  the  British  seas,  as  several 
acts  of  parliament,  of  the  reign  of  William  and 
Mary,  regulated  the  A.  fisheries.     It  occurs  on  the 


Anchovy. 

coasts  of  the  Baltic  and  of  Greenland,  and  abounds 
in  the  Mediterranean  and  on  the  Atlantic  coasts 
of  Spain,  Portugal,  and  France,  where  extensive 
and  very  productive  fisheries  are  carried  on,  par- 
ticularly in  the  months  of  May,  June,  and  July, 
when  the  shoals  of  anchovies  leave  the  deep  seas, 
and  approach  the  shores  for  the  purpose  of  spawn- 
ing. They  are  fished  during  the  night,  and  are 
attracted  to  the  boats  by  fires.  They  are  salted 
in  small  barrels,  and  are  much  used  for  sauces,  &c. 
The  Romans  made  from  them  a  highly  valued  sauce 
called  garum. — Sardines  (q.  v.)  are  often  sold  as 
234 


anchovies. — The  genus  Engrauli.t  belongs  to  the 
Clupeidte  (q.  v.)  or  Herring  family,  and  was  for- 
merly included  in  Clupea,  from  wliich  it  is  distin- 
guished by  the  more  deeply  cleft  mouth,  the  wider 
gill  openings,  and  more  numerous  gill  rays.  All  the 
species  are  small,  and  most  of  them  tropical.  E. 
Brownii  abounds  in  the  Strait  of  Malacca  and  at 
the  mouths  of  the  Ganges,  and  is  u«ed  for  making  a 
delicious  condiment  called  lied  Fish  in  India. 

ANCHOVY  PEAR  {Grins  caidifora),  a  tree,  the 
only  known  species  of  a  genus  somewhat  doubtfully 
referred  by  Lindley  to  his  order  Barriyirit'iuiacfce 
(more  generally  regarded  as  a  suli-order  of  Jfurtareie 
(q.  v.).  It  grows  in  boggy  places  in  the  mountainous 
districts  of  Jamaica  and  other  West  Indian  islaiuls, 
attains  a  height  of  fifty  feet,  and  lias  great  oblong 
leaves  two  or  three  feet  in  length,  Tiie  flowers 
are  numerous,  on  short  peduncles,  large  and  whitish, 
the  corolla  consisting  of  four  petals,  and  the  calyx 
4-cleft.  The  fruit  is  an  ovate  drupe,  crowned  with 
the  persistent  calyx,  the  stone  marked  with  eight 
ridges.  This  fruit  is  pickled  and  eaten  like  the 
East  Indian  mango,  which  it  re.semblcs  in  taste. 
The  tree  generally  grows  in  shallow  waters  or  very 
moist  low  grounds,  in  the  mountainous  districts  of 
Jamaica  and  other  West  Indian  islands. 

AXCHUSA.     See  Alkankt. 

AN'CHILLOX,  a  French  family  who,  after  the 
revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  migrated  from 
Metz  into  Prussia. — David  A.  studied  theology  at 
Geneva,  was  afterwards  pastor  of  the  French 
Reformed  colony  at  Hanau,  and  died  in  Berlin  in 
1C'.V2. — CiiAKLKS,  son  of  the  former,  was  born  at 
Metz,  July  28,  lf.59,  and  died  in  Beriin,  July  5, 
1715.  He  is  known  by  his  writings  :  E Irrevocahilite 
de  FEdit  de  Nantes  (KISS),  and  Histoire  de  VEta- 
blisxcmcnt  des  Franrais  liefufiifn  dans  les  Etnts  de 
Eramhnbourg  (169<i). — Locis  Frkhkrick,  grandson 
of  Charles  A.,  was  born  in  Berlin  174(i,  and  died  there 
as  pastor  of  the  French  congregation  in  1814.  His 
son  Fkkdeiuck,  who  rose  to  be  a  minister  of  state  in 
Prussia,  was  born  in  Berlin,  April  3it,  17G7.  In 
1792,  he  was  appointed  Professor  of  History  in  the 
Military  Academy  of  Berlin,  and  afterwards  Royal 
Ilistoriograplier,  a  post  to  which  he  had  recommend- 
ed himself  by  his  work,  Tableau  des  liivolittions  du 
Systeme  Politique  de  r Europe  depuis  le  15°'  Steele 
(4  vols.  Berlin,  18n,3 — 1805).  In  1814,  he  took  an 
administrative  post  under  Hardenberg,  and,  in  1S18, 
held  a  very  prominent  position  under  Count  von 
Bernstorff.  In  1830,  when  the  July  revolution  oc- 
curred in  France,  he  assisted  the  measures  of  King 
Frederick  William  III.  for  the  preservation  of  peace 
in  Europe.  While,  like  the  politicians  of  Austria,  he 
argued  that  '  all  should  be  done  fur  the  people,  but 
nothing  %  the  people;'  he  also  contended  for  the 
necessity  of  progressive  reforms  in  legislation,  iu 
order  to  prevent  all  violent  collisions  between  gov- 
ernment and  popular  opinion.  His  private  life  was 
simple  and  unostentatious.  Though  thrice  married, 
he  left  no  children.  A.  died  April  19,  18.37.  His 
various  w  ritings  on  politics,  philosophy,  and  literature, 
are  chiefly  devoted  to  an  exposition  of  the  principles 
by  which  he  was  guided  as  a  statesman. 

ANCO'NA,  the  capital  of  a  delegation  of  the 
same  name  in  the  States  of  the  Church,  lat.  43°  38' 
N.,  and  long.  13°  35'  E.  It  is  situated  on  a 
promontory  of  the  Adriatic  coast,  and  rising  in 
the  form  of  an  amphitheatre,  presents  a  picturesque 
appearance  from  the  sea.  It  is  the  scat  of  a 
bishop,  and  contains  about  29,000  inhabitants,  of 
whom  about  6000  are  Jews.  The  harbour,  cnce 
famous,  seems  likely  to  be  filled  up  with  mud.  The 
commerce  is  much  less  considerable  than  it  once 
wa.s,  though,   in   that   respect,  it  is  still   the  most 


ANCRE— ANDALUSIA. 


iiiiportiiiit  place  in  the  States  of  the  Church.  Corn,  and 
woollen  and  silk  goods,  oils,  cordage,  bacon,  fruits, 
&c.,  are  the  chief  exports.  A  mole  of  2000  feet  in 
length,  built  by  the  Emperor  Trajan,  and  a  triumphal 
arch  of  the  same  emperor,  are  the  most  notable  monu- 
ments of  antiquity.  There  are  some  fine  public 
buildings.  One  of  the  most  venerable  of  these  is  the 
cathedral  of  St.  Gyriac,  built  in  the  10th  c,  and  pos- 
sessing the  oldest  cupula  in  Italy.  But  the  houses 
are  in'general  mean,  and  the  streets  narrow.  A.  is 
supposed  to  have  been  founded  by  Syracusans  who 
had  fled  from  the  tyranny  of  Dionysius  the  Elder. 
It  was  destroyed  by  the  Goths,  rebuilt  by  Narses, 
and  again  destroyed  by  the  Saracens  in  the  10th  c. 
It  afterwards  became  a  republic  ;  but  in  1532,  Pope 
Clement  VII.  annexed  it  to  the  States  of  the 
Church.  In  1T9S,  it  was  taken  by  the  French;  but 
in  1799,  General  Meunier  was  obliged  to  surrender 
it  to  the  Russians  and  Austrians,  after  a  long  and 
gallant  defence.  Since  1815,  the  citadel  has  been 
the  only  fortification.  When  the  Austrian  troops  in 
18ol  occupied  the  Roman  frontiers,  whose  inhabit- 
ants were  then  in  a  state  of  insurrection,  the  French 
ministry  determined  to  neutralise  the  influence  of 
Austiia.  A  French  squadron  appeared  before  the 
h;irbour,  and  landed  1500  men,  who  took  possession 
of  the  town  on  the  22d  February,  1832,  without  any 
resistance,  the  citadel  capitulating  on  the  2oth.  It 
remained  in  their  hands  till  1838,  when  both  French 
and  Austrians  retired  from  the  Papal  States.  In 
1860  it  was  taken  by  the  Sardinians  and  annexed  to 
Piedmont,  and  subsequently  merged  in  the  new  king- 
dom of  Italy. 

ANCRE,  CoNCiNO  CoNcixi,  Baron  de  Lussigny, 
Maushal  I)',  a  Florentine  by  birth,  who  came  to  the 
French  court  in  the  year  1600,  with  Marie  de  Medici, 
the  wife  of  Henry  lY.,  and  along  with  his  wife, 
I^leonora  Galigai,  exercised  an  unhappy  influence  in 
promoting  the  disagreement  between  the  king  and 
queen.  When,  after  Henry's  death,  the  queen  became 
regent,  Conciiii,  as  her  favourite,  obtained  possession 
of  the  reins  of  government ;  and  in  1613,  was  made 
a  marshal  and  prime  minister.  He  purchased 
the  marquisate  of  Ancre  in  Picardy,  and  took  his 
title  from  it.  He  became  an  object  of  detestation 
equally  to  the  nobility  and  the  people.  A  con- 
spiracy was  formed  against  him,  to  which  the  young 
king  Louis  XIII.  was  himself  privy — Luynes  (q.  v.), 
the  king's  worthless  favourite,  being  one  of  the 
conspirators — and  he  was  assassinated  in  the  Louvre 
in  open  day,  on  the  24th  of  April  1617.  His  body 
was  privately  buried,  but  was  soon  disinterred  by 
the  populace,  dragged  through  Paris,  and  burned 
before  the  statue  of  Henry  IV.  His  wife  was  soon 
afterwards  accused  of  witchcraft,  which  she  sarcas- 
tically repudiated,  saying  that  the  only  sorcery  she 
had  employed  to  influence  the  queen  was  '  the  power 
of  a  strong  mind  over  a  weak  one.'  The  sneer,  how- 
ever, did  not  save  her.  She  was  executed,  and  her 
son,  deprived  of  rank  and  property,  was  driven  from 
the  country. 

ANGUS  MA'RCIUS,  son  of  Pompilia,  daughter 
of  King  Numa  Pompilius,  was  the  fourth  king  of 
Rome.  Following  the  example  of  his  grandsire, 
Numa,  be  endeavoured  to  restore  the  almost  forgotten 
worship  of  the  gods  and  the  cultivation  of  the  arts  of 
peace  among  the  Romans.  But,  despite  his  inclina- 
tion for  peace,  he  was  engaged  in  several  wars  with 
the  neighbouring  Latin  tribes,  whom  he  subdued 
and  reduced  to  order.  These  Latins,  Niebidir  con- 
siders to  have  formed  the  original  plebx.  Against  the 
Etruscans,  he  fortified  the  Janiculum,  connected  it 
with  Rome  by  a  wooden  bridge,  and  gained  posses- 
sion of  both  banks  of  the  Tiber,  as  far  as  its  mouth, 
where  he  founded  Ostia  as  the  port  of  Rome ;  he 


dug  what  was  called  '  the  Ditch  of  the  Quirites' — a 
defence  for  the  open  space  between  the  CEelian  Hill 
and  Mount  Palatine ;  and  built  the  first  Roman 
prison  of  which  we  read,  a  proof  that  civilisation  had 
really  commenced,  inasmuch  as  offences  then  for- 
mally ceased  to  be  regarded  as  private  and  personal 
matters,  and  were  treated  as  crimes  against  the 
community.  He  died  in  614  B.C.,  after  reigning 
twenty-four  years. 

ANCYRA.     See  Angora. 

A'NDA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Eup/iorbiacece,  the  only  known  species  of  which, 
A.  Braniliensis,  is  a  Brazilian  tree,  with  large  yellow 
flowers,  and  an  angular  fruit  about  the  size  of  an 
orange,  containing  two  roundish  seeds,  like  small 
chestnuts.  The  seeds  are  called  in  Brazil  Purc/a  (ha 
Paulistas,  are  much  used  medicinally  in  that  country, 
and  are  more  purgative  than  those  of  the  castor-oil 
plant.  This  quality  seems  to  depend  upon  a  valuable 
fixed  oil,  of  which  twenty  drops  are  a  moderate  dose. 
It  is  obtained  by  pressure.  The  bark  of  the  tree, 
roasted  in  the  fire,  is  accounted  in  Brazil  a  certain 
remedy  for  diarrhoea,  brought  on  by  cold.  The 
fresh  bark,  thrown  into  ponds,  is  said  to  stupify 
fish. 

ANDALU'SIA  or  ANDALUCIA,  a  large  and 
fertile  province  or  kingdom  in  the  south  of  Spain, 
lying  between  36°  2'  and  38°  39'  N.  lat.,  and  1°  38' 
and  7°  20'  W.  long.  Having  been  overrun  by 
the  Vandals,  it  is  supposed  by  some  that  they 
gave  it  the  name  of  Vandalucia  or  Andalucia ; 
but  the  real  origin  of  the  name  is  probably 
Andaloxh,  the  Land  of  the  West.  It  is  the 
Tarshish  of  the  Bible,  and  was  called  Tartessus  in 
ancient  geography.  Tlie  Romans  luimed  it  Ba^tica, 
from  the  river  Bietis  (the  modern  Guadalquivir). 
The  Moors  founded  here  a  splendid  monarchy, 
which  quickly  attained  a  high  degree  of  civilisation. 
Learning,  art,  and  chivalry  flourished  in  harmony 
with  industry  andconmierce.  The  four  great  Moorish 
capitals  were  Seville,  Cordova,  Jaen,  and  Granada. 
During  the  darkness  of  the  middle  ages,  Cordova 
was  '  the  Athens  of  the  west,  the  scat  of  arts  and 
sciences;'  and  later  still,  under  the  Spaniards, 
when  '  the  sun  of  Raphael  set  in  Italy,  painting  here 
arose  in  a  new  form  in  the  Velasquez,  Murillo,  and 
Cano  school  of  Seville,  the  finest  in  the  peninsula.' 
On  the  north,  A.  is  divided  from  Estremadura  and 
New  Castile  by  the  mountain-chains  of  Aroche, 
Cordova,  and  Morena.  On  the  east  it  is  bounded  by 
Murcia,  and  on  the  west  by  Portugal  and  the 
Atlantic.  The  south  coast  eastward  from  Gibraltar 
is  mountainous ;  the  west,  where  the  Guadahpiivir 
flows  into  the  Atlantic,  is  level.  A.  was  esteemed 
the  richest  district  of  Ilesperia,  and  its  former 
wealth  of  produce  has  been  indicated  by  such 
names  as  the  'garden,'  the  'granary,'  the  'wine- 
cellar,'  and  the  '  gold-purse '  of  Spain.  But,  in 
the  present  day,  such  predicates  are  merited  only 
by  comparatively  small  portions  of  the  hilly  country 
on  both  sides  of  the  Guadalquivir,  where,  even 
with  careless  cultivation,  the  soil  is  luxuriantly 
productive.  Here  wheat  and  maize  ripen  in  Ajiril, 
and  yield  abundantly.  Olives  and  oranges  attain 
their  greatest  heiglit,  and  vegetation  generally 
assumes  a  tropical  character.  Cotton,  sugar-cane, 
Indain  figs,  and  batatas  flourish  in  the  open  air, 
and  the  cactus  and  aloe  form  impenetrable  hedges. 
Wine  and  oil  abound.  The  botany  and  mineralogy 
of  A.  are  very  rich.  The  ranges  of  the  Sierra  Nevada 
are  composed  principally  of  primary  and  secondary 
formations.  In  the  west,  towards  Xenil,  cultivation  is 
more  sparing,  as  there  is  a  natural  deficiency  of 
water,  and  the  artificial  means  of  irrigation  formerly 
employed  have  fallen  into  disuse.      Nearer  to   the 

235 


ANDAMANS— ANDERSON. 


coast  lie  trat'ts  of  land  still  nioro  barriii  ;  and  tht- 
level  strip  extending  between  the  inoiiihs  of  the 
Guadalquivir  and  the  Tinio,  is  eovered  with  moving' 
sands.  On  the  whole,  A.  is  still  one  of  the  most 
fertile  distriets  of  Sjjain,  owing  to  it.s  ddicious 
southern  climate  and  the  ahnndancc  of  water  suj)- 
plied  by  its  snowy  mountains.  Its  breed  of  horses 
has  long  been  celebrated,  and  the  mules  are  sujx-rior 
to  those  of  other  countries.  The  iSi'-ira  M'lnua 
moinUains  supply  the  wild  cattle  exhibiic  d  in  the 
bull-fights  of  Madrid.  The  natural  riches  of  the 
district  have  at  various  times  invited  colonists  and 
invaders,  such  as  the  PlKrnicians  and  the  Moors. 
The  Andalusians  are  regarded  as  among  the  most 
lively,  imaginative,  and  active  people  of  Spain. 
But  they  are  also  considered  by  the  rest  of  their 
countrymen  to  be  the  Gascons — the  braggarts  and 
boasters  of  Spain.  Apparently  they  have  never  at 
ar.y  time  been  warlike,  since  even  Livy  calls  them 
iiiihr/lcx.  They  are,  like  all  braggarts,  extremely 
credulous,  and  are,  besides,  remarkable  for  their 
intense  superstition.  The  worship  of  the  Virgin 
prevails  to  such  an  extent  that  the  very  country  is 
called  La  Tierrn  <lr  la  Sniilixii/in,  'the  Land  of 
the  Most  Holy  Virgin.'  They  speak  a  dialect  of 
Spanish  mixed  wiih  Arabic.  The  cliief  towns  of  A. 
are  named  after  the  four  ancient  provinces  into 
which  it  was  divided — Seville,  Cordova,  Jnen,  Cadiz, 
(q.  V.)     Area  27, '217  miles.     Pop.  1864,  3,116,255. 

A'XDAMAXS,  a  group  of  thickly  wooded  islands 
towards  the  east  side  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  between 
lii°  and  14""  of  N.  lat.,  and  about  03°  of  E.  long. 
The  population  is  both  barbarous  and  scanty,  and 
bears  no  rescml)lance  whatever  cither  in  physical 
features  or  language  to  the  neighboming  .\siatic  races. 
In  17',)3  the  (treat  Andaman  received  a  British 
colony,  which  was  withdrawn,  however,  in  17'.I6. 
Since  lSo7,  the  A.  have  been  selected  as  a  penal 
settlement  for  sepoy  mutineers,  though  the  design 
has  not,  at  least  on  any  large  scale,  been  carried  into 
effect.  It  is  only  physically,  in  short,  that  the  A. 
deserve  special  mention,  not  so  much  I'rom  their  pre- 
senting in  themselves  any  remarkabie  features,  as 
from  their  being  a  portit)n  of  the  long  aich,  mostlv 
volcanic,  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  which,  with 
Timor  at  its  bend,  comprises  the  -Moluccas,  Celebes, 
the  Philippines,  and  Formosa,  on  the  one  side  ;  and 
on  the  other  side  the  Siuida  Isles,  Java,  Sumatra, 
the  Xico!)ars,  and  the  A. — the  outline  only  re<)uiring 
to  he  tilled  up  in  imagination,  in  ortler  to  produce  a 
peninsula  harjiionising  more  or  le.«s  with  the  other 
southern  projections  of  the  world,  Uindostan,  Africa, 
and  South  America. 

ANDA'NTE  (Italian),  in  Music,  implies  a  move- 
ment somewhat  slow  ami  sedate,  but  in  a  gentle  and 
soothing  style.  This  term  is  often  modilied,  both  as 
to  time  and  style,  by  the  addition  of  other  words — 
as  A.  affettnoso,  slow,  but  pathetically ;  --1  cantabile, 
slow,  but  in  a  singing  style;  A  von  jiioto,  slow,  but 
with  emotion  ;  A.  f/razioso,  slow,  but  gracefully,  A. 
maestoso,  slow,  w  ith  majesty  ;  A.  non  troppo,  slow, 
but  not  too  much  so;  A.  ]>astorale,  slow,  and  with 
pastoral  simplicity. 

A'NDERNACII,  a  little  town  belonging  to  the 
district  of  Coblenz  on  the  Rhine,  in  lat.  60°  27'  X., 
long.  7''  25'  E.,  was  once  a  Roman  fortress  styled 
Antunnacnm,  then  a  residence  of  the  INIerovingian 
kings,  and  afterwards  became  one  of  the  most 
flourishing  places  on  the  Rhine.  The  great  tower 
on  the  north  side,  the  fine  old  church — with  one 
tower  built  in  the  Carlovingian  times — and  the  old 
gates  and  walls,  give  quite  a  medieval  aspect  to  the 
town.  It  now  contains  about  35(i0  people,  supported 
by  trade  in  leather,  wine,  and  corn,  and  is  especially 
celebrated  for  its  milktones,  exported  to  distant 
236 


parts  of  the  worl<l,  and  for  its  tnjj'Uiin  or  trass,  un 
indurated  volcanic  niud,  which,  wiicii  pidvcri.-^ed  and 
mixed  with  linu-,  mai.es  a  uiortur  or  eemeiiC  for 
coii-structions  under  w  *ter. 

ANDKUSE.V,  Hans  Ciiui.stias,  one  of  the  most 
gifted  jioets  that  iKMiniark  has  rei-ently  [iroduced, 
was  born  April  2,  lis<»,"),  at  Odcnse  in  Euncn.  His 
father  was  a  poor  shoemaker,  who  used,  however,  to 
con.sole  himself  by  speaking  of  the  former  prospciity 
and  wealth  of  his  family.  After  his  father's  death, 
he  Was  for  a  short  tinu-  employed  in  a  manufactory. 
The  widow  of  Hunkellod,  a  ])Oet  of  some  reputation, 
charital)ly  a(U)pted  him.  He  early  displayed  a  talent 
for  poetry,  and  was  known  in  his  native  j)lace  as 
'  the  comedy-writer.'  Hojiing  to  obtain  an  engage- 
ment in  the  theatre,  he  went  to  Copenhagen,  but 
was  njected  because  he  was  too  lean.  He  was  next 
encouraged  to  hope  for  success  as  a  singer ;  but  had 
hardly  commenced  his  musical  studies  when  hia 
voice  failed.  He  foinid  generous  friends,  however, 
to  help  him  in  his  distress;  and  application  having 
l)een  made  by  one  of  them  to  the  king,  he  was  placed 
at  an  advanced  school  at  the  j)ublic  exfiense,  and  so 
began  his  academic  education  in  1K2S.  Some  of  his 
poems,  parlicidarly  one  entitled  'Jlie  Di/irift  Child, 
luid  already  been  favourably  received,  and  he  now 
became  better  known  by  the  publication  of  his 
Walk  to  AiiKik,  a  literary  satire  in  the  form  of  a 
humorous  narrative.  In  183(i,  he  published  the  first 
collected  volume  of  his  Poemx^vLuA  in  ISISI  a  second, 
under  the  title  of  Fanlaxicx  ami  Sketches.  His 
I'rarellinr/  Sketchex  {Ski/nf/et/illc<lrr  ofcu  Reixe  til 
Ilarzcn,  kc.)  were  the  fruit  of  a  tour  in  the  north  of 
(Jennany.  A  pension  front  the  king  now  enabled 
him  to  visit  Germany,  France,  Switzerland,  and 
Italy.  In  Switzerland  he  completed  his  Afpiex  and 
the  Merman  ;  and  one  of  his  best  works.  The  Imjiro- 
visa/ore,  a  series  of  scenes  depicted  in  a  glowing  style, 
and  full  of  poetic  interest,  was  the  fruit  of  his  visit 
to  Italy.  Soon  afterwards,  he  produced  O.  7'.  (ISS.i), 
a  novel  containing  vivid  pictures  of  northern  scenery 
and  manners,  which  was  followed  (1837)  by  another, 
entitled  On/i/  a  FiJd/er  {h'uii  en  Sjiillentand).  In 
1S4(>,  he  produced  a  romantic  drama,  entitled  77ie 
Mulatto,  which  was  well  received ;  but  another 
drama,  Rnjihaella,  was  less  successful.  In  the  same 
year  ap]ieared  his  Picture-book  without  Pieturex,  a 
series  of  the  finest  imaginative  sketches.  Exhausted 
by  his  labours,  he  sought  recreation  in  the  end  of 
1840  in  a  somewhat  lengthened  tour  in  Italy  and 
the  East,  of  which  he  gave  an  account  in  A  Poet's 
Bazaar  (1842).  After  his  return,  appeared  77ie 
Flower  of  Fortune,  a  dramatised  fable,  and  three 
series  of  tales,  some  of  which  had  previously 
appeared,  and  by  which  the  popularity  of  A.  was 
greatly  exteiuK-d,  and  particularly  in  Germany.  Hia 
works  have  been  translated,  not  only  into  German, 
but  in'o  English  and  other  languages,  although  the 
beauty  of  his  style,  more  than  of  many  authors, 
are  unavoidably  lost  in  tran.slation.  His  Pyinej 
Child  has  been  translated  into  the  language  of 
Greenland.  Besides  the  works  above  mentioned, 
he  is  the  author  of  Ahaxnerux,  a  mythical  drama, 
and  of  The  Two  Baronexxcs,  a  tale  illustrative  of 
Danish  society. 

ANDERSOX,  James,  LL.D.,  a  writer  on  politi- 
cal economy  and  agriculture,  was  born  in  1739  at  the 
village  of  Ilermiston,  near  Edinburgh.  He  lost  both 
his  parents  when  very  young,  so  that  the  manage- 
ment of  a  large  farm,  which  had  been  in  the  pos.ses- 
sion  of  the  family  lor  a  long  time,  devolved  upon 
himself.  Recognising  the  practical  importance  of  a 
knowledge  of  chemistry  to  a  farmer,  ho  attended  the 
chemistry  class  in  the  university  of  Edinl)urgh,  and 
brought  the  results  of   hia  study    to    bear   on    his 


ANDERSON— ANDES. 


proleirision  He  invcnti-d,  at  an  cailv  p(>iiod  of  life,  I  condensation  of  common  air  within  the  body  of  the 
the  small  two-horse  pUiiiKh,  without  wheels,  commonly  !  carriage;  but  having  in  vain  endeavoured  to  attract 
called  the  Scotch  plough,  which  is  gencrallv  admitted  the  attention  of  the  British  government  to  it  he 
to  have  been  one  of  the  most  useful  improvements  proceeded  to  Paris  in  1791,  and,  being  himself  a 
of  agricultural  implements  ever  introduced.  When  great  friend  of  liberty,  presented  his  riiodel  /o  the 
onlv  'M  years  of  age,  he  went  to  Aberdeenshire,  '  National  Convention.  It  was  hung  up  in  their  hall, 
where"  he  rented  a  large  moorland  farm  of  1300  j  with  the  following  inscription  over  it;  'The  gift  of 
acres  Here  he  remained  for  a  considerable  time,  Sciknc-e  to  LinEUTY.'  Afterwards,  wlien  the  allied 
devotin-  his  leisure  hours  to  writing  upon  agricul-  '  monarchical  force  had  drawn  a  military  cordon 
ture  flis  first  attempt  was  a  series  of  essavs  upon  around  the  frontiers  of  France,  to  prevent  the  intro- 
pl-mtin"-  which  under  the  signature  of  Aqrirola,  he  ,  duction  of  French  newspapers  into  Gerrnanv,  A. 
co'ntributed  to  the  Edinhnrqh  Weekhj  Mar;az[ne.  In  ,  ingeniously  suggested  the  expedient,  which  was 
1780  the  university  of  Aberdeen  bestowed  on  him  ^  adopted,  and  proved  quite  successful,  of  making  small 
the  (ief'ree  of  Doctor  of  Laws.  In  1784,  on  account  :  balloons  of  paper,  to  which  newspapers  and  manifer. 
of  his°  pamphlet,  entitled  Enrournr/emevt  of  //(<•  |  toes  might  l)e  tied,  and  letting  them  off,  when  t  ,e 
National  Fisheries,  he.  was  engaged  by  government  wind  was  favourable,  fo^,,^^"^""^,  4"  '^'^'}J^l^l 
to  make  a  survey  of  the  western  coast  of  Scotland,  '  January  179G.  By  his  will  date.1  /  th  May  1 ,  05,  he 
with  special  reference  to  that  object.  He  next  di.vcted  that  the  whole  of  his  effoets,  of  every  kind, 
commenced  in  1791  the  publication  of  a  periodical  |  .should  be  devoted  to  the  establishment  of  an  educa- 
called  7%/' i?f'e,  which  was  continued  for  three  years;  I  tional  institution  in  Glasgow,  to  be  denommated 
in  1797  he  went  to  London,  where  he  pursued  his  Avckr.'^on's  University,  for  the  use  of  the  unacademi- 
litera'ry  avocations  with   such  intense  assiduity,  fli;it  j  cal  classes. 

his  health  n-radually  gave  way.  He  died  on  the  l.=5th  '  Aspersos's,  or,  more  commonly,  the  Andersosiam 
of  Octobe?1808  !  University,    was   originally   intended   to  consist  of 

A  will  deserve  a  place  in  any  record  which  \  four  colleges— for  arts,  medicine,  law,  and  theology 
details  the  remarkable  advances  made  bv  Scotland  |  —besides  an  initiatory  school.  Each  collegewas  to 
ii  a-riculture  and  other  sources  of  wealth  in  the  ,  have  nine  professors,  the  senior  professor  being  the 
latter  half  of  the  18th  c.  And  even  in  the  history  of  i  president  or  dean.  The  funds,  however,  were  totally 
ideas  he  will  deserve  a  prominent  notice,  as  his  Bee  \  inadequate  to  such  a  plan,  and_  the  institution  was 
was^he  type  of  mnnv  periodical  miscellanies  of  a  |  therefore  opened  with  only  a  single  course  of  lee- 
cheap  natu  e,  mingling  instruction  with  entertain-  i  tures  on  natural  philosophy  and  chemistry,  bv  Dr. 
ment%hich  have  shice  been  published.  It  is  also  to  j  Thomas  Garnett  This  course  was  '^"ended  by 
be  observed  that,  in  his  essay  called  .1  Comparative  nearly  a  thousand  persons  of  both  sexes.  In  17. tS, 
View  of  the  Effects  of  Rent  and  of  Tithe  in  Inftncncinr.^  professor  of  matheinatics  and  g'^Y^nVJ'of 
the  Price  o/con/ccontained  in  one  of  his  latest  appointed.  The  splendid  apparatus  and  hbrar  of 
pnblicatons-;  Tlie  Recreation,  of  Ac,ricnlfure),  he  the  founder,  which  were  valued  at  .£3000  added 
anti  ipated    ome  important  prii/ciples  subsequently    greatly  to  the  advantages  of  the  '"f="'^  >"^!,>  '  ^>:;"- 

.       '  1  1  '    ,  ,,^„„^ .; —    !  T„   i-oo    Hr.    n  T-hpr>l.-    fhp  successor  of  Dr.  Garnett, 


ant  cpated  some  important  principles  suusequeimy    -.eauv    ^yj   u..^  ........ ...^^- v, r„^r,„ft 

advocated  by  Malthus,  Ricardo,  and  West,  particu-    In  1799,  Dr.   Birbeck,  the  successor  of  Dr.  Garnett, 
klv  the  famous  theory'  of  rent.  commenced  the  system  of  g.vinga  fam.har  expos.- 

'  ^^r^^p  /•  -KT  .       1  !*>•""  "f  TTior-Vinnics  -Tnd  n-ener.al  science.       His  class 

ANDERSON,  John,  F.R.S.,   Professor  of  Natural 
Pliilosophy  in  the  university  of  Glasgow,  and  founder 


IV  ilie  laniouB  uiieui  V  ui  ichl.  ^- -    -      ■'  ^^        -.  „.     „i„„- 

ANDERSON.  J„,.,  KR.S     rrofe.or  of  N..„ra,    H™  "f  ™-h-nc,  and  .e„.,.    -"ce.^^.  m.  £, 
.:i„^^,.i,„  ir.  tVio  nnpprsitv  of  Gmso-ow.  and  founder    »<is  <"it""<->'     ^J    "  '       .   •„  ,.f  „,„„i,„„- .„! 

instruction  riratiK.  This  was  the  origin  ot  mechanics 
institutes.  'The  Andersonian  Institution  was  placed, 
by  the  will  of  the  founder,  under  the  in.spection  and 
control  of  the  lord  provost,  and  many  other  honour- 


of  the  eminently  useful  institution  bearing  his  name, 
was  born  in  the  parish  of  Roseneath,  Dumbarton- 
fiiire,  in  17-26.       Having   lost  his   father,  who  was  a 


clergyman,  when  very  young,  the  care  of  his  educa- ,  ^^   ^^^  ^.^.^^^^^   ^,,^1    „„,j,,   „,e 

tion  devolved  upon  an  aunt  who  resided  at  ?tn-l.ig.  I^  superintendence  of  81  trustees,  who 

From    Stirling    he    went    to     (?lasgow  Univers  ty,  |  more^mm    ^^    ^^^^  P  ^  _^  It 

where  he  must  have  excelled  in  hrerature  as  well  .as  ,  «re  ^^^     „  ;     ,      Jj  j^g      ,,,,e  ^f  instruction,  and 
in  science,  for  in  his  3.1th  year  he    was   appointed  1  Ja^  pj^a      ^  n  ^^^  ^^  ^^^  ^^^^^^^^^      j^ 

Professor  of  Orient.al  Languages       Four  years  ater  ,  \'^^f'^        „„,^^^  ^f  professors  amounted  to  15.     It 
(17r,0),  he  was  tr.ansferred  to  ^he  chair  of  ^atu^.al  ,  1-^^--^  t  J  '^^^..^^  ^,  the  present  day,  as  a 

Philo<ophy-an  event  which,  considering  his  decided  ,  PO^^e  particular. 

nredilection  for  the  exact  sciences,  must  have   been    st-nooi  ui  uieuii.  y  ,.,•„«•    c„„*i, 

Tot  leS  ".-reeable  to  him  than  fortunate  for  the  A'NDES,  the  great  '""""t'*'"-^'!'^'"  «f  f «*  J^ 
world  He  entered  upon  his  new  duties  with  extra-  America,  extending  in  a  direc  ion  'J^j'-^  P"""  "^^ 
ordinary  ardour  Besides  the  work  of  the  class,  he  with  the  Pacific,  along  almost  the  whole  length  of 
wisindefttd^ie  in  s  udving  the  application  of  I  the  continent.  The  chain  falls  short  of  the  Isthmus 
":in  to  icLical  practice;  visit^'g,  for  this  of  Darien,  between  which  .ami  the  At^^^^^^^^^^ 
purpose,  the  workshops  of  artisans  in  the  town,  and  falling  into  the  Canbbeai.  Sea-it  g^jduaUy  subs,  es 
Liiviiig,  in    return   for  the  theori..  and  principles    -^^ -[trit^oMr Srait  o^S^^a^'S 

far  as  the  mainland  is  concerned.  But,  on  geological 
grounds,  it  has  been  tr.aced,  first  along  the  islands 
that  breast  P.atagonia  to  the  west,  and  next  along 
those  that  form  the  Fuegian  Archipelago.     Thus  may 


which  he  had  to  communicate,  a  full  equivalent  of 
experimental  knowledge.  Even  this,  however,  did 
not  satisfy  him.  Inspired  by  a  rational  philanthropy, 
he  instituted,  in  addition  to  his  usual  class,  which 
was  strictly  mathematical,  one  for  the  working- 
classes  and  other  persons  whose  pursuits  did  not 
enable  them  to  conform  to  the  prescribed  routine  of 
academical  study.  He  continued  to  teach  this  Anti- 
tor/a  Class,  as  he  called  it— with  reference  to  the 
red  tor/a,  or  college-gown,  worn  by  the  regular 
students   in    Glasgow— twice    every    week,    during 


muse  iiiiit  lui ""  '">-  ' -'^p 1        '^    .   ,  X         u      "j 

the  ch.ain  be  .said  to  stretch  from  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  mouth  of  the    Atr.ato,  not   merely   to  C.ape 
Horn     but   even   to   the   rocks   of  Diego  Ramirez 
which    lie   about    60   miles  to    the   south-west    of 
that   promontory.      The  extreme  length,  therefore, 
is  from  lat.  8°  15'   N.   to  lat.  56'   30     S  -compris- 
;h7s;;;io;:to7he"e"nd  of  hislife.     In  1786  appeared    ing,  of  course  64°  45',  ^'^^^^'^l^^'l^'^^^l^^^^^^ 
hlsvaluable  work,  entitled /».^7»^.,so/P%«V.s,  which    windings  or   J«^';;^'«"%f;>«"^    Jh ich     ^Ture   ts 
went  through  fi^e  editions  in  ten   ye.ars        Shortly    But    to    "-''^^Jhe      cale    on    whali     -a^-e  /-^ 
before  the  French  Revolution,  he  invented  a  species    moulded  the  f  ^/«f 'J^^f^^.JJ^^^'tj;^^^^^^^^ 
of  gun  the   recoil   of  which   was  stopped  by   the  I  merely  a  part  of  the  suffiuently  contmuou    cnam 


ANDES. 


of  about  9000  miles  wliich  loses  itself  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Mackenzie,  towards  the  shores  of 
the  Arctic  Ocean.  In  this  respect,  the  old  continent 
can  bring  nothing  into  comparison. 

PoKition. — The  A.,  bes^ides  being  generally  in  a 
direction  nearly  parallel  with  the  Pacific,  verge 
closely  on  that  ocean.  From  the  rocks,  indeed, 
of  Diego  Ramirez  to  about  lat.  4o°  S.,  the 
mountains,  whether  they  are  found  on  islands  or 
on  the  mainland,  are  almost  literally  washed  by 
the  surf;  while  northward  from  that  parallel,  there 
spreads  out,  between  the  chain  itself  and  the  sea, 
a  belt  of  land  not  e.xceeding,  in   average   breadth, 

O  or  80  miles.  Within  the  limits  of  Peru,  the  belt 
in  question  is  narrowest,  while  above  and  below  it  is, 
in  general,  somewhat  more  extensive.  The  position 
of  the  A.  with  respect  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean  presents 
a  striking  contrast.  To  illustrate  this,  a  passage  is 
subjoined  from  Hcrndon,  the  explorer  of  the 
Amazon  on  behalf  of  the  United  States.  Crossing 
from  Lima  to  the  head-waters  of  the  Amazon, 
by  the  Pass  of  Antarangra,  he  writes  thus:  '  Yana- 
coto,  on  the  western  slope  of  the  A.,  at  the  height  of 
23.37  feet  above  the  sea-level,  is  only  28  miles  from 
the  ocean  that  washes  the  base  of  the  slope  on  which 
It  is  situateii ;  while  Fort  San  Ramon,  at  nearly  the 
same  elevation  on  the  opposite  side,  cannot  be  much 
less  than  4000  miles  from  its  ocean  by  the  windings 
of  the  river,  and  in  the  river's  direct  course  is  at 
least  2.500  miles.'  Further,  to  compare  the  two  areas 
respectively  to  the  west  and  east  of  the  dividing 
ridge,  the  former  has  been  estimated  at  180,000 
square  miles,  and  the  latter  at  twenty  times  as 
much. 

Hijdro(jraphii  — This  interesting  feature  of  the  A. 
has  been  already  anticipated,  to  a  considerable 
extent,  under  the  heads  of  the  Amazon  and 
Amf;rica.  It  only  rema.ns  to  observe  that  from 
one  end  of  the  continent  to  the  other,  the  true 
and  only  water-shed,  wherever  there  are  two  ranges, 
is  the  range  nearer  to  the  Pacific.  Not  only  is 
the  water-shed  in  question  obviously  far  closer  to 
the  west  than  to  the  east,  but,  beyond  this,  it  is, 
apparently  without  a  single  exception,  pushed  as  far 
to  the  westward  as  possible;  it  thus  affords  the 
most  conspicuous  and  most  decisive  example  of  an 
almost  universal  law  in  the  hydrography  of  the 
earth.  Throughout  both  continents,  almost  every 
leading  water-shed  presents  a  longer  descent  towards 
the  east  than  towards  the  west,  or,  in  other 
words,  sends  oflf  larger  streams  in  the  former  direc- 
tion than  in  the  latter.  To  cite  a  few  instances : 
compare,  in  North  America,  the  Missouri  with  the 
Columbia ;  in  Europe,  the  Volga  with  the  Neva :  in 
Asia,  the  Hoang-ho  of  China  with  the  Oxus  of  the 
Sea  of  Aral ;  and  even  in  Africa,  where,  as  also  in 
Arabia,  hydrographical  traces  have  been  largely 
overlaid  by  deserts  of  sand,  the  plateau  of  tlie 
Sahara  and  the  chain  of  the  Atlas  gradually  incline, 
both  of  them,  towards  the  east.  But,  if  the  water- 
shed be  invariably  found  as  far  as  possible  to  the 
westward,  it  necessarily  follows,  that,  wherever 
there  are  two  ranges,  the  more  easterly  range  cannot 
also  be  a  continuous  water-shed — unless,  indeed,  it 
may  be  regarded  as  such  with  respect  to  the  land- 
locked basin  of  the  connected  lakes,  Titicaca  and 
Uroz,  already  mentioned  under  the  head  of  America. 
With  this  exception,  all  the  gatherings  between  the 
two  ranges,  whether  the  intermediate  space  be 
plateau  or  sierra,  have  found  or  formed  channels  of 
escape — narrow,  deep,  and  dark  as  they  often  are — 
only  to  that  sea  which  is  thirty  or  forty  times  more 
distant  than  the  one  at  their  back. 

Breadth  and  Area. — The    area,    on   an    estimate, 

necessarily  rough  and  vague,  has  been  computed  to 

be  triple  that  of  the  belt  of  comparatively  level  land 

238 


that  borders  on  the  Pacific.  In  other  words,  th(» 
average  Vu-eadth  of  the  chain  is  reckoned  to  be  thrice 
that  of  the  belt  in  question.  In  a  rough  way,  the 
breadth  may  be  estimated  from  the  very  shore  of 
the  Pacific,  whence  the  west  slope  conmiences,  to 
the  lowest  pongos,  or  cataracts,  on  the  eastward 
streams.  But  it  is  more  correct  to  measure  it 
from  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  properly  so  called, 
on  the  one  side  to  that  on  the  other.  The  phrase- 
ology of  the  country,  which,  on  such  a  subject,  ought 
to  be  conclusive,  appears  to  support  the  latter  mode 
of  computation.  In  Lima  and  its  neighbourhood, 
where  llerndon  crossed  the  A.,  that  offii-er  speaks 
of  '  coast '  and  '  sierra,'  as  distinguished  from  each 
other  even  to  the  westward  of  the  dividing  ridge. 
The  entire  distance  of  the  Pass  of  Antarangra,  as 
measured  on  the  actual  road,  was  87  miles — the  first 
50  being  coast,  and  the  remaining  37  being  sierra. 
Nor  docs  the  distinction  seem  to  have  been  an  arbi- 
trary one.  PYom  Callao  to  Cocachera — a  line  of  44 
miles — the  rise  above  the  sea-level,  tolerably  uniform 
the  whole  way,  amounted  to  44.52  feet,  or  rather 
more  than  101  feet  to  the  mile  ;  but  the  next  1.5  miles, 
of  which  about  a  half  still  belonged  to  what  was  called 
coast,  yielded  an  increase  of  2850  feet,  an  average 
probably  of  200  feet  for  that  part  of  the  stage  that 
it'll  under  the  definition  of  sierra.  To  give  instances 
of  extreme  breadths  of  the  A. — an  average  breadth 
being  unattainable — the  least  breadth,  and  that  in 
Patagonia,  is  believed  to  be  60  or  70  miles ;  the 
greatest  breadth,  again,  pretty  nearly  on  the  parallel 
of  Lake  Titicaca,  and  right  through  the  grand 
plateau  of  Bolivia,  is  said  to  be  4oo  miles;  and 
to  give  an  intermediate  case,  the  breadth  from 
Mondoza,  in  the  basin  of  La  Plata,  to  Santiago,  in 
Chili,  is  given  at  140  miles — the  former  city  being 
4486  feet  above  the  Atlantic,  and  the  latter  2014 
above  the  Pacific. 

Ill  order,  then,  to  have  a  definite  idea  of  the  breadth 
of  the  A.,  the  chain  must  be  viewed  from  one  end  to 
the  other.  In  doing  this,  there  will  be  adopted  the 
ordinary  nomenclature,  referring  each  division  of 
the  A.  to  the  particular  country  through  which  it 
may  pass. 

Patagonian  Andes. — Including  the  A.  of  the 
Fuegian  Archipelago,  this  part  of  the  chain,  ex- 
tending from  lat.  56°  S.  to  lat.  42°  S.,  a  distance  of 
more  than  960  miles,  is  the  narrowest  of  all,  or  is, 
at  all  events,  too  irregular  to  have  its  breadth 
accurately  estimated.  The  Patagonian  shore,  strictly 
so  called,  is  breasted,  very  much  like  the  north- 
west coast  between  Fuca's  Strait  and  Mount  St 
Elias,  by  a  number  of  islands.  On  these,  as  already 
mentioned,  the  true  A.  are  to  be  found,  or  rather, 
of  these  the  true  A.  consist — the  continent  itself 
affording  no  footing  to  the  chain  till  fully  3oO  miles 
to  the  northward  of  Cape  Horn.  Even  after  the 
chain  has  laid  hold  of  the  mainland,  it  by  no  means 
can  be  said  to  abandon  the  islands  ;  so  that  here, 
as  further  to  the  north,  the  chain  may  be  regarded 
as  made  up  of  parallel  ranges — the  main  difference 
being  that  the  intervening  valleys,  which,  to  the 
north,  are  basins  of  fresh-water  rivers,  here  present 
salt-water  channels. 

Chilian  Andes,  stretching  from  lat.  42°  S.  to  lat. 
24°  S.,  a  distance  of  nearly  1250  miles.  Throughout 
nearly  the  whole  of  this  line,  the  A.  consist  of  only 
one  range,  for  the  parallel  ridges,  which  run  along 
between  the  great  water-shed  and  the  Pacific, 
cannot  claim  to  be  any  exception  to  this  remark, 
inasmuch  as  their  highest  points  do  not  exceed  an 
elevation  of  2500  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
This  part  of  the  chain,  however,  presents  several 
lateral  ranges,  if  it  does  not  present  any  parallel 
ones  of  importance.  These  spurs  are  to  be  seen  on 
both  sides,  though  of  very  different  magnitudes.     To 


ANDES. 


the  west,  they  are  akin  to  the  comparatively  insig- 
nificant parallel  ranges  just  noticed,  being,  if  A.  at 
all,  merely  A.  in  miniature.  But  to  the  east,  the 
Bpurs  deserve  more  consideration.  They  are  two  in 
number,  the  one  branching  off  between  the  SSd  and 
31st  parallels,  and  the  other  between  the  28th  and 
24th.  The  former,  called  the  Sierra  de  Cordova, 
advances  like  a  promontory  into  the  plains  of  Rio 
de  La  Plata,  or  Pampas,  as  they  are  more  gener- 
ally denominated,  as  far  as  the  65th  meridian ; 
and  the  latter,  called  the  Sierra  de  Salta,  runs 
nearly  as  far  to  the  east,  and  in  a  direction  nearly 
parallel. 

Peruvian  Andes. — This  part  of  the  chain,  stretch- 
ing from  lat.  24°  S.  to  lat.  6°  S. — a  distance  about 
the  same  as  in  the  last  paragraph — is  perhaps  the 
broadest  of  all  the  divisions  of  the  A.  It  certainly 
contains  the  largest  of  the  plateaus,  the  plateau  of 
Boh  via.  Between  the  20th  and  19th  parallels,  not 
far  from  the  city  of  Potosi,  the  chain  separates  into 
two  ranges,  known  as  the  East  and  West  Cordilleras 
of  Bolivia ;  and  it  is  the  reunion  of  these  ranges, 
between  the  15th  and  14th  parallels,  that  encloses 
the  land-locked  plateau  of  Titicaca,  containing,  as  is 
said,  30,000  square  miles,  or  an  area  equal  to  that  of 
Ireland.  Immediately  above  this  table-land,  the 
united  ranges  in  question  constitute  the  mountain- 
group  of  Cuzco,  which,  in  point  of  superficial  extent, 
is  stated  to  be  thrice  as  large  as  all  Switzerland. 
About  a  degree  further  north,  the  chain  again 
separates  as  before,  retmiiing  also,  as  before,  between 
the  11th  and  loth  parallels,  so  as  to  embrace  the 
cities  of  Quanta  and  Guancavelica.  Hardly  have 
the  two  ranges  reunited,  when  they  mass  them- 
selves into  the  table-land  of  Pasco,  not  quite 
half  the  size  of  that  of  Titicaca.  Further  to 
the  north,  the  chain  divides,  not  into  two,  but 
into  three  ranges,  which  unite  again,  on  the 
frontiers  of  Ecuador,  in  the  group  of  Loxa,  about 
lat.  5°  S. 

Andes  of  Ecuador. — Immediately  beyond  the  group 
of  Loxa,  between  4°  and  3°  of  S.  lat.,  the  chain 
divides  into  two  ranges,  which,  by  again  uniting  in 
2°  27',  form  the  valley  of  Cuenca  ;  and  immediately 
beyond  this  is  the  group  of  Assuay,  with  its  table- 
land. Then  another  plateau  of  no  great  extent, 
and  a  short  stretch  of  the  undivided  chain,  lead 
to  the  vast  table-land  of  Quito,  which  is  said  to 
be  subdivided  by  low  hills  into  five  smaller  phiteaus, 
two  to  the  east,  and  three  to  the  west.  Towards  the 
north,  the  table-land  of  Quito  is  succeeded  by  the 
group  of  Los  Pastos,  forming  the  extreme  portion  of 
the  A.  of  Ecuador. 

Andes  of  New  Granada. — Beyond  the  city  of 
Almaguer,  the  chain  breaks  off  into  two  ranges, 
which  never  again  join  each  other.  The  range  on 
the  west  side  remains  undivided,  till  it  disappears 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Atrato,  a  little  to  the  east  of 
the  Isthmus  of  Darien.  But  the  range  ©n  the  east, 
after  massing  itself  into  the  group  of  Paramo  de  los 
Papas,  breaks  into  two  branches,  which,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  range  aforesaid  on  the  west,  are 
styled  the  Central  and  Eastern  Cordilleras  of  New 
Granada.  These  two  contain  between  them  the 
upper  waters  of  the  Magdalena,  the  eastern  separat- 
ing them  from  the  basin  of  the  Orinoco,  and  the 
central  dividing  them  from  that  of  the  Cauca. 
Between  them  also  they  contain  several  considerable 
table-lands,  the  principal  one  being  that  of  Santa 
Fe  de  Bogota. 

Height. — Under  this  head  must  be  treated  separ- 
ately the  plateaus,  the  most  prominent  mountains, 
and  the  passes — the  altitudes  of  the  lines  of  perpet- 
ual snow  falling  more  naturally  under  the  head  of 
Climate.  Here,  as  in  the  case  of  breadth,  the  chain 
will  be  followed  from  south  to  north. 


IlEIGUT    OF    PLATEAUS. 


Table-land  of  Titicaca, 
(iroup  of  Cuzco, 
Table-land  of  Pasco, 
"  •'  Assuay, 

"  "  Quito, 

"  "  Bogota. 


Feet 

12,700 

8,300 

11,000 

15,520 

9,543 

8,958 


The  average  height  of  these  six  colossal  masses 
above  the  sea-level  is  thus  11,000  feet,  or  consider- 
ably more  than  2  English  miles. 


HEIGHT    OF    MOUNTAINS. 

Fuerjian  Andes — 

Feet. 

Cape  Horn,             .... 

3,000 

Sarmiento, 

6,800 

Palaponian  Andes — 

Yan  teles,         ..... 

8,030 

Corcobado,         ..... 

.     7,510 

Minchinadom,         .... 

8,000 

Chilian  Andes — 

Antuco, 

.  13,000 

Aconcagua, 

22,296 

Dcscabezado,     . 

.  12,102 

Nevado  de  Chorolque,   . 

16,546 

Bolivian  Andes — 

Cerro  de  Potosi,         .... 

.   16,040 

Gualtiori,       ..... 

22,000 

Nevado  de  Chuquibamba, 

.  21,000 

"           Illimani, 

.        21,150 

"           Sorata,      .... 

.  21,290 

Analache 

18,500 

Peruvian  Andes — 

Arequipa, 

.  20,320 

Andes  of  Ecuador — 

Chimborazo,           ..." 

21,420 

Cotopaxi,           ..... 

.  18,887 

Antisana,       ..... 

19,137 

Pichincha,          ..... 

.  15,922 

Cayambe, 

19,648 

Andes  of  NeiP  Granada — 

Pic  de  Tolima,            .... 

.  18,314 

This  last-named  mountain  is  said  to  be  the  only  one 
in  New  Granada  that  rises  above  the  limit  of  per- 
petual snow.  All  the  others  appear  to  fall  short  of 
that  line. 

HEIGHT    OF    PASSES. 

Chilian  Andes —  ^^et. 

La  Cumbre, 12,454 

Portillo 14,365 

Bolivian  Andes — 

Poto.si, 14,320 

Las  Gualillas, 14,830 

Peruvian  Andes — 

Alto  de  Jacaibamba,     ....  15,135 

Lachagual, 15,480 

Antarangra, 16,199 

Andf.s  of  Ecuadoi — 

Assuay, 12,385 

Andes  of  New  Granada— 

Quindiu, 11,500 

These  passes  wil'  bear  a  comparison  with  the  loftiest 
pinnacles  in  Europe.  The  last  and  lowest  overtops 
the  highest  summit  of  the  Pyrenees  by  332  feet ; 
while  the  last  but  two,  that  of  Antarangra,  which 
Herndon  traversed,  soars  389  feet  above  Mont  Blanc, 
the  culminating  peak  of  the  Alps. 

The  passes  across  the  A.  present  a  vast  variety 
of  surfaces  and  levels.  They  appear  to  skirt,  as  often 
as   practicable,   the   mountain-torrents ;   and,    whea 

239 


ANDES. 


that  is  impracticable,  sonictltnes  surmount  them 
by  bridgi'S,  and  sometimes  avoici  tliem  by  moans 
of  a  path  cut  along  the  shoulder  of  the  overhanging 
heipjlit. 

With  respect  to  the  moimtain-torrents,  ITcrndon, 
after  leaving  Antarangra  beliind  him,  was  enabled 
to  avail  liimself  chiefly  of  tliis  resource.  'As  far  as 
the  traveller,'  says  he,  '  is  concerned,  there  are  not, 
on  the  route  we  have  travcUetl,  two  ranges  of  the 
A. — that  is,  he  has  not  to  ascend  and  descend  one 
range,  and  then  ascend  and  descend  another.  From 
the  time  that  he  crosses  at  Antarangra,  his  progress 
is  downward,  till  he  reaches  the  plain.  Really, 
however,  there  are  two  ranges.  The  streams  from 
the  first  or  western  range  have  broken  their  way 
through  the  second,  making  deep  gorges,  at  the 
bottom  of  which  the  road  generally  runs,  and  leaves 
the  peaks  of  the  second  range  thousands  of  feet 
above  the  traveller's  head.' 

In  addition  to  the  essential  perils  of  such  a 
course,  Ilerndon  encountered,  on  one  occasion,  an 
incidental  danger,  which  he  thus  de.-ciibes — the 
scene  being  a  narrow  path  on  the  shoulder  of  an 
almost  precipitous  hill :  '  Mr.  Gibbon  was  riding  ahead. 
Just  as  lie  was  about  to  turn  a  sharp  bend,  the  head 
of  a  bull  peered  round  it  on  the  descent.  When  the 
bull  came  in  full  view,  he  stopped;  and  we  could  see 
the  heads  of  other  cattle  clustering  over  his  quar- 
ters, and  hear  the  shouts  of  the  cattle-drivers,  far 
behind,  urging  on  their  herd.  I  happened  to  be 
abreast  of  a  slight  natural  excavation  ;  and  dismount- 
ing, I  put  my  shoulder  against  my  mule's  flank,  and 
pressed  her  into  this  friendly  retreat ;  but  I  saw  no 
escape  for  Gibbon.  The  bull,  with  lowered  crest  and 
savage  look,  came  slowly  on,  and  actually  got  his  head 
between  the  perpetidicular  wall  and  the  neck  of  Gib- 
bon's mule.  But  his  sagacious  beast,  pressing  her 
haunches  hard  against  the  rock,  gathered  her  feet 
close  under  her,  and  turned  as  on  a  pivot.  This 
placed  the  bull  on  the  outside  ;  and  he  rushed  by  at 
the  gallop,  followed  In  single  file  by  the  rest  of  "the 
herd.' 

In  the  oridging  of  the  mountain-torrents,  a  good 
deal  of  rude  ingenuity  is  displayed.  Sometimes 
chains  are  suspended  from  side  to  side;  and  some- 
times a  rough  flooring  is  laid  between  projecting 
beams  from  either  bank,  which  have  previously  been 
fixed  as  solidly  as  possible.  Nature  also  has  done 
something  in  this  respect  to  help  man,  having  thrown 
two  bridges  of  her  own  over  a  fearful  chasm  at 
Icononzo.  The  torrent,  which  they  span,  falls  down 
a  beautiful  cataract  into  a  murky  crevice — the  noisy 
haunt  of  nocturnal  birds.  At  a  height  of  400  feet 
above  tlie  foaming  waters,  the  two  bridges  hang  in 
mid-air,  both  of  them,  apparently,  though  in  differ- 
ent ways,  the  work  of  an  eartliquake.  The  upper 
one  is  merely  a  fragment  of  the  original  sandstone, 
which  must  have  resisted  the  shock  that  formed  the 
rent ;  while  the  lower,  probably  the  most  singular 
arch  in  the  world,  consists  of  three  detached  rocks, 
so  adjusted  as  to  support  each  other. 

The  loftiest  pinnacles  of  the  A.,  when  viewed 
from  the  table-lands,  and,  still  more,  when  seen 
from  the  crests  of  the  passes,  lose,  to  the  eve  of 
the  beholder,  much  of  their  real  altitude.  Under 
such  circumstances,  not  a  single  mountain  presents 
the  actual  dimensions  of  Mont  Blanc,  as  over- 
hanging the  Vale  of  Chamouni.  It  is  only  from 
a  distance — best  of  all,  perhaps,  from  a  good 
offing  in  the  Pacific — that  the  A.  appear  in  all 
their  gigantic  proportions.  Standing  thus  on  their 
pedestal,  the  most  rugged  and  colossal  in  nature, 
they  almost  realise  to  the  spectator  the  highest 
Pyrenees  piled  on  the  highest  Alps;  while,  to 
enhance  the  grandeur  of  the  scene,  the  igneous 
action,  which  has  heaved  the  chain  into  existence, 
240 


is  here  and  there  adding  to  its  stature  a  pillar  of 
smoke  and  flame. 

The  fffo/of/j/  of  the  A.  is  as  yet  very  little 
known.  It  is  more  than  half  a  century  .«ince  Hum- 
boldt travelled  through  these  mountains,  and  to 
him  we  are  even  now  chiefly  indebted  for  our 
knowledge  regarding  them.  At  that  time,  g(  ology 
was  in  its  infancy — its  language  had  not  bten 
formed,  its  classification,  at  least  as  it  now  exists, 
was  unknown,  and  its  facts  were  mixed  with  absurd 
and  now  long-exploded  theories;  it  could,  in  fact, 
scarcely  be  called  a  science.  It  is  fortunate  that  as 
regards  the  materials  constituting  the  great  mass  of 
the  A.  range — the  igneous  rocks  which  form  its 
back-bone,  and  the  nietamorphic  rocks  which  foni 
its  great  bulk — our  knowledge  was  almost  as  exten- 
sive and  explicit  50  years  ago  as  it  is  now,  and 
therefore,  in  respect  to  them,  Humboldt's  observa- 
tions are  as  good  as  if  made  but  yesterday.  Not  so 
as  regards  the  more  recent  sedimentary  forni-tions. 
The  value  of  fossils  was  not  then  known,  and  the 
vaguest  ideas  prevailed  as  to  the  chionol(>gi<al 
order  of  the  stratified  rocks.  Hence  descriptions 
written  at  that  time  are  almost  \aueless  to  modern 
s<-ience.  A  few  scattered  notes  may  be  gleaned  from 
the  small  nmnber  of  intelligent  travclle  s  who  have 
recently  visited  these  mountains;  and  to  tl  em  we 
are  obliged  for  any  of  the  facts  we  are  able  to  give 
regarding  the  deposits  referred  to. 

The  elevation  of  the  A.  took  place  at  an  epoch 
anterior  to  the  formation  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
of  North  America,  which  are  geographically  a  con- 
tinuation of  them.  They  are  com|)()sed,  to  a  very 
large  extent,  of  stra  ificd  mctamo;  pliic  rocks.  It 
is  remarkable  that  granite  occurs  in  tlicm  not  as  an 
unstratified  pliitonic  rock,  but  oidy  interialated 
with  the  other  members  of  the  stratified  azoic  series. 
The  true  igneous  rocks  belong  either  to  the  trapjx'an 
or  volcanic  divisions.  The  grand  ridge  is  everywhere 
covered  with  one  or  other  of  the  varieties  of  trap 
(greenstone,  clinkstone,  basalt,  or  porphyry).  These 
are  often  broken  into  column-;,  and  appear  at  a  di.- 
taiice  like  ruined  castles,  producing  a  very  striking 
effect. 

Bursting  through  the  trap-rocks,  there  are  a  num- 
ber of  volcanoes  covering  their  summits  with  more 
recent  igneous  rocks.  Among  the  mountains  sjie- 
cified  above  as  to  altitude,  Yanteles,  Corcobado, 
Minchinadom,  Antuco,  Gualtieii,  Arecpiipa,  t'otopaxi, 
Antesana,  and  Pichiiicha  belong  to  this  class.  Fifty- 
one  volcanoes  have  been  described  as  existing 
throughout  the  whole  range.  The  mountains  of 
Ecuador  are  so  extensively  and  continuously  of 
volcanic  origin,  that  they  have  been  regarded  as 
different  safety-valves  of  one  and  the  same  burning 
vault.  It  is  generally  maintained  that  there  is  a  re- 
lation between  the  height  of  a  volcano  and  its  activity 
and  the  frequency  of  its  eruptions.  Thus,  Stromboli 
("2957  feet)  has  continued  in  a  state  of  activity  since 
the  earliest  ages,  serving  the  purfiose  of  alight-house 
to  the  navigators  of  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea ;  while 
Cotopaxi  (18,887  feet)  and  Tunguragua  (16, .579  feet) 
have  been  active  oidy  once  in  a  hundred  years. 
Many  of  these  51  volcanoes  have  consequently  not 
yet  been  observed  by  Kuropeans  in  an  active  state. 
In  the  Quito  district  there  are  10  active,  and  7  of 
doubtfid  activity  ;  in  Peru  and  Bolivia,  the  numbers 
are  9  and  3;  in  Chili,  17  and  5:  making  in  all  3G 
active,  and  15  about  which  there  is  some  uncer- 
tainty as  to  their  activity.  Another  characteristic 
of  these  volcanoes,  resulting  from  their  gigantic  alti- 
tude, is  that  few  of  them  emit  streams  of  lava. 
Thus  Antisana  is  probably  the  only  one  in  the  Quito 
range  that  has  ejected  lava.  The  force,  however, 
which  is  repressed  apparently  by  the  immense  super- 
incumbent muss  which  fills  the  crater,  is  exhibited 


ANDES. 


in  a  terrific  manner  when  an  eruption  does  take 
place.  Cotopaxi,  for  instance,  the  most  regular  and 
beautiful  outlet  of  this  the  grandest  of  nature's 
laboratories,  has  been  known  to  shoot  its  fiery  tor- 
rents 3(100  feet  above  its  snow-bound  crater,  while 
its  voice  is  said  to  have  been  heard  at  a  distance 
of  550  miles.  On  one  occasion  a  piece  of  rock, 
measuring  300  cubic  feet,  was  thrown  from  its  crater 
to  a  distance  of  more  than  eight  miles. 

Earth(juakes  are  intimately  comiected  with  these 
volcanic  phenomena.  No  poition  of  the  globe  is  sub- 
ject to  such  frequent  and  destructive  eartiiquakes  as 
the  countries  embosomed  within  the  range  of  the 
A.  and  those  lying  between  them  and  the  Pacific. 
The  cities  and  towns  of  Bogota,  Quito,  Riobamba, 
Callito,  ("opiapo,  Valparaiso,  and  Concepcion,  have 
all  at  different  times  been  more  or  less  devastated 
by  their  agency.  During  the  present  year  (ISoOX  ^^ 
earthquake  buried  many  of  the  iiiliabitants  of  Quito 
under  the  ruins  of  its  churches  and  public  edifices ; 
scarcely  a  single  building  of  any  size  escaped  un- 
injured. 

It  is  to  the  same  subterranean  agency  that 
upheaved  and  still  convulses  the  A.  that  we  are 
to  ascribe  tiiose  fearful  ravines  which  are  almost 
peculiar  to  the  chain.  An  apt  instance  has  already 
been  cited  in  the  case  of  the  deep  and  dismal  crevice 
which  has  been  spanned  by  the  natural  bridges  of 
Icononzo.  A  still  better  specimen  is  the  valley  or 
den  of  Chota,  which,  with  a  width  at  top  of  only 
2600  feet,  is  4875  feet  in  perpendicular  height.  This 
den  might  overlap  the  loftiest  hill  in  Scotland,  with 
St.  Peter's  at  Rome  on  its  sunmiit. 

The  flanks  of  the  mountains  are  clothed  with 
crystalline  stratified  rocks,  consisting  of  innumer- 
able varieties  of  granites,  gneiss,  schists,  horn- 
blende, chloritic  slates,  porphyries,  &c.  These 
have  been  greatly  disrupted  by  the  underlying 
igneous  rocks,  and  now  occupy  a  vertical  or  nearly 
vertical  position.  They  often  run  up  into  bold  and 
rugged  peaks  on  the  summits.  They  alternate  with 
each  other  in  great  meridional  bands,  but  without 
any  apparent  order  in  the  succession,  except  that 
the  varieties  of  schist  depend  on  the  crystalline 
parent  rock  below ;  otherwise,  no  regular  sequence 
can  be  observed  ;  for  miles,  only  granite  and  gneiss 
are  found,  then  schist,  quartz,  gneiss,  &c.,  inter- 
changing. The  variety  and  quantity  of  the  mineral 
wealth  of  these  rocks  is  remarkable ;  with  the 
exception  of  lead,  most  of  the  metals  are  obtained 
in  large  quantities — see  below.  The  topaz,  amethyst, 
and  other  gems  are  abundant. 

Lying  unconformable  with  these  almost  vertical 
mctamorphic  rocks,  there  occur  in  the  valleys  and 
table-lands,  and  creeping  up  the  base  of  the  moun- 
tains, a  variety  of  fossiliferous  beds,  which  require 
further  examination  before  they  can  be  clearly 
understood.  A  better  estimate  of  the  nature  of 
these  deposit.s  will  be  arrived  at  by  describing  one 
of  the  localities  where  they  occur.  Take  the  large 
plateau  on  which  Bogota  is  built,  which  is  8958  feet 
above  the  sea.  The  deposits  filling  up  this  plain 
have  been  formed  subsequent  to  the  present  con- 
formation of  the  district,  though  not  necessarily  at 
the  present  altitude :  the  whole  range  may  have 
been  since  elevated.  The  almost  horizontal  rocks, 
from  their  organic  contents,  consisting  of  Ammonites, 
Hamites,  &c.,  have  been  referred  by  Edward  Forbes 
to  the  cretaceous  era.  The  basin  consists  of  many 
beds  of  sandstones,  limestones,  shale,  coal,  gypsum, 
and  salt.  The  salt  occurs  in  large  quantities,  one 
bed  being  no  less  than  100  feet  in  thickness,  and 
the  coal  in  sufficient  abundance  to  be  wrought.  All 
these  rocks  have  been  more  or  less  affected  by  their 
proximity  to  the  underlying  metamorphic  rocks. 
The  molecular  action  going  on  below  has  in  many 
16 


places  been  continued  in  them,  and  has  induced  a 
cleavage  at  right  angles  to  their  planes  of  stra- 
tification. The  other  patches — some  of  great 
extent,  as  the  plateau  of  the  Titicaca — cannot  yet 
be  referred  to  any  particular  geologic  epoch.  Coal 
has  been  found  near  Huanco,  in  Peru,  at  the  height 
of  17,000  feet;  fossiliferous  limestones  and  sand- 
stones have  been  noticed  in  Peru,  at  Micuipanipa 
and  Huancavelica. 

Metals. — The  aboriginal  term  A.  is  said  to  have 
been  derived  from  the  Peruvian  antn,  which  signifies 
metal  in  general,  or  rather,  perhaps,  copper  in  par- 
ticular. Within  the  limits  of  tiie  empire  of  the 
Incas,  mining  tools,  evidently  not  European,  have 
been  dug  up  in  various  places;  and  in  one  district 
the  ancient  Peruvians  have  left  bctiind  them  traces 
of  their  mining  operations  at  a  height  of  17,o(iO  feet. 
Moreover,  the  term,  whatever  may  have  been  its 
meaning,  appears  to  have  been,  at  all  events,  of 
Peruvian  origin,  for  it  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
applied  to  the  great  chain  of  mountains  by  the 
aborigines  of  New  Granada. 

The  A.  are  understood  to  yield  every  metal  used 
in  the  arts  but  lead,  and,  according  to  one  recent 
statement,  they  yield  lead  also. 

Gold  is  found  in  Chili,  Peru,  and  'New  Granada. 
In  Chili,  however,  it  is  so  little  productive,  that 
])roverbially  a  gold-mine  is  inferior  to  a  silver  one, 
and  that,  again,  to  a  copper  one.  In  Peru,  gold  is 
most  abmidant  between  the  9th  and  7th  parallels; 
though  further  south,  to  the  east  of  Lima,  the 
mines  of  Carabayo  have  been  recently  wrought  to 
great  advantage;  and  further  south  still,  to  the  east 
of  Titicaca,  very  rich  washings  are  situated  on  the 
river  Tipuani.  In  New  Granada,  gold-mines  are 
generally  so  inaccessible  as  not  to  bear  the  expense 
of  working  them.  The  washings,  again,  tl-.ough  per- 
haps remotely  the  product  of  the  A.,  are  confined 
chiefly  to  the  alluvial  soils  that  lie  between  the  chain 
and  either  sea. 

Silver  also  is  found  in  Chili,  Peru,  and  New 
Granada.  In  Chili,  the  most  vahuible,  almost  the 
only  very  valuable,  mines  are  wrought  on  the  east 
face  of  the  A.,  not  far  from  the  city  of  Mcndoza, 
already  mentioned  in  connection  w  ith  the  breadth  of 
the  chain.  In  Peru,  the  most  productive  mines  are 
those  of  Pasco  and  Potosi.  In  tliose  of  Pasco,  which 
have  now  been  open  for  more  than  two  and  a 
quarter  centuries,  without  even  approaching  to 
exhaustion,  the  ore  is  a  mixture  of  silver  and  oxide 
of  iron.  In  the  mines,  again,  of  Potosi,  whose  very 
name  has  become  a  proverb,  there  are  said  to  be  no 
fewer  than  5000  excavations,  while,  to  all  appear- 
ance, only  the  upper  crust  of  the  inexhaustible 
deposits  has  been  penetrated.  In  New  Granada,  it 
is  with  silver  as  it  has  been  shewn  to  be  with  gold, 
the  mines  of  the  former  metal,  as  well  as  of  the 
latter,  being  so  inaccessible  as  not  to  bear  the 
expense  of  working  them. 

Mercnrif  or  (jmcksilver  is  found  in  Quito,  near  the 
village  of  Azogue,  which  lies  to  the  north-west  of 
Cuen<;a — taking  its  name,  as  is  said,  from  this  metal ; 
and  it  is  found  likewise  in  Peru,  not  far  from 
Gtiancavelica,  a  town  situated,  as  already  stated,  to 
the  north  of  the  group  of  Cuzco.  The  mercury 
exists  chiefly  in  combination  with  sulphur,  forming 
what  is  called  cinnabar. 

Platinum  appears  to  exist  only  in  New  Granada  ; 
but  like  the  gold-washings  of  that  country,  it  is 
found  rather  in  the  alluvial  soils,  that  have  been 
flooded  down  from  the  chain,  than  in  the  chain 
itself 

Copper  is  found  chiefly  in  Chili,  but  also  in  Peru. 
In  the  latter  country,  it  is  of  little  account  in  com- 
parison with  silver ;  but,  in  the  former,  it  may  be 
Styled  the  staple  metal,  or  even  the  staple  production 

241 


AN  DI R  A— A  N  I)  I  liO.V, 


Tlie  most  valuable  mines  an-  in  tlio  Tiortlicrn  and 
poiitlicrn  provinces;  in  ("ocinimbo  and  Copiapo  above, 
and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Araucania  below. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  the  A.  is,  at  every  point, 
affected  by  three  different  considerations — position 
with  respect  to  the  lenjith  of  tlie  chain,  position  with 
respect  to  it8  breadth,  position  with  respect  to  its 
heijrht. 

In  connection  vith  the  lenrjfh  of  the  chain,  the 
variations  of  climate,  thonph  les.s  peculiar  than  its 
variations  under  either  of  the  other  aspects,  are  not 
merely  a  counterpart  of  .similar  chanjres  in  other 
parts  of  the  plobe.  In  the  new  world  penerally, 
temperature  rises  and  falls  more  rapidly  in  propor- 
tion to  latitude  than  in  the  old  ;  and,  apain,  ns 
within  the  new  T^orld  itself,  more  rapidly  in  the 
south  than  in  the  north.  In  connection,  therefore, 
with  'he  lenfrth  of  the  A.,  the  variations  of  climate 
may  be  regarded  as  the  proatest  possible — the 
tropical  heat  of  the  equatorial  recions  passinp 
gradually  into  somefhinp  like  i)olar  cold,  even  within 
a  latitude  not  preater  than  that  of  Edinburph.  This 
may  be  best  illustrated  with  reference  to  the  limits  of 
per[>etual  snow.  Within  the  Strait  of  Mapellan, 
in  aiiout  the  latitude  of  Wales,  the  limit  in  (piestion 
is  only  about  35(H)  feet,  nearly  the  precise  heipht  of 
the  summit  of  Snowdon.  In  lat.  3:^"  S.,  nbout  the 
centre  of  Chili,  the  snow-line,  according  to  Humboldt, 
is  estimated  at  12,780  feet;  while,  on  a  nearly 
corresponding  parallel,  the  Himalayas  present  on 
their  northern  slope  a  snow-line  of  Iti.d'Jtt  feet.  In 
the  tropical  repions  of  the  A.,  the  snow-line  seems 
to  range  from  lf.,(i(H)  feet  to  18,ihi(i.  This  result, 
excepting  that  it  does  not  greatly  surpass  the  height 
of  the  snow-line  as  above  on  the  Himalayas,  can 
Fcarcely  be  compared  with  anything  in  the  old 
world,  whose  tropical  regions  do  not  present  any 
chain  of  the  requisite  altitude  for  the  pur]  o-e.  The 
Fame  cause  which  repularly  lowers  the  snow-line  in 
proceeding  from  north  to  south,  has  led,  in  Pata- 
gonia and  Tierra  del  Fuepo,  to  the  formation  of 
plaeier.s — a  feature  of  the  Alps  which  is  altogether 
unknown  in  the  central  and  northern  divisions  of 
tlie  A.  Glaciers,  as  the  prowth  of  an  icicle  renders 
familiar  to  every  one,  re(|uire  alternations  of  heat 
and  cold,  or  rather  of  thaw  and  frost.  Now,  these 
essential  conditions  do  not  exist  in  the  lower  lati- 
tudes of  the  A.,  where,  penerally  speaking,  every 
etage  or  terrace,  as  already  noticed  under  the  head 
of  America,  possesses  an  almost  monotonous  tem- 
perature. But  they  do  exist  in  Patagonia  and  Tierra 
del  Fuego;  and  accordingly,  glaciers  there  abotmd  on 
the  shores  of  the  deep  indentations  of  the  coast. 

In  connection,  next,  with  the  breadth  of  the  chain, 
the  variations  of  climate,  if  not  peculiar  to  the 
A.,  have  no  perfect  parallel  elsewhere.  At  every 
point,  excepting,  perhaps,  towards  the  extreme  south, 
the  chain  is  almost  as  much  of  a  water-shed  to 
the  clouds  as  it  is  to  the  rivers.  Rarefied  as  the  air 
is  at  the  elevation  of  the  A.,  no  vapour,  generallv 
speaking,  can  cross  them — even  the  existence  of 
enow  at  the  height  of  several  miles  being  a  phenome- 
non which,  a  priori,  was  hardly  to  be  expected.  This 
fact  is  rendered  more  important  by  the  ordinary 
directions  of  the  currents  of  air.  The  prevailing 
winds  blow  against  the  A.,  not  alongside  of  them, 
being  generally  from  the  east  between  the  equator 
and  80°,  and  from  the  west  in  latitudes  towards 
the  south.  Thus,  generally  speaking,  every  section 
of  the  chain  has  permanently  a  windward  and 
a  leeward  side — the  former  intercepting  nearly  all 
the  moisture,  and  the  latter  being  condemned  to 
comparative  drought.  Peru,  Chili,  and  Patagonia, 
one  and  all,  confirm  these  observations  in  detail. 
On  the  west,  Penj,  unless  in  the  immediate  vicinity 
of  the  mountain-streams,  is  little  better  than  a 
242 


desert ;  while,  on  the  east,  the  Montana,  eh  it 
is  called,  is  remarkable  for  its  fertility.  To  the 
west,  on  the  contrary,  Patagonia  has  its  glaciers 
to  shew  as  the  result  of  its  rains  from  that  quarter; 
while,  to  the  east,  its  five  terraces,  extending  700 
miles  to  the  Atlaiit'c,  are  almost  uniformly  arid 
and  sterile.  Hetween  Patagonia  and  Peru,  f'liili 
has  something  in  common  «ilh  Ixith,  resembling 
the  former  in  its  southern  half,  and  the  latter  in  its 
norfliern.  To  take  the  Pacific  side  alone  :  in  the 
northern  parts,  showers  are  only  occasional,  some- 
times at  an  interval  of  three  years — the  deficiency 
being  partly  supplied  by  fiequent  dews;  while, 
to  the  south  of  lat.  '.i4\  the  rains  are  sufficiently 
copious  to  form  considerat>le  rivers. 

In  connection,  lastly,  with  the  hiipht  of  the  chain, 
the  variations  of  climate  stand  alone  in  the  world, 
being  ap|)roached,  though  at  a  great  interval,  only 
by  the  corresj)onding  changes  in  Central  America. 
The  Alps,  to  take  a  familiar  analogy,  have,  it  is 
true,  their  gradations  of  climate.  Hut,  situated, 
in  rouml  numbers,  on  about  the  4.'>th  parallel,  they 
re[)resent  only  half  of  the  latitudes  between  the 
equator  and  tlie  pole  ;  while  the  A.  of  Quito,  before 
reaching  this  level,  must  have  seen  mellinp  into 
each  other  the  temperatures  of  Borneo,  Iniiia,  Persia, 
A'^ia  Minor,  and  Italy.  Taking  the  snow-line  of  the 
A.  of  Quito  at  IH.otiO  feet,  and  that  of  the  Alps  nt 
Rntiu,  the  lower  and  hotter  1o,(M>(i  feet  of  the  former 
liave  no  countc-rpart  at  all  on  the  latter.  Now, 
Herndon  found  Tarma  to  lie  within  this  heipht, 
precisely  at  an  elevation  of  973H  feet;  ami  he  there 
saw  apples,  stniwberries,  almonds,  grajies,  and 
maize — a  state  of  things  not  far  behin<l  that  at 
the  foot  of  the  Alps.  No  spni'C  remaining  for  details, 
one  general  observation  must  close  this  article.  In 
an  open  locality,  the  naked  eye  may  embrace  half  a 
zone,  for,  to  quote  a  traveller's  words,  it  nuiy  look 
upwards  to  the  Viarley-field  and  the  potato-patch, 
and  downwards  to  the  sugar-cane  and  the  pine-apple. 
Perhaps  the  most  striking  instance  of  this  more 
thari  telescopic  vision  is  connected  with  the  magnifi- 
cent fall  of  Teqiiendama,  the  single  outlet  of  the 
waters  of  the  table-laml  of  Bogota.  This  fall,  H<M) 
feet  high,  leaps  down  from  the  temperate  zone  to  the 
torrid,  from  rich  crops  of  wheat  to  a  few  scattered 
palms. 

ANDI'RA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Le/ju)iii}ios(e,  sub-order  Pnpiliottacete,  having  an 
almost  orl)icular,  one-celled,  one-seeded  pod. — A. 
iiieniiiK  (formerly  known  as  Geotfroi/n  ineriuis)  f^Tows 
in  low  savannahs  in  the  West  Inilies,  and  is  there 
called  Caljljitfje  Tree  or  Cnhhnye-hurk  Tree.  It  is 
a  tree  of  considerable  height,  having  pinnate  leaves, 
with  13 — 15  ovato-lanceolate  leaflets,  and  panicles  of 
reddish  lilac  flowers.  Its  bark,  called  Cnhharje  Bark 
or  Worm  Bark,  is  a  powerful  anthelmintic ;  and 
although  it  has  recently  been  discarded  from  the 
pharmacopoeias  of  Britain,  still  finds  a  place  in  those 
of  other  countries,  along  with  Surinam  Bark,  the 
bark  of  A.  ret iixa  (formerly  Geoffroya  Siirinatiievsia\ 
a  native  of  Surinam.  Similar  properties  reside  in 
the  bark  of  several  species  of  the  allied  genus 
Geoffroya.  Cabbage  Bark  contains  an  alkaloid  called 
Janiaiciiin. 

ANDIRON,  or  HANDIRON,  is  a  term  frequently 
to  be  met  with  in  inventories  of  the  furniture  of  old 
houses ;  and  in  some  parts  of  the  country  it  is  still 
used  for  what  is  more  generally  known  as  afire-dog. 
Andirons  were  used  for  burning  wood  on  an  ojien 
hearth,  and  consisted  of  a  horizontal  bar  raised  on 
short  supports,  with  an  upright  standard  at  one 
end.  A  pair  were  used,  one  standing  at  each  side  of 
the  hearth,  and  the  logs  of  wood  rested  across  the 
horizontal  bars.     The   upright   portions  of  the    A. 


ANDORRA— AXDRAL. 


■were  of  various  forms,  some  of  them,  in  later  times, 
represented  a  human  fi<);ure.  More  generally,  the 
design    was   architectural,    much    ornanieuted    with 


arabesques,  and  not  unfrequently  with  the  mono- 
grams of  their  possessors.  The  ornamental  parts  of 
the  A.  were  sometimes  silver,  but  more  frequently 
copper. 

ANDO'RRA,  a  valley  in  the  Eastern  Pyrenees, 
between  the  French  department  of  Ariege  and 
Catalonia,  in  Spain.  It  is  enclosed  by  moun- 
tains, through  which  its  river,  the  Balira,  breai<s 
to  join  the  Segre  at  Urgel ;  and  its  inaccessi- 
bility naturally  fits  it  for  being  the  sent  of  the 
interetiting  little  republic  which  here  holds  a  kind 
of  senii-independent  position  between  France  and 
Spain.  The  whole  territory  contains  oidy  198  square 
miles,  with  17,8()0  inhabitants,  and  is  divided  into 
six  parishes.  The  capital  is  Andorra,  on  the  Balira, 
with  a  population  of  2000.  Dense  forests  supply 
abundance  of  tim))er ;  there  is  much  excellent 
pasture  ;  vines  and  fruit-trees  flourish  on  the  lower 
grounds,  and  the  mount;. ins  contain  rich  iron-mines  ; 
but  agriculture  is  so  neglected,  and  the  quantity  of 
arable  land  so  small,  that  the  inhabitants  partly 
depend  for  corn  upon  importation  from  France. 
A.  was  declared  a  free  state  by  Charlemagne,  in 
reward  fot  services  rendered  to  him  by  its  inhab- 
itants, when  he  was  marching  against  the  Moors. 
He  retairiea  certain  rights  which  Louis  le  Debonnaire 
afterwards  transferred  to  the  Bishop  of  Urgel,  in 
819  A.D.,  and  which  the  Bishop  of  Urgel  still 
exercises.  The  republic  is  governed  by  a  sovereign 
council  of  twenty-four  members,  chosen  by  the 
people,  and  the  council  elects  one  of  its  members 
to  be  syndic  for  life,  who  exercises  the  chief 
executive  power.  There  are  two  judges  called 
viffuiers,  of  whom  the  first  is  appointed  by  France, 
which  exercises  a  kind  of  protectorate,  and  the  sec- 
ond by  the  Bishop  of  Urgel.  The  first  viguier  is  a 
Frenchman,  and  the  second  a  native  of  A.  Under 
each  viguier  is  an  inferior  judge  called  a  bailie  ;  but 
there  is  an  appeal  from  his  judgment  to  the  viguier, 
and  finally  to  the  Court  of  Cassation  at  Paris,  or  to 
the  Episcopal  College  at  Urgel.  In  criminal  cases, 
there  is  no  appeal  from  the  court  of  the  republic 
itself,  in  which  the  first  viguier  presides.  The 
revenue  of  the  state  is  derived  from  lands,  and  from 
some  inconsiderable  taxes.  A  sum  of  960  francs  is 
paid  annually  to  France,  in  return  for  which  is 
granted  the  privilege  of  free  importation  of  corn. 
An  annual  payment  of  450  livres  is  made  to  the 
Bishop  of  Urgel.  The  manner  of  life  of  the  Andor- 
rans  is  very  simple.  There  are  schools,  but  educa- 
tion is  in  a  low  state.  There  is  a  complete  military 
organisation.  In  recent  wars,  the  Audorrans  have 
warmly  supported  France. 

A'XDOVER,  a  market-town  of  Hampshire,  lies 
in  the  norlh-west  part  of  the  county,  lat.  51°  12'  N. 
long.  1°  28'  W.  The  origin  of  the  town  dates  from 
a  remote   antiquity,  as  might  indeed  be  suspected 


from  its  name,  which  is  a  modification  of  the  Saxon 
AnJenfaran,  i.  e.,  ferry  over  the  river  Ande.  It 
is  said  that  the  corporation  of  A.  is  as  old  as  the 
time  of  King  John.  The  inhabitants,  amounting  to 
5200,  are  chiefly  supported  by  their  malt-trade,  their 
agriculture,  and  their  traffic  in  timber  with  J'ort  - 
mouth.  At  Wcyhill,  a  few  miles  to  the  west  of  the 
town,  a  fair  is  held,  formerly  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated and  important  in  England.  It  lasts  for  six 
days.  The  cliurch  of  A.  is  a  new  erection,  in 
the  early  English  style  of  architecture,  and  cost 
£.3i\0(iO,  the  whole  of  which  was  defrayed  by  the 
late  rector,  the  Rev.  W.  S.  Goddard.  Various  relics 
of  antiquity  have  been  discovered  in  the  vicinity  of 
A.,  such  as  fine  specimens  of  Roman  pavement. 

ANDOVER,  a  post-township  of  Essex  co.,  Massa- 
chusetts, on  the  south  bank  of  the  Merrimac  River, 
and  on  the  Essex  County,  the  LawTcnce  and  Ix)wel!. 
and  the  Boston  and  Maine  Railroads,  21  miles  north 
of  Boston.  Andover  is  the  seat  of  Phillips  Academy, 
one  of  the  oldest  and  best-endowed  academical  insti- 
tutions in  New  England  ;  and  of  Andover  Theologi- 
cal Seminary,  founded  in  1807.  Phillips  Academy 
was  instituted  in  1778.  It  has  a  valuable  chemical 
and  philosopliical  apparatus,  and  libraries  containing 
2500  volumes.  The  income  arising  from  the  funds, 
amounts  to  alx)ut  $60,000.  Abbott  Female  Academy, 
a  flourishing  institution,  was  founded  here  in  1829. 
The  Andover  Theological  Seminary  is  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Congregationalists.  Number  of  graduates 
up  to  1863,  1466.  Number  of  students  the  same  year, 
108.  Volumes  in  the  library,  24,000.  Andover  con- 
tains a  bank  and  a  savings  institution.  A  religious 
periodical  of  the  highest  character,  the  Bibiiotheca 
Sacra,  is  published  here  quarterlv.  Incorporated  in 
1646.     Pop.  in  1840,  5207;   1850*6945;   1860,4765. 

ANDRAL,  Gabriel,  a  celebrated  French  physi- 
cian, member  of  the  Institute  and  of  the  Academy 
of  Medicine,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1797  and  died 
in  1853.  In  1823  he  established  his  reputa- 
tion by  the  publication  of  the  first  part  of  his 
Clinique  Medicale  ;  in  1828,  partly  through  the 
influence  of  M.  Royer-Collard,  whose  daughter  he 
had  married,  he  was  appointed  Professor  of  Hygiene  ; 
and  in  1830  was  advanced  to  the  chair  of  Interni-.l 
Pathology,  a  branch  of  medical  science  which  had 
always  possessed  great  attractions  for  him.  A.,  i:i 
fact, "commenced  his  investigations  with  pathological 
anatomy.  He  presented  to  the  Academy,  at  a  com- 
paratively early  period  of  his  career,  a  paper  *S«r 
VAnatomie  Pathologique  du  Tube  Digestif  (On  the 
Pathological  Anatomy  of  the  Alimentary  Canal \ 
which  was  greatly  admired.  Besides,  he  published, 
in  1829,  a  Precis  Elementairc  of  the  same  scienc?, 
which  met  with  striking  success;  and  his  CUniquc 
Medicale  treats  principally  of  diseases  of  the  chest, 
of  the  abdomen,  and  of  the  brain.  In  1839,  A. 
was  almost  unanimously  elected  by  his  colleagues; 
to  succeed  Broussais  in  the  chair  of  pathology  and 
general  therapeutics,  the  highest  in  the  school. 
Here  he  has  shewn  the  vast  range  of  his  medic;.! 
knowledge;  but  in  occupying  himself  so  much  with 
the  pathological  anatomy  of  the  dead  body,  it  is 
alleged  that  he  has  not  paid  sufficient  attention 
to  the  phenomena  of  disease  before  the  organs 
begin  to  exhibit  traces  of  alteration.  Though 
actively  engaged  in  his  general  practice,  he  has 
found  time  to  write  several  other  works  besides 
those  already  mentioned.  In  1835  appeared  his 
Frojet  dun  Fssai  mrla  Vitalite ;  in  1836  he  edited 
and  consi(leraV)ly  enlarged  Laennec's  Traiti  de 
rauxcnltation  Mtdiate  et  du  Coeur  ;  in  1836 — 1837, 
a  Cours  de  Patholo(/ie  Interne;  in  1837,  his  report 
to  the  Academy  Srir  le  Traitement  de  la  Fievre 
Typhoide  par  les  Purgatifs ;  in  1843  he  presented  to 

243 


ANDRE— ANDREW. 


the  Institute  his  Trnite  Elenientaire  de  Patholoc/ie  et 
de  TTih-ojteutique  Ghierale  (published  in  1840),  &c. 

A'KDRE,  John,  un  uiilortuiiate  soldier  who  met 
his  death  under  circumstances  which  have  given  his 
name  a  place  in  history,  was  born  in  London  in 
1751  of  Genevese  parents.  At  the  age  of  twenty,  he 
entered  the  army,  and  soon  after  joined  the  British 
forces  in  America,  whore,  in  a  few  years,  through  the 
favour  of  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  he  was  promoted  to  the 
important  post  of  adjutant-general,  with  the  rank  of 
major. 

Sir  Henry  Clinton  being  in  treaty  with  the 
American  general  Arnold,  who  commanded  the 
fortress  of  West  Point,  for  the  betrayal  to  the 
British  of  the  fortress  wi;h  its  magazines,  including 
the  whole  stock  of  powder  of  the  American  army, 
confided  the  conduct  of  the  correspondence  on  his 
part  to  Major  A.  The  secret  correspondence  was 
conducted  by  Arnold  and  A.  under  assumed  names, 
and  as  if  it  related  to  commei-cial  affairs;  and  the 
treachery  was  so  well  concealed,  that  the  Americans 
had  no  suspicion  whatever  of  Arnold's  fidelity.  At 
last  it  remained  oidy  to  settle  the  time  and  means  of 
carrying  the  scheme  into  exrcution  ;  and  these  it  was 
determined  should  be  settled  in  a  personal  interview 
between  Arnold  and  A.,  either  because  Arnold 
required  such  an  interview,  or,  more  probably, 
because  Clinton  had  some  misgivings  as  lo  the 
identity  of  his  correspondent.  Various  projects  to 
bring  about  the  interview  having  failed,  A.,  at  last, 
on  the  '2uth  September  17Sn,  jjroreeded  in  a  Briii.^h 
sloop  of  war — the  Vulture — u[)  the  Hudson  nearly 
to  the  American  lines.  The,  original  design  was  to 
have  met  under  cover  of  a  flag  of  truce,  on  the  pre- 
tence of  effecting  some  arrangement  as  to  the  seques- 
trated property  of  a  Colonel  Robinson,  a  loyalist 
gentleman  who  accompanied  A.,  and  whose  house 
was  at  the  time  Arnold's  head-fiuarters ;  but  this 
design  had  to  be  abandoned,  and  Arnold  was  obliged 
to  contrive  a  secret  interview.  On  the  night  of  the 
:21st  September  he  prevailed  on  a  Mr.  Smith,  who 
lived  within  the  American  lines,  to  go  to  the  Vulture 
wiih  a  packet  for  Colonel  Robinson.  Smith  went, 
and  returned  with  A.,  who  passed  under  tiie  assumed 
name  of  Anderson.  Arnold  met  him  on  the  shore, 
where  they  conferred  some  time,  after  which  they 
went  within  the  lines  to  Smith's  house,  and  there 
sjent  the  rest  of  the  iiight  and  pai-t  of  the  next  day 
iirr.mging  the  details  of  their  plan  for  the  treacherous 
s;;rprisal  of  West  Point.  The  attack  was  fixed  for 
the  day  when  the  return  of  General  Washington 
was  expected;  and  there  is  reason  for  thinking  that 
part  of  Arnold's  scheme  was,  if  possible,  to  betray 
Washington  also  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy. 

Early  on  the  morning  of  the  2iid  September,  a  gun 
was  brought  to  bear  on  the  Vulture,  and  obliged  her 
to  fdl  down  the  river  so  far  that  A.  could  not 
prevail  on  the  boatman  to  take  him  to  her,  and  so 
was  forced  to  make  his  way  by  land  to  the  English 
lines  in  a  disguise  furnished  by  Smith,  and  provided 
witli  a  pass  from  the  general.  A.  actually  got 
sat'ely  within  sight  of  the  English  lines,  when  he 
was  stopped  and  taken  prisoner  by  three  American 
militia-men,  to  whom,  mistaking  them  for  British, 
he  inadvertently  revealed  the  fact  that  he  was  a 
British  officer.  His  captors,  on  searching  him, 
having  discovered  concealed  in  his  stockings  the 
plans  of  West  Point  and  other  papers  connected 
with  the  proposed  treachery,  which  he  was  bearing 
from  Arnold  to  Clintwn,  carried  him  as  a  spy  to  a 
Colonel  Jamieson,  who,  not  suspecting  anything, 
was  for  sending  him  on  to  Arnold.  Here  a  chance 
of  escape  opened  for  him,  but  only  for  a  moment. 
He  was  ultimately  sent,  with  the  papers  found  on 
his  person,  to  General  Washington.  Jamieson,  mean- 
lime,  having  sent  word  to  Arnold  of  the  capture 
244 


of  A.,  Arnold  fled  to  the  Vulture,  and  so  saved  his 
life. 

A.,  as  a  spy  taken  in  the  act,  was  liable,  according 
to  the  rules  of  war,  to  be  hanged  at  once.  But 
considering  the  rank  of  the  prisoner,  and  the  circum- 
stances, Washington  resolved  on  referring  the  case 
to  a  Board  of  general  officers,  to  report  the  facts, 
with  their  opinion  of  the  light  in  which  the  prisoner 
ought  to  be  considered,  and  the  punishment  that 
ought  to  be  indicted.  The  Board  found  that  he 
ought  to  be  considered  as  a  spy  from  the  enemy, 
and  punished  with  death.  Strenuous  efforts  were 
made  by  the  British  commander  to  save  him.  It 
was  represented  to  Washington  that  A.  could  not 
be  regarded  as  a  spy,  because — I.  He  entered  the 
American  lines  under  a  flag  of  truce  ;  2.  That  all 
his  movements  within  the  lines  were  directed  by  the 
general.  The  first  plea,  on  A.'s  own  authority, 
was  contrary  to  the  fact ;  and  to  the  Americai.s  it 
rightly  appeared  that  the  point  of  the  offence  lay  in 
the  comnumication  with  the  base  traitor  Arnold. 
All  the  efforts  of  Clinton  failed  to  move  the 
American  commander.  A.  was  sentenced  to  death. 
On  one  condition  oidy  would  Washington  spare 
him  —  that  the  British  should  surrender  Arnold. 
But  this  they  could  not  think  of  doing ;  the  sense  of 
honour  which,  yielding  to  the  spirit  of  war,  offered 
no  opposition  to  a  bargain  with  Arnold  for  the  blood 
and  liberties  of  his  compatriots,  made  it  impossible 
to  deliver  up  the  runaway  traitor  to  the  death  that 
otherwise  awaited  the  soldier  who  only  went  too  far 
in  his  zeal  for  his  country. 

A.  suffered  death  by  hanging  at  Tappan,  in  the 
state  of  New  York,  on  the  2d  October  1780,  in  his 
2'Jth  year.  His  death  everywhere  excited  the  deepest 
sympathy.  The  whole  British  army  went  into 
mourning  for  him  ;  a  monument  was  erected  to  his 
memory  in  Westminister  Abbey,  and  in  1821  his 
remains  were  disinterred  at  Tappan,  and  conveyed 
to  a  grave  near  his  monument. 

Much  has  been  written  on  the  subject  of  A.'s 
execution.  It  has  often  been  maintained,  and 
recently  by  Lord  Mahon,  in  his  Histori/  of  England 
(vol.  vii.),  that  his  sentence  was  unjust.  But  a 
simple  narrative  of  the  circumstances,  even  as  they 
are  to  be  gathered  fioni  Lord  Mahon's  own  pages, 
shews  that  the  American  general  had  no  alter- 
native. Indeed,  the  circumstances  cited  to  shew  that 
A.  was  not  a  spy,  in  the  ordinary  sense,  all  go  to 
prove  that  he  was  a  spy  of  the  worst  sort.  The 
success  of  the  treachery  of  Arnold  would  have  been 
the  destruction  of  the  American  cause  ;  and  it  is 
hard  to  see  how  the  agent  who  went  secretly  within 
the  American  lines,  and  was  captured  returning  in 
disguise  with  the  inlonnation  that  was  to  ensure 
that  success,  is  to  be  held  in  a  better  case  than  the 
common  soldier  who  steals  his  way  into  the  enemy's 
camp  of  a  night,  to  see  the  extent  of  his  preparations 
and  forces. 

A.  was  a  handsome  and  amiable  man,  of  consider- 
able accomplishments  ;  he  was  a  good  artist,  and 
appears,  when  in  England,  to  have  been  known  to 
certain  literary  circles  of  his  time.  These  circum- 
stances naturally  heightened  the  feeling  with  which 
his  fate  was  regarded. 

See  Biographical  Dictionary  of  the  Society  for  the 
Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge,  vol.  ii. ;  also,  in  vol. 
vi.  of  the  Me?noirs  of  the  Historical  Societi/  of  Penn- 
si/lrania,  1858,  JTie  cane  of  Major  A.,  with  a  Review 
of  the  Statement  of  it  in.  Lord  Jlahon^s  IIistor>/  of 
England,  by  Charles  J.  Biddle—  an  essay  containing 
a  full  narrative  of  the  case,  with  a  discussion  of  all 
the  questions  of  law  and  duty  raised  in  connection 
with  it. 

ANDRE.E,  JoH.  Talent.,  a  very  original  thinker 
and  writer,  born  at  Herreuberg,  near  Tiibingen,  on 


ANDREOSSY— ST.  ANDREW. 


the  ITth  of  Aufcnst  1580.  lie  studiod  at  Tiihingen, 
sjiciit  sonic  time  in  travelling  in  the  south  of 
Europe,  obtained  ecclesiastical  preferments  in  the 
Protestant  Church  of  his  native  country,  and  died 
on  June  27,  1(>54,  at  Stuttgart,  where  he  was  chaplain 
to  the  court.  Eminently  practical  in  his  nuMital 
disposition,  he  was  grieved  to  see  the  principles  of 
Christianity  made  the  suhject  of  mere  empty  disputa- 
tions, and  all  science  and  philosopiiy  in  like  manner 
perverted  hy  a  frivolous  scholasticism.  To  the 
correction  of  this  prevailing  tendency  of  his  age,  the 
efforts  of  liis  whole  life  were  directed.  His  writings 
are  remarkable  for  the  wit  and  humour,  as  well  as 
for  the  learning,  acuteness,  and  uioral  power  which 
they  display.  He  has  been  long  regarded  as  the 
fouitdcr,  or  at  least  the  restorer  of  the  order  of  tlie 
Rosicrucians  (q.  v.);  and  this  opinion  is  plausibly 
supported  by  reference  to  three  publications — tiic 
Cli'imlxchc  Hochzcit  Ckristiani  Iiosrnkreu.? (^\ijl('>),  the 
Fama  Froicrriitatu  R.  C,  i.  e.,  roxece  crticin  (Itll-l), 
and  the  Crmfexsio  Fratcry^itath  JL  C.  (H>]5),  of  the 
first  of  which  he  acknowKdgcd  himself  the  author, 
and  the  other  two  have  so  much  resemblance  to  it  as 
to  be  evidently  from  the  same  pen.  But,  however 
these  works  were  misunderstood  by  liis  contempo- 
raries, and  ]iarticnlarly  by  those  who  were  inclined  to 
mysticism  in  religion,  his  intention  in  them  was  cer- 
tainly not  to  originate  or  promote  secret  societies  of 
mystics  and  enthusiasts,  but  to  ridicule  the  follies  of 
the  age.  lie  attacked  Rosicrucianism  itself  in  some 
of  his  later  writings  with  great  severity.  Among 
the  best  of  his  works  are  his  Menippus  s.  Sniyricn- 
rum  Dialofforum  Centuria  (1017).  His  M;/thologica 
Clirixtiana  (1019)  is  another  of  the  best  known.  He 
wrote  an  allegoric  poem  called  Die  Chrhtenhnrg  (of 
which  an  edition  was  published,  Stnttg.  18r)0),  and 
an  autobiograi)hy  (Wintertlmr,  17',i9).  Herder  has 
done  much  to  extend  a  knowledge  of  A.'s  works  in 
the  present  age. 

AXDREOSSY,  Antoine  Francois,  Count,  was 
born  on  March  6,  1701,  at  Castelnandary,  in  Langue- 
doc,  and  was  the  great-grandson  of  Franc^ois  A.,  who, 
along  with  Riquet,  constructed  the  canal  of  Langue- 
doc  in  the  17th  c.  He  entered  the  army  as  a  lieu- 
tenant of  artillery  in  1781,  joined  the  Revolutionists, 
rose  rapidly  in  military  rank,  served  under  Bonaparte 
in  Italy  and  Egypt,  accompanied  him  on  his  return 
from  Egypt  to  France,  and  took  part  in  the  revolu- 
tion of  the  18th  Brumaire.  He  was  ambassador  at 
London  during  the  peace  of  Amiens,  and  afterwards 
at  Vienna,  was  governor  of  Vienna  when  it  was  in 
the  hands  of  the  JVench  after  the  battle  of  Wagram, 
and  was  for  pome  time  ambassador  at  Constanti- 
nople, from  which  he  was  called  by  Lo>iis  XVIII. 
on  the  Restoration.  lie  was  raised  to  the  peerage 
by  Napoleon  after  bis  return  from  Elba.  After  the 
battle  of  Waterloo,  he  advocated  the  recall  of  the 
Bourbons;  but  as  deputy  from  the  department  of 
Aube,  he  generally  took  part  with  the  opposition, 
lie  died  at  Montauban  on  September  10,  18-!8.  He 
was  a  man  of  eminent  scientific  attainments,  and 
distinguislied  himself  as  a  member  of  the  Institute 
founded  at  Cairo.  One  of  his  first  works  was  the 
HiMoire  Ghiirale  dii  Canal  da  Midi.  (Par.  1800; 
new  edition,  2  vols.,  18051,  in  which  he  asserted  the 
right  of  his  great-grandfather  to  honours  long 
e:ijoyed  by  Ri(]uet.  Among  the  most  valuable  of 
his  works  are  his  Memoire  siir  V Irruption  du  Font- 
Euxin  datii  la  Miditerranlc^  his  Mhnoire  aur  le 
Si/xthne  dcs  Faux  qui  ahmirent  Constantinople^  and 
his  Conxfnnliiiople  et  le  Boxphorc  de  Thrace  pendavt 
lex  Annees  1812 — ISl-t  et  pendant  FAnnee  1820 
(Par,  1^28),  a  work  of  importance  in  physical 
geography. 

ANDREW,    the    first     disciple    of   Christ,    and 


afterwards  an  a;  ostle,  was,  like  liis  brother  Peter,  a 
li.iherman.  Previous  to  his  recognition  of  Christ  as 
the  Messiah,  he  had  been  numbered  among  the  dis- 
ciples of  John  the  Baptist.  (See  John  i.  4o,  41.) 
The  career  of  A.,  as  an  apostle,  after  the  death  of 
Clirist,  is  unknown.  Tradition  tells  us  that,  alter 
preacliing  the  gospel  in  Scytliia,  Northern  (Jreece, 
and  Epirus,  he  sutlered  martyrdom  on  the  cro.«s  at 
Patrai  in  Achaia,  02  or  7o  a.d.  A  cross  formed 
of  beams  ol^liquely  placed  is  styled  St.  A.'s  Cross. 
In  the  early  times  of  the  Church,  a  spurious  supple- 
ment to  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  was  circulated 
among  certain  sects  under  the  title  Aeta  Andrea:. 
The  anniversary  of -S<.  A.  falls  on  November  30.  St. 
A.  is  the  patron  saint  of  Scotland ;  he  is  also  held  in 
great  veneration  in  Russia,  as  the  apostle  who, 
according  to  tradition,  first  preached  the  gospel  in 
that  country.  In  both  countries  there  is  an  order  of 
knighthood  named  in  his  honour. 

ST.  ANDREW,  or  THE  THISTLE,  a  Scotti.-^h 
order  of  knighthood,  named  after  the  patron  saint 
of  Scotland.  Nisbet,  with  pardonable  partiality, 
prefers  it  to  all  other  orders,  purely  military,  'chietiy 
for  the  antiquity  of  it,  which  gives  it  a  place  and 
precedency  over  all  other  orders  now  in  being.' 
{Ileraldrji,  Part  iv.  c.  xi.,  p.  107.)  He  then  pro- 
ceeds, after  Bishop  Lesley,  to  recount  the  story  of 
the  St.  A.'s  Cross  having  appeared  in  heaven  to 
Achaius,  king  of  Scots,  and  Huugus,  king  of  the 
Picts,  as  a  sign  of  the  victory  which  they  should 
gain  the  following  day  over  Athelstane,  king  of  Eng- 
land ;  and  their  subsequent  vow,  when  the  prophecy 
was  fulfilled,  to  bear  it  tin  their  ensigns  and  banners. 
Tlic  recognised  date  of  the  order  is,  however,  no 
earlier  than  the  reign  of  James  V.  Having  fallen 
into  disrepute  after  the  Reformation,  it  was  revived 
by  James  II.  of  Great  Britain  in  1087,  and  re-estab- 
lished by  Queen  Anne  December  81,  17o3. 

The  star  of  the  Order  of  the  Tliistle  is  worn  on 


Star  of  the  Order  of  the  Thistle. 

the  left  side.  It  consists  of  a  St.  A.'s  Cross  of  silver- 
embroidery,  with  rays  emanating  from  between  the 
points  of  the  cross,  in  the  centre  of  which  is  a  thistle 
of  gold  and  green  upon  a  field  of  green,  surrounded 
by  a  circle  of  green,  bearing  the  motto  of  the  order 
in  golden  characters. 

The  badge  or  jewel  is  worn  pendent  to  the  collar, 
or  to  a  dark  green  riblion  over  the  left  shoulder, 
and  tied  under  the  arm.  It  consists  of  a  figure  of 
St.  A.  with  the  cross  enamelled  and  chased  on  rays 
of  gold;  the  cross  and  feet  resting  upon  the  ground 
of  enamelled  green.  The  collar  is  of  thistles,  inter- 
mingled w  i'h  sprigs  of  rue.  By  a  statute  passed  in 
May  1827,  the  order  is  to  consist  of  the  sovereign 
and  sixteen  knights.  The  letters  K.T.  are  placed 
after  the  names  of  knights  of  the  order.  The 
motto  is  'Nemo  me  impune  lace.s.sit.'  Nisbet,  differ- 
ing from  Sir  George  Mackenzie,  prefers  'laccsset,'  as 
'  having  more  of  daring  and  gallantry.' 

245 


ST.  ANDREW— AXDRIEUX. 


ST.  ANDREW,  Thk  Russian  Our.Ku  of,  is  the 
highest  in  the  empire,  and  was  foundod  by  Peter  the 
Great  in  1698.  It  is  confined  to  members  of  the 
imperial  family,  princes,  generals-in-cliief,  and  others 
of  like  rank.  The  badge  of  the  order  shews  on  the 
obverse  a  cross  enamellfd  in  blue,  bearing  a  figure 
of  the  saint  surmounted  by  a  crown,  and  in  the  i'our 
corners  of  the  cross  the  letters  S.  A.  P.  R.  {Sanctus 
Andreas  Patronus  Jiussicc).  On  the  reverse  is  a 
spread  eagle,  with  the  legend  (in  Russian)  For  rclifi'ion 
and  loi/alti/,  and  the  name  of  the  saint.  The  colhir 
consists  of  St.  Andrew's  Crosses  alternating  with 
imperial  crowns. 

ANDREWS,  Lancelot,  an  eminent  Englisli 
prelate,  was  born  in  London  in  1.555,  and  educated 
successively  at  the  Coopers'  Free  School,  Ratclille, 
Merchant  Taylors'  School,  and  Pembroke  Hall, 
Cambridge,  of  which  college,  after  having  greatly  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  industry  and  ac(|uirements, 
ho  was  in  157(5  elected  a  fellow.  On  taking  orders, 
he  accompanied  the  Earl  of  Huntingdon  to  the  north 
of  England.  His  talents  attracted  the  notice  of 
Walsingham,  Queen  Elizabeth's  secretary  of  state, 
•who  ap[)ointed  liim  successively  to  the  parsonage  of 
Alton,  and  the  vicarage  of  St.  Giles,  Cripplegate. 
Li  1589  he  was  appointed  a  prebendary  and  canon 
residentiary  of  St.  Paul's,  a  prebendary  of  the  colle- 
giate church  of  Southwell,  and  Master'of  Pembroke 
Hall.  The  Queen  iie.xt  testified  her  esteem  for  his 
gifts  and  piety  by  appointing  him  one  of  her 
chaplains  in  ordinary,  and  a  prebendary  and  dean  of 
Westminster.  He  rose  still  higher  in  favour  with 
K'ng  James,  who  was  well  qualified  to  appreciate 
his  extensive  learning  and  peculiar  style  of  oratorv. 
He  attended  the  Hampton  Court  conference,  as 
one  of  the  ecclesiastical  commissioners,  and  took 
part  in  the  translation  of  the  Bible.  The  portion 
on  which  he  was  engaged  was  the  first  twelve 
books  of  the  Old  Testament.  In  1605  he  was  con- 
secrated Bishop  of  Chichester.  In  1609  he  was 
translated  to  the  see  of  Ely,  and  appointed  one  of 
his  nuijesty's  privy-councillors,  both  for  England 
and  Scotland.  To  the  latter  country  he  accompanied 
the  king  in  1611,  as  one  of  the  royal  instruments  for 
persuading  the  Scotch  of  the  superiority  of  episcopacy 
over  presbytery.  In  the  following  year  he  was  trans- 
lated to  Winchester,  where  he  died  on  the  27th  Slarch 
1625.  Bishop  A.  was,  with  the  exception  of  Usher, 
the  most  learned  English  theologian  of  his  time.  As  a 
preaclier,  he  was  regarded  by  his  contenifioraries  as 
unrivalled ;  but  the  excellent  quaHties  of  his  dis- 
coinses  are  apt  to  suffer  much  depreciation  in 
modern  judgment  from  the  extremely  artificial  and 
frigid  character  of  the  style.  His  princijial  works 
published  during  his  life  were  two  treatises  in  reply 
to  Cardinal  Bellarmin,  in  defence  of  the  right  of 
princes  over  ecclesiastical  assemblies.  His  other 
works  consist  of  sermons,  lectures,  and  manuals  of 
devotion.  Bishop  A.  was  the  most  eminent  of  that 
Anglican  school  in  the  17fh  c.  of  which  the  IPth  has 
seen  a  faint  revival  under  the  name  of  Puseyism. 
Its  distinctive  peculiarities  were  high  views  of  eccle- 
siastical authority,  and  of  the  efficacy  of  sacraments, 
ceremonies,  and  apostolic  succession,  and  extreme 
opposition  to  Puritanism.  In  his  private  life,  A. 
was  singularly  pious,  meek,  and  charitable. 

ANDREWS,  St.,  an  ancient  city  of  Scotland, 
is  situated  on  the  bay  of  the  same  name,  in  Fife- 
shire,  about  10  miles  from  Cupar,  and  44  miles  from 
Edinburgh.  Tradition  dates  the  origin  of  this  city  as 
Itir  back  as  the  0th  c,  when  St.  Regulus  or  Rule  is 
said  to  have  taken  refuge  in  this  place,  then  called 
Mucros,  and  afterward  Kilrymont,  bringing  with 
him  some  of  the  bones  of  St.  Andrew,  which,  being  en- 
Bhritied  here,  continued  to  be  an  object  of  pilgrimage 
246 


for  several  centuries.  A  cave  on  the  sea->hore 
still  bears  the  name  of  St.  Rule.  He  would  sciin  to 
have  founded  a  Culdee  mon.istery,  of  whicli  the 
Scottish  King  Con.stantine,  having  resigned  his 
crown,  became  abbot  about  the  year  940.  Probably 
al)out  the  same  time,  it  became  "the  seat  of  a  prelate, 
who,  as  'bishop  of  the  Scots,'  continued  to  enjoy  a 
certain  pre-eminence  among  the  other  bishops,  until, 
in  1471,  the  see  was  erected  into  an  archbishopric, 
when  he  became  primate.  In  the  reign  of  Alexander 
I.,  a  priory  of  Canons  Regular  was  founded  at  St.  A., 
V.  hich  afterwards  became  one  of  the  chief  ecclesias- 
tical establishments  in  Scotland.  The  last  prior  was 
the  Regent  Moray.  In  1140  St.  A,  was  created  a 
burgh  by  the  bishop,  with  consent  of  King  David  I. 
The  cathedral,  commenced  in  1162,  and  consecrated 
in  1:518,  was  sacrificed  in  1559  to  the  frenzied  zeal 
of  the  mob,  an  outrage  which  it  is  customary  to 
attribute  to  the  preaching  of  Knox.  The  eastern 
gable,  part  of  the  western,  and  part  of  the  south  side 
wall  and  of  the  transept,  are  all  that  remain  of  this 
building.  It  was  the  second  cathedral  of  St.  A.,  the 
first  being  what  is  now  called  St.  Rule's  Church,  but 
was  long  known  as  '  the  old  cathedral.'  Of  this 
interesting  little  edifice,  built  between  1127  and 
1144,  the  loofless  chancel,  and  a  square  tower  1()8 
feet  high,  are  still  preserved.  They  are  in  the 
Romanesque  style. 

The  university  of  St.  A.,  the  oldest  in  Scotland, 
was  founded  by  Bishop  Wardlaw  in    1410.     It  con- 
sists of  the  United  College  of  St.   Salvator,  founded 
by    Bishop    Keimedy    in     1456,    and    St.  Leonard, 
founded   in  1512  ;   and  St.  Mary's  College,  founded 
by  Beaton  in  15:!7.     The  education  in   the  latter  is 
exclusively  theological.      The  inimber  of  chairs  in 
the  colleges  which   constitute  the  university  is  14, 
and  the  attendance  of   late  years   has   been  rather 
less  than   200.      The  castle,  once  a  very  extensive 
and    strong  building,    is  now  in  r\iins.     It    was  for 
some   time   the   residence  of  Cardinal   Beaton,  who 
was  assassinated  here  in  1546.     As  the  ecclesiastical 
metropolis  of  Scotland,  an  ancient  scat  of  learning, 
and  the  centre  of   a  considerable  trade,  St.  A.,   at 
the  time  of  the  Reformation,  was  an  important  and 
flourishing  city.     Since  that   period,  it   has  greatly 
declined  in  importance  ;  but  its  excellent  educational 
establishments   and  convenience  as  a  watering-place 
still    make    it    an    eligible    residence    for    a    highlv 
respectable    population.       Its    chief  interest   is  still 
connected  with  the  past.     Here,  in  the  ci'ntre  of  the 
]iapal  jurisdiction  in  Scotland,  the  Reformation  first 
made    its     appearance;     Scotland's     proto-martyr, 
Patrick  Hamilton,  suflfered  here  in  1527,  and  George 
AVishart  in  1546,  and  here  John  Knox  first  opened 
his  lips   as  a  preacher  of  the  Reformed  faith.     The 
trade  of  St.  A.  is  inconsiderable.     The   hai'bour  is 
difficult  of  access,  and  particularly  exposed  to  the 
east  wind.     A   few  coasters  and  fishing-boats  con- 
stitute all  the  shipfiing  of  the  port.     St.  A.  is  much 
frequented  as  a  bathing-place,  and  the  game  of  golf 
is  more   practised   than   anywhere   else   in  Scotland 
on    the    Links    or    downs  which    stretch    along  the 
shore  to  the  north  of  the  town  for  about  two  miles. 
Besides  its  university,  St.  A.  affords  singidar  advan- 
tages  for   cheap    and    excellent    education    in    the 
Madras  College,  established  by  the  well-known  Dr. 
Andrew  Bell,  w  hich  attracts  a  very  large  number  of 
pupils,  the  annual  average  being  about   900.     The 
grammar  school  and  commercial  school  are  incor- 
porated with  it.     St.  A.  is  a  royal  and  parliamentary 
burgh,   and  unites  with   several  smaller    burghs    in 
returning  a  member  to  parliament.     The  corporation 
includes   a   provost,    dean  of  guild,  and  four  liailies. 
Population  —  parish,    6740;      parliamentary  burgh, 
51()7. 
ANDRIEUX,       Francois       Guillaume       Jean 


ANDROGYNOUS— ANDROXICUS. 


STAN'iSLAfs,  a  French  writer  of  comedies,  was  horn 
at  Melun,  May  «,  1759.  In  1798,  he  was  elected 
deputy  of  the  Seine  department,  and  distinguished 
himself  by  his  speeches  on  several  points  of  public 
interest.  In  ISiio  he  was  made  Secretary,  and  soon 
afterwards  President,  of  the  Tribunal.  From  this 
post  he  was  removed  by  Bonaparte  in  ISui,  and 
afterwards  devoted  himself  to  literature.  Duriris: 
his  political  career  he  had  written  a  comedv,  Ja;s 
Etoitrdix,  1787.  From  18o8  to  1815  he  held  a  pro- 
fessorship in  the  Polytechnic  School,  and  in  lhl4 
was  appointed  professor  in  the  College  de  France. 
Louis  XVIII.  gave  him  a  place  in  the  Academy  in 
181ti,  of  which  he  was  made  perpetual  secretary  in 
18-J9.  In  (his  position  lie  took  an  active  part  in 
the  preparation  of  the  Dictinnnaire  de  VAcndi-mic. 
His  most  popular  dramas  were  MnlVere  avec  sen 
Amis,  Le  Vievx  Fat,  and  the  tragedy  of  Brutus. 
A  collection  of  his  aesthetic  lectures  was  published 
under  the  title  La  Philnsnphie  des  Belles  Lettres 
(Paris,  1828).     He  died  May  10,  1833. 

AXDRO'GYNOUS  (i.e..  male-female ;  from  two 
Greek  words),  a  term  sometimes  employed  in  botany 
to  designate  an  inflorescence  which  consists  of 
distinct  male  and  female  flowers ;  and  more  fre- 
((uently  in  zoology  in  reference  to  animals  which 
possess  a  distinct  male  and  female  generative  system 
in  the  same  individual.  This  is  the  case  witli  very 
many  of  the  lower  kinds  of  animals,  but  is  not 
inconsistent  with  a  necessity  for  the  co-operation  of 
two  individuals  in  the  propagation  of  the  species. 
See  Hermapukodite,  Physiology  and  Reproduc- 
tion. 


order  Ericacece  (q.  v.),  distinguished  by  a  6-valveit 
naked  capsule,  which  splits  up  through  the  buck 
of  the  cells  ;  anthers  with  two  awns,  and  a  glolKise 
corolla  with  the  orifice  contracted.  The  sj  tcies, 
which  are  pretty  numerous,  have  very  much  the 
general  appearance  of  heaths.  Most  of  them  are 
small  shrubs,  but  some  attain  a  considerable  size. 
The  only  Hritish  species  is  A.  poli/olia,  occasionally 
found  in  peat-bogs  in  dittereiit  pans  of  the  country, 
and  common  throughout  (he  north  of  Europe  and 
of  North  Ameiica,  a  small  evergreen  shrub  with 
Ijeautiful  rose-coloured  drooping  flowers.  It  has 
acrid  luircotic  properties,  and  sheep  are  sometimes 
killed  by  eating  it.  The  shoots  of  A.  ovalifo/ia  in 
like  manner  poison  gosta  in  Nepaul ;  and  similar 
effects  are  ascribed  to  A.  Mariana  and  other  species 
in  the  United  States. — A.  fastir/iata  was  observed 
by  Dr.  Hooker  abounding  at  great  elevations  in  the 
Himalaya;  a  humble  shrub,  reseml)ling  the  heather 
of  Scotland.  The  leaves  are  used  as  a  substitute 
for  tea.     See  Sorrel-trek. 


ANDRONI'CUS,    the    name    of  three    Byzantine 
emperors. — A.  I.,  the   son   of  Isaac   Comnenus,  was 
one  of  the   mo.st  conspicuous  characters  of  his  age, 
which  produced  no  luan  more  brave,  more  profligate, 
or  more  jierfldioiis.    His  lite  was  full  of  extraordinary 
vicissitudes.     During    jiart   of  liis   youth,  he    was    a 
prisoner  of  the  Turks  in  Asia  Minor.     He  afterwards 
spent  some  time  at    the    court    of  his    cousin,   the 
Emperor  Manuel,  and  a  niece  of  the  emperor  became 
his    mistress.       He     was    appointed     to    a    militiry 
conmiand  in  Cilicia  ;  but  although   his  courage,  his 
noble   appearance,  and   his  gracious  manners   nuide 
him  the  favourite  of  the  army,  his  imiirudence  and 
waste  of  time   in  dissolute  pleasures  involved  him  in 
defeat.    Having  engaged  in  a  treasonable  correspond- 
ence with  the   king   of  Hungary  and    the    German 
emperor,  he  was  thrown  into   prison  by  Manuel,  and 
remained    there    above    twelve    years';    but    at   last 
succeeded  in  making  his  escape,  and,  although    not 
without    furthrr    extraordinary   adventures,  reached 
Kiew,   the  residence   of  the   (iraiid   Duke  Jaroslav. 
He  regained  the  favour  of  his  cousin  by  persuading 
the  Russian  prince   to  join   him  in   the  invasion  of 
Hungary,  and    by    his    gallantry   in    that    war;    but 
incurred   his  displeasure  again  by   refusing  to  take 
the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  Prince  of   Hungary,  the 
intended    hushaiul    of    Manners    daughter,    as    pre- 
sumptive   heir    to    the     empire.       He    was    sent    in 
honourable    banishment   to  Cilicia,    where   he  found 
a  new   mistress   in  a   sister  of  the   empress.       The 
beautiful    than    the    Nereids,  I  resentment  of  the  emperor  breaking  out  against  liim, 
these  offended  deities  prayed    ''^  sought  refuge  in  a  i)iigrimage  to  Jerusalem.     His 
professions  of  zeal   m-tde   his  former  conduct  to  be 
forgotten,  and   he    was    invested   with  the   lord.ship 
of  Berytus;  but  his  profligacy  became,  if  possible, 
more  scandalous  tiian  ever  in  the  seduction  of  Tiieo- 
dora,    the    widow    of   Baldwin,    king    of  Jeru.saleui, 
who  lived  with  him  for  years  as  his  mistress.       The 
emperor's  anger  made  Palestine  unsafe  for  liim,  and 
he   fled    with    Theodora    to    Damascus,    and    fliuilly 
settled  among  the  Turks  in  Asia   .Minor,  with  a  band 
of  outlaws,  making  frequent  iiu-oads  into  the  Ronum 
province  of  Trcbizond,  from  which  he   carried  away 
s|)oil  and  slaves.       Tlu'odora  and  her   childi-en  were 
at  last  taken  and  sent  to  Constantiiio|)le,  and  thither 
he  followed,  imploring,  with   a  chain  about  his  neck, 
and  in  a  form  of  abj-ct   subndssion,  the   forgiveness 
of  the  emperor,  which   he  obtained,  but  was  sent  to 
Oenoe    in    Pontus.      After    the    death    of    Manuel, 
popular  indignation  was  excited  again.st  the  empress, 
who  acted  as  regent  for  lu>r  son,  Alexius  II.,  and  A. 
was  recalled  in  1182  to  deliver  the  empire   from  her 
tyranny.      He  was  appointed  guardian  of  the  young 
emperor,  and  soon  after,  his  colleague  in  the  empire. 
He  caused  the  empress-mother  to  be  strangled,  and 

247 


ANDROMACHE,  the  wife  of  Hector,  was  the 
daughter  of  King  Eetion  of  Thebes,  in  Cilicia,  and 
is  one  of  the  finest  female  characters  in  Homer's 
Iliad.  During  her  childhood,  Achilles  slew  her 
father  and  her  seven  brothers.  Her  love  of  Hector 
is  pathetically  depicted  in  her  address  to  the  hero  on 
his  going  to  battle,  and  her  lamentation  over  his 
death  (Iliad,  6  and  24).  After  the  fall  of  Trov, 
she  was  given  into  the  hands  of  Pyrrhus  (son  of 
Achille-s),  who  took  her  away  to  Epirus,  but  after- 
wards surrendered  her  to  Heienus  (Hector's  brother), 
by  whom  she  had  a  son  named  Cestrinus.  A.  is  the 
heroine  of  one  of  the  tragedies  of  Euripide.s. 

^  ANDRO'MED.\,  daughter  of  the  Ethiopian  king 
Ce[)iuMis,  by  Cassiopeia,  was,  like  her  mother, 
remarkably  beautiful.  When  Cassiopeia,  with 
motherly  pride,  boasted  that  her  daughter  was  more 


Neptune  to  revenge  th 
insult.  Accordingly,  the  ter- 
ritory of  King  Cepheus  was 
devastated  by  a  flood;  and 
a  terrible  sea-monster  ap- 
peared, whose  wrath,  the 
oracle  of  Ammon  declareil, 
could  only  be  appeased  by 
the  sacrihce  of  A.  As  A. 
was  fastened  to  a  rock, 
and  left  as  a  prey  to  the 
monster,  Perseus,  returning 
from  his  victorious  battle 
with  Medusa,  saw  the  beau- 
tiful victim,  and  determined 
to  rescue  and  win  her. 
Having  slain  the  sea-monster, 
he  received  A.  as  his  reward. 
Minerva  gave  A.  a  place 
among  the  constellations. 

ANDRO'MEDA,    a    genus 
Andromeda  polifolia.     of    plants     of    the     natural 


AN'DROXICUS— ANEMOMETER. 


afterwards  Alexius  himself,  with  whose  widow  he 
contracted  an  indecent  marriage.  His  reign,  though 
short,  was  vigorous,  aud  restored  prosperity  to 
the  provinces ;  but  tyranny  and  murder  were  its 
characteristics  in  the  capital.  He  set  no  bounds  to 
the  gratification  of  his  revenge  against  all  who  had 
ever  offended  him,  and  bis  jealousy  of  possible  rivals 
was  equally  sanguinary.  At  last,  a  destine(l  victim, 
Isaac  Angelus,  one  of  his  relatives,  having  fled  to 
'.be  Church  of  8t.  Sophia  for  sanctuary,  a  crowd 
gathered,  and  a  sudden  insurrection  placed  Isaac  on 
the  throne,  whilst  A.,  now  73  years  of  age,  was 
put  to  death  by  the  infuriated  populace,  after 
horrible  mutilations  and  tortures,  on  September  12, 
1185.  He  was  the  last  of  the  Comneni  that  sat  on 
the  throne  of  Constantinople;  but  the  succeeding 
Dukes  and  Emperors  of  Trebizond  weie  descendants 
of  his  son  Manuel. — A.  II.,  the  son  of  Michael  Palaso- 
logus,  ascended  the  throne  in  l'J83;  but  afteraweak 
and  inglorious  reign,  was  driven  from  it  in  1328  by 
his  grandson,  A.  III.,  who,  after  a  reign  equally 
inglorious,  died  in  1341.  During  these  reigns,  pro- 
vince after  |)rovince  was  conquered  by  the  Turks. 

ANDRONICIIS — surnamed  Cyrrhkstks  from  his 
birthplace,  Cyrrhos  in  Syria — is  said  to  have  erected 
the  octagonal  tower  called  the  Tower  of  the  Winds 
at  Athens,  a  building  of  the  3d  or  2d  c.  b.c.  It 
probal)ly  received  its  name  from  figures  representing 
the  eight  principal  winds,  and  from  a  bi'azen  Triton 
which  surmounted  it,  and  shewed  the  direction  of  the 
wind — the  first  known  weather-cock. 

AXDRONICrS  of  Rhodes,  a  Peripatetic  philo- 
sopher, lived  at  Rome  in  Cicero's  time,  and  employed 
himself  in  criticising  and  explaining  the  works  of 
Aristotle,  a  great  number  of  which  he  was  probably 
the  means  of  preserving  to  us.  None  of  the  writings 
of  A.  himself  are  extant;  for  the  works  ascribed  to 
him  are  probably  the  productions  of  Andronicns 
Callutoii,  a  learned  Greek  of  the  loth  c,  who  taught 
t!ie  Greek  language  in  Italy  and  France. 
ANDROPO'GON.  See  Lemon-grass. 
ANEGA'DA,  the  most  northerly  of  the  Lesser 
Antilles,  its  lat.  being  about  ly°  N.,  and  its  long, 
between  C4°  and  65°  W.  It  contains  about  13  square 
miles,  with  a  scanty  population 
of  little  more  than  2nO.  It 
belongs  to  England.  It  is  of 
coral  formation,  being,  like  most 
islands  of  the  kind,  low  and 
beset  by  reefs.  One  reef  in  par- 
ticular, which  runs  out  10  miles 
to  the  southeast,  is  marked,  even 
on  ordinary  maps,  as  the  scene  of 
numerous  shipwrecks. 

ANEMOMETER  {nnemoK,  the 
wind,  and  metron,  a  measure ; 
Fr.  anemomefre,  Ger.  Wind- 
menser),  an  instrument  for  mea- 
suring the  strength  and  velocity 
of  the  wind.  Among  the  various 
instalments  which  have  been 
designed  for  this  purpose,  that 
invented  by  Dr.  Lind  (1775  A.n. ) 
is  still  considered  to  be  one  of  the 
most  convenient  and  accurate. 
The  accompanying  figure  gives  a  representation  of  it. 
AB  and  CD  are  two  upright  glass  tubes  about  9  inches 
high,  and  Vio  of  an  inch  wide,  connected  below  by  a 
much  narrower  tube,  E,  varying  from  Vio  to  V20  of 
an  inch  in  width.  The  tube  AB  is  bent  at  riglit 
angles,  so  as  to  receive  the  wind  blowing  into  it 
horizontally.  A  scale,  graduated  in  inches  and  parts 
of  an  inch,  is  placed  between  the  tubes,  and  the 
whole  instrument  is  made  to  turn  round  the  steel 
spindle,  L,  which  can  be  screwed  into  a  block  of 
248 


wood  l>y  a  screw  at  the  bottom.  When  the  instru- 
ment is  used,  water  is  poured  into  the  tubes  until 
the  level  in  both  stands  at  the  middle  of  the  scale. 
When  no  disturbing  force  acts  upon  either  column 
of  liquid,  the  level  of  both  is  accurately  the  same ; 
but  when  the  mouth  of  the  tube  A 15  is  turned 
towards  the  wind,  the  colunm  in  AB  is  pressed 
downwards,  and  that  in  CD  rises  proportionably, 
and  the  diflerence  of  the  heights  of  the  two  columns 
gives  the  column  of  water  which  the  force  of  the 
wind  sustains.  Now,  as  we  know  that  the  pressure 
of  the  atmosphere  at  the  earth'ti  surface  supports  « 
column  of  water  about  33  feet  high,  or  presses  with  a 
force  of  about  20tj(»lbs.  on  the  squaie  foot,  this  instru- 
ment gives  us  immediately  the  data  from  which  we  can 
calculate  the  pressure  or  force  of  the  wind.  Thus, 
suppose  the  wind  to  blow  with  a  force  sufficient  to 
raise  the  one  column  one  inch  above  the  other,  we 
have  '/12  of  '/as  of  20tiO,  or  about  57io  lbs.  of  pressure 
on  the  square  foot  as  the  force  of  the  wind. 

The  following  table  gives  approximately  the  rela- 
tion of  the  height  of  the  water  in  the  A.  to  tlie  force 
and  velocity  of  the  wind  in  winds  of  different  char- 
acter.s.     (See  Aerodynamics.) 


Feeble  Wind,  . 
Fresh  Breeze, 
Very  Strong  Wind, 
Tempest, 


Heisrht  of 
■\Vuter. 

.      Vm  >». 

"/«  " 
1  " 
4     » 


Pressure  per 
Square  Foot. 

'7.00  lbs. 

1  /lO 

57io     " 
207io    " 


Velocity 
l)er  Hour. 

4  v.. 
16 'A 
32'/. 
65 


Of  other  anemometers,  those  most  in  use  consist  of 
small  metal  vanes  fixed  to  a  horizontal  axis,  and 
made  to  revolve  like  a  wind-mill.  The  revolutions 
are  recorded  very  much  in  the  same  way  as  is  seen 
in  the  ordinary  gas-meter,  and  from  this  record, 
within  a  given  time,  the  velocity  of  the  wind  is 
ascertained.  In  meteorological  observatories,  or 
where  a  complete  register  is  kept  of  the  direction  and 
strength  of  the  wind,  anemometers  of  a  much  more 
complicated  nature  are  employed.  Of  these,  perh;ips 
the  most  complete  is  that  invented  by  Mr.  Osier. 
In  his  instrument,  the  force  of  the  wind  is  ascer- 
tained in  a  different  way  from  any  of  those  to  which 
we  have  referred.  A  brass  plate  one  foot  square  is 
suspended  by  means  of  springs,  and  being  attached 
to  the  vane  of  the  instrument,  is  maintained  at  right 
angles  to  the  direction  of  the  wind.  This  plate,  by 
the  action  of  the  wind,  is  beaten  back  upon  the 
springs,  and  in  so  doing,  causes  a  pencil  to  move 
backwards  and  forwards  on  a  sheet  of  paper  placed 
below  it.  This  sheet  of  paper  is  made  to  pass  under 
the  pencil  in  a  direction  at  right  angles  to  its  oscilla- 
tion ;  and  by  means  of  clock-work,  moves  at  a  uni- 
form rate,  so  that  the  force  of  the  wind  at  any  par- 
ticular time  of  the  day  is  recorded  with  perfect 
accuracy.     A  pencil   in   connection  with  the  vane, 

.,12     lAM  2      3      4      5      8      7      8      9      10     II      12 


J 

1 

1 

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nr 

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■'^^ 

S 

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THE 

WIND 

, 

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10 

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\J\Lyj 

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Register-sheet  of  an  Osier's  Anemometer. 

and    moving   in    the    same    transverse    line    as    the 
former,  records  the  changes  in  the  direction  of  the 


AXEMON'E. 


wind  ;  and  a  tliird  pcm-il,  piiidt'il  by  a  rain-gaujrf, 
rejristcrs  the  quantity  of  rain  tliat  lias  fallon.  Tlie 
precedinf;  sketch,  taken  from  the  first  lialf  of  a  daily 
rejzistor-sheet,  pives  ;in  idea  of  the  kind  of  record 
made  by  an  Osier's  A.  The  space  between  two 
uprifiht  lines  indicates  an  hour ;  that  between  two 
horizontal  lines,  in  the  rain-refrister  '  .,„  of  an  inch  of 
rain,  in  the  direction  of  the  wind  two  cardinal  points, 
and  in  the  force  of  the  wind  1  lb.  of  pressure  on  the 
Fquaie  foot. 

Thus,  on  the  day  in  which  these  lines  were  traced, 
there  was  in  the  rain-regisier.  brouplit  over  from  the 
former  account,  between  "lo  and  1.5  of  an  inch;  and 
during  the  twelve  hours,  the  pencil  had  onlv  risen 
one  space,  indicating  a  fall  of  -05,  or  ''...o  of  an  inch, 
almost  entirely  between  the  hours  of  3  and  4  in  the 
morning,  and  immediately  before  12  in  the  dav.  If 
the  day  had  been  very  rainy,  and  the  pencil  had 
risen  to  the  top  of  the  register,  it  would  have  fallen 
immediately  to  the  bottom  of  it,  and  begun  a  new 
."■ccount ;  and  it  might  have  done  so  several  times  in 
the  course  of  the  twelve  hours.  This  would  have 
been  effected  by  the  mechanism  connected  with  the 
rain-gauge,  which  enables  the  gauge  to  empty  itself 
each  time  that  the  pencil  reaches  the  top  of  the  rain- 
register.  As  regards  the  direction  of  the  wind,  it 
was,  during  the  first  six  hours,  south,  veering  sliirhtlv 
towards  the  east;  and  for  the  last  six  hours,  it  was 
tending  decidedly  towards  the  west,  being  between 
1(J  and  11  nearly  west.  From  the  line  marking  the 
force  of  the  wind,  it  will  be  seen  tiiat  the  dav  was 
stormy.  Between  1  and  2,  and  at  11,  the  wind  was 
blowing  a  very  high  gale,  producing  a  pressure  of 
upwards  of  12  pounds  on  the  square  foot;  and 
lietween  the  Inmrs  of  4  and  5,  there  was  a  decided 
lull,  the  wind  being  brisk,  and  not  stormy  (2 — 3  lbs.). 

AXE'MOXE,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Rnnunculacece,  having  an  involucre  of  three 
divided  leaves,  more  or  less  remote  from  the  flower, 
a  petaloid  calyx,  scarcely  distinguishable  frotn  the 
corolla,  and  soft  woolly  achenia  (sec  AniKNirM), 
which  in  some  species  have  tails.  The  name  is  origin- 
ally (lieek,  and  is  said  to  be  derived  from  the  word  for 
wind,  because  many  of  the  species  love  verv  exposed 
situations.  The  species  are  numerous,  and  generally 
beautiful.  Most  of  them  flower  early  in  spring. 
They  are  natives  of  temperate  and  cold  climates, 
chiefly  of  the  northern  hemisphere.  One  species,  ^4. 
nemoroxa,  the  Wood  A.,  is  a  common  native  of  all 
parts  of  Britain,  and  its  white  flowers,  externally 
tinged  with  purple,  are  an  ornament  of  niany  a  wood- 
land scene  and  mountain  pasture  in  April  and  l\Iay. 
Another  species  A.  pulsatilla,  the  P.\s(jrK  Fi.owkr, 
adorns  chalky  pastures  in  some  parts  of  England  at 
the  same  season.  Its  flowers  are  purple  and  exter- 
nally silky.  The  Garden  A.  is  a  favourite  florist's 
flower;  the  varieties  are  very  numerous,  and  whole 
works  have  been  published  on  them  and  their  culti- 
vation, which  is  most  extensively  carried  on  in 
Holland,  and  has  prevailed  from  a  very  early  period. 
It  is  generally  supposed  that  all  these  varieties  have 
originated  from  two  species.  A.  coronaria,  and  ^1. 
horfcnsis  or  atellata.  Both  are  natives  of  the 
Levant ;  the  latter  is  found  also  in  Italy  and  the 
Bouth  of  France.  By  cvdiivation,  the  size  of  the 
flower  is  increased,  its  form  and  colours  are  modified, 
and  many  of  the  stamens  are  often  changed  into 
small  petals,  forming  a  sort  of  heart  of  the  flower. 
The  cultivation  of  the  A.  requires  great  attention. 
It  prefers  a  light  soil.  The  root,  which  consists  ol 
clustered  tubers,  is  taken  up  after  flowering.  The 
plant  is  propagated  by  parting  the  roots,  or  l>y  seed. 
In  the  latter  way,  new  varieties  are  obtained.  Seed- 
ling plants  do  not  flower  till  the  second  or  third 
vear. — Besides  the  species  which  have  been  named, 


others  occasionally  appear  as  ornaments  of  our 
flower-gardens.  ^4.  Ajipenuiua  and  -4.  pratensia 
have  beautiful  blue  flowers.     They  are  both  natives 


^f#' 


Anemone  coronaria. 

of  the  south  of  Europe.  A.  Japnnicn,  a  most  beauti- 
ful species,  has  recently  been  introduced  from  Japan. 
— The  species  of  this  geims  are  characterised  bv  the 
acridity  prevalent  in  the  natural  order  to  which  they 
belong;  and  the  rhizomes  of  A.  nntun-om,  and 
others,  have  been  n-commended  in  obstinate  rheu- 
matism and  in  ticnia. — The  genus  Ilepalica  was 
formerly  included  in  A.  H.  triloba  {A.  hepatica), 
with  three-lobed  leaves,  grows  wild  in  most  parts  ot" 
(Jermany,  and  throuL'hout  the  north  of  Europe,  but 
is  not  a  native  of  Britain.  It  is  also  found  iii  North 
America.  Varieties  of  difl'erent  colours,  and  both 
.single  and  double,  arc  among  the  finest  ornaments 
of  our  flower  borders  in  early  spring.  The  planis 
are  very  apt  to  sutler  fi  o:n  being  removed  or  having 
the  earth  nnich  loosened  about  them,  and  imist  bo 
permitted  to  remain  as  much  as  possible  untouched. 

AXEMON'E,  Sea,  a  popular  name  of  the  species 
of  Actinia  ((j.  v.)  and  some  other  Acfi/iiadte.  It 
seems  to  have  been  first  applied  to  them  al>()ut  a 
century  ago  by  Ellis,  one  of  tlie  nio-t  celebrated 
investigators  of  the  department  of  natural  history  to 
which  they  belong,  who  remarks  that  '  their  tent- 
acles, being  disposed  in  regular  circles,  and  tinged 
with  a  variety  of  bright  lively  colours,  very  nearly 
represent  the  b<autifid  petals  of  some  of  our  most 
elegantly  fringed  and  nidi.itcd  flowers,  such  as  the 


Actinia  MesemI  ryant'uemum. 

carnation,  marigold,  and  anemone.'  It  is  onlv,  how- 
ever, when  in  their  proper  element  and  undisturbed, 
that  the  sea-anemones  expand  their  tentacula  and 
exhibit  their  beauty.  When  left  dry  by  the  receding 
tide,  they  contract  into  a  Jelly-like  mass,  usually 
hemispherical  or  conical,  with   a   puckered  hole   in 

249 


ANEMONE. 


the  top.  Tlie  most  coninion  of  all  the  Uritish  species 
of  8ea-A.  is  the  Actinia  Mesembrijnntheinnm,  which 
has  received  its  specific  name  from  another  tloral 
association.  It  attaches  itself  to  rocks  ami  stones 
from  low-water  almost  to  hij,'h-water  mark,  and 
when  left  by  the  tide,  appears  as  a  sub-conical 
liver-coloured  or  greenish  mass,  not  more  than  1 — \\ 
inch  in  diameter,  which,  when  touched,  is  found 
to  be  very  smooth  and  slippery,  but  of  pretty  firm 
consistency.  The  tentacula,  when  fidly  extended, 
are  in  length  nearly  equal  to  the  height  of  the  body, 
and  are  nearly  of  the  same  colour.  An  azure  line 
frequently  encircles  the  base ;  and  on  the  base  are 
dark-green  lines  converging  towards  the  centre,  and 
which  are  formed  by  radiating  vertical  plates  in  the 
fleshy  substance  of  the  aninuil,  analogous  (although 
not  calcareous)  to  the  calcareous  partitions  in  the 
single-starred  madrepores.  Aroimd  the  margin  of 
the  mouth,  there  is  a  circle  of  azure  tubercles,  like 
turquoise  beads  of  tlic  greatest  beauty.  These  are 
only  to  be  seen  when  the  mouth  is  pretty  fullv 
expanded.  They  are  about  twenty-five  in  number 
in  full-grown  specimens.  Their  use  is  not  known, 
though  they  have  been  conjectured  to  be  eyes. — A 
smaller  species,  Actinia  (or  Snifartin)  trofilndiitex — 
olive-green,  with  snow-white  8tri[)e3  and  numerous 
tentacula,  is  pretty  common  on  the  Hritish  shores, 
inhabiting  holes  in  the  rocks,  often  the  de.sertetl 
lioles  of  the  J'hnhix^  above  which  its  oval  disc  and 
tentacula  scarcely  rise,  and  into  which  it  (juickly 
vithilraws,  upon  being  disturbed.  A  number  of 
species  inhabit  holes  as  this  does. — Artinia  (or 
Bunodcs)  coriacca,  which  attains  a  diameter  of  two 
inches,  attaches  itself  to  sand-covered  rocks,  and  is 
often  nnich  buried  in  the  sand.  It  is  covered  with 
pale  perforated  warts,  which  liavc  the  power  of 
agglutinating  to  themselves  sand,  gravel,  fragments 
of  shell,  &c.  ;  so  that,  wlu'ii  the  tide  is  out,  the 
animal  is  readily  passed  over  by  the  inexperienced 
eye  as  a  mere  inequality  in  the  surface  of  the  sand, 
unless  some  accidental  pressure  cause  it  to  squirt 
out  water  through  its  tentacula;  as  in  such  circum- 
stances, many  of  the  species  are  very  apt  to  do, 
sometimes  to  the  annoyance  of  those  who  incau- 
tiously meddle  with  them. — Actinia  (^/htuoilrs)  vrasx- 
icoriiis  is  one  of  the  largest  and  most  beautiful  British 


eMc.'/!//) 


^  '^fWr^'^^^CBSrh 


Actinia  crassicomis. 

sea-anemones,  being  about  four  inches  in  height,  and 
fully  more  when  expanded  between  the  tips  of 
the  opposite  tentacula.  It  exhibits  great  diversity 
of  the  most  beautiful  colours.  Red  is  usually 
250 


predominant  ;  the  surface  of  many  is  variegated  with 
white,  or  with  orange-green  and  yellow.  It  occurs 
almost  totally  wldte,  cream  colour,  sul|)hur  yellow, 
and  bright  searli't  with  pale  warts  like  ornamented 
beads. — IJeauty  of  colour  and  form  are  still  more 
abundantly    lavished   on  Actinia   JJianthug,    a   still 


m 


^# 


Actinia  Dianthus. 

larger  species,  w  iih  very  numerous  tentacula,  which 
inhabits  deep  water. — Anthia  L'rreitx  is,  on  some 
parts  of  the  coast,  one  of  the  most  abundant  sea- 
anemones.  Its  tentacula  are  from  120  to  2'>0  in 
number,  are  longer  than  in  the  ActinijB  generally, 
and  are  incapable,  it  is  said,  of  being  retracted,  as  in 
the  true  Acti?iia\  but  remain  constantly  expanded, 
and  are  almost  never  completely  at  rest. 

Of  all  the  species,  Actinia  Mesemtiriianthenxuin  is 
perhaps  most  easily  kept  in  the  aquarium.  It  not 
unfrequently  changes  its  place,  and  its  locomotion  is 
an  interesting  suliject  of  oliservation.  It  will  subsist 
for  a  considerable  time  without  supplies  of  food,  and 
readily  accepts  morsels  of  beef  or  mutton,  fish,  or 
almost  any  kind  ol  animal  food.  The  tentacula  with 
which  the  oftcred  food  first  comes  in  contact  attach 
themselves  to  it ;  those  next  to  them  are  in  motion, 
as  if  to  support  them,  if  neccssarv,  and  a  sort  of 
sympathy  seems  to  extend  even  to  the  most  remote  ; 
but  except  in  the  case  of  struggling  prey,  or  of  a 
very  large  morsel,  only  a  small  number  of  the  whole 
tentactda  are  usually  employed  in  conveying  the  food 
into  the  mouth,  or,  more  properly,  into  the  stomach, 
for  they  do  not  seem  to  part  from  it  till  they  have 
fairly  lodged  it  there. 

Sea-anemones  are  extremely  voracious,  and 
almost  every  observer  has  his  own  anecdotes  to 
illustrate  it.  Dr.  .lohnston  relates  one  which  at  the 
same  time  remarkably  illustrates  their  power  of 
reproducing  organs  of  their  own  body.  'I  had  once 
brought  to  me  a  specimen  of  Act.  cra.s.iicornix,  that 
might  have  been  originally  two  inches  in  diameter, 
and  that  had  somehow  contrived  to  swallow  a  valve 
of  Pecten  maximum  of  the  size  of  an  ordinary  saucer. 
The  shell,  fixed  within  the  stomach,  was  so  placed 
as  to  divide  it  completely  into  two  halves,  so  that 
the  body,  stretched  tensely  over,  had  become  thin 
and  flattened  like  a  pancake.  All  communication 
between  the  inferior  portion  of  the  stomach  and  the 
mouth  was  of  course  prevented ;  yet,  instead  of 
emaciating  and  dying  of  an  atrophy,  the  animal  had 
availed  itself  of  what  undoubtedly  had  been  a  very 
untoward  accident,  to  increase  its  enjoymeiUs   and 


Vol.  I.,  page  250.  SEA    ANEMONES. 

[From  the  Iliinibiirg  Aquarium.] 

1.  Actinia  Crassicornif.  expanded  for  food.                               |  4.  Higarlia  Viduata. 
V.       "                  "              closed ;  for  digestion.                          I  5.         "         Rosea. 

2.  Sagavlia  Parasitica.  6.  Bunodes  Geinmacea 

3.  Aclinohiha  Dianlhus.  '■ .   Anlhfa  Crrrujt. 


AN-END— ANEURISM. 


its  chances  of  double  tare.  A  new  mouth,  furnished 
with  two  rows  of  numerous  tentucula,  was  opened 
up  on  what  had  been  the  base,  an<i  led  to  the  under- 
stomaeh :  the  individual  had  indeed  become  a  sort  of 
Siame.se  twin,  but  with  greater  intimacy  and  extent 
in  its  unions.     (British  ZoojJii/fes,  i.  235.) 

As  inmates  of  the  aquarium,  sea-anemones  are 
apt  to  prey  upon  their  fellow-prisoners.  'Simple 
contact  of  the  tentacula,'  says  Sir  J.  G.  Dalyell,  '  is 
the  prelude  of  destruction.  Some  animals,  as  if 
conscious  of  their  inevitable  fate,  seem  paralysed  by 
the  touch,  and  yield  without  a  struggle.  Others, 
whose  size  and  strength  should  insure  indemnity,  are  i 
held  in  the  relentless  grasp;  the  tentacula  crowding 
faster  and  faster  around,  until  the  victim  is  speedily 
swallowed  alive.'  There  appears  to  be  in  other 
marine  animals  an  instinctive  horror  of  the  tenta- 
cula of  the  sea-A.  The  hermit-crab  will  instan- 
taneously flee  out  of  its  shell,  if  the  shell  is  caught 
by  them"  It  is  now  believed  that,  like  the  AcaUp/ne 
(q.  V.)  and  the  Hi/dras  (q.  v.),  the  sea-anemones 
possess  a  power  of  benumbing  their  prey.  Sea- 
worms  [Nereides)  have  been  observed  first  to  writhe, 
and  then  to  become  paralysed.  Little  elliptical 
capsules  are  in  some  species  scattered  over  the 
whole  surface  of  the  body;  in  others,  confined 
to  the  tentacula,  or  even  to  their  tips.  These  are 
furnished  with  spicula  or  minute  spears,  by  which  it 
is  probable  that  not  only  are  wounds  inflicted,  but 
poison  is  also  conveyed  into  them.  The  sensations 
produced  by  the  touch  of  the  tentacula  appear  to  be 
very  difterent  in  the  case  of  different  persons,  from 
a  niere  '  rasping  feeling '  on  the  withdrawal  of  the 
hand,  to  a  slight  tingling,  and  even  to  a  stinging  as 
by  a  nettle.  The  Anfhea  Cereua  possesses  the  sting- 
iJg  power  in  a  much  greater  degree  than  the  ordin- 
iiry  Actinia.  Probably  the  skin  of  the  human  hand 
is  in  general  too  thick  or  hard  to  be  pierced  by  their 
fine  spicula.  Dr.  A.  Waller  of  Birmingham  has  re- 
cently found,  that,  on  submitting  the  tip  of  his  tongue 
to  the  tentacula,  a  pungent  pain  and  stinging,  as  by  a 
nettle,  wore  the  constant  result.  He  has  also  found 
t;  at  a  thin  India-rubber  membrane  grasped  by  the 
t>  ntacula  retains  the  microscopic  'poison-darts' 
sticking  on  its  surface.  Some  of  these  are  only  two 
or  three  times  the  length  of  the  capsule  which  con- 
tains them,  or  at  most  100th  part  of  an  inch  ;  but 
others  are  much  longer,  and  when  within  the  capsule, 
are  coiled  up  after  the  manner  of  a  watch-spring. 
The  capsules  are  therefore  caWcd  fliferous  or  thread 
capsules.  This  thread  is  highly  "elastic,  and  the 
expulsion  of  it,  as  of  the  shorter  spicula,  is  eftccted, 
Mr.  Gosse  tells  us,  by  organs  having  this  for  their 
special  oflice. 

AN-END,  a  maritime  term  relating  to  the  posi- 
tion of  any  mast  or  boom  when  perpendicular  to 
the  plane  of  the  deck  or  other  level  from  which 
it  springs.  When  a  top-mast  is  in  its  proper  place 
at  the  head  of  the  lower  mast,  it  is  said  to  be 
'an-end.' 

A'NEROID  (formed  in  an  anomalous  -way  from 
a,  priv.,  and  vivos,  wet),  the  name  given  to  a  baro- 
meter invented  by  M.  Vidi  of  Paris,  in  which  the 
pressure  of  the  air  is  measured  without  the  use 
of  liquid,  as  in  ordinary  instruments.  The  face  of  the 
A.  barometer,  represented  in  fig.  1,  has  a  diameter 
of  about  6  inches,  and  the  case  behind,  which  con- 
tains the  mechanism,  a  general  idea  of  which  is 
given  in  fig.  2,  is  about  2  inches  deep.  The  pressure 
of  the  atmosphere  acts  upon  a  circular  metal  box, 
AA,  aliout  3  inches  in  diameter,  and  i  of  an  inch 
deep,  which  has  been  nearly  exhausted  of  air,  and 
then  soldered  air-tight.  The  sides  are  corrugated 
in  concentric  rings,  so  as  to  increase  their  elasticity, 
and  one  of  them  is  fixed  to  the  back  of  the  brass 


case    which    contains    the  whole.       The    amount  of 
exhaustion  is  such  that  if  the  sides  of  the  box  wore 


Aneroid  Barometer. 

allowed  to  take  their  natural  position,  they  would 
be  pressed  in  upon  each  other,  and  to  prevent  this 
they  are  kept  distended,  to  a  certain  extent,  by 
a  strong  spring,  S,  fixed  to  the  ca.se,  which  acts  upon 
the  head  of  the  stalk,  B,  attached  to  the  side 
next  the  face.  When  the  pressure  of  the  air 
increases,  there  being  little  or  no  air  inside  the  box 
to  resist  it,  the  corrugated  sides  are  forced  inwards, 
and  when  it  diminishes  again,  their  elasticity  restores 
them  to  their  former  place;  and  thus  the  little 
box  becomes  a  spring  extremely  sensitive  to  the 
varving  pressure  of  the  external  atmosphere.  Sup- 
posing the  two  sides  pressed  inwards,  the  end  of 
tiie  spring,  E,  will  be  drawn  towards  the  back  of 
the  case,  and  carry  with  it  the  rod,  EG,  which  is 
firmly  fixed  into  it. '  EG,  by  the  link  GH,  acts  ou 
the  bent  lever,  HKL,  which  has  its  axis  at  K,  so 
that,  while  the  arm,  KH,  is  pushed  to  the  right, 
LK  is  moved  downwards.  By  this  motion,  a  watch- 
chain,  0,  attached  at  L,  is  drawn  off  the  little  drum, 
M,  and  the  index-hand,  PP,  which  is  fixed  to  it, 
would  move  from  the  figure  represented  in  fig.  1 
to  one  towards  the  right.  When  the  contrary 
motion  takes  place,  a  hair-spring  moves  the  drum 
and  the  hand  in  the  opposite  way.  By  this  mechan- 
ism, a  very  small  motion  of  the  corrugated  sides 
produces  a  large  deviation  of  the  index-hand,  '220  of 
an  inch  causing  it  to  turn  through  3  inches.  The  A. 
barometer  is  graduated  to  represent  the  inches  of 
the  mercurial  l>aromcter,  with  which,  when  carefully 
adjusted,  it  almost  accurately  corresponds.  Both 
from  its  small  size  and  construction,  it  is  extremely 
portable,  and  it  can  in  consequence  give  indications 
in  circumstances  where  the  ordinary  barometer  is  of 
no  service.  The  '  Metallic  Barometer'  of  M.  Bourdon 
is  a  modification  of  the  A.  principle. 

A'XEURISM  (Gr.  aneuri/sma,  a  dilatation)  is  a 
pulsating  tunu)ur  consisting  of  a  sac  or  pouch  into 
which  blood  flows  through  an  opening  in  an  artery. 
The  sac  of  an  arterial  A.  may  be  formed  in  the  first 
in.stance  by  one  or  more  of  the  tunics  of  the  vessel, 
generally  the  outer  one,  the  two  inner  having  given 
way.  this  is  called  a  true  A.,  in  contradistinction 
to  the  false,  in  which  the  sac  is  formed  of  cellular 
tissue  condensed  liv  the  blood  flowing  into  it  after 
a  wound  has  been  inflicted  on  the  artery  from 
without.  Should  the  sac  give  way,  and  the  blood 
escape  among  the  tissues,  the  A.  is  said  to  be 
diffused.  Varicose  A.  is  when  the  sac  communicates 
both  with  an  artery  and  a  vein ;  Aneurismal  Yarix, 
when  these  vessels  communicate  without  any  sac 
intervening  ;  both  of  these  are  generally  the  results 
°  251 


ANGEL— AXGELS. 


of  bleeding  being  performed  by  non-professional  I  with  red;  the  umbel  is  eonvex.  Gakden  A.  (A. 
persons.  Aneurisms  prove  fiital  by  tlieir  pressure  j  ^)r/(fl»i^«>/icrt  or  ^-lr<7ta«'W/'tv/o/^Viwa/j.<i)  is  a  biennial 
on  some  important  part,  or  by  bursting  and  allowing^  plant,  becoming  perennial  when  not  allowed  to  ripen 
a  sudden  escape  of  blood.  They  are  cured  by  the 
deposit,  within  the  sac,  of  fibrin  from  the  blood 
— a  result  the  smgeou  can  promote  by  obstruct- 
ing the  artery  above  the  A.  by  compression  or  by 
ligature  ;  applying  the  latter  close  to  the  sac,  if  the 
A.  is  of  the  'faLse'  variety,  but  at  a  distance,  if  it  is 
the  result  of  disease.  Internal  aneurisms  are  treated 
by  those  remedies  which  moderate  the  heart's  action, 
as  digitalis,  &c. 

A'N'(iKL,  an  ancient   English    gold   coin,  varying 
in  value  from  tl.s.  Hd.  to   10«.     It  was  so  calUd  from 


Angel  of  Edward  IV^. 

the  figure  of  the  archangel  Michael  piercing  the 
dragon  upon  its  obverse.  Angels  continued  to  be 
coined  down  to  the  time  of  the  Commonwealth. 

ANGEIv-FISH  {Squati'na  dumerilii),  a  fish  com- 
mon on  the  southern  coasts  of  the  United  States, 
and  remarkable  for  its  extreme  ugliness.  On  some 
parts  of  the  coast  it  is  called  monk-Jinh.  It  is 
intermediate  between  the  rays  and  the  sharks.  See 
Shark.  It  is  very  voracious,  preying  chicHy  upon 
fi.shes.      It  attains  a  length  of  seven  or  eight  feet. 


Angel  Fish. 

and  the  body  is  four  feet  or  more  in  wdth  and 
flattened  horizontally.  The  head  is  nearly  round, 
and  broader  than  the  body,  from  which  it  is  separated 
by  a  very  distinct  neck ;  the  mouth  is  extremely 
large,  and  at  the  extremity  of  the  snout ;  the  eyes  are 
on  the  upper  part  of  the  head,  and  are  very  small; 
behind  the  eyes  are  large  spout-holes;  the  skin  is 
very  rough,  and  covered  with  tubercles.  The  upper 
parts  are  of  a  gray  colour ;  the  under  parts,  dirty 
white.  The  female  is  said  to  produce  seven  or  eight 
young  in  spring  and  autunm. 

ANGELICA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Umbellifer(e  (q.  v.),  by  some  botanists  divided 
into  two:  A.,  and  Archnngelica.  The  species  are 
mostly  herbaceous  and  perennial,  natives  of  the  tem- 
perate and  colder  regions  of  the  northern  hemisphere. 
They  have  bipinnate  or  tripiiinate  lea%'es.  Wild  A. 
{A.  siflvesiris)  is  a  common  plant  in  moist  meadows, 
by  the  sides  of  brooks,  and  in  woods  in  Britain  and 
throughout  many  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia.  The 
root  is  perennial,  short,  ringed,  and  branched ;  it  is 
white  within,  and  contains  a  yellow  milky  juice. 
The  stem  is  hollow,  1| — 5  feet  high,  often  flecked 
252 


Angelica  aichangelica. 

its  seeds.     It  has  greenish  flowers  in  almost  spherical 
umbels.     The  stem  is  as  high  as  a  man.     Tlie  fruit 
is  long  and  straw-colomed.      The  root  is  long  and 
fusiform,  an  inch  or  more  in  thickness,  with  thick 
irregular  rugose    radicles.       The    whole    plant,  and 
especially  the  root,  is  aromatic  and  bitter,  contain- 
ing   much    resin    and     essential    oil.       The    root    is 
admitted    into    the    pharmacopieia    as    an  aromatic 
stimulant  and  tonic,  and  is  used  in  nervous  ailments, 
and  in  indigestion  and  flatulence.      It  is  very  little 
used  in  Britain.      The  root  of  A.  xi/liestris  is  some- 
times substituted  for  it,  but  is  much  weaker. — The 
Garden    A.  was  at  one    time    much    cultivated    for 
the  blanched  stalks,  which  were  used  as  celery  now 
is  ;  but  its  cultivation  for  this  purpose  has  long  been 
almost  entirely  discontinued.     The  tender  stalks  and 
midribs  of  the  leaves,   candied,  are   still,  however, 
a     well-known    article    of    confectionary,    and    an 
agreeable    stomachic ;     the     roots    and    seeds   are 
employed  in  the  preparation  of  gin  and  of   '  bitters.' 
The  plant  is  a  very  doubtful  native  of  Britain,  but  is 
common    in    many    parts   of    Europe,    and    even    in 
Lapland  and    Iceland.       The    Laplanders    not  only 
use  it  as  food,  but    regard    the    stalks  roasted  in  hot 
ashes  as  an  efficacious  remedy  in  pectoral  disorders. 
— The  powdered  seeds  of  the  Wild  A.  are  used  by 
the  country  people  in  some   parts  of  Europe  to  kill 
lice.      Several  species  of  A.  are   natives  of  North 
America. 
ANGELICA  TREE.     See  Aralia. 
A'NGELO,  MICHAEL.     See  Michael  Angelo. 
A'NGELS     (Gr.     messengers),     in     Jewish     and 
Christian  theology,  a  class  of  superior  spirits,  repre- 
sented   as    the    immediate     instruments     of    Divine 
Providence.     As  Scripture  contains  no  complete  and 
systematic    account   of    angels,    the    belief  of    the 
Church  respecting  them,  except  in  a  few  points,  has 
never  been  exactly  defined.     It  has  always  been  held 
that  A.  and  human  souls,  notwithstanding  the  high 


ANGER— ANGERS. 


origin  of  the  latter,  are  distinct ;  only  Dionysius 
Areopafjita  (q.  v.)  and  a  few  modern  speculatora 
have  nmintained  the  contrary.  Diony.siiis.  hi  his 
Hierarchia  L'felesitix,  divides  A.  into  nine  orders. 
Whether  there  are  not  sj)irit8  superior  both  to  men 
and  A.,  lias  been  a  disputed  point.  As  to  the 
number  of  A.  and  their  names,  the  Church  in  the 
middle  agi.'S  repeatedly  checked  the  tendency  to  ^,0 
beyond  the  usually  received  accounts;  a  Romish 
coimcil,  in  745  a.  n.,  mentions  with  reprobation  the 
use  of  the  unwonted  names  of  Uriel,  Ruguel,  Simiel, 
&c.  The  names  that  have  ;dl  nlong  been  in  most 
common  use  are  Michael,  Gabiid,  and  Raphael. 

The  creation  of  the  A.  wa.s  placed,  by  the  Platon- 
ising  Church-fathers,  before  that  of  the  material 
world ;  others  assigned  it  to  some  one  of  the  six 
days.  Equally  various  were  the  opinions  as  to  the 
nature  of  the  A.  The  second  synod  of  Nice  (787) 
assigned  them  a  subtle,  ethereal,  or  firelike  body ; 
the  scholastics,  on  the  other  hand,  and  the  Lateran 
Council  of  121.5,  maintained  their  immateriality; 
while  others,  owing  to  the  appearing  of  A.,  mentioned 
in  Scripture,  attributed  to  them  the  power  of 
asfiuming  momentarily  the  corporeal  form.  The  poet 
Nonnus  (lived  in  Egypt  in  the  5th  c.)  is  the  first  to 
speak  of  angels'  wings. 

The  belief  in  (/uardian  A.  was  common  both  to 
heathens  an<l  Jews,  and  had  been  reduced  to  system 
by  Piiilo;  and  the  doctrine  was  adopted  in  the 
Christian  Church,  and  defended  by  Origen  and  others, 
founding  on  Matthew  xviii.  10,  and  Acts  xii.  15. 
It  has  been  cherished  by  many  in  all  ages  and  of 
all  parties,  but  has  never  been  decided  on  by  the 
Church.  Some  of  the  fathers  also  spoke  of  good  and 
bad  guardian-angels,  the  former  of  whom  were 
always  ready  to  prompt  to  good  actions,  and  to 
avert  evil,  while  the  latter  were  equally  quick  in 
bringing  about  mischief,  wickedness,  and  calamitv. 
From  the  belief  in  the  guardianship  of  A.,  and 
their  participation  in  the  government  of  the  world, 
arose  naturally  the  early  practice  of  invoking 
and  worshipping  them.  Many  Christian  teachers 
condemned  it,  appealing  to  Colos.  ii.  18;  and  the 
Council  of  Laodicca,  300,  called  it  disguised  idolatry. 
But  after  the  Council  of  Nice  had  conceded  that 
though  A.  were  not  to  receive  divine  worship,  they 
might  receive  a  reverential  oV)eisance,  the  practice 
mentioned  became  more  and  more  rooted,  and 
continues  in  the  Greek  and  Roman  Catholic  Churches 
to  this  day. 

A'NGER  is  displeasure  or  vexation  accompanied 
by  a  passionate  desire  to  break  out  in  acts  or  words 
of  violence  against  the  cause  of  the  displeasure; 
which  must,  of  cotirse,  be  a  sentient  being  capable 
of  feeling  the  infliction.  Like  most  other  emotions, 
it  is  accompanied  by  effects  on  the  body,  and  in  this 
case  they  are  of  a  very  marked  kind.  The  arterial 
blood-vessels  are  liighly  excited;  the  pulse,  during 
the  paroxysm,  is  strong  and  hard,  the  face  becomes 
red  and  swollen,  the  brow  wrinkled,  the  eyes  pro- 
trude, the  whole  body  is  put  into  commotion.  The 
secretion  of  bile  is  excessive,  and  it  seems  to  assume 
a  morbid  consistency.  In  cases  of  violent  passion, 
and  especially  in  nervous  persons,  this  excitement 
of  the  organs  soon  passes  to  the  other  extreme  of 
depression  ;  generally,  this  does  not  take  place  till 
the  A.  has  subsided,  when  there  follows  a  period 
of  general  relaxation.  The  original  tendency  to  A. 
differs  much  in  individuals  according  to  temperament  ; 
but  frequent  giving  way  to  it  begets  a  habit,  and 
increases  the  natural  tendency. 

From  the  nature  of  A.,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  it 
must  be — often  at  least — prejudicial  to  health.  It 
frequently  gives  rise  to  bile-fever,  inflammation  of 
the  liver,  heart,  or  brain,  or  even  to  mania.  These 
effects  follow  immediately  a  fit  of  the  passion  ;  other 


evil  effects  come  on,  after  a  time,  as  the  consequence 
of  repeated  paroxysms — such  as  paralysis,  jaundice, 
consumption,  and  nervous  fever.  The  milk  of  a 
mother  or  nurse  in  a  fit  of  passion  will  cause  con- 
vulsions in  the  child  that  sucks ;  it  has  been  k>!own 
even  to  occasion  instant  death,  liki  a  strong  poison. 
The  controlling  of  A.  is  a  part  of  moral  discipline. 
In  a  rudimentary  state  of  society,  its  active  exercise 
would  seem  to  be  a  necessity  ;  by  imposing  some 
restraint  on  the  selfish  aggressions  of  one  individual 
upon  another,  it  renders  the  beginnings  of  social 
co-operation  and  intercourse  possible.  This  is  its 
nxe,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  its  final  cause.  But 
the  more  social  intercourse  comes  to  be  regulated  by 
customs  and  laws,  the  less  need  is  there  for  the 
vindictive  expression  of  A.  It  seems  an  error, 
however,  to  suppose  that  the  emotion  ever  will  be — 
or  that  it  ought  to  be— extirpated.  Laws  themselves 
lose  their  efficacy  when  they  have  not  this  feeling 
for  a  background ;  and  it  remains  as  a  last  resource 
for  man,  when  society,  as  it  does  every  now  and 
then,  resolves  itself  into  its  elements.  Even  in  the 
most  artificial  and  refined  states  of  society,  those 
minor  moralities  on  which  half  the  happiness  of 
social  intercourse  depends,  are  imposed  upon  the 
selfish,  in  great  measure,  by  that  latent  fund  of  A. 
which  every  man  is  known  to  carry  about  with 
him. 

ANGERMANNLAND  (Swedish,  J=:ngermland, 
pronounced  Ongermland),  a  province  of  Nordland,  one 
of  the  four  great  divisions  of  Sweden,  extends  along 
the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  and  is  watered  by  the  river 
Angermann.  Next  to  Dalecarlia,  perhaps,  it  exhibits 
the  richest  variety  of  wild  and  beautiful  landscape 
— wood,  mount,  stream,  and  lake  ;  vicing  with  the 
banks  of  the  Rhine,  the  Danube,  or  the  far-famed 
scenery  of  Switzerland.  In  addition,  it  is  one  of 
the  best  cultivated  provinces  in  Sweden,  producing 
barley,  rye,  and  peas,  and  abounding  in  excellent 
pasturage.  The  river  Angermann,  in  its  lower  course, 
becomes  navigable  for  the  largest  ships,  and  broadens 
out  into  a  lake  shortly  before  discharging  itself  into 
the  Gulf  of  Botiinia.  The  inhabitants  are  reckoned 
among  the  solidest  of  the  Swedes,  and  are  favourably 
known  for  their  sobriety  and  industriouij  habit.*;,  on 
account  of  which,  prosperity  is  general.  The  chief 
town  of  the  province  is  Herncesand,  with  a  popula- 
tion of  rather  more  than  2000,  standing  on  the  small 
island  of  Herno,  and  having  steam-communicatiou 
weekly  with  Stockholm.  It  is  the  see  of  a  bishop, 
has  a  cathedral-school  and  literary  and  printing 
establishment  with  Lappish  type,  public  baths,  and 
building  docks.  It  exports  linen  fabrics,  and  the 
Baltic  products  generally. 

ANGERS,  the  ancient  JnlimtinffUK  or  Andegni'um, 
formerly  the  capital  of  the  Duchy  of  Anjou,  and 
now  of  the  French  department  of  Maine-et-Loire, 
is  situated  on  both  sides  of  the  navigable  river 
Mayenne,  not  far  from  its  junction  with  the  Loire, 
lat.'47^  28'  N.,  \ong.  0°  3:5'  W.  A.  is  the  see  of  a 
bishop,  and  was  the  seat  of  a  university  founded  in 
1246;  instead  of  wliich  it  has  now  an  academy  of 
the  highest  class.  Lord  Chatham  and  the  Duke  of 
Wellington  received  a  portion  of  their  education  at 
the  military  college  which  was  once  here,  but  which 
is  now  removed  to  Saumur.  It  has  also  given  birth 
to  two  distinguished  men,  Bernier,  the  traveller, 
and  David,  the  Sculptor.  It  has  also  a  theological 
seminary,  an  institution  for  the  deaf  and  dumb, 
a  botanical  garden,  a  large  picture-gallery,  and  a 
public  library  containing  25,000  volumes.  The  ruins 
of  the  ancient  castle  of  A.,  built  by  St.  Louis,  about 
the  middle  of  the  l;Uh  c,  are  situated  on  a  projecting 
rock  above  the  river.  The  cathedral  of  St.  Martia 
is  a  fine  building  of  the  9th  c,  in  the  Roman  basilica 

253 


ANGINA  PECTORIS— ANGLER. 


style.  Sail-makiiig,  cotton-spinning,  stocking-weav- 
ing, &c.,  are  carried  on  to  a  considerable  extent,  and 
a  trade  in  corn,  wine,  brandy,  flax,  hemp,  honey,  &c. 
The  neigiibouring  slate-quarries  employ  3000  men. 
Pop.  .52.797. 

ANOrXA  PECTORIS,  or  HEART-STROKE,  is 
characterised  by  intense  pain  and  sen.>;e  of  constric- 
tion, which  occur  in  paroxy-sms  begiiming  at  the 
breast-bone,  or  deep  in  the  chest,  and  extending 
towards  tlie  left  shoulder.  The  fits  recur,  and  the 
patient  citiicr  dies  in  one  of  them,  or  fiom  effusion 
of  fluid  within  the  chest. 

A.  P.  rarely  occurs  before  the  fiftieth  year,  and  is 
caused  by  some  defect  in  the  vascular  or  nervous 
supply  of  the  heart  itself;  but  the  exact  seat  of  the 
disease  has  not  yet  been  ascertained,  and,  indeed, 
probably  varies  with  the  individual.  The  paroxysms 
are  induced  by  any  excess  in  diet,  by  exertion,  as 
walking  uphill  or  against  a  boisterous  wind,  or  by 
mental  emotions.  As,  during  the  paroxysm,  but 
little  can  be  done,  '  whoever  is  sul)ject  to  firs  of  the 
heart-stroke,  should  studiously  shun  all  occasions  of 
having  his  feelings  roused  or  his  passions  warndy 
interested.  If  he  is  prone  to  anger,  he  must  either 
endeavour  to  restrain  '"s  passion,  or  must  withdraw 
from  scenes  likely  to  awaken  it.  If  he  feels  keenly 
contradiction,  disappointment,  or  insult,  he  had  bet- 
ter avoid  all  disputes  in  which  he  may  meet  either 
one  or  the  other.  He  must  lead  a  sober,  quiet,  and 
temperate  life,  in  which  neither  the  emotions  of  the 
soul  are  to  disturb  ihe  functions  of  the  body,  nor 
corporeal  affections  are  allowed  to  disturb  tlie  seren- 
ity of  the  mind.' — Crniqie. 

ANGIOSPE'RMOUS'(from  the  Greek  anpeion, 
a  vessel,  and  xpcrma,  seed),  a  term  in  Botany,  applied 
to  phanerogamous  plants  which  have  their  seeds 
enclosed  in  a  pericarp.  This  is  the  case  with  the 
greater  part  of  phanerogamous  plants.  Those  which 
have  the  seeds  naked,  as  the  Conifer (c  (q.  v.\  are 
called  Gtftnnospermonx,  In  the  Linna»an  system, 
one  of  the  two  orders  of  the  class  Duli/namia  is 
called  Angioxpennia. 

ANGLE  (frOm  I^t.  angulux^  a  corner)  means,  in 
Geometry,  the  opening  or  inclination  of  two  lines 
that  cut  or  meet  one 
another.  If  the  lines  are 
straight,  the  A,  is  recti- 
I'niear.  The  magnitude 
of  an  A.  depends,  not 
'i|ion  the  length  of  the 
lines  or  legs,  but  upon 
the  degree  of  their  open- 
ing. If  the  legs  are  supposed  closed,  like  a  pair  of 
compasses,  and  then  gradually  opened  till  they  come 
into  one  straight  line,  they  form  a  series  of  gradually 
increasing  angles ;  when  halt-way  between  shut  and 
straight,  they  contain  a  right  A.  Any  A.  less  than 
a  right  A.  is  called  acute,  and  one  greater  is  called 
obtuse.  Angles  are  measured  by  degrees,  of  which  a 
right  A.  contains  90.  The  A.  made  by  two  curved 
lines  {curvilinear)  is  the  same  as  the  A.  made  by 
the  tangents  to  the  two  curves  at  the  point  of  inter- 
section. Angles  made  by  planes  with  one  another 
can  also  be  reduced  to  rectilinear  angles.  When 
three  or  more  planes  meet  at  the  same  point,  the 
angular  space  included  between  them  is  called  a 
solid  A. 

The  Facial  Anole,  on  which  Camper  founded  a 
scheme  for  estimating  the  degrees  of  intellect  and 
sagacity  bestowed  by  nature  on  the  several  members 
of  the  animal  kingdom,  was  measured  by  him  in  the 
following  way  ;  One  straight  line  was  drawn  from 
the  ear  to  the  base  of  the  nose,  and  another  from  the 
prominent  centre  of  the  forehead  to  the  most  advan- 
cing part  of  the  upper  jawbone,  the  head  being 
254 


Angle. 


viewed  in  profile.  '  In  the  angle  produced  by  these 
two  lines,'  says  the  physiologist,  '  may  be  said  to 
consist  not  only  the  distinction  between  the  skulls 
of  the  several  species  of  animals,  but  also  those 
which  are  found  to  exist  between  difterent  nations  ; 
and  it  might  be  concluded,  that  nature  has  availed 
licrself  at  the  same  time  of  this  angle  to  mark  out 
the  diversities  of  the  animal  kingdom,  and  to  estab- 
lish a  sort  of  scale  from  the  inferior  tribes  up  to  the 
most  beautiful  forms  which  are  found  in  the  human 
species.  Thus  it  will  be  found  that  the  heads  of 
birds  display  the  smallest  angle,  and  that  it  alwavs 
becomes  of  greater  extent  in  proportion  as  the  animal 
approaches  most  nearly  to  the  human  figure.  Thus 
there  is  one  species  of  the  ape  tribe  in  which  the  head 
has  a  facial  angle  of  forty-two  degrees ;  in  another 
animal  of  the  same  family,  which  is  one  of  those 
siiiiiw  a[;proaching  most  closely  to  the  human  figure, 
the  facial  angle  contains  exactly  fifty  degrees.  Next 
to  this  is  the  head  of  the  African  negro,  which,  as 
well  as  that  of  the  Kalniuc,  forms  an  angle  of 
seventy  degrees,  while  the  angle  discovered  in  the 
heads  of  Europeans  contains  eighty  degrees.  On  this 
difference  of  ten  degrees  in  the  facial  angle,  the 
superior  beauty  of  the  European  depends:  while 
that  high  character  of  sublime  beauty  which  is  so 
striking  in  some  works  of  ancient  statuary — as  in 
the  head  of  the  Apollo  and  in  the  Medusa — is  given 
by  an  angle  which  amoimis  to  one  hundred  degrees.' 

ANGLE,  Dead.  In  fortification,  where  an  angle 
of  the  wall  is  so  formed  that  a  small  plot  of  ground 
in  front  of  it  can  neither  be  seen  nor  defended  from 
the  parapet,  it  is  called  a  '  dead  angle.'  See  Bastion 
Curtain,  Fortification. 

A'NGLER  (Fyophius  americanus),  &  fish  not  un- 
common on  the  American  coasts,  and  sometimes  called 
the  (roosf-ti.s/i,  .soiiietimes,  from  its  nirliness  and 
voracity,  the  Sea-devil.  It  usually  attains  the  size 
of  about  three  feet  in  length,  sometimes  five  feet. 
The  head  is  enormously  large,  depressed,  and  spinous  ; 
the  mouth  is  of  similar  proportions  (whence  the 
Scottish  name  Wide  Gad),  and  furnished  with  many 


Angler. 

sharp  curved  teeth.  The  lower  jaw  is  considerably 
longer  than  the  upper.  The  body  is  narrow  in 
comparison  with  the  great  breadth  of  the  head,  and 
tapers  rapidly  to  the  tail.  The  whole  fish  is  covered 
with  a  loose  skin,  almost  without  scales.  There  are 
two  dor.sal  fins,  which  are  spinous,  and  three  anterior 
rays,  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  first  dorsal,  are 
free  and  articulated  to  the  head,  which  are  with 
great  probabilitv  supposed  to  serve  the  animal  as 
delicate  organs  of  touch.  The  nostril  tube  is  elon- 
gated into  a  membraneous  stalk,  capable  of  spreading 
out  like  a  cup  at  the  upper  end,  and  of  being  moved 
in  everv  direction  by  a  very  numerous  set  of  muscles, 
the  bottom  of  the  cup  being  divided  into  projecting 
leaflets,  on  which  the  olfactory  nerve  is  finally 
distributed.  There  are  also  numerous  worm-like 
appendages  about  the  month,  and  by  means  of 
these,  and  still  more  of  the  filaments  which  rise  from 
the  upper  part  of  the  head,  the  creature  is  suppo-ed 
to   attract  small  fishes,  upon  which  it  seizes.     The 


AXGLES— ANGLING. 


woudurful  stories  told  upon  thi.s  point  scorn  to 
require  autlientication,  yet  they  are  in  tlietnsolves  by 
no  means  incredible,  and  have  been  current  concern- 
ing this  fish  and  its  congeners,  since  before  the  days 
of  Aristotle,  who  mentions  them,  and  says  that  this 
iish  is  called  a  Ji.shcr  becaiise  of  the  means  by  which 
it  procures  its  food.  Yarrell  justly  remarks  of  the 
stratagem  ascribed  to  the  Lop/ihix^  that  it  is  not 
more  wonderful  than  that  of  spiders,  which  spin  and 
repair  their  webs  to  catch  insects,  upon  which  they 
pubsist. — The  genus  Lophius  belongs  to  a  family 
of  Acanthopterygious  Fishes,  called  Lopfiiaclce  or 
Lophioids,  and  by  Cuvier,  Pectorales  Pi'duncii/ati, 
remarkable  for  the  elongation  of  the  carpal  bones, 
Fo  as  to  form  a  sort  of  wrist,  to  the  extemity  of 
which  the  pectoral  fin  is  articulated;  so  that,  by 
means  of  it,  these  fishes  are  able  to  leap  suddenly  up 
in  the  water  to  seize  prey  which  they  observe  above 
them ;  and  some  of  them  can  hop  about  upon  sea- 
weeds or  mud  from  which  the  water  has  retired. 
They  do  not  suffer  so  quickly  as  most  other  fishes 
from  being  out  of  the  water,  their  gill-opening  being 
very  small,  and  an  A.  has  been  often  known  to 
devour  flounders  or  other  fish  which  have  been 
caught  along  with  it.  The  bones  are  much  softer 
than  those  of  Acanthopterygious  Fishes  in  general. 

A'NGLES  {Angli\  a  German  tribe  of  the  race  of 
the  Suevi,  who  seem  originally  to  have  occupied  the 
country  lying  on  the  east  of  the  Elbe,  between  the 
mouths  of  the  Saale  and  the  Ohre,  and  moving 
northwards,  to  have  settled  in  Schleswig,  between 
the  Jutes  and  the  Saxons.  Along  with  the  latter 
the  A.  passed  over  in  great  numbers  to  Britain, 
during  the  5th  c,  and  ultimately  established  there 
the  Anglo-Saxon  (q.  v.)  kingdoms  of  the  Heptarchy. 
From  them  England  derives  its  name  (Lat.  Anglia, 
Anglo-Saxon,  En(fla-land).  After  these  migrations 
from  Schleswig,  the  Danes  from  the  north  entered 
the  deserted  districts,  and  mingled  with  the  A. 
who  remained  there.  The  German  language  and 
manners  were  afterwards  introduced  by  immigrant 
nobles  from  Holstein,  and  prevailed  among  the 
higher  classes;  but  to  the  time  of  Christian  VI.,  the 
Danish  was  still  generally  spoken  by  the  common 
people.  During  the  present  century,  the  German  has 
more  completely  gained  the  ascendency.  The  Anglo- 
Danes  are  of  a  more  passive  disposition  than  the 
Frieslanders  and  the  people  of  the  Dithmarsch,  and 
religious  sentiment  is  very  strongly  manifested 
among  them.  The  district  called  Anpelii  extends 
from  the  Schlei  on  the  south,  to  the  Flensburg  Hills 
on  the  north,  contains  about  330  square  miles,  and 
a  population  of  about  50,000.  The  name  has  no 
political  or  administrative  signification. 

A'NGLESEA,  Henry  William  Paget,  Earl 
of  Uxbridge  and  Marquis  of  A.,  born  May  17, 
1768,  was  educated  in  Oxford,  and,  as  Lord  Paget, 
entered  the  army  at  the  begiiming  of  the  French 
Revolution.  From  1793  to  1794  he  commanded 
a  volunteer  corps  in  Flanders,  and  subsequently 
acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a  cavalry  officer  in  the 
Peninsular  War,  especially  during  the  retreat  under 
General  Moore.  At  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  where 
he  commanded  the  British  cavalry,  he  lost  a  leg. 
On  his  return  to  England,  he  received  a  vote  of 
thanks  from  parliament,  and  was  made  Marquis  of 
A.  Afterwards,  he  took  a  part  in  the  administration 
under  Canning,  and  in  1828  was  appointed  lord- 
lieutenant  of  Ireland,  at  a  period  when  that  country 
was  greatly  agitated  on  the  question  of  its  religious 
privileges.  He  at  first  opposed  the  emancipation 
of  the  Catholics;  but  ultimately  became  convinced 
that  it  was  essential  to  the  peace  of  the  country,  in 
consequence  of  which  he  was  recalled  from  Ireland 
by  Wellington  in  1829.     He  was  again  appointed  to 


the  same  office  under  Lord  Grey's  administration 
in  1831  ;  but  the  perverse  policy  of  the  Tories  had 
involved  matters  in  such  perplexity  that  even  the 
decisiveness  and  integrity  of  his  character  could  not 
allay  the  irritation.  O'Oonnell  had  now  commenced 
his  ruinous  career  of  agitation,  and  the  marquis  was 
compelled  to  resort  to  severe  coercive  measures, 
which  destroyed  the  popularity  he  had  previously 
acquired.  His  rtile  in  Ireland  was  not  characterised 
by  any  superior  statesmanship;  but  it  ought  to  be 
remembered,  to  his  honour,  that  he  founded  the  Irish 
Board  of  Education,  which  has  been  of  immense 
service  to  that  nation.  In  1833  he  was  succeeded 
by  the  Marquis  of  Normanby  ;  but  did  not  again 
take  any  prominent  part  in  public  proceedings  till 
1846,  when  he  accepted  the  office  of  Master-general 
of  the  Ordnance  in  Lord  John  RussclTs  ministry. 
In  the  same  year  he  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of 
field-marshal.     He  died  on  the  29th  April  1854. 

ANGLESEY,  or  AXGLESEA  (Sax.  Angles'  Ey, 
i.  e.  '  the  Englishman's  island'),  an  island  and  county 
of  Wales,  on  the  north-west  coast  of  that  [trincipality, 
being  separated  from  the  mainland  by  the  Menai 
Strait.  Its  form  is  that  of  an  irreguhir  triangle,  the 
base  facing  the  mainland.  Its  length  is  about  20 
miles  ;  breadth,  about  17  ;  coast-line,  about  80  ;  area, 
193,453  acres.  The  climate  is  mild,  but  foggy,  espe- 
cially in  autumn ;  the  soil,  generally  a  stiff  loam, 
varying  with  sandy  and  peaty  earth ;  the  general 
aspect  of  the  island,  flat  and  uninteresting,  there 
being  very  little  wood.  The  prevailing  rock  is 
mica  schist;  limestone  ranges  traverse  the  county; 
granite,  marble,  coal,  serpentine,  soapstone,  are  also 
found.  The  island  is  rich  in  minerals ;  the  Parys 
and  Mona  copper-mines,  near  Amlwch,  opened  in 
1768,  still  give  employment  to  about  IdOO  workmen. 
Lead  ore,  containing  much  silver,  has  also  been 
found.  Agriculture  in  A.  is  as  yet  somewhat 
backward.  The  chief  crops  are  oats,  barley,  and 
potatoes.  Cattle  are  extensively  reared.  The  manu- 
factures of  the  island  are  inconsiderable.  The 
communication  with  the  mainland  is  by  means  of  the 
Menai  Suspension  Bridge,  and  the  great  Britannia 
Tubular  Bridge,  over  which  the  Chester  and  Holy- 
head Railway  passes.  See  TrnrLAR  Bridgks.  A. 
was  known  to  the  Romans  under  the  name  of  Mona. 
It  was  one  of  the  chief  seats  of  the  Druidical  power, 
which  in  61  a.d.  was  all  but  destroyed  by  the 
Roman  general  Suetonius  Paulinus.  The  island  was 
again  subdued  by  Agricola  76  a.d.  Egbert  con- 
quered it  in  the  9th  c. ;  but  the  native  princes 
afterwards  recovered  their  dominion,  establishing 
the  seat  of  government  at  Aberff'raw.  It  was  finally 
subdued  by  Edward  I.  The  ancient  remains  con- 
sist chiefly  of  cromlechs,  two  of  which,  side  by  side, 
are  in  the  park  of  Plas  Newydd,  the  seat  of  the 
Marquis  of  A.  At  Holyhead,  are  the  remains  of  a 
Roman  camp. 

The  climate  of  A.  is  milder  than  that  of  the 
mainland  of  Wales;  but  in  the  autumn  the  air  is 
frequently  filled  with  noxious  mists.  The  county  is 
divided  into  three  districts,  called  tnntrcfi,  each  sub- 
divided into  two  cwnncds.  The  market-towns  are 
Amlwch  (a  flourishing  little  seaport,  of  3169  inhabi- 
tants), Beaumaris  (q.  v.),  Holyhead  (^q.  v.),  Llangefni 
(pop.  1362),  and  Llanerch-y-medd.  The  first  lour 
of  these  towns  unite  in  returning  one  member  to  the 
imperial  parliament ;  the  county  returns  another. 
Other  small  towns  in  A.  arc  .■^berffraw  (pop.  1332) 
and  Newborough.  The  pop.  of  the  coimty  in  U61 
was  64,609  ;  the  number  of  day  schools,  47,  with 
2889  pupils;  of  Sunday  schools,  115,  with  11,662 
pupils;  of  places  of  worship,  160,  belonging  chiefly 
to  the  Church  of  England  and  to  the  Calvinistic 
Methodists. 

ANGLING  is  the  art  of  alluring  and  capturing 

25d 


ANGLING. 


fish  \>y  moans  of  a  rod,  lino,  and  hook — the  hook 
hoiii!:;  furnisliod  with  a  hire,  which  is  either  some 
obji'ct  on  which  the  animals  naturally  prey,  or  is  a 
counterfeit  of  such  an  object.  A.  is  of  proat  anti- 
quity, as  we  learn  from  mention  bcinp  made  of  it  by 
the  Prophet  Isaiah  :  '  The  fisiiers  also  shall  mourn, 
and  all  they  that  cast  anjrle  into  the  brooks,'  chap. 
xix.  V.  8.  The  practice  has  continued  through  all 
ages,  till  the  present  time,  and  in  almost  all  coun- 
tries. In  1496,  Wynkcn  de  Worde  'cmprcnted  at 
Wostmestre  '  a  '  Treathe  of  f'l/ss/ihic/e  viitk  an  Anr/le, 
by  Dame  Juliana  Berners  or  Barnes.'  Izaak  Walton, 
in  1653,  gave  to  the  world  his  Complete  Anr/ler,  a 
work  afterwards  enriched  with  additions  by  his 
friend  Charles  Cotton,  and  till  this  day  esteemed 
both  for  correctness  of  details,  and  the  singularly 
happy  humour  of  its  apologues,  poetical  pieces,  and 
disquisitions. 

We  reserve  for  future  articles  the  habits  and  best 
methods  of  capturing  the  principal  species  of  fish  that 
haunt  the  streams  and  lochs  of  Great  Britain,  and 
here  confine  ourselves  to  a  short  notice  of  A.  appa- 
ratus, and  .«ome  general  directions,  &c.,  for  the 
guidance  of  tyros,  proceeding  at  once  to  describe, 
first: 

Fishino-Tackle. — The  angler's  equipment  con- 
sists of  rod  and  reel,  /iwe.<,  Iiookx,  hititx,  ff/ex,  tackle- 
book,  and  banket ;  these  should  be  as  simple  as  pos- 
sible in  their  construction,  many  accessories  added 
by  the  fishing-tackle  maker  being  more  ornamental 
and  cumbrous  than  really  useful. 

The  rod  must  be  long  or  short,  stiff  or  supple, 
to  suit  the  habits  of  different  species  offish;  thus,  a 
long  rod  of  sixteen  or  eighteen  feet,  very  strong, 
but  not  very  elastic,  is  necessary  for  salmon  ;  while 
a  rod  of  ten  to  fourteen  feet,  light,  elastic,  and  finely 
tapering,  is  sufficient  for  trout.  The  rod  for  trout 
and  similar  kinds  of  fishing  shoidd  be  light  enough 
to  be  wielded  easily  for  several  hours  together  by 
one  hand.  Spliced  rods  are  easier  mended  than 
those  with  joints,  and  do  not  so  readily  get  out  of 
order.  For  salmon  and  other  kinds  of  large  fish, 
a  large  rod  of  several  pieces,  united  by  joints,  is 
necessary. 

The  reel  or  pirn — an  apparatus  fixed  near  the  bot- 
tom of  the  rod,  and  upon  which  the  line  is  wound — 
should  be  simple  in  its  mechanism,  and  made  so  as 
to  wind  or  unwind  freely  and  quickly. 

Linen  should  be  long,  smooth,  and  flexible,  and  of 
a  material  not  easily  injured  by  wet.  The  part  of 
the  line  which  is  wound  upon  the  reel,  and  passes 
along  the  rod,  is  called  the  reel-line ;  that  which  is 
attached  to  it,  is  called  the  caMing-line.  The  casting- 
line  should  be  made  of  triple  gut,  twisted,  and 
between  it  and  the  gut  to  which  the  hooks  are 
attached,  there  should  be  several  threads  of  strong 
single  gut.  Reel-lines  vary  from  twenty  to  one 
hundred  and  twenty  yards  in  length,  according 
to  the  dimensions  of  the  water  to  be  fished, 
and  the  habits  of  the  species  to  be  captured. 
Lines  are  made  of  various  materials,  such  as  horse- 
hair and  oiled  silk.  If,  in  purchasing,  the  angler 
be  at  a  lo-;s  to  decide  between  a  heavy  or  a  light 
line,  he  should  incline  rather  to  the  heavy,  for  the  sake 
of  its  casting  superiority,  and  the  advantage  gained  in 
windy  weather.  The  canting-line  is  sometimes  made 
of  horseliair,  lighter  and  finer  than  the  reel-line,  and 
at  the  end  of  this  is  attached  the  gut-line — the  finest 
of  all.  Sometimes,  however,  the  horsehair  casting- 
line  is  dispensed  with.  The  casting  and  gut  lines 
should  taper  in  thickness  from  the  reel-line  to  the 
end  hook  on  the  gut-line ;  all  knots  should  be  small, 
but  .secure,  the  only  breaks  discernible  by  a  general 
glance  throughout  the  entire  length  of  casting,  and 
gut  lines,  being  the  hooks. 

Hooks  range  in  size  from  several  inches  down  to  a 
266 


qtiarter  of  an  inch  in  length.  The  chief  places  of 
manufacture  are  Kendal  and  Kedditch. 

Baits  consist  of  any  substance  put  upon  a  hook  to 
act  as  a  lure  to  the  fish  ;  and  when  used,  the  baited 
hook  is  dropped  into,  and  allowed  to  sink  in  the 
water,  instead  of  being  kept  near  the  surface,  as  is 
the  case  with  fly.  Tiie  materials,  living  or  dead, 
used  for  bait  are  very  numerous,  the  prini-ipal  kinds 
being  worms,  cnddis-worms,  pastes,  maggots,  min- 
nows, insects,  and  salmon-roe.  The  methods  of 
using  baits  are  extremely  various,  and  in  many  cases 
rather  complicated. 

Artifivial  FHes,  intended  as  they  are  to  bear 
something  like  a  resemblance  to  the  actual  live  flies, 
are  the  most  important  lures  used  by  the  angler.  The 
chief  materials  for  dressing  flies  are  cockf'  hackles 
or  other  feathers,  to  form  wings ;  the  fur  of  a  hare's 
ear,  mouse,  water-rat,  or  some  other  animal,  to  Ibrnv 
the  body  ;  and  waxed  silk  thread  to  tie  the  whole, 
in  an  artfid,  neat  maimer,  to  the  shank  of  the  hook. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  trout-flies  and  spiders, 
with  a  supply  of  which  the  angler  may  pursue  his 
'meditative  art'  in  almost  any  river  or  stream  in 
Great  Britain  throughout  the  entire  season  ;  and  it 
is  almost  needless  to  add,  that  the  wood-cut  below, 
though  copieil  from  two  favourite  flies  and  a  spider, 
is  intended  as  a  gui<le  to  size  rather  than  to  pattern. 
Spiders  are  dressed,  as  they  naturally  exist,  withouf 
wings. 

Flies. — Xo.  1.  Wings  formed  of  feathers  from  th# 
wing  of  the  chaffinch,  with  a  black  hackle,  tied  with 
slate-coloured  silk. 

2.  Wings  composed  of  woodcock  or  partridge 
feathers,  and  red  hackle,  tied  with  yellow  silk. 

3.  W'ings  formed  of  the  feathers  of  the  cori: 
bunting,  with  a  red  hackle  wound  round  close  to 
the  head,  tied  with  orange-coloured  silk. 

4.  Wings  formed  from  the  speckled  feather  of  tht 
teal,  with  a  black  hackle  wound  round  close  to  the 
head,  tied  with  brown  silk.  The  .same  wing  with 
a  red  hackle,  tied  with  vellow  silk,  also  makes  a 
killing  fly. 

5.  Wings  from  the  feathers  of  the  dotterel ;  body 
and  hackle  same  as  Xo.  2. 

6.  W'ings  from  woodcock  or  corn  bunting  wing ; 
body  of  hare's  ear. 

Spiders. — 1.  From  the  small  feather  of  the  dot- 
terel    w'ing,      tied     with 
yellow  silk  thread. 

2.  From  the  small 
glistening  feather  taken 
from  the  outside  of  the 
shoulder  of  the  star- 
ling's wing,  tied 
yellow  silk  thread. 

3.  From      the 
feathers     of     the 
partridge,        tied 
yellow  silk  thread. 

4.  From  the  blue  hen-hackle,  tied  with  small 
black  silk  thread. 

5.  From  the  blue  hen-hackle,  tied  with  yellow 
silk  thread. 

6.  From  a  small  red  cock-hackle,  or  the  small 
feather  of  the  landrail's  wing,  tied  with  yellow  silk. 

Of  salmon-fies,  the  best  two  we  know  of  are 
formed  from  the  following  materials: 

'  No.  1.  Tail — crest-feather  from  golden  pheasant; 
tip — gold  tinsel  and  orange  silk,  with  two  turns  of 
ostrich  herl ;  body  composed  of  claret-coloured  pigs' 
wool  and  mohair  mixed,  with  a  little  pigs'  wool  at 
the  head,  of  a  light-blue  shade ;  wound  with  silver 
tinsel  and  dark-red  hackle,  with  blue  jay's  feather 
for  shoulders ;  wings — from  the  teal-duck  or  wid- 
geon, distinctly  marked  or  barred;  head — of  black 
ostrich  herl. 


ANGLING. 


'No.  2.  Tail — crest  feather  from  poUleii  ])hoasant ; 
body  coinposed  of  pigs'  wool  and  mohair  mixed,  of  a 
dark-cinnamon  shade  ;  wound  with  silver  twist  and 


Salmon  Flies. 

dark-red  hackle ;  shoulders  composed  of  breast- 
feather  of  the  argus  pheasant ;  wings  composed  of 
golden  pheasant  tippet  or  neck  feathers,  distinctly 
marked  teal,  four  fibres  of  blue  and  red  macaw 
tail-feathers,  with  pairs  of  wings  from  the  brown 
and  black  barred  feathers  of  the  peacock  wing 
surmounting  the  whole  ;  a  blue  feather  from  the 
kingfisher  or  blue  chatterer  on  each  side  of  the 
wings ;  feelers — from  blue  and  buff  macaw  tail- 
feathers  ;  head — black  ostrich  herl.' 

Larger  and  more  gaudily  dressed  hooks  are  neces- 
sary for  some  of  the  bigger  rivers  of  Great  Britain, 
such  as  the  Shannon  in  Ireland,  and  the  Tay  in 
Scotland ;  but  the  two  here  described  are  the  most 
killing  varieties  for  general  use  that  we  know  of, 
and  have  been  found  nioi'e  or  less  serviceable  in 
every  salmon  river  of  any  importance.  No.  1  may 
be  varied  by  different  shades  of  wing,  to  suit 
various  colours  and  sizes  of  water.  Both  are  stock- 
flies  with  every  tackle- maker. 

The  angler's  equipment  is  completed  by  the  addi- 
tion of  a  banket  or  baci  for  holding  his  fish,  and  a 
iackle-bool-  ;  al.'^o  aflat,  round  tin  box  for  holding  his 
fly-casts.  In  fishing  for  perch,  gudgeons,  bream,  &c., 
a  small  float  is  often  used.  Floats  are  made  of  cork, 
quill,  reed,  and  other  light  materials ;  and  a  choice, 
according  to  circumstances,  may  be  added  to  the 
tackle-book.  Books  adapted  for  the  angler's  pur- 
pose can  he  had  of  any  tackle-maker. 

The  angler's  dress  should  be  a  plain,  dull-coloured 
suit ;  his  shoes  strong  ;  and  if  he  prefers  wading,  his 
boots  or  leggings  should  be  waterproof. 

The  gnff  and  landing-net  are  each  useful  for 
securing  large  fish  when  stranded  in  very  shallow 
water,  or  when  fishing  from  a  boat ;  and  the  drag- 
hook,  which  is  an  instrument  with  three  bent 
prongs  or  hooks,  with  a  long  strong  line  attached, 
is  frequently  useful  for  casting  into  rivers  or  lochs 
to  clear  away  any  object  at  the  bottom  on  which 
the  hook  has  fouled. 

Practick  op  Angling — Bait-Jislnng. — As  a  rule, 
bait-fishing  is  practised  more  on  sluggish,  deep 
rivers  than  on  swift  running  streams,  though  it 
answers  as  well,  and,  under  certain  circumstances, 
even  better  in  the  latter  than  in  the  former.  The 
fish  usually  sought  for  in  the  slow-running,  deep 
rivers  south  of  the  Tweed,  are  gudgeon,  roach,  dace, 
bream,  chub,  barbel,  tench,  carp,  perch,  pike,  trout, 
&c.  All  are  sometimes  taken  with  fly ;  but  worms, 
gentles,  roe,  or  paste  are  more  generally  used. 

The  first  thing  the  bait-fisher  has  to  learn,  is  the 
art  of  baiting  his  hooks.  Taking  the  hook  in  his 
17 


right  hand,  and  the  bait  between  his  firgers  in  the 
left,  let  him  enter  the  hook  at  the  head  of  the  worm, 
and  carry  it  through  the  animal  to  near  the  tail,  cover- 
ing the  entire  hook  and  its  tying.  The  worm  should 
be  broken  or  mangled  as  little  as  possible  ;  and  tho 
more  lifelike  it  appears,  the  greater  the  probability 
of  its  proving  an  effectual  lure.  There  must  not, 
however,  be  too  much  spare  worm  left  dangling 
from  tho  hook,  otherwise  the  fish  will  keep  nibbling 
it  away  without  biting  at  the  bait  bodily,  and  taking 
it  into  its  mouth — the  thing  which  the  angler  desires. 

In  throwing  the  line  with  bait,  take  care  not  to 
splash  the  water,  but  throw  forward  and  upward, 
so  as  to  let  the  bait  fall  gently  on  the  surface,  and 
sink  slowly  in  the  water  to  the  required  depth.  The 
motion  of  the  line  down  the  stream  must  then  bo 
carefidly  followed  and  watched. 

Occasionally,  the  angler  will  feel  a  nibble,  hut  he 
must  not  be  in  a  hurry  to  strike — that  is,  to  fix  the 
hook  in  the  fish's  mouth.  Perhaps  it  is  no  more 
than  a  nibble,  and  it  is  well  to  allow  the  fish  time 
to  bolt  the  hook.  If  drawn  too  quickly,  you  may 
actually  pull  away  the  hook  after  it  is  half-gulped. 
Experience  and  dexterity  are  required  in  this  ticklish 
part  of  the  craft. 

In  May,  the  creeper,  or  stone-fly,  in  its  embryo 
state,  is  a  deadly  bait ;  and  in  June,  when  it  assumes 
the  winged  state,  it  is  the  most  killing  bait  that  can 
be  used.  The  creepers  are  found  under  large  stones 
in  the  water,  the  flies  under  large  stones  in  the  dry 
channel  at  the  edge  of  the  water.  On  Tweedside 
this  fly  is  frequently  but  erroneously  calleil 
the  May-fly,  and  is  productive  of  large  takes  of 
trout  when  other  lures  are  comparatively  use- 
less. Minnows  and  parr-tail  are  two  imi>ortant 
baits ;  tackle  is  made  on  purpose  for  these,  and 
consists  of  several  hooks  tied  within  an  inch  or  so 
of  each  other.  These  are  inserted  in  the  minnow,  so 
as  to  give  a  curving  form  to  the  bait,  for  the  purpose 
of  making  it  spin  in  the  water  ;  swivels  are  attached 
to  the  tackle  further  up,  to  prevent  the  line  from 
twisting  with  the  spinning  of  the  minnow.  Stoddart 
savs:  'Fish  in  rapid  streams,  also  in  deep  dis- 
coloured pools,  and  during  a  smart  curl.  Manage 
the  minnow  as  you  would  yo\ir  fly,  throwing  it 
down  and  across  as  far  as  you  are  able;  bring  it 
towards  you  about  six  inches  below  the  surface, 
spinning  rapidly  by  the  aid  of  several  swivels. 
When  a  fish  rises,  give  him  time  before  you  strike  ; 
let  him  turn  and  gorge  the  bait,  then  strike  sharply, 
and  he  is  yours.'  This  mode  of  fishing  requires 
more  dexterity  and  practice  than  ordinary  bait- 
fishing,  and  will  be  best  learned  by  carefully 
watching  the  motions  of  an  experienced  hand. 

Ng-fshing. — This  is  the  true  A.,  all  other 
kinds  being  tame  in  comparison.  Trout  and 
salmon  are  the  fly-fisher's  chief  objects  of  de- 
sire; and  here  we  will  quote  some  remarks  of 
Mr.  Stoddart's  upon  the  method  of  capturing  the 
former  of  these  fish  with  the  hire  in  question : 
'Your  rod  and  tackle  being  ready,  the  wind  in 
your  favour  down  the  river,  draw  out  with  your 
ieft  hand  a  few  yards  of  line  from  your  reel,  dip 
the  top  of  your  rod  in  the  water,  and  with  a  rapid 
jerk  you  w'ill  lengthen  as  you  wish  that  part  you 
intend  for  throwing.  A  thirteen-foot  wand  will 
cast  from  six  to  seven  fathoms  of  line.  "With  a 
large  double-handed  rod  you  may  manage  a  much 
greater  length.  Always,  if  you  can,  angle  from  a 
distance.  Trout  sec  you  when  you  least  imagine, 
and  skulk  off  without  your  notice. 

'All  jerks,  in  casting,  are  apt  to  whip  off  your 
hooks  or  crack  your  gut.  A  fly-fisher  may  use  two, 
three,  or  four  flies  on  his  casts,  according  to  plea- 
sure. When  angling  with  small  hooks,  we  adopt  the 
medium  number.     Large   ones   ought   to  be  fished 

257 


ANGLING— ANGLO-CATHOLIC  CHURCIL 


with  in  pairs,  and  well  eoparafed.  In  throwing  the 
cast,  the  lowermost  or  trail-tly  should  be  niatie  to 
aliglit  foremost;  its  fall  ought  to  be  almost  imper- 
ceptible; it  should  come  down  on  the  water  like  a 
gossamer  followed  by  the  droppers.  The  moment 
a  fly  touches  the  surface,  it  is  ten  times  more  apt  to 
raise  a  fish  than  during  the  aet  of  drawing  it  along. 
At  no  time  are  we  stanch  advocates  for  the  system 
of  leading  our  hooks  either  again-t  or  across  a 
etream  ;  our  method  is  rather  to  shake  them  over 
it  for  a  moment,  and  then  repeat  the  throw.  A 
trout  will  discover  your  fly  at  the  distance  of 
several  yards,  if  feeding,  and  will  dart  at  it  like 
lightning. 

'  Trout  will  sometimes  take  in  the  most  unlikely 
weathers,  so  that  the  angler  should  not  despair  at 
any  time.  Hunger  causes  them  to  feed  at  least 
once  in  the  twenty-four  hours,  and  generally  much 
oftener.  If  the  wind  blows  down  the  river,  com- 
mence at  the  pool-head,  and  fish  every  inch  of  good 
water ;  you  may  pass  over  the  very  rough  and  very 
shallow  parts,  also  those  which  are  absolutely  dead 
calm  and  clear,  unless  you  see  fish  rising  in  them, 
when,  should  your  tackle  be  light,  there  is  no  liarm  in 
taking  a  throw  or  two.  Dead  water,  however,  when 
rippled  or  discoloured,  may  be  angled  iu  w  ith  great 
success.' 

The  following  remarks?  and  hints  apply  chiefly  to 
trout-fishing  in  streams,  and  may  bo  found  of  service 
to  those  who  follow  that  delightful  recreation.  As 
a  rule,  fish  np,  especially  when  the  water  is  clear, 
and  the  wind  not  directly  down-stream  :  the  advan- 
tages arc,  that  the  fish  do  not  so  readily  detect  the 
presence  of  the  angler — their  heads  being  directed 
up  the  water ;  they  are  more  easily  hooked  ;  and 
when  a  large  trout  is  hooked,  he  may  be  landed 
down-stream,  thus  saving  the  water  above  for  fur- 
ther operations.  The  practice  of  angling  up-stream  is 
somewhat  difticult  at  first,  but  a  little  practice  works 
wonders,  and  is  sure  to  bring  its  reward  ultimately. 
Gut  should  be  round,  dear,  stronc/,  and  fue  ;  the 
finer  it  is,  consistent  with  strength,  the  better,  as  it 
scares  fewer  fish  than  coarser  material.  Trout-flies 
for  ordinary  use  in  rivers  such  as  Tweed,  ire,  should 
be  dressed  rather  sparely,  and  should  be  small ; 
some  half-dozen  varieties,  such  as  those  already 
enumerated,  w-ill  be  found  amply  sufficient ;  and 
were  we  asked  to  choose  three  kinds  as  being  more 
valuable  than  any  others,  our  choice  would  incline 
to  a  red  hackle,  a  black  hackle,  and  a  woodcock- 
wing  dressed  with  hare-ear  body.  For  turbid  or 
dark  water,  however,  the  size  may  be  increased,  and 
the  dressing  be  made  rather  gaudier  by  the  addition 
of  tinsel.  Practise  casting  till  you  can  throw  your 
flies  like  gossamer  on  the  water,  and,  above  all, 
avoid  splashing.  The  use  of  a  short  hne  will  give 
j'ou  great  advantage  over  your  tackle.  Heavy  fish 
hook  themselves  in  nine  out  of  ten  cases,  so  that 
striking  is  unnecessary ;  striking  is  performed  by  a 
motion  of  the  wrist,  not  of  the  arm,  and  is  only  to 
be  learned  by  practice;  it  then  comes  qtiite  naturally 
to  the  angler.  Cast  frequenthi  ;  you  get  over  more 
ground,  and  vastly  increase  your  chances  of  success. 
Trout  generally  seize  the  fly  the  instant  it  lights  on 
the  water,  or  the  instant  after  ;  lience,  it  is  necessary 
that  the  angler  be  on  the  qui  vive  in  tim^.  Cast 
above  where  fish  are  likely  to  lie,  and  remember 
that  the  greater  part  of  your  success  lies  in  the 
art  of  keeping  out  of  their  night.  Dull-coloured 
clothes  materially  assist  in  achieving  this  important 
desideratum. 

When  fishing  with  a  friend,  always  come  to  a 
distinct  agreement,  before  starting,  relative  to  the 
division  of  the  water,  especially  if  the  stream  be  small. 

The  true  angler  returns  all  smoults,  parr,  and 
small  trout  to  their  native  element — his  maxim 
258 


being  quality,  not  quantity.  He  also  keeps  his  rod 
well  varnished,  dries  his  line  and  tackle  after  using, 
and  looks  into  his  tackle-book  at  least  once  every 
three  months  during  the  non-A.  season;  he  thus 
saves  his  flies  from  the  ravages  of  the  moth.  The 
tyro  should  always  be  guided  in  his  selection  of  a 
rod  and  tackle  by  some  experienced  friend ;  and 
upon  arriving  at  strange  angling  quarters,  he  should 
place  himself  in  the  hands  of  a  resident  fisherman, 
who  will  guide  him  to  the  best  casts  of  the  river, 
loch,  or  stream.  A  day  spent  in  watching  the 
proceedings  of  an  expert  angler,  is  a  day  well  spent ; 
and  a  few  hours'  lessons  in  fly-busking,  knot-tying, 
&c.,  work  wonders.  And,  lastly,  let  the  angler 
practise  courtesy  towards  all  his  brethren  of  the  rod, 
and  be  ever  willing  to  lend  a  killing-fly  to  a  needy 
friend. 

The  principal  works  on  A.  are  Izaak  Walton,! 
Stoddart's  Anglcr^s  Companion,  the  article  A.  in 
the  Enqiclopadia  Britaunica,  Davy's  Sahnonia, 
the  angling  section  of  Col(|uhoun's  Moor  and  the 
Loch,  and  Stewart's  Practical  jinrjlcr.  The  last 
is  jurhaps  the  best  work  ever  written  upon  trout- 
fishing  as  applied  to  clear  water.  The  angler  will 
also  find  many  useful  hints  in  the  number  on  A.  in 
C'hn)nbers\i  Information  for  the  People. 

A'NGLO-CATIIOLIC  CHURCH,  or  ANGLI- 
CAN CHURCH,  a  term  frequently  employed  to 
designate  collectively  those  churches  which  embrace 
the  principles  of  the  English  Reformation.  The  fol- 
lowing arc,  in  brief,  the  views  generally  entertained 
of  those  principles  by  the  members  of  the  churches 
in  question:  By  referring  the  Anglo-catholic  Church 
to  the  English  Reformation,  it  is  not  meant  that 
her  origin  dates  from  that  event,  but  that  her 
tenets,  as  she  now  exists,  are  those  which  the 
Reformation  cleared  of  what  she  holds  to  be  corrup- 
tions. For,  as  the  word  'church'  itself  suggests 
— being  derived,  like  'kirk' in  Scotland,  from  tlie 
Greek  adjective  kxrinke,  which  means  '  the  Lord's' 
(i.e.  house) — the  origin  of  the  Anglican  Church  is 
to  be  traced  not  to  a  Roman  but  to  an  Eastern 
source.  She  claims  the  name  of  Catholic — which 
also  is  from  the  Greek  katholike,  universal — be- 
cause she  is  united,  in  origin,  in  doctrine,  and 
in  form  of  government,  with  the  Universal  Church 
<is  it  has  existed,  with  various  difi'erenccs  of  rites 
and  ceremonies,  in  all  countries  and  in  all  ages. 
Eusebius  even  asserts  that  some  of  the  apostles  passed 
over  into  Britain.  TertuUian,  who  lived  in  the  2d  c, 
speaks  of  places  in  Britain  which,  though  inacces- 
sible to  the  Romans,  were  subject  to  Christ :  '  Britan- 
norum  inaccessa  Romanis  loca,  Christo  vero  subdita.' 
At  the  Council  of  Aries,  314  a.d.,  there  were 
three  British  bishops  present ;  and  St.  Alban  sufiVred 
martyrdom,  under  Diocletian,  about  the  close  of  the 
3d  c,  or  nearly  three  centuries  before  the  landing 
of  St.  Augustine  (q.  v.)  and  his  missionaries,  606  A.n. 
Christianity,  however,  was  driven  by  the  heathen 
Saxons  into  the  mountainous  districts  of  Wales  ;  and 
though  Augustine,  on  his  arrival,  found  no  less  than 
seven  bishops  and  one  archbishop  in  those  parts,  and 
though  Bertha,  queen  of  Ethelbert,  was  a  Christian, 
yet  the  whole  Saxon  part  of  the  country  was  in  a 
state  of  heathenism.  The  British  Church  differed 
from  the  Roman  and  other  Western  Churches,  as  to 
the  form  of  administering  baptism,  and  the  time  of 
keeping  the  festival  of  Easter  (see  Easter),  follow- 
ing the  customs  of  the  Greek  or  Eastern  Church  ;  and 
it  was  not  until  the  close  of  the  7th  c,  under 
Theodore,  that  the  two  churches  became  united.  In 
the  meantime,  the  conversion  of  Britain  was  as 
much  due  to  the  labours  of  St.  Aidan,  the  Scottish 
Bishop  of  Lindisfern  in  the  north,  and  of  St.  Chad, 
the  Saxon  saint,  as  to  the  missionaries  of  the  Roman 
Church  in  the  south.    See  Anolo-Saxons. 


ANTtLOMAXIA— ANGLO-SAXOy  LANGUAGE  AXD  LITERATURE. 


Nor  is  this  glance  at  tlie  history  of  the  Aiipliciin 
Church,  in  the  earlier  period  of  her  existence,  unim- 
portant, when  we  come  to  consider  what  and  whence 
are  iter  present  form  and  tenets.  From  tlie  begin- 
ning  of  the  8th  to  the  middle  of  the  16th  c.,  she 
became  gradually,  and  at  last  eoitipletely,  assimilated 
in  doctrine  and  practice  to  the  Chuich  of  Rome,  as 
well  as  subject  to  her  domination ;  and  the  fact  of 
her  having  at  length  freed  herself  from  both,  is  in  no 
small  degree  due  to  her  having  existed,  in  Saxon 
times,  ill  a  state  of  freedom  and  purity.  It  required, 
as  we  have  seen,  a  struggle  of  nearly  a  century  to 
make  the  British  Church  conform  to  the  Roman  in 
the  matters  of  baptism  and  Easter ;  and  it  was  the 
same  spirit  which  ofi'ered  a  strenuous,  and  for  some 
time  an  effectual,  resistance  to  the  peculiar  doctrines 
of  the  Church  of  Rome  and  the  claims  of  papal  do- 
minion. Tliere  were  always  found  individuals,  some 
of  great  eminence,  to  protest  against  the  former,  whilst 
large  sections  of  the  church  never  ceased  to  protest 
against  the  latter.  For  a  hundred  and  fiftv  years 
previous  to  the  Reformation,  the  doctrines  of  Wick- 
lifte  were  leavening  the  body  of  the  Anglican  Church. 
The  overthrow  of  the  papal  supremacy  was  indeed 
effected  by  Henry  VIII. ;  but  that  monarch  rather 
hindered  than  favoured  the  reformation  of  doctrine,  as 
appeared  from  the  rapid  progress  which  it  nia<le  when 
Edward  VI.  came  to  the  throne.  The  bloody  reign 
of  Mary  interposed  a  check  to  further  progtess;  and 
it  was  not  till  the  accession  of  Queen  Elizabeth  that 
the  principles  of  the  Reformation  finally  triumphed, 
and  the  Anglo-catholic  Church  assumed  the  form  in 
which  she  has  since  continued  to  exist.  During  the 
period  of  more  than  800  years  preceding  the  Refor- 
mation, she  became  gradually,  and  at  length  com- 
pletely, merged  in  the  Roman  Catholic  ;  at  the 
Reformation,  she  may  be  said  to  have  emerged ; 
when  Rome,  at  the  Council  of  Trent,  anathematised 
all  who  would  not  receive  her  articles,  the  separation 
became  final,  and  the  positions  of  the  two  churches 
with  respect  to  each  other  irreconcilably  hostile. 

The  doctrines  of  the  Anglican  Church  are  to  be 
found  in  the  Book  of  Common  Prajier  (q.  v.),  which 
is  based  upon  the  second  prayer-book  of  Edward 
VI.,  and  was  settled  in  its  present  form  1602  A.n. 
Her  tenets  are  more  ler/ally  defined  in  the  Thirty- 
nine  Articles,  which  were  settled  1562  A.n.  (see 
Articlks,  Thirty-nink).  As  distinguished  from 
Rome,  she  rejects  tradition  as  a  rule  of  faith, 
though  admitting  it  as  to  rites  and  ceremonies,  and 
bases  all  her  teaching  upon  the  books  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments,  rejecting  from  them  as  apocry- 
phal certain  which  Rome  receives  as  canonical.  She 
recognises  only  two  sacraments.  Baptism  and  the 
Lord's  Supper,  whereas  Rome  allows  five  others — 
namely.  Confirmation,  Orders,  Penance,  Matrimony, 
and  Extreme  Unction ;  she  denies  the  doctrines  of 
transubstantiation  and  the  propitiatory  sacrifice  of 
the  mass;  she  forbids  what  Rome  practises — the 
adoration  of  the  Virgin,  saints,  and  angels,  and  the 
reverence  of  relics  and  images ;  she  also  denies  the 
Roman  doctrines  of  purgatory  and  the  spiritual 
supremacy  of  the  pope.  It  is  not,  however,  to  be 
forgotten  that  a  great  part  of  her  liturgy  is  derived 
from  the  missals  of  the  Roman  Church.  As  distin- 
guished from  the  Presbyterian  Churches — e.  g.,  that  of 
Scotland — she  is  Episcopal,  and  holds  the  unbroken 
succession  of  her  orders  from  the  apostles,  as  one  of 
her  most  esteemed  privileges  ;  whereas  the  Presby- 
terians, especially  in  Scotland,  reject  prelacy  as  a 
remnant  of  popery.  These  do  not,  however,  differ 
fi  om  her  materially  in  essential  matters  of  faith,  but 
chiefly  as  to  the  sacraments,  the  form  of  administer- 
ing them,  and  the  grace  conveyed  in  them ;  as  to 
the  observance  of  seasons,  such  as  Christmas,  Lent, 
Easter ;  and  as  to  the  forms  of  public  worship,  the 


Presbyterians  usitig  no  set  forms.  Her  dillerences 
with  the  Greek  Catholics  are  less  wide  than  with 
the  Roman,  and  will  be  best  seen  by  referring  to  the 
article  Gukkk  Chirch.  From  the  Lutherans  she 
differs  on  the  doctrine  of  consubstantiation  in  the 
sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  From  the  Calvinists 
she  differs  radically  as  to  the  extent  of  the  efficacy 
of  Christ's  death,  they  believing  only  in  '  particular/ 
she  in  '  universal,'  redemption  (meaning,  of  course, 
not  that  all  men  will  actually  be  saveil,  but  that 
Christ  died  for  all);  nevertheless,  some  of  her  arti- 
cles, as  the  17th,  are  decidedly  Calvinistic.  The  nu- 
merous sects  of  Wesleyans,  Baptists,  and  Indepen- 
dents, do  not  differ  from  her  on  what  they  themselves 
consider  essential  articles  of  faith,  but  chiefly  as  to 
the  necessity  of  orders,  the  grace  conveyed  in  the 
sacraments,  and  the  forms  of  public  worship  and  of 
church  government.  But  since  their  separation  from 
her,  endless  varieties  of  doctrine  and  worship  have 
spread  among  them.  Unfortunately,  there  remains 
no  Gallo-catholic  Church  with  which  to  compare 
her. 

The  Anglo-catholic  Church  embraces  in  her  com- 
munion the  United  Church  of  England  and  Ireland, 
the  Episcopal  Church  in  Scotland,  all  the  colonial 
Episcopal  Churches,  and  the  American  Episcopal 
Church.  All  but  the  latter  use  the  English  Book 
of  Common  Prai/er  ;  in  America  this  has  been  slightly 
altered.  The  American  Church  is  one  of  the  most 
flourishing  offshoots  of  the  Anglican.  It  was  planted 
in  Virginia,  1607  A.n.,  but,  for  nearly  two  centuries, 
the  niother  church  in  England  withheld  from  her 
offspring  the  necessary  boon  of  an  episcopacy  of  her 
own.  It  was  not  till  the  close  of  the  18th  c.  that 
the  first  three  American  bishops  were  ordained  (one 
by  the  Scottish  bishops  in  17 -54,  and  two  by  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  and  the  Bishops  of  Bath  and 
Peterborough  in  1787) ;  but  now  this  branch  of 
Anglo-catholicism  has  spread  over  the  greater  part 
of  the  United  States. 

ANGLOMA'NIA  designates,  among  the  French 
and  Germans,  a  weak  imitation  of  English  manners, 
customs,  &c.,  or  an  indiscriminate  admiration  of 
English  institutions.  In  German  literature,  an  A. 
was  especially  prevalent  in  the  18th  c,  when  trans- 
lations of  English  books  became  numerous,  and  were 
read  with  great  admiration.  The  Germans  have 
ascribed  the  sentimental  and  affected  style  of  stune 
parts  of  their  hterature  to  the  influence  of  the  Eng- 
lish literature  of  last  century.  But  the  A.  was  harm- 
less in  comparison  with  the  Gallomania,  or  imitation 
of  French  literature  and  customs,  which  prevailed 
in  the  time  of  Frederick  II.  of  Prussia,  and  was 
developed  in  the  writings  of  AViclaiid.  A  remark- 
able A.  prevailed  in  France  for  some  time  before 
the  commencement  of  the  Revolution.  It  arose  out 
of  political  considerations  and  admiration  of  English 
free  institutions,  but  extended  to  trifles  even  of 
fashions  and  manners,  and  often  became  very  ridic- 
ulous. 

A'NGLO-SA'XON  LANGUAGE  AND  LITER  .V- 
TURE.  The  term  Anglo-Saxon  is  of  modern  origin, 
our  forefathers  having  called  themselves  and  their 
language  English  or  ^English.  The  Anglo-Saxon 
language  belongs  to  the  Low-German  fiimily  of  the 
Germanic  languages,  and  is  most  nearly  related 
to  the  Old  Saxon,  the  Old  Dutch  (or  language  of 
the  Netherlands),  and  the  Old  Frisian.  There 
were  two  principal  dialects — one  spoken  in  the 
north  of  England,  which  was  chiefly  peopled  by 
the  Angles  ;  and  the  other  in  the  south  of  Eng- 
land, which  was  chiefly  peopled  by  the  Saxons. 
After  Wessex  acquired  the  supremacy  over  the  other 
states  of  the  Heptarchy  in  the  8th  c,  the  West 
Saxon  dialect  became  prevalent  as  the  language  of 

269 


ANGLO-SAXON  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE— ANGLO-SAXONS. 


tlie  court  anil  of  literature.  From  the  0th  c,  laws 
anil  poonis  began  to  be  coininiited  to  writing  ;  and 
Alfred  the  Great  set  the  example  of  translating 
Latin  works  into  Anglo-Saxon.  After  the  Nor- 
man romiucst,  the  Anglo-Saxon  language  gave 
phu'C  to  the  Norman-Fronch,  as  the  language  of  the 
court,  of  com-ts  of  justice,  of  schools,  and  partly  also 
of  the  church  ;  but  Saxon  continued  to  be  the  lan- 
guage of  the  common  peoi)le,  and  became  the  basis 
of  the  p:nglish  language,  which  was  gradually  formed 
during  the  12th,  13th,  and  14th  centuries.  The 
Anglo-Saxon  of  the  period  from  1(»70  to  12."jO  has 
bee'n  designated  by  Knglish  philologists  the  Scuii- 
Sii.ro7i,  whilst  the  Ear/ if  Kuril hh  prevailed  from  1250 
to  13jO,  and  the  Mkhlle  Knglixh  from  1350  to  1.550. 
Since  the  Reformation,  the  Anglo-Saxon  has  been 
made  the  subject  of  study  by  a  few;  and  Ilickes's 
TJiexdurnx  Livrfuanim  Sfpteniriorialiiim  (3  vols., 
17(j3 — 1705)  must  be  mentioned  as  one  import- 
ant work  on  the  subject  which  the  last  century 
produced.  In  recent  timi'S,  the  knowledge  both  of 
the  language  and  literature  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  has 
been  greatly  advanced  by-  the  labours  of  Thorpe, 
Kemble,  Latham,  Trice,  Guest,  Sir  Frederic  Madden, 
the  Convbcares,  and  others  in  P^ngland  ;  and  of  J. 
Grinnn  and  Loo  in  Germany.  Rut  even  now  it  can 
scarcclv  he  said  to  have  received  the  amount  of  at- 
tention which  may  well  be  reckoneil  due  to  it,  when  ] 
we  remember  that  it  fm-ni-^hes  the  basis,  and,  in 
point  of  words,  contributes  by  far  the  greater  pro- 
portion, of  the  English  which  we  speak.  The  best 
Anglo  Saxon  dictionaries  are  those  of  liVe,  edited 
by  Maiming  {i  vols,  fol.,  Lond.  1772),  and  Hoswortii 
(Lond.  1839);  the  grammar  has  been  exhibited  by 
Rask  in  his  Aiiffrlxatsis/c  Sprmjlnere  (Stockh.  1817  ; 
English  translation  by  Thorpe,  Copenh.  1830),  and 
more  perfectly  by  J.  (5rimm  in  his  JJeutsche  Graui- 
malikiX  vols.^  (Jott.  181'.)— 1837). 

Like  Latin,  Greek,  and  modern  German,  the 
Atiglo-Saxon  language  was  inflected,  the  cases  of  its 
nouns,  and  the  conjugations,  numbers,  and  persons 
of  its  verbs,  being  marked  by  changes  chiefly  in  the 
final  syllable.  These  characteristics  gradually  disap- 
peared as  Anslo-Saxon  passed  into  modern  English,  in 
which  they  are  almost  unknown.  The  nature  of  this 
process  will  be  nnderstnod  from  the  following  extract 
from  Professor  Craik's  excellent  Outlines  of  the 
Jl/stori/  of  (lie  Enylhh  La)if/Hii(/e :  '  It  has  been 
pointed  out  by  Mr.  Guest,  that  the  characteristic 
distinction  of  Old,  or  Early  English,  as  compared 
with  Saxon,  or  Semi-Saxon,  is  the  employment  of  the 
one  termination  e  in  the  declension  of  nouns  and  the 
conjugation  of  verbs,  to  represent  indiscriminately 
the  three  Anglo-Saxon  vowel-endings,  fi,  e,  and  n.  In 
this  way  the  Saxon  nama,  cnde,  and  wiidn,  became  in 
Early  English,  name,  ende,  woode,  or  wood-de.  Now 
the  distinction  of  Middle  English,  as  compared  with 
Early  English,  may  be  defined  as  being  the  tendency 
to  drop  this  final  e  as  a  distinct  syllable,  and  along 
with  that  simplification,  to  throw  off  also  whatever 
else  remained  of  the  original  inflectional  system  of 
the  language.'— P.  91,  ed.  IS.j.". 

Of  the  remains  of  Anglo-Saxon  literature  which 
the  ravages  of  the  Danes  and  Normans  have  left  us, 
the  greater  part  are  still  nnprinted.  Very  many  of 
them  are  poetical.  The  verse  is  alliterative,  as  in 
the  Norse  and  oldest  German  poetry  ;  and  only  in 
some  of  the  most  recent  Anglo-Saxon  poems  do  we 
find  a  beginning  of  rhyme.  The  ejiic  or  narrative 
poems  are  remarkable  for  superabundance  of  often 
recurring  epithets,  bold  metaphors,  and  a  certain  pomp 
and  magnificence  of  style.  Of  the  genuine  heroic 
poetry,  however,  there  are  few  remains,  the  prin- 
cipal one  being  the  poem  of  Beown/f  {q.  v.),  a  work 
which  must  have  lieen  composed  before  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  quitted  their  original  scats  on  the  continent. 

260 


The  introduction  of  Christianity  gave  a  rcligioi:s 
character  to  Anglo-Saxon  poetry  ;  and  many  narra- 
tive poems  arc  extant  on  religious  subjects,  .vome  of 
which  may  bo  seen  in  the  Codex  Oxonienxis,  a  collec- 
tion edited  by  Thorpe  (Lond.  1842).  The  ^onfi  of 
Ctedvion,  which  is  preserved  in  Alfred's  transla- 
tion of  Bcde,  has  been  edited  both  by  Junius  and 
Tiiorpe  ;  and  a  metrical  paraphrase  of  ])arts  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures,  ascribed  to  the  same  author,  has 
Ibiind  editors  both  in  Thorpe  (Lond.  1832)  and 
Routcrwek  (vol.  1,  Elberfeld,  1847).  Gaedmon,  who 
was  employed  by  tlic  monks  ofAVhitby,  at  first,  it 
Avotild  seem,  in  tending  their  cattle,  is  conjectured  to 
liave  died  about  ()8n,  so  that  both  of  the  works  in 
question  must  belong  to  the  7th  c.  Two  poems  from 
the  codex  wiiieh  Dr.  Blum  discovered  at  Vercelli  in 
1832,  have  been  edited  by  Jacob  Grimm  (Gassel, 
184t)),  under  the  ihlv  of  Andreas xind Elene  ;  a  poeti- 
cal calendar  of  the  saints  by  Fox  (Lond.  1830);  and 
a  version  of  the  Psalms  by  Thorpe  (Lond.  183.")).  The 
semi-Saxon  paraj)hrase  by  Laymon  of  the  Brut  of 
Wacc,  or  old  French  liomnn  de  Brut,  a  work  of  about 
the  year  I2ti(),  which  has  been  edited  by  Madden 
(Lond.  1847),  shews  the  language  in  its  transition  to 
English,  as  do  also  the  Proi'crhs  of  Kimj  Alfred  in 
the  Jif/ifjidw  Aii/ii/U(c  (\o\.  1,  Lonil.  1843).  Among 
the  most  impoitant  prose  works  in  the  Anglo-Saxon 
language  must  be  mcntioiu'd  the  laws,  civil  and 
ecclesiastical,  from  the  time  of  Ethelbert  of  Kent 
to  that  of  Canute,  of  which  the  best  edition  is  in 
Thorpe's  Ancient  Lmrs  and  Institutes  of  Enf/land 
(Lond.  184(>)-  Of  historical  works  nuiy  bomeniioned 
Alfred's  tran.>ilations  ofOrosiusand  Rede;  and  the 
A7u/lo-Sax(>n  Chronicle,  carried  on  by  diil'erent  hands 
to  1154,  of  which  the  l)est  edition,  down  at  least  to 
the  Conquest,  is  Price's,  in  the  Monnnifnta  Historica 
Britanni.cn,  1848,  an  earlier  one  being  that  of  Ingram 
(Lond.  1823),  of  which  latter  there  is  a  translation  by 
Miss  Gurncy  (Norwich,  1819).  It  is  in  the  province 
of  theology  that  Anglo-Saxon  literature  is  most  rich, 
abounding  particularly  in  legends  and  homilies.  A 
collection  of  homilies  made  by  Bishop  ^Elfric  has  been 
published  by  the  Elfric  Society  (2  vols.,  Lond.  1847), 
a  society  instituted  in  1843  for  the  promotion  of  the 
knowledge  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  language  and  times. 
.Elfric  did  much  to  enrich  Anglo-Saxon  literature 
with  tran.slations,  nnd  began  a  translation  of  the 
Bible.  He  translated  the  first  seven  books,  the  book 
of  Job,  and  the  apocryphal  Gospel  of  Nicodemus, 
and  also  a  fragment  of  a  poem  on  the  history  of 
Judith,  of  great  celebrity  (Oxf.  1(598).  The 
Durham  Book,  or  St.  Cuthbert's  book,  a  very  famous 
manuscript,  now  iu  the  British  Museum,  contains 
an  interlinear  gloss  of  the  Gospels  in  the  East- 
Anglican  dialect,  the  text  being  probably  of  the 
8th,  and  the  gloss  of  the  HHh  c.  Alfred  translated 
tlie  work  of  Boethius,  De  Consolatione  Fhilosophice. 
The  opinions  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  on  astronomy, 
natural  philosophy,  and  medicine,  are  exhibited 
from  their  works  by  Wright  in  his  Treatises  on 
Sciences  vriften  during  the  Middle  Ages  (Lond. 
1841).  Much  additional  information  on  this  sub- 
ject will  be  found  in  an  acces.sible  form  in  Professor 
Craik's  Outlines  of  the  History  of  the  English 
Language,  already  referred  to ;  and  in  Dr.  Pauli'.s 
Alfred,  o(  which  two  translations  have  been  pub- 
lisiied,  the  one  by  Wright  (Bentley,  1852),  whereof 
a  second  edition  appeared  in  the  following  year; 
and  another  by  Thorpe  (Bohn,  1853).  See  English 
Langiage. 

ANGLO-SAXONS,  the  collective  name  given 
by  historians  to  the  various  Teutonic  or  German 
tribes  which  settled  in  England,  chiefly  in  the  5th  c., 
and  founded  the  kingdoms  of  the  Heptarchy.  They 
consisted  for  the  most  part  of  Angles,  Saxons,  and 
Jutes.     The  generally  received  opinion  is,  that  the 


AXGLO-SAXOXS. 


first  of  these  invadcis  made  their  appearanoc  in 
Britain  in  449,  liaving  Ilenpist  orllePLfi-t,  aii(i  llorsa 
or  Hors,  as  their  leader.  But  under  tiio  more  search- 
ing scrutiny  of  hit«'r  writers,  these  famous  leaders 
have  evaporated  into  mythical  heroes  of  romance, 
common  to  most  of  the  Germanic  nations  ;  and  though 
the  fact  of  a  great  Germanic  invasion  in  the  middle  of 
the  5th  c.  is  not  douhted,  it  is  believed  that  this  was 
by  no  means  the  earliest  jieriod  at  wliich  Germanic 
settlements  were  eficcted  in  England.  Long  previous 
to  this  period,  a  portiou  of  the  coast,  extending  frotn 
Portsmouth  to  "Wells  in  Norfolk,  was  known  as  the 
LittuH  Saxonicum ;  but  whether  in  reference  to 
Saxons  V)y  whom  it  was  settled,  or  to  roving  adven- 
turers of  that  \ace  by  whom  it  was  ravaged,  is  still 
a  subject  of  dispute.  The  former  view  is  advanced, 
on  apparently  satisfactory  grounds,  by  Kemble 
{Saxonx  in  Encjland^  vol.  i.  p.  14).  But,  however 
this  point  may  stand,  the  probable  truth  is,  that 
Britain,  which  for  centuries  had  been  ravaged  and 
partially  colonised  by  Germanic  tribes,  was  finally 
reduced  under  their  rule,  on  the  departure  of  the 
Romans.  Of  the  three  tribes  mentioned  above,  the 
Jutes  are  believed  to  have  been  the  first  comers.  Their 
original  settlements  were  in  what  is  now  the  Duchy 
of  Schleswig  ;  and  the  portions  of  England  of  which 
they  possessed  themselves  were  Kent,  the  Isle  of 
Wight,  and  the  opposite  coast  of  Hampshire.  The 
Saxons,  who  w'ere  the  next  invaders,  settled  chiefly 
in  the  Southern  and  central  parts  of  England, — in 
Sussex,  Essex,  Middlesex,  the  south  of  Hertford, 
Surrey,  the  part  of  Hampshire  not  posses<;ed  by  the 
Jutes,  Berks,  Wilts,  Dorset,  Somerset,  Devon,  and 
the  portion  of  Cornwall  which  did  not  remain  in  the 
possession  of  its  former  Celtic  inhabitants.  The 
Saxons  who  invaded  England  probably  belonged 
chiefly  to  the  portion  of  that  great  nation,  or  con- 
federacy of  nations,  whose  territories  lay  on  the 
shores  of  the  Baltic — occupying  what  are  now  the 
Duchy  of  Holstein,  the  north  of  Hanover,  and  the 
west  of  Mecklenburg.  The  third  tribe,  whose  name 
and  nationality  afterwards  prevailed  over  the  others 
— the  Angles — did  not  arrive  till  a  somewhat  later 
period.  From  527  to  547,  they  made  a  succession  of 
descents  on  the  coasts  of  Suflblk  and  Norfolk,  and 
latterly,  on  the  country  to  the  north  of  the  Humber, 
and  the  southern  part  of  Scotland  between  the 
Tweed  and  the  Forth.  Eventually,  the  Angles 
obtained  possession  of  the  whole  of  England,  except 
the  portions  already  mentioned  ;  that  is  to  say,  of 
all  the  part  to  the  north  of  the  Avon,  on  the  one 
side,  and  the  Thames  on  the  otlier — Essex,  Middle- 
sex, and  part  of  Hertford  excepted.  The  union  of 
different  bands  of  these  conquerors  amongst  them- 
selves, with  their  countrymen  who  had  preceded  them, 
and  with  the  Celtic  population  which,  though  con- 
quered, there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  was  extermi- 
n.ited,  gave  rise  to  the  so-called  Heptarchy — the  king- 
doms of  Northumbria  (originally  Bernicia  and  Deira), 
Kent,  Sussex,  Wessex,  Essex,  East  Anglia,  and 
Mercia.  The  Heptarchy  (q.  v.)  becomes  an  octarchy, 
if  the  provinces  of  Bernicia  and  Deira  be  counted  as 
separate  kingdoms;  but  in  place  of  increasing,  it 
is  very  doubtful  if  we  ought  not  to  diminish  the 
number  of  these  divisions,  it  being  very  questionable 
if  so  many  as  seven  states  ever  possessed,  at  one 
time,  separate  and  independent  goverimients.  But 
the  propriety  of  cither  term  becomes  still  more 
doubtful  if  it  be  understood,  as  it  generally  has  been, 
to  convey  the  idea  of  all  these  separate  kingdoms 
heing  boun<l  together  in  a  species  of  union  or  con- 
federacy, under  one  head,  called  the  Bretwalda.  The 
Bretwalda  is  said  to  have  been  a  species  of  war-king, 
or  teuijMirary  and  elective  chief  of  all  the  Saxons, 
whose  ollico  it  was  to  lead  them  forth  in  their  wars 
against  their  common   enemies,  especially   the  Celts 


of  Wales  and  Scotland.  Kemble  has  thrown  serious 
doubts  on  the  existence  of  the  office,  and  has  shewn 
that  the  evidence  which  is  adduced  in  its  favour,  if 
not  based  entirely  on  'a  piece  of  vicious  philology' 
(vol.  ii.  p.  ]  2),  is  at  any  rate  very  slight.  Lappeid)erg, 
however,  than  whom  there  is  no  higher  auihoiity  on 
Anglo-Saxon  history,  follows  pretty  nearly  the  opin- 
ions to  which  Ra])in  and  Sharon  Turner  had  given 
currency.  On  the  whole,  there  seems  reason  to  be- 
lieve that  the  Bretwaldaship  never  was  a  permamnit 
and  acknowledged  stipremacy,  l)ut  a  mere  accidentiU 
and  temporary  preponderance  of  one  state  over  the 
others,  and  a  consequent  pre-eminence,  for  the  time 
being,  enjoyed  by  its  sovereign. 

Tlie  various  independent  states  into  w'hich  England 
had  till  then  been  divided,  were  united  Viy  Egl)ert, 
king  of  Wessex,  in  8'i7,  into  the  one  kingdom  of 
England  (the  land  of  the  Angles).  The  royal  family 
of  Wessex,  which  was  thus  r;dsed  to  what,  for  the 
first  time,  probaV)ly,  i-;  entitled  to  be  called  the  kingly 
dignity,  never  again  lost  its  supremacy,  except,  in- 
deed, during  the  Danish  period  (lnl7  to  ln4"J),  till 
the  Norman  Conquest  ;  and  to  it  Alfred  the  Great 
(q.  V.)  belonged. 

The  English  constitution,  the  origin  of  which  is 
sometimes  ascribed  to  Alfred,  was  not  fiamcd  by  him, 
though  he  restored  it  and  improved  it  after  the  de- 
liverance of  the  country  from  the  Danes  in  li>42. 
It  was  essentially  the  same  as  that  of  other  (ler- 
manic  nations,  and  its  germs  are  to  be  traced  in  the 
account  which  Tacitus  has  given  of  their  political  in- 
stitutions ;  Init  was  more  perfectly  developed,  and 
contini'.d  to  flourish  in  greater  purity  among  the 
Anglo-Saxons,  than  in  those  countries  which  were 
more  inmiediately  subject  to  influences  proceeding 
from  Rome.  At  the  head  of  the  government  was 
the  king  (j-jinivri^  c,>/»f),  the  same  word  as  the  (ler- 
man  Kijnifi).  The  kingly  ollice,  among  the  German- 
ic nations  in  early  times,  had  reference  solely  to 
the  tribes  of  peoples  governed,  and  never  to  the 
land  which  they  occupied.  During  this  period,  it 
was  naturally  elective ;  but  after  the  idea  of  great 
territoi'ial  possessions  came  to  be  inseparable  from 
it,  it  became  hereditary,  though  a  form  of  election, 
or  colour  of  ascertaining  the  national  will,  was 
still  retained.  The  life  of  the  king,  like  that 
of  every  otlier  man,  was  assessed  at  a  fixed 
price  {tvergcld,  q.  v. \  which  was  that  of  an  (tthelhirj, 
or  person  of  royal  blood,  with  a  sum  superadded 
as  the  price  of  his  royalty.  The  first  of  these 
sums  went  to  his  family,  the  second,  to  the  people. 
The  king  and  his  dependants  possessed  other  special 
privileges  and  protections;  one  being  that  'the 
dishonour  of  his  maiden  serf  involved  a  fine  of  fifty 
shillings;  while  the  eorle's  female  cup-bearer  was 
protected  oidv  to  the  amount  of  twelve,  and  the 
ceorl's  to  that  of  six  shillings '(Kemble,  ii.  33).  The 
king  possessed  the  power  of  calling  together  the 
Witenagemote  (q.  v.),  and  of  laying  before  them 
propositions  for  the  public  weal ;  but  he  had  not  the 
power  of  dismissing  the  assembly  when  he  iiad 
enough  of  its  advice,  so  that  in  England,  from  the 
first,  the  real  centre  of  power  seems  to  have  been 
in  parliament.  Neither  was  the  convocation  of  the 
Witenagemote  at  the  option  of  the  sovereign,  for 
there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  his  power  was 
all  along  limited  by  the  necessity  of  consulting  the 
principal  members  both  of  the  clergy  and  laity  of 
the  kingdom,  and  that  though  he  possessed  the 
privilege  of  presiding  in  their  assemblies,  he  had  no 
separate  legislative  function ;  nor,  it  would  seem, 
could  he  impose  taxes,  or  declare  peace  or  war,  with- 
o\it  their  consent.  The  sons  and  other  near  relations 
of  the  king  constituted  an  aristocracy  of  liirth,  called 
ethlings  or  iethelings  (the  same  word  with  the 
German   Adel,  noble).     Out  of  the  great  officers  of 

261 


ANGOLA— ANG  ON. 


the  state,  or  immediate  servants  of  the  king,  was 
gradually  formed  a  hereditary  aristocracy,  closely 
corresponding  to  that  which  siibso(incnlly  existed  in 
feudal  times.  Of  these,  the  person  next  in  rank  to 
the  king  was  the  ealdormnn  or  duke  {iierctnr/a). 
'Rut  inasmuch  as  the  ducal  function^,  in  the  Anplo- 
Saxon  polity,  were  hy  no  means  confined  to  service 
in  the  field,  the  peculiar  title  of  heretoga  is  very 
rarely  met  with,  being  for  the  most  part  replaced  by 
ealdorman  or  aldorman,  which  denotes  civil  as  well 
as  military  pre-eminence'  (Kemble,  itf  nup.  v.  126.) 
The  word  is  derived  from  an  adjective  signifvincr  age, 
tliongh,  in  practice,  no  such  meaning  attnched  to  it, 
more  than  to  senior,  wiiich  is  the  original  form  of  the 
word  seigneur.  It  was  to  the  same  class  of  officials 
that  subsequently  the  Daidsh  title  of  eorle  or  earl 
came  to  be  applied.  The  powers  of  these  officers 
probably  varied  in  the  diflerent  kingdoms,  whilst 
they  remained  separated ;  but  we  shall  form,  on 
the  whole,  a  pretty  accurate  conception  of  the 
position  of  the  ealdorman,  if  we  regard  him  as  the 
governor  of  the  c/d  or  shire,  the  .icirperefa  or  slieriff 
being  his  deputy.  Much  difference  of  opinion 
exists  as  to  the  rank  and  position,  social  and  poli- 
tical, of  the  thane  ;  and  all  that  can  bo  said  with 
confidence  is,  that,  in  Anglo-Saxon  timers,  it  was 
not  convertible  with  ealdorman,  or  equivalent  to 
baron,  as  it  came  to  be  after  the  roncpiest.  The 
office  seems  to  have  implied  subordinate  landed 
tenure,  similar  to  that  by  which  the  limds  of  the 
vassal  were  held  of  the  lord  in  feudal  times ;  and 
thus,  whilst  the  king's  thanes  were  frequently 
ealdormen,  these,  in  their  turn,  had  thanes  of  a 
lower  rank,  who  appear  to  have  been  very  numerous. 
Tills  view  is  strengthened  by  the  derivation  of  the 
term  from  thrrjuinn  or  tfirnlan,  to  serve,  which  's 
the  same  word  as  the  modern  German  d'x'nrn,  and 
from  the  fact  of  its  being  frequently  translated 
iriiriixter  in  the  Latin  charters  in  Anglo-Saxon  times. 
The  whole  class  of  ordinary  freemen  or  commoners, 
in  Anglo-Saxon  times,  were  called  cforlx  (a  word 
preserved  in  the  German  Kerl,  and  in  the  Scotch 
e/irle),  and  were  generally  associated  under  the 
protection  of  some  person  of  rank  and  influence, 
who  was  called  the  hlaford  (whence  lord).  This, 
however,  was  in  itself  no  recognised  title,  and  up  to 
a  very  late  period,  the  Anglo-Saxon  laws  knew  no 
other  distinction  than  that  of  ceorl  and  eorle.  The 
Britons,  who  retained  some  degree  of  freedom,  con- 
stituted a  lower  class,  called  wealhnx.  The  number 
of  slaves  [fheow)  was  not  very  great,  nor  does  the 
character  of  the  servitude  imposed  on  them  seem, 
comparatively  speaking,  to  have  been  oppressive. 
Different  rights  and  privileges  belonged  to  the  differ- 
ent ranks  of  the  Saxon  people,  and,  as  we  have  al- 
ready said,  a  different  wergeld  (q.  v.),  or  pecuniary 
estimation,  was  fixed  for  each  rank,  as  the  penalty 
for  homicide.  The  great  districts  or  shires  were 
subdivided  into  tithings  (teothunfi),  each  containing 
ten  free  heads  of  families,  who  were  held  mutually 
responsible  for  each  other.  Ten  tithings  formed  a 
hundred,  which  had  a  court  subordinate  to  the  court 
of  the  shire.  In  important  matters,  the  ealdorman  of 
the  shire  could  not  decide  without  the  concurrence 
of  an  assembly  {Seirffeviofe,  Assembly  of  the  Shire) 
of  thanes  of  the  shire  and  representatives  of  town- 
ships, which  met  half  yearly,  and  corresponded  to  the 
Witenaf/emote  (Assembly  of  the  Wise),  or  Michelfje- 
mote  (Assembly  of  the  Great)  for  the  whole  king- 
dom. 

Christianity  was  introduced  among  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  in  the  end  of  the  fith,  or  beginning  of  the 
7th  c.  by  St.  Augustine,  a  missionary  sent  by  Pope 
Gregory  I.,  called  the  Great.  Augustine  became  the 
first  Archbishop  of  Canterbury;  and  before  theclo^e 
of  the  7th  c.  the  whole  of  Saxon  or  German  England 
262 


was  a  Christian  country  under  one  metropolitan. 
Ethellxrt,  king  of  Kent,  was  the  first  Anglo-Saxon 
sovereign  who  embraced  the  Christian  doctrine. 
Bringing  with  theni  the  traditions  and  feelings  of  the 
empire,  the  whole  influence  of  the  clergy  was 
thrown  into  the  scale  of  monarchy,  and  greatly 
tended  to  its  consolidation.  A  Christian  Church, 
however,  already  existed  in  Scotland  and  the  north 
of  England  ;  and  the  influence  of  the  Culdccs 
(q.  V.)  long  prevailed  against  the  efforts  of  the  Aii' 
glo-SaxoM  prelates  to  establish  uniformity  of  wor- 
ship and  couiplctc  conformity  to  Rome.  Nor  were 
the  Anglo-Saxon  clergy  theniselves  in  general  very 
sul)missive  to  the  authority  of  the  popes,  who  did 
not  succeed  in  reducing  England  to  complete  sub- 
Jection  till  after  a  long  struggle.  St.  Dunstan  (q.  v.) 
gain(>d  for  them  their  final  victory  in  the  liith  c. 
During  the  time  of  its  comparative  independence, 
the  Anglo-Saxon  Church  was  distinguished  for  the 
learning  and  laboriousncss  of  its  clergy.  Bede  (q.  v.) 
is  the  most  eminent  author  whom  it  produced. 
Between  his  time  and  that  of  Alfred,  a  very  great 
degeneracy  had  taken  place, both  in  the  learning  and 
efficiency  of  the  clergy,  which  that  active  and 
enlightened  sovereign  laboured  to  restore,  not  with- 
out success.  Ilis  own  remarks  on  the  subject,  con- 
tained in  the  introduction  to  his  translation  of 
(iregory's  Jiepuln  Paxtori.i,  will  be  found  in  Dr. 
Pauli's  excellent  Life  and  Tiinen  of  Alfred  the  Great, 
to  which  the  reader  is  referred  for  much  interesting 
information  regarding  Anglo-Saxon  times.  St.  Boni- 
face (q.  v.)  and  many  other  Anglo-Saxon  and  Scottish 
missionaries  laboured  with  success  in  the  propagation 
of  Christianity  in  Germany. 

ANGOLA,  a  name  often  applied  to  the  whole  of 
rhe  West  African  coast  from  Cape  Lopez  de  (ion.«alvo 
in  hit.  0°  44'  S.,  to  San  Felipe  de  Benguela,  in  12" 
14'  S. ;  but,  in  a  more  restricted  sense,  the  name  of 
a  kingdom  in  Lower  Guinea  dependent  upon  Portu- 
gal, and  extending  from  the  river  Coanza  on  the 
south,  in  lat.  9°  2n'  S.  to  the  Danda  on  the  north, 
in  8°  2t>'  S.  The  natives  generally  call  it  Donga. 
The  interior  is  very  imperfectly  known,  and  the 
boundaries  uncertain  ;  but  along  with  Benguela,  and 
other  presidencies,  A.  is  supposed  to  contain  al)out 
;j(M),00(»  inhabitants.  Thecotintry  being  well  watered, 
is  covered  with  a  most  luxuriant  vegetation.  The 
heat  being  moderated  by  the  sea-breeze,  the  orange 
and  other  fruits  of  the  warmer  temperate  climates 
are  produced,  as  well  as  those  which  are  strictly 
tropical.  There  is  a  great  abundance  and  variety  of 
wild  animals,  and  the  mouths  of  the  rivers  swarm 
with  sharks  and  crocodiles.  The  principal  rivers  are 
the  Coanza  and  Danda.  Much  of  the  country  is 
mountainous.  The  mountains  are  covered  with 
forests,  and  are  rich  in  metals,  particularly  copper, 
iron,  and  silver,  winch,  with  w  ax  and  ivory,  are  the 
principal  legitimate  exports,  although  the  great 
trade,  almost  to  the  present  day,  has  been  in  slaves. 
Fetichism  is  the  prevailing  superstition,  and  circum- 
cision is  general  among  the  natives.  A.  might  easily 
be  rendered  very  productive  both  of  sugar  and  cot- 
ton, but  the  manner  in  which  it  has  been  governed 
by  the  Portuguese  has  not  tended  to  develop  its 
resources.  They  discovered  it  in  148G,  and  have 
had  settlements  in  it  since  1488  ;  but  the  number 
of  resident  Portuguese  is  very  small,  and  they  are 
almost  entirely  confined  to  a  few  spots — forts 
and  commercial  establishments  called  feii-as  or 
fairs.  The  capital  is  Loando,  or  San  Paulo  de  Loando 
(q.  v.). 

ANGON,  a  barbed  spear  used  by  many  early 
nations.  The  Franks,  in  the  7th  c,  employed 
angons  both  for  thrusting  and  hurling.  The  staves 
were  armed  with  iron,  so  as    to   leave  but    little  of 


ANGORA— ANGOSTURA  BARK. 


the  wood  uncovered ;  the  head  had  two  barbs. 
"When  hurled  or  tlirust  at  an  op[)oneiit,  the  head  of 
the  A.  became  fixed  in  the  fletih  by  means  of  the 
barbs.  Tliis  form  of  spear  was  much  adopted  by 
the  Anglo-Saxon  and  other  Teutonic  nations. 

ANGORA,  the  Ancyra  of  the  ancients,  a  city 
in  the  eastern  part  of  the  Turkish  eyalet  of  Bozfp, 
in  the  mountainous  interior  of  Asia  Minor,  and 
distant  from  Constantinople  about  2'2i)  miles  E.S.E. 
It  is  said  to  have  Vjeen  built  by  Midas,  the  son 
of  the  Phrygian  Gordius ;  was  a  flourishing  city 
under  the  Persians;  became  the  capital  of  the  Gallic 
Tectosages,  who  settled  in  Asia  Minor  abotit  277 
B.C. ;  was  a  principal  seat  of  eastern  trade  under  the 
Romans;  and  was  made  the  capital  of  the  Roman 
province  of  Galatia  Prima.  It  was  the  seat  of  one 
of  the  early  churches  of  Galatia,  and  the  scene  of 
two  Christian  councils  held  respectively  in  S14 
and  358.  A  decisive  battle  between  the  Turks 
and  Tatars  was  fought  near  A.  in  1-102,  in  wiiich 
Timur  defeated  and  took  prisoner  the  sultan 
Bajazet  I.  A  temple  of  white  marble  was  erected 
by  the  citizens  of  Ancyra  to  the  Emperor  Augustus, 
who  had  greatly  beautified  the  city,  and  his  deeds 
were  recorded  in  inscriptions  upon  a  number  of 
tablets  and  the  columns  of  an  altar.  These  in- 
scriptions, the  Monumeiitum  Ancyranum,  discovered 
by  Busbcrg  in  1553,  are  important  for  the  elucida- 
tion of  ancient  history.  They  were  first  printed  in 
Scliott's  edition  of  Aurelius  Victor  (Antw.  Io70), 
and  have  recently  been  edited  with  notes  by  Franz 
and  Zumpt  (Berl.  1845).  Tlie  present  A.  is  said  to 
contain  not  more  than  20,1)00  inhabitants,  of  whom 
cne-third  are  Armenians.     It  is  famous  for  its  breed 


Angora  Goats. 

of  goats,  with  beautiful  silky  hair,  eight  inches 
long.  Of  this  goat-hair,  a  kind  of  yarn  is  made, 
known  as  Turkish  yarn  or  camel  yarn,  and  of 
■which  also  mohair  is  extensively  manufactured  in 
Bradford,  England.  ITie  name  camel  yarn  has 
led  to  mistakes ;  it  has  no  reference  to  the  camel, 
but  is  derived  from  the  Arabic  word  c/iamal,  fine. 
Of  the  skin  of  the  A.  goat,  the  fine  Oriental 
Morocco  leather  is  made.  Many  of  the  animals 
in  this  region  are  characterised  by  the  length  and 
softness  of  their  hair,  especially  the  dogs,  rabbits, 
cats,  &c.  This  peculiarity  seems  to  depend  upon 
the  climate,  and  soon  disappears  in  Europe. 

ANGOSTU'RA,  a  seaport  town  of  A^enezuela,  in 
lat.  8"  8'  N.,  and  long.  63°  55'  W.,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Orinoco,  about  240  miles  from  its  mouths. 
It  takes  lis  name,  which  signifies  a  strait,  from 
its  being  built  at  a  point  where,  on  both  sides, 
the  river  is  narrowed  by  rocks  to  a  width  of  3134 
feet,  after  having  measured  three  miles  across  at 
thrice  the  distance  from  the  .sea.  The  site  of  A. 
is  only  191  feet  above  the  sea-level — an  elevation 
which,    on    the    intermediate    distance    as    above, 


yields  an  average  of  less  than  ten  inches  to  the 
mile.  In  fact,  the  bottom  of  the  river  in  front  of 
the  town  is  lower  than  the  surface  of  the  sea.  for, 
even  in  the  lowest  state  of  the  water,  it  is  said  to 
be  2<»o  feet  deep,  with  a  margin  for  floods  to  the 
amoiint  of  fifty  or  sixty  feet  more.  Under  these 
circumstances,  the  bed  of  the  stream  must  be  about 
250  feet  under  the  level  of  the  city,  or  about  6i)  feet 
under  the  level  of  the  sea.  When  the  river  does 
rise  to  its  highest,  there  are  at  least  portions  of  the 
city  inundated ;  and  instances  are  believed  to  have 
occurred  in  which  careless  people  were  devoured  by 
alligators  in  the  very  streets.  Chiefly,  as  is  sup- 
posed, through  the  free  access  of  the  trade-winds 
over  the  flat  surface  of  the  country,  A.  enjoys,  in 
proportion  to  its  latitude,  a  singularly  temperate 
climate.  Even  in  the  hottest  season  of  the  year, 
the  thermometer  is  said  .«eldom  to  shew  more  than 
86°  F. ;  while,  between  the  beginning  of  November 
and  the  end  of  April,  it  ranges  from  77°  by  day  to 
69°  by  night. 

The  situation  of  A.  is  highly  favourable  in  a 
commercial  view.  Tlie  basin  of  the  Orinoco,  which 
lies  nearly  all  above  the  town,  and  is  estimated  to 
contain  250,000  s(|uare  miles,  or  more  than  twice  the 
area  of  the  British  Lsles,  is  particularly  rich  towards 
the  north.  On  that  side  it  reaches  very  nearly 
to  the  coast-line,  so  as  to  comprise  some  of  the  best 
parts  of  Venezuela.  Towards  the  south,  again,  it 
consists,  in  a  great  measure,  of  boundless  plains, 
traversed  by  countless  herds  of  cattle.  Over  the 
whole  of  this  vast  basin,  and  that  almost  ecjually  in 
both  directions,  the  main  stream  and  its  attluents 
are,  with  hardly  any  interru[)tions,  navigable  to 
near  the  foot  of  the  mountains.  Owing  to  the 
impetuosity  of  the  currents  and  the  obstruction  of 
shoals,  sailing-vessels  are  said  to  take  fifteen  days 
to  sail  up  to  A. ;  but  with  steam-navigation  these 
impediments  would  in  great  measure  disapjiear. 

With  such  advantages  of  position,  A.  was  a 
flourishing  mart  before  the  commencement  of  the 
war  of  independence  ;  but  the  civil  broils  materially 
interfered  with  its  prosperity.  As  far  back  as  18n7, 
A.  had  85(»0  inhabitants  ;  ere  twenty  years  elapsed, 
the  population  had  been  reduced  to  little  more  than 
a  third  part  of  the  number.  According  to  later 
information,  however,  it  was  rapidly  approaching  its 
former  amount. 

ANGOSTURA  BARK,  or  ANGUSTURA  BARK, 
the  aromatic  bitter  bark  of  certain  trees  of 
the  natural  order  Jxubiacea;  and  tribe  Cujipariece, 
natives  of  the  tropical  parts  of  South  America.  It 
derives  its  name  from  the  town  of  Angostura, 
where  it  is  a  considerable  article  of  commerce. 
It  was  first  brought  to  England  in  1788.  It  is 
used  in  medicine  as  a  remedy  for  weakness  of 
digestion,  diarrhcra,  dysentery,  and  fevers.  It  is 
tonic  and  stimulant.  The  most  important  of  the 
trees  producing  it  is  the  Galipra  officinalis,  which 
grows  upon  the  mountains  of  Colombia  and  near 
the  Orinoco.  It  is  a  tree  of  12 — 2n  feet  high,  and 
3 — 5  feet  in  diameter,  having  a  gray  bark,  trifoliate 
leaves,  with  oblong  leaflets  about  ten  inches  long, 
which,  when  fresh,  have  the  odour  of  tobacco,  and 
flowers  about  an  inch  long,  in  racemes,  white,  hairy, 
and  fragrant.  The  bark  contains  a  chemical  sub- 
stance, not  yet  sufficiently  examined,  called  Anrro.t- 
turin,  Cit.iparin,  or  Galipein,  to  which  its  medicinal 
efficacy  is  ascribed.  It  is  supposed  that  a  variety  of 
A.  B.  is  produced  by  Galipca  Cusparia  (called  by 
some  Bonplandia  trifo/iafa),  a  m.iji'Stic  tree  of  60-^ 
80  feet  in  height,  with  fragrant  trifoliate  leaves  more 
than  two  feet  long.  A.  B.  is  believed  to  be  one  of 
the  most  valuable  of  febrifuges;  but  its  use  is  at 
present  very  limited,  and  hsis,  indeed,  in  some 
countries  of  Europe,  been  prohibited,  in  consequence 

263 


ANGOULEME— AXIIALT. 


of  its  fi-fijuent  adulteration  with  tlie  poisonous  bark 
of  the  Slff/chnos  Nux  Votuica,  or  the  substitution  of 
that  bark  for  it.  Tliis  poisonous  bark  is  sometimes 
called  False  A.  B.  It  difters  from  the  true  A.  B. 
in  having  no  snii'll,  in  its  much  greater  weight  and 
compactness,  in  its  inner  surface  being  incapable  of 
separation  into  small  lamina;,  and  in  the  elfects 
which  are  produced  upon  it  by  acids  and  other  tests, 
particularly  in  its  outer  crust  being  rendered  dark- 
green,  or  blackish,  by  nitric  acid,  whilst  that  of  the 
true  A.  B.  is  rendered  slightly  orange-red. 

ANGOULEME,  tlic  capital  of  the  department  of 
Charentc  in  France,  and  formerly  of  the  province  of 
Angoun)ois.  It  is  situated  on  the  Chareiite,  and  has 
narrow  and  crooked  streets,  a  number  of  i)aper-mi!ls. 
manufactures  of  woollen  stuffs,  linen,  and  earthen- 
ware, kc,  and  a  population  of  about  20,300.  It 
possesses  a  royal  college,  a  museum  of  natural 
history,  and  several  other  useful  institutions.  In 
the  centre  of  the  town  stands  the  remnant  of  the 
ancient  castle  of  A.,  in  which  was  born  the  celebrated 
Marguerite  of  Navarre,  the  authoress  of  tiie  Iltp- 
iaincron,  and  other  works.  The  railway  from  Paris 
to  Bordeau.x;  passes  through  it.  Jluch  sallVon 
and  wine  are  produced  in  the  neighbourhood.  The 
province  of  Angoumois  was  in  early  times  a  county ; 
but  the  heir  of  it,  in  the  beginning  of  the  14th  c, 
being  an  adherent  of  the  English,  I'hilip  the  J\iir 
took  possession  of  it,  and  it  became  an  apanage  of 
younger  branches  of  the  royal  family.  It  was  made 
a  duchy  by  IVancis  I.,  and  was  sometimes  Itestowed 
upon  natural  ."-ons  of  the  French  kings.  Charles  de 
Valois,  Dulce  of  A.,  a  natural  son  of  Charles  IX.,  was 
a  distinguished  general  in  the  reigns  of  Uenry  IV.  and 
Louis  XIII. 

AXG0UL£ME,  Louis  Antoine  de  Bourbon, 
Due  !>',  the  eldest  son  of  Charles  X.  of  France,  and 
Dauphin  during  his  father's  reign,  was  born  at 
Versailles  on  the  tUh  August  1775.  He  retired  from 
France  along  with  his  father  at  the  commencement 
of  the  Revolution,  and  spent  some  time  in  military 
Studies  at  Turin.  In  August  17it2  he  entered  Ger- 
many at  the  head  of  a  body  of  French  emigrants  ; 
but  the  ill  success  of  the  campaign,  and  his  own  unfit- 
ness for  military  command,  led  to  his  seeking  tran- 
quillity along  with  his  father  at  Edinburgh.  Till  1814 
he  continued  an  exile  from  France,  wandering  from 
one  place  to  another  on  the  continent,  and  latterly 
resident  with  the  other  members  of  his  family  in 
England.  On  the  entrance  of  the  allies  into  France, 
he  appeared  at  the  British  head-quarters  at  St.  Jean  de 
Luz,  and  thence  issued  a  proclamation  to  the  French 
army,  lie  entered  Bordeaux  under  protection  of  the 
British  on  12th  March,  and  made  liberal  promises  in 
the  rame  of  his  uncle,  Louis  XVIII.,  among  which 
was  that  of  complete  religious  liberty.  lie  was  again 
in  the  south  when  X'apoleon  returned  from  Elba. 
He  was  appointed  lieutenant-general  of  the  king- 
dom, and  hastened  with  such  forces  as  he  could 
collect  to  oppose  the  emperor ;  but  although  he 
obtained  some  advantages  at  first,  he  was  soon 
deserted  by  his  troops,  w  as  for  some  days  detained  a 
prisoner,  and  at  last  sent  away  in  a  Swedish  mer- 
chant-vessel to  Barcelona.  After  the  second  restora- 
tion, he  was  sent  by  Louis  XVIII.  to  the  southern 
provinces  to  repress  the  political  and  religious  move- 
ments there ;  and  in  1823  he  led  the  French  army 
into  Spain,  to  put  an  end  to  the  constitution.  A 
man  of  phlegmatic  disposition  and  mean  abilities,  he 
was,  in  all  political  matters,  a  tool  of  the  ultra- 
royalists  and  the  priests.  When  the  revolution  took 
place  in  July  1S3(),  he  signed,  along  with  his  father, 
an  abdication  in  favour  of  his  nephew,  the  Due 
de  Bordeau.\  ;  and  when  the  Chambers  declared  the 
family  of  Charles  X.  to  have  forfeited  the  throne,  he 
264 


accompanied  him  into  exile  to  Ilolyrood,  to  Prague, 
and  to  GiJrz,  where  he  died,  3d  June  1844. 

AXGOULlilME,  MAniE-TiiERESE-CirAnLOTTE,  Dc- 
CHESSE  I)',  the  daughter  of  Louis  XVf.,  was  born 
at  Versailles  on  I'.tth  December  177S,  and  early 
displayed  much  quickness  of  intelligence  and  energy 
of  character,  with  the  most  tender  sympathy  in 
the  distresses  of  others.  Having  passed  throng 
the  horrors  of  the  Revolution,  and  endured  a  long 
imprisonment,  she  was  exchansed  on  2.5th  of  Decem- 
ber 17!>o,  for  some  French  prisoners  in  the  hands  of 
the  Austrians,  and  lived  at  Vieima  till  her  marriage, 
in  17itO,  with  her  cousin,  the  Due  d'Angouleme, 
whose  subsequent  fortunes  she  shared.  She  sur- 
vived him  seven  vears,  and  died  on  lyth  October 
1851. 

AXGRA,  the  capital  of  the  Azores,  a  seaport  at 
the  head  of  a  deep  bav  on  the  south  coast  of  the 
island  of  Terceira,  lat!  3S°  38'  N.,  long.  27°  14'  W. 
It  is  a  station  for  ships  between  Portugal  and  Brazil 
and  the  East  Indies;  but  the  harbour  is  very  much 
exposed.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  Portuguese  governor- 
general  of  the  Azores  and  of  the  bishop  ;  is  well  built, 
but  dirty  ;  strongly  fortified,  and  protected  by  a  cita- 
del at  the  foot  of  the  Monte  de  Brazil ;  contains  a 
military  college  and  arsenal,  several  scientilic  and 
literary  societies,  a  cathedral  anil  numerous  churches; 
and  from  Im/hh)  to  15,00u  inhabitants.  There  is  a 
considerable  export  of  wine,  cheese,  honey,  and  flax. 
This  city  furnished  an  asylum  for  the  I'ortiiguese 
regency  from  183u  till  the  taking  of  Oporto,  in  1833, 
by  Don  Pedro. 

ANGUILLA      See  Eel. 

AXGUILLA,  or  LITTLE  SXAKE,  one  of  the 
West  India  islands,  so  called,  perhaps,  from  its 
long  and  narrow  figure.  Next  to  Anegada,  it  is 
the  most  northeily  of  the  Lesser  Antilles,  lying 
almost  due  east  of  the  eastern  extremitv  of  Porto 
Rico,  in  lat  18^°  X.,  and  in  long.  63°— 04°  W.  It 
belongs  to  England,  having  an  area  of  35  square 
miles,  and  a  population  of  about  3tiO(t.  It  is  low 
and  wooded ;  but  its  cleared  spots  produce  cotton, 
tobacco,  and  sugar.  Its  harbour,  such  as  it  is,  is  beset 
with  reefs;  but  there  is  said  to  be  good  anchoring- 
ground  in  the  channel  between  A.  and  the  Isle  of 
St.  Martin  to  the  south. 

AXGUIS.     See  Bli.vd-worm. 

A'NHALT,  one  of  the  States  of  the  N.  German 
Confederation,  situated  on  the  Elbe,  the  Mulde,  and 
the  Saale,  and  consisting  at  present  of  three 
duchies — A. -Dessau,  A.-Bernburg,  and  A.-Kothen, 
which,  together,  contain  about  1034  square  miles, 
and  193,046  inhabitants.  It  is  almost  entirely 
surrounded  by  the  Prussian  territories,  which  also 
intermix  with  it,  and  divide  it  into  portions. 
Dessiiu,  Zerbst,  Bernburg,  and  Kothen,  are  the 
principal  towns.  The  country  is  mostly  level  and 
fertile,  producing  wheat,  flax,  rape-seed,  hops,  and 
tobacco.  Wine  is  produced  on  the  Saale.  Agri- 
culture is  the  chief  employment  of  the  peo]  le, 
who  are  generally  Protestants.  Part  of  the  duchy 
of  A.-Bernburg  approaching  the  Harz  Mountains 
possesses  some  mineral  wealth  in  iron  and  other 
mines.  A.  began  to  be  an  independent  princi- 
pality in  the  first  half  of  the  13th  c.  It  has  been 
repeatedly,  in  the  course  of  its  history,  divided 
amongst  branches  of  the  reigning  family.  The 
present  division  dates  from  the  beginning  of  the 
17th  c.  It  was  divided  originally  into  four  parts, 
but  the  fine  of  A.-Zerbst  has  become  extinct. 
The  three  duchies  are  independent  of  each  other; 
bu  a  family  compact  connects  the  reigning  lines, 
and  in  many  things  they  have  been  accastomed  to 
act  together.     Some  of  the  princes  of  A.  have  been 


ANHYDRITE— ANIMAL  AND  ANIMAL  KINGDOM. 


eminent  iu  the  political,  iiiililary,  and  t'Celcslastieal 
hiritory  of  Germany. 

A'NIIYDRITE,  a  minpial,  consisting  of  anliy- 
drous  suliiliate  of  lime,  with  some  slijiht  udiiition  of 
silica,  appears  in  several  varieties,  as,  1.  Grannlar ; 
found  in  concretions  with  a  foliated  strncture  :  '2. 
J-'ibroiis;  easily  broken  with  a  fracture  in  delicate 
parallel  fibres:  3.  Radiated  ;  translucent:  4.  Si)arry, 
or  Cube  Spar  :  5.  Compact,  of  various  shades,  white, 
blue,  grey,  red.  A.  is  converted  into  gypsum  by 
combination  with  a  certain  proportion  of  water,  and, 
forms  extensive  beds  iu  Nova  Scotia  associated 
with  gvpsuiu.  A  fine  blue  variety  is  also  found  at 
Lockport,  N.  Y.  For  building,  A.  has  no  great 
value,  on  account  of  its  tendency  to  this  change; 
but  some  of  its  varieties,  especially  the  Silieiferous 
or  Vulpenite,  found  at  Vulpino,  in  Upper  Italy,  are 
used  for  sculptures,  and  take  a  line  polish.  When 
burned  and  reduced  to  powder,  it  is  used  as  a 
manure,  resembling  gypsum  in  its  effects. 

ANHY'DROrS  is  the  term  applied  to  a  chemical 
substance  free  from  water.  Thus,  ordinary  lime-shell 
as  it  comes  from  the  kiln  is  simply  lime  (CaO) 
without  any  water,  and  is  called  anhiidrovs  lime; 
but  when  water  is  thrown  upon  the  lime-shell,  the 
liquid  disappears  by  combination  with  the  lime, 
which  very  much  increases  in  volume  and  becomes 
h>/drated  lime  (CaO,HO).  Again,  ordinary  stucco, 
before  being  used  by  the  modeller,  contains  only 
lime  and  sulphuric  acid  (CaOSOs),  with  no  water, 
and  is  therefore  anhydrous;  but  when  water  is 
added,  and  the  stucco  sets  into  its  mould,  it  com- 
bines with  two  equivalents  of  water,  and  becomes 
hydrated  stucco  (•JlIO,CaOS03).  Examples  of  A. 
substances  are  also  found  amongst  liquids ;  thus, 
alcohol  free  from  water  is  called  A.  Alcohol ;  and 
in  like  manner  we  speak  of  A.  Acetic  Acid,  A.  Nitric 
Acid,  &;c. 

ANIMA,  Con,  in  Music ;  with  animation,  in  a 
spirited  manner. 

A'NIMA  ilUNDI  literally  signifies  'the  sotd  of 
the  world.'  The  doctrine  contained  in  this  phrase 
was  a  favourite  one  with  the  early  philosophers, 
who  conceived  that  there  resided  in  nature  a  force 
innnaterial,  yet  not  intelligential,  which  was  the 
source  of  allphysical  and  sentient  life.  Plato  held 
it  impossible  for  pure  spirit — the  atmosphere  in 
which  alone  eternal  and  archetypal  ideas  could  exist 
— to  bear  any  relation  whatever  to  matter,  and  he 
therefore  supposed  the  latter  to  be  operated  upon 
by  an  inferior  agency,  the  A.  M.  In  the  system  of 
the  Stoics,  the  ^1.  M.  was  conceived  to  be  the  sole 
vital  force  in  the  universe  ;  it  usurped  the  office  of 
pure  spirit,  and  the  doctrine  became  indistinguish- 
able from  Pantheism  (q.  v.).  The  notion  does  not 
seem  to  have  been  entertained  by  the  schoolmen,  but 
it  reappears  in  the  writings  of  Cornelius  Agrippa, 
Paracelsus,  and  Van  Helmont,  and,  in  a  modified 
form,  AVas  held  by  More,  Cudworth,  and  others. 

ANIMAL  AND  ANIMAL  KINGDOM.  According 
to  a  very  old  classification,  all  bodies  are  divided  in- 
to three  kingdoms — the  mineral,  the  vegetable,  and 
the  animal.  Aninuils  and  vegetables  are  again  class- 
ed together  as  organic,  in  opposition  to  minerals, 
which  are  inorganic.  Jlineral  bodies  are  masses  of 
matter  without  internal  movement,  increasing  by  ad- 
ditions from  without,  having,  with  the  exception  of 
crystals,  no  determinate  form  or  size,  homogeneous 
throughout,  and  without  relation  of  one  part  to 
another.  Animals  and  plants,  on  the  contrary,  exist 
as  individual  beings,  consisting  of  various  organs. 
Their  existence  has  a  beginning  and  an  end,  and  at 
their  death  they  are  replaced  by  other  similar  beings 
developed  out  of  them. 

The  distinction  between  animals  and  plants  strikes 


us  at  once  in  the  higher  classes ;  but  among  the 
lower  organisms  tiiere  are  beings  which  have  been 
at  times  classed  among  animals,  at  times  among 
plants.  Tiie  marks  of  animality  which,  with  very  few 
exceptions,  have  as  yet  been  found  to  exist  in  all 
animals,  are  spontaneous  motion,  the  existence  of  a 
special  digesting  apparatus  (it  may  be  oidy  a  mouth 
and  a  stomacii),  and  sensation  by  means  of  nerves. 
The  prevalei!ce  of  nitrogen  as  a  chemical  ingredient, 
is  another  general  characteristic  of  animals,  while 
carbon  prevails  in  plants.  Most  animals,  though 
not  all,  possess  the  faculty  of  loco-moUow  (q.  v.);  it 
is  wanting  in  some,  as  the  oyster  and  poly|)e.  This 
locomotion  is  generally  effected  by  appropriate 
organs,  which  are  very  different  in  the  different 
classes  of  animals,  as  legs,  wings,  fins,  suckers,  cilia, 
&c.,  sometimes  merely  by  muscular  dilatations  and 
contractions.  In  the  higher  animals,  it  is  connected 
with  a  special  system  of  bones  and  muscles,  which 
becomes  less  and  less  prominent  as  we  descend  ia 
the  scale,  and  at  last  disappears. 

Nutrition  is  effected  by  swallowing  and  digesting 
organic  matter  by  means  of  a  mouth,  stomach,  and 
intestiiuil  canal.  A  part  of  the  food — tha  chyle, 
namely,  which  results  from  digestion — is  taken  up 
by  a  .system  of  vessels  into  the  body  of  the  animal, 
and  thrown  into  the  blood,  into  which,  under  the 
action  of  the  air  in  the  lungs  or  gills,  it  is  converted  ; 
the  other  part  is  excreted  by  a  second  orifice,  except 
in  some  of  the  lowest  forms  where  the  mouth  forms 
the  exit.  For  keeping  up  a  circulation  of  the  blood, 
which  must  be  brought  to  all  parts  of  the  body  for 
the  pm-pose  of  noiuishiuent,  there  is  provided  a  sys- 
tem of  blood-vessels  and,  in  the  higher  classes,  a 
heart.  See  IIeakt.  Nutrition  may,  to  some  extent, 
take  place  also  by  absorption  from  the  external  sur- 
face ;  but  this  is  not  considerable  cxcei)t,  perhaps, 
among  the  lowest  classes  of  animals.  The  substances 
that  serve  for  the  nutrition  of  an  animal  are  either 
vegetable  or  animal,  and  the  mouth  and  other  organs 
are  adapted  accordingly.  The  number  of  omniver- 
ous  animals  is  small,  and  among  these,  man  has  the 
greatest  latitude  of  choice. 

Propagation  or  rejjroduction  takes  place  in  a 
great  variety  of  ways:  among  the  lowest  forms, 
by  division,'  gemmation  or  budding,  and  cell- 
germs  ;  among  the  more  perfect,  by  generation 
between  two  individuals  of  different  sex.  Of  the 
two  sexes,  the  male  is  generally  distinguished  by 
superior  size  and  strength,  more  brilliant  colouring, 
larger  appendages,  and  often  stronger  voice.  Be- 
sides nuile  and  female,  there  are  among  some  ani- 
mals (bees  and  ants)  neuters.  In  some  of  the  lower 
kinds,  the  individuals  are  hermaphrodite.     See  Rk- 

PKODUCTION. 

All  animals  develop  gradually,  and  most  of  them 
go  through  one  or  more  changes  of  form  or  meta- 
morphoses. This  is  most  marked  among  insects 
which  go  through  the  four  stages  of  egg,  larva, 
pupa,  and  perfect  insect.  The  class  of  reptiles 
with  naked  skins  also  go  through  changes,  though 
less  striking.  In  the  higher  animals,  these  transi- 
tions through  a  series  of  forms  take  place  in  the 
ovum,  or  before  birth.  In  some  cases,  the  embryo 
comes  to  maturitv  after  the  exclusion  of  the  ovum 
(birds  and  amphibia);  in  others  (mannnalia),  within 
the  body  of  the  mother  :  animals  of  the  last  kind 
arc  called  viviparous.  The  reproduction  of  some 
intestinal  worms  is  peculiar;  the  egg  of  the  mother- 
animal  produces  a  sexless  creature— a  nurse-— the 
eggs  laid  by  which  reproduce  the  original  animal. 
A  somewhat  similar  pectdiarity  is  observed  in  some 
insects,  as  Aphides.     See  Aphis. 

The  life  of  animals  is  dependent  on  many  condi- 
tions. Among  these  rank  warmth,  atmospheric  air, 
and   moisture,    along  with    sufficient   nourishment. 

266 


ANIMAL  AND  ANIMAL  KINGDOM— ANIMAL  CHEMISTRY. 


Li<;:ht  also  is  essential  to  many,  though  most  of  the 
colourless  animals  of  the  lower  classes  can  dispense 
with  it.  With  regard  to  outward  pressure,  the 
limits  are  wide,  as  is  seen  in  the  condor  soaring  to  a 
height  of  '2u,(Xi()  feet,  and  the  whale  descending  to  a 
depth  of  luoO  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  sea.  But 
individual  animals  are  confined  to  much  narrower 
limits;  often  to  one  circumscribed  range  of  climate, 
one  species  of  food,  one  medium.  To  go  beyond 
those  limits,  though  it  docs  not  always  occasion 
death,  yet  gives  rise  to  various  degrees  of  degeneracy, 
from  which  even  man  with  all  his  powers  of  adapta- 
tion is  not  exempt. 

Most  animals  give  more  or  less  strong  indications 
of  mind ;  in  those  high  in  the  scale,  this  mental  life 
rises  to  intellect  capable  of  cultivation,  while,  in  the 
lower  classes,  it  appears  as  instinct  confined  to  a  few 
operations.  For  communicating  with  the  outer  world, 
vertebrated  animals  are  provided  with  a  nervous 
system  in  connection  with  a  central  brain — a  cerebral 
nervous  system  ;  the  (jauijliouir  nervous  system  of 
the  lower  animals  seems  to  serve  this  purpose  less 
and  less  as  we  descend  in  the  scale.  The  impres- 
sions from  without  are  received  immediately  by  the 
organs  of  sense,  which  become  more  numerous  and 
complex  the  higher  the  animal  stands  in  the  scale  ; 
among  the  highest,  five  senses  are  usually  distin- 
guished, which  are  variously  developed  in  different 
species — in  none  so  harmoniously  as  in  man. 

Nocturnal  sleep,  being  the  means  of  gathering 
strength  for  the  activity  of  the  waking  hours,  stands 
in  intimate  relation  to  that  activity,  and  therefore 
is  wanting  in  beings  low  in  the  scale.  Winter  sleep, 
or  hybernation  (<(.  v.),  serves  many  animals  instead 
of  migration,  to  enable  them  to  outlive  the  cold  and 
hunger  of  winter.  Analogous  is  the  summer  sleep 
of  serpents  and  crocodiles,  which  lie  buried  in  the 
dry  mud  during  the  summer  droughts  of  the  tropics. 

Of  the  other  vital  manifestations  of  animals  may 
be  mentioned,  the  faculty  of  giving  lif/lit  (glowworm, 
medusaj),  and  that  of  developing  electricity,  both 
possessed  only  by  a  few  ;  also  voice,  belonging  almost 
exclusively  to  vertebrate  animals,  and  of  them  chiefly 
to  the  warm-blooded. 

A  very  remarkable  peculiarity  occurs  in  some  of 
the  lowest  kinds  of  animals,  in  what  may  be  termed 
a  composite  life  ;  individuals  which  separately  mani- 
fest many  of  the  powers  of  life,  being  united  in  part 
of  their  frame,  many  of  them  together  into  one  liv- 
ing mass.  Of  this,  examples  are  numerous  among 
the  Zoophytes  (q.  v.),  some  of  which  have  already 
been  noticed  in  the  article  Alcyonium. 

Apart  from  the  transforming  and  modifying  influ- 
ence of  man,  the  animals  and  plants  of  a  district — 
\ts,  fauna  ?a\dJlora — give  it  life  and  character.  To 
man  himself,  animals  stand  in  a  variety  of  relations 
of  the  highest  importance.  Some  are  directly  useful 
to  him  for  labour,  food,  the  chase,  &c. ;  others  hurt- 
ful, as  destroyers  of  vegetation,  as  beasts  of  prey,  as 
vermin,  or  by  their  poisons. — The  number  of  known 
species  of  animals  amounts  at  present  to  about 
250,1)00.  To  describe  and  classify  these  on  scientific 
principles,  is  the  object  of  Zoology  (q.  v.). 

ANIMAL  CHEMISTRY.  The  object  of  re- 
searches into  the  chemical  nature  of  animal  sub- 
stances is  twofold  :  First,  to  classify  the  proximate 
or  immediate  component  ingredients  of  the  animal 
body,  study  their  properties,  their  mutual  relations 
and  metamorphoses,  and  the  ultimate  elements  of 
•which  they  are  composed  ;  second,  to  investigate  the 
processes  that  go  on  during  the  elaboration  and 
assimilation  of  new  materials,  and  the  wearing  out 
and  excretion  of  old — processes  that,  taken  together, 
constitute  nutrition,  or  the  vegetative  side  of  animal 
life.  Without  a  pretty  complete  knowledge  of  the 
first  part,  no  successful  researches  can  be  made  in 
266 


the  s«cond  ;  and  it  is  chiefly  owing  to  the  great  i)ro- 
gress  that  has  been  made  within  the  last  thirty  years 
in  the  knowledge  of  the  chemical  properties  of  the 
animal  compounds  containing  nitrogen,  that  we  owe 
the  recent  advance  in  our  knowledge  of  the  chemical 
processes  of  life.  That  advance  is  not  the  less  decided 
that  we  are  still  far  from  a  complete  understanding 
of  them.  The  general  laws  of  chemistry  are  now 
traced  into  the  province  of  organic  nature  much 
further  than  ibrmerly,  and  the  abrupt  partition  be- 
tween the  two  is  removed.  It  is  still  acknowledged 
that  these  laws  operate  differently  within  the  sphere 
of  organic  life,  from  what  they  do  without ;  but 
instead  of  resting  contented  with  saying,  that  owing 
to  the  vital  force  this  could  not  be  otherwise,  the 
aim  is  now  to  trace  the  why  and  wherefore  of  this 
modified  action  as  far  as  |)ossible. 

In  the  animal  body,  two  classes  of  substances  may 
be  distinguished  :  those  that  properly  compose  the 
body,  and  those  that  aie  on  the  way  either  into  it 
or  out  of  it.  The  former,  or  actual  com[)Onent-t  of 
the  body,  are,  again,  of  two  kinds:  1.  Substances 
that  compose  the  actual  tissues  of  the  organs,  and  in 
which  the  vital  functions  seem  properly  to  inhere  ; 
the  substances,  namely,  of  muscle,  of  nerve,  of  brain, 
of  membranes,  sinews,  and  the  organic  part  of  the 
bones.  All  these  agree  in  consisting  chiefly  of 
carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and  oxygen  with  usu- 
ally minute  proportions  of  sulphur  and  phosphorus. 
But  in  respect  of  their  mode  of  composition,  they 
fall  into  two  classes — those  that  yield  gelatine  on 
boiling,  and  those  that  do  not.  To  the  former  belong 
the  substance  of  the  cartilages,  bones,  sinews,  and 
skin;  to  the  latter,  the  fibrin  of  the  muscles  and  of 
the  blood  corpuscles,  the  albumen  of  the  nerves 
and  blood,  the  caseine  of  milk,  &c.  These  last  are 
the  so-called  compounds  of  protcine  (q.  v.).  In 
the  living  tissues,  all  these  matters  are  combined 
with  about  90  per  cent,  of  water.  2.  Besides  the 
above,  which  are  the  real  animalised  or  vital 
substances,  the  animal  body  contains  substances 
which  are  merely  deposited  in  the  cells  and  inter- 
stices of  the  former  for  imparting  colour,  solidity, 
elasticity,  &c.  Of  this  kind  are  fat,  the  earthy 
matter  of  the  bones,  pigment,  &c.  Whether  the 
minute  quantities  of  connnon  salt  and  of  phosphates 
that  are  found  in  all  parts  of  animals  essentially  bo- 
long  to  the  constitution  of  the  substance  they  are 
associated  with,  is  not  yet  made  out,  but  it  is  ex- 
tremely probable  they  do ;  at  all  events,  they  play 
a  very  important  part. 

The  substances  that  are  on  their  way  into  and 
out  of  the  body,  form  on  the  one  hand  the  contents 
of  the  digestive  organs,  and  on  the  other  those  of 
the  organs  of  excretion.  The  vascular  system  forms 
the  means  of  communication  between  both  and  the 
substance  of  the  body,  and  the  blood  is  the  carrier 
of  all  that  enters  that  substance  or  leaves  it.  In  the 
digestive  organs,  accordingly,  we  find,  along  with 
the  unaltered  materials  of  the  food,  the  various  pro- 
ducts of  their  digestion,  and  at  last  the  useless  re- 
fuse, not  absorbable  by  the  vascular  system,  and  the 
various  fluids — some  acid,  some  alkaline — added  to 
the  food  to  effect  its  digestion,  such  as  the  saliva, 
gastric  juice,  and  bile. 

The  matters  prepared  in  the  digestive  organs  for 
being  taken  up  into  the  blood,  either  enter  the 
venous  system  directly,  or  get  there  by  first  going 
through  the  lymphatic  system.  This  last  contains  a 
fluid  which  is  chemically  very  like  the  blood,  but 
colourless — the  chyle,  namely.  This  fluid  and  the 
blood  contain  the  so-called  proteine  compounds 
derived  from  the  food,  partly  in  solution,  and  partly 
solid  in  the  blood  corpuscles.  Arterial  blood  con- 
tains, besides,  all  those  salts  and  other  substances 
that  must  be  supplied  for  the  nourishment  of  the 


ANIMAL  FLOWER— ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 


various  organs.  The  vonous  system,  again,  •wliicli 
brings  back  tlie  blood  from  tho  diffl'rent  parts  to  the 
central  organs,  is  laden  with  all  the  matters  that  are 
no  longer  of  use,  and  must  therefore  be  carried  to 
the  chief  excretory  organs — the  skin,  liver,  and 
kidneys.  The  dark  colour  of  venous  blood  indicates 
that  its  components  have  undergone  a  change.  But 
all  blood  that  is  on  its  way  both  to  and  from  the 
parts  of  the  body,  before  it  can  impart  nourish- 
ment, must  pass  through  the  lungs,  an  organ  in 
which  it  is  brought  into  extensive  contact  with 
atmospheric  air,  and  undergoes  a  process  of  oxida- 
tion, producing  the  following  palpable  results:  The 
disa])pearance  of  a  portion  of  the  inhaled  oxygen, 
and  the  substitution  of  water  and  carbonic  acid  in 
its  place ;  the  transformation  of  the  dark  venous 
lilood  and  of  the  chyle  into  red  arterial  blood  ;  lastly, 
the  development  of  heat.  Breathing,  then,  contri- 
bsites  to  nutrition  by  making  the  blood  fit  for  that 
purpose ;  it  is  an  excretory  process,  inasmuch  as  it 
burns  out  useless  matters  and  separates  them  in  the 
form  of  gases  ;  and  at  the  same  time  it  produces  heat, 
without  which  life  could  not  go  on. 

Sweat,  urine,  bile,  and  emanations  from  the  skin 
and  lungs,  contain  only  products  of  the  decomposi- 
tion of  cflf'ete  animal  substances ;  many  of  these 
products  are  highly  interesting  in  a  chemical  point 
of  view,  especially  urea,  uric  acid,  and  bile.  It  is 
clear,  then,  that  comparative  investigation  of  the 
blood  in  its  different  states,  of  the  excretions  and 
secretions,  can  alone  give  any  knowledge  of  the  con- 
dition of  the  vegetative  side  of  the  organism  ;  and, 
accordingly,  this  kind  of  investigation  has  in  recent 
times  become  of  the  highest  importance  for  pathol- 
ogy and  diagnosis.  See  Liebig's  famous  work  on  A. 
C,  translated  by  Gregory,  and  the  excellent  Lehrbnch 
der  rinisiologischen  C'hemie  (3d  ed.,  Leip.  1854),  by 
Lehmann. 

ANIMAL  FLOWER.  See  Actinia,  and  Anemone 
(Sea). 

ANIMAL  HEAT  is  the  warmth  generated  in 
animal  bodies  by  certain  of  the  changes  constantly 
taking  place  within  them.  A  certain  amount  of 
heat  is  necessary  to  the  proper  performance  of  the 
vital  functions,  and  any  material  increase  or  decrease 
of  it  from  the  healthy  standard,  endangers  animal 
life.  The  temperature  thus  necessary  for  the  life  of 
the  animal  is  maintained  by  the  action  of  that  life 
itself.  The  air  and  other  objects  surrounding  the 
animal  body  being  in  almost  all  cases  colder  than  it, 
are  constantly  stealing  part  of  its  warmth;  but 
within  the  system  there  are  j>rocesses  incessantly 
going  on  which  produce  fresh  heat.  When  the  heat 
thus  generated  is  not  dissipated  fast  enough,  so  that 
the  body  tends  to  become  warmer  than  the  due 
degree,  the  accumulation  finds  v?nt  in  perspiration, 
the  evaporation  of  which  carries  off  the  excess.  The 
power  of  producing  heat  is  in  relation  to  the  climate 
in  which  the  animal  is  accustomed  to  live.  It  is 
weaker  in  warm  climates  than  in  cold,  and  conse- 
quently when  an  animal  is  removed  from  a  warm  to 
a  cold  climate,  it  frequently  pines  and  dies.  In 
most  fish  and  reptiles,  conmionly  termed  '  cold- 
blooded ainmals,'  the  temperature  differs  but  little 
from  that  of  the  water  or  air  in  which  they  live  ; 
the  same  is  the  case  with  hybernating  animals 
during  the  latter  part  of  their  torpid  condition,  and 
with  the  larva  and  pupa  of  insects.  There  are 
exceptions,  however;  the  thunny,  shark,  and  bonito, 
among  fishes,  for  instance,  maintain  within  them- 
selves a  temperature  several  degrees  higher  than  the 
water  they  live  in. 

Man  has  the  power  to  a  greater  degree  than  other 
warm  blooded  animals,  of  adapting  himself  to  changes 
of  surrounding  temperature,  especially  in  temperate 


but  changeable  climates  such  as  that  of  Great 
Britain.  His  average  standard  of  heat  is  from  9S'  to 
10(»°,  varying  with  circumstances,  beinsr  higher  after 
exercise  or  a  hearty  meal,  and  at  noonday  than  at 
midrdght.  It  also  varies  in  diseased  conditions  of  the 
body,  rising  to  litO°  in  a  fever,  and  falling  as  low  as 
77°  in  cholera.  But  if  the  body  be  in  a  healthy  con- 
dition, the  standard  of  heat  is  maintained,  even  when 
the  person  is  exposed  to  such  intense  heat  as  are 
men  attending  furnaces ;  one  can  for  a  short  time  be 
exposed  to  35(i°  of  heat  without  materially  raising 
the  temperature  of  his  own  body,  although  he  will 
lose  weight  by  the  copious  perspiration  necessary  for 
the  evaporation.  Chabert,  who  exhibited  under  the 
sobriquet  of  'the  Fire-king,'  could  enter  a  furnace 
heated  to  500°  or  6ou°.  Yet  we  know  from  experi- 
ment that  an  elevation  of  the  temperature  of  his  body 
even  a  few  degrees,  would  have  endangered,  and  per- 
haps destroyed  his  life. 

Throughout  the  animal  kingdom,  the  power  of 
generating  heat  bears  a  close  relation  to  the  activity 
or  sluggishness  of  the  animal.  Thus,  birds,  which  are 
perpetually  in  action,  have  the  highest  temperature 
(100° — 112°);  and  the  swallow  and  quick-flighted 
birds,  higher  than  the  fowls  which  keep  to  the  giound  ; 
and  among  insects,  the  hive-bees  and  butterflies — so 
perpetually  on  the  wing — than  those  which  crawl,  a.s 
some  of  the  beetles.  The  higher  the  standard  of 
A.  H.,  the  less  able  is  the  animal  to  bear  a  reduction 
of  its  temperature;  if  that  of  a  bird  or  mammal  be 
reduced  30°,  the  vital  changes  become  slower,  more 
languid,  and  death  ensues.  Fish,  on  the  other  hand, 
may  be  inclosed  in  ice,  and  yet  survive. 

This  heat  is  also  necessary  to  development ;  epfis 
require  warmth  during  incubation  :  the  oviduct  of  the 
viper  or  the  serpent  is  of  a  higher  temperature  than 
the  rest  of  the  body. 

As  before  mentioned,  the  source  of  A.  H.  is  in  the 
vital  processes  going  on  within  the  body ;  but  as 
to  the  exact  mode  in  which  it  is  engendered,  opinions 
are  very  much  divided.  It  has  been  held  to  arise 
from  chemical  action  ;  from  the  species  of  combus- 
tion that  takes  place  in  the  union  of  the  oxygen 
of  the  atmosphere  with  the  carbon  and  hydrogen  of 
the  body.  That  heat  must  result  from  this  union 
there  is  no  doubt,  nor  is  it  less  certain  that  the  pro- 
portions of  carbonic  acid  and  of  heat  evolved  at  the 
same  time  are  in  close  relation.  It  lias  been  re- 
cently demonstrated  that  there  exists  a  mutual 
relation  between  the  vital  and  physical  forces,  or 
that  they  are  but  differing  actions  of  one  and  the 
same  agency,  due  to  the  medium  through  which  it 
acts,  and  manifested  as  electricity,  magnetism,  light, 
heat,  chemical  affinity  and  mechanical  motion.  A 
plant  is  considered  a  machine  whereby  light  and 
heat  are  converted  into  force,  which  forms  tissues, 
and  an  animal,  a  machine  for  changing  the  affinities 
of  the  tissue  into  force  and  heat.  See  Respikation, 
Digestion  and  Heat. 

ANIMAL  MAGNETISM  or  MESMERISM  is  a 
supposed  influence  or  emanation  tiy  means  of  whit'h 
one  person  can  act  njion  another,  producing  wonder- 
ful effects  upon  his  body,  and  controlling  his  actions 
and  thoughts.  It  was  fancied  to  have  some  analogy 
to  the  magnetism  of  the  loadstone,  and  hence  its 
name.  The  term  has  been  used  to  group  together  a 
multitude  of  manifestations  deemed  of  a  wonderful 
kind,  and  which  have  given  rise  to  an  amount  of 
delusion  and  credulity  hardly  exemplified  on  any 
other  subject.  Electro-biology,  Odylism,  Table- 
turidng.  Spirit-rapping,  Table-talking,  Spiritualism, 
have  been  classed  as  oidy  modifications  of  the  same 
phenomena.  The  art  of  inducing  the  magnetic  state, 
as  practised  by  its  discoverer,  Mesmer,  involved  the 
use  of  apparatus — the  baquet  or  magnetic  tub,  iron 
rods.  &c. ;  but  the  more  common  means  have  been 

267 


AXIMAL  MAGNETISM. 


passes  made  by  the  hands  of  the  niafrnetiser  from 
the  head  of  tlie  'subject'  or  p;itieiit  downward,  or 
simi)ly  making  him  fix  his  eyes  on  the  o;ierator.  lie 
tlien  pciierally  feels  a  creepinj?  sensation  stealing 
over  the  surface,  and  shortly  fails  into  tlie  mesmeric 
sleep — a  state  more  or  less  reseml)linf,'  somnam- 
bulism. About  one  person  in  ten  is  found  capable 
of  being  thus  affected,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent. 
AVhile  in  this  state,  the  functions  of  the  body  are 
liable  to  be  much  affected  ;  the  pulsations  of  the  heart 
and  the  respiration  are  quickened  or  retarded,  and 
the  secretions  altered,  and  that  chiefly  at  the  will  of 
the  operator  ;  at  his  direction,  the  limbs  are  made 
rigid,  or  become  endowed  with  unnatural  strength  ; 
one  liquid  tastes  as  any  other,  and  is  hot  or  cold, 
Bweet  or  bitter,  as  the  subject  is  told ;  in  short,  every 
thought,  sensation,  and  movement  of  the  subject 
obeys  the  behest  of  the  niesineriser.  According 
to  the  mesmeric  theory,  the  nervous  energy  of  the 
operator  has  overpowered  that  of  the  subject,  as  a 
powerful  magnet  does  a  weak  one,  and  the  two 
are  in  rapport,  as  it  is  termed.  In  some  cases,  the 
mesmeric  trance  assumes  the  form  of  clairvoyance. 

See  SoMNAMIiULISM. 

It  has  been  clearly  established,  however,  that  the 
notion  of  a  force  of  any  kind  whatever  proceeding 
in  such  cases  from  a  person  or  from  a  magnetising 
apparatus,  is  a  delusion.  The  effects,  whatever  they 
are,  nnist  have  their  cause  somewhere  else.  Where 
it  is  to  be  looked  for  was  imiicated,  though  not  fol- 
lowed up,  as  early  as  1785,  in  the  report  of  the  com- 
missioners, one  of  whom  was  Franklin,  appointed  by 
the  king  of  France  to  examine  the  pretensions  of 
Mesiner.  They  report  that  'on  blindfolding  those 
who  seemed  to  be  most  susceptible  to  the  influence 
(of  this  agent),  all  its  ordinary  effects  were  produced 
when  nothing  was  done  to  them  but  when  they 
imagined  they  were  nuignetised,  while  none  of  its 
effects  were  produced  when  they  were  really  magnet- 
ised, but  imagined  nothing  was  done;  that  wiitn 
brought  under  a  magnetised  tree  (one  of  Mesmer's 
modes  of  operating),  nothing  happened  if  the  subjects 
of  the  experiment  thouglit  they  were  at  a  distance 
from  the  tree,  while  they  were  immediately  thrown 
into  convulsions  if  they  believed  they  were  near  the 
tree,  although  really  at  a  distance  from  it ;  and  that 
consequently,  the  effects  actnalli/  produced  were  pro- 
duced purely  by  the  imagination.'' 

IJut  this  part  of  the  science  of  human  nature — 
the  reflex  action  of  the  mental  upon  the  physical — 
had  not  then  been  sufficiently  studied,  and  is  not 
now  widely  enough  known  to  render  the  conclusion 
of  the  reporters  a  satisfactory  explanation  of  the 
phenomena  ;  and  the  fallacies  of  mesmerism,  though 
subjected  since  to  many  similar  exposures  (Dr. 
Falkoncr  of  Bath,  e.  g.,  annihilated  the  Patent 
Metallic  Tractors  of  Perkin,  by  making  wooden  ones 
exactly  like  them,  which  produced  exactly  the  same 
cfl'ects),  have  constantly  revived  in  some  shape  or 
other.  One  chief  cause  of  the  inveteracy  of  the 
delusion  is,  that  the  opponents  of  mesmerism  do 
not  distinguish  between  denying  the  theory  of  the 
mesmerists  and  the  facts  which  that  theory  pretends 
to  explain ;  and  have  been  too  ready  to  ascribe  the 
whole  to  delusion  and  fraud.  It  thus  happens  that 
the  most  sceptical  often  become  all  of  a  sudden  the 
most  credulous.  Finding  that  things  do  actually 
happen  which  they  cannot  exjilain,  and  had  been 
accustomed  to  denounce  as  impostures,  they  rush  to 
the  other  extreme,  and  embrace  not  only  the  facts 
but  the  theory,  and  call  this,  too,  believing  the  evidence 
of  their  senses.  Now,  the  reality  of  the  greater  part 
of  the  manifestations  appealed  to  by  the  mesmerist 
must  be  admitted,  though  we  deny  his  explanation  of 
them ;  and  even  where  their  reality  must  be  denied, 
it  does  not  follow  that  the  mesmerist  is  not  sincere 
268 


in  believing  them  ;  tliere  is  only  greater  room  than 
in  any  other  case  for  suspecting  that  he  has  deceived 
himself 

The  first  fo  give  a  really  scientific  direction  to  the 
investigation  of  appearances  of  this  class  was  Mr. 
I'raid,  a  surgeon  in  Manchester  (see  Hypnotism), 
who  detaches  them  altogether  from  the  semblance  of 
power  exerted  by  one  individual  over  another,  or  by 
metallic  discs  or  magnets,  and  traces  the  whole  to 
the  brain  of  the  subject,  acted  on  by  siirjrfCRtion,  a 
princii)le  long  known  to  psycholgists,  though  never 
made  so  prominent  as  it  ought  to  be.  The  subject 
has  since  bei'n  ably  handled  in  a  paper  in  the 
Quarterly  Heriev:  for  September  1S.5;{  (said  to  be  by 
Dr.  Carpenter).  The  reviewer  traces  the  operation 
of  this  principle  through  the  most  ordinary  actions, 
which  no  one  thinks  wonderful,  up  to  the  most 
miraculous  of  the  so-called  'spiritual'  manifesta- 
tions. 

Ideas  become  associated  in  our  minds  by  habit  or 
otherwise,  and  one  being  awakened  brings  on  another, 
thus  forming  a  train  of  thought ;  this  is  intirual  sug- 
gestion. But  impressions  from  without  originate  and 
modify  those  trains,  constituting  external  suggestion. 
While  awake  and  in  a  normal  coniiiiion,  the  xrill  in- 
terferes with  and  direc's  these  trains  of  thought, 
selecting  some  ideas  to  be  dwelt  upon,  and  compar- 
ing them  with  otln-rs  and  with  present  imjjressions. 
A  comf)arative  iimctivity  of  this  selecting  ami  com- 
paring faculty,  leaving  the  flow  of  ideas  to  its  spon- 
taneous activity,  produces  the  state  of  mind  called 
reverie  or  abstraction.  In  dreaming  and  somnambu- 
lism, the  will  and  judgment  seem  completely  sus- 
pended; and  under  its  internal  suggestions  the  mind 
becomes  a  mere  automaton,  while  external  sugges- 
tions, if  they  act  at  all,  act  as  upon  a  nuichine.  These 
are  well-known  facts  of  the  human  constitution,  and 
independent  of  mesmerism,  though  their  bearing 
upon  it  is  obvious. 

Another  fact  of  like  bearing  is,  the  effect  of  con- 
centrated attention  on  any  olgect  of  thought  in 
intensifying  the  impression  received.  This  may 
proceed  so  far,  in  morbid  states  of  the  nervous 
system,  that  an  idea  or  revived  sensation  assumes  the 
vividness  of  a  present  im[)ression,  and  overpowers 
the  evidence  of  the  senses.  Ideas  thus  become 
dominant,  overriding  the  impressions  of  the  outer 
world,  and  carrying  themselves  out  into  action 
independently  of  the  will,  and  even  without  the  con- 
sciou.^ness  of  the  individual.  These  dominant  ideas 
play  a  greater  part  in  human  actions  and  beliefs 
than  most  are  aware  of  'Expectant  attention' 
acts  powerfully  on  the  bodily  organs,  and  often 
makes  the  individual  see  and  hear  what  he  expects 
to  see  and  hear,  and,  without  his  consciousness, 
moves  his  muscles  to  bring  it  about.  These,  too,  are 
recognised  facts  in  the  sciences  of  physiology  and 
psychology  (see  Carpenter's  Hmuan  Physiology  and 
Dr.  Holland's  Chapters  on  Mental  Physiology'). 

These  principles  enable  us  to  bring  to;.'ethcr  and 
explain  a  whole  class  of  phenomena,  reverie,  dream- 
ing, somnambulism,  the  inspiration  of  the  Delphic 
priestess,  religious  ecstasies,  the  physical  excite- 
ment attendant  on  'revivals'  and  'camp-meetings,' 
belief  in  witchcratt,  possession,  and  mania,  individual 
and  epidemic.  And  it  is  now  held  that  the  mani- 
festations of  mesmerism,  electro-biology,  kc,  belong 
to  the  same  class,  and  are  to  be  accounted  for  in  the 
same  way. 

The  mesmeric  state  is  produced  by  a  steady  gaze 
at  some  fixed  object.  There  is  no  peculiar  virtue  in 
the  eyes  of  the  mesmerist  or  in  a  metallic  disc,  for 
a  sprtt  on  the  wall  w ill  produce  the  efFect.  The  thing 
requisite  is  a  monotonous  and  sustained  concentra- 
tion of  the  subject's  will,  preducing  weariness  and 
vacancy  of  mind ;  and  this  resembles  the  conditiou 


ANIMAL  MAGNETISM— ANIMALCULE. 


that  induces  reverie  and  sleep,  and  leaves  the  mind 
open  to  any  suggestion,  and  at  the  command  of  any 
idea  that  may  be  made  to  possess  him.  But  that  he 
is  governed  l)y  liis  own  ideas,  and  not  by  the  will  of 
the  mesnieriser,  is  clear.  Xo  wish  of  the  niesnicriser, 
or  of  aiiif  otiier  perso7i,  icas  evrr  kiinmi  to  affect  the 
^xid/Ject^  nnlil  it  was  eonvciied  to  him  hi/  voice  or 
otherwise;  while  an  idea  sufrsjested  by  puttint;  his 
body  in  a  certain  posture,  or  by  an  accidental  touch, 
has  the  same  efl'cct  as  a  command.  If  he  seems 
more  subject  to  the  will  of  the  mesnieriser  than  of 
anv  one  el.-e,  it  is  because  he  was  previously  impressed 
wiih  that  idea,  and  is  therefore  more  awake  to  his 
suggestions.  It  is  thus  that  the  operator  is  enabled 
to  play  upon  him  as  an  instrument;  to  make  liim 
taste,  feel,  think,  and  act,  and  lose  and  recover 
memory,  the  power  over  his  limbs,  or  oven  his 
own  identity,  as  the  operator  dictates.  "We  must 
content  ourselves  with  thus  indicating  the  prinei]  le 
of  explanation,  leaving  to  the  reader  to  apply  it  in 
detail. 

The  manifestations  connected  with  table  turning, 
such  of  them  as  are  genuine,  are  exphiined  by  tlie 
operation  of  expectant  attention.  A  number  of  indi- 
viduals sit  round  a  table  with  their  hands  resting  upon 
it,  having  the  idea  in  their  minds  that  it  will  or  mny 
move,  the  direction  of  the  expected  movement  being 
also  agreed  upon.  Accordingly,  if  none  of  the  party 
are  very  sceptical,  it  generally  does  inove  after  a  time, 
all  declaring,  and  in  perfect  good  faith,  that  they  did 
not  press.  And  yet  it  has  been  proved  by  a  con- 
trivance of  Faraday,  that  there  always  is  pressure, 
though  without  the  will  or  consciousness  of  the 
petformers;  and  this  is  only  what  is  to  be  looked 
for  from  the  involuntary  efl'ects  of  a  dominant  idea. 
This  explanation  does  not  suffice  for  many  of  the 
wonders  related  by  believers  to  have  happened.  But 
all  such  are  to  be  received  with  suspicion,  and  that 
without  accusing  the  relators  of  bad  fiiith.  The  very 
disposition  to  look  for  something  out  of  the  usual 
course  of  nature  makes  them  incapable,  for  the  time, 
of  distinguishing  what  actually  hajipens  from  what 
they  expect  to  happen.  The  mysterious  indications 
of  the  divining-rod,  and  of  an  oscillating  body,  such 
as  a  ring,  suspended  from  the  finger,  are  all  to  be 
accounted  for  in  a  similar  way:  they  result  from 
unintentional  muscular  movement. 

In  spirit-rapping,  a  'medium'  puts,  somehow,  the 
questioner  into  communication  with  any  departed 
spirit  he  may  wish  to  consult,  and  the  answer  is 
given  by  raps,  supposed  to  be  made  by  the  spirit. 
The  questioner  runs  a  pencil  over  the  letters  of  the 
alphabet,  and  the  raps  are  given  as  the  pencil  comes 
to  the  successive  letters  forming  the  words  of  the 
answer.  Many  of  the  'media'  in  this  species  of 
'spiritual'  manifestation  have  been  proved  to  be 
impostors,  though  it  is  not  necessary  to  suppose  that 
they  are  so  in  all  cases  ;  they  may  l)c  imposing  upon 
themselves,  as  witches  did  of  old.  There  is  no 
doubt,  however,  that  the  wonderful  revelations  they 
sometimes  made  of  things  known  only  to  the 
questioner,  arose  fi»m  involuntary  indications  made 
by  the  latter — by  his  pausing,  without  knowing  it, 
at  the  letters  of  the  expected  answer.  A  variation  on 
the  mode  of  communicating  with  the  world  of  spirits, 
consists  in  putting  the  questions  to  a  table,  which  is 
manipulated,  as  in  table-turning,  and  gives  its  answers 
by  rapping  with  one  of  its  feet,  or  by  rocking,  as 
may  be  agreed  upon.  The  agency  of  the  exjicctant 
ideas  of  the  performers  in  these  cases  is  apparent  in 
their  own  narratives.  Would  it  not  otherwise  be 
strange  that  spirits  should  reveal  heaven  to  Robert 
Owen  as  organised  on  his  own  social  theory,  while  a 
Protestant  clergyman  finds  the  world  of  spirits  per- 
vaded by  a  horror  of  the  pope  (Rev.  E.  Gillson, 
Table-talking'),   and   to   pious   Scotch   Presbyterians 


every  revelation  regarding  it  is  completely  in  accord- 
ance -with  C'alvinistic  theology. 

Such  are  the  views  of  those  who,  in  regard  to 
this  matter,  may  be  denominated  the  'rationalist' 
party.  V,nt  there  is  a  large  cla.ss  of  intelligent 
j)erson3  who  hold  the  ex[)Iainitions  above  given  to 
he  insufficient.  After  making  every  allowance  for 
ileception,  whether  intentional  or  unintentional,  they 
find  many  undoubted  ficts  remaining  whicli  are  quite 
t)eyond  the  scope  of  suggestion,  dominant  ideas,  or 
any  other  of  the  usually  received  theories,  physical 
or  psychological.  Phenomena  of  the  character  iu 
question  are,  therefore,  still  the  subject  of  earnest 
investigation  on  the  part  of  many  both  in  Great 
Britain  and  America. 

ANIMA'LeULE,  a  term  etymologically  applicable 
to  any  very  small  animal,  and  limited  in  actual  use 
to  those  which  are  microscopical.  Animalcules  exist 
in  prodigious  numbers,  and  of  many  different  kinds, 
their  size  being  such  that  multitudes  of  them  find 
ample  space  for  all  the  movements  of  an  active  life 
within  a  single  drop  of  wafer;  and  they  abour.d 
almost  wherever  there  is  moisture,  at  least  wherever 
organic  matter  is  present.  Tiie  Monus  crepnscidits 
of  Ehrenberg  is  only  l-2nO(ith  part  of  a  line,  or 
1 -24,0(1! ith  part  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  'Take 
any  drop  of  water  from  the  stagnant  pools  around 
us,'  says  Professor  Pymer  Jones,  'from  our  rivers, 
from  our  lakes,  or  from  the  vast  ocean  itself,  and 


Various  forms  of  Animalcules. 

place  it  under  the  microscope  ;  you  will  find  therein 
countless  li\ing  beings  moving  in  all  directions  with 
considerable  swiftness,  apparently  gifted  with  saga- 
city, for  they  readily  elude  each  otlier  in  tiie  active 

dance  they  keep  up Increase  the  power  of 

your  glasses,  and  you  will  soon  percci^  e,  inhabiting 
the  same  drop,  other  animals,  comi)arcd  to  which 
the  former  were  elephantine  in  tluir  dimensions, 
ctiuallj'  vivacious  and  equally  gifted.  E\haust  the 
art  of  the  optician,  strain  your  eyes  to  the  utmost, 
until  the  aching  sense  refuses  to  perceive  the  little 
quivering  movement  that  indicates  the  presence  of 
life,  and  you  will  find  tliat  you  have  not  exhausted 
Nature  in  the  descending  scale.'  Animals  belonging 
to  different  classt  s  are,  however,  micro>cojiical,  and 
the  term  A.  is  either  applied  to  them  all  wiili  refer- 
ence to  their  mere  size,  or  it  is  restricted  to  those 
which  received  from  Midler,  with  whom  the  scien- 
tific study  and  classification  of  them  may  be  said  to 
have  begun,  the  name  of  Animalcula  Infusoria,  and 
which  are  by  Cuvier  made  the  fifth  and  last  class, 
under  the  name  Infusoria,  of  his  fourth  great  divi- 
sion of  the  animal  kingdom,  liadiata.  See  Infu- 
soria. The  name  Infusoria,  indeed,  etymologically 
considered,  is  not  more  appropriate  than  .i-l«i*«a/cMJa, 
perhaps  not  quite  so  mucli  so,  as  o;dy  a  small  pro- 
portion of  the  animals  of  this  class  are  actually 
ibimd  in  infusions,  but  it  continues  to  be  generally 
employed  by  zoologists.  Attempts  have  been  made 
to  classify  them  according  to  their  structure,  and  to 
assign  them  their  proper  places  accordingly  in  the 

269 


ANIMALCULE— ANIMALS. 


general  arrangement  of  the  animal  Idngdom ;  and 
one  part  of  tliom  have  been  formed  into  a  class 
under  the  name  Rotlfcra  (q.  v.),  regarded  as  prob- 
ably belonging  to  the  Articulated  division  ;  another 
part,  formed  into  a  class  called  Polj/^nstrica  (q.  v.), 
consisting  of  the  simpler  kinds,  have  been  in  like 
manner  somewhat  doubtfully  referred  to  the  Radi- 
ated division.  Agassiz  unhesitatingly  describes  the 
class  Lifuxnria  as  '  an  unnatural  combination  of  the 
most  heterog(^neous  beings.'  He  regards  many  as 
locomotive  Al(jct ;  and  of  those  which  are  true 
animals,  he  expresses  the  opinion  that  many  are 
merely  the  chrysalis  states  of  otiicr  animals.  There 
still  remain,  however,  many  kinds  which  are  perfect 
animals. 

Among  the  most  remarkaljle  discoveries  of  modern 
science  must  be  reckoned  that  of  /o.isil  animalcules, 
in  such  abundance  as  to  form  the  principal  part  of 
extensive  strata.  This  discovery  was  made  by 
Elirenberg,  wlio  found  tlie  Polirrxrhirfcr  (Polishing- 
slate  or  Tripoli)  ('{  Bilin  to  be  almost  entirely 
composed  of  the  silicious  shields  of  a  minute  fossil 
A.,  the  length  of  one  of  which  is  about  '/.jeeth  of  a 


Fossil  Remains  of  Animalcules  which  form  Tripoli. 

line,  so  that  about  23  millions  of  animalcules  must 
have  gone  to  form  a  cubic  line,  and  41,0n()  millions 
to  form  a  cubic  inch  of  the  rock.  Ehrenberg  suc- 
ceeded in  detecting  the  formation  of  similar  strata 
in  deposits  of  mud  at  the  bottom  of  lakes  and 
marshes,  the  mud  swarming  witii  living  animalcules, 
probably  in  their  turn  to  be  fossilised.  The  Berj- 
mehl  or  Mountain  Meal  of  Sweden  and  other  parts 
of  Europe,  which  is  sometimes  used  as  an  article  of 
food,  is  entirely  composed  of  the  remains  of  ani- 
malcules ;  not  merely,  however,  of  their  silicious 
shields,  for  it  contains  a  considerable  percentage 
of  dry  animal  matter.  Some  animalcules  prefer 
waters  impregnated  with  iron,  and  their  death 
gives  rise  to  an  ochreous  substance,  in  which  iron  is 
a  principal  ingredient. 

ANIMALS,  CiicfXTY  TO.  England  has  the  honour 
of  first  making  this  a  distinct  subject  of  public  at- 
tention by  tlie  formation  of  societies  for  its  preven- 
tion, and  by  legislative  enactments  making  it  punish- 
able. The  movement  has  now  extended  into  France 
and  Germany. 

Benevolence  to  A.  is  a  result  and  a  proof  of  ex- 
tending civilisation.  It  is  the  carrying  out  to  its 
just  limits  the  principle  of  sympathy,  which  first 
appears  when  the  savage  ceases  to  think  exclusively 
of  himself  and  learns  to  identify  his  tribe  with  him- 
self. It  is  this  principle  of  sympathy,  only  carried 
further,  that,  under  Christianity,  unites  all  the  tribes 
and  races  of  men  in  one  family.  And  it  only  requires 
cultivation  of  the  faculty  of  sympathy  generally, 
and  the  direction  of  the  attention  to  what  the  lower 
animals  have  in  common  with  man — sensibility, 
namely,  to  pain — to  make  any  one  feel,  that  need- 
lessly to  inflict  that  pain,  is  to  sin  against  his  own 
nature,  and  therefore  a  crime.  This  ought  to  be  a 
special  object  of  attention  in  the  training  of  children. 
Besides  the  cruelty  to  beasts  of  burden  and  domestic 
animals  arising  from  cupidity,  many,  especially 
children,  torture  creatures  from  thoughtlessness 
270 


and  ignorance.  This,  therefore,  is  one  of  the  many 
instances  where  instruction  of  the  head  may  be  made 
to  mend  the  heart.  It  deserves  to  be  remarked, 
that  the  mere  extinction  of  life  does  not  necessarily 
constitute  cruelty.  There  is  often  more  cruelty  in 
prolonging  the  life  of  an  animal  than  in  taking  it 
away.  It  is  tlie  infliction  of  needless  pain  or  re- 
straint that  is  the  essence  of  cruelty  to  animals. 

Animals,  Ckuei.tyto  (in  Law).  This  is  an  offence 
against  the  criminal  law,  and  has  frc(iuently  of 
late  formed  the  subject  of  legislation,  the  last 
act  of  parliament,  the  12  and  13  Vict.  c.  0'2  (pa.sscd 
in  1849),  being  that  which  at  present  regulates  the 
law  of  England  on  the  subject.  By  this  statute  it 
is  provided,  that  if  any  person  shall  cruelly  beat, 
ill-treat,  over-drive,  abuse,  or  torture  any  horse, 
mare,  gelding,  bull,  ox,  cow,  heifer,  steer,  calf, 
mule,  ass,  sheep,  lamb,  hog,  pig,  sow,  goat,  dog,  cat, 
or  any  other  domestic  animal,  he  shall  forfeit  a  sum 
not  exceeding  .£.5  for  every  such  offence,  recoverable 
before  a  justice  of  the  peace  in  a  summary  way;  and 
if  by  any  such  misconduct  he  shall  injtire  the  ani- 
mal, or  any  person  or  property,  a  furtlier  sum  not 
exceeding  £10  to  the  owner  or  person  injured. 
The  act  also  inflicts  penalties  in  the  case  of  convey- 
ing any  such  animal  in  such  a  manner  or  position  as 
to  subject  it  to  unnecessary  pain  or  suffering;  and 
also  in  the  case  of  bull-baiting,  cock-fighting,  and 
the  like,  and  makes  a  variety  of  humane  provi- 
sons  for  the  regulation  of  the  business  of  slaugh- 
tering horses  and  other  cattle  not  intended  for  butch- 
er's meat. 

Formerly,  in  Scotland,  this  offence  was  punishable 
at  common  law — that  is,  according  to  tlie  Scotch 
legal  principle,  common  law  as  distinguished  from 
statute  law — and  so  late  as  the  year  182(5,  a  man 
was  convicted  there  of  affixing  a  stob,  or  prickle 
armed  with  iron  nails,  to  the  tail  of  a  pony,  by 
which  the  animal  was  wounded  in  the  hind-legs; 
and  punished  with  two  months'  imprisonment. 
But  the  Scotch  law  at  that  time  did  not  view  sue  h 
conduct  so  much  as  an  act  of  cruelty  to  the  animal 
injured,  as  of  'malicious  mischief,'  as  it  was  called, 
and,  in  fact,  regarded  such  treatment  of  animals  as 
simply  an  offence  against  property.  Through  the 
agency  of  Henry  Bergh,  of  N.  Y.,  societies  for  the 
prevention  of  cruelty  to  animals  have  been  established 
in  several  of  the  large  cities  of  the  U.  States.  These 
have  accomplished  much  good  by  mitigating  the  harsh- 
ness and  severity  of  inhuman  owners  of  beasts  of 
burden  and  drivers  of  cattle.  An  interest  in  the  ob- 
ject of  Mr.  Bergh  is  extending,  and  it  is  probable  that 
no  long  time  will  elapse  before  kindred  societies  will 
be  found  in  every  state  in  the  Union. 

ANIMALS,  "Worship  of.  The  practice  of 
worshipping  animals,  as  well  as  certain  plants  and 
stones,  prevailed  among  many  of  the  nations  of  anti- 
quity, and  is  still  common  among  barbarous  tribes. 
That  animals  should  be  held  sacred  and  receive 
worship,  need  excite  no  surprise  when  we  bear  in 
mind  the  origin  of  polytheistic  worship  generally. 
They  are  manifestations  of  pow*r;  mysterious,  too, 
because  actuated  by  impulses  differing  from  those 
of  man ;  and  often,  by  their  greater  acuteness  of 
sense  and  more  unerring  instincts,  seeming  to 
possess  supernatural  knowledge.  Besides  thla 
general  ground,  various  animals  have  been  asso- 
ciated with  the  gods  as  emblems  and  in  other  ways. 
But  a  more  important  source  of  the  superstitious 
regard  bestowed  on  animals,  is  the  belief  that  gods, 
and  spirits  in  general,  often  take  the  form  of  ani. 
mals,  either  temporarily  or  as  a  permanent  abode. 
The  doctrine  of  the  transmigration  of  souls  is  not 
confined  to  India.  Kindred  notions,  though  not 
perhaps  reduced  to  system  and  formally  enunciated, 
are  all  but    universal;    they  seem  as  indigenous  ia 


AXIME—ANKARSTROM. 


tbc  heart  of  Africa  as  on  the  banks  of  tlie  Ganpcs. 
It  was  as  a  nianifestatiou  of  tlic  soul  of  Osiris — 
originallv,  Hke  all  the  other  Ejjyptian  deities,  a 
eun-god— that  the  sacred  bull  Apis  was  worshipped 
in  ancient  Egvpt.  "When  the  Spaniards  first  visited 
tlie  coasts  of  South  America,  they  found  a  ludicrous 
kind  of  animal-worship  practised  by  the  natives  on 
the  coast  of  Cumana  (Venezuela).  '  They  held  the 
toad  to  be,  as  they  said,  "  the  lord  of  the  waters," 
and  therefore  they  were  very  compassionate  with  it, 
and  dreaded  by  any  accident  to  kill  a  toad  ;  though, 
as  has  been  fotind  the  ease  with  other  idolaters,  they 
were  readv,  in  times  of  difficulty,  to  compel  a  favour- 
able hearing  from  their  pretended  deities,  for  they 
were  known  to  keep  these  toads  with  care  under  an 
earthen  vessel,  and  to  whip  them  with  little  switches 
when  there  was  a  scarcity  of  provisions  and  a  want 
of  rain.  Another  superstition  worthy  of  note  was, 
that  when  they  hunted  down  any  game,  before 
hilling  it,  they  were  wont  to  open  its  mouth  nnd 
introduce  some  drops  of  maize-wine,  in  order  that 
its  soul,  which  they  judged  to  be  the  same  as  that 
of  men,  might  give  notice  to  the  rest  of  its  species 
of  the  good  entertainment  which  it  had  met  with, 
and  thus  lead  them  to  think  that  if  they  came  too, 
they  would  participate  in   this  kindly  treatment.' — 

A'NIME,  a  resin  exuding  from  the  trunk  of  the 
Hipnencea  Courbaril,  a  large  tree  of  the  natural  order 
Le'Juf'ti'>'ox(i;,  sub-order  Ccesalpinece,  a  native  of  New 
Spain  and  Brazil.  It  somewhat  resembles  copal, 
but  is  more  easily  soluble  in  alcohol. — The  name 
A.,  or  Gum  A.,  is,  however,  also  given  in  Britain  to 
a  resin  called  in  India  copal,  the  produce  of  Vateria 
Indica,  a  tree  of  the  natural  order  Dipteracece  ; 
whilst  the  copal  of  Madagascar  is  produced  by 
Hv^nencea  verrucosa,    and    that    of    Brazil   in    great 


tic.       A.-irater — water    flavoured  with    the  oil,  and 
sugared — is  much  used  in  Italy  as  a  cooling  drink. 

Star  Anisk,  or  Chinkse  Amsk,  is  the  fruit  of 
niicium  anisalum,  a  small  tree  of  the  natural  order 
Marinoliac€ie.  See  Illkiim.  It  receives  its  name 
from  the  star-like  form  of  the  fruit,  which  consists  of  a 
number  (('> — 12)  of  hard,  woody,  one-seeded  carpels. 
The  tree  has  evergreen  leaves,  somewhat  like  tliosc 
of  the  common  launl.  The  whole  plant  is  carmi- 
native, and  is  used  by  the  Chinese  as  a  stomachic 
and  as  a  spice  in  their  cookery.  The  (lualities  of  the 
fruit  so  much  resemble  those  of  the  common  anise, 
that  it  may  be  used  instead  of  it,  and  by  distillation 
it  yields  aii  oil  which  is  very  generally  substituted 
for  oil  of  anise,  and  is  imported  into  Europe  in 
considerable  quantity,  to  be  used  instead  of  it.  Star 
aniseed  is  also  imported,  chiefly  from  China  and 
Singapore. 

A'XJOU,  a  former  province  in  the  north-west  of 
France,  of  about  S(i80  sqtiare  miles  in  e.xtent,  now 
forming  the  department  of  Maine-et-Loire,  and  small 
parts  of  the  departments  of  Indre-et-Loire,  Mayeiuie, 
and  Sarthe.  Its  cai)ital  was  Angers.  The  ancient 
inhabitants  of  A.  were  the  AnJif/nvi,  who  long  and 
resolutely  resisted  the  Roman  arms. — The  male  line 
of  the  Counts  of  A.,  who  took  their  name  from  it, 
having  become  extinct  in  lufiO,  their  title  and  pos- 
sessions passed  by  the  female  line  to  the  powerful 
House  of  Gatinais;  and  from  one  of  this  family, 
Godfrey,  Count  of  A.,  sprung  the  Plantagenets.  He 
conquered  the  greater  part  of  Normandy  ;  assumed 
the  title  of  duke;  and  in  ll'J7  married  Matilda, 
the  daughter  of  Henry  I.  of  England,  and  widow  of 
the  Emperor  Henry  Y.  Thiough  her,  his  son 
inherited  the  English  throne,  which  he  ascended  in 
1154  as  Henry  II.  A.  now  became  one  of  the  po.=- 
sessions  of  the  kings  of  England;  but  in  l'2n4,  the 
French  acquired  it  by  fortune  of  war;  and  it  was 


partbyseveralspeaesof  jy:vr«.n<ra   atreeof  which    ^^^^^^^^  ^^  ^  ^^j.   ^^^^   pj^jUp    ^^^    .^n  of   Louis 


genus  is  also  regarded  as  the  probable  source  of  the 
copal  of  Mexico. 

ANIONS.     See  Anode. 

A'NISE  {Pimpinella  Anisuni),  an  annual  plant 
of  the  natural  order  Umbelliferce.  The  genus 
Pimpinella  has  compound  umbels,  usually  without 
involucres.  Two  species  are  natives  of  Britain ; 
they  are  commonly  known  by  the  name  of  Burnet 
Saxifrage,  and  have  no  properties  of  import- 
ance. A.  is  a  native  of  Egypt.  It  is  an  annual 
plant;  the  stem  is  H  ♦»  2  feet  high,  dividing  into 
several  slender  branches;  the  lower  leaves  roundish- 
heart-shaped,  divided  into  three  lobes,  and  deeply 
cut ;  those  of  the  stem  pinnate,  with  wedge- 
shaped  leaflets.  The  umbels  are  large  and  loose, 
with  yellowish-white  flowers.  It  is  nnich  culti- 
vated in  Egypt,  Syria,  Malta,  and  Spain,  and 
even  in  Germany,  especially  in  the  district  around 
Erfurt,  where  a  large  quantity  of  the  seed  is 
annually  produced.  Attempts  were  made,  more 
than  200  years  ago,  to  cultivate  it  in  England;  but 
the  summers  are  seldom  warm  enough  to  bring  it  to 
perfection.  It  is  occasionally  sown  in  gardens  for 
a  garnish  or  for  seasoning.  A. -seed  {^aniseed)  is 
used  as  a  condiment  and  in  the  preparation  of 
liqueurs;  also  in  medicine  as  a  stimulant  stomachic, 
to  relieve  flatulence,  &c.,  particularly  in  infants ; 
and  it  has  been  used  in  pulmonary  affections.  It 
has  an  aromatic,  agreeable  smell,  and  a  warm, 
sweetish  taste.  It  contains  a  volatile  oil,  called 
Oil  of  A.,  which  is  nearly  colourless,  has  the 
odour  and  taste  of  the  seed,  and  is  employed  for 
similar  purposes.  One  hundred-weight  of  seed 
yields  about  two  pounds  of  oil,  which  is  obtained 
by  distillation  ;  but  at  Erfurt  the  oil  is  made  from 
the  stems  and  leaves,  the  whole  plant  being  aroma- 


YIII.,  and  afterwards  upon  his  brother  Charles,  who 
became  the  founder  of  that  House  of  A.  which  gave 
kings  to  Naples,  Sicily,  and  Hungary.  Charles  II. 
of  Naples  gave  A.  to  his  daughter  Margaret  on  her 
marriage  with  Charles  of  Yalois,  the  son  of  Philip 
lY.  Her  son  ascended  the  throne  of  France  as 
Philip  YI.  in  1328.  King  John,  in  1360,  made  A.  a 
duchy,  and  gave  it  to  his  son  Louis,  and  he  succeeding 
to  the  crown  of  Naples,  it  remained  a  possession  of 
the  kings  of  Naples  till  the  overthrow  of  that 
dynastv,  when  Rene  II.,  the  last  of  his  family, 
was  deprived  of  it  by  Louis  XL,  who  permanently 
annexed  it  to  the  French  crown  in  1484.  Since 
that  time,  it  has  merely  given  an  honorary  title  to 
princes  of  the  royal  family.  The  last  who  bore  it 
was  the  grandson  of  Louis  XIY.,  who  became 
Philip  Y.  of  Spain. 

ANKARSTROM,  John  Jacob,  the  assassin  of 
Gustavus  III.,  king  of  Sweden,  born  in  1701,  the  son 
of  a  lieutenant-colonel.  He  came  very  early  to  court, 
in  the  capacity  of  a  page,  and  next  entered  the  army  ; 
but  having  obtained  the  rank  of  captain,  left  it  in 
1783;  married  and  settled  in  the  country.  He  was 
a  man  of  violent  feelings  and  rough  manners,  and 
much  opposed  to  the  measures  taken  by  the  king  for 
curtailing  the  power  of  the  senate  and  of  the  nobles. 
Implicated  in  certain  intrigues  in  the  island  of 
Gothland,  he  was  accused  of  treason,  but  released  for 
want  of  positive  evidence.  His  hatred  to  the  king 
was  increased  by  the  har.«h  usage  he  met  with  in  the 
course  of  his  trial.  In  1790,  he  went  to  Stockholm, 
and,  together  with  General  Pechlin,  Counts  Horn 
and  Ribbing,  and  others,  planned  the  assassination 
of  the  king.  A.  begged  that  the  execution  of  the 
deed  might  be  left  to  him;  but  Horn  and  Ribbing 
disputing  the  point,  they  drew  lots   and  the  lot  fell 


ANKOBAR— ANNA  COMXENA. 


upon  A.  In  1792,  the  kiiif]^  convoked  tlie  Diet  at 
Gctle,  and  the  conspirators  lioped  upon  that  occasion 
to  carry  out  their  purpose;  Lut  heinf^  thwarted  in 
this,  they  liad  to  wait  till  the  16th  of  March,  when 
Gustavus  was  to  attend  a  bal  niasque,  durinj;  which 
A.  shot  at  and  mortally  wounded  him.  He  was 
instantly  apprehended,  and  at  once  confessed  his 
crime,  stoutly  denying,  however,  that  lie  had  any 
accomplices.  On  the  29th  of  April,  he  was  con- 
demned to  death,  publicly  flopped  for  three  succes- 
sive days,  and  then  beheaded.  lie  went  to  the 
scaffold  with  perfect  composure,  rejoicing  to  his  last 
moment  in  the  success  of  his  crime. 

ANKO'BAR,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Shoa, 
in  At)yssiniii,  is  built  8iy8  feet  above  the  sea-level, 
on  the  ascent  of  the  table-land,  in  lat.  9°  'Si'  N., 
long.  39°  So'  E.  The  higher  portion  of  the  town  is 
fortified  in  a  very  primitive  way,  by  means  of  a 
pahsade  constructed  of  stakes,  with  intertwisted 
branches  of  trees.  The  royal  palace,  unlike  the 
most  of  the  buildings,  which  are  chiefly  of  wood, 
is  built  of  stone  and  mortar,  although  the  roof 
is  thatched.  The  vegetation  around  the  place  is 
extremely  rich,  and  the  air  is  both  cool  and  pure,  fo 
that  A.  is  a  very  agreeable  residence,  and  is  conse- 
quently favoured  with  the  presence  of  the  court 
during  a  portion  of  the  year.     Pop.  10,000. 

AXKYLO'SIS  (Gr.  ankulosls,  bending  or  crook- 
ing; awAw/e,  stiff-joint),  is  a  term  used  in  surgery  to 
imply  a  stiffness  in  any  joint.  It  is  usually  the  result 
of  disease,  which,  having  destroyed  the  articular 
cartilages,  leaves  two  bony  surfaces  opposed  to  each 
otlier.  The  reparative  powers  of  nature  cause  a 
union  to  take  place  by  means  of  granulations  between 
them.  This  bond  of  union  may  become  osseous,  so 
as  to  render  the  joint  perfectly  rigid,  or  it  may  con- 
tinue membranous,  allowing  of  a  certain  amount  of 
motion.  Some  joints,  especially  the  elbow,  are  very 
apt  to  become  ankylosed  ;  and  in  the  knee  or  hip- 
joints,  this  osseous  A.  is  reckoned  the  most  favourable 
termination  to  disease,  as  the  liml)  can  then  afford 
a  rigid  support  for  the  trunk.  Joints,  stiff  through 
a  membranous  A.,  may  be  forcibly  bent,  and  the 
bond  of  union  ruptured,  so  as  to  restore  mobility,  or 
allow  of  their  being  placed  in  a  convenient  position. 
A.  of  the  joints  between  the  ribs  and  the  vertebrae 
is  common  in  advanced  age  ;  and  there  are  some 
cases  on  record  of  universal  A.  of  all  the  joints.  A 
case  occurred  in  1716  of  a  child  oidy  twenty-three 
months  old  with  all  the  joints  thus  stiffened  ;  and 
there  are  in  various  museums  specimens  of  adult 
bodies  in  this  condition. 

ANN,  or  ANNAT,  in  Scotch  law,  signifies  the 
half  year's  stipend  payable  for  the  vacant  half  year 
after  the  death  of  a  clcrgymiin,  to  which  his  family 
or  nearest  of  kin  have  right,  under  an  act  of  the 
Scottish  parliament  passed  in  the  year  1672.  It  is  a 
right  that  does  not  belong  to  the  clergyman  himself, 
but  to  his  next  of  kin  absolutely,  and  therefore  can 
neither  be  assigned  or  disposed  of  by  him  nor 
attached  for  his  debts.     Compare  Annates. 

ANNA,  St.,  according  to  tradition,  was  the 
daughter  of  Muthan,  priest  of  Bethlehem,  and  the 
wife  of  St.  Joachim.  After  tv.enty  one  years  of  bar- 
renness, she  is  said  to  have  given  birth  to  the  Virgin 
Mary,  the  mother  of  the  Saviour.  Nothing  positive 
is  known  regarding  her  life ;  her  name  does  not 
occur  in  the  Scriptures,  nor  even  in  the  writings  of 
the  Fathers  during  the  first  three  centuries.  The 
first  who  mentions  her  is  St.  Epiphanius,  in  the  4th 
c. ;  but  towards  the  8th,  she  was  all  but  universally 
invoked.  Iler  body  was  believed  to  have  been 
transferred  from  Palestine  to  Constantinople  in  710 
A.D. ;  and  her  head  to  Chartres,  by  Louis  de  Blois, 
about  1210  A.D.  The  inhabitants  of  Duren  (Duchy 
272 


of  Juliers,  (icrmany)  also  pretend  to  have  a  head  of 
St.  A.;  and  a  third  is  believed  to  be  in  possession  of 
the  church  at  Vrsitz,  in  the  diocese  of  Wurzburg, 
although  numerous  other  churches  claim  to  be 
efpially  favoured.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church  has 
a  festival  in  her  honour  on  the  2t'th  of  July  ;  the 
Greek,  on  the  9th  of  December.  In  Austria,  Bavaria, 
and  other  Catholic  countries,  this  festival  is  one  of 
great  importance.  In  honour  of  St.  A.,  a  fraternity, 
called  the  Fraternity  of  St.  A.,  was  instituted  in  the 
IDth  c.  After  the  Reformation,  it  was  organised 
anew  by  the  Jesuits ;  and  in  modern  times,  has 
manifested  some  vitality  in  Bavaria  and  Catholic 
Switzerland. 

ANNA  CARLOVNA,  regent  of  Russia  during 
the  minority  of  her  son  Ivan,  was  the  daughter  of 
Charles  Leopold,  Duke  of  Mecklenburg,  and  of 
Catharine,  sister  of  the  Russian  empress,  Anna 
Ivanovna  (q.  v.).  In  1739,  she  mariied  Anthony 
I'lric,  Duke  of  Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel.  Her  son, 
Ivan,  born  August  20,  1740,  was  nominated  by  the 
Empress  Anna  Ivanovna  as  her  successor.  This 
was  done  at  the  instigation  of  Biron  ((}.  v.),  the 
empress's  favourite,  whose  object  was  to  secure  the 
regency  for  himself;  and  the  empress,  on  her  death- 
bed, actually  appointed  hiui  regent,  but  he  continued 
in  power  only  for  a  short  time.  She  died  on  October 
28,  1740,  and  his  overthrow  took  place  on  the  18th  o} 
November  in  the  same  year.  A.  C.  now  proclaimed 
herself  Grand-duchess  and  Regent  of  Russia ;  btit 
she  showed  no  capacity  for  managing  the  affairs  of  a 
great  country,  s[)ent  her  time  in  indolent  enjoy- 
ments, and  rcsigneil  herself  very  much  to  the  guid- 
ance of  one  of  the  ladies  of  her  court,  Julia  von 
Mengden.  A  conspimcy  was  formed  by  a  party 
desirous  of  raising  to  the  throne  Elizabeth,  datighter 
of  Peter  the  Great  and  of  Catharine,  and  this  was 
accomi)lished  on  December  6,  1741.  The  infant 
Ivan  was  sent  to  the  castle  of  Schlii.sselburg,  whero 
he  was  afterwards  murdered;  Anna  and  her  hus- 
band were  condemned  to  impri-onment  for  life,  and 
conveyed  to  Cholmogory,  a  towa  upon  an  island  in 
the  Dwina,  near  the  White  Sea.  Here  she  bore  two 
children,  and  died  in  childbed  in  1745.  Her  hus- 
band remained  a  prisoner  for  thirty-nine  years,  and 
died  in  1780. 

ANNA  COMNE'NA,  a  learned  Byzantine  prin- 
cess, author  of  one  of  the  most  valuable  works 
to  be  found  in  the  collection  of  the  Byzantine 
historians,  was  the  daughter  of  the  Emperor  Alexius  L 
(Comnenus),  and  was  born  on  December  1,  1083. 
She  received  the  best  education  that  Constanti- 
nople coidd  give,  and  early  displayed  a  fondness  for 
literary  pursuits ;  but  was  also  habituated  from  her 
childhood  to  the  intrigues  of  the  court ;  and  during 
the  last  illness  of  her  father,  she  entered  into  a 
scheme,  which  her  mother,  the  Empress  Irene,  also 
favoured,  to  induce  him  to  disinherit  his  eldest  sur- 
viving son,  John,  and  to  bestow  the  diadem  on  her. 
Failing  in  this,  she  framed  a  conspiracy  against  the 
life  of  her  brother  (1118);  and  when  her  husband,' 
Nicephorus  Bryennius,  a  Byzantine  nobleman,  eitluT 
from  tinddity  or  virtuous  principle,  refused  to  join  in 
it,  she  passionately  lamented  that  she  had  not  been 
born  a  man,  and  upbraided  him  as  having  the  soul 
of  a  woman.  Her  brother  spared  her  life,  but 
punished  her  by  confiscation  of  her  property,  which, 
however,  he  soon  after  generously  restored.  Dis- 
appointed and  ashamed,  she  withdrew  from  the 
court,  and  sought  enjoyment  in  literature.  On  the 
death  of  her  husband  (1137),  she  retired  into  a  con- 
vent, where  she  died  in  1148.  Her  life  of  her 
father,  entitled  Anjice  Coirivence  Ahxiados  libri  19, 
is  full  of  professions  of  careful  inquiry  and  a  supreme 
regard  for  truth,  but  '  the  perpetual  strain  of  pane- 


ANNA  IVANOVNA— ANNATES. 


gyric  and  apnlopy  awakens  our  jealousy.'  The  style 
is  charncterisid  by  an  elaborate  afloctation  of  rliet- 
oric.  The  best  edition  is  that  of  ^chopen  (2  vols. 
8vo,  Bonn,  1830). 

ANNA  IVANO'VNA,  Empress  of  Russia,  was 
born  on  the  8th  February  IGd'i,  and  was  the  second 
daughter  of  Ivan,  the  elder  brother  of  Peter  the 
Great.  She  was  married  in  1710  to  the  Duke  of 
Courland,  the  last  of  his  race,  who  died  in  the 
following  year;  and  she  obtained  the  duchy  of 
Courland  for  her  favourite,  liiroii,  a  Courlander  of 
low  birth.  The  throne  of  Kussia  was  nfiered  to 
her  by  the  Supreme  Council  on  the  death  of  Peter 
II.  in  1730,  on  conditions  which  greatly  limited 
the  power  of  the  monarchy,  but  which  she  soon 
broke.  Her  elevation  to  it  was  very  much  owing 
to  the  intrigues  of  the  Chancellor  Ostermann, 
Avho  had  had  the  charge  of  her  education,  but  who 
was  disappointed  in  finding  her  not  grateful  and 
tractable,  as  he  expected.  For  three  years,  how- 
ever, her  ride  was  mild,  humane,  and  equitable. 
The  army  was  reformed,  greater  liberty  was  allowed 
to  the  landed  gentry,  government  debts  were  paid 
up,  and  the  poll-tax  for  the  serfs  lessened  ;  but  her 
paramour,  Biron,  having  determined  to  govern  the 
nation  as  well  as  the  empress,  a  sudden  and  deplor- 
able change  ensued.  This  man,  a  blood-thirsty  and 
avaricious  wretch,  established  something  like  a 
reign  of  terror  through  the  land.  He  is  said  to  have 
banished  not  less  than  20,000  persons  to  Siberia  ; 
numbers  were  knouted,  had  their  tongues  cut  out,  oi- 
were  broken  alive  on  the  wheel.  Eleven  thousand 
perished  in  this  way.  Prince  Basil  Dolgoruki,  and 
others  of  his  family,  suffered  the  ignominy  of  the 
scaffold.  At  length  the  health  of  the  queen  gave 
way.  She  died  on  October  28,  1710,  and  left  the 
throne  to  her  grand-nephew,  Ivan,  with  Biron  as 
regent.     See  Russia  and  Biron. 

ANNALS.  These  were  at  first  oooks  which 
contained  a  record,  in  chronological  order,  of  the 
principal  events  occurring  in  one  or  more  years.  The 
name  is  derived  from  the  oldest  historical  docu- 
ments of  the  Romans,  the  Annales  Po7itificv7ti,  or 
Annales  Maximi,  the  duty  of  drawing  up  which 
devolved  upon  the  Pontifcx  Maxintux ;  but  these 
were  all  destroyed  by  the  Gauls  at  the  sack  of  Rome, 
some  hundreds  of  years  before  the  time  of  Christ. 
After  the  second  Punic  War,  A.  similar  to  the 
former  ones  were  composed,  not,  however,  by  the 
priests,  but  by  educated  members  of  the  Roman 
laity,  such  as  Fabius  Pictor,  Calpurnius  Piso,  &c. 
At  a  still  later  period,  the  term  was  applied  to  any 
historical  work  that  followed  the  order  of  time  in 
its  narrations,  separating  them  off  into  single  years 
— as,  for  instance,  the  Annals  of  Tacitus. 

ANNAMABOE',  a  small  seaport  town,  protected 
by  a  strong  British  fort,  on  the  Gold  Coast  of  Africa, 
in  lat.  5"  5'  N.,  long.  1°  6'  W.,  10  miles  east  of  Cape 
Coast  Castle.  In  1807,  the  inhabitants  took  part 
with  the  Fantecs  agfiinst  the  Ashantees,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  the  town  was  attacked  by  an 
overwhelming  force  of  the  latter,  and  most  of  the 
inhabitants  were  slain.  There  is  little  trade  in  any- 
thing but  gold.  The  present  population  is  between 
4000  and  6000. 

ANNAN,  a  seaport,  and  royal  and  parliamentary 
burgh,  in  the  county  of  Dumfries,  on  the  river  of  the 
same  name,  near  its  entrance  into  the  Sohvay  J'irth. 
It  is  neat  and  well  built,  and  has  some  cotton 
and  leather  manufactures,  and  a  small  coasting- 
trade.  The  river,  which  affords  excellent  salmon- 
fishing,  is  spanned  by  a  bridge  of  three  arches,  and 
is  navigable  to  within  half  a  mile  of  the  town  for 
vessels  of  800  tons.  There  is  regular  communica- 
tion by  steamers  with  Liverpool  and  Whitehaven, 
18 


and  the  Glascrow,  Dumfries,  and  Carlisle  Railway 
connects  the  town  wiih  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  anil 
Carlisle.  The  burgh  urdtes  with  Dumfries,  &c.,  in 
returning  one  membor  to  parliament.  Popul.ntion. 
4.'500.  A.  was  the  birthplace  of  the  blind  poet  Br. 
Blacklock,  and  the  great  preacher  Edward  Irving. 

ANNANDALE.     See  Dimkriksshire. 

ANNAPOLIS,  a  seaport  of  Nova  Scotia,  in  lat- 
•14"  40'  N.,  and  long.  05°  37'  W.  It  stands  on  a 
river  of  the  same  name  that  runs  into  the  Bav  of 
Fuiidy.  Its  harbour  is  excellent,  though  somewhat 
difficult  of  access.  A.  is  the  oldest  European  .settle- 
ment to  the  north  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  having 
been  established,  in  1G04,  by  the  French  as  the 
capital  of  their  province  of  Acadia,  under  the  name 
of  Port  Royal.  Acadia  having  been  conquered  by 
the  English  in  17 lo,  and  ceded  by  the  French  in 
1713,  Port  Royal  changed  its  name  in  honour  of 
Queen  Anne,  continuing  to  be  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment, till,  in  1750,  it  was  superseded  by  the  newly 
founded  city  of  Halifax  on  the  outside  coast  of  the 
peninsula — the  new  capital,  with  its  better  position 
and  superior  haven,  having  diverted  most  of  the 
trade  of  the  place.  Since  then,  A.  has  rather  decavcd 
than  otherwise  ;  and  it  would  have  done  so  more 
decidedly,  had  not  its  river  been  navigable  for  boats 
during  nearly  the  whole  of  its  course  of  70  miles. 

ANNAPOLIS,  a  city  and  port  of  entry,  capital  of 
the  state  of  Maryland  and  of  Anne  Arundel  co.,  on 
the  south  bank  of  Severn  River,  2  miles  from  its  en- 
trance into  Chesapeake  Bay,  30  miles  S.  by  E.  from 
Baltimore,  and  37  miles  E.  bv  N.  of  Washington. 
Lat.  38°  58'  50"  N.,  Ion.  76°  29'  W.  The  Annapolis 
and  Elk  Ridge  Railroad,  21  miles  long,  connects  it 
with  the  Baltimore  and  Washington  Railroad.  An- 
napolis contains  a  fine  state-house,  a  bank,  and  6 
churches.  It  is  the  seat  of  St.  John's  College.  Three 
newspapers  are  issued  at  Annapolis.  The  United 
States  naval  academy  was  established  here  in  1845. 
Pop.  about  5000.    Annapolis  was  founded  about  1 649. 

ANN  ARBOR,  a  flourishing  city,  capital  of  Wash- 
tenaw CO.,  Michigan,  on  Huron  River,  and  on  the 
Michigan  Central  Railroad,  38  miles  W.  of  Detroit. 
ITie  state  university,  established  at  this  place  in  1837, 
is  a  flourishing  institution,  attended  by  about  950  stu- 
dents. It  has  a  library  of  9000  volumes,  an  astro- 
nomical observatory,  and  a  well  equipped  chemical 
laboratory.  The  three  colleges,  literary,  medical  and 
law,  are  largely  attended.  Ann  Arl)or  has  an  active 
trade,  and  contains  manufactories  of  wool,  iron, 
ploughs,  and  flour.  The  city  also  contains  8  churches, 
1  national  bank,  2  other  banks,  and  a  large  union 
school.  4  weekly  newspapers  are  issued  here.  Pop. 
in  1864,  8924. 

ANNATES,  or  FIRST-FRUITS,  in  the  ecclesi- 
astical law  of  England,  means  the  value  of  every 
spiritual  living  for  a  whole  year  (hence  the  name 
from  the  Latin  word  atmufi,  a  year),  which  tha 
Pope,  claiming  the  disposition  of  every  sjjiritual 
benefice  within  Christendom,  reserved  out  of  every 
living.  This  impost  was  at  first  only  levied  from 
persons  appointed  to  bishoprics  ;  but  it  was  after- 
wards extended  to  the  inferior  clergy.  The  va'ue  of 
these  A.  was  calculated  according  to  a  rate  made 
under  the  direction  of  Pope  Innocent  IV.  (1253  a.p.), 
but  which  was  afterwards  increased  by  Pope 
Nicholas  III.  (1232  A.n.).  The  valuation  of  Pope 
Nicholas  is  still  preserved  in  the  Exchcfiuer.  This 
papal  exaction  was  abolished  by  the  act  25 
Henry  VIII.  c.  20,  and  by  an  act  passed  in  the 
following  year  of  the  same  reign  (26  Henry  VIII. 
c.  3),  the  right  to  A.  or  First  Fruits  was  annexed  to 
thfe  crown.  The  various  statutes  subsequently 
passed  on  this  subject  have  all  been  consolidated  by 
an  act  (the  1  Vict.  c.  20),  regulating  the  collectioo 

273 


AXNATTO— AXNEALING. 


of  the  moneys  so  levied.     See  First  Fuuits,  Quken 
Anne's  Bounty. 

ANNATTO.     See  Arnotto. 

ANXE  OF  AUSTRIA,  daiighter  of  Philip  II.  of 
Spain,  was  born  in  1602,  and  in  1C15  became  the 
wife  of  Louis  XIII.  of  France.  The  marriage  was 
so  far  from  being  a  happy  one,  that  the  royal  pair 
lived  for  23  years  in  a  state  of  virtual  separation — a 
residt  dne  chiefly  to  the  influence  of  Cardinal 
Richelieu,  whose  fixed  deiermination  to  humble  the 
House  of  Austria,  led  him  to  spare  no  means  for 
alienating  the  afi'ection  of  Louis  from  his  queen,  by 
representing  her  as  ever  involved  in  the  niost 
dangerous  conspiracies  against  his  authority.  The 
naturally  grave  and  phlegmatic  disposition  of  tlie 
queen  was  not  calculated  to  counteract  the  hostile 
influence  of  the  great  minister.  On  the  death  of 
the  king  in  1643,  A.  became  queen-regent,  and 
evinced  her  discernment  by  choosing  as  her  minister 
Cardinal  Mazarin,  by  whose  able  management  the 
young  king  (Louis  XIV.)  came,  on  attiiining  his 
majority,  into  possession  of  a  throne  firmly  established 
on  the  ruins  of  contending  parties.  The  character  of 
A.  had  nuich  influence  in  moulding  that  of  her  son. 
She  displayed  the  same  rold  and  haughty  temper, 
combined  with  the  power  to  charm  by  a  condescend- 
ing grace,  the  same  love  of  pomp  and  power,  and 
the  same  skill  in  the  choice  of  able  instrtnnents,  thus 
compensating  for  the  want  of  genuine  j)ersonal  great- 
ness. She  died  in  1666.  Two  curious  personal  peculi- 
arities of  this  queen  are  mentioned  by  biographers — 
her  antipathy  to  roses,  so  strong  that  while  passion- 
ataly  fond  of  flowers  and  perfimies,  she  could  not 
endure  even  the  picture  of  a  rose;  and  the  extra- 
ordinary delicacy  of  her  skin,  which  made  Mazarin 
remark,  that  'if  her  nuijesfy  were  condemned  to  the 
inlernal  regions,  her  liell  would  be  to  sleep  in  brown 
bollands.' 

ANXE,  Queen  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  and 
the  last  British  sovereign  of  the  House  of  Stuart, 
was  born  at  Twickenham,  near  London,  on  6th 
February  1664.  She  was  the  second  daughter  of 
James  II.  of  England,  ami  VII.  of  Scotland  (who  at 
the  time  of  her  birth  was  Puke  of  York),  by  his  first 
wife,  Anne  Hyde,  the  daughter  of  the  famous 
Clarendon.  When  she  was  about  seven  years  of 
age,  her  mother  died  ;  and  her  father  soon  after 
professed  himself  a  member  of  the  Church  of  Rome; 
but  he  permitted  his  daughters  to  be  educated  in 
the  principles  of  the  Church  of  England,  to  which 
A.  always  retained  an  ardent  if  not  a  very  eidight- 
ened  attachment — seldom  manifesting,  in  the  whole 
course  of  her  life,  so  much  resolution  and  independ- 
ence of  mind,  as  in  her  resistance  to  the  attempts  of 
her  father,  after  his  accession  to  the  throne,  to 
induce  her  to  join  the  Church  of  Rome,  accompanied, 
as  these  were,  with  the  offer  that  she  should  be 
■  preferred  in  the  succession  to  her  sister  Mary,  'j'o 
advance  his  own  popularity,  her  father  gave  her 
in  marriage,  in  1684,  to  Prince  George  of  Denmark, 
brother  of  Christian  V.,  an  indolent  and  good  natured 
man,  who  concerned  himself  little  about  public 
aflairs,  and  was  endowed  with  no  capacity  for  taking 
part  in  them.  A's  own  weakness  of  character  and 
that  of  her  husband  gave  opportunity  to  Lady 
Churchill,  afterwards  Duchess  of  Marlborough,  her 
early  playfellow,  to  acquire  an  influence  over  her. 
which,  during  many  years,  was  almost  supreme  and 
absolute.  During  the  reign  of  her  father,  A.  lived  in 
retirement,  taking  no  part  in  politics.  On  the 
landing  of  the  Prince  of  Orange,  she  seems  at  first 
to  have  hesitated,  and  even  to  have  been  inclined  to 
adhere  to  the  cause  of  her  father,  whose  favourite 
daughter  she  was  ;  but  Lord  Churchill  had  made  up 
bis  mind  to  an  opposite  course,  and  his  wife  induced 
274 


the  princess  to  adopt  it.  She  consented  to  the  act 
by  which  the  throne  was  secured  to  the  Prince  of 
Orange  in  the  event  of  his  surviving  her  sister 
Mary ;  but  quarrelled  with  her  sifter  about  questions 
of  etiquette,  and  was  afterwards  drawn  into  intrigues 
in  which  the  Churehills  were  engaged,  for  the 
restoration  of  her  father,  or  to  secure  tiie  succession 
of  the  throne  to  his  son.  She  even  entered  into  a 
secret  correspondence  with  her  father.  She  was 
herself  childless  when,  on  the  death  of  William 
III.,  on  8ih  March  1702,  she  succeeded  to  the 
throne.  She  bore,  indeed,  .seventeen  children;  but 
only  one,  the  Duke  of  (iloucester,  survived  infancy, 
and  he  died  in  17o0,  at  the  age  of  11.  The  influence 
of  Marlborough  and  his  wile  was  n)Ost  powerfully 
felt  in  all  public  affairs  during  the  greater  part  of 
her  reign.  The  strife  of  parties  was  extremely 
violent,  and  political  complications  were  increa.«ed 
by  the  queen's  anxiety  to  secure  the  succession  for 
her  brother.  In  so  far  as  she  had  any  political 
principles,  they  were  opposed  to  that  constitutional 
liberty  of  which  her  own  occupancy  of  the  throne 
was  a  sort  of  symbol,  and  favourable  to  absolute 
government  and  the  assertion  of  royal  prerogitive 
according  to  the  traditions  of  her  family.  These 
j)rinciples  and  her  family  attachment,  tended  to 
alienate  her  from  the  Malboroughs,  whose  policy, 
from  the  time  of  her  accession,  had  become  adverse  to 
Jacobitism,  and  who  now,  along  with  Godolphin, 
were  at  the  head  of  the  Whig  party.  The  duche.<>s 
also  offended  the  queen  by  presuming  too  boldly  and 
haughtily  \ipon  the  power  which  she  had  so  long 
possessed.  A.  found  a  new  favourite  in  Mrs.  Masham, 
a  relation  of  the  duchess,  whom  she  herself  had 
introduced  into  the  royal  household.  To  Mrs, 
Masliam's  influence  the  change  of  government  in 
1710  was  in  a  great  measure  owing,  when  the 
Whigs  were  cast  out,  and  the  Tories  came  into 
office,  Harley  (afterwards  Earl  of  Oxford)  and 
St.  John  (Lord  Bormgl)roke)  becoming  the  leaders 
of  the  ministry.  But,  although  concurring  more  or 
less  in  the  queen's  design  to  secure  the  succession 
of  the  throne  to  her  brother,  the  new  ministers  had 
quarrels  among  themselves  which  prevented  its 
successful  prosecution,  and  it  oozed  out  sufficiently 
to  alarm  the  nation,  and  to  alienate  many  of  their 
political  supporters.  A  dispute  between  Oxford  and 
Jlrs.  Masham,  carried  on  for  hours  in  the  queen's 
presence,  and  which  terminated  in  her  demanding 
his  instant  resignation,  seems  to  have  brought  on 
the  attack  of  apoplexy  of  which  she  died,  1st 
August  1714.  The  Elector  of  Hanover  succeeded 
her  as  George  I. — The  public  events  of  her  reign 
belong  to  the  history  of  Britain  ;  but  the  union  of 
England  and  Scotland,  in  17o7,  may  be  mentioned 
in  its  personal  relation  to  herself,  as  she  was  the 
last  sovereign  who  reigned  over  these  as  separate 
kingdoms,  and  the  first  sovereign  styled  of  Great 
Britain. — Queen  A.  was  of  middle  size,  and  comely, 
though  not  beautiful.  She  was  virtuous,  conscien- 
tious, and  affectionate,  more  worthy  of  esteem  as  a 
woman  than  of  admiration  as  a  queen.  Her  reign  is 
often  mentioned  as  a  period  'rendered  illustrious  by 
some  of  the  greatest  names,  both  in  literature  and 
science,  which  her  country  has  ever  produced; 
but  literature  and  science  owed  little  to  her  active 
encouragement. 

ANNE  A' LING  is  the  process  of  tempering 
resorted  to  in  the  manufacture  of  glass  and  the 
preparation  of  several  of  the  metals,  whereby  these 
substances  acquire  a  hardness  combined  with 
tenacity  which  renders  them  much  stronger,  and 
consequently  more  durable.  In  the  making  of 
glass  vessels  by  the  glass-blower,  they  are  of  course 
quickly  reduced  in  temperature  whilst  the  fused 
glass   is   being    modelled   into   the    desired    shape. 


ANNELIDA— ANNUAL. 


The  atoms  of  the  glass  thus  rapidly  compelled 
to  assume  a  position,  do  not  seem  to  be  properly 
and  finidy  arranged  together,  and  the  vessel  is 
very  liable  to  be  broken,  either  by  a  slight  but 
smart  blow,  or  a  stidden  increase  or  decrease  in 
temperature.  This  brittleness  is  very  observable  in 
the  lacrijiiHe  vitreir,  or  glass  tears,  known  as  Priuce 
Rupcrfx  iJrops,  obtained  by  allowing  molten  glass 
to  fall  into  water,  when  the  glass  forms  pear-shapid 
drops,  which  are  so  brittle,  that  if  they  be  scratched 
with  a  file  or  the  end  be  broken  oflT,  the  whole  bursts 
asunder,  and  fixlls  down  into  a  fine  powder  of  glass. 
The  same  brittleness  is  exhibited  in  Bologna  jarx,  or 
pfiials,  which  are  small  and  very  thick  in  the  glass; 
and  vet,  if  a  minute  angidar  fragment  of  any  hard 
substance  be  dropped  into  the  jar,  the  latter  flies  to 
pieces. 

In  the  A.  of  glass  vessels,  they  are  arranged  in 
iron  trays,  and  placed  in  a  long  oven,  whore  they 
are  gradually  raised  in  temperature  to  near  their 
fusing-point,  by  the  trays  being  drawn  along  to  the 
hottest  part  of  the  oven  ;  and  thereafter,  the  trays, 
with  their  contents,  are  very  slowly  drawn  into  a 
cooler  and  cooler  part,  till  they  become  cold.  The 
A.  operation  generally  takes  twelve  hours  for  small 
articles  such  as  wine-glasses ;  but  days,  and  even 
a  week  or  two,  are  required  to  anneal  completely 
large  vessels.  Many  articles  of  glass,  such  as  tubes 
for  steam-guages,  lamp-glasses,  &c.,  are  annealed 
by  being  immersed  in  cold  water,  which  is  very 
gradually  raised  to  its  boiling-point,  and  thereafter 
cooled. 

The  metals  are  often  subjected  to  the  process  of 
A.  When  medals  are  repeatedly  struck  by  the  die- 
stamper,  the  gold  or  other  metal,  by  tlie  concus- 
sion, becomes  brittle,  and  requires  to  be  now  and 
again  heated  and  annealed.  In  wire-drawing,  also, 
the  metal  becomes  so  hard  and  brittle,  that  it  re- 
quires A.  to  prevent  its  breaking  into  short  lengths. 
Boiler  plates,  which  have  been  drawn  out  by  rolling, 
require  to  be  annealed  before  they  are  riveted  to- 
gether. The  brasier,  in  hammering  out  copper  and 
brass  vessels,  must  stop  now  and  again,  and  anneal  the 
metal.  Articles  of  tin,  lead,  and  zinc  can  be  annealed 
in  boiling  water.  The  tempering  of  steel  is  just  a 
process  of  A.  The  steel  is  placed  in  an  oil-bath,  or 
surrounded  by  a  metallic  mixture  which  has  a  low- 
fusing-point ;  and  according  to  the  temperature  to 
which  it  is  subjected,  a  steel  with  various  degrees  of 
softness  and  strength  is  obtained.  Parke's  table  of 
metallic  mixtures  capable  of  being  used  in  the  temper- 
ing or  A.  of  instruments  made  from  steel,  is  as  follows  : 


Allot. 


Lnncets, 
Razors, 
Penknives, 

,  large 
Scissors,  shears, 
Axes,  plane  irons, 
Table-knives, 


Fnsingr- 
poiiit "  F. 


Le:id.  Tin. 

7  parts  4  parts  420 

8  "  4  "  442 
8i  "  4  "  450 

10     "  4  "  470 

14     "  4  "  490 

19     "  4  "  690 

30     "  4  "  6:50 


Watch-springs,  swords,  48     "         4 
Large  springs,  augers,  100     "         4 


550 
558 


The  theory  of  A.  is  very  imperfectly  understood. 
A  certain  rearrangement  of  the  atoms  of  the  glass 
or  metal  no  doubt  takes  place,  and  an  absorption  of 
heat  occurs.  It  is  possible  that  as  the  crystalline 
structure  is  indicative  of  brittleness,  and  the  fibrous 
texture  characteristic  of  strength,  that  the  passage 
of  glass  or  metal  from  a  brittle  to  a  non-brittle 
material  may  be  due  to  the  development  of  a  fibrous 
structure,  where  a  crystalline  one  wa&  originally 
present. 


ANNE  LIDA,  or  ANNELIDES(from  Lat.  auntUus, 
a  ring),  a  small  class  of  Articulated  Anin»als,  mostly 
included  by  Linna'us  in  his  class  ]'^ermes.  They  have 
a  iiioie  or  less  elongated  body,  which  is  alwavs  com- 
posed of  numerous  rings.  The  first  of  those  rings 
assumes,  in  most  of  them,  the  characters  of  a  head, 
but  in  some  there  is  no  proper  head.  They  have  no 
articulated  limbs,  but  most  of  them  are  provided 
with  bristles  and  hairs,  often  in  numerous  bundles, 
which  are  of  use  to  them  in  locomotion ;  some 
which  want  these,  are  furnished  with  suckers  at  the 
extremities,  and  employ  them  for  this  purpose ;  some 
remain  fixed  in  one  place.  Their  bodies  are  always 
soft,  and  without  external  or  internal  skeleton  ;  but 
some  of  thorn  form  for  themselves  a  calcareous  cov- 
ering by  exudation,  others  form  coverings  partly  by 
exudation  and  partly  by  agglutination.  Their  blood 
is  generally  red,  but  not  from  red  corpuscles, 
as  in  the  vertebrate  animals  ;  sometimes  it  is  green- 
ish or  yellowish.  Their  nervous  system  is  simple. 
Many  of  them  have  eyes,  and  many  have  tontacula. 
Most  of  them  live  in  water,  and  of  these  the  greater 
part  inhabit  the  sea.  Those  which  live  in  water 
breathe  by  gills,  which  are  variously  formed  and 
placed  ;  some  which  are  terrestrial,  as  earthworms, 
have,  instead  of  gills,  numerous  small  respiratory 
sacs.  They  are  all  horma[)hrodite  ;  most  of  them, 
however,  require  mutual  fecundation,  and  most  of 
them  are  oviparous.  They  feed  in  general  upon 
other  animals,  and  some  of  them  live  by  sucking 
blood.  They  are  now  divided  into  four  orders  :  1. 
Dorsibratichiata,  having  gill-tufts  disposed  regularly 
along  the  body,  and  composed  of  animals  of  com- 


Sandworm  {Arenicola  jmcatorum). 

paratively  active  habits ;  2.  Tuhicolo',  having  gill- 
tufts  near  the  head,  and  provided  with  shelly  or 
other  coverings;  3.  Terricolw,  destitute  of  all  ex- 
ternal appendages,  except  minute  bristles,  and 
breathing  by  respiratory  sacs ;  4.  Siictoria,  destitute 
even  of  bristles,  and  provided  with  suckers  at  the 
extremities.  Of  the  first  order,  the  Sea-worms,  Sea- 
centipedes,  and  Sea-mouse  are  examples  ;  of  the 
second,  the  Serpnla,  so  often  an  object  of  interest  in 
the  aquarium  ;  of  the  third,  the  Earthworm ;  and  of 
the  fourth,  the  Leech. 

A'NNUAL,  in  Botany,  a  term  employed  to  denote 
that  the  duration  of  the  life  of  a  plant  is  limited  to 
a  single  year,  within  which  the  germination  of  the 
seed,  all  the  functions  of  vegetation,  the  ripening  of 
new  seed,  and  the  death  of  the  plant,  are  included. 
The  whole  duration  of  life  in  the  plants  thus  desig- 
nated is  indeed  generally  much  less  than  a  year, 
and  in  temperate  and  cold  climates,  falls  within  the 
brief  period  of  the  siminier  months.  They,  a.s  well 
as  the  plants  generally  called  biennial,  produce  flow- 
ers and  fruit  only  once.  Some  species  are  generally 
A.,  and  others  generally  biennial;  but  whether  an  in- 
dividual plant  is  A.  or  biennial,  often  depends  upon 
the  accidental  circumstance  of  the  season  at  which 
the  seed  germinates,  and  may  therefore  be  artificially 
determined  by  the  time  of  sowing.  Peculiar  circum- 
stances also  sometimes  convert  A.  into  biennial,  or 
even  perennial  plants  ;  and  those  which  are  mere 
annuals  in  one  climate,  are  perennial,  or  even  shrubby, 
in  another,  of  which  the  Castor-oil  plant  affords  a 
notable  example.  Most  kinds  of  corn  are  the  produce 
of  A.  grasses ;  some  of  which,  however,  as  wheat, 
in  certain  circumstances,  prove  of  longer  du- 
ration. The  annuals  cultivated  in  our  flower- 
gardens  are  very  numerous;  and  manv  species,  both 

275 


ANNUALS— ANNUAL  REGISTER. 


native    and   foreign,  are  among  our  most  beautiful 
flowers. 

A'NNUALS,  tlic  name  given  to  a  class  of  pleasant 
and  graceful  publications,  which  for  some  years 
enjoyed  an  extraordinary  amount  of  public  fovour, 
intended  for  Christmas,  New-year  and  Birthday 
presents,  in  imitation  of  the  Gift -books  so  popular 
among  the  Germans.  They  were  illustrated  by 
ex(iuisitely  engraved  prints,  from  paintings  by  artists 
of  tlie  highest  talent,  and  contained  prose  and  poetry 
by  most  of  the  best  writers  of  the  day.  The  first 
of  them,  the  Forr/ct-tnr-unt,  edited  by  Frederick 
Shoberl,  was  begun  in  London  in  IS'22.  The  idea, 
and  even  the  title,  were  adopted  from  Germany  by 
the  Messrs.  Ackemiann,  the  London  publishers.  The 
following  year,  two  others  made  their  appearance — 
Fricml.s/iiy.i  Offerinrt,  published  by  Smith  and  Elder, 
which  had  for  successive  editors,  Mr.  T.  K.  Hervey. 
Mr.  Pote,  Mr.  Thomas  Tringle,  Mr.  "\V.  11.  Ainsworth, 
and  Mr.  Leitch  Ritchie  ;  and  tlio  Grnrex,  containing 
a  series  of  elegant  poems  on  the  Months  by  the  Rev. 
Dr.  Croly.  All  three,  in  addition  to  their  literary 
and  pictorial  contents,  had  at  fir.'st  the  blnnk 
paper  for  memoranda,  cash  accounts,  &c.,  which 
were  customary  in  the  Gift  Pocket-books  of  pre- 
vious times.  The  IJfcrar;/  Souvenir,  commenced 
in  18'2-1  by  Mr.  Alaric  A.  Watts,  was  the  first 
to  discard  these,  and  to  exhibit  a  vast  improve- 
ment on  this  class  of  embellished  works.  Thence- 
forth the  several  publishers  vied  with  each  other 
in  their  efforts  to  render  their  respective  A., 
every  succeeding  year,  more  and  more  attractive. 
The  Literarji  Sonvrnir  was  followed  by  the  Atmtfef, 
started  by  Mr.  S.  C.  Ilall,  and  edited  by  his  wife  ; 
the  Winter'x  Wrcnth,  a  provincial  annual ;  and  the 
Keepsake,  the  latter  commenced  iu  1827  by  Mr. 
Charles  Heath,  an  eminent  engraver.  Up  to  this 
tinu>,  the  price  of  all  the  A.  was  12s.  each  ;  the  Keep- 
sake, however,  was  published  at  a  guinea.  Its  first 
editor  was  Mr.  W.  II.  Ainsworth.  The  following 
year  the  editorship  was  offered  to  Sir  Walter  Scott, 
with  a  salary  of  £800,  and  payment  besides  for  his 
contributions  to  its  pages,  but  was  declined  by  him. 
It  was  then  placed  under  the  charge  of  5Ir.  F.  M. 
Reynolds,  who  contiinied  to  superintend  it  for  many 
years.  The  Keepsake  always  maintained  a  high 
aristocratic  character,  the  contributors  preferred 
being  those  who  could  boast  a  title.  In  1840,  it 
came  out  under  the  editorship  of  Lady  Emmeline 
Stuart  Wortley.  It  was  afterwards  edited  by  the 
Countess  of  Blessington.  So  popular  did  the  A. 
become,  that  in  1829  no  fewer  than  seventeen  were 
published.  In  1840,  the  number  had  dwindled  to 
nine.  The  Book  of  Beautji,  long  one  of  the  best  of 
the  series,  was  begun  in  1833  by  Mr.  Charles  Heath. 
The  first  volume  was  written  by  Miss  Landon  (L.  E. 
L.),  the  engravings  being  principally  after  drawings 
by  Frank  Stone.  The  volume  for  1834  was  placed 
under  the  editorship  of  the  Countess  of  Blessington, 
who  conducted  it  to  the  close  of  her  Hie.  Mr. 
Heath  had  also  the  Piciiiresqne  Aruiual,  and  the 
Children  of  the  Kobilitii — the  latter  commenced  in 
1838.  The  Juvenile  Album,  an  annual  for  children, 
was  published  by  the  Messrs.  Ackermann.  Scientific 
A.  also  made  their  appearance,  and  the  musical 
world  had  its  Miixical  £ijou.  Thomas  Hood  started 
the  Comic  Annual;  and  among  other  popular  pub- 
lications of  the  class  were  Fisher's  Drawing-roora 
Scrap-hook,  edited  at  first  by  Miss  Landon,  after- 
wards by  Mrs.  Howitt,  and  latterly  by  the  Honour- 
able Mrs.  Norton ;  and  Fisher's  Juvenile  Scrap- 
book,  edited  by  Mrs.  Ellis ;  the  Oriental  Annual, 
the  Historical  Annual,  and  the  Gift  and  Token, 
American  productions.  At  first  the  A.  were  .all 
bound  up  in  tinted  paper  and  enclosed  in  a  case  ; 
but  competition  produced  a  great  improvement  in 
276 


their  external  appearatice,  as  well  as  in  their  inside 
attractions.  Paper  gave  place  to  silk  ;  then  follow- 
ed morocco  bindings,  and  afterwards  velvet.  The 
sums  of  money  expended  on  the  several  departments 
were  enormous.  Mr.  Heath's  outlay  for  the  literary 
portion  alone  of  the  second  volume  of  the  Keepsake 
amounted  to  no  less  than  .£lt>00.  Of  this  sum,  Sir 
Walter  Scott  received  €ooO  for  the  liberty  of  print- 
ing in  it  his  juvenile  drama  of  the  Jlonxe  of  Aspen, 
Aunt  Afarrjarefx  Mirror,  and  two  other  little  tales. 
To  manv  engravers,  the  illustrations  formed  almost 
their  sole  employment.  Sinns  varying  from  2o  to 
1.50  guineas  were  paid  to  artists  for  the  loan  of  pic- 
tures for  engravings,  of  the  size  of  4  inches  by  3  ; 
and  engraver.-?  frequently  received  1.50  guineas  for 
the  production  of  one  plate.  For  several  years 
nearlv  .£lin>,niM")peraniium  was  expended  on  the  pro- 
duction of  tlie  A.  and  l.io,0()0  copies  of  them  were 
vearlv  sold.  The  sale  of  the  Forqet-me-not  alone  was 
at  one  time  20.(iiiO  copies.  In  their  most  flourishing 
period,  a  cidculation  of  their  expenses  and  profits  was 
made,  which  may  be  here  quoted.  For  l,5ii,0()0  vol- 
umes, including  the  guinea  books,  of  which  there  were 
always  two  or  three,  the  public  paid  about  £00,000, 
thus  distributed :  Authors  and  editors,  ffiOOO  ; 
jiainters,  £3iH)()  ;  engravers,  .€12,00(i;  copperplate 
printers,  £4000;  printer-,  £3.")()i>;  paper-makers, 
fooOO;  binders,  £9i>00;  p'dk  manufacturers  and 
leather-sellers,  .£t00() ;  advertising,  &c.,  £2000;  inci- 
dental expenses,  £1000  ;  publishers'  profits,  £10,000  ; 
retail  booksellers'  profits,  £3«»,00()— Total,  £90,(K)0. 

After  1840,  the  demand  for  the  A.  began  to  de- 
cline. At  the  best  there  had  been  a  sickly  senti- 
ment.alism  in  the  bulk  of  their  articles;  and  at  all 
events,  this  dassof  works  had  been  mainly  addressed 
to  the  refined  and  aflluent.  Better  tastes  in  litera- 
ture now  began  to  prevail,  and  there  was  a  feeling 
that  A.  had  had  their  day.  Deserted  by  public 
favour,  the  character  both  of  their  engravings  ai\d 
their  literary  contents  became  greatly  deteriorated, 
and  they  ceased  to  have  any  attraction,  either  as 
literary  productions  or  works  of  art.  Publishers  no 
longer  found  them  sa'e  speculations,  and  gradually 
discontinued  them.  They  dropped  out  one  by  one, 
like  spent  stars  from  the  literary  firmament.  The 
Literary  Sowenir  had  been  discontinued  in  1834, 
after  the  publication  often  volumes.  The  Forgei-Jie- 
not,  the  first  in  the  field,  saw  its  22d  year.  The 
Itook  of  Beaut)/  and  the  Keepxnke  were  the  last  of 
tlieir  race.  The  latter,  on  the  death  of  the  Countess 
of  Blessington,  was  placed  under  the  editorship  of 
her  niece.  Miss  Power.  The  Keepsake  of  18.")t>,  the 
engravings  in  which  were  under  the  superintendence 
of  Mr.  F.  Heath,  was  the  only  relic  of  the  past ;  and 
in  that  year  it  ceased  to  exist. 

ANNUAL  REGISTER.  The  first  volume  of  the 
useful  work  which  bears  this  name  appeared  in 
1759.  Various  publications  of  a  similiir  character 
had  previously  existed,  such  as  Boyer's  Political 
State  of  Europe,  which  was  published  in  monthly 
numbers  and  yearly  volumes  from  1711  to  1739; 
and  the  Historical  Register,  a  quarterly  publication, 
begun  in  1716,  and  concluded  in  1738.  The  A.  R. 
diflered  from  these  in  being  published  once  a  year, 
in  containing  a  more  full  and  .able  historical  narra- 
tive, and  in  the  addition  of  a  literary  and  miscel- 
laneous department,  including  notices  of  new  books. 
The  undertaking  was  projected  by  Robert  Dodsley 
the  bookseller,  assisted  by  Edmund  Burke,  who  for 
some  years  wrote  the  historical  narrative,  and 
assisted  to  some  extent  in  the  preparation  of  the 
Register  during  most  of  the  subsequent  part  of  his 
life.  Indexes  to  the  work  have  been  published  at 
various  periods,  and  the  publication  still  goes  on 
regularly.     A   rival  work,  entitled  The   New  A.  R., 


ANXUITY. 


was  started  in  1781  by  Dr.  Kippis.  It  was  eilitod 
after  his  death  by  Dr.  Morpan,  and  came  to  a  dose 
in  1825.  The  Edinburgh  A.  R.  was  eointucnced  in 
1808,  and  terminated  iu  1827.  The  histo!ii.;il  narra- 
tive was  for  some  years  written  by  Sir  Walter  Scott, 
and  afterwards,  for  a  considerable  time,  by  Southey. 
A  similar  work  was  commenced  at  Paris  in  1818 
under  the  title  of  Annuaire  Jlistorique,  and  con- 
tinued till  18-49.  The  earlier  volumes  were  compiled 
with  much  care  and  ability,  but  latterly  the  work  fell 
off  very  greatly.  Its  jilace  is  now  supplied  by  the 
Annuaire  des  Deux  Mondex,  a  publication  connected 
with  the  well-known  review  of  that  name,  and  com- 
piled with  high  ability.  Tlie  American  Annual  Ency- 
clopcBdia  has  been  published  at  N.  Y.  since  1861. 

AXXU'ITY,  from  the  Latin  annns,  a  year,  is  a 
sum  of  money  paid  annually.  The  term,  in  its  full 
meaning,  expresses  an  obligation  on  one  party  to  pny, 
and  a  right  in  another  to  receive  the  amoimt.  The 
different  kinds  of  annuities  that  may  exist  are  as 
vaiious  as  the  conditions  and  fancies  of  those  con- 
cerned in  them  ;  and  it  is  impossible  to  define  them 
all.  An  A.  may  be  for  the  life  of  any  person,  how- 
ever long  that  may  be,  becoming  extinguished  only 
by  his  death.  It  may  be  perpetual,  so  that  as  each 
enjoyer  of  it  dies,  his  heirs  may  succeed  to  it.  It 
may  be  on  the  life  of  tlie  survivor  of  any  number  of 
persons — for  instance,  a  father  may  leave  to  his  five 
daughters  an  A.  of  £.500  a  year  from  his  estate,  to  be 
eiijoyed  by  the  latest  survivor,  so  that  while  the  five 
are  alive,  they  have  £l»iO  each  ;  after  the  first  death 
among  them,  the  lapsed  share  is  distributed  among 
the  survivors,  giving  them  £125  each  ;  and  so  on, 
the  last  survivor  enjoying  the  whole  £500.  On  the 
other  hand,  each  might  have  a  separate  A.  terminat- 
ing at  her  death ;  and  again,  instead  of  either  of  these 
simple  arrangements,  there  might  be,  and  often  is,  a 
niore  complex  adjustment,  giving  the  survivors  on 
each  death  a  certain  proportion  oidy  of  the  deceased  s 
A.  An  A.  may  begin  immediately,  and  stop  on  a 
contingency,  such  as  the  death  of  a  person  to  whom 
the  annuitant  is  heir.  It  may  be  '  deferred,'  so  as 
to  begin  to  be  payable  only  after  the  lapse  of  so 
many  years ;  and  then  it  may  either  be  payable 
al)Solutely  in  perpetuity,  or  for  a  given  number  of 
years,  or  it  may  be  payable  to  an  annuitant  only  for 
the  remaining  years  of  his  life,  if  he  survive  the 
contingi-ncy. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  there  is  infinite  variety 
in  the  nature  of  annuities,  and  consequently,  in  the 
calculations  regarding  them.  The  fixed  elements  of 
such  calculations,  independently  of  this  variety,  are 
in  themselves  double,  bcir.g  vital  statistics,  and  the 
profit  or  interest  of  money.  As  to  the  former,  they 
can  only  apply,  of  course,  to  the  adjustment  of  an- 
nuities on  a  large  scale.  If  a  person  should  sell  a 
single  A. — that  is  to  say,  engage  for  a  simi  down 
to  pay  a  certain  person  an  A.  for  life — no  study  of 
vital  statistics  could  make  his  bargain  other  than  a 
chance ;  and  though  he  went  on  the  most  approved 
tables,  it  might  occur  either  that  the  annuitant  dies 
immediately,  leaving  the  whole  purchase-money  as 
his  profit,  or  that  the  animitant  lives  to  extreme 
old  age,  and  renders  him  a  great  loser  by  the  bar- 
gain. But  on  a  large,  and  e.-pccially  on  a  national 
6  ale,  the  rate  of  mortality  and  the  value  of  life 
may  be  so  nicely  rendered  in  statistics,  that  a 
market  may  be  opened  for  the  purchase  and  sale 
of  annuities  at  their  exact  value — that  is  to  say,  at 
such  a  rate  that  the  sum  paid  in  from  time  to  time 
by  persons  purchasing  annuities,  shall  just  serve  to 
piy  each  annuitant's  annual  claim.  Such  vital 
statistics,  however,  can  only  be  obtained  through  a 
very  accurate  and  long-continued  registration  of 
births,  deaths,  and  marriages  (see  Registei;);  and  it 
Ls  known  that  the  government  having  adjusted  the  | 


price  of  annuities  by  the  celebrated  Xorthamptoa 
(q.  v.)  Tables,  made  a  Iftsing  bargain  with  their  an- 
iniitants  as  a  body,  and,  without  being  conscious  of 
it  until  afterwards,  sacrificed  a  considerable  amount 
of  public  money. 

The  second  element,  besides  vital  statistics,  in  the 
calculation  of  annuities,  is  the  jjrofit  or  interest  of 
money.  If  this  did  not  requii  e  to  be  considered,  an 
A.  of  £1  a  year  for  ten  years  would  just  cost  £10. 
But  while  paying  the  A.,  the  person  who  has  engaged 
for  it  is  drawing  the  interest  of  the  money.  If  he  sold 
an  A.  of  £1  a  year  for  ten  years  for  £it\  he  would 
be  drawing  the  interest  of  £lii  for  the  first  year,  £9 
for  the  sccotid,  and  so  on  ;  and  the  annuitant's  bar- 
gain would  be  to  a  like  extent  disadvantageous. — 
As  the  interest  of  money  may  be  various,  so  may 
this  element  of  the  calculation  of  an  A.;  and  to  cal- 
etdate  it  with  reference  to  future  indefinite  varia- 
tions, is  of  course  imiiossiblc.  It  will  be  seen  at 
once  that  when  the  variety  of  kinds  of  A.  have  to  be 
adjusted  to  different  rates  of  profit,  an  immense  field 
is  opened  for  calculation.  It  is,  in  fact,  a  provnice 
of  algebraic  science  in  which  several  men  have 
achieved  reputations. 

The  interest,  as  it  is  termed,  of  the  national  debt 
is  virtually  a  multitude  of  perpetual  annuities.  In 
a  country  where  there  is  so  much  superabundant 
wealth,  there  is  so  vast  an  amount  of  capital  for 
which  people  only  want  interest,  that  although  the 
lenders  of  the  money  are  not  repaid  by  the  govern- 
ment, yet  when  any  one  has  invested  in  the  funds, 
if  he  wants  his  money  back,  he  is  sure  to  find  a 
person  to  take  his  place  at  something  near  to  the 
price  paid  by  him.  This  would  not  be  the  case  were 
the  quantity  of  these  annuities  in  the  market  dis- 
proportioned  to  the  number  desiring  to  invest  in 
them,  and  hence  it  is  that  when  there  is  depression 
of  trade,  and  money  wanted  to  meet  obligations,  the 
funds  fall.  The  government  have  the  largest  field 
of  operation,  and  therefore  it  is  natural  to  infer  that 
their  aimuities  are  more  closely  adjusted  to  their 
actual  value  than  those  of  insurance  companies  and 
other  parties  dealing  in  annuities  can  be.  It  may  be 
mentioned,  however,  that,  for  the  encouragement  of 
the  working  classes  to  save  and  provide  for  old  age 
and  contingencies,  government,  through  the  savings' 
banks,  grants  small  annuities  on  terms  advantageous 
to  the  purchasers — that  is,  at  less  than  their  market 
value  (see  Savings'  Banks). 

Many  comp'icated  sets  of  tables  have  been  pre- 
p;ired  to  facilitate  the  calculation  of  annuities.  The 
latest  known  to  us  are  the  Connnutation  Tablets  for 
Joint  Annuities  and  Survivortihip  Assurances,  based 
on  the  Carlisle  Mortalitij  at  3,  3^,  4,  5,  and  6  per 
cent.,  by  David  Chisholm,  2  vols.,  royal  8vo,  1858. 
The  calculations  are  brought  out  in  decimals.  Tak- 
ing the  simplest  of  these  tables — luimely,  those  con- 
taining the  value  of  an  A.  of  £1,  payal.le  at  the  end 
of  the  first  year,  and  thereafter  annually  during  life 
— we  find  the  following  results,  commuting  the  deci- 
mals into  fractional  money  through  Mr  Chishohu's 
decimal  tables : 

Value  of  Annuity  of  £1. 


A£ce. 

£ 

«.  d. 

5 

16 

11  H 

10 

16 

13  U 

15 

16 

4  H 

20 

15 

16  4i 

25 

15 

6  1 

30 

14 

14  5 

35 

14 

2  6+ 

40 

13 

7  H 

Age. 

£  «. 

('. 

45 

12  12 

lU 

50 

11  14 

2.V 

65 

10  7 

IH 

60 

8  18 

H 

65 

1   17 

3J 

TO 

6  6 

H 

75 

4  19 

H 

80 

4  2 

loi 

In   politiccl   economy,  annuities   come  within   the 
class  of  payments  which  tend  rather  to  consumption 
^  277 


ANXUITY— .iNXL'XClADA. 


than  to  acounuilation  or  rcprodiution.  As  the 
nu'uiis  of  aUuiiiing  a  lofjitiniate  ohject,  the  estab- 
lishtnt'iit  of  an  A.  may  be  an  udvaiit^f^e  to  the  coni- 
iiiuiiity  in  benefiting  some  individual  member  of 
it.  For  instance,  a  man  is  naturally  exfravagnnt 
— lie  would  spend  liis  heritaj^e  iiiiinediati'ly,  and 
come  to  want,  if  it  were  paid  to  him  in  capital.  It 
is  therefore  vested  in  an  A.;  the  man  is  kept  in  com- 
fort, and  society  is  not  burdened  with  a  needy 
juember.  Women  are  apt  to  mismanafre  by  false 
investments  or  otherwise  any  capii;il  sums  left  at 
their  disposal,  and  therefore  it  is  often  advantage- 
ous to  give  them  an  equivalent  in  an  A.  In  ser\- 
ing,  however,  these  its  legitimate  objects,  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  money  so  spent  is  not  in  its 
cliaracter  reproductive.  People  do  save  capital 
out  of  annuities,  but,  as  a  general  ride,  the  olij<ct 
and  effect  of  annuities  are  in  the  direction  of  con- 
sumf)tion,  as  contrasted  with  accumulation.  This 
is  oi'len  overlooked  in  ficttlenients,  especially  by 
men  wlio  have  themselves  been  accumulators.  Tlie 
consumptive  efl'ect  of  tin  A.  will  dcpeiul  much  on  its 
coming  out  of  fi.xed  or  fluctuating  property.  Take, 
as  an  instance  of  the  former,  a  landed  estate.  If 
the  clear  rent  be  i)aid  on  aniniities,  the  estate  will 
not  be  improved,  and  it  will  be  stagnant  in  the  pro- 
jiortion  so  ])aid.  If,  out  of  a  thousand  a  year,  nine 
liundred  lie  tlnis  paid,  the  owner,  out  of  his  remainder 
of  a  himdred,  is  not  likely  to  accumulate  suflicient 
capital  to  improve  the  estate  and  double  its  value. 
But  Huetuating  property  may  not  only  be  rendered 
stagnant,  but  may  be  destroyed  by  the  burden  of 
injudicious  annuities.  This  is  frequently  exemjilified 
in  disposing  of  the  profits  of  a  business.  Difli-rent 
members  of  a  family  arc  portioned  off  \ipoii  it,  as  if 
it  were  a  fixed  jiermanent  estate;  and  conse(|Uently, 
theie  is  not  a  suflicient  balance  left  to  induce  any 
one  to  give  his  time  and  energies  to  the  manage- 
ment of  the  business. 

ANXU'ITY,  in  the  law  of  England,  is  the  right 
to  the  yearly  payment  of  a  certain  sum  of  money, 
which  is  charged  upon  the  j>erson  or  personal  estate 
of  the  individual  bound  to  pay  it.  If  it  is  charged 
upon  real  estate,  the  l)urdcn  is  called  a  rent,  or 
lent-charge,  and  not  an  A.  An  A.'  may  be  created 
for  a  term  of  years,  or  for  the  life  or  lives  of  any 
persons  named,  or  in  perpetuity ;  and  in  the  last 
ca.se  the  A.  is  reckoned  among  incorporeal  here- 
ditaments ;  because,  although  the  security  is  personal 
only,  yet  the  A.  may  descend  in  the  same  manner  as 
real  estate.  By  the  53  Geo.  III.  c.  141,  repealing 
the  17  Geo.  III.  c.  '2(i,  and  itself  amended  by  8 
Geo.  IV.  c.  9i,  and  7  Geo.  IV.  c.  7.'),  it  is  directed, 
that  upon  the  sale  of  A.  or  rent-charge,  a  memorial 
of  the  date  and  nature  of  the  security,  the  names  of 
the  parties  and  witnesses,  the  consideration  money, 
and  the  manner  in  which  it  was  paid,  and  the 
amount  of  such  A.  or  rent-charge,  shall,  within  thirty 
days  after  its  execution,  be  enrolled  in  the  Court  of 
Chancery,  oiheiwise  the  seeuiity  shall  be  null  and 
void.  It  is  therefore  the  duty  of  the  grantee  of  such 
A.  to  enrol  a  memorial  of  it,  or  a  statement  of  its 
particulars,  in  order  to  make  it  available  as  a  security 
over  the  property  charged.  The  above  statutes  do 
not  extend  to  Scotland  or  Ireland,  nor  to  any  A.  or 
rent-charge  given  by  will,  or  by  marriage  settlement, 
or  for  the  advancement  of  a  child,  nor  to  any  A.  or 
rent-charge  secured  upon  freehold,  copyhold,  or 
customary  lands  in  Great  Britain  or  Ireland,  or  in 
Her  Majesty's  possessions  beyond  the  seas,  or  by 
actual  transfer  of  stock  in  the  public  funds,  nor  to 
any  voluntary  A.  or  rent-charge  granted  without 
regard  to  pecuniary  consideration  or  money's  worth, 
nor  to  any  A.  or  rent-charge  granted  by  any  body 
corporate  or  under  any  authority  or  trust  created  by 
act  of  parliament.  By  sec.  8  of  the  53  Geo.  HI.  c.  141, 
1.73 


it  is  declared  a  misdemeanour,  punishable  by  tine 
and  imprisonment,  or  other  corporal  punishment,  to 
procure  or  solicit  any  person  inider  twenty-one  to 
grant  an  A.  or  rent-charge,  or  to  aiivance  or  procure 
to  be  advanced  money  to  him,  on  consideration  of 
his  granting  an  A.  or  rent-charge  after  he  is  of  age. 
In  a  recent  case  in  the  Irish  Court  of  Chancery,  it 
was  unsuccessfully  attempted  to  extend  the  act  to 
Ireland,  by  endeavoming  to  shew  that  although  the 
laruls  on  which  the  A.  was  charged  were  Irish,  the 
contract  itself  for  the  A.  was  English.  The  Lord 
Chancellor  (Xapier),  in  giving  judgment,  observed; 
'The  iiiii)erial  legislature  might  have  cut  the  matter 
short  if  it  had  emicted  one  and  the  same  law  for 
Ireland  as  for  England,  which  woidd  then  have 
governed  this  transaction  in  all  its  parts;  but  the 
act  of  the  Engli>h  I'arliament  before  the  Union,  or 
the  act  of  the  Imperial  Parliament,  in  terms  contined 
to  England,  coidd  not  be  extended  to  Ireland  by 
judicial  construction,  so  as  to  make  cither,  or  any 
part  of  eitlu'r,  a  law  of  this  land,  and  thereby  to 
control  the  disposition  of  Iiish  landi'd  estate.' 

In  Scotch  law,  an  A.,  as  such,  may  be  charged  on 
real  estate  as  well  as  on  p(>rsonalfy.  In  that  system, 
it  has  been  simply  defined  to  be  a  right  to  a  yearly 
payment  in  money  ;  and  it  may  be  created  either  by 
the  payment  of  the  sum  of  money  in  the  foini  of  a 
|)urchase,  or  it  may  be  secured  over  land,  in  which 
case  the  creditor,  in  the  event  of  default  of  his  X. 
may  attach  the  land  charged,  claiming  in  his  action 
for  recovery  a  capital  sum  out  of  the  land,  sufficient 
to  produce  an  annual  interest  eipial  to  the  A., 
which  annual  interest  is  paid  until  the  expiration 
of  the  A.,  when  the  capital  sum  is  restond  to  the 
debtor.  The  instrument  by  which,  in  Scotland,  the 
A.  is  constituted  in  either  of  the  above  forms,  is 
called  a  Bond  of  A.;  and  before  the  repeal  of  the 
usury  laws  (by  a  recent  statute,  17  and  18  \kt.  c. 
90),  this  form  of  deed  was  frccpiently  resorted  to  as 
a  means  of  securing  loans  where  a  high  rate  of  in- 
terest was  charged  ;  and  the  same  practice  prevailed 
in  England.  But  the  last-mentioned  act  renders  all 
such  expedients  now  unnecessary. 

AXXU'ITY-TAX,  a  local  impost  for  the  payment 
of  the  .salaries  of  the  Established  clergy  of  the  city  of 
Edinburgh.  It  was  first  established  on  a  limited 
scale  by  an  act  of  the  year  Itltll  ;  and  was  extended 
in  its  sphere  of  operation  by  an  act  of  the  legislature 
as  lately  as  1809.  It  anwunts  to  6  per  cent,  on  the 
rents  oi'  houses  and  shops.  It  is  a  peculiarity  of  this 
tax  that  the  mendiers  of  '  the  College  of  Ju.stice,' 
including  the  lawyer  class  generally,  enjoy  an  ex- 
emption from  it,  as  a  relic  of  an  ancient  privilege 
by  which  they  were  bribed  to  reside  and  hold  the 
courts  of  law  in  Edinburgh.  The  existence  of  this 
tax  has  been  frequently  the  cause  of  much  dis- 
quietude among  the  inhabitants,  and  its  abolition,  or 
at  least  its  modification,  is  at  present  under  discus- 
sion in  parliament. 

A'XX'ULET  (Lat.  avnulux,  correctly  anuhix,  a 
ring),  a  term  in  Architecture  for  a  small  fillet  or 
band  which  frequently  surrounds  a  column,  &c. 
The  A.  is  several  times  repeated  in  the  moulding 
which  surmounts  the  shaft  of  a  Doric  pillar,  and  is 
placed  immediately  under  the  ovolo  of  the  capital. — 
A.,  a  ring,  a  charge  in  heraldry  of  frequent  occur- 
rence. 

AXXITNCIA'DA.  1.  The  religious  Order  of  the 
Heavenly  Annunciation,  or  of  the  Nuns  of  the 
Annunciation  of  Mary,  was  instituted  by  Victoria 
Fornare  at  Genoa  in  1682,  after  the  rule  of  St. 
Augustine.  All  the  convents  of  the  order  in 
France,  Germany,  and  the  Netherlands  have  dis- 
appeared since  the  French  Revolution.  Some  still 
exist  in  Italy.     2.    Another  Order  of   the  Anuuu- 


ANNUS  DELIBERANDI— ANOMALISTIC  YEAR. 


ciation,  or  of  Nuns  of  Mary's  Announcement  or 
the  Ten  Virtues,  was  endowed  by  John  of  Valois 
at  Bourf^es  in  15t>l,  after  its  separation  from  Louis 
XII.  In  1514,  it  was  placed  under  the  authority 
of  the  P'ranciscans.  This  order,  which  extended 
to  fifty  convents  for  the  reception  of  poor  gentle- 
women, was  broken  up  at  the  Revolution.  3.  The 
Order  of  Knights   of  the    Annunciation    in   Savoy 


Star  of  the  Order  of  the  Annunciation. 

{Ordine  Stiprenm  delV  Annnnciatd),  known  origi- 
nally as  the  Order  of  the  Neck-chain  or  Collar,  was 
instituted  in  13tiO  by  Amadeus  VI.,  Duke  of  Savoy. 
It  received  statutes  from  Amadeus  VIII.  in  14(i9  ; 
was  renewed  in  1.518  under  the  name  of  the  Holy 
Annunciation;  and  in  172(1  was  raised  by  Victor 
Amadeus  to  be  the  first  order  of  the  kingdom  of 
Savoy.  The  king  is  always  grandmaster.  Tlie 
knights  who,  since  1720,  are  not  limited  in  number, 
must  be  of  high  rank,  and  already  admitted  to  the 
orders  of  St.  Mauritius  and  St.  Lazarus.  They  com- 
pose  only    one   class.      The   decoration   is    a   gold 


Decoration  of  the  Order  of  the  Annunciation. 


medal,  on  which  is  represented  the  Annunciation, 
surrounded  by  love-knots.  It  is  usually  worn 
suspended  by  a  simple  gold  chain  ;  but  the  proper 
collar  or  chain  of  the  order  is  composed  alternately 
of  love-knots  and  roses.  On  the  roses  are  en- 
graved the  letters  f.  e.  R.  t.,  which  some  interpret 
Fortitndo  ejics  Rhodum  tciiuit,  in  allusion  to  the  de- 
fence of  Rhodes  by  Amadeus  I.,  and  which  others 
hold  to  signify,  Frappes,  entres,  rompes  tons.  Since 
1680,  the  knights  wear  on  the  left  breast  a  star  em- 
broidered in  gold.  The  four  supreme  officers  of  the 
order— the  chancellor  (always  a  bishop  or  arch- 
bishop), the  secretary  (usually  the  Minister  of  Foreign 
Affairs),  the  almoner  (usually  the  king's  first  almoner), 
and  the  treasurer— wear  the  decoration  round  the 
neck,  suspended  by  a  sky-blue  ribbon,  accompanied 
by  a  star  on  the  left  breast.  For  details  of  costumes, 
&c.,  see  Burke's  Book  of  Orders  of  Knighthood,  p. 
250,  et  seq, 

A'NNUS  DELIBERA'NDI,  in  Scotch  law,  was 
meant  to  signify  the  period  of  a  year  allowed  to  an 
lu'ir  to  deliberate  whether  he  would  accept  the 
inheritance  with  the  burden  of  his  predecessor's 
debts.  The  year  commenced  on  the  death  of  the 
ancestor,  unless  in  the   case  of  a  posthumous  heir, 


when  the  year  ran  from  the  birth  of  the  heir 
himself.  But  by  a  recent  act  of  parliament — the 
21  and  22  Vict.  c.  76,  sec.  27 — it  is  provided  that  all 
proceedings  '  against  an  apparent  heir  on  account 
of  his  ancestor's  debt  or  obligation,  for  the  purpose 
of  attaching  the  ancestor's  heritable  estate,  and 
actions  of  adjudication  against  such  heir  on  account 
of  his  own  debt  or  obligation,  for  the  purpose  of  at^ 
taching  such  estate,  may  be  insisted  on  at  any  time 
after  the  lapse  of  six  vtonths  from  the  date  of  his 
becoming  apparent  heir,  any  law  or  practice  to  the 
contrary  notwithstanding.' 

ANOBIUM.  See  Borkr  and  Death-watch. 
A'NODE  [Gr.  ana,  upward,  and  (Jiy>d(,x,  a  way],  a 
term  introduced  into  the  science  of  electro-chemical 
decomposition  (clectroly.«is)  by  Dr.  Faraday,  to 
designate  the  positive  pole,  or  that  surface  by  which 
the  galvanic  current  enters  the  body  undergoing 
decomposition  (electrolyte).  The  negative  pole,  or 
that  surface  by  which  the  current  leaves  the  electro- 
lyte, is  called  in  the  same  nomenclature  the  cathode 
[kata,  downward,  and  {h)odo!i].  Electrode  is  the 
general  term  appHed  to  cither  of  these.  The  ele- 
ments of  electrolytes  are  called  ions  {ion,  going). 
Such  as  go  to  the  A.  receive  the  name  of  anioyis, 
and  those  passing  to  the  cathode,  cations.  Thus, 
in  the  decomposition  of  water  by  the  passage  into 
it  of  a  galvanic  current  through  two  platinum 
plates,  the  w^ater  is  the  electrolyte ;  the  platinum 
plate  connected  with  the  copper  end  of  the  battery 
is  the  A.  ;  and  the  one  connected  with  the  zinc 
end,  the  cathode.  The  o.xygen  and  hydrogen  which 
are  disengaged  are  the  ions  ;  the  oxygen  separating 
at  the  A.  is  the  anion;  and  the  hydrogen  at  the 
cathode,  the  cation.  Anions  and  cations  are  more 
o-enerally  known  under  the  name  of  electro-negative 
and  electro-positive  substances  ;  but  as  these  terms 
are  considered  by  Dr.  Faraday  to  imply  certain 
supposed  attractions  for  the  positive  or  negative 
pole,  the  other  terms  have  been  employed  by  him  to 
describe  simply  the  part  the  substances  play  in 
electrical  decomposition. 

A'NODYNE  (Gr.  a,  privative,  and  odi/ne,  pain),  a 
medicine  given  to  assuage  pain.  Properly,  the  term 
is  applied  to  medicines  which  act  on  the  nervous 
system  and  the  brain,  so  as  to  decrease  sensibility 
and  induce  sleep,  or  a  state  of  partial  unconscious- 
ness. These  are  chiefly  preparations  of  opium,  such 
as  the  acetate  of  morphia,  &.c. 

ANOMALI'STIC  YEAR  is  the  interval  that 
elapses  between  two  successive  passages  of  the  earth 
throuo-h  its  perihelion,  or  point  of  nearest  approach 
to  the  sun.  If  the  earth's  orbit  had  a  fixed 
position  in  space,  this  period  would  correspond  with 
that  of  a  sidereal  revolution,  or  the  tnue  the  earth 
takes  after  leaving  any  point  of  the  heavens  to 
return  to  it  again ;  but  the  dislurbmg  mtluencc  of 


Elliptical  Orbit. 

the  other  planets  causes  the  perihelion  to  advance 
slowly  (ll"-8  annually)  in  the  direction  of  the  earth's 
motion ;  so  that  the  A.  Y.  is  longer  (4  minutes  39 

279 


ANOMALY— AXOPLURA. 


seconds)  than  tlie  t<idereal.  Tins  will  be  Vjetter 
understood  from  the  accompanying  diagram,  in 
which  AliW  represents  the  eUiptical  orbit  ol"  tlic 
earth;  S,  the  sun  ;  A,  tlie  perihelion;  and  AB,  the 
longer  axis.  When  the  eaiih,  at'ler  leaving  A,  comes 
back  to  it  again,  after  having  completed  a  sidereal 
revolution,  it  finds  the  longer  axis  AH,  and  with  it 
the  w  hole  ellipse,  advanced  to  A'B',  and  it  has  still 
to  describe  an  arc  of  11  "S  before  it  reaches  its  second 
perihelion  A'.  Tiie  length  of  the  A.  Y.  is  'MMi  days, 
G  hours,  IS  minutes,  4'J  seconds.  It  receives  its 
name  from  the  anomaly  (q.  v.). 

ANOMALY  (Gr.  anomalia,  irregularity),  the  angle 
measured  at  the  sun  between  a  planet  in  any  point 
of  its  orbit  and  the  last  perihelion.  In  the  figure  in 
the  preceding  article,  if  P  be  a  |)Ianpt,  ABU'  its  orbit, 
S  the  sun,  and  A  the  peiihelion,  the  angle  ASI'  is 
the  anomaly.  It  is  so  called  because  it  was  in  it  that 
the  first  irregularities  of  |)lanetary  motion  were  dis- 
covered. The  anotnaly  was  formerly  measured  from 
the  aphelion,  the  opposite  ]ioint  of  the  ellipse  ;  but 
from  the  fact  that  the  aphelia  of  most  of  the  comets 
lie  beyoinl  the  range  of  observation,  the  perihelion 
is  now  taken  as  the  point  of  departure  for  all  plane- 
tary bodies. 

ANONA.     See  Ccstard-apple. 

ANONA'CE.-E,  a  natural  order  of  Dicotyledonous 
01  Exogenous  j)!ants,  of  which  the  type  is  the  genus 
Anona.  They  are  trees  or  shrMl)S,  with  alternate, 
simple,  generally  entire  leaves,  destitute  of  stipules  ; 
flowers  usually  green  or  brown,  axillary,  solitary,  or 
two  or  three  together  ;  the  calyx  of  3 — 4  persistent 
sepals ;  the  corolla  of  6  hypogynous  leathery  petals, 
in  two  rows.  The  stamens  are  generally  numerous; 
the  filaments  short;  the  anthers  adherent,  turned 
outwards,  and  with  a  large  4-cornered  connectwe.  8ee 
Stamkn.  The  carpels  are  usually  numerous,  separate 
or  cohering;  the  styles  short;  the  stigmas  simple; 
the  ovules  inverted.  The  fruit  consists  of  distinct 
or  united  carpels,  sometimes  succulent;  the  seeds 
attached  to  the  suture ;  their  external  covering 
brittle  ;  the  embryo  minute,  in  the  base  of  the  hard 
albumen. — There  are  about  300  known  species, 
mostly  natives  of  tropical  countries.  They  are 
generally  aromatic  and  fragrant  in  all  their  parts, 
and  some  s})ecies  are  employed  medicinally  ;  the  dry 
fruit  of  Xi/lopia  arotiia/ica  is  conmionly  used  as 
pepper  by  the  African  negroes,  and  was  formerly 
imported  into  Europe  as  Ethiopian  Pkppkk  or 
Guinea  Pepper.  The  flowers  of  some  species  are 
of  exquisite  fragrance  ;  otliers  yield  delicious  fruits. 
See  Custarr-Apple  and  Cherimoyer. 

ANO'NYMOUS  (Gr,  nameless),  a  term  applied 
to  a  book  the  author  of  which  does  not  give  his 
name  ;  when  an  assumed  name  is  given,  tlie  term 
PsEunoNYiMoiTS  is  used.  Works  of  this  class  consti- 
tute one  of  the  great  difficulties  of  bibliography. 
French  literature  possesses  an  excellent  Dictionuaire 
des  Ouvrage.i  Anoni/me-i  et  Pseiulont/mes  (2d  ed.,  4 vols. 
Par.  1822 — 1825)  by  Barbier,  embracing  the  titles  of 
about  24,000  works,  with  the  names  of  those  who 
are  known  or  assumed  to  be  authors.  A  similar 
work  for  English  literature  is  understood  to  be  in 
preparation  by  Mr.  Halkett,  Keeper  of  the  Advocates' 
Library,  Edinburgh. 

In  Great  Britain,  political  articles  are  always  A., 
as  is  also  most  of  the  periodical  criticism ;  but  on  the 
other  side  of  the  Channel,  this  practice,  especially 
under  the  present  rir/ime,  is  far  from  being  common. 
It  is  generally  admitted,  that  anonymity  secures  the 
independence  of  the  critic,  and  enables  him  to  write 
with  greater  freedom,  vigour,  and  power ;  but  it  is 
not  less  true  that  he  frequently  abuses  his  advantage, 
and  gratifies,  under  the  veil  of  the  A.,  the  worst 
passions  of  his  nature.  Perhaps  the  most  intolerable 
280 


abuse  of  anonymity  is  the  anonymous  letter.  The 
miseries,  anxieties,  and  tenors  which  this  eowaidly 
method  of  as-ailing  ])eople  has  occasioned,  )nust 
excite  against  it  the  indignation  and  abhorrence  of 
all  honourable-minded  men. 

ANOPLOTIIERIUM  (from  the  Greek  a,  priv- 
ative; (h)oiiloii,  armour;  and  t/ierion,  a  beast),  a 
genus  of  extinct  Artimlattyle  qna<lrupc(ls  (see 
I'AcHvnERMATA),  eslabli>hed  by  Cuvier  from  bones 
occurring  in  great  abundance  in  the  gypsum  strata 
of  the  L'pper  Eocene  {^\.  v.)  Ibiination,  near  I'aris. 
They  are  found  also  in  the  same  formation  in  the 
Isle  of  Wight  and  elsewhere.  The  teeth  dilVer  from 
those  of  all  other  Pachydermata,  extinct  or  recent. 
There  are  six  incisors,  two  caniiu-s,  eight  pne- 
molars,  and  six  molars  in  each  jaw — the  dental 
lornmla  thus  agreeing  with  that  of  tiie  fossil  genus 
I'uldotheriinn  (q.  v.);  but  the  teeth  arc  arrangeil  in 
a  continuous  series  without  interxening  vacancies — 
a  circumstance  very  remarkable,  as  it  does  not 
occiM-  in  any  existing  (luadrupcd,  l)ut  now  appears 
in  man  alone.  The  molars  of  the  upiK'r  jaw  are 
(luadrangular,  those  of  the  lower  marked  with  a 
double  or  triple  crescent  of  enamel,  which  forms 
prominent  ridges.  In  some  respects,  the  teeth 
resemble  those  of  the  liwninaulia  (i\.  v.),  or  rumin- 
ating (piadrupeds,  between  which  and  the  Pachy- 
dernuita  the  A.  has  been  thought  to  form  a  connect- 
ing  Uidi :    but   in  some  of    the    species    originally 


Anoplotherium. 

included  in  this  genus,  and  which  are  now  sometimes 
ranked  along  with  it  under  the  name  Auoplotlierohh, 
the  teeth  exhibit  peculiarities  which  have  l<-d  to  the 
supposition  that  their  food  may  not  have  been 
exclusively  vegetable.  The  snout  is  not  much 
elongated,  and  it  is  evident  that  there  was  no  pro- 
boscis. The  feet  are  terminated  by  two  toes,  as  in 
the  Ruminantia;  but  they  have  always  separate 
metacarpal  and  metatarsal  bones,  not  a  single 
canon  bone.  A  considerable  number  of  species  of 
A.  and  of  Anoplotheroids  have  been  determined, 
dilTering  in  size  from  that  of  a  small  ass  to  that 
of  a  hare,  or  even  of  a  guinea-pig ;  so  that  the 
smallest  species  must  have  been  smaller  than  any 
hoofed  quadruped  now  existing,  or  any  known  to 
have  ever  existed.  They  differ  also  considerably  in 
general  appearance,  some  having  had  comparatively 
long  limbs  and  a  light  and  graceful  form,  whilst 
some  were  firmly  built  and  heavy.  Their  habits  may 
be  supposed  to  have  differed  accordingly.  The  true 
Anoplotheria  were  probably  very  similar  in  habits 
to  tapirs.  The  powerful  and  flattened  tails  of  some 
species  are  supposed  to  indicate  a  peculiar  adaptation 
for  aquatic  life.  Some  of  the  Anoplotheroids  have 
smaller  supplemental  toes,  besides  the  two  hoofs. 
They  form  the  genera  Dichodon,  Dichobune,  Xipho- 
don,  and  Microtherium. 

ANOPLLT'RA,  the  name  given  by  Leach  to  an 
order  of  insects  called  Paranita  (q.  v.)  by  Latreille, 
Cuvier,  &c. — part  of  the  Aptera  of  Linna;i.s — and 
of  which  the  type  is  the  genua  Pediculus  or  Lousk 
(q.  v.). 


ANQUETIL-DUPERROX— AXSOX. 


AXQUETIL  -  DUPERROX,  Abraham  IIya- 
ciXTiiK,  an  oriental  scholar,  was  born  at  Paris, 
December  7,  1731.  lie  commeiiceil  the  study  of 
theology  in  his  native  city,  and  afterwards  prose- 
cuted it  at  Auxerrc  and  Amersfort.  But  his  love 
of  oriental  languages  drew  him  baek  to  Paris,  where 
he  was  assisted  by  the  Abbe  Sallier,  Overseer  of  the 
JIatmseripts  in  the  Royal  Lil)rary.  As  he  now 
possessed  a  tolerable  knowledge  of  Hebrew,  Arabic, 
and  Persian,  he  enlisted  as  a  private  soldier  for 
India  in  175-4,  to  gratify  his  passion  for  learning;  but 
Malesherbcs  and  the  Abl)e  Barthelemy  rescued  him 
from  this  degradation,  and  enabled  him,  through  the 
royal  munificence,  to  proceed  independently.  After 
his  arrival  in  India,  he  traversed  a  great  part 
of  the  peninsula,  but  finally  fixed  his  residence  at 
Surat,  whore  there  was  a  colony  of  Parsees,  or 
fire-worshippers,  with  whose  priests  he  soon  be- 
came so  intimate,  that  they  not  only  instructed 
him  in  the  doctrines  of  Zoroaster,  but  also  gave 
Lim  some  of  their  sage's  books,  written  in  Zend, 
in  Pehlvi,  and  in  Sanscrit.  In  1762,  he  returned 
to  Europe,  having  collected  one  hundred  manu- 
scripts, along  with  other  curiosities.  The  Abbe 
Barthelemy  now  obtained  for  him  a  situation  in  the 
Bibliotheque  Royale,  and  in  1763  he  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  Academic  des  Belles-Lettres. 
In  1771,  he  published  his  Zend-avesta,  in  3  vols., 
which  contained  the  results  of  bis  researches.  It 
consists  of  a  literal  translation  of  the  Vendldad,  as 
well  as  other  sacred  books  of  the  Par.sees,  pre- 
ceded by  a  narrative  of  his  travels.  This  work 
created  a  great  sensation  when  it  first  appeared. 
Until  then,  our  only  knowledge  of  the  doctrines  of  the 
ancient  Persians  had  been  obtained  from  Greek  and 
Roman  sources,  hostile  Mohammedans,  and  eastern 
nations  of  later  origin.  But  A.  now  presented  to 
the  investigation  of  Europeans  the  original  records 
of  these  doctrines,  or,  at  least,  records  of  incontest- 
able authority.  Unfortunately,  his  zeal  far  surpassed 
his  patience  and  sagacity.  He  had  not  a  sufficient 
mastery  over  the  languages  from  which  he  translated. 
His  translations  are,  consequently,  anything  but 
accurate.  Since  A.  wrote,  great  advances  have 
been  made  in  orientid  scholarship,  and  his  labours 
are  now  in  a  great  measure  superseded.  Among  his 
other  works  we  may  mention  his  Legidation 
Orientale,  1778;  Recherches  Historirjuea  et  Geor/ra- 
phiques  sur  rLide,  1786  ;  La  Dir/nite  du  Commerce 
et  de  VHat  du  Conimerraiit,  178".t ;  Vhide  en  Rapport 
avec  r Europe,  1790  ;  Oupnek^hat  (a  selection  from 
the  theological  portion  of  the  Vedas),  1804.  He 
died  at  Paris  17th  Jariuary  1805. 

AXSE,  a  name  sometimes  given  to  the  handles  of 
a  cannon.  These  handles,  especially  in  some  foreign 
cannon,  are  cast  in  the  forms  of  dolphins  or 
serpents. 

AXSELM  of  Canterbury,  a  scholastic  philosopher, 
was  born  at  Aosta,  in  Piedmont,  in  lo33.  He  led  at 
first  a  dissipated  life ;  and,  like  Abelard,  wandered 
through  France,  after  the  fashion  of  the  scholars 
of  those  days,  disputing  wherever  he  could  find  an 
adversary.  Attracted  by  the  reputation  of  Lanfranc, 
he  went,  in  loOO,  to  study  at  the  monastery  of  Bee, 
in  Xormandy.  Three  years  after,  he  became  prior, 
and  in  lii78,  abbot  of  this  monastery,  the  most 
famous  school  of  the  11th  c.  Lanfranc,  who  in 
the  meantime  had  gone  to  England,  and  become 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  died  in  1080;  and  the 
diocese  remained  four  years  without  a  successor,  till, 
in  1093,  A.  was  appointed.  He  was  distinguished 
both  as  a  churchman  and  a  philosopher.  His 
numerous  embroilments  with  William  Rufus  and 
Henry  I.,  and  the  unbending  spirit  which  he  dis- 
jjlayed  in  these,  even  when  subjected  to  banishment, 


indicate  the  vigour  and  resoluteness  of  his  character, 
as  much  as  his  writings  exhibit  the  depth  and 
acuteness  of  his  intellect.  In  1720,  Clement  XI. 
expressly  placed  him  in  the  list  of  church  authorities. 
A.  was  a  second  Augustine,  superior  to  all  his  con- 
temporaries in  sagacity  and  dialectical  skill,  and 
equal  to  the  most  eminent  in  virtue  and  pietv. 
Embracing,  without  question,  the  doctrines  of  tlie 
church,  mostly  as  stated  by  Augustine,  and  holding 
that  belief  must  ]irecede  knowledge,  and  must  be 
implicit  and  undoubtirg;  he  yet  felt  the  necessity  of 
a  religious  philosophy,  urged  the  duty  of  proceeding 
from  belief  to  knowledge,  and  sought  to  reduce  the 
truths  of  religion  into  the  form  of  a  connected  .series 
of  reasonings.  It  was  for  this  purpose  he  wrote 
his  Jfonolof/hun  sive  Exempliim  Meditandi  de  Ratione 
Fidci  In  his  Fros/orfi u7n,  otherwise  entitled  Fides 
qucerens  Intellectum  (Faith  seeking  Intellect),  he 
strove  to  demonstrate  the  existence  of  God  from  the 
conception  of  a  perfect  being.  This  ontological 
proof,  however,  has  never  been  held  satisfactory. 
His  writings,  (Jur  Deux  Homo,  and  De  Concordia 
Pra^scientue  et  Frtedestiuntionix,  nnide  an  epoch  in 
Christian  philosophy.  A.  may  justly  be  reckoned 
the  earliest  of  the  schoolmen,  although  Alexander 
of  Hales  (q.  v.)  was  the  first  who  completely 
systematised  in  the  scholastic  manner  the  doctrines 
of  the  Catholic  Church.  He  died  21st  of  April  llo9, 
and  was  buried  at  Canterbury  near  his  ])rcdece.ssor, 
Lanfranc.  The  day  of  his  death  is  observed  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church. 

AXSER.     See  Anas  and  Goose. 

A'XSGAR,  or  AXSCIIA'RIUS,  styled  the  Apostle 
of  the  Xorth,  on  account  of  his  labours  to  introduce 
Christianity  into  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Xorthern 
Germany,  was  born  in  Picardy  about  the  year  801 
A.n.  L'nder  the  patronage  of  Louis  le  Debonnaire, 
he  went,  with  his  colleague  Audibert,  to  preach  the 
doctrines  of  Christianity  among  the  heathen  Xorthmen 
of  Sehleswig,  where  he  suftered  many  persecutions; 
but  had  nevertheless  such  success  that,  in  832,  the 
pope  established  an  archbishopric  in  Hamburg,  and  A. 
was  appointed  the  first  archbishop.  Here  he  passed 
through  many  difficulties,  having  to  save  his  life  by 
flight  in  845,  when  the  Xorthmen  and  Danes  under 
Eric  I.  plundered  Hamburg.  He  afterwards  made 
several  missionary  tours  in  Denmark  and  Sweden, 
and  died  Febrtiary  3,  864,  at  Bremen,  where  a  church 
was  named  after  him.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church 
has  canonised  him. 

AXSOX,  George,  Lord,  Admiral,  born  on  23d 
April  1697,  at  Shugborough,  in  Staffordshire.  From 
an  early  period  he  manifested  a  predilection  for  a 
sea-life.  In  1716  he  served  as  second  lieutenant 
under  Xorris  ;  next  under  Byng  in  1718,  against  the 
Spaniards  ;  and  was  made  a  captain  in  1723.  In  1730, 
when  war  with  Spain  broke  out,  he  was  recalled 
from  the  Carolina  station,  on  which  he  had  been 
]ilaced  since  1724,  and  received  the  conmiaiid  of  the 
fleet  in  the  South  Sea,  with  instructions  to  inflict 
whatever  injury  he  could  on  the  Spanish  commerce 
and  colonies,  and  sailed  from  England  in  September 
1740.  The  preparations  for  this  cruise  had  been 
made  in  the  most  slovenly  manner.  Both  vessels 
and  stores  were  bad,  and  the  sailors  were  old 
Chelsea  pensioners ;  yet  A.,  in  spite  of  these  disad- 
vantages, achieved  a  brilliant  reputation  by  the 
heroism,  prudence,  diligence,  and  humanity  he  dis- 
plaved.  After  his  little  fleet  of  seven  vessels  had 
been  scattered  by  a  storm,  in  doubling  Cape  Horn, 
he  landed  at  Juan  Fernandez,  where  he  was  soon 
joined  by  three  of  his  ships,  which  arrived  in  a 
dismantled  condition.  While  he  remained  on  this 
island,  he  exhibited  his  native  tenderness  of  charac- 
ter by  the  assiduitr  with  which  he  cared  for   the 

281 


ANT. 


sick,  and  the  pains  he  took  to  iiicrciiso  their  cotii- 
fort.  UiidtT  tiicse  disudvaiitagcs,  ho  made  i^cveral 
prizes  ot"  Spanish  vessels,  and  espeeially  distin- 
guished hiniseit"by  his  capture  ot' tlie  S[)anish  galleon 
from  AcitpuKo,  with  a  carfro  worth  .£li)(i,<»Ou.  After 
eevoral  other  hold  adventures,  he  returned  to  Eng- 
land; and,  sailing  undetected  through  tlie  French 
fleet  which  lay  in  the  ("haniiel,  arrived  at  Spithead, 
June  15,  1744,  having  circumnavigated  the  globe 
after  a  cruise  of  three  years  and  nine  months. 
His  perilous  voyage  had  great  importance  in 
extending  the  knowledge  of  navigation  and  geo- 
graphy. As  a  reward  for  hi.s  services,  A.  was 
made  Rear-admiral  of  the  Blue  (1744);  and  in  1747, 
after  he  had  gained  a  victory  over  the  French  admiral, 
Jonquiere,  at  Cape  Finistcrre,  was  made  Haron  of 
Soberton ;  and  four  years  later.  First  Lord  of  the 
Admiralty,  in  which  capacity  he  distinguished  him- 
self not  less  than  at  sea.  In  17<il  he  was  made 
Admiral  of  the  Fleet.  He  died  June  (>,  17C2.  Few 
works  have  been  so  popular  as  Lord  A.'s  Voi/nrfe 
Jtouvd  the  World.  It  has  numerous  readers  in  every 
civilised  language.  It  was  written  by  Mr.  IJ.  l\obin.s, 
from  Lord  A.'s  own  materials,  and  was  carefully 
supervised  by  the  latter. 

ANT  {Foniiica),  a  Linna'an  genus  of  ITymenop- 
terous  insects,  now  divided  into  several  genera, 
which  form  a  family  called  Foniiic'uhr.  The  English 
name  is  contracted  from  Kmuu't,  still  also  occasion- 
ally used.  Another  old  English  name,  not  now  in 
frequent  use,  is  Pismire.  The  species  are  numerous, 
and  are  generally  distributed  over  temperate  and 
tropical  regions.  Their  habits  and  instincts  are 
extremely  interesting,  and  have  attracted  attention 
from  remote  ages. 

Ants  arc  small  insects,  but  of  extraordinary  mus- 
cular strength.  They  carry  loads  of  ten  or  twelve 
times  their  own  weight,  and  display  great  activity. 
They  have  a  triangular  head ;  the  aiiteimic  are  geni- 
culate ;  the  jaws  strong;  the  ligula  or  lower  lip 
email,  rounded,  vaulted  or  spoon-like ;  the  thorax 
compressed  at  the  sides ;  the  abdomen  nearly  oval, 
the  pedicle  which  joins  it  to  the  thorax  forming  in 
some  kinds  a  single,  and  in  some,  a  double  scale  or 
knot.  They  live  in  societies,  often  very  large,  which 
consist,  as  in  bees,  of  inalex,  fi'iiialcx,  and  7ieHters. 
The  neuters  are  females  with  imperfect  ovaries, 
transformed  at  an  early  stage  of  their  existence,  and 
are  distinguished  into  two  classes,  workers  and 
soldiers,  the  former  constituting  the  greater  portion 


Ants. 
1.  Female ;  2.  Male ;  3.  Neuter  ("Worker). 

of  each  society,  the  latter  somewhat  differing  from 
them  in  larger  size,  and  larger  and  more  powerful 
head.  The  ordinary  work  of  the  society  is  performed 
by  the  workers:  the  principal  part  in  warfare, 
defensive  or  offensive,  is  taken  by  the  soldiers.  The 
males  and  females  constitute  but  a  small  portion  of 
each  community.  They  have  delicate  glistening 
wings ;  but  the  neuters  have  no  wings,  and  the 
thorax  is  smaller  and  more  compressed.  The  males 
are  smaller  than  the  females,  and  the  workers  are 
rather  smaller  than  the  males.  The  females  and 
neuters  of  some  kinds  (genera  Ponera  J/i/rmiea, 
Atta,  and  Cryptocerus~)  are  armed  with  stings;  other 
282 


kinds  [For/iiica  tmd  J'ol>/er(/us)  have  no  sting,  but 
have  the  power  of  ijecting  a  peculiar  volatile  acid, 
FoiiMic  Aril)  (f|.  v.),  from  a  small  sac  in  the  abdo- 
men; by  this  means  efl'ectually  repelling  many  adver- 
saries, to  which  the  pungent  fumes  are  intolerable. 
Small  animals  are  soon  killed  by  the  vapour  of  an 
ant-hill;  and  a  dog  has  been  known  to  retire  yelling 
from  the  effect  upon  his  eyes,  either  of  the  vapour, 
or  of  a  discharge  of  the  fluid  itself.  It  is  said,  that 
when  those  ants  that  are  un[)rovided  with  a  sting 
make  use  of  their  mandibles  to  iidliet  a  bite,  they 
curve  round  their  abdomen,  ho  as  to  be  ready  imme- 
diately to  squirt  this  acid  into  the  wound. 

The  winged  ants  mostly  appear  in  autumn,  and 
perish  before  the  commencement  of  the  cold  weather ; 
a  few  surviving  to  found  new  colonies  and  perpetuate 
the  race.  The  neuters  pass  the  winter  in  large 
numbers  in  a  torpid  state,  and  resume  their  activity 
on  the  return  of  spring.  The  nests  of  ants,  after 
midsummer,  are  usually  found  to  contain  winged 
males  and  females  mixed  with  the  wingless  neuters, 
which,  however,  restrain  them,  and  particularly  the 
femal(>s,  from  making  their  escape  into  the  air,  until 
the  pairing  season,  when  they  ascend  into  it  in 
immense  swarms,  those  from  many  ant-hills  some- 
times uniting  their  myriads,  rising  with  incredible 
velocitv  in  distiiu-t  columns,  and  soaring  to  a  great 
height.  'Each  cohnnn  looks  like  a  kind  of  slender 
net-work,  and  has  a  tremtilous  midulatiiig  motion. 
The  noise  emitted  by  myriads  and  myriads  of  these 
creatures  does  not  exceed  the  hum  of  a  single  wasp. 
The  slightest  zephyr  disperses  then).'  They  occa- 
sionallv,  however,  make  their  np|iearanc(!  in  such 
prodigious  numbers,  that  the  air  is  obscm-ed  by 
them. — The  pairing  of  ants  is  supposed  to  take  place 
ill  the  air.  Some  of  the  females  which  escape 
destruction  by  their  enemies,  or  by  the  elements, 
found  new  colonies,  in  which  at  first  they  perform 
the  work  usually  assigned  to  neuters.  Some,  how- 
ever, are  seized  by  the  neuters  of  ant-hills  near 
which  they  fall,  and  there  is  even  reason  to  think 
that  these  go  out  to  search  for  them ;  they  are 
stripped  of  their  wings,  and  forcibly  conducted  to 
the  habitation,  the  number  of  whose  inhabitants  is 
to  be  increased  by  their  multitudinous  progeny. 
They  are  fed  and  treated  with  api)arent  respect,  like 
the  queen-bee  among  bees;  but  a  society  of 
ants,  unlike  one  of  bees,  often  contains  numerous 
females,  each  thus  treated  and  equally  employed  in 
the  important  work  of  laying  eggs.  Unlike  the 
queen-bees,  also,  they  are  invariably  denuded  of 
their  wings  ;  nor  is  this  always  done  by  the  neuters, 
to  prevent  their  escape,  but  the  female  ant,  after 
fecundation,  has  been  seen  to  denude  herself  of  her 
own  wings,  as  now  superfluous  appendages. 

The  eggs  of  ants  are  so  small  as  to  be  scarcely 
visible  to  the  naked  eye.  The  mother  drops  them  at 
random  in  her  progress  through  the  nest;  but  the 
woikers,  of  whom  some  are  always  in  attendance 
on  her,  immediately  seize  them,  moisten  them  with 
their  tongue,  and  lay  them  in  heaps  in  particular 
apartments  of  the  nest.  They  continue  to  watch 
them,  and  to  remove  them  from  one  quarter  of  the 
nest  to  another,  apparently  in  order  that  they  may 
always  enjoy  a  suitable  temperature,  and  perhaps  in 
order  to  avoid  any  excess  of  moisture.  In  a  few 
davs,  the  young  larvae  are  produced ;  and  these 
require  the  unremitting  care  of  the  workers,  which 
feed  them,  disgorging  into  their  mouths,  for  this 
purpose,  a  viscid  substance,  supposed  to  be  the 
ordinary  food  of  the  species,  prepared  for  their  use 
by  a  sort  of  half  digestion.  They  are  also  extremely 
careful  to  keep  the  young  brood  clean,  by  constant 
application  of  their  tongue  and  mandibles;  and  a 
great  amount  of  labour  is  daily  expended  upon  them, 
in  conveying  them  from  the  inner  apartments  of  the 


K 


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p-c---'a 


^k-  .-^i ; 


Vol.  I.,  page  283. 


ANTS. 
Nest  of  Formic*  Rufa  (large  red  ant). 


ANT. 


nest  towards  the  surface  after  suiii'ise,  when  the 
weather  is  tine,  and  back  again  before  sunset,  or 
when  the  weather  becomes  cold,  or  there  is  a  pros- 
pect of  rain.  The  same  care  is  e.\tended  to  the 
pup*.  The  hirvffi  and  pupaj  are  tlie  white  objects 
which  the  woii<ers  are  seen  hastily  seizing  and 
carrying  off  to  places  of  safety,  when  an  ant's  nest 
is  broken  open  ;  and  the  resemblance  of  which, 
particularly  of  the  pupaj,  to  grains  of  barley,  is 
supposed  to  have  contributed  to  the  general  belief, 
that  ants  amass  stores  of  corn  for  winter  food.  The 
larva3  have  no  organs  of  locomotion.  Tiie  pupa;  are 
enveloped  in  delicate  silken  cocoons,  and  unlike 
those  of  other  insects,  require  assistance  to  extricate 
themselves  from  them  when  they  have  attained 
their  perfect  state.  This  assistance  also  is  afforded 
by  the  workers. 

The  whole  supplies  of  food  for  the  inmates  of  the 
nest  are  brought  to  it  by  the  workers.  The  food  of 
some  kinds  is  exclusively  or  chiefly  animal,  that  of 
others,  vegetable.  The  provisions  carried  to  their 
nests  by  the  ants  of  Britain  and  other  temperate 
countries,  are  now  believed  not  at  all  to  be  intended 
for  winter,  when  the  creatures  are  entirely  torpid, 
but  only  for  present  use ;  and  it  appears  to  be 
certain  that  no  kind  of  grain  forms  any  part  of  their 
food.  But  Colonel  Sykes  has  discovered  at  Poonah 
a  species  of  ants  (Attn  provideim'),  which  not  only 
store  up  provisions,  but  of  which  tlie  stores  consist 
of  the  seeds  of  a  species  of  millet.  To  habits 
of  this  kin-d  the  allusions  in  the  book  of  Proverbs 
seem  to  be  made.  Virgil  also  speaks  of  the  ant 
providing  against  the  poverty  of  old  age — 
Inopi  metuens  formica  senectte. 

{Georg.  i.  186.) 

The  ant  has  long  been  a  sort  of  proverbial  type,  not 
only  of  industry,  but  of  provident  care  for  the 
future.  Some  ants,  however,  collect  and  carry  to 
their  nests  substances  which  are  not  intended  for 
food,  but  for  the  construction  of  the  nest,  and  par- 
ticularly for  closing  its  apertures  in  cold  or  wet  wea- 
ther. In  this  way  they  gather  together  small  heaps  of 
chips  of  wood,  bits  of  straw,  small  ])ebbles,  &c. 

The  vegetable  substance  which  ants  seem  chiefly 
to  use  as  food  is  sugar,  and  to  this,  wherever  it  is 
to  be  found,  they  seem  to  be  guided  by  a  very  acute 
sense  of  smell.  Honeti-deu\  the  saccharine  excretion 
of  the  Aphides  (see  Aphis),  is  a  favourite  food  of 
many  species;  and  with  this  are  connected  some 
of  their  most  extraordinary  instincts  ;  for  not  only  do 
they  climb  the  plants  on  which  the  aphides  abound, 
that  they  may  obtain  this  food,  but  they  have  been 
seen  to  wait  beside  them  for  new  drops,  and  even 
to  touch  them  with  their  antennae,  in  order  to  cause 
the  drops  to  flow,  patting  the  abdomen  of  the  aphis 
on  each  side  alternately  and  rapidly  ;  the  ant, 
after  the  drop  has  been  obtained,  passing  on  to 
another  apliis.  The  whole  process  has  been  likened 
to  the  milking  of  cattle.  Even  more  wonderful 
things  are  asserted  on  this  subject,  as  that  particular 
ants  seem  to  regard  partictilar  a|)hides  as  their  own 
property,  and  are  ready  to  fight  in  defence  of  their 
right  to  them — that,  to  secure  them  for  themselves, 
they  convey  them  from  one  place  to  another — and 
that  the  Aphis  radiniin,  which  derives  its  nutii- 
ment  from  the  roots  of  grass  and  other  plants,  is 
actually  kept  in  large  numl)ers  in  the  nest  of  the 
Yellow  Ant  (Formica  fara),  in  order  that  there  may 
be  always  at  hand  a  copious  supply  of  food,  these 
aphides  and  their  eggs  sharing  the  solicitude  of  the 
ants  equally  with  their  own  eggs  and  young.  Things 
BO  wonderful  are  ascertained  beyond  dispute  in  re- 
gard to  the  instincts  of  ants,  that  even  such  state- 
ments as  these  must  not  be  hastily  rejected  as  incred- 
ible, and  certainly  they  express  the  beliefs  of  careful 
and  scientific  observers. 


Ants  which  feed  upon  animal  food  render  important 
service  in  clearing  away  every  vestige  of  the  tlesh 
of  dead  animals,  and  so  preventing  corruption  ;  and 
very  beautiful  skeletons  of  small  animals  have  been 
obtained  by  burying  the  animal  for  a  short  time  in 
an  ant-hill.  But  ants  also  attack  living  animals ; 
insects  of  comparatively  large  size  fall  a  prey  to 
them,  and  in  tropical  countries,  birds,  reptiles,  and 
small  quadrupeds  are  sometimes  devoured  by  their 
vast  swarms,  which  strip  the  bones  of  the  animal 
perfectly  clean  with  wonderful  rapidity.  Domestic 
animals,  at  least  when  sick,  are  not  safe  from  them, 
and  man  himself  regards  them  with  dread.  About 
ninety  years  ago,  prodigious  numbers  of  a  particular 
kind  of  ant  {F.  saccharivora)  appeared  in  the  island 
of  Grenada.  This  species  makes  its  nest  under 
the  roots  of  plants,  and  the  sugar-canes  were  so 
weakened  and  injured  in  consequence,  that  the 
plantations  became  neaily  unproductive.  '  They 
descended  from  the  hills  like  torrents,  and  the 
plantations,  as  well  as  every  path  and  road  for 
miles,  were  filled  with  them.  Rats,  mice,  and 
reptiles  of  every  kind  became  an  easy  prey  to 
them  ;  and  even  the  birds,  which  they  attacked 
whenever  they  Hghted  on  the  ground  in  search  of 
food,  were  so  harassed,  as  to  be  at  length  unable 
to  resist  them.  Streams  of  water  opposed  only  a 
temporary  obstacle  to  their  progress;  the  foremost 
rushing  blindly  on  certain  death,  and  fresh  armies 
instantly  following,  till  a  bank  was  foiiued  of  the 
carcasses  of  those  which  were  drowned,  sufficient  to 
dam  up  the  waters,  and  allow  the  main  body  to  pass 
over  in  safety  below.  Even  fire  was  tried  without 
effect.  When  it  was  lighted  to  arrest  their  route, 
they  rushed  into  the  blaze  in  such  myriads  as  to  ex- 
tinguish it.'  A  reward  of  £20,000  was  offered  in  vain 
for  an  effectual  means  of  destroying  them ;  but  in 
1780  a  hurricane  which  tore  up  the  canes,  and  ex- 
posed their  habitations  to  a  deluge  of  rain,  freed  the 
island  from  this  plague. 

The  habitations  of  ants  are  very  curiously  con- 
structed, displaying  great  ingenuity,  although  with 
great  diversity  in  the  different  species.  The  greater 
number  of  species  form  their  habitations  in  the 
ground.     These  rise  above  the  surface  iu  the  form 


Yellow  Ants  {F.  Flava)  and  Nest. 

of  a  dome ;  hence  the  name  ant-hills  commonly 
given  them.  The  largest  ant-hills  formed  by  any 
British  species  are  those  of  the  large  red  or  horse 
ants  (Formica  ■^u/n),  which  are  sometimes  as  big 
as  a  small  haycock  ;  but  travellers  in  South 
America  describe  ant-hills  of  15  or  20  feet  in  height. 
The  nest  of  /'.  rufa  is  outwardly  of  rude  appear- 
ance— a  confused  heap  of  such  portable  materials  as 
were  within  reach  ;  but  within  it  contains  numerous 
small  apartments,  of  different  sizes,  arianged  in 
separate  stories,  some  deep  in  the  earth,  some  above 
its  surface,  and  communicating  with  each  other  by 

283 


ANT— ANTALCIDAS. 


means  of  galleries.  Use  is  made  of  the  earth  exca- 
vated from  below  to  mix  with  other  materials  in  the 
construction  of  the  upper  parts  of  the  fabric.  Many 
species  of  ants,  sometimes  called  Mason  Ants,  con- 
struct habitations  by  a  still  more  elaborate  masonry, 


Section  of  Bank,  shewing  Nests  of  the  Mason  Ant. 

making  use,  for  this  purpose,  of  soft  clay,  which 
they  spread  and  mould  by  means  of  their  man- 
dibles and  feet,  appearing  all  the  while  to  examine 
their  work  by  their  antenna;.  The  partition-walls 
of  the  galleries  and  apartments  of  the  Ffinnicn 
brunnea  are  about  half  a  line  thick,  and  about  half 
an  inch  high ;  the  roofs  are  somewhat  arched,  and 
pillars  are  frequent  in  this  marvellous  architecture. 
M.  Huber  saw  a  working-ant  of  another  species 
(F.  fusca),  without  assistance,  make  and  cover  in  a 
gallery  which  was  two  or  three  inches  long,  and  of 
which  the  interior  was  rendered  perfectly  concave. 
There  are  other  species,  sometimes  called  Carpenter 


Nest  of  Carpenter  Ant. 

Anta,  which  make  their  habitations  in  the  trunks 
of  old  trees,  gnawing  the  wood  into  apartments  and 
galleries,  with  floors  and  partitions  as  thin  as  card. 
Formica  fava  forms  its  partition- walls  of  a  sort  of 
papier-mache  of  saw-dust,  earth,  and  spider's  web. 
F.  smaragdhia,  an  East  Indian  species,  forms  its  nest 
of  a  thin  silk-like  tissue.  F.  bi.spinosa,  in  Cayenne, 
makes  a  felt  of  the  down  which  envelopes  the  seeds 
of  the  Bombax  Criba.  An  East  Indian  species, 
Myrmica  Kirbii,  forms  a  globular  nest  of  a  con- 
geries of  tile-like  lamiyice  of  cow-dung,  the  interior 
exhibiting  an  assemblage  of  apartments  and  galleries. 
Some  Australian  ants  form  their  nests  of  the  leaves 
of  trees  glued  together,  after  being  first  brought 
into  the  proper  position  by  the  united  strength  of 
multitudes. 

Of  the  ants  which  form  their  nests  in  the  ground, 
some,   instead  of    constructing    ant-hills,  seek    the 
284 


protection  of  stones,  roots  of  trees,  A:c.  This  ia 
the  case  with  some  of  the  British  species,  and  also 
with  the  sugar  ant  of  the  West  Indies,  already 
mentioned. 

Many  interesting  anecdotes  are  on  record  illustra- 
tive of  the  instincts  of  ants,  and  of  the  sagacity 
which  they  seem  to  possess.  They  appear  also 
to  have  some  power  of  communicating  with  each 
other,  in  which  it  has  been  supposed  that  the 
anteiinaj  are  chiefly  employed.  Some  such  power 
might  be  supposed  to  be  necessary,  if  we  could 
ventiu'e  to  reason  from  analogy  upon  such  a  subject, 
not  only  to  their  architectural  and  other  ordinary 
operations,  in  which  many  must  take  part,  syste- 
matically and  conjointly,  but  also  in  their  predatory 
and  warlike  excursions ;  for  these  also  some  of  the 
species  have.  If,  during  the  predatory  excursions  of 
the  Atta  cfp/ialotes  (a  South  American  species),  an 
intervening  space  occurs  which  they  cannot  cross, 
some  of  the  creatures  link  themselves  together — as 
monkeys,  in  like  circumstances,  liave  been  known  to 
do — forming  a  bridge  over  which  the  main  body 
passes.  Ants  are,  in  general,  both  courageous  and 
pugnacious.  Many  battles  take  place  among  them, 
both  between  individuals  and  largo  parties;  and 
after  a  battle,  combatants  may  be  found  locked  in 
each  other's  arms,  as  having  died  together  in  the 
struggle.  More  extraordinary  thnn  anything  of  this 
kind,  however,  is  the  fact,  suflTiciently  ascertained, 
that  some  species  of  ants  go  on  regular  forays  to 
carry  off  the  larva;  and  pup;v  of  certain  otiier  species, 
which  they  carry  to  their  own  habitat  ions  to  rear 
and  employ  them  as  slaves  in  the  work  which  might 
be  regarded  as  properly  belonging  to  workers  of 
their  own  race — a  fact  to  which  no  other  at  all 
analogous  has  yet  presented  itself  in  natural  history. 
The  species  known  thus  to  make  and  keej)  slaves  are 
Poli/erffus  rnfcscens  and  Formica  sanf/iiinea,  both 
sometimes  called  Amazon  Ants.  It  has  been  noted 
as  a  ciM'ious  circumstance  that  the  kidnappers  are 
red  or  pale  coloured  ants,  and  the  slaves  jet  black. 
The  kidnapping  excursions  take  place  only  at  a 
particular  period  of  the  year,  when  the  nests  of  the 
black  ants  contain  the  neuter  brood.  The  army  of 
red  ants  {P.  rnfescens)  marches  forth,  the  vanguard, 
which  consists  of  eight  or  ten  only,  continually 
changing ;  and  on  their  arriving  at  the  nest  of  the 
negro  ants,  a  desperate  conflict  ensues,  which  ends 
in  the  defeat  of  the  negroes ;  and  thereupon  the  red 
ants,  with  their  powerful  mandibles,  tear  open  the 
now  undefended  ant-hill,  enter  it,  and  emerge, 
carrying  the  pupte  in  their  mouths,  with  which  they 
return  in  perfect  order  to  their  own  nest.  The 
pupas  are  there  treated  with  great  care,  and  spend 
their  lives  among  the  red  ants,  excavating  passages, 
collecting  food,  carrying  larva;,  &c.,  as  if  this  had 
been  their  original  destination.  The  amazon  ants 
are  not  natives  of  Britain,  although  plentiful  in  some 
parts  of  Europe. 

Formic  acid  has  been  employed  as  a  stimulant  in 
gout  and  paralysis,  and  is  sometimes  exhibited  in 
continental  practice  by  means  of  ant-baths,  which 
are  prepared  by  boiling  crushed  ants,  or  whole 
ant-hills,  and  immersing  the  diseased  limb  in  the 
steam. 

Termites  (q.  v.),  or  White  Ants,  are  very  different 
from  the  true  ants,  and  belong  to  the  order 
Keuroptera. 

ANT^.     See  Pilaster. 

ANTA'LCIDAS,  a  Spartan  politician,  who  made 
himself  conspicuous  in  a  very  perilous  crisis  of  the 
history  of  his  nation  by  the  skilful  character  of  his 
policy.  Some  time  after  the  Peloponnesian  War,  it 
seemed  as  if  Athens  were  destined  to  regain  the 
supremacy  she  had  lost.     The   Greek  states   rallied 


ANTANANARIVO— ANTARCTIC  OCEAN. 


round  her ;  while  Coiion,  an  able  and  vigilant 
Athenian  admiral,  and  his  ally,  I'harnaljaziis,  the 
Persian,  where  everywhere  victorious  in  their  naval 
encounters  with  the  Spartan  flet-t.  It  became 
necessary,  therefore,  that  conniiunications  should  be 
entered  into  witli  the  Persian  king,  from  whom  the 
confederate  Greeks  drew  their  chief  resources.  A. 
was  chosen  ambassador  to  Tiribazus,  satrap  of 
Western  Asia.  On  hearing  this,  the  Athenians  grew 
alarmed,  and  sent  Conon  to  frustrate  the  schemes 
of  the  former;  but  Tiribazus  took  A. 's  part,  and  the 
result  was,  that  Conon  was  thrown  into  prison,  and 
A.  secretly  received  nioney  to  enable  Sparta  to 
continue  the  war.  At  first,  Artaxer.xes,  the  Persian 
monarch,  was  dissatisfied  with  the  conduct  of  his 
satr:ip,  recalled  him,  and  put  Struthas,  a  friend  of 
Athens,  in  his  place ;  but  through  a  complication  of 
circumstances,  which  it  is  unnecessary  to  mention, 
A-  was  subsequently  completely  successful  in 
Securing  the  goodwill  of  Artaxerxcs.  He  was 
now  appointed  admiral  of  the  Spartan  fleet,  and 
assisted  by  Tiribazus,  Ariobarzanes,  &c.,  swept  the 
seas  until  Athens  became  desirous  of  peace.  For 
various  reasons,  so  was  Argos  and  Sparta  herself. 
Tiribazus  therefore  assembled  deputies  from  the 
Greek  states,  and,  in  the  name  of  his  master 
Artaxerxcs,  read  the  famous  dechiration  or  treaty 
of  peace,  to  which  all  the  members  present  agreed, 
and  which  is  known  in  history  under  the  name 
of  '  the  Peace  of  Antalcidas,'  as  being  the  result 
of  the  latter's  able  diplomacy.  Its  three  great 
points  were  as  follows  :  1.  That  all  the  Greek 
towns  on  the  mainland  of  Asia  Minor,  together 
with  the  islands  Clazomene  and  Cyprus,  should 
remain  under   the  protection  of  the   Persian  king. 

2.  That  all  ether  Greek  towns,  large  and  small, 
should  be  independent ;  but  that  the  islands  of  Lem- 
nos,   Imbros,  and  Scyros  should  belong  to  Athens. 

3.  That  war  should  be  declared  against  whatever 
state  refused  to  accept  these  points.  After  this 
peace,  the  history  of  A.  becomes  doubtful  and  ob- 
scure. He  seems  to  have  lost  favour  with  the  Per- 
sians, and  Plutarch  even  leads  us  to  suppose  that, 
sickened  by  misfortune  and  the  loss  of  reputation, 
he  voluntarily  starved  himself  to  death ;  but  this 
story  is  not  credited  by  scholars,  both  on  account  of 
its  intrinsic  improbability  and  its  apparent  disagree- 
ment with  the  statements  of  other  writers. 

ANTANANARIVO',  or  TANANARIVO',  the  cap- 
ital city  of  Madagascar,  and  seat  of  the  govern- 
ment. It  is  situated  on  a  hill,  in  the  midst  of  a 
mountainous  region,  at  an  elevation  of  1()(H)  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  approach  to  it  from 
Tamatave,  the  chief  seaport,  is  extremely  tedious 
and  difficult,  owing  to  the  want  of  roads.  The  royal 
palace  occupies  the  summit  of  the  hill ;  adjoining  are 
the  dwellings  of  the  chief  officers  of  government; 
and  below  these,  covering  the  slope  of  the  hill,  are 
the  houses  of  the  other  inhabitants,  constructed 
almost  entirely  of  wood.  The  uniform  shape  of  the 
houses,  which  are  just  plain  huts  covered  with 
brown  thatch,  gives  a  sombre  appearance  to  the 
place.  A  few  trees,  apparently  a  species  of  fig-tree, 
are  visible  here  and  there  in  the  higher  part  of  the 
city.  The  people  exhibit  a  considerable  aptitude 
for  civilised  usages;  and  through  the  agency  of 
missionary  enterprise,  which  has  been  unfortunately 
checked  for  a  time  by  the  arbitrary  edicts  of  the 
reigning  queen,  society  is  considerably  advanced 
beyond  the  savage  state.  These  few  particulars  are 
gathered  from  the  work  of  the  Rev.  William  Ellis 
(TJiree  Visits  to  Madagascar,  1853 — i — 5.  London, 
1858). 

A'NTAR  or  ANTA'RA,  a  celebrated  Arab  chief 
of  the  sixth  century,  one  of  the  seven   poeta  of 


Arabia,  whose  prize-poems,  embroidered  in  golden 
characters  on  a  silken  ground,  were  hung  up  on  the 
gate  of  the  Caaba,  and  thence  called  Moallakat — 
i.  c.,  the  Suspended.  In  the  poem  of  his  that  has 
descended  to  our  day,  he  paints  his  warlike  deeds, 
and  his  love  for  Abla.  His  courage  and  heroism 
during  a  forty  years'  warfare  between  two  Arab 
tribes,  and  his  constancy  in  love,  were  long  dear  to 
the  memory  of  his  countrymen,  and  appear  to  have 
formed  the  groundwork  of  the  voluminous  romance 
called  Antar,  commonly  ascril>ed  to  Asmai,  and 
reduced  to  writing  as  early  as  the  days  of  the  Calif 
Haroun  Alrashid,  in  the  8th  c.  This  work,  which 
has  come  down  to  us  in  a  later  and  much  corrupted 
form,  gives  an  attractive  and  faithful  picture  of 
Bedouin  life,  and  is  rich  in  epic  interest,  although 
too  monotonous  to  satisfy  the  taste  of  the  European 
reader.  In  the  East,  however,  it  still  supplies  the 
favourite  thc^mcs  of  the  professional  story-tellers 
who  haunt  the  coffee-houses.  A  poetical  translation 
of  it  into  English  was  made  by  Terric  Hamilton  in 
1820. 

ANTARCTIC  OCEAN,  the  sea  round  the  south 
pole,  as  the  Arctic  Ocean  is  the  sea  round  the  north 
pole.  It  is  otherwise  called  the  Southern  Ocean, 
comprising  all  the  sea  to  the  south  of  the  Atlantic, 
the  Indian,  and  the  Pacific  Oceans.  In  this  view, 
the  A.  Ocean's  northern  limit  may  be  conveniently 
divided  into  three  straight  lines — the  Jirst  between 
Cape  Horn  in  South  America  and  Cape  Agnlhas 
in  Africa;  the  second,  between  Cape  Agtdhas  and 
the  southern  extremity  of  the  Auckland  Islands  as 
an  appendage  of  New  Zealand ;  and  the  third,  be- 
tween the  southern  extremity  of  the  Auckland 
Islands  and  Cape  Horn.  This  appears  to  form  the 
true  boundary  of  the  polar  regions  of  the  southern 
hemisphere.  The  most  northerly  isles  which  it  en- 
closes are  New  Georgia,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Atlan- 
tic, and  Kcrguelen's  Land,  at  the  mouth  of  the  In- 
dian Ocean.  The  latter  tells  its  own  story  in  its 
other  title  of  'The  Island  of  Desolation;'  and  the 
former  presented  to  Cook,  even  in  the  middle  of 
summer,  perpendicular  cliffs  of  ice,  and  valleys  cov- 
ered with  everlasting  snow. 

It  is  usual,  indeed,  to  define  the  Antarctic  Ocean 
and  the  corresponding  ocean  to  the  north,  as  being 
contained  each  within  its  own  polar  circle.  But,  with 
regard  to  both  oceans  alike,  this  definition  appears  to 
be  inadmissible.  It  is  only  at  two  points — the  head 
of  the  Pacific,  and  the  head  of  the  Atlantic — that 
the  Arctic  Sea  can  possibly  reach  the  Arctic  Circle 
at  all ;  while,  in  point  of  fact,  it  overlaps  it  at 
Behring's  Strait  by  nearly  a  degree,  and  falls 
several  degrees  short  of  it  between  the  northern 
half  of  Norway  and  the  south-east  shore  of  Green- 
land. The  A.  0.,  again,  is  nowhere  practically 
limited  by  the  definition  in  question  :  not  a  single 
voyager  hesitates  to  use  the  expression  long  before 
he  arrives  at  lat.  60"  30'  S. ;  nor  yet  is  a  single 
authority  consistent  in  the  use  of  the  arbitrary 
nomenclature. 

The  A.  0.  has  been  explored,  more  or  less  satis- 
factorily, by  various  navigators,  as  far  as  79°  S.  With 
a  few  exceptions,  however,  little  of  it  is  accurately 
known,  the  difficulties  and  dangers  of  its  navigation 
rendering  thorough  and  continuous  investigation 
almost  impracticable.  The  names  that  will  recur 
in  their  proper  places  are  New  Georgia,  Kerguelen's 
Land,  Sandwich  Land,  New  South  Shetlands,  New 
Orkneys,  Enderby's  Land,  Graham's  Land,  Balleny, 
Sabrina,  and  Victoria  Land. 

Taken  as  a  whole,  these  lands  bear  a  very  small 
proportion  to  the  extent  of  an  ocean  which  embraces 
half  the  latitudes  and  all  the  longitudes  of  the 
southern  hemisphere,  exceeding  its  kindred  sea  to 
the  north,  as  &   glance  at  the  map  will  shew,  by 

285 


ANT-BEAR— ANTELOPE. 


nearly  half  of  Asia  and  North  America,  and  the 
whole  of  Europe.  Such  of  these  hinds  as  are  reiilly 
accessible  at  all  times,  have  been  more  or  less 
valuable  in  connection  with  the  whale  and  seal 
fisheries. 

The  features  of  the  A.  0.  itself  may  be  briefly 
stated  to  be  constant  fogs,  baffling  currents,  innum- 
erable icebergs,  and  magnificent  manifestations  of 
the  Aurora  Australis.  On  the  coast  of  Victoria 
Land,  beyond  the  parallel  of  10",  two  mountains 
have  been  observed  to  be  of  a  height  altogether 
unequalled  in  such  a  latitude — Mt.  Terror,  of  10,0»»0 
feet,  and  Mt.  Erebus,  of  l'2,4uO.  The  latter  is  a 
volcano,  being,  it  is  apprehended,  the  only  phenom- 
enon of  the  kind  in  either  of  the  frigid  zones. 

Of  the  two  circumpolar  oceans,  the  southerly  one 
has  excited  much  less  interest  than  the  northerly. 
The  open  passages  round  the  two  capes  respectively 
into  the  Indian  Ocean  and  the  Pacific,  have,  from 
the  very  beginning,  rendered  unnecessary  any  such 
voyages  as  those  which,  for  nearly  three  centuries, 
have  developed  so  much  patience  and  fortitude  in 
the  heroic  explorers  of  the  Arctic  shores. 

ANT-BEAR.     See  Ant-eater. 

ANT-CATCIIER  and  ANT-THRUSH,  names 
given  to  liirds  of  tropical  and  sub-tropical  countries, 
which  feed  chiefly  upon  ants.  They  are  closely  al- 
lied to  the  Thrushes  (see  Thrush),  and  are  included 
with  them  in  the  family  Tnrdidce  or  Merulidce  of 
recent  ornithologists.  They  are  distinguished  by  a 
straight  sub-cylindrical  strong  bill,  hooked  at  the 
tip,  slender  legs,  and  very  short  tails.  They  form 
the  genus  Mi/othera  of  Illiger,  now  subdivided  into 
several  genera,  one  of  which,  Pitta,  contains  the 
Breves  of  Buffbn — birds  of  brilliant  plumage,  natives 
of  the  south-eastern  parts  of  Asia  and  the  Malayan 
Archipelago.  The  true  ant-catchers  are  mostly 
American,  are  of  comparatively  sober  plumage,  live 
among  the  huge  ant-hills,  seldom  fly,  and  are  re- 
markable for  their  sonorous  voices,  the  power  of 
which  in  some  species  is  extraordinary.  The  largest 
ppecies,  known  as  the  King  of  the  Ant-catchers 
{Grallaria  Hex),  is  about  the  size  of  a  quail.  Its 
legs  are  remarkably  long. 

ANT-EATER  {Mp-meco  phaga),  a  genus  of  South 
American  quadrupeds  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Edentata.  The  species  are  few.  They  are  perfectly 
toothless,  their  food  being  insects,  and  particularly 
ants,  which  they  procure  in  great  numbers  by 
thrusting  among  them  a  very  long  cylindrical  tongue, 
covered  with  a  viscid  saliva,  and  then  retracting  it 
into  the  mouth.  The  head  is  remarkably  elongated, 
with  a  slender  muzzle,  and  a  small  mouth.  The 
tongue  is  doubled  up  in  the  mouth  when  not  in  use 
for  catching  prey.  The  ears  and  eyes  are  very 
small.      The  toes  differ  in  number  ia  the  different 


Great  Ant-eater  {M.  Jubata). 

species,  but  are  united  as  far  as  the  base  of  the 
claws,  which  are  very  large  and  strong,  adapted  to 
tearing  up  the  habitations  of  ants.  The  Great  A.-E. 
{Af.  Jubata),  a  native  of  the  warm  parts  of  South 
America,  and  called  in  Demerara  the  A.-bear,  is 
286 


about  4^  feet  in  length  from  the  snout  to  the  origin 
of  the  tail,  which  is  more  than  2  feet  long,  and  is 
covered  with  very  long  hair.  The  body  is  also 
covered  with  long  hair,  particularly  along  the  neck 
and  back.  There  are  four  claws  on  each  of  the  fore- 
feet, and  five  on  the  hind  ones.  The  A.-F).  spends 
nuich  of  its  time  in  sleep,  the  long  snout  concealed 
in  the  fur  of  the  breast,  the  hind  and  fore  claws 
locked  together,  and  the  bushy  tail  thrown  over  all, 
as  if  for  a  shade  from  the  sun.  It  is  verv  unsocial 
in  its  habits,  and  is  regarded  as  a  very  stupid  animal. 
It  has  great  strength  in  its  fore-legs  and  claws,  and 
is  said  to  hug  like  the  bear,  so  as  to  crush  an  enemy 
to  death.  The  female  produces  one  young  one  at  a 
birth,  and  carries  it  about  for  sometime  on  her  back. 
— Another  species,  the  Tamandua  (J/.  Tamandua), 
having  the  same  number  of  claws,  has  a  less  elon- 
gated snout,  comparatively  short  hair,  and  a  pre- 
hensile tail,  is  scarcely  so  large  as  a  cat,  and  climbs 
trees  in  quest  of  its  insect  food. — The  Little  or  Two- 
toed  A.-E.  {M.  didacti/la)  difllers  from  these  species 
not  only  in  the  number  of  its  toes,  but  in  other 
anatomical  characters. — Closely  allied  to  this  genus 
in  structure  and  habits  is  the  genus  Mains,  contain- 
ing the  Panoomns  of  Africa  and  India  ;  but  instead 
of  hair,  the  body  is  covered  with  strong  horny 
scales.  See  Pangolin. — The  name  A.-E.  is  given 
at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  to  the  Ori/cteropus 
Capcnsis,  the  Aard-vark  or  Earth-hog  of  the  Dutch 
colonists,  a  quadruped  of  about  the  same  size  with 
the  great  A.-E.  of  America,  belonging  to  the  same 
nattu-al  order,  and  resembling  it  also  in  its  elongated 
muzzle  and  extensile  tongue,  which  it  employs  in 
the  same  way,  but  provided  with  grinding  teeth  and 
flat  claws  adapted  for  burrowing.  It  burrows  with 
extraordinary  facility,  and  it  is  in  this  way  that  it 
seeks  to  secure  its  safety  when  assailed.  It  has  very 
short  hair,  and  little  of  it.  The  ears  are  moderately 
long.  It  is  a  nocturnal  animal,  and  very  timid. — 
The  Echidtne  of  New  Holland  are  sometimes  called 
Porcupine  Ant-eaters,  from  their  food  and  their 
similarity  to  the  true  ant-eaters  in  their  sharp  muzzle 
and  extensile  tongues ;  but  they  differ  much  in  some 
parts  of  their  structure.     See  EcmnNA. 

ANTECE'DENT,  a  term  in  Logic,  Grammar, 
and  Mathematics.  Thus  we  call  a  proposition  in 
Logic  from  which  another  is  deduced,  or  a  general 
principle  which  serves  as  the  base  and  support  of 
seme  particular  proposition,  the  A.  In  (irammar, 
the  A.  is  the  word  which  precedes  the  relative — as, 
for  example,  '  The  man  who  dies  for  his  country 
should  be  held  in  honour.'  Here  '  man '  is  the  A. 
In  Mathematics,  we  speak  of  the  A.  of  a  ratio — 
i.  e.,  the  first  of  two  terms  which  compose  the  ratio. 
Thus,  in  the  ratio  of  4  to  3,  4  is  the  A.  The  word 
is  also  used  in  the  plural  in  a  peculiar  sense.  '  We 
know  very  little  of  his  antecedents ' — i.  e.,  of  hia 
previous  character  or  conduct. 

ANTEDILU'VIAN  is  the  word  used  to  denote 
whatever  e.xisted  before  the  Flood.  The  A.  ages 
are  those  which  elapsed  before  the  Flood,  and,  in 
theological  language,  the  A.  religion  means  the 
religion  of  the  patriarchs  from  Adam  to  Noah.  In 
Geology,  the  '  A.  period '  has  no  reference  to  the 
deluge  recorded  in  the  Mosaic  narrative,  but  only  to 
the  final  transformation  of  the  earth  by  means  of 
water. 

A'NTELOPE  {Antilope\  a  genus  of  Mammalia 
belonging  to  the  order  of  Ruminants  (q.  v.),  and  to 
the  hollow-horned  section  of  that  order — in  which 
the  horns  consist  of  an  elastic  sheath  surrounding  a 
bony  process  of  the  skull,  and  are  permanent,  not 
annually  renewed.  The  antelopes  have  the  bony 
nucleus  of  the  horns  solid,  not  occupied,  as  in  those 
of  goats,  sheep,  and  oxen,  to  a  considerable  e.xtent, 


ANTELOPE. 


with  cells   conimuiucating   with   the   frontal  sinuses. 
They  are  also  distinguished  from  the  allied  genus  of 
gouts  by  having  the  chin  beardless,  and   from   them 
and   sheep  by  the    horns    not    being    longitudinally 
angled  or  ridged.     The  horns  of  antelopes  are,  how- 
ever, very  generally   annulated,  or    surrounded  with 
thickened  rings,     the  body  is  sh-nder  and  deer-liUe, 
the  feet  small  and  elegant,  the  tail  short  and   tufted, 
the  hair  generally  short,  and  the  colour  often  lively. 
Some    species,   however,    have    comparatively    long 
hair;  and   a  few   wliich    inhabit    cold    mountainous 
regions  are  clothed  with  wool  intermixed  with  longer 
and  coarsor  hair,  particularly  the   Chamois  (q.  v.)  of 
the  Alps  Caucasus,  &c. ;  the  Rocky  Mountain  Goat 
(q.  v.)  of  North  America;  and  the  Chiru  (q.  v.)  of 
the    Himalavas.       Many    species    have    infra-orbital 
sinuses  or  t'car-pits  (q.  v.)  like   deer.       The  females 
of  many  species,  as  of  deer,  are  destitute  of  horns  ; 
and  if  they  alone  came  under   observation,  it  would 
be  difficult  to   say   to   which   genus  they   belonged. 
The  size  is  very  various;  the  Guevei  or  Pigmy  A.  of 
Africa  (yl.  p>/()')mm)  is  oidy  8  to  9  inches  high  at  the 
shoulders,  whilst  the  largest  species   measure   5  or  6 
feet.     Almost  all  the  species  of  antelopes  are  peace- 
able, timid  animals,  and   are   distinguishod   by  their 
agility  and  flcetness.      Most  of  them  are  gregarious. 
Some  inhabit   plains ;  others  are   found  only   in  the 
most  inaccessible  mountainous  regions  ;  whilst  others 
dwell  in  jungles  and  deep  forests.      North  America 
possesses  two  or  three  species,  which  depart  consider- 
ably, as  docs  also  the  chamois  of  Europe,  from  the 
tvpical    character    of  the   genus.     Europe   produces 
duly  the  Chamois  and  the  Saiga  (.4.  Sairfa),  the  Cohcs 
of  Strabo,    which    inhabits   the   southern    plains   of| 
Poland  and  Russia.       Asia  has   a  greater  number  of 
species ;  but  they  are  most  numerous  in  Africa,  and 
particularly   in  South  Africa.       The  known   species 
amount  to  more  than  eighty,  which  are  arranged  in 
sections  or  groups  according  to  the  pecuUarities  of 
the  horns    and   other   characters,  but   a  satisfoctory 
classitication  of   them  is   difficult.     Some  naturalists 
make  a  family  of  Antilopece,  and  subdivide   it   into 
genera,  but  they  are  not  separated  by  sufficiently 
marked  characters.     The  flesh  of  all  antelopes  is  used 
as  food ;  hence  they  are  much  objects  of  the  chase. 
They  furnish  also  great  part  of  the   subsistence   of 
beasts  of  prey  in  Africa,  where  some  of  the  species 
e.\ist  in  such  numbers  that,  particularly  when  severe 
drought    occurs    in    the    regions    which    they    ordi- 
narily inhabit,  dense  and  multitudinous  herds  occa- 
sionally appear  in  the  interior  of  Cape  Colony,  to  the 
terrible  devastation  of  the  crops.       Even  the  saigas 
of  the  Tartarian  plains  congregate  in  herds  of  many 
thousands  in  the  end  of  autumn. 

The  name  A.  is  sometimes  more  particularly 
restricted  to  a  species  also  known  as  the  Common  or 
Indian  A.,  and  as  the  Sasin.  It  is  a  native  of  India 
and  the  eastern  parts  of  Asia,  and  is  a  beautiful 
animal,  about  2-^  feet  high  at  the  shoulder,  with 
erect,  diverging  horns,  bent  in  a  spiral  of  two  or 
three  turns.  The  hair  is  uniformly  short,  except 
that,  as  in  many  other  species  of  A.,  there  are 
small  tufts  of  bristles  on  the  knees.  It  inhabits 
open  plains,  and  the  herds  exercise  great  watchful- 
ness. Its  fleetness  is  such  that  greyhounds  chase  it 
in  vain ;  and  it  can  easily  bound  over  an  enclosure  of 
11  feet  in  height,  or  over  a  distance  of  10  or  12  yards. 
The  flesh  is  held  in  small  esteem,  and  the  animal  is 
less  than  many  of  its  congerers  an  object  of  the 
chase. — The  Saiga  is  a  much  less  graceful  animal ; 
its  horns  are  short,  and,  as  in  many  of  this  genus, 
curved  first  outwards  and  then  inwards,  so  that  the 
whole  outline  formed  by  them  resembles  that  of  a 
lyre.  They  are  used  by  the  Russians  and  Chinese 
for  the  manufacture  of  many  articles  of  domestic 
economy ;  and  it  ia  chiefly  for  their  sake  and  that 


of  the  skin  that  the  eaiga  is  hunted,  the  flesh  having 
a  disagreeal)le  taste,  which  is  ascribed  to  the  saline 
and  aromatic  plants  of  the  steppes. — The  Dzeren  {A. 
qutturoxa),  sometimes  called  the  Cliinese  A.,  and 
known  among  the  Chinese  by  a  name  which  signi- 
fies the  Yellow  Goat,  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  arid 
deserts  of  Central  Asia,  the  flesh  of  which  is  highly 
esteemed,  and  which  is  therefore  a  chief  object  of 
the  chase  in  these  regions.  It  derives  its  specific 
name  from  a  large  movable  goitre-Iikc  protuberance 
on  the  throat  of  the  old  males,  produced  by  a  dilata- 
tion of  the  larynx.— The  Addax,  or  Nubian  A.  (.1. 
Addax\  which  "was  known  to  the  ancients,  and  ia 


Addax  {A.  Addax.) 

mentioned  by  Pliny,  has  horns  very  similar  to  those 
of  the   Indian   A.,  but  is  a  larger  animal,  less  grace- 
ful,  with  a  slight  mane  on  the  neck,  a  tuft  of  long 
hair  on  the  forehead,  and  large  broad  hoofs,  adapted 
for  treading  on  fine  and  loo-e  sands.     It  inhabits  the 
deserts  of  Central  Africa,  and  contrary   to  the  usual 
habits  of  the  genus,  is  said  not  to  be  gregarious, 
but  to  live  in  pairs.      The 
Chikara    and    some    other 
Indian     species      are     dis- 
tinguished by  two  additional 
rudimentary  horns  in  front 
of  the  ordinary  horns,  and 
immediately  over  the  orbits. 
The  chikara  inhabits  thick 
forests  and  jungles.      Like 
the  addax,  it  lives  in  pairs  ; 
as    do    also    the    Stein-boc 
(q.   v.)  of  South  Africa,  an 
extremely  graceful  species ; 
and  the  Kleene-boc  of  the 
same    country  {A.    perpn- 
silla),  a  beautiful  and  active 
little   creature,    with    very 
small  horns.     The  kleene-boc  is  of  a  mild  and  gentle 
disposition,  and  extremely  capable  of  domestication. 
The  Gazelle  (q.  v.)  of  North  Africa  {A.  Dorcas),  one 
of  the  species  known  to  the  ancients,  is  very   fre- 
quently domesticated ;  and  from  its  gracefulness  of 
form,  its  gentleness  of  manners,  and  its  bright  black 
eyes,  has  afforded  to  the  Arabian  poets  one  of  their 
most  favourite   objects  of  comparison.      The  South 
African  Spuing-boc  (q.  v.)  is  another  very  beautiful 
species,    and   is    frequently    domesticated    by    the 
colonists  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.     Among  the 
numerous  species  which  that  country  produces  may 
be  mentioned  also  the  Blauw-boc  (A.  leucophmis) ; 
the  'KKi-hoQ  {A .  arundinaceux)  \  and  the  Caff'rarian 
ORYx(q.  v.),  {A.  Ori/x),  which  somewhat  resembles, 
but  is  quite  distinct  from,  the  Oryx  of  the  ancients 
{A.  Leucoryx  or  A.  Gazefln),  also  called  the  Algazel, 
a  native  of  the  countries  on  both  sides  of  the  Red 
Sea.     Still  more  worthy  of  notice  among  the  South 
African  species,  but  in  some  measure  departing  from 
the  strict  A.  type,  is  the  Eland  (q.  v.),  the  largest 
of  all  the  antelopes—  an  animal  which  may  yet  prob- 

287 


Head  of  Antilope  Chikara. 


ANTENNA— ANTHOLOGY. 


ably  be  found  very  valuable  in  domestication.  The 
Kudu  (q.  v.)  is  another  noble  species,  allied  to  the 
eland.  The  NYL-GiiAr  (q.  v.)  of  India,  and  the  Gnu 
(q.  V.)  of  South  Africa,  are  also  among  the  largest 
antelopes,  but  depart  still  further  from  the  generic 
type,  particularly  the  latter,  so  that  a  separate  genus 
(Cntohlcpns)  has  been  constituted  for  it,  having  better 
claims  to  be  recognised  than  the  other  genera  into 
which  it  has  been  proposed  that  the  antelopes  should 
be  divided.  Less  different  from  the  ordinary  type, 
but  still  with  a  marked  approach  to  a  bovine  appear- 
ance, are  the  Brr.Ai.rs  (q.  v.)  of  the  ancients,  a 
native  of  the  north  of  Africa,  the  Arabic  name  of 
wliich  signifies  wild  ox,  and  the  Kaam.v  (q.  v.)  or 
Ilarte-beest  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  which  is 
nearly  allied  to  it.  The  Prosg-houn  (q.  v.)  and  the 
Rocky  Mountain  Goat  (q.  v.)  are  the  best  known 
North  American  species  ;  and  both  are  found  only 
in  the  western  parts  of  the  continent.  It.  has  been 
proposed  to  introduce  the  latter,  as  a  wool-bearing 
animal,  into  the  Highlands  of  Scotland. 

ANTE'NN^E,  in  Zoology,  jointed  filaments  with 
which  the  lieads  of  Insects,  Crustacea,  and  Myriapoda 
are  furnished,  and  which  are  evidently  very  delicate 
organs  of  touch.  They  are  therefore  sometimes  called 
f<>elers.  The  name  A.  is  dcri\cd  fiom  «/(/<■,  before. 
The  A.  are  placed  on  the  anterior  or  superior  part  of 
the  head  ;  the  animals  appear  to  feci  their  way  with 
them,  and  to  tlieni  is  ascribed  the  bee's  power  of  work- 
ing in  the  dark.  Some  suppose  that  they  are  also 
oigans  of  hearing,  and  by  means  of  tliem  it  would 
appear  that  many  insects,  as  bees  and  ants,  have 
the  power  of  communicating  with  one  another.  They 
possess  great  flexibility,  but  differ  very  much  in  the 
number  of  joints  which  they  contain  (amounting 
sometimes  even  to  lOo),  in  the  relative  length  and 
thickness  of  their  joints,  and  also  in  their  form, 
being  filiform  or  thread-like,  clavate  or  club-shaped, 
feathered,  &c.,  in  endless  variety. 

ANTEQUE'RA  (the  Antkaria  of  the  Romans), 
an  important  town  in  the  province  of  Andalucia, 
Spain,  is  situated  in  a  fertile  plain,  45  miles  west  of 
Granada.  Pop.  17,000.  The  inhabitants  are  engaged 
chiefly  in  agricultural  operations,  but  also  manu- 
facture baize,  silk,  cotton,  and  paper.  They  are 
noted  for  their  love  of  bright  colours  in  dress. 
Although  A.  is  clean  and  well  built,  it  is  rarely 
visited  by  travellers,  on  account  of  its  lying  consider- 
ably off  the  high  road.  As  late  as  1544,  the  place  pos- 
sessed, in  almost  perfect  condition,  an  ancient  palace 
and  theatre;  but  about  that  time  the  stones  were 
plundered  to  build  a  convent,  and  only  a  few  were 
spared,  which  are  now  imbedded  in  the  walls  of  the 
town.  A.,  like  all  the  other  cities  of  South  Spain, 
was  for  a  while  in  the  hands  of  the  Moors ;  but  in 
1410  it  was  retaken  by  the  Regent  Fernando, 
who  is  hence  called  El  Infante  de  A.  When  the 
French  took  the  place,  during  the  Peninsular  War, 
they  converted  a  curious  old  mosque — a  relic  of 
Moorish  sway — into  a  storehouse,  and  on  their  de- 
parture carried  off  with  them  the  magnificent 
Moorish,armoury. 

ANTHELIA  (Gr.  anti,  opposite,  and  helioSy  the 
Bun  ;  Ger.  Gecfeyisovnen)  are  luminous  rings,  seen  by 
an  observer  on  a  cloud  or  fog  which  lies  opposite 
to  the  sun.  They  occur  chiefly  in  alpine  regions 
and  in  the  polar  seas,  and  are  only  seen  when  sun- 
shine and  cloud,  or  fog,  occur  at  the  same  time. 
They  appear  in  the  following  way  :  When,  from  an 
elevated  position — as  the  mast  of  a  ship,  or  the  ridge 
of  a  hill — the  shadow  of  an  observer  is  projected  by 
the  sun  on  a  cloud  or  fog,  he  sees  the  head  encircled 
by  a  glory  or  luminous  ring,  diminishing  in  bright- 
ness as  it  leaves  the  head  as  a  centre.  When  the 
sua  shines  brightly,  and  the  fog  is  dense,  as  many  aa 
288 


four  concentric  rings  of  this  nature  are  seen  by  the 
observer  round  tlie  shadow  of  his  head,  having  their 
common  centre  in  the  point  where  a  line  from  the 
sun  through  the  eye  of  the  observer  meet.s  the  fog. 
When  the  phenomenon  assumes  this  form,  the  rings 
are  more  or  less  coloured — the  colours  of  the  two 
inner  rings  being  generally  brilliant,  those  of  the  third 
more  faint,  while  those  of  the  fourth  are  .scarcely 
perceptible.  This  last  has  an  angular  radius  of  about 
40^,  and  is  very  seldom  seen.  It  bears  frequently  the 
name  of  the  Circle  of  I'lloa  or  the  White  Rainbow. 
A  phenomenon  substantially  similar  to  the  A.  occurs 
when,  the  sun  being  near  the  horizon,  the  observer 
sees  an  aureola  surrounding  the  shadow  of  his  head 
cast  upon  grass  or  corn  moistened  with  dew.  The 
occurrence  of  A.  is  generally  attributed  to  the 
diffraction  (q.  v.)  of  light. 

ANTHEM  (Gr.  anti,  against,  hifmno.t,  a  hymn; 
a  hymn  sung  in  alternate  parts),  a  sjtecies  of  musical 
composition  introduced  into  the  service  of  tlie  Eng- 
lish Church  after  the  Reformation,  and  appointed  to 
be  sung  daily,  at  morning  and  evening  service,  after 
the  third  collect.  The  words  of  the  A.  arc  taken 
from  the  Psalms,  or  other  suitable  parts  of  the 
Scriptures,  and  the  music  is  either  for  solo,  soli,  or 
chorus,  or  a  mixture  of  all  three.  As  a  specimen  of 
English  music,  it  can  only  be  heard  to  perfection  in 
cathedral  service.  In  its  origin,  musical  construc- 
tion, and  use,  it  is  similar  to  the  motet  of  the 
Romish  Church,  which  name  has  been  retained  by 
the  Lutheran  Church.     See  Motet;  also  Antiphony. 

ANTIIEMIS.     See  Chamomile. 

ANTHER.     See  Stamen. 

ANTHERI'DIUM,  the  name  given  by  some 
botanists  to  an  organ  in  cryptogamous  plants  which 
they  suppose  to  be  analogous  in  its  functions  to  the 
stamen  or  male  organ  of  fructification  in  phanero- 
gamous plants.  Antheridia  are  variously  situated 
on  the  surface  of  plants  or  within  their  tissue. 
Sometimes  they  are  simple  cells ;  sometimes  they  are 
compased  of  a  number  of  cells,  containing  a  mucila- 
ginous fluid,  and  peculiar  small  bodies  called  PInitnzna 
(q.  v.),  which  at  a  certain  period  exhibit  active  move- 
ments Uke  those  of  animalcules.  The  antheridia 
finally  discharge  their  contents  through  an  opening  ; 
and  it  is  supposed  by  some  that  their  contact  with 
another  class  of  organs,  to  which  the  name  Pistil- 
LiniUM  (q.  v.)  has  been  given,  is  essential  to  the  pro- 
duction of  spores,  the  seeds  of  cryptogamous  plants. 
But  these  names  are  to  be  regarded  as  at  best  only 
provisional,  and  these  views  as  far  from  being  suffi- 
ciently established. 

ANTHOLOGY  (Gr.  flower-collection)  is  the  title 
usually  given  to  a  book  consisting  of  an  unconnected 
series  of  choice  thoughts,  whether  in  prose  or  verse, 
but  generally  in  the  latter.  Of  the  collections  ot 
this  kind  made  in  ancient  times,  which  consisted 
mostly  of  epigrammatic  poems,  the  best  known  are  the 

Greek  Aniholoffies. — The  first  Greek  A.  was  com- 
piled  by  Meleager  of  Gadara,  in  Syria,  about  60 
n.c.  Besides  this,  there  were  three  or  four  others 
belonging  to  periods  considerably  subsequent  to  the 
birth  of  Christ ;  but  all  these  earlier  anthologies  are 
lost.  What  we  now  possess  are  two  later  collec- 
tions, one  by  Constantine  Cephalas  in  the  10th  c, 
who  borrowed  largely  from  one  of  the  earlier  antho- 
logies ;  and  another  by  Maximus  Planudes,  a  monk 
of  Constantinople  in  the  14th  c,  who,  by  his  taste- 
less selection  from  the  A.  of  Cephalas,  rather  spoiled 
than  increased  the  already  existing  store.  The  A.  of 
Planudes  was  first  issued  in  print  at  Florence  in  1494 
by  a  learned  Greek,  John  Lascaris,  and  for  a  long 
time  was  the  only  one  known.  It  went  through 
successive  editions,  and  received  various  improve- 
ments.    The  latest  editioa  (with  the  Latin  version  of 


ANTHOLOGY. 


Grotius,  a  master-piece  of  latiiiity  and  rapid  execu- 
tion) was  commenced  by  Bosch  in  1795,  and  finished 
by  Lennep  in  1822.  Meanwhile,  Claude  Salmasius 
had  discovered  in  the  Heidelberg  Library  (Kino)  the 
only  extant  manuscript  of  the  older  and  richer  A. 
of  Constantine  Cephalas,  whith  he  compared  with 
that  of  Planudcs,  copying  out  the  poems  not  found 
in  the  latter.  During  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  the 
Heidelberg  manusciipt  was  carried  to  Rome  ;  but  in 
1797,  after  the  peace  of  Tolentino,  the  French  con- 
trived to  secure  possession  of  it,  and  brought  it  to 
Paris.  In  1816  it  was  returned  to  Heidelberg. 
After  the  important  discovery  of  Salmasius,  the 
work  was  often  mentioned  by  the  name  of  the 
Palatinate  Manuscript,  or  the  Yaticano-Palatinate. 
Portions  of  it  were  puhhshed  by  Jensius,  Leich, 
Reiske,  and  Klotz.  The  entire  collection,  augmented 
by  fragments  of  the  older  poets,  and  by  epigrams 
found  on  monuments  and  in  other  works,  was  edited 
by  Brunck  at  Strasburg  in  1776,  under  the  title 
Analecta  Veterum  Poetaruni  Grwcorum  (Selections 
from  the  Old  Greek  Poets),  and  later  by  Jacob, 
under  the  title  oi  Anthologia  Graca,  sive  Poetarum 
Grcccorutn  Lnsiis  ex  Recevsioiie  Brunckii  (Greek  A., 
or  Fugitive  Pieces  of  the  Greek  Poets,  from  the 
corrected  Text  of  Brunck),  17'.»4 — 1814,  at  Loipsic. 
Since  then,  it  has  been  published  variously,  in  whole 
or  part.  It  is  impossible  not  to  admire  these  gems. 
Nowhere  is  there  to  be  found  a  richer  variety  of 
poetic  life,  greater  delicacy  of  sentiment,  a  more 
joyous  serenity,  a  greater  abundance  of  wise,  true, 
humane  thoughts,  than  sparkle  in  the  pages  of  the 
Greek  A.  To  the  poet,  it  presents  the  most  graceful 
images  and  the  most  exquisite  conceptions ;  to  the 
philosoplier,  maxims  adorned  with  all  the  graces  of 
style  ;  to  the  historian,  monumental  inscriptions  ;  to 
the  philologist,  the  most  varied  forms  of  an  imperish- 
able language  ;  to  all,  a  charming  revelation  of  anti- 
quity. 

Latin  Anthologies. — In  1573,  Scaliger  published  at 
Leyden,  in  imitation  of  the  Greek  A.,  a  Latin  A., 
under  the  title  Catalecta  Veterimi  PoHarum  (Gather- 
ings from  the  Old  Poets),  and  Pitthous  one  at 
Paris,  1590.  A  larger  collection  was  issued  at 
Amsterdam  (1759  and  1773)  by  Peter  Burmann  the 
Younger,  under  the  title  Antho'logia  Veterum  Latin- 
orum  Epigranimatiim  et  Poematxim  (A.  of  Old  Latin 
Epigrams  and  Poems),  a  more  correct  and  better 
arranged  edition  of  which  was  published  by  Meyer 
in  18S5. 

Asiatic  literature  is  extremely  rich  in  anthologies, 
which  consist  sometimes  of  extracts  from  the  best 
poets,  arranged  according  to  the  subject,  and  some- 
times of  'beauties'  of  their  best  poets,  with  bio- 
graphical notices,  which  are  either  placed  in  chrono- 
logical order,  or  according  to  the  countries  in  which 
the  authors  lived. 

1.  Arabic  Anthologies. — Abu-Temam  published 
selections  from  the  old  Arabic  songs  previous  to  the 
time  of  Mohammed,  arranged  them  in  ten  books, 
and  named  the  entire  collection  after  the  first  book, 
which  consisted  of  war-songs,  Hamdsa.  Another 
famous  A.  is  the  Divan  of  the  Hudhailites  (an  Arabic 
tribe),  an  edition  of  which  was  published  by  Kose- 
garten.  Abu'l-Faraj  of  Ispahan  (died  966)  gathered 
together  in  his  Kitdb  al-aghdni  (Book  of  Songs), 
all  the  ancient  Arabic  songs  down  to  the  first  centu- 
ries of  the  Califate.  It  was  published  by  Kosegarten 
in  1840.  Abu'l-Faraj  accompanied  the  work  with  a 
minute  commentary,  which  makes  it  one  of  the 
most  interesting  of"  the  old  Arabic  literature.  But 
the  richest  and  most  complete  A.  of  the  later  Arabic 
poesy  is  Yatimat  al-dahr  (the  Pearl  of  the  World), 
by  Taalebi,  in  which  the  writers  are  arranged  accord- 
ing to  the  provinces  in  which  they  lived.  It  has 
been  continued  and  enlarged  since  the  period  of 
19 


the  original  compiler.  Besides  these  and  .similar 
national  anthologies,  collections  have  been  made  in 
almost  every  province  where  the  Arabic  culture  and 
speech  prevailed.  Such,  for  example,  arc  the 
numerous  Arabico-Spanish  ones,  though  these  are 
but  little  known. 

2.  Per.iifin  Anthnlngics. — In  the  Persian  literature, 
the  best  known  works  of  this  sort  are  2hskarat  al 
Shiiara  (Lives  of  the  Poets),  by  Daulet  Shah  (died 
1495),  the  contents  of  which  are  to  be  found  almost 
entire  in  Hammer's  work  on  Persian  belles-lettres 
(Yienna,  1818),  and  Atcsh  Kednh  (the  Fire  Temple), 
by  Ilaje-Lutf-Ali-Beg,  who  lived  about  1770.  Both 
works  give  biographical  notices  of  the  Persian  poets: 
the  first,  in  chronological  order;  the  second,  in 
topographical  order,  with  specimens  from  their 
works.  An  A.  of  t'.ie  best  Persian  poetry,  arranged 
according  to  the  subjects,  is  given  in  the  'Med>ihua  al 
Shuara  (a  Collection  of  Poets). 

3.  Tatar  Anthologies. — Ot  the  poets  who  have 
written  in  the  Tatar — i.  e.,  the  East  Turkish  of 
Tshagatai  dialect — we  possess  a  collection  compris- 
ing 441  biographies,  with  specimens  of  their  poetry  : 
iladxhalis  alnasais  (Charming  Company),  bv  Mir- 
Alischir  (died  15()0),  and  the  Lives  of  the'  Tatar 
Poets,  by  Sadiki,  extending  down  to  the  17th  c. 

4.  Turkish  Anthologies. — The  number  of  antholo- 
gies in  the  West  Turkish,  or,  as  it  is  generally  called, 
the  Turkish  language,  is  very  numerous.  The  most 
famous  are — Hesht  Behesht  (the  Eight  Paradises), 
by  Sehi  of  AdrianopU  (died  1548) ;  Ta.<ikarat  al  Sh't- 
ava  (Lives  of  the  Poet.-j),  by  Latifi  (died  158:2), 
and,  under  the  same  title,  a  similar  work  of  Ashik- 
Tshelebi  (died -1571);  and  the  great  collection,  S?<A- 
dat  al-ashaar  (the  Blossoms  of  Poetry),  by  Kassa  h 
(died  1021).  The  substance  of  these  aIlthologi3^ 
is  to  be  found  in  Hammer's  History  of  West  Turkish 
Poetry  (Pesth,  1836). 

5.  Indian  Anthologies. — The  literature  of  the 
Mohammedan  population  of  Hindustan,  which  is  a 
mere  copy  of  Persian  literature,  has  also  several 
anthologies.  The  most  important  are — Guhari  Ibra- 
him, by  Ali  Ibrahim,  containing  biographical  notices 
of  300  Hindustani  poets,  with  specimens  of  their 
writings ;  the  collection  called  Diivani  lihan,  by  Bcni-i 
Xarayan ;  Guldastai  Nishdt  (Garland  of  Pleasure),, 
by  Manu  Lai  (Calcutta,  1836);  and  Guldastai 
Kdznindn,  by  Kerim-ed-din  (Calcutta,  1845).  The 
substance  of  these  works  is  to  be  found  in  Garcin  de 
Tassy's  Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Hindui  e .  Uindns~- 
tani  (Paris,  1839 — 1847),  which,  under  the  title  of 
Tabakdti  Shuardi  Hindi,  was  translated  into  Hindus- 
tani by  Kerim-ed-din  (Delhi,  1848).  In  the  pure 
Hindi,  we  have  a  rich  collection  of  songs,  the  jidgd 
Sdgar,  by  Krishnananda  (Calcutta.  1845). 

6.  Sanscrit  Anthologies. — The  Sanscrit  literature 
is  not  so  rich  in  anthologies  as  the  other  oriental 
literatures.  If  we  do  not  consider  the  Ycdic  hymns, 
and  the  collections  of  poems  which  bear  the,  general 
title  Sataka  (a  Century),  anthological  in  the  proper 
sense,  there  is  only  one  work  of  this  kind  knawn — 
viz,  the  Paddhati,  by  Sarngadhara,  toward*  the 
close  of  the  14th  c,  in  which  are  gathered  together 
6000  detached  strophes  of  the  most  famous  epic,  lyric, 
and  dramatic  poets  of  India,  arranged  under  certain, 
heads. 

7.  Chinese  Anthologies. — From  the  earliest  ages,  the 
Chinese  had  the  custom  of  sending,  along  with  the 
yearly  tribute  to  the  emperor,  copies  of  such  songs 
as  had  acquired  popularity.  Confucius  selected  from 
a  great  number  of  these  311  of  the  most  beautiful 
These  are  preserved  under  the  name  Shi-king  (Book 
of  Songs),  one  of  the  canonical  books  of  the  Chinese. 
This  is  the  oldest  A.  in  the  world.  A  Latin  version, 
by  Lacharme,  was  published  at  Stuttgart,  1830;  a 
German  one,  by  Riickert,  at  Altona,  1833.     Besides 

289 


ANTHON— ANTHROPOPHAG  I. 


this,  there  is  Tchao-ming-wen-siouen,  a  collection  of 
the  finest  poems  of  the  time  of  the  Liang  dynasty 
(502 — 556  A.n.),  and  also  Thaiig-shi,  poems  of  the 
time  of  the  Thang  dynasty  (018 — 914  a.d.). 

ANTHON,  Charles,  LL.D.,  a  well-known  editor 
of  classics,  was  born  in  the  city  of  New  York 
in  ITyT.  At  the  age  of  1-t,  he  entered  Columbia 
College,  where  he  pursued  his  studies  with  ardour 
and  success  for  four  years.  Having  been  originally 
intended  for  the  law,  he  now  passed  through  a  pre- 
liminary practical  instruction  in  his  brother's  ofBce, 
and  in  1819  was  admitted  to  the  bar  of  the  supreme 
court  of  the  state  of  New  York.  His  time,  however, 
was  chiefly  devoted  to  classical  literature,  for  which 
he  soon  began  to  acquire  a  high  reputation ;  and  in 
1820,  when  only  23  years  of  age,  he  was  appointed 
adjunct-professor  of  Languages  in  Columbia  College, 
which  office  he  held  for  fifteen  years.  He  now  com- 
menced that  scries  of  cliissical  publications  which 
has  done  so  much  to  make  available  for  popular 
purposes  the  erudite  researches  of  European  scholars. 
His  first  work  was  a  new  edition  of  Lempriere's 
C'la-'fsifal  I)ictio7inri/,  which  was  almost  immediately 
re-issucd  in  England.  In  1830  appeared  his  larger 
edition  of  Horace,  quite  a  novelty  in  its  way,  on 
account  of  the  su[ierabundant  English  notes  which 
accompanied  the  text.  In  1883,  he  Issued  a  smaller 
edition,  for  the  use  of  schools  and  colleges.  Virgil, 
Ca-sar,  and  other  ancient  writers  have  been  illus- 
trated in  the  same  attractive  manner.  A.'s  editions 
of  the  classics  have  acquired  an  extensive  popularity  ; 
but  scholars  are  disposed  to  regard  them  with  a 
kind  of  learned  aversion,  both  because  of  the  temp- 
tations they  present  to  the  school-boy  to  overlook 
the  difficulties  of  a  knotty  passage,  and  of  the  super- 
fluous and  often  unimportant  matter  which  is  digni- 
fii  d  with  the  title  of  'commentary'  or  'notes.'  It 
cannot  be  doubted,  however,  that  these  works  have 
given  a  healthy  stimulus  to  the  rudimentary  study 
of  the  ancient  authors.  In  1831,  A.  received  the 
degree  of  LL.D.  from  his  Alma  Mater,  and  in  18.35  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  languages  in  the  same  in- 
stitution. A.  published  many  works  on  ancient 
geograph}',  Greek  and  Eoman  antiquities,  mythology, 
literature,  &c.     He  died  July  29,  1867. 

ANTHONY,  ST.     See  Antont,  St. 

ANTHOXANTHIUM.     See  Vernal  Grass. 

ANTHRACITE  (Gr.  anihraxy  a  coal),  a  mineral 
substance  of  the  nature  of  coal,  but  consisting  of 
carbon  with  a  minimum  amount  of  hydrogen.  It  is 
of  a  black  colour,  conchoidal  fracture,  and  imper- 
fectly metallic  lustre  (hence  called  glance-coaX).  It 
burns  slowly  and  without  flame,  and  hence  is  some- 
times called  blind-coaX.  Its  vegetable  origin  cannot 
be  doubted.  Where  strata  of  common  coal  have  been 
broken  through  by  trap  dikes,  the  coal  next  the  trap 
is  found  to  be  A.,  with  a  gradual  transition  into  the 
ordinary  state ;  hence  geologists  look  upon  A.  as 
natural  coke  (q.  v.),  formed  by  heat  or  other  process 
from  ordinary  coal.  A.  is  used  as  fuel  like  coke.  It 
is  applied  in  many  places  to  the  burning  of  lime  and 
bricks,  the  reduction  of  iron,  &c.  It  occurs  exten- 
sively in  Ireland,  and  in  some  of  the  coal-fields  of 
England,  Scotland,  and  the  continent  of  Europe;  but 
on  the  largest  scale  in  Pennsylvania,  U.  S. 

ANTHROPO'LATRY  (Gr.),  a  term  signifying, 
according  to  its  derivation,  the  worship  of  man^  and 
always  employed  in  reproach.  Thus,  the  early 
Christians  accused  the  heathens  of  A.,  because,  in 
their  mythology,  men  were  represented  as  exalted 
among  the  gods,  although  an  apotheosis  (q.  v.)  was 
in  these  cases  alleged  by  their  worshippers ;  and  the 
heathens  retorted  the  charge  because  of  the  worship 
of  Christ ;  the  reply  to  which  was  the  assertion  of 
his  divinity.  But  the  term  is  chiefly  known  in 
290 


ecclesiastical  history  in  connection  with  the  employ- 
ment of  it  by  the  Apollinarians  (q.  v.)  against  the 
orthodox  Christians  of  the  4th  and  5th  centuries, 
with  reference  to  the  doctrine  of  the  perfect  human 
nature  of  Christ. 

ANTHROPOLOGY  (from  the  Gr.  anthropon, 
man),  a  term  signifying,  according  to  its  derivation, 
that  branch  of  science  w  hich  has  man  for  its  subject. 
In  its  proper  sense,  it  is  very  comprehensive,  and  of 
course  includes  Anatomy,  Physiology,  Psychology, 
Ethnology,  and  even  History  in  the  largest  sense  of 
the  term,  with  much  of  Theology,  ./Esthetics,  &c. 
It  is  not  in  common  use,  and  when  it  is  used,  is  often 
limited  to  the  subject  of  the  relations  between  mind 
and  matter,  or  soul  and  body,  in  man. 

ANTHROPOMO'RPHISM  (from  the  Gr.  anfhrd- 
poK,  man,  and  tnorphe,  a  form),  the  application,  in  a 
figurative  way,  to  God,  of  terms  which  properly  relate 
to  human  beings.  Thus,  in  the  Holy  Scriptures,  we 
read  of  the  eye,  the  ear,  the  arm,  the  hand  of  God  ; 
and  of  his  remembering,  forgetting,  &c.  This  A. 
appears  to  arise  of  necessity  from  our  incapacity  of 
forming  conceptions  of  things  spiritual,  or  finding  any 
terms  in  which  to  express  them,  except  by  analogies 
derived  from  things  cognizable  by  our  senses,  so  that 
even  the  language  of  adoration  is  borrowed  from  the 
familiar  things  of  this  world.  It  must  be  evident, 
however,  that  A.  em[)loyed  in  an  unguarded  manner, 
or  too  grossly  understood,  might  lead  to  most  serious 
error  ;  and  a  tendency  has  manifested  itself  at  vari- 
ous times  in  the  history  of  the  Christian  Church,  to 
ascribe  to  the  Divine  Being  a  form  and  parts  like  those 
of  men.  Thus,  the  Audajans  (q.  v.)  or  Audians,  a 
Syrian  monastic  sect  which  sprang  up  in  the  4th  c, 
were  accused,  and,  it  would  seem,  justly,  of  holding 
that  God  was  possessed  of  a  human  shape,  and  that, 
when  the  Bible  said  that  '  God  created  man  in  hia 
own  inuige,'  the  words  are  to  be  understood  of  this 
shape  literally.  The  same  error  was  at  a  later  period 
ascribed  to  the  Waldenses,  but  there  is  no  evidence 
of  the  justice  of  the  accusation.  A  tendency  to  A. 
may  indeed  be  regarded  as  always  existing,  and  so 
requiring  to  be  guarded  against  in  the  mind  of  every 
man  ;  but  the  instances  have  been  rare  and  isolated, 
although  they  have  from  time  to  time  occurred,  in 
which  anthropomorphite  views  have  been  fully 
adopted  and  openly  expressed  among  Christians. 
The  error  of  the  anthropomorphites  has,  however, 
found  countenance  from  the  speculations  of  philoso- 
phers. Hobbes,  Forster,  and  Priestley  ascribed  to 
the  Divine  Being  a  sort  of  subtile  body.  Fichte,  on 
the  other  hand,  rejected  the  very  doctrine  of  the 
personality  of  the  Divine  Being  as  anthropomorphic, 
and  represented  God  as  the  moral  order  of  the 
xmiverse ;  and  Schelling,  Hegel,  Feuerbach,  and 
Schleiermacher  substituted  for  the  objective  person- 
ality of  God  a  subjective  consciousness  of  God  in 
the  human  soul. — The  term  Anthropopathism  is 
sometimes  employed  to  denote  the  ascription  to  God 
of  human  affections  and  passions,  although  A.,  in  its 
most  general  sense,  includes  this.  The  language 
of  Scripture,  in  the  many  instances  of  this  kind, 
must  be  interpreted  according  to  the  same  general 
principles  which  are  applicable  in  those  of  A.  strictly 
so  called,  with  the  same  discrimination  of  the  figura- 
tive from  the  literal,  and  the  same  constant  recog- 
nition of  the  absolute  spirituality  and  unchangeable- 
ness  of  God  ;  yet  so  that  important  truths  conveyed 
by  means  of  such  language,  and  which  it  is  probable 
could  only  be  conveyed  to  us  by  such  language,  in 
accordance  with  our  mental  constitution,  may  not  be 
rejected  or  obscured.  And  here,  it  must  be  con- 
fessed, there  is  greater  difficulty  than  with  regard  to 
A.  strictly  so  called. 

ANTHROPO'PHAGL     See  Cannibals. 


AXTIIUS— AXTI-CORN'-LAW  LEAGUE. 


ANTIIUS  and  ANTHID.E.     See  Pipit. 

ANTIIYLLIS.     See  Kidnet  Vetch. 

ANTIARIS  and  ANTJAR.     See  Upas. 

AXTI'BES  (anciently  Antipolix),  a  fortifind  sea- 
port in  the  department  of  the  Var,  in  the  S.  E.  of 
Provence,  France,  hit.  43°  34'  N.,  lonnj.  7°  8'  E.  Pop. 
6200.  It  Hes  on  the  east  side  of  a  small  neck  of  land 
called  La-Garoupe,  not  far  from  the  frontier  of 
Sarditiia,  in  a  very  fertile  district,  producing  wine 
and  fruits.  The  harbour  is  only  servicealde,  how- 
ever, for  small  craft.  It  is  a  military  station  of  the 
third  rank,  possesses  a  naval  school,  and  has  consid- 
erable trade  in  olives,  dried  fruits,  snlt-fish,  oil,  &c. 
The  anchovies  prepared  at  A.  are  hold  in  high  esti- 
mation. The  environs  of  the  town  are  beautifully 
adorned  with  gardens,  vineyards,  and  orchards. 

A.  is  a  very  old  place,  having  been  founded  by 
a  colony  of  Greeks  from  Massilia  (Marseille),  of 
which  it  was  a  dependency.  In  the  time  of  Augus- 
tus it  was  elevated  to  the  rank  of  an  Italian  city, 
and  must  have  attained  a  high  degree  of  prosperity, 
if  we  are  to  judge  from  the  ruins  that  still  exist. 
After  the  wreck  of  the  old  Roman  empire,  A.  suf- 
fered the  fate  of  all  classic  cities  in  that  region,  be- 
coming subject  to  successive  tribes  of  barbarians 
from  the  north.  In  the  9th  c,  it  was  destroyed  by 
the  Saracens  ;  in  the  16th  c.,  it  was  fortified  by 
Francis  I.  and  Henry  IV. ;  dining  the  Austrian  War 
of  Succession,  it  sustained  a  siege  of  three  months 
(1746);  and  in  recent  times,  gained  some  notoriety 
from  having  closed  its  gates  against  Napoleon,  on 
his  return  from  Elba. 

A'XTirilLORE  is  the  name  given  to  commercial 
sulphite  of  soda  by  paper-makers.  When  the  rags 
are  reduced  to  a  pulp,  they  are  bleached  by  chloride 
of  lime  (bleaching-powder),  which  thoroughly  soaks 
the  pulp,  and  is  very  difficult  to  wash  out.  The 
traces  of  chlorine  thus  left  in  the  pulp  pass  into  the 
manufiictured  paper,  and  tend  to  bleach  the  writing- 
ink  which  may  be  traced  thereon.  To  free  the  pulp 
from  the  residue  of  the  chlorine,  some  sulphite  of 
soda  is  emjiloyed,  and  hence  the  name  A.,  which  lit- 
erally signifies  '  against  (nnti)  chlorine.' 

A'XTICITRIST  (from  Gr.  anti,  against,  and  Chris- 
tos,  Christ).  The  general  notion  of  A.,  as  a  power 
opposing  itself  to  the  reign  of  the  Messiah,  may 
be  traced  back  beyond  the  Christian  era.  Its  origin 
is  perhaps  to  be  found  in  the  prophecy  of  Ezekiel 
concerning  the  doom  of  Gog  and  Magog.  In  ac- 
cordance with  the  old  saying,  '  When  need  is  sorest, 
help  is  nearest,'  the  Jews  conceived  that,  immedi- 
ately previous  to  the  Messiah's  reign,  national  ad- 
versity must  be  experienced  in  an  extreme  degree, 
and  that  an  agent  of  Satan  wotdd  appear,  who  must 
be  overcome  before  prosperity  coidd  be  restored. 
This  was  A.  The  idea  is  adopted  in  the  New 
Testament,  although  the  term  A.  occurs  in  no  place 
of  Seriptiu-e,  except  in  the  First  and  Second  Epis- 
tles of  John.  From  such  passages  as  the  proph- 
ecies of  the  Saviour,  Matt.  xxiv.  and  Mark  xiii.,  it 
has  been  inferred  by  some  that  probably  the  great 
truth  which  this  conception  was  intended  to  shadow 
forth  was  similar  to  that  illustrated  in  the  life  of 
'the  Man  of  Sorrows' — that  only  through  tribula- 
tion and  strife  could  the  reign  of  the  Messiah  be 
established,  that  Christ's  kingdom,  like  Christ  him- 
self, could  be  made  perfect  only  through  suffering. 
And  with  this  the  language  of  John  in  his  epistles, 
and  of  Paul  in  passages  which  seem  to  embody  the 
same  idea,  is  supposed  to  accord.  Nor  is  it  regarded 
as  a  fatal  objection  to  this  opinion,  that  in  the  Apoc- 
alypse the  Antichristian  power  or  element  is  associ- 
ated with  the  great  heathen  capital  Rome,  symboli- 
cally designated  Babylon. 

But  this  opinion  neither  has  been  nor  is  generally 


prevalent.  The  idea  of  A.  early  became  associated 
with  that  of  the  .Millennium  (q.  v.),  retaining  a  form 
very  similar  to  that  which  it  had  among  the  Jews 
before  the  advent  of  the  Messiah ;  and  popular 
opinion  has  always  sought  to  find  for  it  some  actual 
and  definite  embodiment.  In  the  5th  c.,  a  popular 
delusion  prevailed,  founded  on  the  passage  in  the 
Apocalypse,  xvii.  8,  that  X'ero  was  not  dead,  and 
would  return  in  the  character  of  A.  Since  the  16th 
c,  the  prevalent  opinion  among  Protestants  has  been 
tliat  A.  is  the  Roman  Catholic  Church ;  an  idea 
entertained  even  at  an  earlier  period,  as,  for  instance, 
l)y  Ludwig  of  Bavaria,  regarding  Pope  John  XXII., 
by  Occam,  Wicklifle  and  his  pupil  Cobham,  and 
(he  Bohemian  reformer  Janow,  and  which  seems 
to  have  prevailed  to  a  considerable  extent  among 
the  Hussites  and  other  opponents  of  Rome.  This 
opinion  has  of  course  been  strenuously  opposed 
by  Roman  Catholic  writers,  as  by  Bossuet,  who,  in 
his  comments  on  the  Apocalypse,  ably  advocates  the 
opinion  that  Pagan  Rome  was  A.  The  opinions  of 
Roman  Catholics,  however,  are  muih  divided  upon 
this  subject,  many  of  them  maintaining  that  A.  is 
yet  to  come  and 'to  raise  the  last  persecution,' as 
'  no  one  has  yet  appeared  to  whom  we  can  a(>ply 
the  character  which  the  infallible  Word  of  (Jo  I 
declares  shall  be  that  of  the  real  A.' — Keenan'x 
Catechixm  of  the  ChriMian  Relia'on. 

The  opinion  prevalent  among  Protestants  depends 
upon  the  identification  of  A.  with  the  mystical 
Babylon  of  Apocalypse,  and  with  other  symbolic 
representations  in  that  book,  of  a  power  opposed  to 
the  cause  of  Christ,  and  also  with  the  '  Wicked '  one, 
the  'Man  of  Sin,'  and  'Son  of  Perdition,'  in  'Jd 
Thess.  ii.  Thus  it  is  maintained  that  a  definite- 
embodiment  of  the  idea  of  A.  is  to  be  sought  in 
history,  and  that  this  is  to  be  found  in  the  Church 
of  Rome  or  in  the  Papal  power.  And  Protestant-; 
refer  to  the  gradiuil  growth  and  development  of  the 
errors  which  they  regard  as  culminating  in  th<> 
Church  of  Rome,  as  accordant  with  the  declaratio.i 
of  Paul  in  '2d  Thess.  ii.,  that  '  the  mystery  of  iniquity 
doth  already  work,'  and  with  that  of  John,  'even 
now  are  there  many  antichrists.' 

There  have  been,  however,  among  Protestants 
eminent  opponents  of  this  opinion,  among  whom 
may  be  named  Grotius.  His  own  opinion  was 
singular,  that  Caligula,  the  Roman  emperor,  was  A. 
In  the  Greek  Church,  the  term  A.  has  been  unde:  - 
stood  as  especially  applicable  to  Mohammed,  or  to 
the  dominion  of  the  Turks  and  Saracens.  Almo-t. 
every  great  or  striking  event — the  arrival  of  tie 
year  1000;  the  beginning  of  the  Crusades;  the 
'black  death  '  and  other  plagues  in  the  14th  c. ;  the 
career  of  Napoleon  in  1805;  and  even  the  political 
movements  of  1848  and  1849 — has  suggested  new 
interpretations  of  the  passages  of  Scripture  regarding 
A.     See  Revklation,  Book  of. 

AXTI-CORN-LAW  LEAGUE,  the  name  adopted 
by  an  association  which  concentrated  the  efforts  of 
the  free-trade  party  in  Britain,  aTid  enabled  them  to 
carry  the  repeal  of  the  corn-laws,  and  establish  in 
practice  the  principle  of  free-trade.  The  residts  thi;> 
accomplished  will  have  to  be  considered  under  othi  r 
heads,  as  Corn-laws,  FREE-TRAnE,  &c.  This  statt-- 
ment  is  limited  to  a  brief  account  of  the  League 
itself,  and  its  method  of  working.  Associations  to 
obtain  the  repeal  of  the  corn-laws  existed  in  sever.; 
places  before  the  embodiment  of  the  League — on" 
especially  was  founded  in  London  in  18.S4.  In  18.SS, 
Mr.  Cobden  and  others  took  the  opportunity  of  the 
periodical  assemblages  of  the  Manchester  Chamber 
of  Commerce  for  exposing  the  deleterious  influenc.' 
of  the  restrictive  commercial  policy  on  the  manufar- 
tures  and  trade  of  the  country.  The  friends  of 
free-trade,   at    the    same    time,  occasionally  met  ia 

291 


ANTICOSTI— ANTIGONUS  GONATAS. 


Manchester  to  discuss  and  promulgate  their  views; 
but  it  was  in  the  beginning  of  1839  that  the  strength 
of  the  party  was  first  drawn  to  a  focus,  by  the 
appointment  of  delegates  from  the  manufacturing 
districts  to  proceed  to  London,  and  press  their  prin- 
ciples on  the  legislature.  Mr.  Charles  Villiers,  now 
(1859)  President  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  undertook 
the  leadership  of  their  cause  in  the  House  of  Coni- 
nions,  of  which  Mr.  Cobden,  wlio  subsequently 
served  it  so  effectively,  was  not  then  a  member. 
On  the  19th  of  February,  Mr.  Villiers  moved  that 
the  House  resolve  itself  into  a  committee  of  in- 
quiry on  the  corn-laws;  and  again,  on  the  l'2th  of 
March,  he  moved  that  certain  manufacturers  be 
heard  by  council  at  the  bar  of  the  House  against 
the  corn-laws,  as  injurious  to  their  private  interest. 
The  former  motion  was  rejected  by  342  to  195;  the 
latter,  by  361  to  172.  Immediately  on  the  return 
of  the  delegates  from  their  unsuccessful  effort,  the 
League  was  formed.  Its  constitution  dates  from  the 
20th  March  1839,  when  resolutions  were  adopted,  at 
a  meeting  in  Manchester,  for  '  the  formation  of  a 
permanent  union,  to  be  called  "  The  Anti-corn-law 
League,"  composed  of  all  the  towns  and  districts 
represented  in  the  delegation,  and  as  many  others  as 
might  ho  induced  to  form  anti-corn-law  associations, 
and  to  join  the  League.' 

'  Delegates  from  the  different  local  associations  to 
meet  for  business  from  time  to  time  at  the  principal 
towns  represented. 

'  With  the  view  to  secure  unity  of  action,  the 
central  office  of  the  League  shall  be  established  in 
Manchester,  to  which  body  shall  be  intrusted, 
among  other  duties,  those  of  engaging  and  recom- 
mending competent  lecturers,  the  obtaining  the 
co-operation  of  the  public  press,  and  the  establishing 
and  conducting  of  a  stamped  circular,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  keeping  a  constant  correspondence  with  the 
local  associations.' 

It  was  resolved  that,  in  addition  to  the  funds 
■which  local  associations  might  provide  for  their  own 
district  purposes,  £5(M)0  should  be  put  at  the  dispo- 
sal of  the  central  body,  and  that  every  person,  or 
collection  of  persons,  contributing  £5n,  sh(uild  have 
one  vote  in  its  deliberations.  The  League  collected 
and  distributed  large  sums  of  money.  Just  before 
its  principles  became  triumphant  in  the  free-trade 
legislation  of  1846,  it  demanded  a  quarter  of  a 
million,  which  would  have  been  supplied  had  it  been 
necessary. 

It  is  of  the  greatest  moment  that  the  cause  of  the 
success  of  the  League  should  not  be  misunderstood : 
it  triumphed  not  by  possessing  money,  but  by  teach- 
ing a  scientific  truth.  It  was  a  great  organisation 
for  educating  the  country  in  political  economy.  The 
leading  principles  of  this  science  were  so  little  known 
when  the  League  began,  and  had  been  so  effectually 
promulgated  before  its  end,  that  a  majority  of  the  par- 
liament who,  in  1841,  had  been  elected  for  the  sup- 
port of  protection,  were  converted  to  free-trade,  the 
conversion  including  the  prime-minister.  Sir  Robert 
Peel.  The  key-note  to  the  literature  of  the  League 
was  struck  by  the  beautiful  logical  exposition  of 
free-trade  in  General  Thompson's  Catecldsm  of  the 
C'orn-law.t,  which,  with  other  tracts,  was  profusely 
dispersed  over  the  country,  while  a  large  staff  of 
lecturers  aided  in  the  task  of  education.  Thinking 
to  serve  their  cause  in  the  same  manner,  the  Protec- 
tionist party,  at  a  meeting  held  in  the  Duke  of 
Somerset's  house,  on  17th  February  1844,  founded 
'The  Agricultural  Protection  Society  of  Great 
Britain.'  This  body  had  inexhaustible  wealth  at 
command,  but  in  reality  its  exertions  only  helped  to 
further  the  cause  of  free-trade,  by  promoting  discus- 
sion, and  prompting  people  to  work  out  the  question 
for  themselves. 
292 


ANTR'O'STI,  an  island  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Law- 
rence, with  a  light-house  at  its  south-west  extremity, 
which  is  in  lat.  49°  24'  N.,  and  long.  63°  39'  W.  It 
is  estimated  to  contain  200(i  square  miles.  Neither 
to  the  settler  nor  to  the  mariner  is  A.  of  any  value- 
It  is  destitute  of  harbours,  the  north  shore  being 
mountainous,  and  the  south  low  and  beset  by  shoals  ; 
while,  to  increase  the  danger,  the  neighbouring  cur- 
rents are  said  to  be  capricious.  The  climate  is  se- 
vere ;  while  the  surface  is  an  alternation  of  rocks 
and  swamps.  The  only  inhabitants  are  the  keepers 
of  the  light-house. 

A.,  however,  is  of  use,  or  promises  soon  to  be  so, 
in  connection  with  the  transmission  of  submarine 
telegraphs  across  and  along  the  Gulf  of  St.  Law- 
rence. It  has  also  been  proposed  to  construct  here 
a  harbour  of  refuge  by  means  of  convict  labour. 

A'NTIDOTE  (Gr.  given  against),  a  counter-poison. 
See  Poison. 

ANTI'GONE,  a  character  of  the  heroic  age  of 
Greece,  daughter  of  O'idipus  by  his  own  mother 
Jocasta,  was  sister  to  Eteocles,  Polynice.s,  and 
Ismene.  She  accompanied  her  father  in  his  exile 
into  Colonus  in  Attica,  and  after  his  death,  returned 
to  Thebes,  f^teocles,  the  king,  had  banished  his 
brother  Polynices,  who,  coming  back  with  an  army, 
engaged  him  in  single  combat.  Both  fell,  and  Creon, 
wlio  after  their  death  had  become  tyrant  of  Thebes, 
issued  an  edict  forbidding  their  interment.  A.  alone 
dared  to  disobey.  She  buried  Polynices,  and  was  in 
consequence  seized  by  the  monster,  who  shut  her 
up,  either  in  the  same  tomb  with  her  brother,  or  in 
a  subterraneous  cave,  where  she  perished.  This 
sentence  threw  IIa?mon,  son  of  Creon,  who  was 
l)etrothed  to  A.,  into  such  despair  that  he  destroyed 
himself.  A.,  as  the  ideal  of  feminine  duty  and  filial 
devotion,  has  been  immortalised  by  Sophocles  in  liis 
dramas  of  CEdipus  at  Colonus  and  Antipnne. — A., 
(laughter  of  Eurytion,  and  wife  of  Peleus,  who 
hanged  herself  upon  hearing  a  false  report  of  her 
husband's  marriage  to  Sterope,  daughter  of  Acastus. 
— A.,  daughter  of  Laomedon,  and  sister  of  Priam, 
who,  having  offended  Juno  by  coinj>aiing  her  own 
beauty  to  that  of  the  goddess,  had  her  hair  turned 
into  snakes,  which  so  tormented  her  that  the  gods, 
in  compassion,  changed  her  into  a  stork. 

ANTI'GONUS.  Of  the  numerous  persons  who 
bore  this  name,  the  most  celebrated  was  the  son  of 
Philip  of  Elymiotis,  and  one  of  the  generals  of 
Alexander  the  Great.  In  the  division  of  the  empire 
which  followed  the  death  of  his  master,  A.  received 
the  provinces  of  Phrygia-Major,  Lycia,  and  Pain- 
phylia.  Being  accused  of  disobedience  by  Perdiccas, 
who  wished  to  gain  possession  of  all  the  territories  left 
by  Alexander,  A.  entered  into  alliance  with  Craterus, 
Antipater,  and  Ptolenijeus,  and  declared  war  against 
Perdiccas  in  321  b.  c.  In  the  same  year,  Perdiccas 
was  assassinated  by  his  own  soldiers  ;  but  A.  carried 
on  the  war  against  Eumenes,  to  whom  Perdiccas 
had  given  rule  over  Paphlagonia  and  Cappadocia. 
Eumenes,  and  afterwards  Seleucus,  who  reigned  in 
Syria,  were  deposed  by  A.,  whose  ambition  and  cu- 
pidity now  knew  no  bounds.  He  seized  the  treasures 
of  Alexander  kept  at  Ecbatana  and  Susa,  which  he 
refused  to  share  with  his  allies,  Ptolemfeus,  Cassan- 
der  (son  of  Antipater),  and  Lysimachus.  All  the 
other  generals  now  allied  themselves  against  him, 
and  a  long  series  of  contests  took  place  in  Syria, 
Phoenicia,  Asia  Minor,  and  Greece,  which  ended  with 
the  battle  of  Ipsus,  in  Phrygia  (301  B.  c),  when  A. 
was  slain,  in  his  eighty-first  year. 

ANTI'GONUS  GONA'TAS  was  the  son  of 
Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  king  of  Macedonia,  and 
grandson  of  the  great  Antigonus.  On  his  father's 
death,  b.   c.  283,  various    claimants   for  the  throne 


ANTIGUA— ANTILLES. 


appeared,  and  much  confusion  ensued,  the  result  of 
which  was  that  the  royal  power  fell  into  the  hands  of 
Ptolemseus  Cerauiius,  who,  however,  soon  after  per- 
ished in  a  battle  with  the  Gauls,  when  A.  G.  at  length 
became  ruler  of  the  country  ('277  n.c),  and  governed 
precariously  in  that  age  of  intrigue,  dissiinulation, 
and  violence,  for  33  years.  He  was  twice  ex|)elled 
from  his  dominions  by  a  hostile  force  from  Epirus, 
but  fouHd  refuge  and  assistance  in  the  Peloponnesus. 
The  close  of  his  career  was  comparatively  peaceful. 
He  died  in  243  b.c, 

ANTIGUA,  a  West  India  island,  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  Leeward  Caribbees  (see  Antilles) 
and  the  residence  of  the  governor-in-chief  of  the 
British  portion  of  the  group.  It  lies  in  W.  long., 
between  01"  44'  and  61°  58';  and  in  N.  lat.,  between 
17°  2'  and  17°  13'.  Its  area  is  estimated  at  110 
square  miles — equal  to  70,400  acres,  of  which 
60,000  are  under  cultivation.  In  1862,  the  popu- 
lation of  A.  was  37,125,  yielding  to  a  squarf  mile 
an  average  of  about  338  inhabitants.  It  was  first 
settled  in  1G32,  having  till  then  remained,  in  fact, 
uninhabited  on  account  of  the  great  scarcity  of 
fresh  water.  It  has  tv>'!ce  suffered  severely  from 
earthquakes — in  1689  and  1843;  while  of  hurricanes 
also,  the  other  heavy  scourge  of  the  group,  A.  has 
had  its  full  share.  Numerous  islets,  rocks,  and  shoals 
border  the  shore,  so  that,  generally  speaking,  access 
is  difficult  and  dangerous.  But  St.  John's,  the  chief 
town,  stands  at  the  head  of  a  safe  and  capacious 
bay,  which  unfortunately,  however,  does  not  admit 
large  vessels.  English  Harbour  is,  on  the  whole,  a 
mere  commodious  i)ort,  and  has  been  selected  as  the 
station  of  the  Royal  Mail  Steam-packets.  It  is  said 
to  be  capable  of  receiving  the  largest  ships  in  the 
British  navy. 

A.  is  cliicHy  of  tertiary  formation.  The  south  and 
west  shew  grauwacke,  porphyry,  trap,  breccia,  amyg- 
daloid, and  basaltic  greenstone ;  the  north  and  east 
exhibit  calcareous  marl,  and  coarse  sandstone,  inter- 
spersed with  blocks  of  limestone ;  while  the  interior 
presents  argillaceous  strata,  and  irregular  beds  of 
coarse  flint. 

Besides  provisions,  generally  almost  sufficient  for 
its  own  consumption,  A.  produces  large  quantities  of 
sugar,  molasses,  and  rum.  In  this  respect,  the 
emancipation  of  the  slaves  appears  to  have  been 
rather  beneficial  than  otherwise,  as  the  following 
table  indicates : 

Commerce.  1833.  1867. 

Imports  (value)      .         .         £69,945     £190,342 
Exports,    do.     .  .  .      206,464         141,077 

Sugar  crop  (hogsheads),  1866   12,189  17,330 

Molasses  (puncheons),        "         7,177  7,852 

Tonnage  (entered  &  cleared),  22,790  43,906 

In  connection  generally  with  the  emancipation  of 
the  slaves,  of  whom  immediately  previous  to  the 
abolition  of  slavery,  A.  had  about  30,()0ii,  it  seems 
to  have  occupied  a  prominently  creditable  position. 
Immediately  after  the  passing  of  the  imperial  statute 
on  the  subject,  the  local  legislature,  rejecting  the 
intermediate  and  probationary  state  of  apprenticeship, 
proclaimed  unqualified  freedom  for  1st  August  1834 — 
a  bold  measure,  which  proved  to  be  as  judicious  as 
it  was  humane. 

ANTFLLES,  a  term  used  to  designate  generally 
the  whole  of  the  West  India  islands,  except  the 
Bahamas.  Generally  speaking,  they  stretch  east- 
ward from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  about  the  meri- 
dian of  the  Gulf  of  P.iria ;  then  southward  to  the 
Gulf  of  Paria  itself;  and  lastly,  westward  to  the 
Gulf  of  Maracaybo.  Primarily,  however,  they  are 
r^'garded  not  as  three  sections,  but  as  two — the 
Greater  A.,  to  the  north  and  west;  and  the  Lesser, 


to  the  east  and  the  south.  This  distinction,  which 
obviously  involves  considerations  of  position  as  well 
as  of  magnitude,  will  be  found  to  indicate  also  a  dif- 
ference of  organic  structure. 

The  Greater  A.,  reckoning  from  the  West,  are: 
Cuba  (Spanish),  Jamaica  (British),  Hayti  (indepen- 
dent), ami  Porto  Rico  (Spanish).  They  extend,  in 
W.  long,  from  84°  58'  to  65'  40',  and  in  N.  lat.  from 
23°  9'  to  17°  40' — the  higher  of  these  two  parallels 
being  only  21'  or  about  25  miles  within  the  Tropic 
of  Cancer.  On  the  lowest  estimate,  the  area  is  said 
to  amount  to  70,000  square  miles.  The  Greater  A, 
appear  to  be  of  primitive  formation,  presenting  lofty 
granitic  mountains.  In  Jamaica,  however,  there  are 
many  hills  of  calcareous  origin. 

The  Lesser  A.  may  be  divided  into  two  chains — 
the  eastern,  trending  round  from  the  eastward  of 
Porto  Rico  to  the  (iulf  of  Paria ;  and  the  southern, 
stretching  away  in  a  direction  nearly  parallel  with 
that  of  the  Greater  A.,  along  the  coast  of  Venezuela 
as  far  as  the  Gulf  of  Marai'aybo.  With  reference 
to  the  prevailing  trade-wind,  these  two  chains  are 
respectively  designated  the  Windward  and  the  Lee- 
ward Islands. 

The  Leeward  Islands,  reckoning  from  the  north, 
come  in  pretty  nearly  the  following  order :  Virgin 
Islands  (Danish  and  British),  Anegada  (British), 
Anguilla  (British),  St.  Martin  (French  and  Dutch), 
St.  Croix  (Danish),  Saba  (Dutch),  St.  Bartholomew 
(Swedish),  St.  Eustatius  (Dutch),  Barbuda  (British), 
St.  Christopher's  (British),  Nevis  (British),  Antigua 
(British),  Montserrat  i  British),  Deseada  (French), 
Guadaloupe  (French),  Marie  Galante  (French),  Domi- 
nica (British).  Martiidque  (French),  St.  Lucia  (British), 
Barbadoes  (British),  St.  Vincent  (British),  Grena- 
dines (British),  Grenada  (British),  Tobago  (British), 
Ti-inidad  (British),  comprise  the  Windward  Islands. 
They  extend  from  near  Porto  Rico,  long.  65"  30'  W.,  to 
59°  2(V,  at  the  east  extremity  of  Barbadoes ;  and  in 
N.  lat.  from  18°  48',  at  the  north  extremity  of  Ane- 
gada, to  10°  31',  at  the  south  extremity  of  Trinidad. 
The  entire  area  perhaps  scarcely  equals  5000  square 
miles,  being  not  materially  larger  than  that  of 
Jamaica  alone. — The  Windward  Islands  are  other- 
wise called  the  Caribbees,  from  the  now  extinct  race 
of  the  Caribs  (q.  v.);  and  hence  the  sea,  which  they 
cut  off  from  the  open  Atlantic,  has  taken  the  name 
of  Caribbean. 

The  islands  near  the  South  American  coast 
may  be  given  as  follows :  Testigos  (Venezuelan), 
Margarita  (Venezuelan),  Tortuga  (Venezuelan),  Blan- 
quilla  (Venezuelan),  Buen  Ayre  (Dutch,)  Cura^oa 
(Dutch),  Aruba  (Dutch).  They  extend  in  W.  long, 
from  63°  12',  at  the  east  end  of  the  Testigos,  to  7o°ir 
at  the  west  end  of  Aruba;  and  in  N.  lat.  from  11°,  at 
the  south  of  Margarita,  to  12°,  at  the  north  of 
Cura9oa.  Their  entire  area  cannot  exceed  1500 
square  miles. 

The  Lesser  A.,  as  a  whole,  appear  to  be  chiefly  of 
coral  formation,  or  of  volcanic  origin.  Many  of  them 
contain  extinct  craters  ;  and,  though  not  destitute  of 
harbours,  their  coasts  are  rendered  in  a  great  measure 
inaccessible  by  reason  of  reefs. 

The  A.  generally — but  perhaps  the  Lesser  more 
so  than  the  Greater — are  subject  to  hurricanes  and 
earthquakes.  Their  principal  productions  are  sugar, 
rum,  cotton,  coffee,  &c.  The  individual  islands  will 
l)e  found  noticed  more  in  detail  in  their  respective 
places. 

The  name  A.  is  generally  supposed  to  have  been 
given  by  mistake  to  the  West  Indian  Islands.  Before 
the  discovery  of  America  by  Columbus,  a  tradition 
existed  that  far  to  the  west  of  the  Azores  there 
lay  aland  called  Antilla,  whose  position  was  vaguely 
indicated  in  the  maps  of  the  early  cosmographers 
Only  eight  months  after  Columbus's  return  we  find 

293 


ANTILOPE— ANTINOMIANISM. 


ono  Peter  Martyr  writing  that  the  islands  which  the 
great  navigator  had  touched  upon,  must  be  the  An- 
tillie;  and  it  is  certain  that  Cuba  and  Hayti  were 
known  as  such  before  a  single  Unk  in  the  Caribbean 
chain  was  discovered. 

AXTILOPE.     See  Antelope. 

A'NTIMOXY  (iu  Lat.  Stibium ;  hence  the  chcnii- 1 
cal  symbol  Sb)  is  a  brittle  metal  of  a  flaky,  crystal- 1 
line  texture,  and  a  bluish-rthite  colour.  It  is  readily 
reduced  to  powder  by  ordinary  pulverization  ;  when  [ 
heated  to  840°  F.,  "it  fuses,  and  thereafter  being 
allowed  to  cool,  it  solidifies  in  rhombohedral  crystals, 
wliich  are  isoinorphous  with  those  of  arsenic. 
Heated  in  a  retort,  where  the  o.xygen  of  the  air  is 
excluded,  as  in  an  atmosphere  of  hydrogen.  A. 
volatilises  as  the  vapour  of  the  pure  metal,  ^yhen 
raised  in  temperature  in  contact  with  the  air,  it 
burns  with  a  white  light — combining  with  the 
oxvgen  of  the  atmosphere,  and  forming  copious 
white  fumes  of  the  leroxide  of  A.,  or  'flowers  of  A.' 
The  metal  is  a  bad  conductor  of  heat  and  electricity, 
but  may  be  used,  in  conjunction  with  bismuth,  in 
the  construction  of  thermo-electric  piles.  J^xposed 
to  the  air  at  ordinary  temperatures,  A.  does  not 
tarnish  or  rust ;  and  this  property,  combined  with 
the  hardness  of  the  metal  and  of  its  compounds, 
renders  A.  of  essential  service  in  the  useful  arts,  in 
the  construction  of  alloys,  such  as  Britannia  metal, 
type  metal  and  plate  pewter.  It  is  likewise  employed 
in  the  preparation  of  the  large  concave  mirrors  used 
in  astronomical  observations  ;  and  in  the  casting  of 
bells,  to  make  them  harder  and  whiter,  and  to  give 
them  a  clearer  and  stronger  sound. 

The  principal  natural  sources  of  A.  are— yrry  or 
crude  A.  of  commerce,  which  is  the  impure  tersul- 
phuret  of  A.  (Sb.'^s) ;  and  iiatire  A.,  in  which  it  occurs 
in  the  metallic  state  associated  with  silver,  iron,  and 
other  metals.  The  extraction  of  A.  from  its  ores  is 
mainly  carried  on  at  Linz,  in  Germany,  where  the 
sulphide  of  A.  is  found  exten.sively,  and  in  Great 
Britain,  which  receives  its  supply  of  ore  from  Singa- 1 
pore  and  Borneo,  commonly  as  ballast.  The  process 
consists  in  heating  the  crude  ore,  covered  with  char- 
coal on  the  bed  of  a  furnace,  when  the  sulphide  of 
A.  fuses,  leaving  unmelted  the  earthy  impurities ; 
and  thereafter  the  liquid  is  drawn  of!" into  iron  moulds, 
where  it  solidifies  into  cakes  or  loaves.  The  latter 
are  reduced  to  coarse  powder,  placed  on  the  bed  of 
a  revcrberatory  furnace,  and  heated  with  access  of 
ordinary  air  containing  oxygen,  when  the  sidphur 
passes  away  as  gaseous  sulphurous  acid  SOj  ,  leaving 
behind  the  A.  as  the  teroxide  SbOa  .  The  roasted 
mass  is  now  mixed  with  one-sixth  of  its  weight  of 
powdered  charcoal,  the  whole  moistened  with  a  solu- 
tion of  carbonate  of  soda,  and  raised  to  bright  red- 
ness in  crucibles,  when  the  metal  A.  trickles  to  the 
bottom,  and  the  impurities  are  left  above  in  the  spent 
flux  or  scoria,  which  is  known  in  the  arts  by  the  name 
of  crocus  of  A. 

The  compounds  of  A.  are  numerous :  with  oxygen 
it  forms  (1)  the  leroxide  oi  A.,  or  while  A.  ore  (SbOs), 
which  enters  into  the  composition  of  tartar  emetic; 
(2)  antimonious  acid  CSb04),  which  forms  one  of  the 
components  of  Dr.  James's  powders;  (3  antimonic 
acid  (SbOs),  a  very  insoluble  compound,  obtained  by 
acting  upon  the  metal  with  concentrated  nitric  acid. 
With  sulphur,  A.  forms  the  termlphids  SbSj 
already  referred  to  as  a  natural  ore  of  the  metal, 
and  which  when  roasted  at  a  temperature  sufficient 
to  fuse  it,  passes  into  the  mixed  teroxide  and  ter- 
gulphide  of  A.  known  commercially  as  the  glasa  of 
A.  A  native  oxysulphide,  of  a  pretty  red  colour,  is 
called  red  A.  ore.  When  the  ordinary  sulphide  of 
A.  is  boiled  with  potash,  or  the  carbonate  of  potash, 
it  dissolves;  and  thereafter,  on  boiling,  deposits  a 

294: 


reddish-brown  substance  known  as  uiinei-al  keruien. 
The  liquid  from  which  the  deposit  has  fallen,  if 
treated  with  hydrochloric  acid,  throws  down  an 
orange  precipitate  of  r/oldcn  sulphide  of  A. 

There  is  also  a  chloride  of  A.  (SbCU)  prepared  by 
heating  sulphide  of  A.  and  hydrochloric  acid  to- 
gether, and  which  has  the  common  name  of  butler 
of  A.  It  is  generally  obtained  as  an  oily  licpiid,  of 
the  consistence  of  melted  butter,  and  of  a  golden 
yellow  colour.  Mixed  with  olive  oil,  it  is  ustd  by 
gunmakcrs  as  bronzing  salt,  to  impart  a  yellow  colour 
to  gun-barrels.  The  surface  of  the  metal  is  after- 
wards polished  by  a  burnisher,  or  coated  with  a  var- 
nish. 

The  various  compounds  of  A.  arc  used  as  medicinal 
agents,  both  in  human  and  veterinary  practice,  especi- 
ally the  tartar  emetic,  a  compound  of  teroxide  of  A., 
potasli,  and  tartaric  acid  (Sb03,K0,T). 

ANTIXO'MIAXIS.M      (Gr.      anli,     against,     and 
nomos,  law),  the  doctrine  or  opinion  that  Christiana 
are  freed  from  obligation  to  keep  the  law  of  God. 
It   is   generally    regarded   by  the  advocates  of  the 
doctrine   of  justification  by   faith,  as  a  monstrous 
abuse  and  perversion  of  that  doctrine,  upon  which  it 
usually  professes  to  be  based.    From  several  {)assage8 
of  the  New    Testament,  as  Rom.   vi.,  and  2  Pet.  ii. 
IS,  U),  it  would   seem    that  a  tendency  to  A.  had 
manifested   itself  even   in    the   apostolic   age ;    and 
many  of  the  Gnostic  sects  were  really  antinomian,  as 
were  probably  also  some  of  the  heretical  sects  of  the 
middle   ages ;    but  the  term  was  first   used   at   the 
time    of  the  Rclbrmation,   when  it  was  a|iplied  by 
Luther  to  the  opinions  advocated  by  John  Agiicola. 
Agricola  had  adopted    the  principles  of  the  Refor- 
mation;  but  in  1.027  he  found  fiult  with  Melancthon 
for  recommending  the  use  of  the  law,  and  particu- 
larly of  the  ten  commamlmonts,  in  order  to  produce 
conviction  and  repentance,  which  he  deemed  incon- 
sistent with  the  gospel.     Ten  years  after,  he  main- 
tained in  a  disputation  at  Wittenberg,  that  as  men 
are  justified  simply  by  the  gospel,  the  law  is  in  no 
way  necessary  for  justification   or  for  sanctification. 
The  'Antinomian  Controversy'  of  this  time,  in  which 
Luther  took  a  very  active  part,  terminated  in  1540 
in   a  retractation    by   Agricola ;    but   views    more 
extreme   than   his   were    afterwards   advocated    by 
some  of  the  English  sectaries  of  the  period  of  the 
Commonwealth  ;  and,   without    being  formally    pro- 
fessed by  a  distinct  sect,  A.  has  been  from  time  to 
time   reproduced    with    various    modifications.      It 
ought,  however,  to  be  borne  in  mi:id,  that  the  term 
A.  has  no  reference  to  the  conduct,  but  only  to  the 
opinions  o^  mew;    so  that  men  who  practically  dis- 
regard and  violate  the  known  law  of  God,  are  not 
therefore   antinomians ;    and   it   is   certain   enough 
that   men    really   holding    opinions    more    or    less 
antinomian,  have  in  many  cases  been  men  of  moral 
life.     It  is  also  to  be  observed  that  the  term  A.  has 
been  applied  to  opinions  differing  very  much  from 
each  other.     In  its  most  extreme  sense,  it  denotes 
the  rejection  of  the  moral  law  as  no  longer  binding 
upon  Christians;  and  a  power  or  privilege  is  asserted 
for  the  saints  to  do  what  they  pleased  without  pre- 
j\idice  to  their  sanctity;  it  being  maintained  that  to 
them   nothing  is  sinful ;    and  this  is  represented  as 
the  perfection  of  Christian  liberty.     But  besides  this 
extreme  A.,  than  which  nothing  can  be  more  repug- 
nant to  Christianity,  there  is  also  sometimes  desig- 
nated by  this  term  the  opinion  of  those  who  refuse 
to   seek    or   to  see  in  the  Bible   any  positive  laws 
binding  upon  Christians,  and  regard  them  as  left  to 
the  guidance  of  gospel  principles  and  the  constraint 
of  Christian  love ;  an  opinion  which,  whatever  may 
be  thought  of  its  tendency,  is  certainly  not  to  be 
deemed    of   the    same    character   with   the   other. 
Probably,  the  A.  that  docs  not  arise  out  of  a  dislike 


ANTINOUS— ANTIOCHUS. 


of  morality,  usually  originates  in  mistaken  notions 
of  Christian  liberty,  or  in  confusion  of  views  as  to 
the  relation  between  the  moral  law  and  the  Jewish 
law  of  ceremonial  ordinances. 

ANTI'NOUS.  a  beautiful  youth  of  Claudiopolis, 
in  Bithynia.  He  was  page  to  the  Emperor  Hadrian, 
and  the  object  of  his  extravagant  aflection,  accom- 
panying him  in  all  his  travels,  but  was  either 
drowned  accidentally  in  the  river  Nile,  or  as  some 
suppose,  committed  suicide,  from  a  loathing  of  the 
life  he  led,  in  122  a.d.  His  memory  and  the  grief 
of  the  emperor  were  perpetuated  by  many  statutes 
and  bas-reliefs,  of  which  several  are  very  beautiful, 
especially  two  now  in  Rome — one  found  in  the 
baths,  and  the  oilier  in  the  villa  of  Hadrian.  '  In 
all  figures  of  A ,'  says  Winckclniann,  '  the  face 
has  a  rather  melancholy  expression ;  the  eyes  are 
large,  with  fine  outlines ;  the  profile  is  gently  sloped 
downwards ;  and  the  mouth  and  chin  are  especially 
beautiful.'  The  city  of  Bcsa,  in  the  Thebais,  near 
to  which  A.  was  drowned,  was  also  rebuilt  by 
Hadrian,  and  the  name  of  Antioopolis  conferred 
upon  it,  in  memory  of  his  favourite.  A.  was  further 
enrolled  amongst  the  gods,  and  temples  erected  to 
him  in  Egypt  and  Greece. 

A'NTIOCH,    the   ancient   capital    of   the    Greek 
kings  of  Syria,  was   the    most   magnificent  of   the 
sixteen  cities  of  that  name  built  by  Seleucus  Nicator. 
Its   situation   was    admirably    chosen.       The   river 
Urontes,  issuing  from  the    mountains    of   Lebanon, 
flows  north  as  far  as  the  36th  parallel  of  latitude, 
and     then    south-west  into   the    Levant.       On   the 
left  bank  of  the  river,  after  it  has  taken  this  last 
direction,  and   at  a  distance   of  twenty   miles  from 
the  sea,  lay  the  famous  city,  in  the  midst  of  a  fertile 
and  beautiful  plain,  ten   miles  long  by   five  broad. 
By    its    harbour,   Seleuceia,  it    had    conmiunication 
with  all  the  maritime  cities  of  the  West,  while  it 
became,  on  the  other  hand,  an    emporium    for  the 
merchandise   of    the   East;    for   behind   it   lay   the 
vast     Syrian     desert,    across     which     travelled    the 
caravans  from  Mesopotamia   and    Arabia.       On  the 
noith,  the  plainof  A.   is  bounded  by  the  mountain- 
chain  of  Amanus,  connected  with   the   south-eastern 
extremity  of  Mount  Taurus  ;  and  on  the  south,  which 
is  more  rocky,  by  the  broken  decHvities  of  Mount 
Casins,   from    which  the  ancient  town  was   distant 
less  than  two  miles.      In  early  times,  a  part  of  the 
city   stood    upon  an    island,   which  has  now  disap- 
peaied.     The  rest  was  built  partly  on  the  plain,  and 
partly  on  the  rugged  ascent  towards   Mount    Casius. 
The  slopes  above  the  city  were  covered  with  vine- 
yards, while   the   banks   of  the  river  displayed,  as 
they  do  even  at  the  present  day,  a  gorgeous  pro- 
fusion  of  eastern  fruit-trees.       The  ancients  called 
it  'A.  the  Beautiful,'   'the   Crown  of  the  East,'  &c. 
It  was  a  favourite  residence  of  the  Seleucid  princes 
and  of  the  wealthy  Romans,  and  was  famed  through- 
out the  whole  world  for  the  abundance  of  its  con- 
veniences and  the  splendour  of  its  luxury.    It  received 
from  Strabo   the    name    of   Tvtrapolu,  on   account 
of   three  new  sites  having  been  successively   built 
upon,  and  each  surrounded  with  a  wall.      Its  public 
edifices  were  magnificent.      The  principal  were — the 
Palace  ;  the  Senate-house ;  the  Temple  of  Ju[)iter, 
burnished    with  gold;    the    Theatre,  Amphitheatre, 
and    CaBsarium,   besides  an  aqueduct,  a  public  pro- 
menade, and  innumerable  baths.      At  the  beginning 
of  the  Roman  empire,  it  was  as  large   as  Taris,  and 
for    many    generations  after,  continued    to    receive 
numerous  embellishments  from  the  emperors.       Nor 
did  its  glory  fade  immediately  after  the  founding  of 
Constantinople,  for  though  it  then  ceased  to  be  the 
first  city  of  the  East,   it  rose  into  new  dignity  as 
a   Christian  city.      Ten   councils  were  held  in  it. 


Churches  sprang  up  exhibiting  a  new  style  ot 
architecture,  which  soon  became  prevalent ;  and 
even  Constantine  himself  spent  a  considerable  time 
here,  adorning  it,  and  strengthening  its  harbour, 
Seleuceia.  The  Antiochenes  themselves,  however, 
brought  about  the  ruin  of  their  beautiful  city.  They 
were  famous,  above  all  other  people  in  ancient  times, 
for  their  biting  and  scurrilous  wit,  and  for  their 
ingenuity  in  devising  nicknames;  and  when  the 
Persians,  under  Chosroes,  invaded  Syria  in  538  a.  d., 
the  Antiochenes  could  not  refrain  from  jesting  at 
them.  The  Persians  took  ample  revenge  by  the  total 
destruction  of  the  city,  which,  however,  was  rebuilt  by 
Justinian.  The  next  important  event  in  its  history 
was  its  conquest  by  the  Saracens  in  the  7th  c.  In  the 
9th  c.  it  was  recovered  by  the  Greeks  under  Nice- 
phorus  Phocas,  but  in  1084  it  again  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  Mohammedans.  The  Crusaders  besieged  and 
took  it  on  the  3d  of  June  1098.  At  the  close  of  the 
13th  c,  the  sultan  of  Egypt  seized  it:  since  then, 
it  has  undergone  a  variety  of  vicissitudes,  and  at 
present  forms  a  portion  of  Syria,  in  the  eyalet  of 
Aleppo.  Its  modern  name  is  Aniakieh.  It  exhibits 
almost  no  traces  of  its  former  grandeur,  except  the 
ruins  of  the  walls  built  by  Justinian,  and  of  the  for- 
tress erected  by  the  Crusaders.  The  houses  are 
generally  of  stone,  and  roofed  with  red  tiles ;  the 
streets  are  narrow ;  the  manufactures  few  and 
unimportant,  and  the  population  not  more  than  6000 
or  7000. 

ANTrOCIIUS,  a  common  Greek  name,  was 
borne  by  thirteen  kings  of  Syria,  four  kings  of 
Commagene  (a  small  country  between  the  Euphrates 
and  Mount  Taurus),  and  many  other  persons  of  note 
(see  Smith's  Dictionari/  of  Greek  and  Jioinnn  Bio- 
graphy). A.  Soter,  the  first  of  the  Syrian  dynasty, 
or  Seleucidag,  as  they  were  called  from  their  founder, 
was  the  son  of  Seleucus,  the  general  and  one  of  the 
successors  of  Alexander.  A.  was  the  fruit  of 
one  of  those  marriages  which  Alexander  cele- 
brated at  Susa  between  his  generals  and  the  prin- 
cesses of  Persia.  His  mother's  name  was  Apama. 
From  this  fact  we  gather  that  A.  was  probably 
born  in  324  n.c.  For  the  earlier  career  of  A.,  see 
Seleucus.  On  the  murder  of  his  father  in  280  B.C., 
A.  succeeded  him  in  his  dominions,  but  he  after- 
wards permitted  Antigonus  Gonatas  to  retain 
possession  of  Macedonia  on  his  marrying  Phila,  a 
daughter  of  Seleucus.  A.  was  much  occupied  in 
wars  with  the  Gauls,  who  invaded  Asia  Minor, 
and,  on  one  occasion,  is  said  to  have  gained  a  victory 
over  them  by  the  help  of  his  elephants,  from  which 
circumstance  he  derived  the  name  of  Soter  (Saviour). 
He  was  subsequently  killed  in  a  battle  with  the 
Gauls  (261  B.C.),  arid  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
A.  II.  This  A.  is  mentioned  in  the  Book  of 
Daniel  (xi.  6)  as  the  king  of  the  north— the  king 
of  the  south  being  Ptolemy,  whose  daughter, 
Berenice,  A.  had  been  compelled  to  marry.  On 
the  death  of  Ptolemy,  A.  recalled  his  former  wife, 
Laodice  ;  but  she,  in  revenge  for  the  insult  which 
she  had  received,  caused  A.  to  be  murdered,  along 
with  Berenice  and  her  son.  A.  lost  the  provinces 
of  Parthia  and  Bactria. 

But  the  most  distinguished  of  the  Selucidse  was  A. 
III.,  surnamed  the  Great,  who  was  the  son  of  Seleucus 
Callinicus,  and  grandson  of  the  preceding.  In  his  ear- 
lier wars  with  Ptolemy,  Philopator  A.  was  generally 
successful ;  and  though  he  was  defeated  in  a  great 
battle  fought  near  Gaza,  he  afterwards,  by  his  victory 
over  the  Egyptian  general,  Scopas,  obtained  entire 
possession  of  Palestine  and  Cccle-Syria.  In  this  war 
he  was  assisted  by  the  Jews,  to  whom  he  granted 
many  privileges.  Fearing  the  power  of  the  Romans, 
A.  at  length  concluded  a  peace  with  Egypt,  betrothed 
his  daughter  Cleopatra  to  the  young  king  Ptolemy. 

295 


AXTIP.^=:DOBAPTrST— ANTIPATHY. 


and  gave  her  Coele-Syria  and  Palestine  as  a  dowry. 
The  formidable  enemy  which  he  thus  hoped  to 
escape  encountered  him  at  a  later  period  of  his 
career.  Having  conquered  Philip  of  Macedonia, 
the  Romans  no  longer  dreaded  a  war  with  A.,  and 
accordingly  sent  him  an  emba.'isy,  demanding  the 
9:irrender  of  the  Thracian  Chersonese,  and  of  the 
places  which  he  had  conquered  from  Ptolemy, 
whose  guardian  the  Romans  liad  become.  In  li)l 
BC,  he  was  entirely  defeated  by  the  consul  Acilius 
Glabrio  at  ThermopyliB,  and  compelled  to  return  to 
Asia.  Having  a  second  time  tried  the  fortune  of 
war,  he  was  defeated  by  Scipio,  who  had  crossed 
over  into  Asia,  and  very  severe  terms  were  imposed 
on  him.  He  found  so  nmch  difficulty  in  raising  money 
to  pay  the  tribute  tlie  Romans  demanded,  that  he 
was  led  to  plunder  a  temple  in  Elymais,  when  the 
people  rose  against  him,  and  killed  him  (187  B.C.). 
The  fate  of  A.  was  foretold  in  the  Book  of  Daniel 
(xi,  18,  19). 

A.  IV.,  (175 — 1C4  n.c.)surnamed  Epiphanes,  by  his 
tyranny  and  sacrilege,  e-xcited  the  Jews  to  a  successful 
insurrection  under  their  leaders  Mattathias,  Judas 
Muccabaeus,  and  the  other  members  of  that  heroic 
family.  The  monstrous  life  of  A.  is  recorded  in  the 
books  of  the  Maccabees.  The  last  of  the  Scleucida;, 
A.  XIII.,  surnamed  Asiaticus,  was  deprived  of  his 
kingdom  by  Pompey,  who  reduced  Syria  to  a  Roman 
province  ((J5  B.C.). 

ANTIP.EDOBA'PTIST,  a  term  exactly  desig- 
nating one  who  objects  to  child-baptism.  As  such 
a  one,  however,  is  generally  known  in  this  country 
under  the  name  Baptist,  see  Baptist. 

AXTI'PAROS  (anciently  called  Olearos  or  Oliaros), 
one  of  the  Cyclades  islands,  celebrated  for  a 
stalactitic  cave,  is  separated  from  Paros  by  a 
narrow  strait.  It  contains  about  4uO  inhabi- 
tants, and  forms  a  part  of  the  eparchy  of  Naxos. 
A.  is  7  miles  in  length  by  about  3  in  breadth  ;  it  is 
scantily  supplied  with  water,  but  the  flats  in  the 
north  and  west  are  tolerably  fertile.  Corn  and 
wine  arc  cultivated,  but  not  to  any  great  extent. 
The  principal  occupation  of  the  inhabitants  is 
fishing.  From  Kastron,  the  only  villnge  in  the 
island,  the  distance  to  the  celebrated  grotto  is 
about  an  hour  and  a  half's  ride.  This  wonderful 
cave  is  not  alluded  to  by  any  Greek  or  Roman 
writer  whose  works  are  extant,  but  must  have  been 
vi>ited  by  the  curiosity  hunters  of  antiquity,  for, 
in  ISoO,  Colonel  Leake  deciphered  a  Hellenic  inscrip- 
tion which  contained  the  names  of  those  who  had 
descended  into  it  in  ancient  times.  It  is  situated  in 
the  side  of  a  mountain  on  the  S.  coast  of  the  island, 
which  is  described  as  a  mass  of  white  marble.  The 
top  or  entrance  to  the  cave  has  a  striking  appear- 
ance ;  but  the  sloping  descent  is  rather  dangerous, 
on  account  of  the  cord  by  which  the  traveller  holds 
being  extremely  slippery  from  constant  Immiditv. 
The  bottom  once  reached,  and  the  grotto  entered, 
there  is  presented  to  the  eye  as  dazzling  a  specimen 
of  stalactitic  formation  as  can  well  be  conceived — 
the  roof,  floor,  and  walls  of  the  various  chambers, 
all  glittering  with  the  most  gorgeous  incrustation, 
though  it  is  said  that  the  smoke  of  the  torches  and 
the  constant  fingering  of  visitors,  are  sullying  the 
primitive  purity  of  the  massive  columns.  It  is 
believed  that  there  are  other  caves  of  equal  splendour 
in  the  vicinity  which  have  not  yet  been  discovered. 
The  height  of  the  known  cavern  is  80  feet ;  its 
length  and  breadth  more  than  3nO  ;  but  it  seems 
the  eye  can  only  take  in  at  once  a  length  of  loi> 
feet,  and  a  breadth  of  lOo.  The  grotto  was  first 
made  known  to  the  modern  world  in  1673,  by  the  then 
French  ambassador  to  the  Porte,  M.  de  Xointel. 

ANTI'PATER.  Of  the  many  persons  who  bore 
296 


this  name  in  antiquity,  the  most  celebrateil  was  one 
of  the  generals  and  confidential  friends  of  King 
Philip  of  MaccdOM.  When  Alexander  led  his  troops 
into  Asia,  he  left  A. — who,  along  with  Parmenion, 
h.'u]  endeavoured  to  dissuade  him  from  the  expedi- 
tion— its  governor  of  Macedonia.  A.  discharged 
the  duties  of  this  office  with  great  ability,  sup|)res8- 
ing  the  insurrections  in  Thrace  and  Sparta ;  but 
Olympias,  the  mother  of  Alexander,  who  entertained 
a  dislike  to  A.,  prevailed  on  lier  son  to  appoint 
Craterus  as  regent  of  Macedonia.  Alexander, 
prompted  also,  it  is  supposed,  by  his  own  jealousy 
of  A.,  consented,  but  died  before  the  ciiange  was 
carried  into  effect;  and  A.  was  left  to  share  with 
Craterus  the  government  of  Alexandei-'s  territories 
in  Europe.  The  government  of  .Macedonia  was 
assigned  to  him ;  aiul  soon  after,  he  was  called  upon 
to  defend  himself  against  an  alliance  of  the  Grecian 
states.  With  the  assistance  of  Crateru.s — on  whom 
he  afterwards  bestowed  his  daughter  Phila  in 
marriage — and  to  a  certain  extent  of  Leonnatus, 
he  succeeded  in  retlucing  the  allies  to  subjection. 
Democracy  at  Athens  was  abolished,  a  garrison 
admitted  into  Muiiychia,  and  the  leaders  of  the 
popular  party  put  to  death.  When  Demosthenes 
was  sunmioned  to  the  presence  of  A.,  he  took  poison, 
which  for  some  time  he  had  been  carrying  on  his 
person,  and  died  in  the  temple  of  Posefidon  (:!22  n.c). 
This  war  was  followed  by  another  with  Perdiccas, 
who  was  also  his  son-in-law,  in  which  A.  was  again 
successful.  After  the  nnirder  of  Perdiccas  in  321  B.C., 
A.  was  appointed  to  the  supreme  regency  of  the 
kingdom,  and  the  guardianship  of  Alexander's 
children.  He  died  at  an  advanced  age,  in  B.C.  318 
or  3Ut,  leaving  the  regency  to  Polysperchon,  to  the 
exclusion  of  his  own  son  Cassander. 

The  others  of  this  name  were  :  I.  A.,  second  son  of 
Cassander,  king  of  Macedonia,  who  lived  in  the  3d.  c. 
B.C. — II.  A.,  the  father  of  Herod  the  (Jreat.  He 
flourished  in  the  days  of  Pompey  and  Julius  Caesar, 
was  a  firm  friend  of  the  Romans,  and  about  the  year 
47  B.C.  was  appointed  procurator  of  Judea.  He 
was  poisoned  in  43  n.c.  by  one  whose  life  he  had 
twice  saved. — III.  A.,  grandson  of  the  former,  and 
son  of  Herod  the  Great  by  his  first  wife  Doris,  a 
worthless  prince,  who  was  perpetually  conspiring 
against  the  life  of  his  brothers,  until  his  trial  and 
condemnation  at  .Jerusalem  before  Quintilius  Varus, 
the  Roman  governor  of  Syria.  He  was  executed 
in  prison  five  days  before  Herod  died,  and  in  the 
same  year  with  the  massacre  of  the  innocents  at 
Bethlehem. 

A.  was  likewise  the  name  of  various  eminent  men 
in  ancient  times — physicians,  philosophers,  historians, 
poets,  mathematicians,  and  grammarians. 

ANTI'PATHY  is  the  term  applied  to  a  class 
of  cases  in  which  individuals  are  disagreeably 
affected  by,  or  violently  dislike,  things  innocuous 
or  agreeable  to  the  majority  of  mankind.  These 
peculiarities  are  no  doubt  sometimes  acquired  in 
early  life  by  injudiciously  terrifying  children  with 
some  object,  the  mental  impression  becoming  perman- 
ent. A  large  class  of  persons  have  an  A.  to  aninuil 
food,  and  from  childhood  refuse  to  taste  it.  In 
others,  again,  the  aversion  is  limited  to  one  kind  of 
meat,  as  veal  or  pork  ;  others  are  averse  to  eggs  or 
milk.  Nor  is  this  feeling  a  conscious  caprice,  which 
an  exertion  of  the  will  might  remove ;  for  it  is 
generally  found  that  contact  with  the  object  of  the 
A.  is  resented  by  the  bodily  economy,  and  symptoms 
of  poisoning  are  rapidly  produced.  Some  are  affected 
with  these  symptoms  who  have  no  mental  aversion 
to  the  article.  We  read  of  a  countess  who  had 
a  liking  for  beef-udder,  but  directly  it  touched  her 
lips  they  became  swollen.  There  is  also  the  case  of 
a  boy,  who,  'if  at  any  time  he  ate  of  an  egg,  his  lips 


ANTIPHLOGISTIC— ANTIPODES. 


would  swell,  ill  las  lace  W(juld  rise  puri)le  and  black 
spots,  uiid  lie  would  froth  at  the  mouth.  Some 
medicines  affect  particular  persons  dangerously,  even 
when  given  in  very  minute  doses:  a  single  grain  of 
mercury  has  been  known  to  induce  a  profuse  saliva* 
tion,  with  destruction  of  the  jaw-bones.  On  others, 
medicines  have  a  peculiar  effect — astringents  may 
purge.  Every  summer  in  Great  Britain,  persons  niiiy 
be  seen  with  the  most  distressing  irritation  of  the 
nasal  and  palpebral  mucous  membranes,  produced 
by  the  exhalations  arising  from  the  fields  during  the 
inflorescence  of  the  hay-crop.  In  others,  an  astliniatic 
condition  is  induced  by  the  same  cause.  Tl;e  air  of 
some  places  has  a  similar  influence  on  individuals  :  one 
gentleman  was  always  attacked  with  asthma  if  he  slept 
in  the  town  of  Kilkenny,  and  another  rarely  escaped 
a  fit  of  that  complaint,  if  he  slept  anywhere  else. 

The  most  remarkable  antipathies  are  those  affect- 
ing the  special  senses.  Nearly  all  persons  have  a 
loathing  at  reptiles,  but  some  few  foirit  on  seeing  a 
toad  or  lizard,  others  on  seeing  insects.  '  The  Duke 
d'Epernon  swooned  at  the  sight  of  a  leveret — a  hare 
did  not  produce  the  same  effect.  Tycho  Brahe  fainted 
at  sight  of  a  fox,  Henry  III.  of  France  at  that  of  a 
cat,  and  Marshal  d' Albert,  at  a  pig.' — Jlillliu/en. 

Ilearinr/  a  wet  finger  drawn  on  glass,  the  grinding 
of  knives',  or  a  creaking  wheel,  is  suftieient  to  pro- 
duce tainting  in  some.  Smelling  musk  or  ambergris 
throws  some  into  convulsions;  and  we  have  seen 
how  articles  of  food  alfect  others — often,  no  doubt, 
owing  to  perverted  taste.  The  tovih  of  anything 
unusually  smooth  has  the  same  effect  sometimes. 
Zinmierman  records  the  case  of  a  lady  who  was 
thus  aft'ected  by  the  feeling  of  silk,  satin,  or  the 
velvety  skin  of  a  peach. — This  subject  will  be 
further  considered  under  Idiosvncrasiks. 

ANTIPIILOGI'STIC  (Gr.  anti,  against,  and  phlecfo, 
I  burn),  a  term  applied  to  remedies,  and  also  to 
regimen,  that  are  opposed  to  inflammation ;  such  as 
bAood-letting,  purgatives,  low  diet,  kc. 

A'NTIPHON,  the  earliest  of  the  ten  Attic  orators 
in  the  Alexandrine  canon,  was  the  son  of  Sophilus 
the  SDphist,  and  born  at  Rhainnus  in  Attica  480  b.  c. 
Ill  his  youth,  the  reputation  of  Gorgias,  the  most 
showy  and  insincere  of  all  the  Greek  rhetoricians, 
■was  at  its  height.  A.  soon  became  convinced  of 
t)ie  worthlessness  of  that  oratory  which  the  fashion 
of  the  time  so  highly  valued,  and  resolved  to 
iitroduce  a  new  and  better  kind.  He  laboured 
to  make  his  arguments  clear,  solid,  and  convincing, 
so  that  it  might  be  impossible  for  the  judges  who 
listened  to  the  speeches  he  wrote  to  refuse  their 
assent  to  his  prcri^ositions.  His  success  was  unmis- 
takable. Although  he  never  made  a  public  appear- 
ance as  a  pleader  in  the  courts  of  justice,  but 
contented  himself  with  writing  speeches  for  others 
to  deliver,  he  acquired  great  influence,  which  he  did 
not  fail  to  exert  for  the  furtherance  of  his  political 
principles.  To  him  must  be  attributed  the  over- 
throw of  the  Athenian  democracy  (411  B.C.),  and  the 
establishment  of  the  oligarchical  government  of  the 
Four  Hundred ;  for  although  Pisander  figured  pro 
minently  before  the  peo])ie  in  this  revolution,  the 
wliole  affair,  according  to  Thucydides — one  of  A.'s 
pupils  in  oratory,  and  a  man  admirably  fitted  to 
judge  of  such  a  point — was  secretly  planned  by 
him.  The  oligarchical  government  did  not  prosper. 
Dissensions  quickly  broke  out  among  the  Four 
Hundred,  and  six  months  after,  Alcibiades,  the 
brilliant  demagogue,  was  recalled.  A.  was  brought 
to  trial  for  treason,  in  having  attempted  to  negotiate 
peace  with  Sparta.  He  is  sai<l  to  have  made  a  noble 
defence  of  himself.  Tliucydides  affn-ms  that  an 
abler    was    never    made   by   any   man   iu   a  similar 


position.  It  was  his  first  and  last  oration.  He  was 
condemned  to  death  :  his  property  was  confiscated, 
his  house  razed  to  tlie  ground,  his  remains  forbidden 
interment  in  Attica,  and  his  children  for  ever 
declared  incapable  of  enjoying  civic  privileges.  Of 
the  GO  orations  of  A.  which  the  ancients  possessed, 
only  15  have  come  down  to  us.  Three  of  the«e  are 
written  for  others,  and  are  greatly  admired  for  their 
clearness,  purity,  and  vigour  of  expression ;  the 
remaining  12  appear  to  have  been  intended  as 
si)ecimens  of  school-rhetoric  for  his  pupils.  They 
are  not  held  in  equal  estimation  with  the  others. 

ANTI'PHONY,  a  name  given  by  the  ancient 
Greeks  to  a  species  of  musical  accompaniment  in  the 
octave,  by  instruments  or  voices,  in  opposition  to 
that  executed  in  unison,  which  they  called  Homo- 
phony.  A.  is  also  the  name  of  a  species  of  sacred 
song,'  sung  by  two  parties,  each  responding  to  the 
other;  a  practice  which  was  cultivated  in  the  early 
ages  of  the  Hebrews,  Greeks,  and  Romans.  Many  of 
the  Psalms  of  David  show  that  antijjhonal  singing  was 
then  in  use.  Its  introduction  into  the  (ireck  Church 
is  ascribed  to  Ignatius,  Bishop  of  Antioch,  in  the 
2d  c.  ;  and  Ambrosius,  Bishop  of  Milan,  is  said  to 
have  introduced  it  into  the  Western  Church,  in  the 
4th  c.  The  dividing  of  the  antiphonies  into  verses, 
with  rules  regarding  the  same,  is  attributed  to  Pope 
Cadcstin  in  432.  Pope  Gregory  I.,  in  590,  pre- 
pared the  first  regular  AntiphoitariuDi  (see  Durandi 
lintienale  Divhwrwn  Officiormn,  Mainz,  1459).  It 
was  early  a  custom,  which  became  especially  common 
after  the  13th  c,  to  date  deeds  with  the  beginning 
words  of  the  A.  {Introitnn),  which  in  these  times 
served  for  the  day  of  the  month  and  of  the  week. 
The  Reformed  Christian  Churches  of  Germany  and 
England  have  still  retained  a  certain  degree  of 
antiplional  singing.  The  chanting  of  the  Psalms  in 
the  English  cathedral  service  is  an  imitation  of  the 
ancient  antiphony. 

ANTIPODES,  a  word  of  Greek  origin,  signifying, 
litcrallv,  those  who  have  their  feet  over  against  each 
other.  '  As  aiiplied  to  geography,  the  term  means  the 
inhabitants  of  any  two  opposite  points  of  the  globe, 
or,  in  other  words,  the  dwellers  at  the  opposite 
extremities  of  any  diameter  of  the  earth.  From 
this  primary  relation,  there  necessarily  arise  many 
secondary  relations.  A.  must  be  on  one  and  the 
same  meridional  circle,  separated  from  each  other 
by  half  the  circumference.  Being  on  one  and  the 
same  meridional  circle,  they  must  differ  in  long, 
exactly  ISO",  with  the  exception  of  the  poles  them- 
selves, as  having  no  longitude  at  all ;  and  tieing  sepa- 
rated from  each  other  by  half  the  circumference,  they 
must  be  equi-distant  from  the  equator  in  opposite 
directions.  Take  Edinburgh,  as  an  example,  in 
lat.  55°  5Y'  N.,  and  long.  3°  11'  W.  ;  its  A.  must  be 
in  lat.  55°  57'  S.,  and  in  long  isr  11  W.,  or  rather 
in  1*76°  49' E — which  is  merely  an  undistinguishable 
spot  in  the  Antarctic  or  Southern  Ocean.  ^  Take,  as 
another  example,  London,  in  lat.  51°  30'  N.,  and 
long.  0°  5  W.  Its  A.  must  be  in  lat.  51°  30  S., 
and''  in  long  180°  5'  W.,  or  rather  179°  55'  E.— 
coinciding  pretty  nearly  with  a  small  island  to 
the  south-cast  of  New  Zealand.  This  small  island, 
in  honour  rather  of  London  than  of  itself,  has 
appropriated  the  term  A.  as  its  own  pecuhar 
name. 

Between  A.  in  general  there  necessarily  exist  also 
other  secondary  relations.  With  reference  to  the 
earth's  daily  rotation,  the  noon  of  the  one  side  must 
be  the  midnight  of  the  other;  while,  with  regard  to 
its  annual  revolution,  the  summer  and  the  autunm  of 
the  one  side  must  be  the  winter  and  the  spring  of 
the  other.  With  respect,  however,  to  the  former 
contrast,  some  explanation  may  be  required.  This, 
'  297 


ANTIPOPE— ANTIQUE. 


for  instance,  being  Wcdncsthiy  in  London,  was  last 
midnight  in  that  city  the  noon  of  Tnosday  or  of 
Wednesday  at  A.  Island  ?  The  answer  is,  that 
aceording  to  eircunistanees,  it  may  he  held  to  be 
either  the  one  or  the  other.  In  going  eastward — that 
is, in  meeting  tie  sun — one, from  day  to  day,  antici- 
pates every  noon  and  every  midnight  in  the  i)ro- 
pottion  of  4'  of  time  to  1°  of  long.,  or  of  12  hours  of 
time  to  181)°  of  long. ;  so  that,  on  re  lebing  A.  Island 
from  London  by  the  Cape  of  Ciood  Hope,  the  middle 
of  Tiie.sday  night,  by  Greenwich  reckoning,  is 
actually  regarded  on  the  spot  as  the  noon  of 
Wednesday.  In  going  westward,  again — that  is,  in 
leading,  as  it  were,  the  sun — one,  from  day  to  day, 
postpones  every  noon  and  every  midnight  in  the 
same  proportion  as  above ;  so  that,  on  reaching 
A.  Island  from  London  by  Cape  Horn,  the  middle 
of  Tuesday  night,  by  Greenwich  reckoning,  is 
actually  regarded  ou  the  spot  as  the  noon  of  Tuesday. 
In  fact,  navigators  in  opposite  directions,  meeting 
at  any  intermediate  point  whatever  of  the  earth's  cir- 
cumference, always  difler  in  their  computation  of 
time  by  a  whoh;  day,  or  24  hours.  In  two  cases,  this 
has  been  permanently  exemplified  :  tl.e  Spaniards  at 
tlie  rhili[>pines,  who  have  come  from  tlu-  east,  are 
a  day  behind  the  Portuguese  in  Macao,  who  have 
come  from  the  west ;  while,  on  the  north-west  coast 
of  America,  the  Ilussians  from  the  west  are  a  day  in 
advance  of  the  Ibitish  from  the  east. 

ANTIPOPE  was  a  pontiff  elected  by  the  will 
of  a  sovereign,  or  the  intrigues  of  a  faction,  in  oppo- 
sition to  one  canonically  chosen.  The  emperors  of 
Germany  were  the  first  to  set  up  popes  of  their  own 
nomination  against  tiiosc  whom  tlie  Komans  had 
elected  without  consulting  them.  (Hho  the  (irreat 
displaced  successively  two  bishop.s  of  Rome  ;  and 
when  Sylvester  III.  had  expelled  from  the  capital 
of  Christendom  Benedict  IX.,  whose  profligacy  had 
compromised  in  the  eyes  of  all  men  the  honour  of 
the  sovereign  pontificate,  Conrad  II.,  king  of  Ger- 
many, brought  back  this  worthless  pastor,  who 
hastened  to  sell  his  dignity  to  (Jregory  YI.  There 
were  now,  consequently,  three  popes,  and  their  num- 
ber was  increased  to  four  by  the  election  of  Clement 
II.  in  104fi.  Shortly  after,  Alexander  II.  found  a 
rival  in  Ilonorius  II.  ;  and  in  loSO  the  same  unscendy 
spectacle  was  witnessed,  when  Henry  IV.  emperor 
of  Germany,  elevated  to  the  papal  chair  Guibert  of 
Ravenna,  under  the  title  of  Clement  III.,  in  oppo- 
Rition  to  his  implacable  adversary,  Gregory  Vll. 
But  after  the  death  of  Gregory,  Clement  was  him- 
self opposed  successively  by  Victor  III.  and  Urban 
11.,  and  at  last  died  at  a  distance  from  Rome, 
having  just  beheld  the  exaltation  of  Pascal  II.  as 
the  successor  of  Urban.  During  the  12th  c,  several 
antipopcs  flourished,  such  as  Gregory  VIII.  and 
Ilonorius  III.  On  the  death  of  the  latter,  France 
began  to  intermeddle  in  these  disgraceful  strifes,  and 
upheld  the  cause  of  Innocent  II.  against  Aiiaclet ; 
while  the  kings  of  Sicily,  on  the  other  hand,  fre- 
quently set  \ip  a  pontiff  of  their  own  against  the 
choice  of  the  emperors.  The  l.>th  and  14th  centuries 
swarm  with  antipopes  ;  but  what  specially  deserves 
notice  is  '  the  great  schism  of  the  West,'  produced  by 
these  shameless  rivalries  in  1378 — a  schism  which 
divided  the  Church  for  fifty  years.  It  broke  out 
after  the  death  of  Gregory  XL,  at  the  election  of 
Urban  VI.,  whom  the  voice  of  the  Roman  people, 
demanding  an  Italian  pope,  and  not  one  who  should 
fix  his  pontificate,  like  several  of  his  predecessors,  at 
a  distance  from  Rome,  had  elevated  to  the  papal 
throne.  The  French  cardinals  objected,  withdrew 
to  Provence,  and  elected  a  new  pope,  under  the 
name  of  Clement  VIL,  who  was  recognised  by 
France,  Spain,  Savoy,  and  Scotland ;  wiiilst  Italy, 
Germany,  England,  and  the  whole  north  of  Europe, 
298 


supported  Urban  \l.  These  two  po[)es  excommuni- 
cated each  other  ;  nor  did  they  even  fear  to  cuinpro- 
ndse  their  sacred  character  by  the  most  cruel  out- 
rages and  the  most  odious  insults.  The  schism 
continued  after  their  death,  when  three  popes  nnide 
their  appearance  'in  the  field.'  all  of  whom  were 
deposed  by  the  Council  of  Constance  in  14 1."),  and 
Cardinal  Colouna  elected  m  tiieir  room,  under  the 
title  of  Martin  V.  The  last  anti[)Oi>o  was  Clement 
VIII.  With  him  the  schism  ceased;  but  the  evil 
was  done,  and  nothing  could  remedy  it.  The  dogma 
of  i)apal  infallibility  had  received  a  mortal  wound  '  in 
the  house  of  its  fiiends,'  and  the  scepticism  induced 
on  this  point  rapidly  extended  to  others.     See  Pope. 

A'NTIQUARIES,  Society  of.  Under  this 
name,  associations  of  learned  men,  established  for 
the  exclusive  j)urpose  of  cultivating  the  study  of 
antiquities,  exist  in  the  princijjal  countries  of  Europe 
and  in  America — at  London,  Ediid)urgh,  Paris,  Rome, 
Vienna,  Copenhagen,  &c.  The  London  Society  of  A. 
received  its  charter  in  1751,  but  had  commenced  its 
meetings  as  early  as  17<>7  ;  minutes  began  to  be  kept 
in  1718.  Long|)revious  to  this,in  ir)7"i,  an  Anticpiariaa 
Society  was  esiablished  by  Archbisho])  Parker  and 
Sir  Robert  Cotton.  It  was  dissolved  about  the 
year  10O4  by  King  James,  whose  weak  and  narrow 
mind  regarded  the  iiupiiries  of  the  A.  with  suspicion. 
The  present  '  .Society  of  A.  of  London'  consists  of  a 
President,  a  Council  of  21,  and  several  hundred 
Fellows.  It  has  published  a  large  number  of  curious 
and  valuable  works,  among  the  most  interesting  of 
which  is  a  series  of  Anglo-Saxon  and  early  English 
literary  remains.  The  Scottish  Society  of  A.  was 
founded  in  1780.  It  has  published  four  volumes  of 
Transactions,  and  collected  a  valuable  museum, 
which  is  now  become  national  property,  and  is 
arranged  lor  permanent  exhibition  at  the  ex|)ense 
of  the  government.  The  SocUle  des  Atiti)/uitires 
ile  France  took  that  name  in  1H14,  having  been 
founded  in  18n5  as  the  Acndh/tie  Celli(/ue.  With 
the  change  of  name,  the  sphere  of  the  Society's 
labours  was  greatly  enlarged.  It  has  published  many 
important  works.  A  similar  institution  is  the  Societe 
des  Antiquaircs  de  Noruiaudie,  founded  at  Caen  in 
1824.  The  Copenhagen  Society  of  A.  is  a  body  of 
high  reputation.     Sec  Auchjsolooy. 

ANTIQUE.  As  the  term  ancients  is  commonly 
applied  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  the  word  A.  is 
used  with  reference  to  their  works  of  art,  espe- 
cially their  incomparable  sculptures.  The  A.  Style 
in  works  of  art  is  distinguished  by  critics  from  the 
Romantic  or  Medieval,  and  also  from  the  Modern. 
The  sculpture  of  the  Greeks  is  characterised  by 
freshness,  originality,  and  ideality  ;  and  the  phases 
it  underwent  have  their  parallels  in  the  development 
of  the  literatTire  and  general  culture  of  that  people. 
In  the  earliest  times,  the  statues  had  a  rigid,  formal 
character,  and  looked  more  like  the  idols  of  bar- 
barous nations  than  deities  in  human  form ;  then 
came  stern,  Titan-like  forms,  corresponding  with  the 
Prometheus  of  .I^schylus  ;  next  the  sculptures  of 
Phidias,  Polycletes,  and  Polygnotus — like  the  char- 
acters in  the  dramas  of  Sophocles — present  to  us 
hamanity  in  its  purest  and  noblest  ideal  forms. 
Then,  as  Euripides  in  poetry  left  the  old  domain  of 
destiny,  and  derived  motives  and  action  from  or- 
dinary human  passions,  so  statuary  descended  from 
the  ideal  to  a  closer  resemblance  to  the  forms  of 
actual  life  ;  as  we  see  in  the  works  of  Praxiteles  and 
Lysippus.  Afterwards,  when  Aristophanes  intro- 
duced comedy,  forms  of  everyday-life  began  to  ap- 
pear in  sculpture ;  and  thus  a  gradual  transition  was 
made  from  the  art  of  the  Greeks,  which  was  ideal, 
in  the  true  sense  of  the  word  to  that  of  the  Ro- 
mans,  which   was   real,  monumental,  and   portrait. 


ANTIQUITIES— ANTISTHEN'ES 


like.  The  Romans  wore  tlic  reiilirits  of  the  ancient 
world;  their  indigenous  philosophy  was  of  a  popular 
kind ;  their  })oetry,  so  far  as  it  was  national,  was 
satire  ;  and  their  works  of  art  may  be  regarded  as 
monuments  and  portraitures  of  real  life,  quite  suit- 
able for  a  nation  of  soldiers,  lawyers,  and  politicians, 
but  vastly  inferior  to  the  ideal  beauty  displayed  in 
the  best  period  of  Grecian  art. 

AXTIQUITIES.  See  Arch.«:ology. 
ANTIRRHINUM.  See  Snapdragon. 
ANTISCORBUTICS.     See  Sccrtt. 

ANTISE'P'ITCS  are  substances  which  arrest 
the  putrefactive  changes  that  dead  vegetable  and 
animal  matter  is  liable  to  undergo  when  exposed  to 
air,  warmth,  and  moisture.  A.  are  therefore  anti- 
putresoents;  and  the  term  itself  indicates  the  oflice 
which  the  members  of  the  class  fulfil  {and,  against, 
and  lu'jifikos,  putrefactive).  The  theory  of  the  action 
of  all  A.  is,  tha  tone  or  two  of  the  three  indispen- 
sable conditions  of  putrefaction — viz.,  1,  a  moderate 
warmth,  2,  access  to  air,  and  3,  moisture — are  arrested 
or  neutralised.  Thus,  in  the  preservation  of  fish  in 
stores  or  during  transport  by  railway,  they  are 
packed  in  barrels  with  ice,  which  keeps  down  the 
temperature ;  and  though  air  and  moisture  gain 
admittance,  yet  the  putrefactive  processes  cannot 
proceed.  The  same  preservative  power  of  cold  is 
ob.-erved  naturally  in  the  discovery  of  remains  of 
elephants  and  other  animals  imbedded  in  the  ice  of 
the  polar  regions,  and  which  doubtless  have  been 
locked  up  there  for  ages.  In  a  less  degree,  the  influ- 
ence of  cold  as  an  antiseptic  is  observed  in  the  longer 
time  that  meat,  eggs,  and  other  animal  matters  keep 
fresh  in  winter  than  in  summer. 

Again,  warmth  and  moisture  may  be  present,  but 
if  the  air  be  excluded,  putrefaction  does  not  go  on. 
The  ordinary  mode  of  preparing  preserved  meats 
affords  the  best  illustration  of  this  point.  The  sub- 
stance to  be  preserved  is  placed  in  a  tin  dish  covered 
over,  and  leaving  a  very  small  opening.  When  the 
can  with  its  contents  is  heated,  the  air  which  fills 
lip  the  poies  of  the  solids,  and  is  dissolved  in  the 
liquids,  is  driven  off,  and  escaping  by  the  aperture  in 
the  cover  of  the  dish,  leaves  the  contents  devoid  of 
air.  If  the  opening  be  now  closed  with  solder,  the 
air  is  kept  from  returning  ;  and  whatever  climate 
the  can  of  preserved  meat  be  sent  to,  yet  so  long  as 
the  tin  casing  renu\ins  good,  and  refuses  to  admit 
the  air,  so  long  will  the  contents  continue  wholesome 
and  palatable.  The  common  plan  of  preserving 
eggs  by  rubbing  over  the  shell  with  tallow  or  oil,  is 
founded  on  the  principle  of  filling  up  the  jiores  of 
the  shell,  so  as  to  deny  the  admission  of  the  air. 
Moisture  is  likewise  necessary  for  the  process  of 
putrefaction.  Thus,  if  the  contents  of  an  egg  be 
thrown  out  on  a  plate,  and  thoioughly  dried  in  an 
oven,  the  whole  becomes  of  a  hard,  horny  consist- 
ence, and  may  be  kept  in  this  state  for  years  with- 
out exhibiting  the  slightest  symptom  of  passing  into 
a  putrescent  or  rotten  condition.  In  the  same  way 
meat  may  be  kept  quite  fresh  by  depriving  it  of 
moisture.  Eggs  dried  up  in  this  manner  require 
only  to  be  soaked  in  cold  water,  and  then  boiled, 
when  thoy  will  present  themselves  in  a  condition 
hardly  differing  in  tlavour  and  taste  from  an  ordinary 
boiled  egg. 

The  more  important  chemical  A.  are — Alcohol, 
wood-spirit,  creosote,  pitch-oil,  coke-oil,  sugar,  tannic 
acid,  sulphurous  aeid,  common  salt,  nitre,  alum, 
chloride  of  zinc,  sulphate  of  copper  (blue  vitriol), 
corrosive  sublimate,  arsenic. 

The  manner  in  which  these  A.  act  is  very  differ- 
ent— 1.  Sulphurous  acid  acts  by  combining  with 
the  oxygen,  and  thereby  deoxidising  the  substance. 


2.  Sirup  of  sugar  acts  by  combining  with  the  water 
of  the  substance  to  be  preserved.  3.  Creosote, 
tannic '  acid,  alum,  chloride  of  zinc,  sulphate  of 
copper,  corrosive  sublimate,  and  arsenic,  are  useful 
in  forming  compounds  with  the  organic  matter, 
which  are  not  so  liable  to  become  putrescent  as  the 
uncombined  organic  substance.  4.  Alcohol,  wood 
spirit,  conmion  salt  and  nitre,  act  in  a  doulile  way, 
by  combining  with  the  water  of  the  putrescible  sub- 
stance, and  by  combining  with  the  substance  itself, 
so  as  to  form  a  more  durable  compound. 

Some  of  the  more  important  uses  to  which  the 
chemical  A.  are  applied  are — 1.  In  the  preservation 
of  anatomical  specimens,  where  alcohol,  and  less 
often,  chloride  of  zinc,  are  the  agents ;  2.  In  the 
curing  of  herring  and  other  fish,  where  common  salt 
is  generally  used ;  3.  In  preparing  corned  or  salted 
meat  and  tongues,  where  common  salt  and  nitre 
are  jointly  employed;  and  4.  In  the  manufacture  of 
size  lor  writing-papers,  where  the  paper-maker  uses 
sulphate  of  soda  or  antichlore  (containing  sulphurous 
acid)  to  arrest  the  decomposition  of  the  scraps  of 
hides  used  in  the  manufacture  of  size.  In  the  preser- 
vation of  timber,  A.  are  also  taken  advantage  of. 
The  wood  is  placed  in  a  steam-box,  and  the  air  con- 
tained in  its  [)orc8  being  replaced  by  steam,  the 
whole  casing  is  closed  tight,  and  allowed  to  cool, 
when  the  steam  condenses,  and  leaves  a  vacuum  in 
and  around  the  block  of  wood.  On  the  introduction 
thereafter  of  one  of  the  A.,  it  finds  its  way  into  the 
innermost  pores  of  the  timber.  Wood  thus  pre- 
pared is  not  nearly  so  liable  to  decay  as  it  ordi- 
narily is;  and  the  A.  seem  to  act  here  not  only 
directly  in  withdrawing  water,  and  forming  durable 
compounds,  but  in  offering  a  poisonous  dose  to 
minute  plants  and  animals  which  tend  to  house 
themselves  in  the  wood.  The  use  of  sulphate  of 
copper  for  this  purpose  was  suggested  by  Bonchar- 
dat;  of  corrosive  sublimate,  by  Kyan  (hence  the 
process  was  called  Kyanisincf) ;  and  of  chloride  of 
zinc,  by  Sir  W.  Burnett  (hence  the  term  Burnett' 
ishixj). 

ANTI'STHENES,  founder  of  the  Cynic  school  of 
philosophy,  was  the  son  of  A.,  an  Athenian.  The 
date  of  his  birth  is  not  known,  but  he  fought  in  his 
youth  at  Tanagra  (426  B.C.),  and  he  survived  the 
battle  of  Leuctra  (371  B.C.),  and  died  at  Athens 
at  the  age  of  10.  After  listening  to  the  teaching  of 
Socrates,  he  gave  up  the  profession  of  rhetoric, 
which  he  had  followed  at  first  as  a  disciple  of 
Gorgias,  in  order  to  apply  himself  wholly  to  the 
study  of  moral  philosophy.  He  was  present  at  the 
death  of  Socrates,  and  never  forgave  his  persecutors. 
A.  held  that  virtue  mainly  consists  in  voluntary 
abstinence  from  pleasure,  and  in  a  stern  contempt 
of  riches,  honours,  and  even  learning.  Opinions 
of  still  greater  extravagance  are  ascribed  to  A., 
but  it  is  probable  that  thoy  were  rather  extreme 
views,  which  he  put  into  the  mouths  of  the  inter- 
locutors in  his  dialogues,  than  expressions  of  those 
which  he  himself  entertained.  Even  in  his  con- 
demnation of  pleasure,  he  excepted  such  as  springs 
from  the  soul,  or  is  founded  on  true  friendship.  In 
consistency  with  his  teaching,  A.  appeared  as  a 
beggar,  clad  in  ragged  garments — an  eccentricity 
which  Socrates  is  said  to  have  reproved  by  saying, 
'  I  see  your  pride  through  the  holes  in  your  cloak.' 
The  singularity  affected  by  A.  gained  many  imita- 
tors, and  among  them  Diogenes,  who  chose  to  live 
in  a  tub,  and  surpassed  the  master  himself  in  Cynic 
practice.  After  the  death  of  Socrates,  A.  taught 
moral  and  practical  philosophy  in  the  Athenian 
gymnasium  Cynosarges,  from  which,  it  is  said,  his 
school  derived  its  title.  His  writings — among  them  a 
polemical  work  against  Plato — have  mostly  perished. 
Such  fragments  as  remain  have  been  collected  by 

299 


ANTITHESIS— ANTOMMARCIII. 


Ritter 


Wiuckclinaiin  {A.,  Fraipncnta,  Turiti,  loiil). 
classes  A.  with  the  'imperfect  Socraticists.' 

AXTI'TIIESIS  {tUhcini,  to  place,  anti,  against),  a 
figure  of  speech  in  which  words  are  phiccd  in  direct 
opposition  to  each  other,  to  produce  a  strong  con- 
trast. Thus  Lessing,  in  criticism  on  a  boolv,  savs  : 
'  It  contains  many  good  things,  and  many  new  ;  but 
the  good  are  not  new,  and  the  new  are  not  good.' 
A.,  when  naturally  and  moderately  employed,  gives 
liveliness  to  style';  but,  like  all  strong  tigures  of 
speech,  becomes  wearisome  when  too  often  repeated. 

AXTITRIXITA'RIAN,  one  who  denies  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Trinity.  An  A.  differs  from  a  Uni- 
tarian oidy  in  this  respect,  that  his  objection  to  the 
doctrine  in  question  is  made  on  philosophical, 
while  that  of  the  latter  is  made  on  theological 
grounds.  A  Unitarian  is  one  who  accepts  the 
Bible  as  inspired,  but  docs  not  find  in  it  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Trinity;  an  A.  is,  or  may  be,  a  philo- 
sophical tlieist,  who  denies  the  inspiration  of  Scrip- 
ture. Mohammed,  from  the  stand-point  of  a  new 
and  hostile  religion,  also  denied  this  great  Christian 
dogma.  lie  announced  himself,  with  fierce  emphasis, 
an  A. ;  and  his  followers  to  the  present  day  are 
characterised  by  the  intensity  of  their  monotheism. 
See  Unitarian  and  Socinian. 

A'NTITYPE,  a  Greek  word,  literally  signifying 
i.  type  or  figure  wliich  corresponds  to  some  other 
type  or  figure.  In  its  theological  sense,  it  denotes, 
not  a  type,  but  the  person  in  whom  any  prophetic 
type  is  fulfilled;  thus,  Christ  is  called  the  A.  of  the 
paschal  lamb.     See  Type. 

A'NTIUM,  one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  of 
Latium,  stood  on  the  coast  34  miles  S.S.E.  from 
Rome.  Being  favourably  situated  for  commerce  and 
piracy,  it  became,  under  the  Yolscians,  into  wliose 
jiands  it  had  fallen,  one  of  the  most  powerful  enemies 
of  rising  Rome,  initil  finally  subdued  (:5:i8  n.c). 
It  became  a  favourite  resort  of  the  wealthy  Romans, 
and  some  of  the  most  famous  remains  of  ancient  art 
have  been  discovered  »niong  the  ruins  of  their  villas 
arid  palaces ;  such  as  the  Apollo  Belvedere,  and  the 
Borgiiese  Gladiator.  It  was  the  birthplace  of  the 
Emperors  Caligula  and  Xero ;  and  the  latter  con- 
structed a  splendid  port  by  means  of  two  moles 
enclosing  a  basin  two  miles  in  circumference. 
Remains  of  the  moles  still  e.xist,  although  the  basin 
is  mostly  filled  up  with  sand. 

Antium  was  completely  destroyed  by  the  Sai^cens 
during  the  middle  ages  ;  and  it  was  only  in  the  ITth 
c,  when  the  port  was  very  partially  restored,  that 
the  modern  village  of  Porto  d'Anzo  arose,  the 
population  of  which  does  not  exceed  500.  Xear  the 
village  Xettuno,  in  the  neighbourhood,  the  ruins  of  a 
temple  of  X'eptune  are  discernible  under  the  sea. 

AXT-LIOX,  the  larva  of  an  insect  {Myrmeleon 
formicarhnn)  of  the  order  Xeuroptera,  remarkable 
for  its  habits,  which  have  been  carefully  observed 
by  some  of  the  ablest  naturalists  of  Europe.  It 
inhabits  sandy  districts,  is  not  known  in  Britain,  and 
is  more  connnon  in  the  south  of  Europe  than  in  the 
north.  The  perfect  insect  is  about  an  inch  long,  and 
has  a  considerable  general  resemblance  to  a  dragon- 
fly. The  larva  is  rather  more  than  half  an  inch 
long;  it  has  a  very  large  abdomen,  and  a  small  head, 
which,  however,  is  furnished  with  two  very  large 
incurved  mandibles.  It  has  six  legs,  but  is  incapable 
of  rapid  locomotion,  and  generally  moves  backwards. 
It  feeds  upon  the  juices  of  insects,  particularly  of 
ants,  in  order  to  obtain  which  it  excavates  with  the 
greatest  ingenuity  a  funnel-shaped  hole  in  sandy 
ground,  and  lies  in  wait  at  the  bottom,  all  but 
its  mandibles  buried  in  the  sand.  Insects  which 
approach  to  near  to  the  edge  of  the  hole,  then 
become  its  prey,  by  the  loose  sand  giving  way,  so 
800 


that  they  fall  down  the  steep  s'.opc.  If  they  do  not 
fall  quite  to  the  bottom,  but  begin  to  scramble  up 
again,  the  A.  throws  sand  upon  them  by  jerking  ita 


Ant-lion  : 
a,  larva ;  h,  perfect  insect. 

head,  and  so  brings  them  back.  It  employs  its 
head  in  the  same  way  to  eject  their  bo<lies  fiom  its 
pit,  after  their  juices  have  been  suckeil,  and  casts 
them  to  a  considerable  distance  ;  and  by  the  same 
means  throws  away  the  sand  in  excavating  its  hole, 
first  ploughing  it  up  with  its  body,  and  then  |)lacing  it 
upon  its  head  by  means  of  one  of  its  fore-legs.  It 
always  begins  by  working  round  the  circular  circum- 
ference of  its  future  hole,  and  gradually  narrows  and 
deepens  it;  turning  (piite  round  after  each  time  that 
it  works  round  the  hole,  so  as  to  employ  next  time 
the  fore-leg  of  the  other  side.  When  it  meets  with  a 
stone  which  it  cannot  remove,  it  deserts  the  excava- 
tion, and  begins  another.  The  pit,  when  completed, 
is  usually  about  thirty  inches  in  diameter  by  twenty 
in  depth. 

AXTOMMARCni,  Francesco,  a  well-known  phy- 
sician and  native  of  Corsica,  was  born  in  the  second 
half  of  the  18th  c.  He  owes  his  celebrity  almost 
entirely  to  his  intimacy  with  Xnpoleon  Bonaparte 
during  the  exile  of  the  latter  in  St.  Helena.  In  1818, 
he  was  induced  to  leave  Florence,  where  he  held  the 
office  of  anatomical  dissector  in  the  Hospital  of 
Santa  Maria  Nuova  of  Florence,  and  to  become 
private  physician  to  the  banished  emperor.  There 
was  at  first  little  cordiality  between  the  two  ;  but 
subsequently  Bomiparte  conceived  a  high  regard  for 
his  countryman,  and  at  his  death  left  him  100,000 
francs.  In  1821,  A.  returned  to  Europe,  and  in  1826 
published  at  Paris  Les  Derniers  Moments  de 
Napoleon,  a  work  which  has  been  very  extensively 
read.  He  now  became  involved  in  a  dispute  with 
the  heirs  of  Mascagni — his  old  anatomical  professor 
— regarding  certain  anatomical  plates  which  he 
announced  as  on  the  eve  of  publication.  The  heirs 
affirmed  that  A.'s  lithographed  drawings  were  mere 
copies  from  the  plates  of  Mascagni,  and  the  contro- 
versy went  on  briskly  for  some  time,  till  Paris 
grew  tired  of  it,  when  it  gradually  died  away 
and  was  forgotten.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the 
Polish  revolution,  A.  departed  for  Warsaw,  where  he 
received  the  appointment  of  general  inspector  of 
military  hospitals.  He  soon  returned  to  Paris  where 
he  published  a  cast  of  X'apoleon's  head,  which  he 
affirmed  to  have  taken  when  the  emperor  was  on 
his  death-bed.  This  declaration  again  involved  him 
in  a  hot  dispute  with  the  phrenologists,  who  were 
not  satisfied  with  the  conformation  of  the  cranium, 
and  therefore  cast  suspicions — gome  of  them  appar- 
ently not  altogether  ill  founded — on  the  veracity  of 
A.'s  statements.  Harassed  by  the  attacks  of  his 
adversaries,  and  sick  of  further  controversy,  A., 
about  1836,  resolved  to  emigrate  to  America.  He 
died  at  San  Antonio,  in  Cuba,  on  the  3d  of  April 
1838. 


AXTOX  ULRICH— ANTOXI^rrS. 


ANTON  ULRICII,  second  son  of  Duke  Ferdinand 
Albert  of  Braunschweig-WoU'enbiittel  (till  1735, 
Braunseh\vei>;-Bevern,  the  title  by  which  the  prince 
was  first  known  in  Russia),  was  born  in  1714.  When 
the  Russian  Empress  Anna  was  looking  out  for  an 
alliance  for  her  niece,  Anna  Carlowna,  Princess  of 
Mecklenbur;;-Schwerin,  the  influence  of  Austria  led 
her  to  choose  A.  U.  Accordingly,  he  came  to  Russia 
in  1733,  was  appointed  colonel  of  a  cuirassier  regi- 
ment, and  placed  in  the  receipt  of  a  considerable  pen- 
sion. The  marriage  was,  however,  long  delayed.  The 
princess  shewed  a  decided  distaste  for  the  insignificant 
character  of  the  bridegroom-elect,  and  only  married 
him  to  avoid  a  still  more  hated  union  with  the  son  of 
Biron.  Tlie  birth  of  the  Prince  Ivan  took  place  in 
1740,  a  year  after  the  marriage.  About  the  same 
time,  the  empress  falling  dangerously  sick,  appointed 
the  infant  prince  her  successor,  and  Biron  regent. 
After  her  death,  A.  U.  made  some  feeble  attempts  to 
reverse  this  appointment,  which  only  led  to  the  punish- 
ment of  tliose  supposed  to  have  instigated  them,  and 
to  his  own  military  degradation.  Biron's  conduct 
towards  the  parents  of  the  infant  prince  becoming  un- 
bearably insolent,  Anna  appealed  in  despair  to  General 
Miinnich,  who  put  a  sudden  end  to  Biron's  sway,  and 
declared  the  grand-duchess  and  her  husband  regents. 
After  a  few  months,  Anna  ungratefully  overthrew 
Miinnich.  After  his  fiill,  as  little  unity  prevailed  be- 
tween the  ministers  at  the  helm  as  between  herself 
and  her  husband,  and  the  government  was  looked 
upon  as  both  a  foreign  and  a  contemptible  one.  Then 
came  the  revolution  of  the  5th  December  1741,  which 
in  one  night  raised  Elizabeth  (q.  v.)  to  the  throne. 
A.  U.  and  his  consort  were  exiled,  and  lived  long  at 
Cholmogory,  in  the  government  of  Archangel.  Three 
children  were  born  to  them  in  exile.  Anna  died 
in  174t).  Catharine  II.  offered  A.  U.  his  freedom, 
but  he  declined  it.  Ultimately,  he  grew  blind. 
The  exact  year  of  his  death  is  uncertain,  but 
it  is  supposed  to  have  taken  place  about  1780. 
Catharine  offered  to  his  children  an  asylum  in 
Jutland,  where  they  all  died  in  comfortable  circum- 
stances. 

ANTONE'LLI,  a  Roman  cardinal  and  secretary  of 
state,  descended  from  a  family  of  bad  reputation,  of 
which  several  members  had  been  notorious  as  robbers 
or  hnnditti.  A.  was  made  a  cardinal  shortly  before 
the  succession  of  Pope  Pius  IX.,  by  whom  he  was  ap- 
pointed Under-Secretary  of  State  for  the  Interior,  and 
also  Minister  of  Finance.  In  these  offices,  he  gained 
the  confidence  of  the  pope,  and  though  removed  from 
office  by  the  influence  of  the  liberal  party,  who  would 
not  tolerate  a  priestly  policy,  he  continued  to  be  his 
constant  adviser  in  all  the  troubles  which  followed 
the  assassination  of  Rossi.  After  the  flight  of  the  pope 
to  Gaeta,  he  was  appointed  his  Chief  Secretary,  and 
has  since  held  the  helm  at  St.  Peter's.  A.  is  said  to 
be  less  besotted  in  his  admiration  of  despotism  than 
several  of  his  colleagues,  but  is  accused  of  fierce 
rapacity.  It  is  alleged  that,  conscious  of  the  perils 
which  environ  the  papal  chair,  and  of  its  inability  long 
to  withstand  the  opposition  of  the  intellect,  morality, 
and  enthusiasm  of  the  national,  as  well  as  the  con- 
stitutional  party,  he  is  secretly  hoarding  up  im- 
mense sums,  and  lavishing  lucrative  offices  on  his 
relations. 

ANTOXE'LLO,  ''of  Messina),  a  painter  who  holds 
a  prominent  position  in  the  history  of  Italian  art, 
was  born  probably  about  1414,  in  Sicily.  In  his  day, 
the  paintings  of  Johann  van  Eyck  (of  Flanders) 
enjoyed  a  wide  celebrity,  and  several  specimens 
were  brought  to  Xaples,  where  A.  saw  one  of  them. 
Admiring  the  new  style  of  oil-painting,  he  travelled 
into  Flanders  and  learned  the  secrets  of  the  art  from 
Van  Eyck.     Afterwards,  he   settled   in   Venice,   and 


was  the  first  Italian  who  painted  in  oil-colours, 
in  which  he  gave  instructions  to  many  artists. 
He  died  probably  in  1493.  His  works  are  now 
rather  scarce.  One,  in  the  Museum  at  BerUn,  bears 
the  date  1445. 

AXTONIXUS,  Marcus  ArRELir.s,  the  son  of  An- 
nius  Verus  and  Domitia  Calvilla,  was  born  at  Rome 
on  the  20th  of  April  I'il  a.d.  Ilis  original  name 
was  Marcus  Annius  Verus.  On  the  death  of  his 
father,  he  was  adopted  by  his  grandfather,  who  spared 
no  pains  to  render  him  pre-eminent  in  every  art  and 
science.  His  fine  qualities  early  attracted  the  notice 
of  the  Emperor  Hadrian,  who  used  to  term  him,  not 
Verus,  but  Verissinius,  and  who  conferred  high 
honours  on  him,  even  while  a  child.  When  only 
seventeen  years  of  age,  he  was  adopted,  along  with 
Lucius  C.  Commodus,  by  Antoninus  Pius,  the  successor 
of  Hadrian  ;  and  Faustina,  the  daughter  of  Pius,  was 
selected  for  his  wife.  In  the  year  140  a.d.  he  was 
made  consul ;  and  from  this  period  to  the  death  of 
Pius  in  161  a.d.  he  continued  to  discharge  the  duties 
of  his  various  offices  with  the  greatest  promptitude 
and  fidelity.  The  relation  which  subsisted  between 
him  and  the  emperor  was  of  the  warmest  and  most 
f\imiliar  kind.  On  his  accession  to  the  throne,  he 
strikingly  illustrated  the  magnanimity  of  his  character, 
by  voluntarily  sharing  the  government  (which  Pius 
had  left  in  his  last  moments,  and  the  Senate  offered 
to  him  alone)  with  young  Commodus,  who  henceforth 
bore  the  name  of  Lucius  Aurelius  Verus,  and  to  whom 
he  gave  his  daughter  Lucilla  in  marriage.  Towards 
the  close  of  161  a.d.,  the  Parthian  War  broke  out, 
and  Lucius,  a  young  man  of  vigorous  bodily  habits, 
was  sent  to  the  frontiers  of  the  empire,  to  repel  the 
incursions  of  the  barbarians  ;  but  intoxicated  with  the 
enervating  pleasures  of  the  East,  he  obstinately  re- 
fused to  go  beyond  Antioch,  and  intrusted  the  com- 
mand of  the  army  to  his  lieutenant  Cassius,  wh(» 
gained  several  brilliant  victories.  Lucius  returned  to 
Rome  (166  a.d.,)  and  enjoyed  a  triumph  to  which 
he  had  no  real  claim  ;  for  all  the  great  achievements 
of  the  war  were  accomplished  by  his  officers,  while  hc» 
was  revelling  in  the  most  extravagant  licentiousness. 
In  the  meantime,  Marcus  Aurelius  had  distinguishc^t 
himself  by  the  prudence  and  energy  with  which  he 
administered  affairs  at  home.  A  formidable  insurrec- 
tion had  long  been  preparing  in  the  German  provin- 
ces ;  the  Britons  were  on  the  point  of  revolt,  and  the 
Catti  waiting  for  an  opportunity  to  deva.state  the 
Rhenish  provinces.  Within  Rome  itself  raged  a 
pestilence,  believed  to  have  been  brought  home  by  the 
troops  of  Lucius ;  frightful  inundations  and  earth- 
quakes had  laid  large  portions  of  the  city  in  ruins, 
destroyed  the  granaries  in  which  were  kept  the  sup- 
plies of  com,  and  thus  created  almost  universal  dis- 
tress, which  stimulated  to  an  incalculable  degree  the 
terror  which  the  citizens  entertained  of  their  savage 
enemies.  To  allay  the  popular  perturbation,  Marjus 
resolved  to  go  forth  to  the  war  himself.  Hecatombs 
were  offered  to  the  offended  gods,  and  the  Roman 
legions  set  out  for  the  north.  Slarcus  and  Lucius 
were,  for  the  time,  completely  successful.  The  pride 
of  the  Marcomanni,  and  the  other  rebellious  tribes 
inhabiting  the  country  between  Illyria  and  the 
sources  of  the  Danube,  was  humbled,  and  they 
were  compelled  to  sue  for  peace  in  168  a.d.  ;  in 
the  year  after  which  Lucius  died.  The  contest 
was  renewed  in  170  a.d.,  and  may  be  said  to  have 
continued  with  little  intermission  during  the  whole 
life  of  the  emperor.  Although  fond  of  peace,  both 
from  natural  disposition  and  philosophic  culture, 
he  displayed  the  sternest  vigour  in  suppressing 
the  revolts  of  the  barbarians;  but  in  order  to 
accomplish  this,  he  had  to  enrol  amongst  his 
soldiery    vast    numbers    of    gladiators    and    slaves, 

301 


ANTONINUS. 


for  Lis  army  had  been  thinned  by  the  ravages  of 
the  pUvgue.  His  head-quarters  were  Pannonia,  out 
of  which  he  drove  the  Marcomanni,  whom  he  sub- 
sequently all  but  annihilated  in  crossing  the  Danube. 
The  same  fate  befell  the  Jazyges ;  but  the  most 
famous  as  well  as  the  most  extraordinary  of  all  his 
victories,  was  the  miraculous  one  gained  over  the 
Quadi  (174  A.n.),  and  which  gave  rise  to  copious 
discussion  amongst  Christian  historians  and  others. 
Dion  Ca.ssius's  account  is,  that  the  Romans  were  perish- 
ing of  thirst  in  the  heat  of  summer,  when  suddenly 
the  cloudless  sky  darkened,  and  abundant  showers  fell, 
of  which  the  soldiers  were  taking  advantage  when  the 
barbarians  attacked,  and  would  have  cut  them  to 
pieces,  if  a  storm  of  hail  and  fire  had  not  descended 
on  the  former.  That  some  extraordinary  i)henomenon 
occurred  is  evident,  for  there  is  a  letter  of  Aurelius 
still  extant  in  which  he  commemorates  the  event ; 
and  the  emperor  was  a  man  incapable  of  uttering  a 
falsehood,  not  to  mention  that  there  was  an  entire 
army  living  to  disprove  the  statement,  if  untrue. 
The  eflFect  of  this  remarkable  victory  was  instan- 
taneou.sly  and  widely  felt.  The  Germanic  tribes 
hurried  from  all  quarters  to  make  their  submission, 
and  obtain  clemency ;  but  the  practical  advantages 
that  might  have  resulted  from  it  were  nullified  by  a 
new  outlireak  in  the  Ea.«:t,  occasioned  through  the 
infamous  treachery  of  his  own  wife,  which  demanded 
his  presence ;  and  though  suflFering  from  failing  health, 
he  was  obliged  to  leave  Pannonia.  Before  his  depar- 
ture, however,  he  learned  that  the  ambitious  governor, 
Avidius  Cassius,  who  had  rebelled  against  him,  and 
seized  the  whole  of  Asia  Minor,  had  perished  by  assas- 
sination. The  conduct  of  Marcus  Aurelius  on  hearing 
of  his  enemy's  death  was  wortliy  of  the  sublime  virtue 
of  his  character.  He  lamented  that  the  Fates  had 
not  gninted  him  his  fondest  wish — to  have  freely 
pardoned  the  man  who  had  so  basely  conspired 
against  his  happiness.  Like  Ca?sar  in  similar  circum- 
stances, b>it  in  a  more  purely  humane  spirit,  he  received 
the  head  of  his  murdered  adversary  with  quite  oppo- 
site feelings  to  what  had  been  anticipated,  rejecting 
the  bloody  gift  with  all  the  loathing  of  a  benevolent 
nature,  and  even  shrinking  from  the  presence  of  the 
murderers.  On  his  arrival  in  the  East,  he  exhibited 
the  same  illustrious  magnanimity.  He  burned  the 
papers  of  Cassius,  without  reading  them,  so  that 
he  might  not  be  at  liberty  to  suspect  any  as 
traitors  ;  treated  the  provinces  which  had  rebelled 
■with  extreme  gentleness ;  disarmed  the  enmity,  and 
dispelled  the  fears  of  the  nobles  who  had  openly 
f\ivoured  his  insurgent  lieutenant.  While  pursuing 
his  work  of  restoring  tranquillity,  Faustina  died 
in  an  obscure  village  at  the  foot  of  Moimt  Tau- 
rus ;  and  her  husband  (and  this  was  perhaps  the 
single  frailty  of  his  character),  though  undoubt- 
edly conscious  of  her  glaring  profligacy  and  in- 
fidelity, paid  the  most  \a.\ish  honours  to  her 
memory. 

On  his  way  home,  he  visited  Lower  Egypt  and 
Greece,  displaying  everywhere  the  noblest  solicitude 
for  the  welfare  of  his  vast  empire,  and  drawing  forth 
from  his  subjects,  who  were  astonished  at  his  goodness, 
sentiments  of  the  profoundest  admiration  and  regard. 
At  Athens,  which  this  imperial  pagan  philosopher  must 
have  venerated  as  a  pious  Jew  did  the  city  of  Jerusa- 
lem, he  shewed  a  catholicity  of  intellect  worthy  of  his 
great  heart,  by  founding  chairs  of  philosophy  for 
each  of  the  four  chief  sects — Platonic,  Stoic,  Peri- 
patetic, and  Epicurean.  No  man  ever  laboured  more 
earnestly  to  make  that  heathen  faith  which  he  loved 
60  well,  and  that  heathen  philosophy  which  he  believed 
in  so  truly,  a  vital  and  dominant  reality.  Towards 
the  close  of  the  year  176  a.p.,  he  reached  Italy,  and 
celebrated  his  merciful  and  bloodless  triumph  on  the 

302 


23d  of  December.  In  the  succeeding  autumn,  ho 
departed  for  Germany,  where  fresh  disturbances  had 
broken  out  among  the  restless  and  volatile  barba- 
rians. He  was  again  successful  in  several  sanguinary 
engagements;  but  his  originally  weak  constitution, 
shattered  by  perpetual  anxiety  and  fatigue,  at  length 
sunk,  and  he  died  either  at  Vienna,  or  at  8irmium, 
on  the  17th  of  March  180  a.i>.,  after  a  reign  of 
twenty  years. 

Marcus  Aurelius  A.  was  the  flower  of  the  stoical 
philosoi)hy.  It  seems  almost  iiu'xplicable  that  so 
harsh  and  crabbed  a  system  should  have  produced  as 
pure  and  gentle  an  example  of  humanity  as  the  records 
of  heathen — we  had  almost  said,  Christian  history, 
can  shew.  Perhaps,  as  a  modern  philoso[)hic  theolo- 
gian suggests,  it  was  because  stoicism  was  the  most 
solid  and  practical  of  the  philosophic  theories,  and  the 
one  which  most  earnestly  opposed  it.self  to  the  rapidly 
increasing  licentiousness  of  the  time,  that  the  chaste 
heart  of  the  youth  was  drawn  towards  it.  At  twelve 
years  of  age,  he  avowed  himself  a  follower  of  Zeno, 
Epictetus,  &c.  Stoics  were  his  teachers — Diognotus, 
Apollonius,  and  Junius  Ru.>Jticus  ;  and  he  himself  is  to 
be  considered  one  of  the  most  thoughtful  teachers  of 
the  school.  Oratory  he  studied  under  Ilerodes 
Atticus  and  Cornelius  Fronto.  His  love  of  learning 
was  insatiable.  Even  after  he  had  attained  to  tho 
highest  dignity  of  the  state,  he  did  not  disdain  to  attend 
the  school  of  Sextus  of  Chieronea.  Men  of  letters 
were  his  most  intimate  friends,  and  received  the 
highest  honours  both  when  alive  and  dead.  His  range 
of  studies  was  extensive,  embracing  morals,  metaphy- 
sics, mathematics,  juri.'^prudence,  music,  poetry,  and 
painting.  Nor  must  we  forget  that  these  were  culti- 
vated not  merely  in  the  sjiring  time  of  his  life,  when 
enthusia.Mn  was  strong,  and  experience  had  not  .siddened 
his  thoughts,  and  when  study  was  his  only  labour,  but 
during  the  tumults  of  perpetual  war,  an(l  the  distrac- 
tion necessarily  arising  from  the  government  of  so 
va.«t  an  empire.  The  man  who  loved  peace  with  liis 
whole  soul,  died  without  beholding  it,  and  yet  the 
everla.sting  presence  of  war  never  tempted  him  to  sink 
into  a  mere  warrior.  He  maintaini'(l  unconupted  to 
the  end  of  his  noble  life  his  philosoi)hie  and  philan- 
thropic aspirations.  After  his  decease,  which  waa 
felt  to  be  a  national  calamity,  every  Roman  cit- 
izen, and  many  others  in  distant  portions  of  the 
empire,  procured  an  image  or  statue  of  him,  which 
more  than  a  hundred  years  after  was  still  found  among 
their  household  gods.  He  became  almost  an  object 
of  worship,  and  was  believed  to  appear  in  dreams, 
like  the  saints  of  subsequent  Christian  ages. 

There  is  one  feature  in  his  character,  however,  which 
it  would  be  di.shonest  to  pass  over — his  hostility, 
namely,  to  Christianity.  He  was  a  persecutor  of  the 
new  religion,  and,  it  is  clearly  demonstrated,  was 
cognizant,  to  a  certain  extent  at  least,  of  the  atrocities 
perpetrated  upon  its  followers.  Numerous  explana- 
ti  )n3  have  been  offered  of  his  conduct  in  this  matter. 
The  most  popular  one  is,  that  he  for  once  allowed 
himself  to  be  led  away  by  evil  counsellors ;  but  a 
deeper  reason  is  to  be  found  in  that  very  earnestness 
with  which  he  clung  to  the  old  heathen  faith  of  his 
ancestors.  He  believed  it  to  be  true,  and  to  be  the 
parent  of  those  philosophies  which  had  sprung  up  out 
of  the  same  soil :  he  saw  that  a  new  religion,  the  char- 
acter of  which  had  been  assiduously,  though  perhaps 
unconsciously,  misrepresented  to  him,  lioth  as  an 
immoral  superstition,  and  a  mysterious  political 
conspiracv,  was  secretly  spreading  throughout  tho 
empire,  and  that  it  would  hold  no  comiueree  with 
the  older  religion,  but  condemned  it,  generally  in 
the  strongest  terms.  It  was,  therefore,  compara- 
tively easy,  even  for  so  humane  a  ruler,  to  imagine 
It    his    duty   to    extirpate    this    unnaturally    hostile 


ANTONINUS  PIUS— ANTONINUS. 


sect.  Mr.  John  Stuart  Mill  finds  in  this  tragical 
error  of  the  great  en)i)eror  a  most  striking  warning 
against  the  danger  of  interfering  with  the  liberty 
of  thought.  What  he  says  is  so  completely  in  har- 
mony with  the  above  conception  of  the  motives  of 
Marcus  Aurelius,  and  is  in  itself  so  eloquent,  that  no 
apology  is  required  in  quoting  the  passage  :  '  If  ever 
any  one  possessed  of  power  had  grounds  for  thinking 
himself  the  best  and  most  enlightened  among  his 
cotemporaries,  it  was  the  Emperor  Marcus  Aurelius. 
Absolute  monarch  of  the  whole  civilised  world,  he 
preserved  through  life  not  only  the  most  unblemished 
justice,  but  what  was  less  to  be  expected  from  his 
stoical  breeding,  the  tenderest  heart.  The  few  fail- 
ings which  are  attributed  to  him  were  all  on  the  side 
of  indulgence  ;  while  his  writings,  the  highest  ethical 
product  of  the  ancient  mind,  ditter  scarcely  percepti- 
bly, if  they  differ  at  all,  from  the  most  characteristic 
teaciiings  of  Christ.  This  man,  a  better  Christian, 
in  all  but  the  dogmatic  sense  of  the  word,  than 
almost  any  of  the  ostensibly  Christian  sovereigns 
who  have  since  reigned,  persecuted  Christianity. 
Placed  at  the  summit  of  all  the  previous  attainments 
of  hiimatiity,  with  an  open  unfettered  intellect,  and  a 
character  which  led  him,  of  himself,  to  embody  in  his 
moral  writings  the  Christian  ideal,  he  yet  failed  to  see 
that  Chiisdanity  was  to  be  a  good  and  not  an  evil  to 
the  world,  with  his  duties  to  which  he  was  so  deeply 
penetrated.  Existing  society  he  knew  to  be  in  a 
deplorable  state.  But  such  as  it  was,  he  saw,  or 
thought  he  saw,  that  it  was  held  together,  and  pre- 
vented from  being  worse,  by  belief  and  reverence  of 
the  received  divinities.  As  a  ruler  of  mankind,  he 
deemed  it  his  duty  not  to  suffer  society  to  fall  in 
pieces,  and  saw  not  how,  if  its  existing  ties  were 
removed,  anyotheis  could  be  formed  which  could 
again  knit  it  together.  The  new  religion  aimed 
openly  at  dissolving  these  ties:  unless,  therefore,  it 
was  his  duty  to  adopt  that  religion,  it  seemed  to  be 
his  duty  to  put  it  down.  Inasmuch,  then,  as  the 
theology  of  Christianity  did  not  appear  to  him  true, 
or  of  Divine  origin  ;  inasmuch  as  this  strange  history 
of  a  crucified  God  was  not  credible  to  him,  and  a 
system  which  purported  to  rest  entirely  upon  a 
foundation  to  him  so  wholly  unbelievable,  could  not 
be  foreseen  by  him  to  be  that  renovating  agency 
which,  after  all  abatements,  it  has  in  foct  proved  to  be ; 
the  gentlest  and  most  amiable  of  philosophers  and 
rulers,  under  a  solemn  sense  of  duty,  authorised  the 
persecution  of  Christianity.  To  my  mind,  this  is  one 
of  the  most  tragical  facts  in  all  history.  It  is  a  bitter 
thought,  how  different  a  thing  the  Christianity  of 
the  world  might  have  been,  if  the  Christian  faith 
had  been  adopted  as  the  religion  of  the  empire,  under 
the  auspices  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  instead  of  those  of 
Constantine.  But  it  would  be  equally  unjust  to  him, 
and  false  to  truth,  to  deny,  that  no  one  plea  which 
can  be  urged  for  punishing  Anti-christian  teaching, 
was  wanting  to  Marcus  Aurelius  for  punishing,  as  he 
did,  the  propagation  of  Christianity.  No  Christian 
more  firmly  believes  that  atheism  is  false,  and  tends 
to  the  dissolution  of  society,  than  Marcus  Aurelius 
believed  the  same  things  of  Christianity;  he  who,  of 
all  mea  then  living,  might  have  been  thought  the 
most  capable  of  appreciating  it.  Unless  any  one 
who  approves  of  punishment  for  the  [ironnilgation  of 
opinions,  flatters  himself  that  he  is  a  wise  and  better 
man  than  Marcus  Aurelius — more  deeply  versed  in 
the  wisdom  of  his  time — more  elevated  in  his  intel- 
lect above  it — more  earnest  in  his  search  for  truth, 
or  more  eiiigle-minded  in  his  devotion  to  it  when 
found — let  him  abstain  from  that  assumption  of  the 
joint  infallibility  of  himself  and  the  multitude  which 
the  great  A.  made  with  so  unfortunate  a  result.' 

ANTONI'NUS   PIUS,   Titus   Acre'lius  FiLvrs, 
a  Romaa  emperor  (loS — 101  a.d.),  waa  bora  in  the 


reign  of  Domitian  (86  a.d.).  The  family  of  A.  was 
originally  from  Nemausus,  now  Nimes,  in  Gaul.  A. 
inherited  great  wealth,  and  early  gave  proof  of 
excellent  qualities  In  120  he  was  made  consul; 
afterwards  was  sent  by  Hadiian  as  proconsul  into 
Asia,  where  the  wisdom  and  gentleness  of  his  rule  won 
for  him  a  higher  reputation  than4iad  been  enjoved  by 
any  of  his  predecessors.  By  his  wife  Faustina  he  had 
four  children,  of  whom  three  died,  leaving  a  daugh- 
ter, Faustina,  afterwards  wife  of  Marcus  Aurelius. 
In  1:58  he  was  adopted  by  the  Emperor  Hadrian,  in 
consequence  of  merit  alone,  and  came  to  the  throne 
in  the  same  year.  The  reign  of  A.  was  proverbially 
peaceful  and  happy.  In  his  private  cliaracter,  he 
was  simple,  temperate,  and  benevolent;  while  in 
public  affairs  he  acted  as  the  father  of  his  people. 
The  persecution  of  Christians,  which  was  con- 
tinued duiing  his  reign,  was  partly  stayed  by  hia 
mild  measures.  He  was  little  engaged  in  war, 
excepting  in  Britain,  where  he  extended  the  power 
of  Rome,  and  built  a  wall  between  the  Forth  and 
the  Clyde,  as  a  defence  against  invasions  by  the 
predatory  inhabitants  of  the  north  ;  but  he  was  fre- 
quently employed  in  arbitration  and  general  counsel 
on  the  aflfiiirs  of  foreign  states.  'Happy  the  nation 
which  has  no  history.'  The  reign  of  A.  illustrates 
this  saying,  for  by  the  justice,  wisdom,  kindliness, 
and  courtesy  of  the  emperor,  his  vast  empire  was 
preserved  from  the  crimes,  conspiracies,  insurrec- 
tions, and  bloodshed,  the  recording  of  which  formed 
the  largest  part  of  the  historian's  work  in  the  dark 
centuries  of  the  Roman  empire.  It  is  said  that  only 
one    senator   was   impeached   during   A.'s   lifetime. 


Copper  Coin  of  Antoninus  Pius, 

commemorative  of  his  Victories  in  r.ritaiQ,from  one  in  the 

British  Museum. 

Literature  received  great  encouragement ;  the  laws 
were  improved  ;  commerce  extended  ;  the  means  of 
communication  were  facilitated  by  the  repair  of 
roads,  bridges,  kc. ;  new  sanitary  regtdations  were 
introduced ;  and  a  taste  for  architecture  fostered 
in  the  citizens.  The  epithet  Pius  was  conferred 
on  him  on  account  of  his  conduct  in  defending  the 
memory  of  his  predecessor  Hadrian  against  certain 
dishonouring  measures  brought  forward  by  the 
senate.  A.  died  in  151  a.p.  The  column  raised  to 
his  memory  by  his  adopted  son  and  successor,  Mar- 
cus Aurelius  Antoninus  (q.  v.),  was  discovered  in  1709, 
and  now  exists  only  in  fragments.  The  so-called 
Pillar  of  Antoninus,  now  in  the  Piazza  Colonna 
at  Rome,  is  that  raised  by  the  senate  in  honour 
of  Marcus  Aurelius,  after  his  victory  over  the 
Marcoinanni. 

ANTONI'NUS,  Itinerary  or  {Antonini  Itiner- 
ariuiti),  a  valuable  geographical  work,  containing 
the  names  of  all  the  places  and  stations  on  the 
principal  and  cross  roads  of  the  Roman  empire, 
with  their  distances  from  each  other  in  Roman 
miles.  It  has  been  usually  attributed  to  the  Emperor 
M.  Aurelius  Antoninus,  whence  its  name.  Tha 
testimony,  however,  of  the  Greek  geographer  .Ethi- 
cus,  author  of  the  Cosmographia,  assures   us   thai 

8oa 


AXTOXINUS— ANTOXirS. 


a  general  stirvey  of  the  Roman  empire  was  com- 
menced 44  n.o.,  in  the  consulship  of  Julius  Ca?sar 
and  M.  Antonius,  and  completed  in  the  reign  of 
Augustus,  when  the  results  of  the  survey  received 
the  sanction  of  the  state.  These  results,  it  is 
with  some  probability  inferred,  are  embodied  in  this 
Itincrari/y  which,  it  is  further  sujiposed,  receivei! 
additions  and  amendments  in  the  time  of  the 
Antonines.  Subsequent  improvements  were  made 
down  to  the  reign  of  Diocletian.  The  best  editions 
arc  those  of  Wesscling(Am8t.  4to,  1735),  and  Parthey 
(Bed.,  1848). 

ANTONINUS,  Wall  of  {Antonini  Vallum),  a 
barrier  erected  between  the  Firths  of  Forth  and 
Clyde  by  the  Romans,  in  the  reign  of  Antoninus 
Pius,  to  restrain  the  encroachments  of  the  native 
tribes.  A  fragment  of  a  Roman  ])illar,  which  was 
at  one  time  in  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  fixes 
the  date  of  its  execution  to  140  A.n.  The  superin- 
tendence of  the  work  is  generally  attributed  to  the 
imperial  legate  LoUius  Urbicus.  Its  length  was 
about  27  English  miles — the  eastern  termination 
being,  according  to  two  different  suppositiotis,  at 
Carriden,  or  at  Kinniel,  on  the  Forth  ;  the  western, 
at  Old  Kirkpatrick,  or  at  Douglass  Castle,  on  the 
Clyde.  The  work  consisted  of  a  ditch  about  20 
feet  deep  and  40  wide,  a  rampart  of  earth  and  stone 
about  20  feet  high  and  24  feet  thick  at  the  base, 
and  on  the  inner  or  south  side  of  the  rampart  a 
paved  military  road.  It  was  protected  by  a  chain 
of  nineteen  forts,  with  watch-towers  between.  The 
line  of  the  wall  may  still  be  traced  to  a  considerable 
extent.  The  most  perfect  fragments  are  at  Elf  Hill, 
on  the  moor  of  Bonnieside,  about  a  niile  and  a  half 
from  Casflecary  ;  within  the  park  of  Callander  House, 
near  Falkirk  ;  and  on  the  slopes  at  Inveravon,  not 
far  from  the  railway  station  at  Polmont.  It  is  com- 
monly designated  Grahai)i's  Dike — a  name  given 
also  to  more  than  one  ancient  ditch  and  rampart  in 
England.  The  best  accounts  of  the  Wall  of  Aiitonine 
are  in  Roy's  Military  Antii/idlies  of  the  Romanit  in 
North  Britain  (Lond.,  1703),  and  in  Stuart's  Cale- 
donia Romana  (2d.  ed.,  Edin.,  1852). 

ANTO'NIUS,  Marcus  (Mark  Antony),  the 
Roman  triumvir,  born  in  83  B.C.,  a  descendant  of 
one  of  the  oldest  patrician  families,  was  the  son 
of  the  Prnetor  M.  Antonius  Cieticus,  and,  on  the 
side  of  his  mother  Julia,  was  related  to  Julius 
Ca.'sar.  His  youth  was  wasted  in  dissipation, 
and  finding  himself  pressed  by  numerous  impatient 
creditors,  he  escaped  to  Greece  in  58  n.c,  where, 
for  a  short  time,  he  listened  to  the  teaching  of 
Athenian  philosophers  and  orators.  His  studies 
here  were  soon  interrupted  by  the  Proconsul 
Gabinius,  who  appointed  him  as  leader  of  his  cavalry. 
In  the  campaign  against  Aristobuliis  in  Palestine, 
and  in  Egypt,  A.  distinguishedhimsclf  by  his  courage 
and  activity,  and  ingratiated  himself  with  the 
soldiers.  After  assisting  Caesar  in  Gaul,  he  went 
to  Rome  in  50  B.C.,  to  advance  the  interests  of  the 
former,  who  stood  in  great  danger  from  the  hostility 
of  the  oligarchical  party,  and  was  appointed  an  augur, 
and  chosen  one  of  the  tribunes  of  the  people.  In 
the  following  year,  on  account  of  his  adherence  to 
the  party  of  Ciesar,  he  was  expelled  from  the  curia, 
and  fled  to  Cajsar,  who  made  use  of  this  event  as 
a  pretext  for  his  war  against  Pompey.  At  the 
outbreak  of  this  war,  A.  received  the  appointment 
of  commander-in-chief  in  Italy.  In  the  battle  of 
Pharsalia,  he  commanded  the  left  wing  of  Caesar's 
army.  In  47,  he  was  made  master  of  the  Horse  by 
Caesar,  who  left  him  to  govern  Italy  during  his 
absence  in  Africa.  Antony,  as  usual,  disgraced 
himself;  got  perpetually  drunk ;  divorced  his  wife, 
and  married  an  actress,  with  whom  he  paraded 
804 


offensively  through  the  chief  towns  of  the  penin- 
sula. In  44  B.C.,  he  married  Fidvia,  the  widow 
of  Clodius ;  was  made  consul,  and  vainly  endea- 
voured to  prevail  on  the  Romans  to  recognise 
Cjcsar  as  emperor.  After  the  assassination  of  Ca'sar, 
he  played  the  part  so  well  described  by  Shakspeare  ; 
and  by  his  funeral  oration,  and  the  well-timed 
display  of  Caisar's  bloody  robe,  so  wrought  on  the 
passions  of  the  people,  that  the  conspirators  were 
compelled  to  escape  from  Rome,  leaving  the  success- 
ful orator  for  a  while  in  j)ossession  of  almost  absolute 
power.  Next,  we  find  A.  occupied  in  disputes  and 
reconciliaticms  with  Octavianus  (Caesar's  heir),  be- 
sieging Mutina,  and  then  denounced  by  Cicero  as  an 
enemy  of  the  state.  In  43  n.c,  his  troops  were 
defeated  at  the  battle  of  Mutina,  when  he  escaped 
beyond  the  Alps  ;  visited  the  camp  of  Lepidus,  who 
commanded  in  Gaul ;  and  gained  the  favour  of  the 
army,  of  which  he  took  the  command.  Piancus  and 
PoUio  joined  him  with  their  troops;  and  A.,  who 
so  recently  had  escaped  as  a  helpless  fugitive  from 
Italy,  returned  to  Rome  at  the  head  of  .«!eventeeii 
legions  and  10,000  cavalry.  Octavianus,  who  li.id 
jiretcnded  to  maintain  republican  principles,  now 
threw  off  the  mask,  and  held  a  consultiition  wiili  A. 
and  Lepidus  on  the  island  of  Reno  (or  Lavino),  neaf 
Bologna,  when  it  was  determined  that  these  tr'um- 
viri  should  share  the  whole  Roman  world  anion; 
themselves.  To  secure  their  spoil,  they  returned  lo 
Rome,  and  began  their  course  of  murder  and  robb(  vj 
throughout  Italy.  Among  their  first  victims  fell 
Cicero,  the  orator  whose  eloquence  they  dreadeiL 
According  to  Appian,  not  less  than  300  senators  and 
2()00  knights  fell  under  the  power  of  the  triuniviii. 
After  making  Italy  safe  for  themselves,  and  raisin^j 
an  enormous  sum  of  money  to  carry  on  their  war 
abroad,  A.  and  Octavianus  led  their  troops  into 
Macedonia  against  Brutus  and  Cassius,  and  defeated 
the  republican  forces.  A.  next  paid  a  visit  t) 
Athens,  and  then  went  into  Asia,  to  arrange  his 
dispute  with  Cleopatra,  queen  of  Egypt,  whose 
conduct  had  offended  the  triumviri.  The  queen 
herself  appeared  to  answer  his  challenge,  and  capti- 
vated A.  by  her  beauty  and  address.  The  general 
who  had  overcome  Brutus  and  Cassius  was  noiv 
made  a  prisoner,  though  not  of  war.  He  followed 
Cleopatra  into  Egypt,  and  lived  with  her  in  idleness 
and  luxury,  until  he  was  aroused  by  tidings  of  tha 
quarrel  which  had  taken  place  in  Italy  between  his 
owji  relatives  and  Octavianus.  This  dispute  gave 
rise  to  a  short  war,  which  came  to  an  end  before  A. 
arrived  in  Italy.  A  new  division  of  the  Roman  world 
now  took  place  between  the  triumviri,  and  was  soon 
quietly  arranged  at  Brundusium.  A.  took  the  East, 
and  Octavianus  took  the  West  ;  while  the  ambition 
of  the  feeble  Lepidus  was  appeased  by  his  having 
the  whole  of  Africa  for  his  portion.  Even  this 
shadow  of  dominion  was  taken  fiom  him  in  36  b.c. 
Meanwhile  A.  had  confirmed  his  friendship  with 
Octavianus  by  a  marriage  with  Octavia,  his  sister. 
He  now  returned  to  Cleopatra,  resumed  his  for- 
mer voluptuous  mode  of  life,  squandered  the 
wealth  of  Rome  in  gifts  to  his  royal  mistress,  and 
became  guilty  of  gross  acts  of  injustice.  Octavi- 
anus made  use  of  these  facts  to  excite  the  indig- 
nation of  the  Roman  people  against  A.  and  a 
war  between  the  rivals  became  unavoidable.  A., 
in  his  idleness,  tried  to  postpone  the  trial  of  strength 
which  he  saw  inevitably  approaching,  and  filled 
the  island  of  Samos  (where  his  troops  were  quar- 
tered) with  musicians,  jugglers,  and  buffoons.  Mean- 
while, at  Rome,  he  was  deposed  from  the  trium- 
virate, and  war  was  proclaimed  against  Cleopatra. 
Each  party  collected  his  forces,  and  in  the  naval 
engagement  which  took  place  (31  b.c),  near  Ac- 
tium  (q.  v.),  A.  waa  defeated.     Hia  subsequent  hop« 


ANTONIUS— ANTRIM. 


of  firtding  troops  still  faithful  to  him  in  Lihya  was 
disappdinted.  He  returned  to  Egypt,  where,  with 
Cleopatra,  he  once  more  forgot  political  cares  and 
vexations,  until  his  amusements  were  suddenly  inter- 
rupted by  the  arrival  of  Octavianus  at  Alexandria. 
A.  now  roused  himself,  made  a  charge  with  his  caval- 
ry, and  repelled  the  enemy ;  but  the  advantage  was 
only  momentary.  Deserted  by  the  Egyptian  fleet,  as 
by  his  own  army,  and  suspecting  that  even  Cleopatra 
had  conspired  against  him,  he  went  to  her  palace, 
from  which  the  queen  had  escaped.  Deceived  by  a 
false  message  informing  him  of  the  death  of  Cleopatra, 
A.  committed  suicide  by  falling  upon  his  sword,  in 
the  year  30  b.c. 

ANTO'NIUS  or  A'NTONY  OF  PADUA,  Saint, 
was  born  at  Lisbon,  August  15,  1195,  and,  on  the 
father's  side,  ^^s  related  to  Godfrey  of  Bouillon.  He 
was  first  a  monk  of  the  Augustine  order,  and  in  1221 
became  one  of  the  most  active  propagators  of  the 
order  of  Franciscans.  On  his  missionary  voyage  to 
Africa,  being  cast  on  the  coast  of  Italy,  he  preached 
with  great  success  at  Montpclier,  Toulouse,  Bologna, 
and  Padua,  where  he  died,  June  13, 1231.  The  legends 
of  A.  of  P.  are  full  of  absurd  fables.  Among  others, 
we  are  told  that  his  eloquence  as  a  preacher  was  so 
great  that  even  tlie  fish  in  the  .sea  were  deeply  affected 
by  it !  His  anniversary  falls  on  June  13.  His  monu- 
ment, a  fine  work  of  statuary,  is  in  the  church  which 
bears  his  name  at  Padua. 

AXTONY,  Saint,  surnamed  The  Great,  and  also 
Antony  of  Thebes,  the  father  of  monachism,  was 
born  about  the  year  251  a. p.,  at  Koraa,  near 
Heraklea,  in  Upper  Egypt.  His  parents  were  both 
wealthy  and  pious,  and  bestowed  on  him  a  religious 
education.^  Having,  in  obedience  to  what  he  believed 
to  be  a  divine  injunction,  sold  his  possessions,  and 
distributed  the  proceeds  among  the  poor,  he  with- 
drew into  the  wilderness,  where  he  disciplined 
himself  in  all  those  austerities  which  have  hallowed 
his  memory  in  the  Catholic  Church,  and  formed  the 
model  of  the  monastic  life.  When  30  years  of  age, 
however,  desirous  of  obtaining  a  deeper  repose  than 
his  situation  afforded,  he  penetrated  further  into  the 
desert,  and  took  up  his  abode  in  an  old  ruin  on  the 
top  of  a  hill,  where  he  spent  twenty  years  in  the  most 
rigorous  seclusion  ;  but,  in  305,  he  was  persuaded  to 
leave  this  retreat  by  the  prayers  of  numerous  anchor- 
ites, who  wished  to  live  under  his  direction.  He 
now  founded  the  monastery  of  Faioum,  which  at 
first  was  only  a  group  of  separate  and  scattered  cells 
near  Memphis  and  Arsinoe  ;  bat  which,  nevertheless, 
may  be  considered  the  origin  of  cenobite  life.  The 
persecution  of  the  Christians  by  Maximian  in  311 
A.D.,  induced  St.  A.  to  leave  his  cell,  and  proceed  to 
Alexandria,  in  the  hope  of  obtaining  the  crown  of 
martyrdom  ;^  but  having  failed  in  this,  he  returned  to 
his  solitude  in  the  course  of  a  year,  which,  however, 
he  soon  left,  and  plunged  yet  deeper  into  the  desert! 
At  length  he  found  a  lodgment  on  a  hill,  about  a 
day's  journey  from  the  Red  Sea ;  but  his  disciples 
discovering  his  retreat,  so  pressed  him  with  their 
affectionate  importunities,  that  he  ventured  to 
accompany  them  back.  After  many  pious  exhor- 
tations, he  once  more  left  them,  and  soon  became  the 
mighty  oracle  of  the  whole  valley  of  the  Nile.  In 
365,  the  venerable  hermit,  then  104  years  of  age, 
made  a  journey  to  Alexandria  to  dispute  with  The 
Arians.  ^  He  had  interviews  with  Athanasius  and 
other  distinguished  persons;  but  feeling  his  end 
approaching,  he  retired  to  his  desert  home,  where  he 
died,  356  a.v. 

Athanasius  states,  in  his  Life  of  St.  A.,  that  the 
saint  wore  only  a   coarse   shirt  of  hair,  and  never 
washed   his  body,  which  is  more  credible  than  the 
stories  he  relates  of  hia  encounters  with  the  devil,  or  I 
20 


his  miracles.  His  whole  conduct  indicates  the  predom- 
inance of  a  glowing  and  yet  gloomy  fancy,  which  is 
the  proper  condition  of  religious  asceticism'.  Ahhough 
the  father  of  monachism,  St.  A.  is  not  the  author  "of 
any  monastic  '  rules  ;'  those  which  the  monks  of  the 
eastern  schismatic  sects  attribute  to  him  are  the  pro- 
duction of  St.  Basil.  He  is  perhaps  the  most  popular 
saint  in  the  Catholic  Church.  Accounts  of  his  life 
and  miracles  are  given  in  the  Acta  Sanctorum  of  the 
Bollandists,  under  the  date  of  the  17th  January,  on 
which  day  his  festival  was  kept. 

St.  Anthony's  Fire.— The  Rev.  Alban  Butler,  in 
his  Lives  of  the  Saints,  gives  the  following  account  of 
the  origin  of  this  name  :  '  In  1089,  a  pestilential  ery- 
sipelatous distemper,  called  the  sacred  fire,  swept  off 
great  numbers  in  most  provinces  of  France ;  public 
prayers  and  processions  were  ordered  against  this 
scourge.  At  length,  it  plea.sed  God  to  grant  many 
miracidous  cures  of  this  dreadful  distemper,  to  those 
who  implored  His  mercy  through  the  intercession  of 
St.  A.,  especially  before  his  rehcs  ;  the  church  [of  La 
Motte  St.  Didier,  near  Vienne,  in  Dauphine]  in  which 
they  were  deposited  was  resorted  to  by  great  num- 
bers of  pilgrims,  and  his  patronage  was  implored  over 
the  whole  kingdom  against  this  disease.'  The  '  order 
of  Canons  Regular  of  St.  Anthony,'  a  religious  fra- 
ternity, founded  about  1090,  for  the  relief  of  persons 
afflicted  with  the  fire  of  St.  A.,  survived  in  France 
till  1790. 

St.  Anthony's  "Well,  a  small  fountain  near  the 
ruined  chapel  of  St.  A.,  on  the  northern  slope  of 
Arthur's  Seat  (q.  v.),  near  Edinburgh.  This  inter- 
esting fountain,  which  consists  only  of  a  stone  basin, 
into  which  water  trickles  from  under  an  incumbent 
rock,  is  celebrated  in  the  Scottish  song — 
'0,  wall/,  waly.'' 

ANTRAI'GUES,  Emanuel-Loijis-Henri  De- 
LAUNAY,  Count  of,  a  great  poUtician,  but  very 
ambiguous  character,  was  born  at  Vivarais,  in  the 
department  Ardeche,  in  1765,  and  was  educated 
under  the  Abb6  Maury.  His  superior  talents  were 
first  displayed  in  his  Memoire  .mr  les  Etats-generanx, 
leurs  Droits  et  la  Maniere  de  les  convoqner  (1788). 
This  book,  full  of  daring  assertions  of  liberty,  was 
one  of  the  first  sparks  of  the  fire  which  afterwards 
rose  to  such  height  in  the  French  Revolution.  In 
1789,  when  A.  was  chosen  as  a  deputy,  he  not  only 
defended  the  privileges  of  the  hereditary  aristocracv, 
but  also  ranked  himself  with  those  who  opposed  the 
union  of  the  three  estates ;  while  in  the  discussions 
on  the  constitution,  he  maintained  that  the  royal 
veto  was  an  indispensable  part  of  good  government. 
After  leaving  the  Assembly  in  1790,  he  was  employed 
in  diplomacy  at  St.  Petersburg  and  Vienna,  where'  he 
defended  the  cause  of  the  Bourbons.  In  1803  he 
was  employed  under  Alexander  of  Russia  in  an  • 
embassy  to  Dresden,  where  he  wrote  against  Bona- 
parte a  brochure,  entitled  A  Fragment  of  the  \%th 
Book  of  Polybius,  discovered  on  Mount  Athos.  He 
afterwards  came  to  England,  and  acquired  great 
influence  with  Canning.  Despite  his  attachment  to 
the  interest  of  the  Bourbons,  he  could  never  win  the 
confidence  of  Louis  XVIII.  In  1812  he  was  murdered, 
with  his  wife,  at  his  residence  near  London,  by  an 
Italian  servant,  who,  immediately  after  the  act,  com- 
mitted suicide. 

A'NTRIM,  a  maritime  county  in  the  north-east  of 
Ireland,  in  the  province  of  Ulster;  bounded,  K,  by 
the  Atlantic ;  W.,  by  the  north  part  of  the  river 
Bann,  dividing  it  from  Londonderry,  and  by  Lough 
Xeagh  ;  S.,  by  Lagan  river,  separating  it  from  the 
county  of  Down ;  S.E.,  by  Belfast  Lough  ;  and  E. 
by  the  Irish  Channel.  It  stands  third  among  the 
Irish  counties  in  population,  but  in  extent  only 
ninth.     Its  greatest  length  is  56  miles ;  its  greatest 

805 


ANTWERP— AN  VI LLE. 


breadth,  20;  its  extent  of  sea-coast,  90  miles.  Area, 
1104  square  miles.  About  two-thirds  of  this  is 
arable ;  a  fourth,  barren ;  and  a  seventy-fourth 
in  woods.  Pop.  in  1861,  247,414.  Off  the  north 
coast  lie  Rathlin  Isle  and  the  Skerries ;  and  off 
the  east  coast,  the  Maiden  Rocks.  The  east  coast 
is  hilly ;  and  from  Larne  to  Pair  Head,  parallel 
mountain-ranges  of  no  great  hi'iglit,  and  covering  a 
third  of  the  county,  stretch  south-west  a  consider- 
able way  into  the  interior,  forming  a  series  of  valleys, 
opening  seaward,  called  the  Glens  of  A.  The  in- 
terior of  the  country  slof)CS  towards  Lough  Neagh. 
The  highest  eminences  are — Trostan,  1810  feet;  and 
Slieveance,  1782  feet.  The  principal  streams  are — 
the  Bann,  running  north  from  Lough  Neagh  into  the 
Atlantic ;  the  Main,  running  parallel  to  the  Bann, 
but  in  the  reverse  direction,  into  Lough  Neagh;  and 
the  Bush,  flowing  north  into  the  Atlantic.  Large 
and  numerous  peat-bogs  occur  in  the  county.  Six- 
sevenths  of  the  surface  of  A.  consists  of  basaltic 
trap,  often  alternating  with  beds  of  red  ochre,  and 
overlying  strata  of  hardened  chalk,  green-sand,  new 
red  sandstone,  and  mica-slate.  The  surface,  and 
especially  the  edges  towards  the  sea  and  Lough 
Neagh,  of  the  Irap-field,  present  basaltic  columns  of 
varied  and  impressive  outlines.  The  green-.sand  and 
new  red  sandstone  crop  out  along  the  east  and 
south-east  borders  of  A.,  and  a  patch  of  millstone 
grit  occurs  in  the  north-east  corner.  Between  Bally- 
castle  and  the  mouth  of  the  Bann,  the  basalt 
assumes  very  picturesque  forms;  and  the  Giants' 
Causeway,  on  the  north  coa.it,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Bush,  is  one  of  the  most  perfect  examples  of  colum- 
nar basalt  in  the  world.  Fine  salt  mines  occur  at 
Duncrne  and  Carrickfergus ;  and  a  small  coal-field 
near  Ballycastle.  The  soil  of  A.  is  mostly  light,  and 
the  chief  crop  is  oats.  In  18.58,  249,08l>  acres  were 
under  crop,  two-tilths  being  in  oats,  one-fourth  in 
potatoes,  and  onc-fifteenlh  in  wheat.  The  land  is 
very  much  subdivided  ;  and  the  rearing  of  flax,  and 
the  various  branches  of  the  linen,  cotton,  and  coarse 
woollen  manufacture,  employ  a  great  portion  of  the 
people,  who  unite  mechanical  and  agricultural 
occupations  with  the  best  results.  In  1851,  A.  had 
839  National  Schools,  attended  by  1.5,74(5  boys,  and 
13,017  girls.  The  principal  towns  are — Belfast,  Lis- 
burn,  Ballymena,  Carrickfergus,  Larne,  and  Antrim. 
A.  county  returns  two  members  to  parliament ;  Bel- 
fast burgh,  two ;  and  Carrickfergus  and  Lisburn 
burghs,  each  one.  The  inhabitants  are  mostly  Pres- 
byterians, the  county  having  been  extensively  colon- 
ised from  England  and  Scotland  between  the  reigns 
■of  Queen  Elizabeth  and  William  III.  The  original 
possessors  were  the  O'Neills,  who,  in  1533,  revolted 
against  the  English  government,  and  regained  the 
whole  country,  except  Carrickfergus  and  part  of  the 
Glens — held  by  the  Bissets  of  Glenarm,  an  Anglo- 
Norman  family.  It  was  reduced  to  allegiance  during 
the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  when  the  forfeiture  of  Shane 
O'Neill  terminated  the  dominion  of  his  race. 

A'NTWERP  (in  French,  ANYERS),  formerly 
the  chief  city  of  a  province  in  the  Netherlands  which 
was  formed,  in  1814,  by  a  union  of  the  old  mar- 
gravate  of  A.  with  the  province  of  Mechlin,  now 
the  capital  of  the  province  which  bears  its  name, 
and  the  chief  commercial  city  of  Belgium,  is  situate 
on  the  Scheldt,  and  contains  120,669  inhabitants. 
Its  chief  public  institutions  are — the  Academy  of 
Sciences,  Academy  of  Painting  and  Sculpture,  for- 
merly known  as  the  Academy  of  St.  Mark,  a  Medical 
and  Surgical  School,  Naval  Arsenal,  Museum,  and 
Zoological  Gardens.  The  cathedral,  one  of  the 
noblest  Gothic  structures  in  Europe,  is  500  feet  in 
length  by  240  in  breadth,  with  a  roof  supported  by 
125  pillars,  and  a  very  lofty  spire.  The  interior  is 
enriched  by  the  two  greatest  of  all  the  pictures  of 
306 


Rufiens,  the  Elevation  of,  and  the  Descent  frou»  (he 
Cross.  The  Church  of  St.  James  contains  the  '.  onu" 
nient  of  the  Rubens  family.  The  trade  and  //anufac- 
tures  of  A.  are  considerable.  The  latter  consist 
chiefly  of  sugar,  white-lead,  cotton  goods,  point-lace, 
linen  thread,  carpets,  gold  and  silver  lace,  &c.  It  is 
still  celebrated  for  its  eewing-silk,  black  silk  stuffs, 
and  printers'  ink,  as  it  was  in  former  times  for  ka 
velvets,  damask,  and  satins.  The  three  annual 
fairs,  formerly  held  at  A.,  have  lost  all  commercial 
importance,  and  are  now  represented  by  two  popular 
festivals. 

A.  is  mentioned  as  early  as  the  8th  c. ;  in  the 
12th  and  loth  it  gave  signs  of  considerable  pros- 
perity, and,  in  165(i,  numbered  more  than  200,u(»o 
inhabitants.  The  union  of  Belgium  with  Holland 
in  1815  was  very  favourable  to  the  commerce 
and  general  prosperity  of  A.  By  the  revolution  of 
August  1830,  it  was  linked  to  the  destiny  of  Belgium. 
When  the  revolutionary  party  gained  possession,  the 
commandant.  General  Cha.ssc,  retreated  to  the  citadel, 
and,  exasperated  by  the  breach  of  truce,  commenced 
a  bombardment,  which  destroyed  the  arsenal  and 
about  thirty  houses.  In  1832,  a  French  army  of 
50,000  men,  under  Marshal  Gc^rard,  appeared  before 
A.,  to  demand  the  surrender  of  the  citadel,  which 
General  Chasse  refused.  After  considerable  injury, 
and  the  loss  of  several  lives  among  the  citizens. 
General  Cha.«se  capitulated,  Dec.  23,  1832.  On  the 
3iith  of  the  same  month,  the  Flendsh  fortification, 
and  the  forts  Burght,  Zwindrecht,  and  Austroweel, 
were  surrendered  to  the  Belgian  troops,  and  the 
Dutch  troops  were  taken  to  France,  as  hostages  for 
the  surrender  of  the  forts  Lillo  and  Lief  kenshoek, 
according  to  an  article  in  the  negotiation  of  Nov.  15, 
1831,  which  stipulated  that  the  five  citadels  hold  by 
the  Dutch  troops  in  Belgium  should  be  surrendered. 
From  these  adversities  A.  has  never  fully  recovered 
under  the  Belgian  government.  Its  once  considerable 
commerce  with  the  colonies  of  Holland  has  gradually 
been  transferred  to  Amsterdam  and  Rotterdam. 

ANU'BIS,  an  Egyptian  deity,  styled  Anepu  on 
hieroglyphic  monuments,  was,  accord- 
ing to  mythology,  the  son  of  Osiris 
and  Nephthys.  By  the  Greeks,  he  was 
frequently  styled  Hermes  or  Herma- 
nuljis,  combining  the  Egyptian  with 
the  Grecian  name.  He  is  represented 
on  monuments  as  having  the  head  of 
a  jackal,  with  pointed  cars  and  snout, 
which  the  Greeks  frefjuently  changed 
to  those  of  a  dog.  Sometimes  he  is 
seen  wearing  a  double  crown.  A  white 
and  yellow  cock  was  sacrificed  to 
him.  His  office,  like  that  of  Hermes 
Psychopompus  among  the  Greeks, 
was  to  accompany  the  ghosts  of  the 
deceased  into  Hades  (Amenthes),  and 
there  to  assist  Horus  in  weighing 
their  actions,  under  the  inspection  of  Anubis. 
Osiris.  As,  in  the  time  of  the  Romans,  the  Egyptian 
worship  had  spread  beyond  Egypt  itself,  the  two 
conceptions  of  A.  and  Hermes  were  blent  together, 
and  the  dog's  head  of  the  former  was  found  united  to 
the  insignia  of  the  latter. 

ANVILLE,  Jean  B.iptiste  BorRcriGNON  n',  a 
celebrated  French  geographer,  born  at  Paris  in  1697, 
died  in  1782.  He  devoted  his  whole  Hfe  to  geo- 
graphical science.  Such  was  his  natural  taste  for 
map-drawing,  that  his  first  study  of  the  ancient 
authors  induced  him  to  publish,  at  the  age  of  fifteen, 
a  map  of  Greece.  His  rare  qualities  gained  him  the 
friendship  of  the  Abbe  de  Songuerue,  from  whom  he 
received  those  instructions  which  were  the  source 
of   that    profound    and    extensive    knowledge    he 


ANWARI— AORTA. 


subsequently  acquired.  He  read  the  Greek  and  Latin 
historians  and  piiilosophers,  as  well  as  poets,  spe- 
cially noting  the  names  and  positions  of  cities  and 
nations.  He  advanced  the  science  of  geography, 
not  only  by  the  vast  number  of  maps  which  he  exe- 
cuted, but  also  by  the  treatises,  full  of  erudition  and 
of  historic  and  critical  details,  in  which  he  discussed 
numerous  interesting  questions.  The  works  of  A. 
announced  by  M.  de  Maine  many  years  ago,  were  to 
have  been  contained  in  six  volumes,  exclusive  of  the 
volumes  of  maps.  The  principal  portion  was  pub- 
lished in  1834  by  Levrault.  But  tlie  death  of  M.  de 
Maine  in  1832  stopped  the  quarto  edition  near  the 
end  of  the  twelfth  volume,  to  which  the  map  of  Africa 
was  however  wanting,  although  the  text  had  been 
added,  with  notes  digested  from  the  most  recent 
investigations  in  that  country.  A.  has  left  211  maps 
and  plans,  and  78  memoirs,  the  most  of  which  are 
inserted  in  the  Recueil  den  Memoires  de  rAcadeviie 
lies  Inscription/!  et  Belles-lettres.  His  best  map  is  that 
of  Ancient  Egypt.  His  Orbis  Veterihus  Notus,  and 
Orbis  Honianus,  are  also  invaluable.  The  same 
remark  applies  to  his  maps  of  Gaul,  Italy,  and 
Greece,  both  ancient  and  medieval.  His  maps  of 
modern  countries  contain  all  the  knowledge  attained 
in  his  time.  His  valuable  collection  of  maps  was 
purchased  in  1779  by  the  French  government  for 
the  Royal  Library. 

ANWARI,  a  celebrated  Persian  poet,  who 
flourished  during  the  Tith  c,  was  born  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Khorassan,  and  educated  at  the  college  of 
Mansur,  at  Tus.  He  emerged  from  obscurity  in  the 
course  of  a  night.  The  story  goes  that  the  Seljukide 
sultan,  Sanjar,  happened  on  one  occasion  to  visit 
Tus,  wiien  the  imagination  of  the  youthful  poet  was 
so  excited  by  the  presence  of  the  monarch  and  his 
glittering  retinue,  that  he  resolved  to  write  a  poem 
in  his  pr.iise.  By  next  morning,  it  was  finished,  and 
presented  to  Sanjar,  who  instantly  placed  the  fortu- 
nate youth  among  his  courtiers.  A.  now  began  to 
devote  hiinsolf  to  astrology,  which  was  his  ruin  ;  for 
having  predicted  that  in  1185  or  1186  a.d.  a  hurricane 
would  burst  over  all  Asia,  overthrow  the  most  solid 
edifices,  and  shake  the  very  mountains,  and  nothing 
of  the  sort  really  occurring,  but,  on  the  contrary,  an 
entire  year  of  remarkably  tranquil  weather,  he  fell 
into  disgrace,  and  had  to  retire  to  Balkh,  where  he 
died  in  1200 — 1201  a.d. 

His  poems  consist  chiefly  of  lengthy  panegyrics, 
and  shorter  lyrical  effusions.  The  latter  {ghazels) 
are  characterised  by  simplicity,  ease,  and  natural- 
ness ;  but  the  kasidas,  or  long  poems,  are  disfigured, 
like  many  other  eastern  poems,  by  glittering 
itnagery  and  historical  conceits.  His  Elegi)  on  the 
Captivity  of  Sanjar  taken  Prisoner  by  the  Ghurides, 
has  been  translated  into  English  by  Captain  Kirk- 
patrick  in  the  1st  volume  of  Asiatic  Miscellanies 
(Calcutta,  1785). 

A'ORIST,  a  form  of  the  Greek  verb  by  which 
an  action  is  expressed  as  taking  place  in  an  indefinite 
(Gr.  aoristos)  time.  The  Greek  language  is  especially 
fertile  in  the  past  tenses  of  verbs,  having,  in  addition 
to  the  tenses  common  to  other  languages — namely, 
the  imperfect,  perfect,  and  pluperfect — the  A.,  which 
is  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  narrative  style  of 
writing.  The  distinction  of  first  and  second  A,  is 
purely  formal. 

AORTA  is  the  great  arterial  trunk  which,  rising 
from  the  left  ventricle  of  the  heart,  sends  its  branches 
ramifying  through  the  whole  body.  The  A.  in  man 
is  subdivided  by  anatomists  into  the  Arch,  the 
Thoracic  A.,  and  the  Abdominal  A.  The  arch  is  a 
loop  with  the  convexity  directed  upwards,  forwards, 
and  to  the  right  side,  reaching  at  its  highest  part  to 
a  level  with  the  second  piece  of  the  breast-bone,  and 


then  descending  to  the  left  side  of  the  third  dorsal 
vertebra.  Five  arteries  arise  from  the  arch — viz., 
two  coronaries,  for  the  supply  of  the  muscular  tissue 
of  the  heart  itself;  the  innominata ;  and  the  left 
carotid  and  left  subclavian  arteries.  At  the  com- 
mencement of  the  arch  are  three  small  sweUinga  or 


Aorta : 

rt,  aspendin?  arch  of  norta  ;  ««,  coronary  arteries  ;  h',  innomi- 
nnta  artery ;  h,  richt  subclavian;  c,  risrht  carotid;  rf,  left 
carotid  ;  »=,  left  subclavian  ;/,  thoracic  aort;i ;  gg,  diaphraein  ; 
hli.  phrenic  arteries;  !,  coeliac  axis;  k,  coronary  or  gastric: 
I,  splenic;  to,  hepatic;  «,  superior  mesenteric;  oo,  renal 
arteries  ;  p,  inferior  mesenteric;  p\  spermatic  ;  q,  common 
iliac  ;  r,  middle  sacral. 

pouches,  the  aorticsinuses,  below  which  are  the  three 
semilunar  valves  or  folds  of  the  lining  membrane, 
which  prevent  regurgitation  of  the  blood  back  into 
the  heart.  The  thoracic  A.  extends  from  the  third 
dorsal  vertebra  to  the  diaphragm,  gradually  getting 
into  the  middle  line  of  the  spine.  The  thoracic  A. 
gives  off  the  bronchial  arteries  (two  or  three)  to 
supply  the  tissue  of  the  lungs ;  and  some  small 
branches  (three  or  four)  to  the  oesophagus,  and  inter- 
costal arteries,  to  supply  the  walls  of  the  chest  (ten 
on  left,  and  nine  on  right  side).  The  abdomitial  A. 
passes  from  the  diaphragm  to  the  fom-th  lumbar 
vertebra,  opposite  the  lower  margin  of  which  it 
divides  into  the  two  common  iliac  trunks.  The 
abdominal  A.  gives  off  the  two  phrenic  arteries  to  the 
diaphragm  ;  the  coeliac  axis,  which  divides  into  three 
large  branches  for  the  stomach,  liver,  and  spleen ; 
the  superior  mesenteric  for  the  small,  and  part  of  the 
large  intestine  ;  the  renals  (two) ;  the  .w^ra-renal 
(two),  one  for  each  kidney ;  the  spermatic ;  the 
inferior  mesenteric,  for  the  part  of  the  large  intestine 
not  supplied  by  the  superior  mesenteric  ;  and  fotir 
or  five  lumbar  arteries,  which  supply  the  lower  part 
of  the  abdominal  walls  (the  loins). 

Where  the  A.  bifurcates,  a  small  artery,  the  sacra- 
media,  or  caudal  artery,  arises,  and  passes  along  in 
the  middle  line  ;  in  fish  and  in  animals  with  large 
tails,  this  branch  is  a  continuation  of  the  A. 

The  above  is  the  usual  arrangement ;  but  occasion- 
ally it  varies,  especially  in  the  number  of  arteries 
springing  from  the  arch.  The  structure  of  the  A. 
will  be  given  under  Artery  ;  and  the  comparative 
anatomv  under  Heart  and  Circulation. 

307 


AOSTA— APATITE. 


During  fnetal  life,  theio  i.-i  a  coiniminicatioii  lictwoeii 
the  arch  of  the  A.  and  the  jiuhiiouary  artery  called 
the  ductus  artenomis,  the  caiiul  oi'  whieh  becomes 
obliterated  after  birth.  It  has  been  calculated  that 
the  velocity  of  the  blood  i!i  the  ascending  part  of 
the  arch  is  2^  inches  in  a  second.  The  pressure  of 
the  blood  in  the  A.  of  a  horse  has  been  estimated  to 
be  11  pounds;  and  in  man's,  4  pounds  G  ounces. 

The  coats  of  the  A.  are  very  subject  to  fatty 
disease  termed  Atheroiiia  (c].  v.),  iuid  in  advanced 
life,  to  calcareous  degeneration  or  de|  osit  of  earthy 
particles,  which  destroys  their  elasticity.  This  ch;inge 
renders  them  very  liable  to  Aneurism  (((.  v.),  which, 
as  may  be  expected,  is  generally  situated  at  the 
curves  of  the  A.,  especially  at  the  arch.  Sufferers 
from  this  disease  in  the  arch  or  thoracic  A.,  suffer 
from  palpitation  within  the  chest,  difficulty  of 
breathing,  occurring  in  paroxysms  and  during  sleep, 
and  shoots  of  pain  through  the  chest.  If  the  aneur- 
ism ts  on  the  arch,  it  generally  presses  forward,  and 
may  completely  destroy  the  breast-bone,  forming  a 
pulsating  tumour,  covered  only  by  the  skin,  or  it 
may  press  up  into  the  neck.  If  low  in  the  chest,  the 
aneui'ism  may  compress  the  thoracic  duct,  and  cause 
emaciation.  In  the  abdomen,  the  symptoms  are 
])ulsation  and  pain;  but  in  both  situations  aneurism 
may  exist  for  a  length  of  time  without  attracting 
attention. 

In  some  cases,  the  A.  has  been  found  obli- 
terated, shewing  that  the  lower  extremities  can  be 
supplied  with  blood  by  the  anastomosing  branches. 
Sir  Astley  Cooper  and  other  surgeons  have  tied  the 
A.  for  aneurism,  but  without  success. 

AOSTA,  a  northern  province  in  the  kingdom  of 
Sardinia,  surrounded  by  the  highest  elevations  of  the 
Alps,  and  watered  })y  the  river  Dora-baltea.  It 
contains  an  area  of  I'i.SS  square  miles.  The  dense 
pine-woods  on  the  hills,  the  alpine  pastures,  on  the 
slopes,  the  plantations  of  vines,  almonds,  olives,  figs, 
and  mulberry  trees  in  the  valleys,  and  the  ores  of 
silver,  copper,  and  iron  in  the  bosom  of  the  moun- 
tains, supply  occupation  and  means  of  subsistence  to 
a  population  of  about  81,000  ;  but  the  land  generally 
is  not  adapted  to  the  growth  of  corn,  though  maize, 
barley,  oats,  &c.,  are  produced  in  the  lowest  portions 
of  the  valleys.  The  disease  styled  Cretinism  (q.  v.) 
prevails  to  a  lamentable  extent,  and  few  persons  are 
altogether  free  from  Goitre  (q.  v.).  Great  numbers 
of  the  poorer  class  emigrate  during  w-inter  into  the 
richer  countries  in  their  vicinity,  and  earn  a  liveli- 
hood as  chimney-sweepei'S,  masons,  and  smiths. — 
AosTA,  the  principal  town,  49  miles  N.N.W.  of  Turin, 
contains  7500  inhabitants,  and  has  a  large  trade  in 
cheese,  hemp,  leather,  &c.  It  was  in  ancient  times 
the  chief  residence  of  the  Salassi,  a  brave  race  of 
mountaineers,  with  whom  Appius  Claudius  (134  b.c.) 
had  to  contend  on  his  way  into  Gaul.  They  were 
finally  destroyed  by  Terentius  Varro  in  the  time 
of  Augustus.  Monuments  of  the  Roman  times — a 
■well-preserved  arch,  two  gateways,  the  ruins  of 
an  amphitheatre,  and  a  bridge — still  remain.  The 
celebrated  baths  and  mines  of  St.  Didier  are  in  the 
neighbourhood.  St.  Bernard,  the  founder  of  the 
famous  hospice  which  bears  his  name,  was  Arch- 
deacon of  A.;  and  Anselm,  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, was  born  here. 

APA'FI,  Michael  I.,  Prince  of  Transylvania,  was 
born  in  1632,  of  an  old  but  decayed  family.  He 
accompanied  Prince  George  II.  in  an  expedition 
against  the  Poles  in  16.56,  but  was  taken  prisoner  at 
the  irruption  of  the  Tatar  hordes  under  their  khan, 
Mohammed  Girai.  After  his  release,  he  went  and 
lived  for  a  short  time  at  his  paternal  estate ;  but  in 
1661  he  was  chosen  Prince  of  Transylvania,  at  the 
instigation  or  desire  of  Ali  Pasha,  generalissimo  of 
308 


the  Turkish  forces  under  Sultan  Mahmouii  IV. 
During  the  peace  concluded  with  .\u.stria,  he  reigned 
peaceably  under  the  j)rotection  of  the  Porte,  and 
acquired  the  towns  of  Clausenburg  and  Zafh- 
mar.  He  remained  faithful  to  the  Ottoman  power 
till  the  gioge  of  Vieinia  in  168.3.  Fortune  then 
changed.  The  imperial  troops  penetrated  into  the 
country;  and  on  the  lith  of  August  16H7,  A.  made 
a  treaty  with  the  emperor  at  Harkany,  by  which 
Transylvania  was  declared  to  be  freed  'for  ever' 
from  Turkish  suzerainty,  and  placed  under  German 
protection.  At  Fogaras,  on  the  1st  of  July  1688, 
the  Transylvanian  deputies  assembled  at  the 
national  Diet,  took  the  oath  of  fealty  to  the  Haps- 
burgs  as  legitimate  monarchs  of  Hungary.  Ever 
since  the  death  of  his  wife,  Anna  Bornemitza,  in  1688, 
A.  had  been  sorely  afllicted  both  in  l)ody  and  mind, 
and  died  (.Vpril  15,  ICi'.io)  on  the  eve  of  a  fierce  retri- 
butive war,  commenced  by  his  old  allies  the  Turks, 
who  considered  themselves  ill  used  by  his  desertion 
of  them.  His  son,  Michael  II.,  succeeded  to  the 
throtu>  and  its  perils.  The  Turks,  under  the  vizier 
Cupriuli,  overthrew  the  imperial  army,  and  took 
sev(  ral  places,  such  as  Nissa,  Widdin,  Semeixlria, 
Belgradi',  &c.  ;  but  the  intestine  troubles  of  the 
Ottoman  empire  hindered  them,  or  rather  Count 
Tekcli,  the  adventurer  whom  they  were  helping, 
from  retaining  these  towns.  The  imperial  troops 
subsequently  regained  everything;  and  at  length  the 
young  Transylvanian  prince  was  inveigled  to  Vienna, 
and  cajoled  into  giving  up  his  dominions  to  Austria 
in  lieu  of  a  i)ension  of  12,000  or  15,000  florins.  He 
died  in  1713. 

AT  AX  AGE  is  not  an  English  legal  term,  but  is 
a  technical  word  in  the  French  law,  in  which 
system  it  signifies  the  assignment  or  conveyance  by 
the  crown  of  lands  and  feudal  rights  to  the  princes 
of  the  royal  family,  that  they  may  be  enabled  to 
maintain  themselves  according  to  their  rank.  (See 
a  long  article  on  this  subject  in  Knight's  Political 
Dictionarji,  which  refers  to  Rotteck  atid  Welcker, 
Stnatx- Lexicon,  art.  by  P.  A.  Pfizer.  See  also 
Merlin's  Repertoire  de  Jurisprudence  under  this 
head.)  The  word  A.,  however,  is  sometimes  found  in 
Scotch  law-books,  the  Scotch  lawyers  having  most 
probably  derived  it  from  France,  whose  system  of 
laws  was  so  largely  imported  into  Scotland — the  Court 
of  Session  itself  having  been  modelled  after  the  plan 
of  the  Parliament  of  Paris.  Mr.  Erskine,  in  his  Prin- 
ciple/! of  the  Law  of  Scotland,  book  i.  tit.  4,  sec.  8, 
says:  'The  A.,  or  patrimony  of  the  Prince  of  Scot- 
land, has  been  long  erected  into  a  regality  jurisdic- 
tion, called  the  prineijiality.  It  is  personal  to  the 
king's  eldest  son,  upon  whose  death  or  succession  it 
returns  to  the  crown.  The  prince  has,  or  may  have, 
his  own  chancery,  from  which  his  writs  issue,  and 
mav  have  his  own  chamberlain  and  other  officers, 
for  receiving  and  managing  his  revenue ;'  and  the 
late  Professor  Bell,  in  his  Principles  of  the  Scotch 
Lau\  calls  this  principality  the  prince's  'perpetual 
A.  and  personal  provision.'  In  England,  the  duchy 
of  Cornwall  may  be  said  to  be  an  A.  of  the  Prince 
of  Wales,  in  whose  person,  also,  since  the  junction 
of  the  two  kingdoms  under  the  same  crown,  now 
merge  the  rights  of  the  Prince  of  Scotland.  His 
royal  highness,  in  fact,  when  he  goes  north,  ought 
strictly  to  be  called,  not  Prince  of  Wales,  but  Prince 
of  Scotland. 

In  common  parlance  in  England,  the  word  A.  is 
loosely  used  to  denote  any  extra-territorial  jurisdic- 
tion or  sovereignty  by  governments  or  states ;  and 
even  any  dignity  or  right  enjoyed  by  persons  of 
rank. 

APATITE  is  the  scientific  and  commercial  name 
applied  to  a  mineral  mainly  consisting  of  phosphate 


APE— APELLES. 


of  lime  (bone-earth),  and  which  is  in  the  course  of 
being  introduced  into  tlie  agricultural  market  as  a 
valuable  material  in  the  preparation  of  artiticial  ma- 
nures. A.is  found  in  many  rock  masses,  but  is  espe- 
cially disseminated  in  the  igneous  and  older  crystalline 
rocks,  such  as  granite,  basalt,  and  greenstone.  The 
clay  and  soil  formed  naturally  by  the  disintegration  of 
these  rocks,  contain,  of  necessity,  the  A.  in  a  fine  state 
of  division,  and  thus  are  enabled  to  supply  plants 
growing  thereon  with  one  of  the  most  important 
articles  of  the  mineral  diet  of  the  members  of  the 
vegetable  kingdom.  The  most  extensive  natural 
sources  of  A.  are  in  Norway,  where  it  is  found 
largely  in  veins  or  fissures  in  tlie  Syenitic  rocks,  and 
from  which  it  is  now  mined  on  a  large  scale,  by  a 
British  company,  and  transported  to  England ;  and 
in  the  island  of  SomVjrero,  where  the  A.  appears  to 
compose  the  greater  part  of  the  island.  Sombrero  is 
only  one  and  a  half  miles  long,  by  an  average  breadth 
of  three  quarters  of  a  mile,  and  is  situated  amongst 
the  West  India  Islands,  about  60  miles  from  St. 
Thomas,  and  in  lat.  18°  35'  N.,  and  long.  63°  28'  W. 
Many  cargoes  of  A.  have  already  been  abstracted  from 
the  island,  and  used,  after  being  ground  to  powder, 
in  the  United  States  as  a  manure.  Very  large 
quantities  are  introduced  into  England  under  the 
name  of  Sombrero  Guano,  and  are  extensively  em- 
ployed by  the  manufacturers  of  artificial  manures,  in 
place  of  ordinary  bone-ash.  The  general  treatment 
to  which  it  is  subjected  is  to  reduce  it  to  powder,  and 
act  upon  the  pulverised  matter  with  sulphuric  acid, 
which  renders  the  phosphoric  acid  in  the  A.  soluble 
in  water,  and  thereby  facilitates  its  introduction 
into  the  plant.  In  the  greater  number  of  cases 
where  the  A.  or  Sombrero  Guano  is  treated  in 
this  way,  it  is  mixed  with  other  manures,  such  as 
Peruvian  Guano,  blood,  or  true  bones,  and  thus  a 
complex  substance  is  manufactured,  which  is  nmch 
more  acceptable  to  the  plant  than  the  simple  A.  or 
mineral  phosphate  itself.  The  A.  from  Norway, 
known  in  commerce  as  Norwegian  A.,  is  also  made 
up  in  a  similar  manner. 

The  great  importance  of  mineral  phosphate,  in  an 
agricultural  point  of  view,  arises  from  the  fact  that 
no  mineral  substance  possesses  more  influence  over 
the  growth  of  the  edible  plants,  such  as  wheat, 
barley,  oats,  turnips,  &c.,  than  phosphoric  acid  does; 
any  cheap  source  of  that  substance,  therefore,  is  a 
great  boon.  When  the  Norwegian  A.  was  discovered 
in  quantity,  it  was  welcomed  by  the  agricultural 
public,  and  immediately  influenced  the  price  of  all 
manures.  Phosjihatic  rock  has  within  a  very  few 
years  been  imported  from  numerous  islands  in  the 
West  Indies  and  elsewhere.  One  of  the  most  valu- 
able deposits  is  that  found  in  the  Post-pliocene  marls 
of  South  Carolina,  and  recently  l)rought  to  the  notice 
of  the  public  by  Dr.  N.  A.  Pratt,  of  Charleston.  The 
Ashley  beds  extend  at  an  accessible  depth  over  1000 
acres,  and  abound  in  nodules  containing  from  2.5  to  30 
per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid.  Tlie  stratum  of  nodules 
appears  also  on  the  Stono,  Edisto  and  Ashepoo  R.,  and 
in  heavy  deposits  near  St.  Helena  sound.  These  beds 
may  have  originated  from  innnense  accumulations  of 
animal  remains  upon  a  coral  island,  combined  with 
the  guano-like  deposits  of  birds,  reptiles  and  fish, 
•which,  subsequently  depressed  beneath  the  sea,  have 
been  broken  up,  rolled  and  transported  to  where  they 
now  appear.  Vast  quantities  of  the  nodules  are  no^\ 
converted  into  "  superphosphate  of  lime"  at  Charleston, 
S.  C,  and  at  Camden,  N.  J.  Upwards  of  7000  tons 
of  phosphatic  guano  from  islands  in  the  West  Indies, 
and  5500  tons  from  the  N.  coast  of  S.  America,  were 
imported  into  the  U.  States  in  1868.  TTiese  deposits 
are  invaluable  aids  in  recuperating  the  soils  of  the 
Atlantic  border  depleted  by  exportation  of  exhaustive 
crops  of  wheat,  corn,  cotton  and  tobacco. 


The  different  varieties  of  A.  contain  a  little  car- 
bonate of  lime,  fluate  of  lime,  nmriate  of  lime,  &c. 
One  of  these  varieties  is  known  as  Phosphorite. 
another  as  Mororite,  a,  third  as  Asparar/us  Sto7ie.  It 
occurs  both  massive  and  in  crystals — which  are  gen- 
erally small,  and  are  often  six-sided  prisms,  or  six- 
sided  tables — and  is  found  in  some  of  the  tin  mines 
in  Cornwall,  Saxony,  Bohemia,  &c.,  and  in  granite 
and  gneiss  in  different  parts  both  of  Europe  and 
America,  sometimes  forndng  beds  associated  with 
beds  of  limestone,  as  in  Estremadura  in  Spain.  It  is 
found  of  various  colours,  more  or  less  grt^en,  blue  or 
red,  sometimes  white,  and  often  gray.  In  St.  Law- 
rence Co.,  N.  Y.,  ajjatite  occurs  in  very  large  crystals 
in  white  limestone ;  also  in  New  Jersey  near  the 
Morris  canal,  and  at  Hurdstown,  Sussex,  Co.,  where 
it  is  mined  in  masses  occasionally  weighing  200  lbs. 
Coprolites,  or  fossil  excrement  of  reptiles,  also  fur- 
nish a  valuable  sui)])ly  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  occur 
in  many  fossilit'erous  rocks  in  England  and  Scot- 
land. 

APE,  a  name    commonly  given    to    the    tailless 

monkeys.  (See  Baruary  Ape,  Chimpanzee,  Girno.N, 
GoRiLLo,  Orang-Otang,  &c.)  It  was  originally  com- 
mensurate in  signification  with  monkey,  and  the 
terms  were  indiscriminately  used.  The  origin  of  the 
word  is  uncertain.     See  Monkey. 

The  worship  of  apes  or  monkeys  has  been  common 
among  pagan  nations  from  a  period  of  remote  anti- 
quity, and  still  prevails  very  extensively,  being  prac- 
tised in  Japan,  in  India,  and  by  some  of  the  African 
tribes.  The  source  of  it  is  perhaps  to  be  foinid 
partly  in  the  doctrine  of  the  transmigration  of  souls, 
and  partly  in  the  qualities  which  apes  have  been  sup- 
posed to  possess  in  a  conspicuous  degree,  and  of 
which  they  have  been  made  symbolic.  An  A.'s 
tooth,  kept  in  a  temple  in  Ceylon,  was  regarded  with 
extraordinary  veneration,  and  immense  wealth  was 
accumulated  through  the  continual  offerings  of  the 
worshippers  ;  but  the  temple  was  plundered,  and  the 
tooth  carried  away  by  the  Portuguese  in  1554. 

A-PEAK,  or  A-PEEK,  a  maritime  term  signifying 
the  position  of  an  anchor  when  the  cable  has  been 
drawn  so  tight  as  to  bring  the  ship  directly  over  it; 
the  sailors  then  say  that  '  the  anchor  is  a-peak.' 

APE'LLES,  the  most  celebrated  painter  in  ancient 
times,  was  the  son  of  Pythias,  and  was  probably,  in 
accordance  with  the  statement  of  Suidas,  born  at 
Colophon,  on  the  Ionian  coast  of  Asia  Minor  ;  though 
Pliny  and  Ovid  call  him  a  Coan,  and  Strabo  and 
Lucian  an  Ephesian.  This,  however,  may  simply 
refer  to  the  fact  that  he  was  made  a  burgess  of  that 
town.  He  flourished  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
4th  c.  B.C.,  received  his  first  instruction  in  art  in 
the  Ionian  school  of  Ephesus,  then  studied  under 
Pamphilus  of  Amphipolis,  and  latterly  at  Sicyon,  un- 
der Melanthius,  and  tiius  he  united  the  fine  colour- 
ing of  the  Ionian  with  the  accurate  drawing  of 
the  Sicyonic  school.  Turing  the  time  of  Philip, 
A.  visited  Macedon,  where  he  became  the  intimate 
friend  of  Alexander  the  Great.  It  was  probably  at 
the  Macedonian  court  that  the  best  days  of  A.  were 
spent.  Pliny  relates  that  on  one  occasion  when 
Alexander  visited  A.  in  his  studio,  the  king  ex- 
hibited such  ignorance  of  art,  that  A.  recommended 
him  to  be  silent,  as  the  boys  who  were  grinding  the 
colours  were  laughing  at  him.  But  the  same  story 
is  told  of  Zeuxis  and  Megabyzus.  He  after- 
wards visited  Rhodes  (where  he  was  familiar  with 
Protogenes),  Cos,  Alexandria,  and  Ephesus.  The 
period  of  his  death  is  not  known  ;  but  as  he  practised 
his  art  before  the  death  of  Philip,  and  as  his  visit  to 
Alexandria  was  after  the  assumption  of  the  regal 
title  by  Ptolemy,  he  probably  flourished  between 
352  and  308  b.  c.     The  most  celebrated  paintings  of 

iiU'J 


APELLES— APEXXIXES. 


A.  were  his  Anadyoineiie,  or  Venus  Hisiiig  from  the 
Si'A,  with  a  shower  of  silver  drops  falling  round  her 
like  a  veil  of  gauze,  the  Graces,  and  similar  sub- 
jects ;  but  he  cultivated  the  heroic  as  well  as  the 
graceful  style.  His  ideal  portrait  of  Alexander 
wielding  a  thunderbolt  was  highly  esteemed,  and 
preserved  in  the  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus.  With 
reference  to  this  painting,  Alexander  said :  '  There  are 
only  two  Alexanders — the  invincible  son  of  Philip, 
and  the  inimitable  Alexander  of  A.'  A.  is  said  to 
have  left  an  incomplete  painting  of  Venus,  to  which 
no  other  painter  would  presume  to  give  the  finishing- 
touches.  The  disposition  of  A.  was  remarkably  free 
from  envy,  and  he  willingly  acknowledged  the  merits 
of  his  contemporaries.  Amphion,  he  said,  excelled 
him  in  groujjing,  and  Asclepiodorus  in  perspective, 
but  (/race  was  his  alone.  On  coming  to  Rhotles,  and 
finding  that  the  works  of  Protogencs  were  not 
appreciated  by  Iiis  countrymen,  he  at  once  offered 
him  fifty  talents  for  a  picture,  and  spread  the  report 
that  he  intended  to  sell  it  again  as  his  own.  The 
industry  with  which  he  practised  drawing  was  so 
great  as  to  give  rise  to  the  proverb.  Nulla  dirs  ftine 
lined.  Many  other  anecdotes  are  related  of  A. 
When  his  pictuies  were  exposed  to  pul)lic  view,  he 
used  to  place  himself  behind  a  picture,  to  listen  to 
the  criticisms  of  the  common  i)eople.  A  colibler 
having  detected  a  fault  in  the  shoe  of  one  of  his 
ftgures,  it  is  said  that  A.  instantly  rectified  it ;  but 
wiien  the  cobbler,  on  the  following  day,  extended  his 
criticism  to  the  legs,  the  painter  rushed  from  his 
hiding-place,  and  told  the  col)bler  to  stick  to  the 
shoes ;  or,  in  the  Latin  version,  which  has  become 
proverbial,  'Xe  sutor  supra  crepidam.' 

A'PEXXIXEH  (Ital.  Appcimi'ni;  anciently,  Lat. 
MmtH  Apnnihixs),  a  mountain-chain  extending 
uniiiterruiitedly  throughout  the  whole  length  of  the 
Italian  peninsula.  It  lies  between  87°  and  44'  3i»'X. 
lut.,  and  7'  4u'  and  18'  '20'  E.  long.,  and  belongs 
to  the  system  of  the  Alps,  from  which  it  branches 
off  at  the  Col  de  Tenda,  near  the  sources  of  the 
Tanaro.  From  this  point,  the  chain,  under  the 
name  of  the  Ligurian  A.,  girdles  the  Gulf  of  Genoa, 
in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  sea,  and  then  runs 
inland  to  a  considerable  extent,  forming  the  water- 
siied  between  the  Adriatic  and  the  Mediterranean, 
but  gradually  approaching  the  east  coast,  till,  in  the 
highlands  of  the  Abruzzi,  it  is  close  upon  it;  after 
which  it  takes  a  south-western  direction  through  Na- 
ples, dips  under  the  sea  at  the  Strait  of  Messina,  and 
reappears  on  the  northern  coast  of  Sicily.  Recent 
geographers  divide  the  A.  as  follows:  1.  The  North 
A.,  from  the  Col  de  Tenda  in  the  Maritime  Alps  to 
the  pass  of  Borgo  San  Sepolcro,  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Arezzo,  on  the  eastern  border  of  Tuscany. 

2.  The  Central  A.,  from  Arezzo  to  the  valley  of  the 
Pescara,    which   flows    between--  the    two  Abruzzi. 

3.  The  South  A.,  from  the  valley  of  the  Pescara  to 
Cape  Spartivento.  4.  The  Insular  A.,  or  the  Sicilian 
range.  The  leading  feature  of  the  A.,  wherever 
they  approach  the  coast,  is  their  extraordinarily 
steep  declivities ;  while  in  Middle  Italy  and  the 
adjoining  portions  of  Upper  and  Lower  Italy,  long 
terraced  plateaus,  lower  ranges,  and  finally,  extensive 
coast-plains,  mark  their  gradual  descent  on  the  west. 
The  general  name  for  these  lower  ranges  is  Sub- 
Ape7inine  ;  but  they  have  a  variety  of  particular 
designations,  such  as,  the  Mountains  of  Carrara 
and  Seravezza,  Pratomagno  and  Monte  Amiata,  in 
Tuscany;  the  Sabine,  Alban,  and  Volscian  moun- 
tains, in  the  Papal  States ;  Monte  Gargano  on  the 
south-east  coast,  north  of  Manfredonia,  &c.  The 
main  chain  of  the  A.  does  not  send  off  spurs  into 
the  Apulian  peninsula,  or  heel  of  Italy,  which,  for 
the  most  part,  is  rather  level,  or  only  interspersed 
with  d'>tached  groups  of  hills. 

310 


The  direction  of  the  great  chain  of  the  A.  i:i 
favourable  to  the  formation,  on  the  west  side,  of 
important  river-basin.s,  such  as  those  of  the  Anio, 
the  Tiber,  the  Garigliano,  and  the  Volturno  ;  while, 
on  the  east  side,  we  find  nothing  but  small  streams, 
in  most  cases,  destitute  of  aflluents,  hurrying  down 
to  the  sea  through  wild  |>recipitous  valleys.  In 
Northern  Italy,  the  Ligurian  A.  almost  overhanging 
the  Gulf  of  Genoa,  can  only  develop  on  the  south 
puny  streams,  while  the  north  sends  down,  through 
the  plains  of  Piedmont,  large  trii)Utaries  to  the  Po. 

The  average  height  of  the  entire  chain  of  the  A. 
is  al)Out  4no(»  feet,  which,  however,  in  the  north, 
sinks  down  to  little  more  than  35(>0  feet  ;  and  in  the 
mountains  of  the  Abruzzi,  rises  to  7000  feet.  Here, 
in  Monte  Corno,  the  highest  peak  of  the  range 
known  under  the  name  of  Gran  Sasso  d'ltalia, 
they  reach  an  ehvation  of  l(i,'JOo  feet,  and  in  Monte 
Velino,  of  7850  feet.  The  North  A.  attain,  in  Monte 
Cimone,  situated  in  the  south  of  Modena,  a  heiglit 
of  t)H73  feet ;  the  South  A.,  in  Monte  Amara,  a 
height  of  yiioo  feet;  the  Insular  A.,  if  we  exclude 
the  isolated  peak  of  iLtna — in  Pizzo  di  Case,  a 
height  of  GSOO  feet. 

The  A.  are  crossed  by  thirteen  principal  passes ; 
these  are,  ])roceeding  from  N.  to  S. —  1,  The  Pass  of 
'  Suvona  ;  ^,  of  IJocchetta  ;  3,  of  Cisa  ;  4,  of  Monte 
I  Cimone;  5,  of  Porretta  ;  fi,  of  Pietramala  ;  7,  of 
I  IJorgo  San  Sepolcro  ;  8,  of  Furlo ;  9,  of  Serravallc  ; 
I  l<i,  of  Atpiila  ;  11,  of  Isernia ;  12,  of  Areano  and 
Troja ;  13,  of  Potenza.  The  prevalent  stone  is  a 
species  of  compact  limestone,  of  a  whitish-gray  col- 
our, belonging  to  the  Jura  formation.  Resting  on 
the  limestone  is  found  a  more  recent  formation  of 
sandstone  and  marl,  which  is  especially  abundant  in 
the  middle  region  of  the  Sub-A.,  contains  an  extra- 
ordinary number  of  petrifactions,  and  must  be  reck- 
oned as  belonging  to  the  upper  division  of  the  Par- 
isian limestone.  Older  formations,  however,  fre- 
quently crop  out.  Thus,  for  instance,  on  the  water- 
shed of  the  North  and  Central  A.  tliere  are  found 
transition  clay-slate,  grauwacke-slate,  &c.  The  A., 
especially  the  Roman  and  Xeajjolitan,  are  distinguish- 
ed from  all  other  mountain-chains  by  the  rich  variety 
of  niaibles  which  they  contain.  In  some  places, 
the  quarries  seem  inexhaustible.  Volcanic  rocks 
are  numerous  in  the  middle  and  southern  regions, 
where  the  agency  of  fire  has  caused  very  wonderful 
formations,  as  for  instance,  the  crater-lakes  of  Al- 
bano,  Xemi,  Vesuvius,  Solfatara. 

The  principal  chain  exhibits,  for  the  most  part,  a 
dreary  and  barren  appearance  ;  it  looks  like  a  vast 
wall,  with  very  few  projecting  peaks  to  break  the 
dull  monotony  of  the  scene,  and  therefore  seldom 
furnishes  any  salient  points  on  which  the  eye  of  the 
spectator  can  rest  with  pleasure.  Naked,  riven,  cov- 
ered with  thick  (Ubris,  the  declivities  seem  as  if 
scorched  by  the  southern  sun.  Only  in  the  Abruzzi, 
in  the  Sub-A.,  and  above  all,  in  the  marble  mountains 
of  Carrara  and  Seravezza,  do  the  bold  and  magnifi- 
cent forms  of  the  Alps  reappear.  Where  the  A. — in 
general  so  poorly  supplied  with  streams — exhibit  a 
trace  of  Alpine  abundance  of  water,  there  is  no  lack 
of  rich  pastures  and  dense  forests,  but  usually  only 
thin  grass  and  wild  scrubby  bushes  cover  the  stony 
slopes.  The  greater  number  of  the  roaring  forest 
brooks,  in  the  deep  rocky  ravines,  display,  during 
summer,  only  a  dry  bed.  Where  the  mountains  dip 
down  to  the  sea,  as  at  the  Riviera  of  Genoa  and  the 
Gulf  of  Naples,  a  rich,  peculiarly  southern  vegetation 
clothes  the  declivities.  Gigantic  agaves,  Indian 
figs  {Cactus  Opuntia),  myrtle-bushes,  orange-groves, 
hint  in  these  northern  lands  of  the  splendours  of 
the  tropics.  Up  to  30()0  feet  of  elevation,  cornfields, 
fruit-bearing  chestnuts,  and  deciduous  oak.s  are 
found.      Beyond   this,  all   vegetation   often   ceases 


APENRADE— APHIS. 


on  the  steep  and  stony  sides  of  the  mountains ;  but 
at  other  times  the  beech  or  tlie  fir  appears  in  dense 
forests.  There  is  no  region  of  perpetual  snow ; 
but  the  summits  of  the  Abruzzi  and  the  lofty  peaks 
of  Lunigiana,  are  often  covered  with  snow  from 
October  far  into  May,  and  send  their  icy  breath 
so  suddenly  down  into  the  mild  valleys,  that  the 
temperature  in  a  few  hours  sinks  12^ — 18°  F.,  and 
a  warm  spring  afternoon  is  succeeded  by  a  bitter 
December  evening. 

APENRA'Dfi,  a  town  in  Northern  Schleswig, 
situated  at  the  bottom  of  a  gulf  in  the  Little  Belt, 
has  an  excellent  harbour,  and  a  considerable  amount 
ot  shipping.  Long.  9°  '25'  12"  E. ;  hit.  55°  2'  4C'  N. 
Pop.  4100.  The  environs  of  the  town  are  beautiful. 
The  first  historical  mention  made  of  A.  relates  to  its 
destruction  by  the  Slaves  in  1148;  and,  indeed,  its 
position  has  always  laid  it  open  to  the  casualties  of 
northern  war,  whether  on  a  large  or  small  scale,  as 
has  been  especially  seen  since  1848.  Near  the  town 
stands  the  castle  of  Brundlund,  built  by  Queen 
Margaret  in  1411,  in  which  the  bailiff  of  the  place 
resides. 

APE'TALOUS,  a  term  in  Botany,  applied  to 
flowers  or  to  flowering  plants,  and  signifying  that 
they  are  destitute  of  petals  or  corolla  (q.  v.).  When 
both  the  calyx  and  corolla  are  wanting,  the  flower  is 
said  to  be  achlamydeoux  (from  the  Greek  chlamys,  a 
covering),  or  naked.  The  absence  of  the  whorl  of 
petals  sometimes  occurs  in  an  exceptional  manner 
i:!  orders  or  genera  ordinarily  characterised  by  its 
presence.  In  some  plants,  as  in  certain  species  of 
the  order  Cari/ophyllacene,  petals  are  sometimes 
jji-csont,  sometimes  absent,  a  tendency  apparently 
existing  to  the  suppression  of  this  whorl. 

APIIE'LION,  that  point  in  the  elliptical  orbit  of 
a  planet  which  is  most  remote  from  the  sun.  The 
opposite  point,  or  that  nearest  to  the  sun,  is  styled 
the  Perihelion.  At  the  former  point,  the  swiftness 
of  the  planet's  motion  is  least,  and  begins  to 
increase ;  at  the  latter,  it  is  greatest,  and  begins 
to  decrease.  This  irregularity  of  motion  is  most 
remarkable  in  comets  wliose  orbits  deviate  most 
from  the  circle.  The  motion  of  the  comet  of  1680, 
at  its  perihelion,  was  calculated  as  137,000  times 
more  rapid  than  its  motion  in  A.     See  Apsides. 

A'PIIIS,  a  genus  of  insects  belonging  to  the  order 
Hemiptera,  sub-order  Honioptera — the  type  of  a 
family    called    Aphidii.      They    are   small  insects, 


to  apple-trees,  and  when  once  it  has  found  its  way 
into  a  garden  or  orchard,  is  very  ditUcult  of  removal'. 
It  is  a  minute  insect,  '  covered  with  a  long  cotton- 
like  wool,  transpiring  from  the  pores  of  its  body  ' — 


Apple  Aphis  {Eriosoma  Mali) : 

a,  wingless  insect,  magnified  :  &,  wingless  insect  in  excrescence 
of  tlio  tree,  maguifled. 

living  by  sucking  the  juices  of  plants,  upon  which 
they  may  be  seen  congregated  in  immense  numbers, 
often  doing  serious  injury,  causing  the  distortion  of 
leaves,  and  even  the  blight  and  decay  of  the  plant. 
Tlie  woolly  Aphis,  or  American  Blight  (/I.  lanigera; 
Eriosoma  Mali  of  Leach),  is  sometimes  very  injurious 


.ujtai&ls:^^^ 


Apple  Aphis : 
0,  a  branch  witli  excrescences,  reduced. 

'  a  cottony  excretion ' — in  which  it  differs  from  the 
ordinary  aphides,  and  takes  its  place  in  the  chinks 
and  rugosities  of  the  bark,  multiplying  rapidly, 
extracting  the  sap,  causing  diseased  excrescences, 
and,  ultimately,  the  destruction  of  the  tree.  It  was 
first  observed  in  England  in  1787  ;  but  it  is  uncer- 
tain if  it  was,  as  has  been  supposed,  accidentally 
imported  from  America.  The  Hop-fly  {A.  Hwuuli\ 
and  the  A.  of  the  turnip  and  cabbage  (.4.  Brassicce), 
have  sometimes  caused  the  destruction  of  entire 
crops.  The  price  of  hops  varies  from  one  year  to 
another,  very  much  according  to  the  numbers  in 
which  ^the  fly''  has  appeared.  The  potato  A.  {A. 
vastator)  has  been  represented  as  the   cause  of  the 


Potato  Aphis  (ApTiM  vastator) : 
magnified  tifty  times. 

potato  disease  ;  but  this  opinion  has  few  supporters. 
The  aphides  of  the  rose  (A.  Eosce)  and  of  the  bean 
{A.  Fab(e)  are  among  the  most  familiarly  known. 
Every  one  must  have  observed  the  leaves  of  trees 
and  shrubs  deformed  by  red  convexities.  In  the 
hollows  of  the  under  side  of  these,  aphides  have 
their  habitation,  and  there  they  find  their  food ;  the 
exhausted  leaf  at  last  curls  up.  Most  of  the  species 
are  green  ;  the  A.  of  the  bean  is  black.  They  are 
generally  called  Plant-lice.  They  have  a  proboscis 
(haustelluiri),  by  whicli  they  pierce  and  suck  plants ; 
and  at  the  extremity  of  the  abdomen,  two  horn-like 
processes,  from  which  exude  frequent  small  drops  of 
a  saccharine  fluid  called  Honey-dew,  a  favourite  food 
of  bees  and  ants.  It  has  been  seen  even  to  fall  in  a 
kind  of  shower  from  trees  much  covered  with  aphides. 
Mention  has  been  made  in  the  article  Ant,  of 
the  means  which  ants  take  to  obtain  this  food. 
The  legs  of  aphides  are  long,  and  they  move  slowly 
and  awkwardly  by  them.  The  greater  number  of 
them  never  have  wings ;  it  is  in  the  autumn  that 
perfect  winged  insects  generally  appear.  From  the 
pairing  of  these  result  eggs,  which  produce  female 
aphides  in  the  following  spring,  and  successive 
generations  of  wingless  aphides  are  produced  in  a 

311 


APHORISM— APIS. 


viviparous  manner  witliout  iinpri'{;nal:on  tlnoughout  | 
the  summer,  the  rapidity  ot  mullipJicatiun  beiiij;  | 
prodif^ious.  Their  increase,  however,  is  reslriiined 
not  only  by  birds,  but  by  insects  wliicli  teed  on 
them.  A  family  of  coleopterous  insects,  to  which 
the  genus  Coccinella  or  Lady-bird  ((j.  v.)  belon<;s, 
has  received  upon  tiiis  account  the  name  o{  Aji/iiJi- 
phagi,  or  aphis-eaters.  There  are  also  certain 
minute  hymenopterous  insects,  which  destroy  them 
in  great  numbers  by  depositing  their  eggs  in  them; 
the  larva  feeds  upon  tlie  living  A.,  out  of  which  it 
at  last  eats  its  way,  leaving  a  mere  desiccated  sl<in. 

APHORISM,  a  maxim,  or  any  short  and  signifi- 
cant saying,  such  as,  '  Custom  is  a  second  nature. 
A  whole  piece  or  work  is  sometimes  written  in 
the  form  of  a  series  of  aphorisms,  arranged  in  due 
order,  and  leaving  their  connection  to  be  traced  by 
the  reader's  reflection.  In  certain  circumstances 
this  aphoristic  style  has  an  impressive  effect ;  but 
long  continued,  it  becomes  wearisome. 

APHRODITfi,  the  Greek  name  of  Venus, 
according  to  various  traditions,  is  derived  from 
ap/iros  (foam),  in  allusion  to  the  old  poetical  myth 
which  represented  the  goddess  as  springing  from  the 
foam  of  the  sea.  Sec  Vk.sis  and  Ai'Ki.i.ks.  Aphro- 
dtsia  were  festivals  celebrated  in  honour  of  A.,  in 
numerous  cities  of  Greece,  but  especially  in  Cyprus. 
At  Paphos,  in  this  island,  was  her  most  ancient 
temple.  Bloodless  sacrifices  alone  were  imagined  to 
please  A.,  such  as  flowers,  incense,  &c.  Mysteries  of 
an  impure  kind  formed  part  of  the  ceremonial  of  the 
aphrodisia.  Aphrodisia  were  no  doubt  held  in  the 
other  places  where  A.  was  worshi|)pcd,  such  as 
Cythera,  Sparta,  Thebes,  Elis,  &c.,  though  they  arc 
not  mentioned.  At  Corinth  and  Athens,  the  aphro- 
disia were  celebrated  princii)ally  by  prostitutes. 

APIA'CE.E.     See  UunKi-LiFERji. 

APIACERE.     See  Ad  Libitum. 

A'PIARY.     See  Bee. 

API'CIUS,  a  Roman  epicurean— in  the  low  and 
common  sense  of  the  word — lived  in  the  times  of 
Augustus  and  Tiberius,  and  was  celebrated  for  his 
luxurious  table  and  his  acquirements  in  the  science 
of  cookery.  When,  in  pursuit  of  his  favourite  study, 
he  had  consumed  the  greater  part  of  his  fortune,  and 
had  only  some  £8i>,(»00  left,  he  poi.^oned  himself,  in 
order  to  avoid  the  misery  of  plain  diet.  Two  other 
gourmands — one  in  the  time  of  Pompcy,  the  other  in 
the  reign  of  Trajan — are  mentioned  under  the  name 
A.  The  Roman  cookery-book,  Cwlii  Apicii  de 
Obsoniis  et  Condimeiitis,  sive  de  re  Culinarid,  (libri 
decem),  ascribed  to  A.,  obviously  belongs  to  a 
much  Liter  time,  inasmuch  as  it  abounds  in  inac- 
curacies and  solecisms.  The  unknown  author  has 
thought  proper  to  recommend  his  woik  to  gourmands 
by  affixing  to  it  the  celebrated  name  of  A. 

A'PION,  a  Greek  grammarian,  was  born  at  Oasis, 
a  town  in  Libya,  but  educated  in  Alexandria,  which 
he  affected  to  consider  his  birthplace,  from  a  desire 
of  being  thought  a  pure  Greek.  He  studied  under 
Apollonius,  the  son  of  Archibius,  from  whom  he 
acquired  an  admiration  of  Homer,  and  afterwards 
went  to  Rome,  where  he  succeeded  Tlieon  as 
teacher  of  rhetoric.  He  seems  to  have  been  as 
remarkable  for  his  loquacious  vanity  as  for  his 
knowledge.  He  declared  that  himself,  and  every 
one  whom  he  mentioned,  would  be  held  in  immortal 
memory,  that  he  was  equal  to  the  first  philosophers 
of  Greece,  and  that  Alexandria  should  be  proud  of 
him.  On  account  of  his  incessant  bragging,  Tiberius 
used  to  call  him  CymbalumMuiidi  (the  cymbal  of  the 
universe). 

With  the  exception  of  one  or  two  fragments,  the 
■whole  of   A.'s    numerous    writings   are    lost.      He 
812 


composed  a  work  on  the  text  of  Homer,  partly  in  the 
form  of  a  dictionary,  which  was  frequently  relerred 
to  by  subse(|ucnt  authors;  a  work  on  Egypt,  >«hich 
contained  the  far-lamed  story  of  Androclux  and  th« 
Lion,  preserved  by  Auius  Gellius ;  a  work  against 
the  Jews;  one  in  praise  of  Alexander  the  Great ; 
another  on  the  great  epicurean  Apicius  ;  histories  of 
various  countries,  &c. 

A'PIOSTUBEROSA,  formerly  included  in  the 
genus  Glycitie,  and  called  G.  Apios,  a  pl.mt  belonging 
to  the  natural  order  Leyumino.tce,  sub-order  Papili- 
onncecB,  having  tuberous  roots,  a  twining  stem,  dark 
red  flowers,  leathery,  '2-valvular  legumes,  and  pinnate 
leaves,  with  seven  pair  of  smooth  ovato-lanceolate 
leaflets.  This  plant,  which  is  a  native  of  Virginia, 
has  for  a  century  been  cultivated  in  botanic  gar<len8 
in  Europe,  and  has  recently  been  brought  into  par- 
ticular notice  on  the  continent,  in  a  great  measure 
through  the  French  traveller  Lamarc-Picquot,  who, 
during  his  travels  in  North  America,  convinced 
himself  of  the  value  of  the  tubers  as  an  article  of 
food,  for  which  they  there  are  used  to  some  extent. 
Various  attempts  have  since  been  made  to  cidtivate 
it  like  the  potato  ;  but  its  cultivation  is  found  dilli- 
cult,  upon  account  of  the  length  and  weakness  of  the 
twining  shoots  and  the  length  of  the  roots.  The 
tubers  cooked  in  steam  are  free  from  all  acridity  and 
bitterness,  and  very  much  resemble  i)Otatoes  dressed 
in  the  same  way.  They  contain  more  nitrogen  than 
potatoes  ({•'>  per  cent.),  also  more  starchy  farina 
(33'o5  according  to  an  analysis  by  Payen). 

APIS,  the  bull  worshipped  by  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians, who  regardi'd  it  as  a  symbol  of  dsiris,  the  god 
of  the  Nile,  the  husband  of  Isis,  and  the  great  divinity 
of  Egypt.  A  sacred  court  or  yard  was  set  apart 
for  the  residence  of  A.  in  the  temple  of  Ptah  at 
Memi)his,  where  a  numerous  retinue  of  priests  waited 
upon  him,  and  sacrifices  of  red  oxen  were  ofl'ered  to 
him.  His  movements,  choice  of  places,  and  changes 
of  appetite,  were  religiously  regarded  as  oracles.     It 


Apis. — Golden  Calf. 

was  an  understood  law  that  A.  must  not  live  longer 
than  twenty-five  years.  When  he  attained  this  age, 
he  was  secretly  put  to  death,  and  buried  by  the 
priests  in  a  sacred  well,  the  popular  belief  being 
that  he  cast  himself  into  the  water.  If,  however, 
he  died  a  natural  death,  his  body  was  solemnly 
interred  in  the  temple  of  Serapis  at  Memphis,  and 
bacchanalian  festivals  were  held  to  celebrate  the 
inauguration  of  a  new  bull  as  A.  As  soon  as  a 
suitable  animal  was  found  having  the  required 
marks — black  colour  with  a  white  square  on  the 
brow;  the  figure  of  an  eagle  on  the  back,  and  a 
knot  in  the  shape  of  a  cantharus  under  the  tongue — 


APIS— APOCRYPHA. 


lie  was  led  in  triumphal  procetisiou  to  Nilopolis  at  the 
time  of  the  new  moon,  where  he  remained  forty  days, 
waited  npon  by  nude  women,  and  was  afterwards 
conveyed  iu  a  splendid  vessel  to  Memphis.  His 
Theophaiiv,  or  day  of  discovery,  and  his  birthday, 
were  celebrated  as  high  festivals  of  seven  days'  du- 
ration during  the  rise  of  the  Nile.  The  worship  of  the 
golden  calf  by  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness,  and 
also  the  employment  of  golden  calves  as  symbols  of 
the  Deity  by  Jeroboam,  have  been  very  generally 
referred  to  the  Egyptian  worship  of  A. 

APIS,  APID.E.     See  Bek. 

A'PIUM.     See  Celery. 

APO'CALYPSE.     See  Revelation,  Book  of. 

APOCALYPTIC  NUMBER  is  'the  mystical 
number '  660,  spoken  of  in  the  book  of  Revelation 
(xiii.  18).  As  early  as  the  2d  c,  the  Church  had 
found  that  the  name.  Antichrist,  was  indicated  by 
the  Greek  characters  expressive  of  this  number, 
while  others  believed  it  to  express  a  date.  The 
most  probable  interpretation  is  that  which  was 
current  in  the  days  of  Irenajus,  and  which  found  the 
number  in  the  word  Lateinos  {Latinus).  The  Roman 
nation — the  mightiest  pagan  power  on  earth — was 
the  most  tenible  symbol  of  Antichrist,  and  the 
number  666  appears  in  the  Greek  characters  which 
spell  the  name.  Protestant  controversialists  very 
generally  support  their  views  by  this  interpretation, 
applying  the  prophecy  to  papal  Rome. 

APOCA'RPOUS  FRUITS,  in  Botany,  are  those 
fruits  which  are  the  produce  of  a  single  flower,  and 
are  formed  of  only  one  carpel,  or  of  a  number  of 
curjiels  remaining  free  and  separate  from  each  other. 
The  term  is  derived  from  the  Greek  apo,  implying 
separation,  and  carpos,  fruit. 

A  POCO  A  POCO  (Ital.)  in  Music,  by  degrees ; 
by  little  and  little. 

APOCRENIC  ACID  is  one  of  the  products  of 
the  natural  decay  of  wood  and  other  plant  textures, 
and  is  found  wherever  lignine  or  woody  fibre  is  de- 
composing in  soils,  &c.  As  A.  A.  is  soluble  in 
water,  it  follows  that  rain-water  falling  on  and 
percolating  through  soils  containing  this  substance, 
becomes  impregnated  with  it ;  and  hence,  in  many 
natural  waters,  A.  A.  is  a  recognized  constituent. 
A.  A.  performs  an  important  function  in  the  growth 
of  plants,  as  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  it 
forms  one  of  the  stages  through  which  matter  trav- 
els from  dead  plants  again  into  the  living  vegetable 
tissue. 

APOCRYPHA,  or  APOCRYPHAL  WRITINGS. 
The  word  originally  meant  secret  or  concealed,  and 
was  rendered  current  by  the  Jews  of  Alexandria. 
In  the  earliest  churches,  it  was  applied  witii  very 
different  significations  to  a  variety  of  writings. 
Sometimes  it  was  given  to  those  whose  authorship 
and  original  form  were  unknown ;  sometimes  to 
writings  containing  a  hidden  meaning  ;  or  at  other 
times  to  such  as  were  objectionable ;  sometimes  to 
those  whose  public  use  was  not  thought  advisable. 
In  this  last  signification,  it  has  been  customary,  since 
the  time  of  Jerome,  to  apply  the  term  to  a  number 
of  writings  which  the  Septuagint  had  circulated 
amongst  the  Christians,  and  which  were  sometimes 
considered  as  an  appendage  to  the  Old  Testament, 
and  sometimes  as  a  portion  of  it.  The  same  name 
has  been  retained  for  them  in  Luther's  translation  of 
the  Bible,  where  they  are  given  as  additions  merely 
to  the  Old  Testament. 

The  Christian  Church  has  fluctuated  in  its 
acknowledgment  and  use  of  these  writings.  The 
Greek  Church,  at  the  council  of  Laodicea  (.360 
A. P.),  pronounced  decidedly  against  them,  excluding 
them  from  the    canon ;  the    Latin   Church,  on  the 


contrary,  has  always  assigned  them,  at  least  since 
the  council  of  Carthage  (o97  a.d.),  a  high  place  as 
worthy  of  reverence  and  esteem,  without  declaring 
them  to  be  of  equal  authority  with  the  other  scrip- 
tures ;  which  was  first  done  by  the  council  of  Trent, 
althongl)  tliey  had  been  in  general  use  as  part  of  the 
Sacred  Scriptures  long  before.  At  the  Reformation, 
the  Protestants  generally  rejected  them  ;  but  in  some 
of  the  Protestant  churches  they  soon  began  again  to 
be  read  in  public  worship,  although  in  some  of  them 
passages  occur  which  decidedly  favour  Roman 
Catholic  doctrines.  The  Church  of  England,  in  her 
Articles,  enumerates  the  books  of  the  A.  as  books 
which  '  the  church  doth  read  for  example  of  life  and 
instruction  of  manners,  but  yet  doth  it  not  apply 
tliem  to  establish  any  doctrine.'  Some  portions  of 
them  are,  therefore,  included  in  the  lessons  of  the 
church.  By  the  other  Protestant  churches  in  Britain, 
as  well  as  in  America,  they  are  completely  rejected 
from  public  worship. 

The  controversy  regarding  the  A.,  after  slumber- 
ing for  a  long  period,  has  been  renewed  in  recent 
times  both  in  Britain  and  in  Germany.  It  arose  in 
Britain  very  suddenly,  about  thirty  yeai-s  ago,  in 
consequence  of  a  discovery  made  by  some  of  the 
most  zealous  supporters  of  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society,  that  the  funds  of  that  Society  were  iu 
part  expended  in  the  circulation  of  the  A.  on  the 
continent  of  Europe.  This  was  defended  on  grounds 
of  expediency,  because  the  people  of  many  parts  of 
Europe  had  always  been  accustomed  to  see  the  A.  in 
their  Bibles,  but  was  on  the  other  hand  denounced 
as  contrary  to  the  constitution  of  the  society  and 
to  principle.  Every  question  relative  to  the  A.  was 
opened  up.  Many  members  seceded  from  the  Biit- 
ish  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  and  new  Bible  socie- 
ties were  formed.  In  this  controversy,  Mr.  Robert 
Haldane  and  Dr.  Andrew  Thompson  of  Edinburgh, 
took  a  very  prominent  part  as  antagonists  of  the  A. 
and  of  its  circulation. 

Impartially  considered,  these  apocryphal  writings, 
or  at  least  a  part  of  them,  are  not  of  very  great  im- 
portance. They  have  chiefly  a  historical  value, 
throwing  some  light  on  the  religious  condition  of  the 
Jews,  from  the  time  when  the  old  Testament  ceases 
to  be  our  guide,  to  the  Christian  era.  They  are  dis- 
tinguished into :  1st,  Those  which  originated  in 
Palestine,  as  Jesus  So}i  of  Sirach,  valuable  for 
its  generally  pure  morality,  written  in  Hebrew  about 
18u  B.C.,  and  translated  into  Greek  about  130 
B.C.  The  First  Book  of  Maccahcis,  writ:en  about 
135  B.C.,  which  is  of  great  historical  value ;  and 
the  valueless  Book  of  Judith :  2d,  Those  which 
are  of  Egypto-Alexandrine  origin,  as  the  £ook  of 
Wisdom,  the  Second  of  Maccabees,  and  the  addition 
to  Esther :  and  3d,  those  which  bear  traces  of  Chul- 
daic  or  Persian  influence,  as  Ezra,  Tobias,  Baintch, 
and  the  addition  to  Daniel.  The  Book  of  Wisdom. 
is  the  crown  of  the  whole.  In  old  editions  of  the 
Bible  the  A.  is  sometimes  seen,  being  bound  up  be- 
tween the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  From  the 
authorised  editions  in  common  use  it  is  regularly  ex- 
cluded ;  and,  except  as  a  curiosity,  it  is  little  known 
to  the  generality  of  readers. 

What  is  called  the  A.  of  the  New  Testament  con- 
sists partly  of  histories,  and  partly  of  fragments  of 
tradition,  or  of  doctrinal  teaching,  belonging  to  the 
first  three  centuries,  which  have  never  claimed  a 
place  in  the  canon,  nor  been  advanced  by  any  one  to 
that  distinction  even  in  the  earliest  times.  They  are 
of  value  chiefly  to  the  historical  critic.  The  most 
important  among  them  are  the  pseudo-gospels ; 
of  these,  a  collection  was  made  by  Fabricius  (Ham- 
burg, 171!').  Anew  edition  of  the  Codex  Apocrt/' 
phus,  iV.  T.,  was  commenced  at   Leipsic,  1832,  by 

Thjlo. 

313 


APOCYNACE^^i:— APOLLO. 


APOCYNA'CE.E,  or  APOCY'NE.E,  a  natural 
order  of  Dicotyledonous  jjlunts,  consisting  of  trees 
and  shrubs,  generally  with  milky  juice,  having  entire 
leaves,  and  no  stiiiules.  The  calyx  is  usually  6-par- 
tiie,  persistent;  the  corolla  hypogynous,  monopeta- 
lous,  often  with  scales  in  its  throat,  regular,  6-lobed, 
twisted  in  bud.  There  arc  five  stamens,  which 
are  inserted  on  the  corolla;  the  anthers  adhere 
firmly  to  the  stigma,  to  which  the  pollen  is  imme- 
diately applied ;  the  anthers  are  2-celled,  and  open 
longitudinally ;  the  pollen  is  granular.  The  ovaries 
arc  two,  each  1 -celled,  or  one,  which  is  2-celled ; 
ovules  usually  numerous;  styles  1  or  2;  the  stigma 
is  contracted  in  the  middle,  and  peculiarly  charac- 
teristic of  the  order.  The  fruit  is  a  follicle  or  cap- 
sule, or  drupe  or  berry,  double  or  single.  The  seeds 
have  a  fleshy  or  cartilaginous  albumen,  or  (rarely)  are 
ex-albuminous. — There  are  about  5tiO  known  species, 
chiefly  natives  of  tropical  countries.  The  Pkki- 
wiNKXE  (q.  V.)  is  its  only  representative  in  the  flora 
of  Britain,  a  wanderer,  as  it  were,  fiom  the  tropics, 
yet  hardy  enough  for  the  climate  with  which  it  has 
to  contend;  the  Oi.iiANDKii  (q.  v.)  and  a  few  others 
are  Ibund  in  the  south  of  Europe.  Many  species  arc 
poisonous;  amongst  which  is  the  noted  Tasghin 
(q.  v.)  or  Tanghekna  of  Madagascar.  Some  are  used 
in  medicine,  in  India  and  other  countries.  A  num- 
ber of  species  yield  Caoutchouc  (q.  v.)  The  milk 
of  others  is  bland  and  wholesome,  as  the  II va  II va 
or  Cow-TKKK  (q.  v.)  of  Demerara.  Some  are  used 
in  dyeing;  Wrujhtia  tinctoria  yields  indigo  of  good 
quality. — A  number  yield  eatable  fruits,  as  Wi'Uugh- 
bela  edulis  and  Varisaa  Carandas  in  India  ;  Ci^rissa 
edulis  in  Arabia,  and  certain  species  of  Varpwiinus, 
culled  PiHiiAMiN  in  Sierra  Leone,  and  llancornia. — 
Apocmnm  caunabimun,  Canadian  hemp,  a  herbace- 
ous plant  about  4 — 5  feet  in  height,  with  unbranehed 
stem,  oblong  leaves,  and  lateral  cymes  of  whitish 
bell-shaped  flowers,  yields  a  very  strong  fibre,  which 
the  Indians  of  North  America  employ  for  making 
twine,  cloth,  fishing-nets,  &c. 

A'PODAL  FISHES  are  fishes  destitute  of  ventral 
fins.  In  the  Linna;un  system,  the  Apodcx  arc  an 
order  of  fishes,  in  which  genera  not  otherwise  near- 
ly allied  are  brought  together  ;  but  in  the  systems  of 
Cuvier  and  other  recent  naturalists,  a  less  important 
place  is  assigned  to  this  distinctive  character. — Eels 
are  an  example  of  A.  fishes. 

APODI'CTIC,  a  logical  term  signifying  a  judg- 
ment or  conclusion  which  is  necessarily  true ;  or,  in 
other  words,  a  judgment  of  which  the  opposite  is 
impossible.  No  A.  judgment  can  be  founded  on  ex- 
perience, because  experience  does  not  supply  the 
idea  of  an  absolute  necessity. 

APOGEE  (Gr.  apo,  from,  and  ge,  the  earth)  pro- 
perly speaking,  the  greatest  distance  of  the  earth 
from  any  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  Its  application, 
however,  is  restricted  to  the  sun  and  moon,  the  sun's 
A.  corresponding  to  the  earth's  aphelion,  and  the 
moon's  A.  being  the  point  of  its  orbit  most  remote 
from  the  earth.     A.  is  opposed  to  perigee. 

APOLLINA'RIS,  the  Younger,  Bishop  of  Lao- 
dicea  in  Syria  (36"i),  and  one  of  the  warmest  oppo- 
nents of  Arianism.  Both  as  a  man  and  a  scholar, 
he  was  held  in  the  greatest  reverence ;  and  his  writ- 
ings were  extensively  read  in  his  own  day.  His 
father,  A.  the  Elder,  who  was  presbyter  of  Laodicea, 
was  born  at  Alexandria,  and  taught  grammar,  first 
at  Berytus,  and  afterwards  at  Laodicea.  When  Ju- 
lian prohibited  the  Christians  from  teaching  the  class- 
ics, the  father  and  son  endeavored  to  supply  the  loss 
by  converting  the  Scriptures  into  a  body  of  poetry, 
rhetoric,  and  philosophy.  The  Old  Testament  was 
selected  as  the  subject  for  poetical  compositions, 
after  the  manner  of  Homer,  Pindar,  and  the 
814 


tragedians  ;  whilst  the  New  Testament  formed 
the  groundwork  of  dialogues  in  imitation  of  Plata 
It  is  not  ascertained  what  share  the  father  had  in 
this  work  ;  but,  as  he  had  a  reputation  for  poetry, 
he  probably  put  the  Old  Testament  into  Greek  verse. 
But  it  was  chiefly  as  a  controversial  theologian,  and 
as  the  founder  of  a  sect,  that  A.  is  celebrated.  He 
maintained  the  doctrine  that  the  lo(/o8,or  divine  nature 
in  Christ,  took  the  place  of  the  rational  human  soul 
or  mind,  and  that  the  body  of  Christ  was  a  spiritual- 
ised and  glorified  form  of  humanity.  This  doctrine 
was  condemned  by  several  synods,  especially  by  the 
Council  of  Constantinople  (381),  on  the  ground  that 
it  denied  the  true  human  nature  of  Christ.  The 
heresy  styled  ApoUinarianism  spread  itself  rapidly 
in  Syria  and  the  neighboring  countries,  and,  after 
the  death  of  A.,  divided  itself  into  tw  o  sects — the 
Vitalians,  named  after  Vitalis,  Bishop  of  Antioch; 
and  the  Polenieans,  who  added  to  the  doctrine  of  A. 
the  assertion  that  the  divine  and  hiniuin  natures 
were  so  blended  as  one  substance  in  Christ  that  his 
body  was  a  proper  object  of  adoration.  On  this 
account,  they  were  accused  of  sarcolatria  (worship 
of  the  flesh)  and  anthropolatria  (worship  of  man), 
and  also  wore  styled  si/nouxinxtoi  (i^i/n,  together,  and 
ousia,  substance),  because  they  confused  together  the 
two  distinct  substances.  The  whole  controversy,  which 
occupied  a  great  part  of  the  5th  c,  is  an  instance 
of  human  reason  wandering  out  of  its  proper  sphere. 
A.  must  not  be  confounded  with  Claudius  A.,  Bishop 
of  Ilierapolis,  in  Phrygia  (170  a.  d.),  and  who  wrote 
an  Apolof/i/  for  the  Christian  faith,  and  several  other 
works,  all  of  which  are  lost. 

APO'LLO  (Gr.  Aroi.i.ON).  A.  may  be  regarded 
as  the  characteristic  divinity  of  the  Greeks,  inas- 
much as  he  was  the  impersonation  of  Greek  life  in 
its  most  beautiful  and  natural  forms,  and  the  ideal 
representative  of  the  Greek  nation.  His  mild 
worship,  with  its  many  festivals,  accompanied  a.s 
they  were  by  a  cessation  from  all  hostilities ;  hia 
various  shrines  at  sacred  places,  with  their  oracles, 
and  the  general  idea  of  his  character,  had  a  wide, 
powerful,  and  beneficent  influence  on  social  and  poli- 
tical life  throughout  the  states  of  Greece.  Homer 
and  Hesiod  mention  that  he  was  the  son  of  Zeua 
and  Leto,  but  neither  states  where  he  was  born. 
The  Ephesians  believed  that  both  he  and  Diana,  hii 
sister,  were  born  in  a  grove  near  their  city.  The 
Tegyrffians  of  Bieotia,  and  the  inhabitants  of  Zoster 
in  Attica,  also  claimed  the  honor  of  his  birth  ;  while 
the  Egyptians  seemed  to  think  he  properly  belonged 
to  them  ;  but  the  most  popular  legend  was  that 
which  made  him  a  native  of  Delos,  one  of  the 
Cyclades,  where  his  mother  Leto,  followed  by  the 
jealous  wrath  of  Juno  over  land  and  sea,  at  length 
found  rest  and  shelter,  and  was  delivered  of  him, 
under  the  shadow  of  an  olive-troe,  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Cynthus.  To  spite  the  Queen  of  Heaven, 
who  was  far  from  being  a  favourite  with  the  other 
goddesses,  these  hastened  to  tender  their  services 
to  the  weak  and  wearied  Leto.  The  young  A.  was 
much  made  of.  Themis  fed  him  with  nectar  and 
ambrosia,  the  food  of  the  gods,  which  seems  to  have 
suddenly  excited  the  conceit  of  the  infant  deity, 
inasmuch  as  he  surprised  his  nurse  by  starting  to  his 
feet,  demanding  a  lyre,  and  announcing  his  intention 
of  henceforth  revealing  to  mortals  the  will  of  Jove. 
The  island,  proud  of  having  been  the  birthplace  of 
A.,  adorned  itself  with  a  robe  of  golden  flowers. 

In  ancient  literature  A.  is  described  as  possessed 
of  many  and  various  powers,  all  of  which,  however, 
are  seen  on  closer  inspection  to  be  intimately  related 
to  each  other.  He  is  spoken  of:  1.  The  god  of 
retributive  justice,  who,  armed  with  bow  and  arrows, 
sends  down  his  glittering  shafts  upon  insolent 
'  ofl'enders.      In   this   character   he   appears   in    the 


APOLLO  BELVEDERE— APOLLOXIUS. 


Apollo. 


opening  of  the  Iliad.  2.  As  the  instructor  of  bards, 
and  the  god  of  song  or  minstrelsy,  playing  upon  the 
phonninx  or  seven-stringed 
lyre,  and  singing  for  the  diver- 
sion of  the  other  deities  when 
engaged  in  feasting.  3.  As 
the  god  of  prophetic  inspira- 
tion, especially  in  his  oracle  at 
Delphi.  4.  As  the  guardian 
deity  of  herds  and  flocks. 
5.  As  the  god  of  medicine, 
who  affords  help,  and  wards 
off  evil.  In  this  sense  he  is 
represented  as  the  father  of 
Asclepius  (^sculapius),  the  god 
of  the  healing  art.  6.  As  a 
founder  of  cities.  According 
to  Homer,  he  assisted  Neptune 
in  building  the  walls  of  Troy. 
Cyrene,  Naxos  in  Sicily,  and 
other  cities,  venerated  A.  as 
their  founder.  By  the  latter 
writers,  A.  was  identified  with  Helios,  the  sun-god, 
though  Homer  describes  the  latter  as  a  distinct  deity. 
Several  critics,  however,  have  regarded  Helios,  or  the 
sun-god,  as  the  true  original  A. — an  opinion  which 
may  be  supported  by  many  probabilities.  The  suppo- 
sition that  A.  was  identical  with  the  Egyptian  deity 
Horus  was  rejected  by  the  learned  0.  Miiller, 
who  generally  opposed  all  attempts  to  deduce 
Grecian  from  Egyptian  mythology.  According  to 
MiiUer's  theory,  A.  was  a  purely  Doric  deity,  whose 
first  residence  was  in  Tempe,  and  who  afterwards 
removed  to  Delphi,  whence  the  fame  of  his  oracle  was 
spread  abroad,  and  made  him  to  be  recognised  as  the 
national  divmity  of  Greece.  The  introduction  of  his 
worship  into  Attica  appears  to  have  been  contempo- 
raneous with  the  immigration  of  the  lonians,  and 
that  worsliip  would  seem  to  have  spread  over  the 
Peloponnesus,  immediately  after  it  was  conquered  by 
the  Dorians.  Much  controversy  has  taken  place, 
both  with  reference  to  the  idea  which  lies  at  the 
root  of  the  whole  myth  of  the  A.  worship,  and  also 
as  to  whether  this  myth  had  its  origin  in  the  north 
of  Greece  or  in  Egypt.  Even  on  the  supposition  that 
the  original  conception  was  derived  from  the  latter 
source,  it  was  to  Greek  art  and  philosophy  that  it 
owed  its  development  into  the  ideal  of  humatiity. 
The  most  celebrated  oracles  of  A.  were  at  Delphi, 
AbaB  in  Phocis,  Ismenion  in  Thebes,  Delos,  Claros, 
near  Colophon,  and  Patara  in  Lycia.  Among  the 
Romans,  the  worship  of  A.  was  practised  as  early  as 
430  n.c,  and  prevailed  especially  under  the  emperors. 
But  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  Romans  derived 
their  conceptions  of  A.  entirely  from  the  Greeks.  It 
was  in  iionour  of  A.  and  his  sister  Diana  that  the  ludi 
saculares  were  celebrated  every  hundred  years. 
The  attributes  of  A.  are  the  bow  and  quiver,  the 
cithara  and  plectrum,  the  snake,  shepherd's  crook, 
tripod,  laurel,  raven,  &c. ;  less  frequently,  the  grass- 
hopper, cock,  hawk,  wolf,  and  olive-tree.  In  sculp- 
ture, he  is  generally  represented  with  a  face  beauti- 
fully oval,  high  forehead,  flowing  hair,  and  slender 
figure. 

APO'LLO  BELYEDE'RE,  a  celebrated  statue  of 
antiquity,  which  has  generally  been  regarded  as 
embodying  the  highest  ideal  of  manly  beauty.  It 
is  generally  supposed  to  represent  the  'lord  of  the 
unerring  bow'  in  the  moment  of  his  victory  over 
the  Python,  but  numerous  other  explanations  have 
been  suggested.  The  figure  (upwards  of  7  feet  in 
height)  is  nuked,  but  a  cloak  fastened  round  the 
neck  hangs  gracefully  over  the  extended  left  arm  ; 
the  expression  of  the  face  is  one  of  calm  and 
godlike  triumph,  mixed  with  'beautiful  disdain.' 
This   great   work   of  art   was    discovered   in    1503, 


amid   the  ruins  of  the    ancient  Antium,  now  Cajo 
d'Anzo,   and   purchased   by    Pope   Julius   II.,   who 


Apollo  Belvedere. 

placed  it  in  the  Belvedere  of  the  Vatican,  whence  the 
name  it  bears.  The  date  of  its  execution  is  with  pro- 
bability referred  to  the  reign  of  Nero,  but  the  name 
of  the  artist  is  a  matter  of  mere  conjecture.  The 
left  hand  and  the  right  fore-arm,  wanting  in  the  statue 
as  discovered,  were  restored,  by  G.  A.  da  Montorsoli, 
a  pupil  of  Michael  Angelo. 

APOLLODO'RUS,  an  Athenian  painter,  who 
flourished  about  408  B.C.,  and  was  the  predecessor 
of  Zeuxis.  He  introduced  improved  colouring  and 
distribution  of  light  and  shade. — A.,  a  celebrated 
architect  in  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Trajan, 
by  whom  he  was  employed  to  construct  a  bridge 
over  the  Danube  in  Lower  Hungary.  His  severe 
censure,  boldly  pronounced  on  a  design  for  a  temple 
of  Venus,  which  the  Emperor  Hadrian  had  sent 
to  him,  caused  A.  to  be  sentenced  to  death  in 
129  A.n. — A.,  a  Greek  grammarian,  lived  about  140 
n.c,  studied  philosophy  in  Athens,  and  grammar 
under  Aristarchus ;  wrote  a  work  on  mythology, 
giving  an  arrangement  of  old  myths  from  the  earliest 
times  to  the  historical  period ;  also  a  geography,  a 
chronicle  in  iambic  verse,  and  several  grammati- 
cal works.  The  mythology,  which  begins  with  the 
origin  of  the  gods,  probably  went  down  as  far  as  the 
Trojan  cycle,  but  a  portion  of  it  has  perished.  It 
has  been  reckoned  by  some  only  an  extract  from  a 
larger  work  by  A.,  though  this  is  a  mere  hypothesis, 
based  on  the  fact  that  the  legends  are  given  with  ex- 
treme simplicity  and  brevity.  The  work  is  one  of 
great  value  to  classical  scholars,  An  edition  of  tha 
Libliotheca  of  A.,  in  4  vols.,  was  published  at  Gottin- 
geu,  1782 — 1783,  by  C.  H.  G.  Heyne. 

APOLLO'NIUS,  the  name  of  several  celebrated 
Greek  grammarians  and  rhetoricians.  A.,  surnamed 
Dyscolos  (or  ill-tempered),  of  Alexandria,  Hved  in 
the  2d  c.  Some  of  his  grammatical  works  were 
edited  by  Bekker.  A.  was  the  first  who  reduced 
grammar  to  a  system.  His  reputation  was  so  high 
that  Priscian  calls  him  grammaticorum  princepn  (the 
prince  of  grammarians). — A.,  son  of  Archebulus, 
also  of  Alexandria,  hved  in  the  time  of  Augustus, 
and  was  the  author  of  a  lexicon  of  Homeric 
word?. — A.,  surnamed  Molon,  was  a  teacher  of 
rhetoric  at  Rliodes,  and  also  gave  lectures  at 
Rome,  where  he  was  highly  esteemed  by  Cicero 
and  Cffisar. — A.  of  Perga,  240  B.C.,  is  classed 
with  Euclid,  Archimedes,  and  Diophantus,  as  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  mathematical  sciences. 
His   work   on   conic   sections    has   been  preserved, 

815 


ArOLLONIUS— APOLOGY. 


partly    in   the  original  Greek,  partly    in  an  Arabic 
translation. — A.  «)K  Kiiodk.s   (or  of  Alexandria,  say 
some  authorities),  born  2:55  n.c,  wrote  many  works 
on  grammar,   and  an   ipic   poem,    entitled  the   Ar- 
ponmitka,  nuirked  rather   by   learning  and  industry 
than   by   poetical  genius,   though   it    contains  some 
truly    artistic    passages,    such    as    those    exhitiiting 
the  growth  of  Medea's  love.     It  was  greatly  admired 
by  the  Romans,  wa.s  translated  into  Latin  by  Publius  j 
Terentius   Varro,   and  was  imitated,   not    only   in   a  ^ 
wholesale  manner  by  Valerius  Flaccns,  but  even  by  ^ 
Virgil  in  some  pas.sages.     It  has  been  edited  by  the 
German  scholars  Brunck  and  Wellauer(Leipsic,  1813 
—1828). 

APOLLO'NIUS,  OF  Ttana.  in  Cappadocia,  who 
lived  in  the  time  of  Christ,  was  a  zealous  follower  of 
the  doctrines  of  Pythagoras.  He  soon  collected  a 
considerable  number  of  disciples,  travelled  through 
a  great  part  of  Asia  Minor,  and  endeavoured  to  find 
his  way  to  India,  in  order  to  become  acquainted  with 
the  doctrine  of  the  lirahmins.  On  this  journey  he 
stayed  for  a  time  in  Babylon,  was  introduced  to 
the'  Magi,  and  at  last  reached  the  Court  of  King 
Phraortes,  in  India,  who  recommended  him  to 
Jarchas,  the  principal  Brahmin.  When  A.  returned 
from  this  pilgrimage,  hi.s  fame  as  a  wise  man  was 
greatly  increased;  the  people  regarded  him  as  a 
worker  of  miracles  and  a  divine  being,  and  princes 
were  glad  to  entertain  him  at  their  courts.  He 
himself  seems  to  have  claimed  insight  into  futurity, 
rather  than  the  power  of  working  miracles.  From 
Rome  he  was  expelled  on  a  charge  of  having  raised 
a  young  woman  from  the  dead.  After  extensive 
travels  in  Sjjain,  Italy,  Greece,  and  Ethioi)ia,  he  was 
accused  of  having  taken  part  in  an  insurrection 
against  Domitian ;  but  appeared  before  the  tribunal, 
and  was  acipiitted.  Ultimately,  he  appears  to  have 
settled  in  Ephesus,  where  he  opened  a  Pythagorean 
school,  and  continued  his  teaching  until  he  died, 
nearly  one  hundred  years  old.  llis  history  was 
written  about  a  himdred  years  after  his  death  by 
Philostratus  (q.  v.).  It  contain.s  a  mass  of  absurd- 
ities and  fables,  through  which  an  outline  of  histori- 
cal facts  and  the  real  character  of  the  man  are  suffi- 
ciently discernible.  Ilierocles,  a  heathen  statesman 
and  opponent  of  Christianity,  wrote,  in  the  3d  c,  a 
work  on  the  life  and  doctrines  of  A.,  with  a  view 
to  prove  their  superiority  to  the  doctrine  of  Christ. 
In  modern  times,  the  English  freethinkers  Blount 
and  Lord  Herbert,  and  Voltaire  in  France,  have  re- 
newed the  attempt. 

APOLLO'NIUS,  OF  Tyre,  the  hero  of  a  Greek 
romance,  which  enjoyed  great  popularity  in  the 
middle  ages,  and  was  translated  into  almost  all  the 
languages  of  Western  Europe.  In  it  are  related  the 
romantic  adventures  which  befell  A.,  a  Syrian  prince, 
previous  to  his  marriage  with  the  daughter  of  King 
Alcistrates,  of  Cyrene.  To  these  are  added  the  ad- 
ventures of  his  wife,  who  was  parted  from  him  by 
apparent  death,  as  well  as  those  of  his  daughter. 
Tarsia,  who  was  carried  off  by  pirates,  and  sold  in 
Mitylene.  The  poem  closes  with  the  reunion  of  the 
whole  family.  The  original  Greek  work  no  longer 
exists  ;  but  there  are  three  very  early  Latin  versions, 
of  which  one  was  pabli.shed  by  Welser  (Augsburg, 
1595) ;  another  is  to  be  found  in  the  Gesta  Roman- 
orum ;  and  the  third  in  the  Pantheon  of  Gottfried  of 
Viterbo.  From  this  Latin  source  have  proceeded 
the  Spanish  version  of  the  13th  c,  printed  in 
Sanchez'  Colleccion  de  Poeaian  Castellanax  (2d  edi- 
tion, Paris,  1842),  several  I^-eneh  versions,  in  prose 
and  verse,  as  well  as  several  Italian.  As  early  as 
the  11th  c.  there  was  an  Anglo-Saxon  adnptntion  of 
the  work,  and  subsequently  various  English  ones 
appeared.  Shakspeare  has  treated  the  subject  in  his 
316 


drama  of  Pericles;  he  substantially  follows  (Jower, 
in  his  ConfegKio  Aiiiatilis,  who  bases  hi.s  narrative  ou 
the  Pantftrim  of  Gottfried  of  Viterbo.  Three  popu- 
lar English  stories,  drawn  from  a  French  version 
of  this  romance,  ai>peared  in  London  in  1.^10,  157fi, 
and  HiH?  ;  while  the  Dutch,  in  14'.>3,  derived  theira 
from  the  German.  The  romance  was  rendered  into 
(ierman,  probubly  from  the  (Jtstn  Roinanoruni,  by  a 
certain  '  Ileinrich  von  der  Neuetistadt '  (i.  e.,  Vienna), 
about  the  year  13<m",  in  the  form  of  a  long,  ami,  as 
yet,  unpublished  poem.  Later,  we  have  a  lliatnri 
lies  Kunujex  Aji/wloyiii,  translated  from  (Jottfried  of 
Viterbo,  and  first  published  at  Augsburg  in  147»5. 
Simrock,  in  his  Sourccn  of  S/iakxpfare,  narrates 
the  story  as  it  is  given  in  the  Geita  Romanorum.  A 
modern  Greek  translation  of  the  Latin  romance, 
undertaken  in  1.5(H»  by  (iabriel  Contiaiuis,  of  Crete, 
and  .several  time.*>  reprinted  at  Venice,  must  not  be 
confounded  with  the  lost  Greek  original. 

A'POLOGUE,  a  fahle,  parable,  or  short  story, 
intended  to  serve  as  a  pleasant  vehicle  of  some  moral 
doctrine.  One  of  the  oldest  and  best  apologia  s  or 
parables  is  that  by  Jotham,  as  given  in  the  Book  of 
Judges  (ix.  7 — 15).  Another  celef)rated  A.  is  that  of 
the  'Limbs  and  the  Boily,'  related  by  the  jiatriiian 
Menenius  Agrippa.  ..tisop's  fables  have  enjoyed  a 
world-wide  reputation.  Luther  held  such  an  opinion 
of  the  value  of  the  A.  as  a  vehicle  of  moral  truth, 
that  he  edited  a  revised  ..Esop,  for  which  he  wrote  a 
characteristic  preface.  He  says:  'In  doing  this,  I 
have  especially  eared  for  young  people,  that  they 
may  receive  instruction  in  a  style  suitable  to  their 
age,  which  is  naturally  fond  of  all  kinds  of  fiction; 
and  I  have  wished  to  gratify  this  natural  taste  with- 
out indidging  anything  that  is  bad.' 

APOLOGY.     The  term   is  now  commonly  under- 
stood as  synonymous  with  an  excu.se  for  breach  of 
an  engagement,  &c.,  but  was  originally  used  as  the 
title   of    any    work    written   in    defence   of    certain 
doctrines,    as   in    the    A.    of  Socrates,    ascribed    to 
Plato    and  Xenophon ;    the  A.  for    the  Christians, 
by  TertuUian,  and  in  many  other  defences   of   the 
Christians    written  by    Justin   Martyr,  Athenagora.s, 
Tatian,  Theophilus,  ()rigen,  Eusebius,  Minucius  Felix, 
Arnobius,  Lactantius,  Augustine,  Orosius,  andotheis. 
The  attacks  parried  or  retorted  in  these  apologetical 
works  are    such   as   charges   of  atheism,    want    of 
philosophical     knowledge,     anti-social     tenets,     &c. 
Both  the  charges  and  the  refutations  brought  for- 
ward serve  to  give  us  an   insight  into  the  character 
of  the  times  when  these  works  were  written.     Thus, 
in  the  A.  by  TertuUian,  it  is  curious  to  find  a  formal 
argument  employed  to  refute  the  assertion  that  the 
spread  of  Christianity  was  the  cause  of  '  earthquakes,' 
and  other  natural  phenomena  which  had  occurred  in 
some  parts  of  the  Roman  empire.     After  the  fourth 
century,  when  the  church  was  made  dominant  under 
the  Roman  emperors,  apologetical  writings  were  less 
called  for  ;  but  Bartholus  Edessenus  and  Raymundus 
Martinus  wrote  against  the  Jews  and  the  Moham- 
medans.   In  the  15th  c,  when  the  revival  of  learning 
placed   Christianity  in    apparejit  opposition   to    the 
Platonic    philosophy,    Marsilius    Ficinus    vrote    in 
defence    of    revelation  ;  and   some   time    after   the 
Reformation,  the  spread  of  freethinking  and  scepti- 
cism in  England  was  opposed  by  a  variety  of  apolo- 
getical works,   chiefly  maintaining  the  points    that 
Christianity  is  a  divine    revelation,  Christ    a  divine 
messenger,  and    his    church    a    divine    institution. 
The  defence  of    Christianity  on  grounds  of  reason 
came   now    to   be  treated  as  a  distinct   branch  of 
theology,  under  the  name  of  Apohfjctics.     Among 
the  numerous  apologetic  works  by  Protestants,  may 
be  mentioned  those    by  Grotius  {De  Verltnte,  kc), 
Butler  {Analogy  of  Reliffion,  Natural  and  Revealed), 


APONEUROSIS— APOSTLE. 


Biirclay  (^Apology  for  The  true  Chrhlian  Divinity), 
Addison,  Soame,  Jeuyns  (^Internal  Evidences  of  the 
Christian  JReliffio7i),  Hugh  Farmer,  Bishop  Watson 
(A.  for  Chrixtianity),  Paley  {Evidences  of  Christianit;/ 
and  Horce  Paulimc),  &c.  Among  Roman  Catholic 
apologetic  writers,  the  most  eminent  are  Pascal, 
Hauteville,  Guenee,  Bergicr,  Mayr,  and  Chateau- 
briand. 

Recently,  in  Germany,  a  great  number  of  apolo- 
getic worlvs  by  Neander,  Tholuck,  and  others  have 
appeared,  in  reply  to  the  Life  of  Jesus  by  David 
Friedrich  Strauss. 

APONEUROSIS  is  an  anatomical  term  for  an 
expansion  of  strong  fibrous  tissue,  of  which  there 
are  many  examples  in  the  human  body.  For  the  sake 
of  convenience  it  is  generally  confined  to  expansions 
from  the  tendons  of  muscles,  as  the  lumbar  A.  If  a 
tendon  is  very  broad  and  expanded,  as  that  of  the 
external  oblique  muscle  of  the  abdomen,  it  is  said 
to  be  aponeurotic.  Some  muscles,  as  those  on  the 
shoulder-blade,  are  partially  covered  with  a  ten- 
dinous expansion,  to  which  some  of  their  fibres 
are  attached ;  this  is  termed  the  aponeurotic  origin 
of  the  muscle  ;  it  gives  the  muscle  a  more  extensive 
attachment,  without  adding  materially  to  weight. 
Aponeuroses  stretcli  in  some  localities  as  protec- 
tions over  large  arteries ;  thus,  in  bleeding  from 
the  vein  nearest  the  inside  of  the  bend  of  the  elbow, 
the  only  structure  between  it,  the  lancet,  and  the 
brachial  artery,  is  an  aponeuretic  expansion  from  the 
biceps  tendon  into  the  muscles  of  the  fore-arm.  See 
Fascia. 

A'POPHTHEGM  (Gr.,  an  utterance),  a  term  used 
to  designate  any  truth  or  maxim  sentcntiously 
expressed.  The  oracles  of  the  heathen  gods  often 
took  this  form,  as  also  the  prbverbs,  memorable 
sayings,  &c.,  of  the  sages  of  antiquity.  In  modern 
times.  Lord  Bacon  has  made  a  charming  collection 
of  apophthegms. 

A'POPLEXY  is  a  term  applied  to  an  engorge- 
ment of  blood,  with  or  without  extravasation,  in  or 
upon  any  organ,  as  the  brain  {cerebral  A.),  the  spinal 
cord  or  lungs  {j)ulnionary  A).  As  popularly  used,  the 
term  denotes  vaguely  a  condition  arising  from  some 
disturbance  within  the  head.  A.  occurs  \nfits.  which 
may  be  sudden  or  come  on  by  degrees.  They  are 
characterised  by  loss  of  sense  and  motion,  speech- 
lessness and  heavy  sleep,  with  stertorous  respiration 
and  a  slow  pulse.  The  fit  may  last  from  a  few  hours 
to  two  or  three  days,  and  passes  off,  leaving  generally 
more  or  less  paralysis,  and  recurs  at  intervals  of 
months  or  years.  The  age  at  which  A.  occurs  most 
commonly  is  from  fifty  to  seventy,  and  is  compara- 
tively rare  before  and  after  these  ages.  Cerebral  A. 
may  arise  from  mere  congestion  of  the  blood-vessels 
of  the  brain,  caused  by  impeded  return  of  the  venous 
blood,  as  from  the  military  stock  pressing  on  the 
jugidar  veins,  keeping  the  head  long  in  one  position, 
or  turning  it  quickly.  Stout  persons,  with  short 
necks,  are  more  liable  to  this  form  of  A. ;  thorough 
lean  persons  are  also  frequently  its  victims.  But 
in  addition  to  congestion,  there  may  be  an  escape 
of  the  watery  portion  of  the  blood  from  the  con- 
gested vessels,  and  this  collecting,  produces  serous 
A. ;  or,  owing  to  a  diseased  condition  of  the  arterial 
walls,  the  vessels  may  burst,  and  A.  from  cerberal 
hemorrhage  be  the  result ;  the  latter  is  the  most 
conmion,  and  is  usually  preceded  by  some  softening 
of  the  brain  substance  itself.  If  this  bleeding  be 
to  any  great  extent,  death  results ;  if  only  a  small 
quantity  escapes,  it  coagulates,  and  forms  a  clot, 
which  is  absorbed  in  time.  Persons  with  diseased 
heart  and  lungs,  and  pregnant  females,  are  liable  to 
apoplctic  fits.  The  attack  is  generally  preceded 
by  vertigo,  headache,  partial  or  temporary  loss  of 


memory,  and  occasionally  double  vision.  Whcu 
these  warnings  occur,  medical  advice  should  be 
sought  to  correct  the  digestive  functions;  and  by 
relieving  the  oppressed  vein,  ward  off  the  fit. 
When  the  latter  occurs,  the  patient's  head  should  be 
raised,  cold  applied,  and  in  some  cases  blood  should 
be  withdrawn  from  the  temporal  artery,  or  external 
jugular  vein.  As  soon  as  possible,  purgative  medi- 
cines should  be  administered.  For  the  results  of  A., 
see  Paralysis.  Tumours  within  the  skull  produce 
symptoms  of  A. 

APO'STATE  literally  designates  any  one  who 
changes  his  religion,  whatever  may  be  his  motive; 
but,  by  custom,  the  word  is  always  used  in  an  inju- 
rious sense,  as  equivalent  to  renegade,  or  one  who,  iu 
changing  his  creed,  is  actuated  by  unworthy  motives. 
In  early  Christian  times,  the  word  was  applied  to 
those  who  abandoned  their  faith  in  order  to  escape 
from  persecution ;  but  it  was  also  applied  to  such 
as  rejected  Christianity  on  speculative  grounds  (the 
Emperor  Julian,  for  instance).  After  the  5th  c, 
when  heathenism  was  declining,  many  who  had  no 
sincere  belief  in  Christianity,  yet  made  profession  of 
it,  and  were  baptised :  these  also  were  styled  apos- 
tates. The  apostates  in  times  of  persecution  were 
styled  variously  Sacrificati,  Thurificati,  &c.,  accord- 
ing to  the  modes  in  which  they  publicly  made 
known  their  return  to  heathenism,  by  oftering  sacri- 
fices or  incense  to  the  gods  of  Rome.  The  Roman 
Catholic  Church  at  one  period  imposed  severe 
penalties  on  apostasy.  The  apostate  was  of  course 
excommunicated ;  but  sometimes  also  his  property 
was  confiscated,  and  he  himself  banished,  or  even 
put  to  death.  It  has  often  been  of  great  moment  to 
the  fortunes  of  a  nation  that  a  prince  has  apostatised. 
The  most  renowned  instance  in  modern  history,  is 
that  of  Henry  IV.  of  France.  In  1833  there  was 
published,  at  Erlangen,  A  Gallery  of  Important  Per- 
sons who  in  the  \&th,  llth,  and  I8th  Centuries  vent 
over  from  the  Protestant  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church. — The  term  Apostasy  is  now  employed  com- 
monly, and  often  abusively,  as  a  reproach  for  great 
or  sudden  changes  in  political  opinions. 

APO'STLE  (Gr.  apostolos,  sent  forth,  sent  on  a 
mission),  any  messenger  whatever,  but  especially 
used  to  denote  the  twelve  disciples  whom  Jesus  sent 
forth  to  preach  the  gospel.  Their  names  were 
Simon  Peter,  Andrew,  John  (the  son  of  Zebedee), 
James  (his  brother),  Philip,  Bartholomew  (called  also 
Nathaniel),  Thomas,  Matthew  (surnamed  Levi), 
James  (the  son  of  Alphseus),  Thaddeus,  Simon,  and 
Judas  Iscariot.  Subsequently,  Matthias  was  chosen 
in  the  room  of  Judas ;  and  at  a  still  later  period, 
the  number  of  the  apostles  was  further  increased 
by  the  calling  of  Paul  to  the  apostleship.  The  term 
is  sometimes  used  in  the  New  Testament  in  its  more 
general  signification.  Barnabas  is  styled  an  A. 
(Acts  xiv.)  It  is  a  point  of  controversy  between  the 
supporters  and  opponents  of  episcopacy,  whether  or 
not  the  term  A.,  as  indicating  an  office,  is  applied  to 
any  except  the  original  twelve,  Matthias  and  Paul; 
it  being  maintained,  on  the  one  hand,  that  the  office 
is  perpetuated  in  bishops;  on  the  other,  that  it  was 
temporary  and  belonged  exclusively  to  those  who 
were  witnesses  of  the  resurrection  of  Christ,  and 
were  employed  by  him  to  found  the  Christian  Church. 
The  apostles  were  twice  commissioned  by  their  Master 
to  go  forth  on  their  work  of  evangelization.  First, 
during  the  third  year  of  his  public  ministry.  On  this 
occasion,  their  labours  were  to  be  restricted  to  the 
Jews,  properly  so  called.  Not  even  the  Samaritans, 
though  natives  of  Palestine,  were  to  be  the  objects 
of  their  religious  solicitude.  They  were  earnestly  to 
seek  oirt  the  lost  sheep  of  the  house  of  Israel.  The 
second  time  was  shortly  before  the  Lord's  ascension, 

317 


APOSTLES'  CREED— APOSTOLIC  MAJESTY. 


wlien  tlicir  sphere  of  hibour  was  indefinitely  extended, 
'  (io  ami  teacli  all  nation-',  baptizing  tlieni  in  tlie  name 
of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost.' 
On  the  day  of  Pentecost  the  apostle.s  received  niirnc- 
ulons   gifts,   fitting    them    for   tlieir  ardnons   work. 
And  after  evangelizing  for  some  years  in  Palestine, 
they  all  depaited,  with  the  exception  of  St.  James, 
into  various  quarters  of  the  globe ;  but  the  region  of 
their  ministry  seems  to  have  principally  comprised  the 
civilized  jtrovinces  and  cities  of  the  eastern  part  of 
the    Roman    empire — viz.,    Syria,    Asia    Minor,    and 
Greece;  though  [irobably  Peter,  and  after  him  Paul, 
visited   Rome.     There    is   no   liistorical    foundation 
for   the    tradition    that    the    first   apostles    divided  j 
the  then  known  world  into  twelve  parts,  each  taking 
one  of  these  for  his  special  sphere  of  labour.     This 
figment  was  very   likely   originated  by  two  circum- 
stances:    1.  That  the  disciples  were  commanded  to' 
go  into  all   the  world  and   preach  the  gospel ;  and  ! 
2.  That   the  disciples  in  point  of  fact   had  little  per-  \ 
ponal  intercourse   with  each  other.     Their  zeal  for  ' 
the  propagation  of  Clinstianity  left  them  no  time  to  : 
gratify  their  social  inclinations.     As  a  consequence,  i 
we  have  very  imperfect  accounts  of  their  lives  or 
manner  of  death. 

The  several  apostles  arc  usually  represented  in 
medieval  pictures  with  special  badges  or  attributes: 
St.  Peter,  with  the  keys ;  St.  Paid,  with  a  sword ; 
St.  Andrew,  with  a  cross;  St.  James  the  Less,  with 
a  fuller's  pole;  St.  John,  with  a  cup  and  a  winged 
serpent  flying  out  of  it ;  St.  Hartholomew,  with  a 
knife ;  St.  Philip  with  a  long  staff,  whose  upper  end 
is  formed  into  a  cross;  St.  Thomas,  with  a  lance  ;  St. 
Matthew,  with  a  hatchet;  St.  Matthias  with  a  battle- 
axe  ;  St.  James  the  Greater,  with  a  pilgrim's  staff 
and  a  gourd-bottle;  St.  Simon,  with  a  saw  ;  and  St. 
Jude,  with  a  club. 

APOSTLES'  CREED.    See  Crkkd. 

APOSTOLIC,   or   APOSTOLICAL,    the   general 
term  applied  to  everything  derived  directly  from,  or  \ 
bearing  the  character  of  the  apostles.     Either  cix^e  | 
constitutes  apostolicity.    The  Roman  Catholic  Church  I 
declares  itself  the  A.  Church  ;  the  papal  chair  the  ' 
A.  chair,  on     the    ground    of    an    unbroken     series  I 
of  Roman  bi.sliops,  from    the   chief  apostle,  Peter.  | 
The  Church  of  England,  in  virtue  of  regular  episcopal  i 
ordination  from  the  prc-reformation  church,  claims  ■ 
to  be  A. ;  so  likewise  do  the  Protestant  Episcopal , 
churches  in  Scotland  and  the  L'nited  States.     Apos- 
tolic Tradition  (see  Tuapition)  claims  to  have  been 
handed   down    from   the    apostles.      In    the    same 
special  sense,  the  name  of  A.   Council   belongs   to 
that   conclave  of  the   apostles   at   Jerusalem  (Acts 
XV.),   about  the  year  51  or  52  a.d.,  occasioned  by 
the  disputes  raised  at  Antioch  by  Juduizing  Chris- 
tians as   to   the   admission   of  uncircumcised   Gen- 
tiles  into   the   church.      Certain   congregations    or 
churches,  also,  which  were  the  special  scenes  of  t;hc 
labours  of  the  apostles,  bore  for  centuries  the  title 
of  A.  Churches,  more  especially  those  of  Jerusalem, 
Antioch,  Ephesus,  Corinth,  and  Rome.     But  with  the 
ever-increasing  spiritual  power  of  the  Romish  hier- 
archy, the  name  A.  came  to  be  more  and  more  exclu- 
sively applied  to  Rome,  and  is  retained  by  her,  despite 
the  energetic  protests  of  the  Protestant  Churches. 
Hence   the   term  Apostolic   See,    i.  e.,  the   see   of 
Rome  ;  Apostolic  Blessing,  the  blessing  of  the  pope, 
as  the  successor  of  St.  Peter ;  Apostolic  Vicar,  the 
cardinal  who   represents  the  pope  in  extraordinary 
missions ;    Apostolic   Chamber,  a   council   intrusted 
with  the  care  of  the  revenues  of  the  see  of  Rome ; 
Apostolic    Months — January,     March,    May,    July, 
September,   November — the   months   in    which   the 
pope,  according  to  the  Vienna  Concordat  of  1448, 
took  possession  of  the  vacant  benefices  in  Germanv, 
818 


&c.     A  papal  brief  or  letter  is  styled  A.  in  the  samo 

sen.se. 

APOSTOLIC  BRETIIREX,  or  APOSTOLICI,  tho 
name  given  in  Italy,  towards  the  en<l  of  the  llltli 
c,  to  one  of  those  sects  which,  animated  by  tho 
spirit  of  an  Arnold  of  Brescia,  felt  constrained  to 
oppose  the  worldly  teiidenciei  of  the  church.  Its 
founder  was  Gerhard  Segarelli,  a  weaver  in  Parma. 
Rejected,  from  son»e  cause  or  other,  by  the  Franciscan 
order,  his  long-continued  and  enthusiastic  medita- 
tions led  him  to  the  profound  conviction  that  it  was 
above  all  things  necessary  to  return  to  the  simple 
forms  of  ajiostolic  life.  Accordingly,  he  went  about 
(l'iG(i)  in  the  garb  of  the  apostles,  as  a  preacher  of 
repentance,  and  by  his  practical  discourses  gathered 
many  adherents  into  a  kind  of  free  society,  bound 
by  no  oaths.  At  first  he  managed  to  avoid  any  direct 
collision  with  the  dogmas  of  the  church ;  but  after 
twenty  years  of  undistinbed  activity  and  growing 
influence,  Segarelli  was  arrested  by  the  Bishop  of 
Parma;  and  in  li'SO,  upon  the  occasion  of  his  release, 
Pope  Ilonoiius  IV.  renewed  a  decrre  of  Pope  (Jreg- 
ory  X.  against  all  religious  comniuinties  not  directly 
sanctioned  by  the  papal  chair.  In  l'J<.»n,  Nieholaa 
IV.  .setting  himself  expressly  to  oppose  the  A.  B., 
they,  on  their  side,  began  avoweilly  to  denounce 
the  papacy,  and  its  corrupt  and  worldly  church,  as 
the  Babylon  of  the  Apocalypse.  In  iSoti,  many, 
both  men  and  women,  and  among  them  Segarelli,  as 
having,  after  abjuration,  relapsed  into  heresy, 
perishi'd  at  the  stake.  But  his  cause  survived  him. 
Dolcino,  a  more  energetic  and  cidtivated  man, 
brought  up  as  a  priest,  who  had  previously  taken  an 
active  pait  in  the  Tyrol  against  the  corruptions  of 
the  church,  now  headed  the  orphan  sect  in  Italy.  He 
taught  the  duty  of  a  complete  renunciation  of  all 
worldly  ties,  of  jiroperty  and  settled  abode,  &c. 
Having  retreated  into  Dalmatia,  he  annoiniceil  from 
thence  the  dawning  of  a  new  era,  and  in  i:}(i4, 
reappeared  in  I'pjier  Italy,  with  thousands  of 
adherents,  as  the  enemy  of  the  papacy — at  that 
time  humbled  and  impoverished  by  France.  In 
1305,  a  crusade  was  preached  against  him.  He  forti- 
fied the  mountain  Zebello,  in  the  diocese  of  Vercelli, 
but  was,  after  a  gallant  defence,  compelled  by  famine 
to  submit.  After  horrible  tortures,  which  he  bore 
with  the  utmost  fortitude,  he  was  burned.  In  Lom- 
bardy  and  the  south  of  France,  remnants  of  the  A. 
B.  lingered  on  till  13fi8.  See  Krone,  Fra  Dolcino 
und  die  Patarener.     (Leipsic,  1844.) 

APOSTOLIC  CATHOLIC    CHURCH.      See    I»- 

VIXOITKS. 

APOSTO'LIC  FATHERS,  the  name  given  to 
the  inmiediate  disciples  and  fellow-labourers  of  the 
apostles,  and,  in  a  niore  restricted  sense,  to  those 
among  them  who  have  left  writings  behind  them. 
The  A.  F.,  specially  so  called,  are  Barnabas,  Clement 
of  Rome,  Ignatius  ol  Antioch,  and  Polycarp  of 
Smyrna.  It  is  uncertain  whether  Papias  of  Hierapolis, 
and  the  author  of  the  Shepherd,  who  gave  himself 
out  as  the  Hernias  .spoken  of  in  Rom.  xvi.  14,  were 
really  di.sciples  of  the  apostles.  The  writings  of  the 
A.  F.,  as  to  their  form  and  subject,  may  be  looked 
upon  as  a  continuation  of  the  apostolic  epistles,  ;hough 
far  inferior  to  them  in  spirit.  Their  main  purpo.'e  is 
to  exhort  to  faith  and  holiness  before  Christ's 
coming  again.  The  writings  of  the  A.  F.  have 
been  brought  within  the  reach  of  EngHsh  readers 
by  the  translations  of  Archbishop  Wake  and  Mr. 
Chevallier. 

APOSTO'LIC  MAJESTY,  a  title  held  by  the 
kings  of  Hungary,  was  conferred  by  Pope  Sylvester 
II.,  in  1000  A.D.,  upon  Duke  Stephen  of  Hungary, 
who  had  not  only  much  encouraged  the  progress 
of  Christianity  in   Hungary,  but   actually  preached 


APOSTOLIC  CAXONS— APOTHECARIES. 


himself,  in  imitation  of  the  apostles.  In  1768,  the 
title  was  renewed  by  Pope  Clement  XIII.,  in  favour 
of  Maria  Theresa  as  Queen  of  Hungary,  and  con- 
tinues to  be  used  by  the  emperor  of  Austria  as  king 
of  Hungary. 

APOSTOLIC  CAXONS  and  CONSTITUTION'S, 
both  ascribed  by  tradition  to  Clemens  Roma- 
nus,  are  notes  of  ecclesiastical  customs  held  to 
be  apostolical,  written  in  the  form  of  apostolic 
precepts.  The  Constitudonen  Apostolicce,  consist- 
ing of  eight  books,  were  probably  composed  in  Syria, 
and  contain,  in  the  first  six  books,  a  comprehensive 
rule  for  the  whole  of  Christian  life.  These  were 
probably  written  about  the  end  of  the  3d  c. ;  while 
the  seventh  book,  which  is  essentially  an  abridg- 
ment of  them,  may  have  belonged  to  the  beginning 
of  the  4th  c.  The  eighth  book  was  put  together  in 
the  middle  of  the  4th  c,  for  the  use  of  the  priests, 
and  only  relates  to  the  sacred  offices.  Interpolations, 
however,  were  afterwards  introduced.  The  Canones 
ApostoUci,  which  were  also  recognised  by  the  church, 
were  composed  at  a  later  period.  The  first  fifty, 
compiled  in  the  middle  of  the  5th  c,  and  translated 
from  Greek  into  Latin  by  Dionysius  the  Younger, 
were  acknowledged  by  the  Latin  Church  alone.  The 
Greek  Church,  on  the  other  hand,  accepted  the 
thirty-five  canons  put  forth  in  the  beginning  of  the 
Cth  c. ;  and  this  became  a  point  of  discord  between 
the  churches.  Both  collections  were  probably  look- 
ed upon  at  first  as  apostolic  tradition  merely.  Later, 
it  came  to  be  believed  that  they  were  written  down 
by  the  apostles  themselves,  it  being  thought  prob- 
able that  they  should  have  expressed  themselves 
positively  about  the  constitution  as  well  as  the  dog- 
mas of  the  church. 

APOSTO'LIC  PARTY,  the  name  given  to  a  party 
who  acted  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  modern  history 
of  Spain.  They  were  composed  of  fanatical  Catholics, 
who  were  also  absolutists  so  far  as  the  king  con- 
sented to  be  their  instrument.  They  formed  them- 
selves (soon  after  the  revolution  of  1819)  into  an 
A.  P.,  whose  leaders  were  fugitive  priests,  and  whose 
troops  were  smugglers  and  robbers.  After  taking 
an  active  part  in  all  the  subsequent  agitations,  they 
finally  merged  (18-30)  in  the  Carlist  party. 

APOSTO'LICAL  SUCCESSION  is  a  phrase  used 
to  denote  one  or  both  of  two  things — the  deriva- 
tion of  holy  orders  by  an  unbroken  chain  of  trans- 
mission from  the  apostles,  and  the  succession  of  a 
ministry  so  ordained  to  the  powers  and  privileges  of 
the  apostles.  The  former  is  necessarily  a  matter  of 
fact,  to  be  ascertained  by  history  ;  the  latter  is  rather 
a  matter  of  opinion — the  Roman  and  Protestant 
Churches,  and  again  individuals  and  parties  in  either, 
differing  widely  from  each  other  in  their  views.  See 
Bishop  and  Ordination. 

APO'STROPHE  (Gr.  apostrophe,  a  turning  away, 
or  breaking  off)  is  a  rhetorical  figure  by  which  a 
speaker  changes  the  course  of  his  speech,  and 
addresses,  with  greater  or  lesser  emotional  emphasis, 
persons  present  or  absent,  the  dead,  or  inanimate 
objects,  either  to  invoke  them  as  witnesses,  or  to  pitv, 
praise,  or  blame  them.  When  the  figure  is  well 
managed,  it  has  a  thrilling  effect,  both  in  oratory 
and  poetry  ;  but  when  extravagantly  introduced,  it 
becomes  ludicrous.  Examples  of  it  abound  in  the 
writings  and  speeches  of  the  great  poets  and  states- 
men both  of  ancient  and  modern  times. — A.  in  gram- 
mar, is  the  omission  of  a  letter  or  letters  in  a  word, 
the  omission  being  marked  by  a  comma,  as  His  for  it 
is;  the  comma  so  employed  is  also  called  an  A. 

APOTHECARIES,  in  general  acceptation,  are 
skilled  persons  who  keep  shops  or  laboratories  for 
the  vending  and  compounding  of  medicines,  and 
for  the  making  up  of  medical  prescriptions ;  but  in 


England,  they  may  be  not  incorrectly  described  as  an 
inferior  branch  of  the  medical  profession.  They  are 
legally  entitled  to  attend  sick  persons,  and  prescribe 
for  them,  as  well  as  to  make  up  and  dispense 
medicines.  It  is  not,  however,  usual  for  them  to 
prescribe  medicines  to  be  prepared  and  supplied  by 
others;  and  it  may  be  doubted  whether  they  can 
do  so  in  London  without  incurring  the  penalties 
of  the  14  and  15  Henry  VIII.  c.  5,  by  which  the 
privileges  of  the  London  physicians  are  confirmed 
and  extended — their  ordinary  practice,  in  addition 
to  preparing  medicines  from  a  physician's  prescriji- 
tion,  being  to  advi.se  the  patient,  to  prescribe,  and 
make  up  the  required  medicine  in  their  own  labora- 
tory. But  although  an  apothecary  may  attend  sick 
persons,  and  prescribe  for  them,  he  cannot  charge 
both  for  his  attendances  and  his  medicines,  but 
must  make  his  election  between  the  two.  It  was  so 
ruled  by  the  late  Chief-justice  Best,  in  an  action 
by  an  apothecary,  who  sought  to  recover  on  both 
grounds  (see  Wilcock  on  the  Medical  Profession, 
and  the  law-cases  there  collected).  Although, 
therefore,  the  apothecary  is  inferior  in  professional 
rank  an<l  authority  to  the  physician  and  surgeon,  he 
is  of  a  higher  grade  than  the  chemist  and  druggist, 
who  merely  vends  drugs  and  medicinal  compounds, 
but  whose  qualification,  beyond  the  payment  of  a 
small  annual  tax  by  way  of  license,  does  not  neces- 
sarily offer  any  test  or  guarantee  of  skill.  Practically, 
however,  although  it  may  be  matter  of  surprise  aiid 
regret  that  the  legislature  has  not  interposed,  by 
any  stringent  enactment,  for  the  protection  of  the 
public  against  the  unskilful  and  empirical  druggist, 
little  or  no  injury  perhaps  results  from  such  a  state 
of  the  law,  for  the  rules  of  the  '  Pharmaceutical 
Society  of  Great  Britain,' incorporated  in  1843  by 
royal  charter,  and  the  powers  of  which  have  been 
considerably  enlarged  by  a  recent  statute,  15  and  16 
Vict.  c.  56,  passed  on  the  30th  June  1852,  operate 
as  a  restraint  on  ignorance  and  want  of  skill.  By  a 
still  more  recent  act  called  'The  Medical  Act' 
(21  and  22  Vict.  c.  90,  s.  54),  provision  is  made  for 
the  preparation  of  what  the  act  calls  'the  British 
Pharmacopoeia,'  an  enactment  which  would  be  of 
value  _  in  the  case  of  pharmaceutical  malpractices, 
were  it  not  that  the  next  section  of  the  same  act 
expressly  exempts  from  its  operation,  among  others, 
the  '  lawful  trade  or  business  of  chemists  or  drug- 
gists,' an  inconsistency  of  which  perhaps  poor  per- 
sons, who  cannot  afford  to  consult  a  regular  prac- 
titioner, have  the  chief  right  to  complain.  See 
Chkmist  and  Druggist. 

The  business,  or  profession,  as  it  may  be  called, 
of  an  apothecary  in  England,  although  neither  reg- 
ulated, nor,  indeed,  fully  recognised,  till  modern 
times,  has  been  made  the  subject  of  several  ancient 
statutes,  and  is  traceable  to  a  remote  period  in  the 
history  of  the  healing  art  in  England.  Richard 
Fitznigel,  who  died  Bishop  of  London,  was  stated 
to  have  been  apothecary  to  Henry  II. ;  and  it  ia 
an  accredited  tradition,  that  in  1345  King  Edward 
III.  gave  a  pension  of  sixpence  a  day  to  Coursus  de 
Gangland,  an  apothecary  in  London,  for  taking  care 
of,  and  attending  his  majesty  during  his  illness  in 
Scotland.  It  is,  however,  improbable  that  A.  were 
then  common,  indeed  it  may  be  doubted  whether 
at  that  time  they  existed  as  a  publicly  known  body 
at  all,  for,  in  1611,  there  was  passed  an  act  of  parlia- 
ment, the  3  Henry  VIII.  c.  11,  for  regulating  the 
admission  of  persons  practising  physic  or  surgery, 
but  making  no  mention  of  the  class  now  known  as 
A,  But  in  1643,  the  parliament  passed  a  very 
curious  act,  the  34  and  35  Henry  VI IL  c.  8,  the 
preamble  of  which  deals  severely  with  the  then 
ignorance  and  cupidity  of  the  London  surgeons ; 
and  as  a  remedy,  it  provides  for  t!;e  toleration  and 

819 


APOTHECARIES. 


protiH-iion  of  the  irregular  practitioner?,  who  after- 
ards,  as  a  body,  acciuired  the  distinctive  name  of 
A.  This  act,  strange  though  it  be  in  its  language, 
may  perliaps  be  regarded  as  the  real  foundation  of 
the  oHice  of  tlie  modern  a[)otheiary.  It  certainly 
shews  on  its  face  sufficient  cause  for  its  recognition 
of  tlie  persons,  to  benefit  whom  it  was  passed,  for  it 
complains  that  the  surgeons  of  London  were  not 
only  unskilful  and  grasi)ing,  but  that  they  'have 
sued,  troubled,  and  vexed  divers  honest  persons,  as 
well  men  as  women,  wiiom  God  had  endued  witli 
the  knowledge  of  the  nature,  kind,  and  operation  of 
certain  herbs,  roots,  and  waters,  and  the  using  and 
ministering  of  them  to  such  as  had  been  pained  with 
customable  diseases,  as  women's  breasts  being  sore, 
a  pm  and  the  web  in  the  eye,  uncomes  of  hands, 
burnings,  scaldings,  sore  mouths,  the  stone,  stran- 
gury, saucelim,  and  morphew,  and  such  other  like 
diseases ;  and  yet  the  said  persons  have  not  taken 
anything  for  their  pains  or  cunning,  but  have 
ministered  the  same  to  poor  jicople  only  for  neigh- 
bourhood and  God's  sake,  and  of  pity  and  charity.' 
The  act,  therefore,  proceeds  to  ordain,  '  That  at  all 
time  from  henceforth  it  shall  be  lawful  to  every  per- 
son being  the  king's  subject,  having  knowledge  and 
experience  of  the  nature  of  herbs,  roots,  and  wa- 
ters, or  of  the  operation  of  the  same,  by  specula- 
tion or  practice,  within  any  part  of  the  realm  of 
England,  or  within  any  other  the  king's  dominions, 
to  practise,  use,  and  administer  in  and  to  any  out- 
ward sore,  uncome,  wound,  apostemation,  outward 
swelling  or  disease,  any  herb  or  herbs,  ointments, 
baths,  pultess,  and  emplaisters,  according  to  their  cun- 
ning, experience,  and  knowledge  in  any  of  the  dis- 
eases, sores,  and  maladies  beforesaid,  and  all  other 
like  to  the  same,  or  drinks  for  the  stone,  strangury, 
or  agues,  without  suit,  vexation,  trouble,  penalty,  or 
loss  of  their  goods,  the  foresaid  statute  in  the  foresaid 
third  year  of  the  king's  most  graciou.s  reign,  or 
any  other  act,  ordinance,  or  statute  to  the  contrary 
heretofore  made  in  anywise  notwithstanding.' 

Anciently,  the  A.  were  not  distinguishable  from  the 
grocers  (the  surgeons  being,  in  like  manner,  undis- 
tinguishable  from  the  barbers);  indeed,  it  rather  ap- 
pears that  A.  and  grocers  were  synonymous  terms  ; 
and  it  was  not  till  lt)17,  in  the  13th  year  of  James  I., 
that  these  bodies  were  formed  into  two  distinct  cor- 
porations by  a  charter  from  the  king,  which,  reciting 
a  previous  grant  to  the  grocers  in  lOOfi,  by  which  the 
two  bodies  were  expressly  united,  declares  that  the 
A.  shall,  thenceforward,  be  separate  from,  and  con- 
stitute a  company  distinct  from  the  grocers.  The 
privileges  conferred  by  this  charter  upon  the  A. 
were  afterwaids  considerably  enlarged  by  an  act  of 
parliament,  55  Geo.  III.  c."  104,  to  which  we  shall 
presently  refer.  But  even  after  the  charter  of 
James,  the  London  A.  appear  to  have  been  regarded 
merely  as  a  trading  company,  occasionally  prescrib- 
ing the  medicines  which  they  sold,  thus  trespassing, 
as  it  was  thought,  on  the  province  of  the  physician, 
imtil  their  right  to  do  so  was  supported  by  a 
judgment  of  the  House  of  Lords,  in  the  case  of  "the 
College  of  Physicians  against  Rose,  reversing  a 
previous  decision  of  the  Court  of  King's  Bench. 
Rose,  who  was  an  apothecary  and  freeman  of 
London,  had  attended  one  Scale,  a  butcher,  and 
made  up  and  administered  what  was  not  denied  to 
be  proper  medicine  to  him.  This,  it  was  contended, 
on  behalf  of  the  physidaiis,  was  an  infringement  of 
their  exclusive  privileges,  and  the  King's  Bench 
being  of  the  same  opinion,  unanimously  gave  judg- 
ment for  the  plaintills ;  but  the  judgment  was 
reversed  by  the  House  of  Lords.  So  generally 
established  had  this  branch  of  the  medical  profes- 
eion  become,  that,  in  1815,  the  act  of  parHament, 
65  Geo.  III.  c.  194,  to  which  we  have  already 
320 


referred,  was  passed  to  provide  for  the  snfficiency  of 
their  education;  thus,  for  the  first  time,  as  it  may 
be  said,  placing  the  A.,  as  a  body,  on  the  footing 
of  a  liberal  profession.  This  statute,  which  com- 
pletely regidates  the  position,  ])rivileges,  and  re- 
sponsibilities of  the  A.,  after  reciting  (and  for  the 
most  part  confirming)  the  charter  of  James  I.,  by 
which  the  A.  of  London  had  been  distinctivi-ly  in- 
corporati-d  as  a  company,  procecfls  to  enact  that  no 
person  shall  ])raclise  as  an  apothecary,  or  act  aa 
an  assistant  to  an  apothecary,  in  any  part  of  England 
or  Wales,  unless  he  shall  have  been  examinnl  by  a 
court  of  examiners  (to  be  chosen  by  the  master  and 
wardens  of  the  said  company,  iu  such  manner  as  the 
act  directs*,  and  have  received  therefrom  a  certificate 
of  his  being  duly  (pialified  to  practise  as  such.  And 
with  respect  to  what  constitutes  such  practice  as  an 
apothecary,  it  has  been  judicially  determined  that 
courts  of  law  will  look  to  section  .">  of  the  act,  which 
defines  certain  of  the  duties  and  liabilities  of  the 
oflice,  but  which  in  noway  deprives  A.  of  any  of 
their  previously  acquired  privileges.  The  certifi- 
cate— for  which  a  sum  is  to  be  paid  for  the  benefit 
of  the  coujpany's  fund.s — is  not  to  be  granted  to 
any  person  below  the  age  of  twenty-one,  or  who 
has  not  served  an  apprenticeship  of  five  years 
to  an  apothecary,  and  can  produce  testimonials 
of  sufficient  medical  education  and  good  moral 
conduct ;  and  any  person  practising  without  such 
certificate,  is  disabled  from  recoTcring  his  charges, 
and  for  every  such  oflence  is,  moreover,  liable  to 
a  penalty  of  £2t»,  which  can  be  recovered  in  the 
county  coui't.  It  is  also  provided  that — inasmuch  aa 
it  is  the  duty  of  every  apothecary  to  prepare,  with 
exactness,  such  medicines  that  may  be  directed 
for  the  sick  by  any  physician  lawfully  licenced — any 
apothecary  refusing  to  compound  or  se!l,  or  negli- 
gently compounding  or  selling  any  ineilicines  ad 
directed  by  any  prescription  or  order,  signed  by  any 
physician,  lawfully  licensed,  with  his  initials,  shall 
incur  such  penalties  and  forfeitures  as  therein  set 
forth.  And  further,  that  the  ma.-^ter,  warden.*,  and 
society  of  A.  for  the  time  being,  or  any  persons  by 
them  ajipointed,  and  being  not  fewer  than  two,  and 
properly  cpialified,  may  at  all  reasonable  times  in 
the  daytime  enter  the  shops  of  any  A.  throughout 
England  and  Wales,  and  search  and  examine  whether 
the  medicines  and  drugs  be  wholesome,  and  meet  for 
the  health  of  the  subjects  of  the  realm  ;  and  destroy 
.such  as  they  find  to  be  otherwi.se ;  and  report  to  the 
master  and  wardens  of  the  society  the  names  of  the 
offenders,  who  are  made  liable  to  a  fine  of  £5  for 
the  first,  £lu  for  the  second,  and  £20  for  the  third 
offence.  The  act  contains,  however,  a  proviso  that 
nothing  therein  shall  aflect  the  business  of  a  chemist 
and  druggist  in  the  buying,  preparing,  compound- 
ing, dispensing,  and  vending  drugs,  medicines,  and 
medicinable  compounds,  wholesale  and  retail ;  nor 
interfere  with  the  rights  of  the  universities  of  Cam- 
bridge or  Oxford,  the  College  of  Physicians  or  of 
Surgeons,  or  the  Society  of  Apothecaries,  respec- 
tively, except  as  altered  by  that  act. 

This  act,  which  was  passed  on  the  12th  July 
1S15,  provides  for  the  exemption  from  its  operation 
of  such  A.  as  may  have  been  in  practice  on  or 
before  the  first  day  of  August  of  that  year;  a  class, 
however,  of  w  horn  it  may  reasonably  be  conjectured 
there  are  few  now  surviving.  Still,  it  may  without 
impropriety  be  asserted,  that  there  are  two  classes  of 
A.  in  England — first,  the  licentiates  of  the  Apothe- 
caries' Co.,  or,  in  other  words,  those  qualified  ac- 
cording to  the  provisions  of  the  55  Geo.  III. ;  and 
second,  a  temporary  class,  namely,  such  A.  as  were 
in  practice  on  the  1st  day  of  August  1815. 

The  A.  in  Ireland  are  an  exclusive  corporation, 
whose  privileges  are  expressly  saved  by  the  recent 


APOTIIECIA— ArPALACHIANS. 


medical  act  (the  21  and  22  Vict.,  c.  90).  Although 
occupying  a  position  corresponding  in  many  respects 
to  that  of  the  same  body  in  England,  the  Irish  A. 
do  not  appear  to  have  established  their  rights  as 
medical  practitioners  to  the  extent  to  which  the 
English  A.  have  succeeded  in  carrying  their  preten- 
sions, the  privileges  of  the  Irish  A.,  under  their 
charter,  being  Hmited  to  the  vending,  preparing,  and 
administering  drugs  and  medicines  according  to  a 
physician's  prescription,  although  they  probably 
■would  incur  no  penalty  by  giving  advice  to  patients 
in  their  own  shops. 

The  existing  law  relating  to  A.  in  Ireland  is  con- 
tained inan  act  of  the  Irish  parliament,  the  31  Geo. III. 
c.  34,  passed  in  1791,  and  entitled  '  An  Act  for  the 
more  effectually  Preserving  the  health  of  his  Majesty's 
Subjects,  for  erecting  an  Apothecaries'  Hall  in  the  City 
of  Dublin,  and  regulating  the  Profession  of  an  Apothe- 
cary throughout  the  Kingdom  of  Ireland.'  The 
preamble — turning  the  tables  on  the  English  act,  the 
34  and  35  Henry  III.,  which  reflects  so  severely  on  the 
London  surgeons — recites  that  '  whereas  not  only 
many  but  great  inconveniences  have  arisen  from  the 
want  of  a  hall  amply  supplied  with  medicines 
of  the  purest  quality,  prepared  under  the  inspection 
of  persons  well  skilled  in  the  art  and  mystery  of 
such  preparations,  but  also  frequent  frauds  and 
abuses  having  been  imposed  and  practised  on  many  of 
his  majesty's  subjects  within  the  city  of  Dublin,  and 
the  liberties  thereof,  and  in  other  parts  of  the  king- 
dom of  Ireland,  by  the  ignorance  and  unskilfulness 
of  divers  persons  pretending  to  the  art  and  mystery 
of  an  apothecary,  to  the  injury  of  the  fair  trader, 
the  disappointment  of  the  physician,  and  the  immi- 
nent hazard  of  the  lives  of  his  majesty's  faithful 
and  loyal  subjects  throughout  the  realm.'  The 
act  proceeds  to  incorporate  the  A.  as  a  com- 
pany, and  to  erect  their  hall;  the  officers  of  the 
corporation  being  a  governor,  deputy-governor,  and 
thirteen  directors,  elected  from  among  the  members, 
or  any  five  or  more  of  them,  of  whom  the  governor  or 
deputy-governor  should  be  one,  shall  be  called  a 
court  "of  directors,  for  inspecting  and  directing  all 
chemical  and  compound  preparations  and  experi- 
ments. By  section  18,  no  person,  after  the  24th 
June,  1791,  shall  be  taken  as  an  apprentice,  foreman, 
or  shopman  to  any  apothecary  in  Ireland,  until  after 
examination  by  the  company  ;  and  by  the  22d 
section  it  is  enacted  that  from  and  after  the  same 
date,  'no  person  shall  open  shop  or  act  in  the  art  or 
mystery  of  an  apothecary,  within  the  kingdom  of 
Ireland,  until  such  person  shall  have  been  examined 
as  to  his  qualification  and  knowledge  of  the  business, 
bv  such  persons  and  in  such  manner  as  hereinbefore 
mentioned  and  required  for  the  examination  of 
persons  applying  to  become  apprentices  or  shop- 
keepers;'  a  provision  that  appears  to  give  the 
Apothecaries'  Hall  in  Ireland  a  complete  monopoly 
in  the  vending  and  compounding  of  medicines. 

In  Scotland,  there  is  no  class  of  practitioners  cor- 
responding to  the  English  A.  The  word  apothecary 
does  not  appear,  indeed,  to  be  a  generic  term  in  the 
medical  nomenclature  of  that  country  ;  the  chemists 
and  druggists,  who  are  in  general  an  extremely  well 
educated  and  respectable  class,  do  all  the  business 
connected  with  the  making  up  of  prescriptions, 
vending  and  preparing  medicines ;  but  they  are  not 
medical  practitioners  as  in  England,  although  many 
of  them  are  surgeons. 

APOTHE'CIA.     See  Lichkn, 

APOTHE'OSIS,  deification,  or  the  raising  of  a 
mortal  to  the  rank  of  a  god  (Gr.  theos).  From  the 
polytheistic  point  of  view  there  is  nothing  monstrous 
in  this  idea ;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  quite  natural, 
and  a  necessary  part  of  the  system.  Among  heathens 
21 


generally,  and  especially  among  the  Romans,  every 
departed  spirit  became  a  deity  (see  Manes)  ;  '  and  as 
it  was  common  for  children  to  worship  (privately) 
the  manes  of  their  fathers,  so  was  it  natural  for 
divine  honours  to  be  publicly  paid  to  a  deceased 
emperor,  who  was  regarded  as  the  parent  of  his 
country.'  (See  Smith's  Dictio7iari/  of  Gh-eek  and 
Roman  Antiquities.)  At  the  C'onsecratio,  as  it  was 
called,  of  a  Roman  emperor,  the  body  was  burnt  on 
a  funeral  pile,  and  as  the  fire  ascended,  an  eagle  was 
let  loose  to  mount  into  the  sky,  carrying,  as  was 
believed,  the  soul  of  the  emperor  from  earth  tO' 
heaven.  Many  medals  are  found  with  the  word 
consecratio  surrounding  an  altar,  with  fire  on  it,  and 
an  eagle  rising  into  the  air. 

APPALACHIANS,  the  general  appellation  of  the 
great  mountain-system — called  also  the  Alleghanies 
— which  stretches  from  the  interior  of  Maine  to  the 
borders  of  Alabama,  its  distance  from  the  sea 
gradually  ranging  between  about  100  miles  in  the 
north,  and  about  300  in  the  south.  Speaking  gen- 
erally, this  chain  may  be  regarded  as  the  parent 
of  the  Atlantic  rivers  of  the  United  States  on  the 
one  side,  and  on  the  other  of  the  southern  tributaries 
of  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  of  the  eastern  feeders  of 
the  Mississippi :  it  is  not,  however,  the  actual 
water-shed  during  its  entire  length,  for  it  is  crossed 
by  the  Connecticut,  the  Hudson,  and  the  Delaware, 
just  as  the  Himalayas  are  pierced  by  the  Ganges, 
and  the  Andes  by  the  Amazon.  The  chain,  in 
fact,  consists  of  several  ranges  generally  parallel  to 
each  other,  which,  along  with  the  intermediate 
valleys  that  occupy  two-thirds  of  the  breadth,  form 
a  belt  100  miles  wide— its  muhiform  character, 
however,  developing  itself  only  to  the  west  and  south 
of  the  Hudson.  To  take  the  chief  ridges  by  name, 
and  to  begin  from  the  north :  the  White  Hills  of 
New  Hampshire  present  the  loftiest  elevations, 
Moosehillock  and  Washington  being  respectively 
4636  and  6634  feet  above  the  sea.  Next  in  order,, 
the  Green  Mountains,  which,  true  to  the  name,  almost 
cover  Vermont,  attain,  in  Killington  Peak,  a  height 
of  3924  feet;  then  come  the  Highlands,  on  the  east. 
of  the  Hudson,  so  striking  an  object  to  the  voyagers 
on  its  waters  ;  immediately  beyond  that  river, 
again,  we  find  the  Catskill  Mountains,  which,  though' 
of  inconsiderable  length,  contain  two  eminences — 
Round  Top  and  High  Peak — respectively  of  3804  and 
3718  feet ;  while,  on  a  terrace  of  another  member  of;' 
the  group,  Mountain  House,  a  favourite  refuge  from . 
the  heats  of  summer,  is  perched  2500  feet  above- 
the  level  of  the  Hudson.  Proceeding  onwards,  the 
Kittatinnies  extend  from  the  north  of  New  Jersey 
as  far  as  Virginia  ;  while  nearer  to  the  sea,  the  Blue 
Ridge,  stretching  from  about  the  same  parallel  down 
to  North  Carolina,  or  rather  below  it,  is  crowned, 
within  the  limits  of  Virginia,  by  the  Peaks  of  Otter, 
at  an  altitude  somewhat  greater  than  that  of  any 
point  between  themselves  and  New  Hampshire. 
Lastly,  there  Ue,  more  to  the  westward,,  the  Alle- 
ghanies proper  in  Pennsylvania  and  Virginia,  and 
the  Cumberland  Mountains  on  the  east  border  of 
Kentucky  and  Tennessee. 

Of  all  these  elevations  not  one  at  all  approaches 
the  limit  of  perpetual  snow.  Yet  France,  while- 
struggling  with  England  in  North  America,  regarded' 
the  A.  as  a  wall  that  was  physically  to  exclude  her 
rival  from  the  basins  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the 
Mississippi.  Anglo-Saxon  energy,  however,  has 
virtually  levelled  the  supposed  barrier  from  end  to 
end.  Through  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  and  Vermont 
runs  a  railway  from  Portland  to  Canada  ;  by  canal  or 
by  railway,  or  even  by  both  abreast.  New  York  has 
reached  the  waters  of  the  St.  Lawrence  on  at  least 
four  principal  points  between  Montreal  in  the  east, 
and  Buffalo  in  the  west ;  Pennsylvania  has  carried  to 

S21 


APPALACHIANS, 


Pittsburg  a  niilway  of  248  miles  from  Harrisliurp, 
and  u  canal  of  312  miles  from  Columbia;  while, 
with  the  necessary  exception  of  little  Delaware 
alone,  the  remaining  states  along  the  coast  have 
each  its  iron-way  through  the  A. 

The  chain  abounds  in  coal  and  iron,  those 
gifts  of  nature  to  industrious  man,  which  in  all 
ages  have  done  so  nnich  for  civilisation,  and  which, 
in  our  own  age,  have,  with  the  aid  of  steam,  more 
than  doubled  all  that  they  had  done  before  ;  and 
It  is  a  curious  instance  of  the  a(ia[)tation  of  the 
two  worlds  to  each  other,  that,  while  the  Spaniard 
met,  in  the  south,  the  gigantic  counterparts  of 
the  central  plateau  of  his  own  romantic  land,  the 
Englishman,  in  the  north,  stumbled,  as  it  were,  on 
those  same  elements  of  almost  creative  energy  which, 
within  two  centuries,  were  to  be  so  instrumental  in 
placing  the  daughter  next  to  the  mother  among  the 
nations  of  the  earth.  As  an  evidence  of  the  actual 
value  of  the  coal  and  iron  of  the  A.,  Pennsylvania — 
where,  hitherto,  they  have  been  chiefly  found — has 
recently  made  more  ra[ud  strides  than  any  other  state 
of  the  Union,  having,  between  the  census  of  lK4o  and 
that  of  1850,  outstripped  in  growth  of  popidation  the  ; 

?reviously  more  progressive  states  of  tthio  and  New 
ork.     Nor   are   iron    and   coal    the   only  valuable  | 
products  of  the  A.     To  say  nothing  of  the  valleys —  i 
many  of  them  as  fertile  as  they  are  lovely — which  ) 
separate  the  parallel   ranges  from    each  other,  the 
mountains  themselves  yield  limestone,  marble,  slate, 
building-stone,  copper,  zinc,  chrome,  &c. 

Gcolony. — During  the  Azoic  and  Pala-ozoic  periods 
of  the  earth's  geological  history,  the  district  now 
occupied  by  the  A.  was  a  level  plain.  These  moun- 
tains date  their  origin  from  a  period  subsequent  to 
the  Carboniferous  epoch.  The  Coal  measures  are  the 
newest  upturned  beds  associated  with  the  Appala- 
chian range  ;  and  as  the  stratified  rocks,  with  few  ex- 
ceptions, are  laid  down  horizontally,  these  strata  must 
owe  their  inclined  position  to  the  dislocating  agency 
which  elevated  the  mountains  ;  they,  consequently, 
supply  a  date  anterior  to  its  activity.  At  the  base 
of  the  A.,  on  their  eastern  side,  there  are  a  series  of 
red  sandstone  beds,  unconformable  to  the  upturned 
strata,  and  occupying  the  valleys  in  their  original 
liorizontality,  thus  evidently  unaffected  by  the  dis- 
rupting agency  which  must  have  been  active  prior 
to  their  deposition.  These  beds  have  been  referred 
by  geologists  to  different  ages.  That  they  are  Old 
Red  Sandstone,  as  conjectured  by  Madure  and  others, 
is  now  universally  denied.  Hitchcock's  supposition 
that  they  were  Permian,  is  also  considered  as  refer- 
ring them  to  too  remote  a  geological  age.  W.  B. 
Rogers  considered  them  first  as  members  of  the 
Triassic  period  ;  but  has  since,  from  evidence 
adduced  from  the  contained  organic  remains,  shown 
reason  for  relating  them  to  the  begiiming  of  the 
Jurassic  period.  We  thus  obtain  two  grand  limiting 
dates — the  Carboniferous  and  Jurassic  periods — 
within  which  the  A.  must  have  been  formed.  There 
are  grotinds  for  being  even  more  sj)ecific,  and 
referring  the  period  of  the  dislocating  agency  to  that 
immediately  subsequent  to  the  Carboniferous,  repre- 
Fented  in  the  stratified  rocks  of  other  districts  by 
the  Permian  series  ;  for  the  older  upturned  rocks 
had  not  only  been  ruptured  and  plicated,  but  also 
denuded  into  the  various  shapes  they  now  present, 
before  the  horizontal  rocks  were  deposited. 

Professor  H.  D.  Rogers  has,  after  many  years  of 
persevering  and  devoted  study,  enunciated  a  theory 
of  mountain  formation  based  on  his  examination  of 
the  A.,  which  not  only  explains  their  structure,  but 
admits  of  a  more  or  less  complete  application  to 
the  mountain  systems  of  the  world.  The  many 
proposed  theories  of  mountain  elevation  are  based 
upon  assumptions  which, unfortunately, are  not  true: 
822 


but  that  is  an  unimportant  matter  to  the  majority 
of  our  speculating  geologists,  and  one  never  Been 
by  the  inventors  of  the  theories,  who  allow  thetn- 
,  selves  to  be  led  captive  by  a  poetic  imagination, 
I  instead  of  building  their  inductions  on  field  observa- 
tions. Thus,  to  suppose  that  mountains  are  elevated 
by  a  wedge  like  intrusion  of  melted  matter,  is  to  give 
to  a  fluid  functions  incompatible  with  its  dynamic 
properties.  So  also  the  supposition  that  the  igneous 
rocks  were  intruded  as  solid  we<lgefl,  separating  and 
lifting  the  crust,  is  opposed  to  the  fact,  that  no 
apparent  abrasion,  but  generally  the  closest  adhesion, 
exists  at  the  line  of  contact  of  the  igneous  and  strati- 
fied rocks.  E<|ually  fatal  objections  can  be  adduced 
against  the  other  theories.  I'rofessor  Rogers  observ- 
ing that  the  A.  were  formed  of  a  series  of  enormous 
waves,  and  comparing  this  appearance  with  other 
elevated  districts,  especially  in  Helgium  and  Britain, 
has  enunciated  a  theory  of  their  structure,  of  which 
the  following  is  a  condensed  view. 

Disturbed  strata  have  a  wave-like  arrangement, 
their  dip  being  in  ciirved,  and  never  in  straight  planes ; 
and  in  extensive  areas  the  varying  angles  of  dip  exhibit 
one  or  more  wide  regular  curves.  These  tiiidulations 
are  in  the  form  of  long  parallel  waves,  their  paral- 
lelism being  in  the  line  of  the  general  trend  of  the 
part  of  the  mountain  system  to  which  they  belong. 
When  dilTerent  grades  of  magnitude,  as  regards 
length,  height,  and  amplitude,  occur,  the  waves  of 
the  .«ame  grade  arc  parallel,  while  the  difl'erent 
grades  are  not  necessarily  so.  The  waves  assume 
three  difl'erent  forms,  which  are  characterised  aa — 


Appalachian  Range. 

Symmetrical  fierurrs  (a),  equally  steep  on  the  two 
slopes ;  normal  frrnres  (i),  having  an  excess  of 
incurvation  on  the  one  side  compared  with  the 
other  ;  and  folded  fierurcs  (c),  or  those  with  a 
doubling  under  of  their  more  incurved  slopes,  and 
among  which  the  steepest  slopes  are  generally  directed 
to  the  same  quarters.  These  three  forms,  representing 
difTercnt  gradations  in  the  flexure,  are  regular  in 
their  succession  in  disturbed  regions,  the  order  being 
the  same  as  in  the  diagram — that  is,  when  we  start 
from  the  most  disturbed  side,  we  go  from  the  folded 
waves  to  the  normal  ones,  and  from  these  to  the 
symmetrical ;  and  in  the  same  order,  the  waves,  as 
they  recede  from  the  folded  side,  become  progressively 
wider  apart  and  flatter.  Resting  on  these  facts. 
Professor  Rogers  has  given  his  view  of  the  structure 
of  elevated  regions  in  the  following  words  :  '  Tl.e 
wave-like  structure  of  undulated  belts  of  the  earth's 
crust,  is  attributed  to  an  actual  pulsation  in  the  fluid 
matter  beneath  the  crust,  propagated  in  the  manner 
of  great  waves  of  translation  from  enormous  ruptures 
occasioned  by  the  tension  of  elastic  matter.  The 
forms  of  the  waves,  the  close  plication  of  the  strata, 
and  the  permanent  tracing  of  the  flexures,  are 
ascribed  to  the  combination  of  an  undulating  and  a 
tangential  movement,  accompanied  by  an  injection 
of  igneous  veins  and  dikes  into  the  rents  occasioned 
by  the  bendings.  This  oscillation  of  the  crust,  pro- 
ducing an  actual  floating  forward  of  the  rocky  part, 
has  been,  it  is  conceived,  of  the  nature  of  that  pul- 
sation which  attends  all  great  earthquakes  at  the 
present  day.' 

This  theory  having  originated  as  an  explanation 
of  the  phenomena  of  the  A.,  is  easy  of  application  to 
these  tuouutains.     They  are  composed  of  a  series  of 


APPALACniCOLA— ArrARITIONS. 


parallel  waves,  having  a  general  direction  similar  to 
the  coast-line  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The  line  of 
maximum  disturbance  is  on  their  eastern  limits ; 
consequently,  the  folded  flexures,  with  the  inversion 
of  their  steep  sides,  are  chiefly  confined  to  the  great 
Appalachian  valley,  and  the  Atlantic  slopes  south  of 
it.  The  flexures  of  this  type  impart  a  prevailing 
south-east  dip  to  the  whole  outcrop  ;  their  number, 
and  the  excessive  difficulty  of  detecting  and  continu- 
ously tracing  them,  frustrates  every  attempt  at  map- 
ping them  individually.  The  flexures  of  the  second 
type  which  curve  more  rapidly  on  the  one  side  than 
on  the  other,  prevail  wherever  the  forces  that  dis- 
turbed the  crust  were  neither  excessively  intense  nor 
very  feeble.  It  is  the  characteristic  form  everywhere 
between  the  great  Appalachian  valley  and  the 
Alleghany  Mountains.  It  distinguishes  not  only 
those  larger  waves  which  separate  the  coal — con- 
taining strata  east  of  the  Susquehanna  into  special 
basins — but  the  minor  undulations  which  throw  the 
coal  measures  of  these  basins  into  groups  of  lesser 
saddles  and  troughs.  Undulations  of  the  first  or 
symmetrical  type  occur  beyond  the  Alleghany 
Mountains,  where  two  groups  of  them  may  be 
distinguished ;  the  one  subdividing  the  bituminous 
coal-fields,  with  its  five  very  broad  waves,  into  six 
successive  basins ;  the  other,  composed  of  four 
equidistant  and  very  straight  undulations,  traversing 
parts  of  Cambria,  Indiana,  Somerset,  and  Fayette 
counties. 

The  strata  thus  elevated,  and  forming  the  A., 
belong  entirely  to  the  oldest  or  Palaeozoic  division  of 
th«  fossiliferous  rocks.  Metamorphic  rocks,  consist- 
ing of  felspathic,  hornblendic,  and  micaceous  gneiss, 
and  mica-slate,  exist  on  the  eastern  base  of  these 
mountains,  but  have  not  been  noticed  as  forming 
part  of  the  plicated  strata  of  the  A.  Extensive  for- 
mations of  talcose  and  micaceous  slates,  indurated 
clay-slates,  and  chloritic  and  steatitic  slates,  exist 
in  the  more  disturbed  districts.  These  are  highly 
metamorphosed  members  of  the  older  fossiliferous, 
and  must  not  be  confounded  with,  though  they  so 
much  resemble,  the  azoic  metamorphic  rocks. 

The  Palaeozoic  rocks  constitute  a  vast  succession 
of  fossiliferous  strata,  commencing  with  the  lowest 
deposits  resting  on  the  Metamorphic  rocks,  and  ter- 
minating with  the  highest  of  the  Coal  strata.  Their 
aggregate  thickness,  as  measured  in  Pennsylvania, 
amounts  to  35,000  feet.  While  exhibiting  a  remark- 
able variety  of  mineral  character,  they  may  be  classed 
under  the  three  great  divisions  of  the  sedimentary 
rocks — viz.,  sandstones,  slates  and  limestones.  Inter- 
calated with  them,  as  subordinate  layers,  there  occur 
deposits  of  coal,  chert,  and  iron  ore.  They  are  all 
more  or  less  fossiliferous. 

Coal  Measures. — The  character  oi  the  rocks  of  the 
Appalachian  district  of  North  America  indicates  that 
during  the  Carboniferous  epoch  an  immense  continent 
existed  on  the  present  site  of  the  Atlantic,  which 
supplied  materials  for  the  sandstone  and  slate.  It 
seems  to  have  had  an  extensive  shallow  marshy 
shore,  of  such  a  character  as  to  be  able  to  support 
the  vegetation,  which  has  become,  in  the  course  of 
ages,  converted  into  coal.  The  coal-fields  to  the  far 
west  of  the  A.,  in  Michigan,  Indiana,  Illinois,  and 
Missouri,  have  been  connected  with  the  Appalachian 
coal  formation,  which  includes  all  the  detached 
basins,  both  anthracite  and  semi-bituminous,  of  the 
mountain-chain  of  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  and  Vir- 
ginia, and  also  the  vast  bituminous  trough  lying  to 
the  north-west,  in  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Virginia,  Ken- 
tucky, Tennessee,  and  Alabama. 

On  the  eastern  slope  of  the  A.,  the  coal,  from  its 
proximity  to  the  region  of  greatest  disturbance,  has 
lost  nearly  all  its  volatile  constituents,  and  is  con- 
verted into  hard  shining  anthracite  (q.  v.).     In  the 


troughs  to  the  westward  of  the  great  Appalachian 
valley,  where  the  forces  that  disturbed  the  crust 
were  not  so  intense,  the  coal  has  not  parted  with 
such  a  large  proportion  of  volatile  matter,  but  still 
is  so  much  altered  as  to  be  characterised  as  semi- 
anthracite.  Both  the  anthracite  and  semi-anthracite 
are  extensively  mined  for  economical  purposes,  but 
their  extent  as  well  as  their  value  is  of  little  import- 
ance compared  with  the  enormous  Appalachian  bitu- 
minous coal-field.  From  Northern  Pennsylvania  to 
middle  Alabama,  its  length  is  about  857  miles,  and  its 
greatest  breadth  between  Southern  Pennsylvania  and 
Northern  Ohio  is  about  180  miles ;  it  covers  an  area  of 
about  56,000  square  miles,  and  is  almost  the  largest 
expanse  of  coal  measures  in  the  world.  A  single  coal- 
seam  in  this  field  has  been  traced  over  an  extent  of 
country  225  miles  long  by  100  broad,  showing  a  super- 
ficial area  of  14,000  square  miles.  The  actual  depth  of 
workal)le  seams  in  the  deepest  part  of  this  basin  is 
estimated  at  40  feet;  but  when  the  amount  of  denu- 
dation of  the  upper  measures  over  large  districts  is 
taken  into  account,  the  average  depth  of  the  entire 
field  cannot  be  more  than  25  feet.  Taking  this  as 
the  thickness,  the  amount  of  coal  in  this  great  coal- 
field would  be  1,387,500,000,000  tons.  When  this  is 
compared  with  the  estimated  quantity  of  coal  in  the 
British  coal-fields,  viz.,  190,000,000,000  tons,  some 
conception  may  be  formed  of  the  enormous  extent 
of  coal  existing  in  this  district  of  North  America. 

Metals. — Extensive  beds  of  magnetic,  hematitic  and 
fossiliferous  iron-ores  occur  in  many  of  the  formations 
of  the  A.,  from  the  lowest  Metamorphic  gneiss  to  the 
highest  coal  measures.  This  ore  is  extensively  wrouglit 
in  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio,  large  quantities  of  the  an- 
thracite being  used  in  the  smelting  furnaces  of  the 
former  state.  Veins  of  lead  occur  in  the  Metamor- 
phic rocks,  rarely  stretching  up  into  the  red  slate. 
In  the  Palifozoic  beds,  veins  of  copper  and  nickel 
occur  in  sufficient  quantity  to  be  wrought. 

_  APPALACHICO'LA,  a  river  of  the  United  States, 
rising  in  Georgia,  and  flowing  through  Florida  into 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  or  rather  into  a  bay  that  bears 
its  own  name.  Reckoning  from  its  remotest  sources, 
the  head  waters  of  the  Chatahooche,  the  A.  is 
about  400  miles  long,  being  navigable  for  boats 
throughout  nearly  its  entire  course.  It  is,  however, 
only  at  the  junction  of  the  Chatahooche  with  the 
Flint  that  the  name  of  A.  is  applied  to  the  stream ; 
and  up  to  this  point,  a  stretch  of  about  70  miles, 
there  is  a  sufficient  depth  of  water  for  steam-naviga- 
tion ;  while  the  tides  also  ascend  for  about  two-thirds 
of  the  distance. — A.  is  also  a  seaport  at  the  mouth 
of  the  stream  above  mentioned.  Here  is  shipped  the 
produce  of  the  river-basin,  consisting  chiefly  of  large 
quantities  of  cotton. 

APPA'RENT.  This  term  is  used  to  express  a  num- 
ber of  important  distinctions,  especially  in  astronomy. 
The  A.  magnitude  of  a  heavenly  body  is  the  angle 
formed  by  two  lines  drawn  from  the  ends  of  its 
diameter  to  the  spectator's  eye ;  this  obviously 
depends  upon  the  distance  of  the  body,  as  well  as 
upon  its  real  magnitude.  A  planet  seen  from  the 
surface  of  the  earth  seems  lower  than  if  seen  from 
the  centre  of  the  earth — the  former  is  its  A.  altitttde, 
the  latter  its  real.  A.  noon  is  when  the  sun  is  on  the 
meridian ;  true  or  mean  noon  is  the  time  when  the 
sun  would  be  on  the  meridian  if  his  motion  in  the 
heavens  were  uniform  and  parallel  to  the  equator. 
See  Equation  of  Time.  The  daily  and  annual  mo- 
tions of  the  sun  in  the  heavens  are  both  A.  motions, 
caused  by  two  real  motions  of  the  earth. 

APPARITIONS.  The  belief  that  the  spirits  of 
the  departed  are  occasionally  presented  to  the  sight 
of  the  living,  has  existed  in  all  ages  and  countries, 
and    usually   declines    only    when    a    people   have 

823 


ArPARITIONS— APPEAL. 


adviinccd  considerably  in  the  knowledge  of  physical  j  for  her  maid,  called  for  her  clothes,  and  when  she 
conditions  and  laws.  Not  that  A.  then  cease  to  he  was  dressed,  went  into  her  closet,  and  came  not  out 
reported — for  this  is  fixr  from  being  the  cnse — but  again  till  nine,  and  then  broiiglit  out  with  her  a 
tliat  the  more  intelligent  part  of  the  community  are    letter,  se:il<*1,  to  her  father;  brought  it  to  her  aunt. 


then  usually  able  to  e.xi)lain  away  the  alleged  occur 
rence  in  some  way  satisfactory  to  themselves,  not 
involving  the  admission  of  a  possible  projection  of  a 
spirit  upon  the  living  sense. 

Nothing  is  more  certain  than  that  there  are  con- 
ditions of  the  body  when  spectral  appearances,  such 
as  occur  to  us  in  uneasy  dreams,  become  sensible  to 
the  waking  vision.     One  of  these  conditions  is  that 


the  Lady  Evcrard,  told  her  what  had  ha|)pened,  and 
desire<l  that  as  soon  as  she  was  deail,  it  might  be 
sent  to  him.  The  lady  thought  she  was  suddeidy 
fallen  mad,  and  thereupon  sent  sudiienly  away  to 
Chelmsford  for  a  physician  and  surgeon,  who  i)oth 
came  inimediatcdy ;  but  the  physician  could  discern 
no  indication  of  what  the  lady  imagined,  or  of  any 
indisposition  of  her  l>ody  ;  notwithstanding  the  lady 


of  the  patient  tinder  the  disease  of  ^/f/nv'j/w /ri/zi/^ws,  would  needs  have  her  let  blood,  which  was  done 
who  not  only  hears  ideal  enemies  plotting  against  ^  accordingly.  And  when  the  young  woman  had 
his  life  in  adjacent  rooms  or  behind  hedges,  but  patiently  let  them  do  what  they  would  with  her, 
thinks  he  sees  them  preparing  to  do  him  mischief,  I  she  desired  that  the  chaf>lain  might  be  called  to  read 
and  has  been  known  to  jump  overboard  of  a  vessel  prayers ;  and  when  prayers  were  ended,  she  took  her 
into  the  sea,  in  order  to  escape  the  apprehended  guitar  and  psalm-book,  and  sat  down  upon  a  chair 
danger.  In  such  excitements  it  is,  though  arising  without  arms,  and  jtlayed  and  STing  so  melodiously 
from  diflferent  causes,  that  an  intending  murderer  '  and  admirably,  that  her  music-master,  who  was  then 
thinks  he  hears  the  prince  of  fallen  angels  tempting  |  there,  admir<^d  at  it.  And  near  the  stroke  of  twelve, 
him  on  to  crime,  or  sees  >)efore  him  a  'dagger  of  the  she  ro.se  and  sate  herself  down  in  a  great  chair  with 
mind' wherewith  to  end  the  life  of  his  victim.     There  |  arms,  nnd  presently   fetching  a  strong  breathing  or 


are  also  instances  of  spectral  illusions  tracealde  to  a 
simply  disordered  state  of  the  digestive  organs.  M. 
Nicolai,  an  eminent  bookseller  in  Berlin,  fell,  in  the 
early  part  of  the  year  1791,  into  a  depression  of 
spirits,  and  in  that  condition  neglected  a  course  of 


two,  immediately  expired,  and  was  so  suddenly  cold, 
as  was  much  wondered  at  by  the  physician  and 
surgeon.  She  died  at  Waltham  in  Essex,  three 
miles  from  Chelmsford,  and  the  letter  was  sent  to 
Sir  Charles  at    his  house  in  Warwickshire,  but    he 


periodical  bleeding  which  he  had  been  accustomed  was  so  afflicted  with  the  death  of  his  daughter,  that 
to  observe.  The  consequence  was  his  becoming  !  he  came  not  till  .she  was  buried ;  but  when  he  came, 
liable  for  some  months  to  seeing  trains  of  phan-  j  he  caused  her  to  be  taken  up,  and  to  be  burieil  with 
tasmata  or  spectral  figures,  which  moved  and  acted  her  mother  at  Edmonton,  as  she  desired  in  her 
before  him,  nay,  even  spoke  to,  and  addressed  him.  '  letter.' 

He  was  fortunately  able,  not  merely  to  coolly  ob.serve  I  Dr.  Ilibbert,  in  treating  of  this  case,  concludes  that 
the  phenomena,  but  to  describe  them  in  an  ample  the  young  lady  was  consumptive  and  about  to  die, 
paper  which  he  presented  to  the  Philosophical  and  in  this  diseased  frame  of  body  became  the  subject 
Society  of  Berlin.     This  case  mav  be  said  to  have  '  of  an  illusion ;    but    these  are  assumptions  directly 

contrary  to  what  the  record  bears,  and  there  is,  after 


formed  the  basis  of  a  theory  of  a!,  advanced  by  Pr 
Ferrier,  Dr.  Hibbert,  and  others,  amounting  merely 
to  this,  that  they  are  all  to  be  accounted  for  by 
peculiar  conditions  of  the  organism  of  the  individual 
sensible  of  them. 

There  is  certainly  a  large  class  of  cases  which 
fall  readily  imder  this  explanation  :  but,  if  we  are  to 
accept  the  whole  that  have  been,  on  more  or  less 
good  authority,  reported,  it  must  be  admitted  that 
a  theory  of  a  more  comprehensive  nature  is  still 
retiuirod  in  order  to  satisfy  the  duly  cautious 
inquirer. 

Let  us  take,  for  instance,  an  apparition  story  which 
Dr.  Hibbert  ow  ns  to  be  one  of  the  best  authenticated 
on  record.  It  was  thus  written  down  in  1662  by 
the  Bishop  of  Gloucester,  from  the  recital  of  the 
young  lady's  father:  'Sir  Charles  Lee,  by  his  first 
lady,  had  only  one  daughter,  of  which  she  died  in 
childbirth ;  and  when  she  was  dead,  her  sister,  the 
Lady  Everard,  desired  to  have  the  education  of  the 
child ;  and  she  was  by  her  very  well  educated,  till 
she  was  marriageable,  and  a  match  was  concluded 
for  her  with  Sir  William  Perkins,  but  was  then 
prevented  in  an  extraordinary  manner.  Upon  a 
Thursday  night,  she  thinking  she  saw  a  light  in  her 
chamber  after  she  was  in  bed,  knocked  for  her  maid, 
who  presently  came  to  her,  and  she  asked  why  she 
left  a  candle  burning  in  her  chamber.  The  maid 
said  she  left  none,  and  there  -was  none  but  what  she 
had  brought  with  her  at  that  time.  Then  she  said 
it  was  the  fire ;  but  that,  her  maid  told  her,  was  quite 
out ;  and  she  said  she  believed  it  was  only  a  dream  ; 
whereupon  she  said  it  might  be  so,  and  composed 
herself  again  to  sleep.  But  about  two  of  the  clock 
she  was  awakened  again,  and  saw  the  apparition  of 
a  little  woman  between  her  curtain  and  her  pillow, 
who  told  her  she  was  her  mother,  that  she  was 
happy,  and  that  by  twelve  of  the  clock  that  day  she 
should  be  with  her.  Whereupon  she  knocked  again 
324 


all,  the  singular  circumstance  to  be  accounted  for, 
that  the  young  lady's  death  occurred  exactly  at  the 
time  predicted.  To  a  siiuilar  purport  is  the  case  of 
the  wife  of  Dr.  Donne,  related  by  Izaak  Walton. 
Donne  left  his  wife  pregnant  in  London,  and  went 
with  Sir  Robert  Drury  to  Paris.  Two  days  after 
arriving  there,  he  stated  to  Drury  that  he  had  had  a 
vision  of  his  wife,  walking  through  his  room  with 
her  hair  hanging  over  her  shoulders,  and  a  dead  child 
in  her  arms.  So  impressed  were  they  by  the  incident 
that  they  immediately  sent  a  messenger  to  London 
to  inquire  regarding  Mrs.  Donne's  health.  The 
intelligence  brought  by  the  man  was,  that  she  had 
been  brought  to  bed  of  a  dead  child  at  the  hour  her 
husband  thought  he  had  seen  her  at  Paris.  In  this 
case,  too,  if  the  requisite  disordered  state  of  Dr. 
Donne  were  granted,  the  coincidence  of  the  distant 
event  in  its  particulars,  and  in  point  of  time,  would 
remain  unaccounted  for  by  Dr.  Hibbert's  theory. 

That  there  is  an  abundance  of  such  cases  reported, 
will  not  be  disputed.  In  what  direction  speculation 
regarding  them  is  to  move,  if  the  insufficiency  of  Dr. 
Hibbert's  theory  be  acknowledged,  will  probably 
depend  on  the  general  tendency  of  the  movements 
of  science.  If  psychological  study  were  more  in  re- 
pute, and  the  phenomena  of  dreaming  in  particular 
were  diligently  examined,  there  might  be  a  hope  of 
a  satisfactory  theory  of  what  are  called  A.  ere  the 
world  was  many  years  older. 

APPEAL,  in  the  civic  procedure  of  courts  of 
justice,  signifies  the  removal  of  a  suit  from  one  court 
or  judge  to  another  and  higher  court  or  judge,  in 
order  that  the  latter  may  examine  the  validity  of 
the  former's  judgment,  either  affirming  or  reversing, 
altering  or  varying  the  judgment.  A.,  however, 
is  not  a  technical  term  in  the  procedure  of  the 
English  and  Irish  common  law  courts,  the  judg- 
ments of  these  tribunals,  as  well  as  of  other  courts 


APPEAL. 


regulated  by  the  common  law,  being  reviewed  by  a 
procedure  which  we  shall  presently  explain.  In 
England,  the  term  A.,  strictly  and  technically  so 
called,  is  used  in  the  business  of  the  following 
courts : 

1.  In  the  Courts  o{  Equity  (or  of  Chancery),  where 
there  is  an  A.  from  the  judgment  of  the  Master 
of  the  Rolls,  and  from  the  Vice-chancellors  to  the 
Lord  Chancellor  himself,  sitting  alone,  or  concur- 
rently with  him,  to  the  Lords  Justices  of  A.  in 
Chancery,  or,  if  necessary,  to  the  full  court,  consist- 
ing of  the  Lord  Chancellor  and  of  the  two  Lords 
Jasticps  sitting  together,  and  presided  over  by  the 
former.  The  judgment  of  such  Court  of  A.  may 
then  be  itself  appealed  against  to  the  House  of 
Lords,  whose  determination  is  final. 

2.  In  the  Courts  of  Bankruptcii^  the  judgments 
of  which  may  be  appealed  from  now  directly  to  the 
Court  of  A.  in  Chancery,  and  thereafter  to  the 
House  of  Lords,  under  certain  restrictions. 

3.  In  the  Court  of  Probate,  there  is  an  A.  to 
the  House  of  Lords,  with  leave  of  the  court.  In 
the  procedure  of  this  tribunal  there  is  also  an  A. 
from  the  county  court,  where  such  court  has  juris- 
diction, to  the  Court  of  Probate  itself,  whose  judg- 
ment is  final. 

4.  In  the  Court  of  Divorce  and  Matrimonial 
Causes,  the  decision  of  the  Judge  Ordinary,  sitting 
alone,  may  be  appealed  to  the  full  court,  whose 
judgment  is  final.  But  in  the  case  of  a  decree 
dissolving  a  marriage,  there  may  be  an  A.  to  the 
House  of  Lords. 

5.  In  the  Admiralty  Courts  there  is  an  A.  to  the 
Privy-council ;  but  when  the  Admiralty  jurisdiction 
merges  in  that  of  the  Court  of  Probate,  under  section 
10  of  the  20  and  21  Vict.  c.  77,  the  course  of  A.  will 
probably  follow  that  prescribed  for  the  latter  tribu- 
nal, and  the  Lords  will  deprive  the  Privy-council  of 
this  appellate  jurisdiction. 

6.  There  is  also  aii  A.  to  the  Privy-council  from 
the  following  courts  and  matters :  from  the  courts 
of  India  and  from  the  colonial  courts  generally;  and 
such  A.  includes  the  sentences,  not  only  of  courts  of 
primary  jurisdiction,  but  also  of  Courts  of  A.  in 
the  colonies ;  *  from  the  Lord  Chancellor  in  matters 
of  lunacy  or  idiocy ;  in  applications  to  prolong  the 
term  of  patents  for  new  inventions  ;  and  in  making 
orders  in  certain  cases  relative  to  copyright,  pursuant 
to  the  provisions  of  the  copyright  acts. 

Practically,  however,  as  we  are  told  by  Mr.  Stephen 
in  his  Commentaries,  all  judicial  authority  of  the 
Privy-council  is  now  exercised  by  a  committee  of 
privy-councillors,  called  the  Judicial  Committee  of 
the  Privy-council;  who  hear  the  allegations  and 
proofs,  and  make  their  report  to  Her  Majesty  in 
council,  by  whom  the  judgment  is  finally  given. 

In  the  practice  of  the  common  law  courts  of 
England — that  is,  the  Court  of  Queen's  Bench,  the 
Court  of  Common  Pleas,  and  the  Court  of  Exchequer, 
or,  as  is  put  by  Lord  Coke,  any  court  whose  pro- 
ceedings are  regulated  by  the  common  law — the 
procedure  by  way  of  A.  is,  as  we  stated  at  the 
beginning  of  this  article,  technically  not  so  called, 
but  is  said  to  be  in   error,  the   party  complaining 

'  As  to  colonial  causes,  we  are  informed  by  Blackstone  that 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  Privy-council  is  'both  original  and 
appellate.  Whenever  a  question  arises  between  two  provinces 
out  of  the  realm,  as  concerning  the  e.xtent  of  their  charters 
and  the  lil^e,  the  king  in  his  council  exercises  or?{/m(«i  jurisdic- 
tion therein,  upon  the  principles  of  feudal  sovereignty.  And  so 
likewise,  when  any  person  claiins  an  island  or  a  province,  in 
the  nature  of  a  feudal  princip;iHty,  by  grant  from  the  king 
or  his  ancestors,  the  determination  of  that  right  belongs  to  the 
king  (or  queen)  in  council,  as  was  the  case  of  the  Earl  of 
Derby,  with  regard  to  the  Isle  of  Man,  in  the  reign  of  Queen 
Rlizabeth,  and  the  Earl  of  Cardigan  and  others,  as  representa- 
tives of  the  Duke  of  Montague,  with  relation  to  the  island  of 
St.  Vincent,  in  17C4.' 


of  the  judgment  being  called  the  plaintiff  in  error 
instead  of  appellant,  and  his  opponent,  the  defendant 
in  error,  instead  of  respondent.  Formerly,  the  pro 
ceedings  commenced  by  suing  out  a  writ  of  erroi 
first  to  a  court  of  intermediate  A.,  called  the  Court 
of  Exchequer  Chamber,  and  afterwards  by  a  furthe* 
writ  of  error  to  the  House  of  Lords.  But  by  thtf 
common-law  procedure  act  of  1852  (15  and  16  Vict, 
c.  76,  s.  148),  writs  of  error  are  abolished,  and  the 
mode  of  review  regulated  by  legal  forms  which  need 
not  be  here  explained. 

Error  also  lies  to  the  QueenN  Bench  in  criminal 
cases,  when,  after jxidgment,  it  is  considered  that  the 
indictment  is  bad  in  substance,  or  that  the  judgment 
is  erroneous,  or  in  respect  of  any  other  substantial 
defect  appearing  on  the  face  of  the  record.  But 
now  the  usual  and  proper  method  of  review  in 
criminal  cases  is  that  prescribed  by  the  11  and  12 
Vict.  c.  78,  constituting  a  new  Court  of  A.,  composed 
of  the  judges  of  the  three  common  law  courts,  or  of  a 
quorum  of  five  of  them  at  least,  of  whom  the  three 
chiefs,  or  one  of  such  chiefs  at  least,  shall  be  part. 

As  to  redress  by  way  of  A.  and  error  against  the 
judgments  in  the  courts  of  Ireland,  the  procedure  is 
so  similar  to  that  employed  with  respect  to  the 
English  courts,  that  we  need  not  here  enter  into 
particulars  on  the  subject.  We  may  simply  remark, 
generally,  that  the  Irish  Chancellor,  sitting  alone, 
does  not  appear  to  exercise  any  appellate  control 
over  courts  inferior  to  his  own,  such  as  that  possessed 
by  the  Chancellor  in  England  ;  for,  according  to  the 
Irish  practice,  the  A.,  for  instance,  from  the  Master 
of  the  Rolls,  and  in  the  case  of  proceedings  in 
bankruptcy,  is  not  to  the  Chancellor  himself  alone, 
but  to  the  Court  of  A.  in  Chancery,  in  which  the 
Chancellor  and  a  Lord  Justice  of  A.  are  the  appointed 
judges;  and  which  Court  of  A.  likewise  reviews  the 
Chancellor's  own  individual  judgments.  The  judg- 
ments of  this  Court  of  A.  itself,  however,  may  after- 
wards be  reviewed  on  A.  by  the  House  of  Lords.  In 
criminal  procedure,  the  above  act  (11  and  12  Vict.  c. 
78)  applies  to  Ireland  as  well  as  to  England. 

In  the  procedure  of  the  Scotch  courts,  there  are 
various  appeals  in  the  practice  of  the  sheriff  or 
county  courts,  and  in  the  proceedings  in  bankruptcy  ; 
and  the  House  of  Lords  reviews  the  judgments  of 
the  Court  of  Session,  the  supreme  civil  court  of  the 
country,  and  which  tribunal,  indeed,  it  may  be  said, 
supplies  the  House  with  the  larger  portion  of  its 
judicial  business.  This  circumstance  has  frequently 
been  remarked  on  as  proving  a  litigious  disposition 
on  the  part  of  the  Scotch  ;  but  perhaps  the  greater 
number  of  Scotch  appeals  over  English  and  Irish 
may  be  more  fairly  said  to  be  occasioned  by  a 
natural  feeling  on  the  part  of  litigants  and  lawyers 
in  Scotland,  that  there  is  a  better  chance  of  a  i:ice 
and  critical  examination  of  the  judgments  appealed 
against  by  such  judges  as  preside  in  the  House  of 
Lords,  who  are  all  lawyers  of  the  greatest  learning  and 
eminence,  and  whose  legal  and  judicial  minds  have 
been  formed  under  a  different  and  larger  system  of 
jurisprudence  and  procedure  than  prevails  in  Scot- 
land, than  there  would  be  to  a  tribunal  composed 
entirely,  or  for  the  most  part,  of  Scotch  lawyers. 
Indeed,  it  may  be  said,  that  although  the  judicial 
staff"  of  the  House  of  Lords  are  exclusively  English 
lawyers,  the  system  of  A.  to  their  lordships  from  the 
Scotch  courts  works  extremely  well,  and  gives  entire 
satisfaction  to  the  Scotch  people.  Some  of  the  most 
valuable  elucidations  of  the  peculiar  principles  of 
Scotch  law  are  to  be  found  in  the  judgments  in 
Scotch  appeals  by  the  chancellors  and  other  law 
lords  who,  since  the  union  with  Scotland,  have 
administered  the  jurisdiction  of  the  House  in  the 
last  resort,  but  who  were  never  in  a  Scotch  court, 
and,  until  called  upon  to  discharge  such  responsible 

325 


APPEXZELL— APPIANUS. 


functions,  had  probably  never  opened  a  Scotcli 
law-book. 

lliere  is  is  no  A-  to  the  House  of  Lords  from  Scotland 
in  criminal  cases,  nor  does  tlie  abovc-mentiunedact — 
11  and  12  Vict.  cap.  7S,  creating  a  court  of  criminal 
A.  lor  England  and  Ireland — extend  to  Scotland. 
But  the  High  Couri  of  Justiciary  tiiere,  which  is  the 
supreme  criminal  tribunal,  and  is  compo.sed  of  seven 
judges  of  the  Court  of  Session,  presided  over  by  the 
Lord  Justice  General,  or  Lord  President,  as  he  is 
otiiirwise  called,  reviews  the  procedure  of  all  the 
crimiiuxl  courts  of  the  country  (excepting  where  such 
jurisdiction  is  e.xpres.«ly  excluded  by  statute);  and  it 
is  Ijolieved  tiuit  no  inconvenience  is  experienced  in 
consequence  of  tiiere  being  no  other  or  further  A. 
from  the  sentences  of  these  courts. 

APPENZE'LL  (from  Aibntia  Cello),  a  canton  in 
the  nortii-east  of  Switzerland.  Area,  l.'i'i  square 
miles.  Pop.,  60,4."31.  It  is  divided  into  two  districts 
— Innerrhoden  and  Ausserrhoden,  the  former  of 
which  is  peopled  by  Protestants,  the  latter  by 
Roman  Catholics,  and  noted  for  its  dense  population. 
The  surface  is  mountainous,  os()cciaIiy  in  the  south, 
where  Mont  Sentis  attains  an  elevation  of  8'2;<'2  feet. 
The  chief  river  is  tin-  Sittern,  which  flows  through 
the  centre  of  the  canton.  A.  holds  the  l:ith  jilace  in 
the  Swi.ss  confederacy,  an<l  furnishes  '.»72  soldiers  to 
the  national  army.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly 
employed  in  agriculture,  cattle-keeping,  cotton 
manufactures,  and  emljroidery.  They  are  fond  of 
dancing,  music,  and  athletic  e.xcrcises,  and  have  the 
reputation  of  being  first-rate  marksmen. 

Ajypenzell,  the  capital  of  the  canton  of  the  same 
name,  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Sittern,  in 
lat.  47°  2'/  N.,  and  long,  il'  24'  E.  Pop.,  32n().  The 
town  is  ill  built,  and  has  only  a  small  trade  in 
linens.  The  other  towns  are  Trogcn  (with  a  pop.  of 
2400,  and  manufactures  of  linen  and  nmslin), 
Herisau,  &c. 

APPEKLEY,  Charles  J.\mks,  the  'Nimrod'  of 
the  Qxiartcrlii  Review,  is  a  writer  who  deserves  men- 
tion, if  not  from  the  intrinsic  importance  of  the 
subjects  on  which  he  exercised  his  pen,  at  least  from 
the  perfection  he  attained  in  the  department  to 
which  he  confined  himself  He  was  the  son  of  a 
Welsh  country  gentleman,  and  was  l)orn  in  Denbigh- 
sliire  in  1777.  His  education  at  Rugby  stimulated 
his  love  of  field-sports  more  than  his  love  of  the 
classics.  At  the  age  of  24,  he  married,  and  went  to 
reside  at  Bilton  Hall,  in  Warwickshire,  where  he 
devoted  his  energies  as  exclusively  to  the  chase 
as  the  great  Ninirod  himself  could  have  done.  He 
hunted  everywhere  in  Great  Britain.  In  1821,  he 
began  to  contribute  to  the  Sport'mg  Magazine.  His 
clever,  gossiping  articles  were  so  nmch  relished, 
that  in  two  years  that  periodical  doubled  its  circu- 
lation. The  proprietor,  Mr.  Pittman,  was  of  course 
highly  gratified.  He  remunerated  Mr.  A.  hand- 
somely, kept  a  stud  of  hunters  for  him,  and  paid  the 
expenses  of  his  sporting  tours  ;  but  '  Ximrod' seems 
to  have  been  of  rather  expensive  habits,  and  to  have 
occasionally  required  an  advance  of  money  from  his 
employer.  When  Mr.  Pittman  died,  his  relatives 
entered  into  a  lawsuit  with  the  '  mighty  hunter,'  for 
the  recovery  of  this  money.  Ninn-od,  however,  pru- 
dently transferred  himself  to  France,  where  he  chiefly 
resided  during  the  rest  of  his  life.  He  died  on  the 
19th  of  May  1843.  His  best  writings  are  l^he  Chase, 
the  Turf,  and  the  Road,  which  appeared  in  the  Quar- 
te-i-l If  Review  (1827). 

APPERT,  Benjamin  Nicolas  Marie,  a  French 
philanthropist,  was  born  in  Paris,  September  10, 
1797.  He  began  his  course  in  181(5  by  introducing 
into  several  schools  a  system  of  mutual  instruction, 
and,  in  1820,  founded  and  conducted  gratuitously  a 
326 


school  for  the  prisoners  at  Montagu.  Being  8Ui»» 
pected  of  having  aided  the  escajie  of  two  pri>oner«, 
lie  was  himself  confined  in  the  prison  of  Lu  Force, 
where  he  made  good  use  of  his  opportunities  of 
becoming  ac()uainted  with  the  moral  and  physical 
circumstancfS  of  prisoners.  After  his  liberation,  he 
prosecuted  his  benevolent  plans  wiiii  renewed  real, 
and  undertook  a  journey  through  the  whole  of 
France,  in  1826,  to  inspect  schools,  prisons,  hospitals, 
&c.  The  results  were  given  in  his  Journal.  After 
the  July  revolution,  he  was  enifiloyed  by  Louis 
Phili|)pe  to  superintend  the  measures  taken  for  the 
relief  of  the  indigent  classes.  In  his  travels,  he 
visited  Belgium,  Prussia,  Austria,  Saxony,  and 
Bavaria,  and  gave  the  results  of  his  observations  on 
the  management  of  schools,  hospitals,  prisons,  &c., 
in  several  works.  He  also  wrote  a  work  entitled 
J)ix  Ant  d  la  Cour  du  Roi  Louin  Philiiipe,  and,  in 
his  Conferences  contrr  le  Si/xthne  Celhilaire,  strongly 
opposed  the  system  of  solitary  confinement.  Though 
one-sided  in  some  of  liis  views,  A.  is  a  sincere,  warm- 
hearted, and  practical  philanthro|)ist. 

APPERT,  Fka.\(,()Is,  a  French  technologist,  the 
inventor  of  a  method  of  preserving  nleat,  vegetables, 
and  other  articles  of  food  without  the  u.se  of  salt 
or  other  cheinical  application.  This  method  is  fully 
described  in  his  work  L^ Art  de  Conserrcr  tnufcx  In 
Suhstanres  A  nimahs  el  Vigetales  (4th  edition,  Paris, 
1831).     See  Antiskptic. 

APPETITE.     See  IUxoer  and  TniRST. 

APPIA'N'I,  Andrea,  styled  in  his  day  'the  Painter 
of  the  (iraces,'  was  l)orn  at  Milan,  May  23,  1754. 
His  poverty  compelled  him  to  gain  a  subsistence  by 
decorative  painting;  but  in  the  course  of  his  travels, 
he  studied  the  works  of  great  masters,  and  formed 
for  himself  an  original  style,  almost  rivalling  that  of 
Correggio.  At  Rome,  he  devoted  his  attention  to 
the  frescoes  of  Raphael,  and  made  such  progres.s, 
that  he  soon  excelled  all  living  artist.s,  in  fre.sco- 
painting.  The  best  evidi-nees  of  his  genius  ore 
found  in  the  cupola  of  the  church  of  tita.  Maria  di 
S.  Cclso  at  Milan;  and  in  the  frescoes  with  which 
he  decorated  the  villa  of  the  Arcliduke  Ferdinand 
in  1795.  Napoleon  I.  appointed  him  court-painter. 
In  return,  he  executed  portraits  of  the  French 
emperor  and  several  of  his  general.s.  His  most 
beautiful  frescoes  are  the  paintings  on  the  ceilings  of 
the  palace  of  Milan,  which  consist  of  allegorical 
illustrations  of  Napoleon's  career;  and  Apollo  with 
the  Muses  in  the  Villa  Bonaparte.  Almost  all  the 
palaces  in  Italy  contain  frescoes  by  A.  His  finest 
oil-painting  is  Rinaldo  in  the  garden  of  Armida. 
The  fall  of  his  patron,  Napoleon  I.,  left  A.  in  in- 
digent circumstances.     He  died  November  8,  1817. 

APPIA'NUS,  a  native  of  Alexandria,  who 
flourished  during  the  reigns  of  Trajan,  Hadrian,  and 
Antoninus  Pius.  He  was  author  of  a  Roman  history, 
in  twenty-four  books,  of  which  only  eleven  are  extant. 
It  was  not  remarkable  for  anything  except  the  plan 
on  which  it  was  written.  Instead  of  proceeding  to 
exhibit  chronologically  the  growth  of  the  empire, 
from  its  rude  beginning  on  the  Palatine  Hill,  to  the 
period  when  its  power  held  the  whole  world  in  awe, 
which  is  at  once  the  popular  and  the  philosophical 
method,  he  divided  his  work  into  ethnographic 
sections,  recording  separately  the  history  of  each 
nation  up  to  the  time  of  its  conquest  by  the  Romans. 
First  in  order  were  the  books  devoted  to  the  old 
Italian  tribes,  and  afterwards  followed  the  history  of 
Sicily,  Spain,  Hannibal's  wars,  Libya,  Carthage,  and 
Numidia,  Macedonia,  Greece  Proper  and  its  colonies, 
Syria,  Parthia,  the  Mithridatic  war,  the  civil  wars, 
and  the  imperial  wars  in  lllyria  and  Arabia.  As  a 
historian,  A.  is  a  mere  compiler,  and  not  very  accu- 
rate in  his  compilation.   His  geographical  knowledge, 


APPIAN  WAY— APPLE. 


in  particular,  ia  singularly  deficient,  considerinfr  the 
age  in  which  he  lived.  One  specimen  of  his  blun- 
ders will  suffice :  in  his  section  on  Spain,  he  states 
that  it  takes  only  half  a  day  to  sail  from  Spain  to 
Britain. 

The  best  edition  of  A.  is  that  of  Schweighaiiser, 
Leipsic,  1785,  in  3  vols. 

A'PPIAN  WAY  (Lat.  JIm  Appia),  well  named  by 
an  ancient  writer  Regina  Viarum  (the  queen  of 
roads),  was  formed,  in  part  at  least,  by  Appius 
Claudius  Ciecus,  while  he  was  censor,  (313  b.c). 
It  is  the  oldest  and  most  celebrated  of  all  the 
Roman  roads.  It  led  from  the  Porta  Cnpena  at 
Rome  in  a  southerly  direction  to  Capua,  passing 
through  Three  Taverns,  Appii  Forum,  Terracina,  &c. 
Subsequently  it  was  carried  on  to  Beneventum,  Tar- 
entum,  and  thence  to  Brundusium.  It  had  an  admi- 
rable substructure  or  foundation,  from  which  all  the 
loose  soil  had  been  carefully  removed.  Above  this 
were  various  strata  cemented  with  lime;  and,  lastly, 
came  the  pavement,  consisting  of  large  hard  hexa- 
gonal blocks  of  stone,  composed  principally  of  ba- 
saltic lava,  and  joined  together  with  great  nicety,  so 
as  to  appear  one  smooth  mass.  The  remains  of  it 
are  still  visible,  especially  at  Terracina.  The  cost 
must  have  been  enormous,  for  the  natural  obstruc- 
tions are  great.  Rocks  had  to  be  cut  through,  val- 
leys filled  up,  ravines  bridged,  and  swamps  em- 
banked. 

A'PPIUS  CLAUDIUS  CRASSUS,  a  Roman 
decemvir  (451 — 149  b.c).  While  the  other  decemviri 
were  engaged  in  repelling  an  incursion  made  by  the 
Sabines,  A.  C.  and  his  colleague  Oppius  remained  in 
Rome,  with  two  legions  to  maintain  their  authority. 
Meanwhile  A.  C.  had  been  smitten  by  the  beauty  of 
Virginia,  daughter  of  a  respected  plebeian  named 
Lucius  Virginius,  who  was  abroad  with  the  army. 
By  force  and  stratagem,  representuig  that  she  was 
the  born  slave  of  Marcus  Claudius,  one  of  his  clients, 
A.  C.  gained  possession  of  the  maid.  His  design  was 
penetrated  by  Icilius,  who  was  betrothed  to  Virginia, 
and  who,  aided  by  Numitorius,  her  uncle,  threatened 
to  raise  an  insurrection  against  the  decemviri. 
Virginius,  hurriedly  recalled  from  the  army  by  his 
friends,  appeared  and  claimed  his  daughter ;  but, 
after  another  mock-trial,  she  was  again  adjudged  to 
be  the  property  of  Marcus  Claudius.  To  save  his 
daughter  from  dishonour,  the  unhappy  father  seized 
a  knife  and  slew  her.  The  popular  indignation  ex- 
cited by  the  case  was  headed  by  the  senators  Valerius 
and  Horatius,  who  hated  the  decemvirate.  The 
army  returned  to  Rome  with  Virginius,  who  had  car- 
ried the  news  to  them,  and  the  decemviri  were  de- 
posed. A.  C.  died  in  prison,  by  his  own  hand  (as 
Livy  states),  or  was  strangled  by  order  of  the  tribunes ; 
his  colleague,  Oppius,  conmiitted  suicide ;  and  Marcus 
Claudius  was  banished.  The  Claudia  Gens  (see  Gens) 
was  one  of  the  most  numerous  and  important  of  the 
patrician  tribes  or  clans  of  Rome ;  and  besides  the 
sons  and  grandsons  of  the  decemvir,  there  were  nu- 
merous persons  of  distinction  who  bore  the  name  of 
Appius. 

A'PPLE  (Pi/rus  malus.  For  the  generic  character 
see  Pyrus).  This  well-known  fruit  has  been  very 
long  cultivated,  and  by  that  means  it  has  been  very 
much  improved.  It  was  extensively  cultivated  by 
the  Romans,  by  whom,  proljably,  it  was  introduced 
into  Britain.  The  wild  A.,  or  CRAB-tree,  a  native  of 
Britain,  and  very  generally  found  in  temperate  cli- 
mates of  the  northern  hemisphere,  is  a  rather 
small  and  often  somewhat  stunted-looking  tree, 
with  austere,  uneatable  fruit,  yet  it  is  the  parent  of 
all,  or  almost  all  the  varieties  of  apple  so  much  prized 
for  the  dessert.  The  A. -tree,  even  in  a  cultivated 
state,  is  seldom  more  than  30 — 40  feet  high.     It  has 


a  large  round  head ;  the  leaves  are  broadly  ovate, 
much  longer  than  the  petioles,  woolly  beneath,  acute, 
crenate,  and  provided  with  glands ;  its  flowers  are 
always  produced,  3 — 6  together,  in  sessile  umbels, 
and  are  large,  white,  rose-coloured  externally,  and 
fragrant.  The  fruit  is  roundish,  or  narrowest  to- 
wards the  apex,  with  a  depression  at  each  end,  gen- 
erally green,  but  also  frequently  yellow,  light  red, 
dark  red,  streaked,  sometimes  even  almost  black,  with 
the  rind  sometimes  downy,  sometimes  glabrous,  some- 
times thickish,  and  sometimes  very  thin  and  trans- 
parent, varying  in  size  from  that  of  a  walnut  to  that 
of  a  small  child's  head — the  taste  more  or  less  aro- 
matic, sweet,  or  subacid.  It  is  produced  on  spurs, 
which  spring  from  branchlets  of  two  or  more  years 
growth,  and  continue  to  bear  for  a  series  of  years. 
The  fruit  of  the  A.  is,  with  regard  to  its  structure, 
styled  by  botanists  a  pome  (q.  v.).  The  eatable  part 
is  what  is  botanically  termed  the  mesoozrp  (See  Fruit), 
which,  in  its  first  development,  enlarges  with  the 
calyx,  the  summit  of  the  fruit  being  crowned  at  last 
by  the  dried  5-parted  limb  of  the  calyx ;  the  endocarp 
being,  when  ripe,  cartilaginous,  and  containing  in  ita 
cells  seeds  which  do  not  correspond  with  them  in 
size,  but  are  so  free  as  often  to  rattle  when  it  is 
skaken. 

The  A.  is  now  one  of  the  most  widely  diffused  of 
fruit-trees,  and  in  the  estimation  of  many,  is  the 
most  valuable  of  all.  It  succeeds  best  in  the  colder 
parts  of  the  temperate  zone.  It  is,  however,  to  be 
met  with  on  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  in 
Arabia,  Persia,  the  West  Indies,  &c.,  but  there  ita 
fruit  is  as  small  and  worthless  as  in  high  northern 
latitudes.  The  varieties  in  cultivation  are  extremely 
numerous.  They  have  been  classed  with  great  care 
by  recent  German  writers,  by  whom  the  classification 
and  description  of  apples,  pears,  and  similar  fruits, 
has  been  treated  as  a  sort  of  science,  and  dignified 
by  the  name  of  Pomology.  Metzger,  in  his  descrii>- 
tion  of  the  pomaceous  fruits  of  Southern  Germany, 
describes  89  different  kinds  of  A.,  all  of  which  are 
constant,  besides  sub-varieties.  New  varieties  are 
continually  produced;  and  as  they  are  chiefly  pre- 
served and  propagated  by  grafting — although  soine 


Apple-bloasom. 

of  them  also  grow  by  layers  and  cuttings — the  old 
ones  gradually  die  out.  The  costard,  from  which 
dealers  in  apples  received  the  name  of  costard- 
mongers,  is  no  longer  known.  Many  varieties  are 
designated  by  the  general  names  of  Pippins,  Rennets, 
Codlins,  and  Calvilles.  Some  kinds,  not  approved 
for  the  dessert,  are  in  high  esteem  as  baking-apples, 
and  others  still  more  acid  or  austere  are  preferred 
for  the  manufocture  of  Cider  (q.  v). 

The  A.  is  grown  in  Britain  either  as  a   standard, 

S27 


APPLE  OF  SODOM— APPOINTMEyT. 


an  espalier,  or  a  waU-tri'e,  and  is  variously  trained. 
It  is  usually  grafted  on  A.  or  crab-^ttocks,  but  suc- 
ceeds also  on  hawthorn-stocks,  and  is  in  this  way 
Bometimes  introduced  into  hedges.  A  very  dwarf 
variety,  called  the  I'aradine  A.,  is  often  used  as  a 
stock  on  which  to  graft  it  in  order  to  produce  dwarf- 
trees;  and  trees  thus  dwarfed  are  often  very  produc- 
tive when  little  larger  than  currant  or  goose- 
berry bushes.  Some  of  the  varieties  of  A.  are  more 
hardy  than  others,  and  are  therefore  to  be  preferred 
for  cold  or  exposed  situations.  Sonic  of  the  finest 
kinds  succeed  well  only  when  the  soil  and  climate  are 
good.  Some  kinds  arc  much  earlier  than  others,  both 
In  flowering  and  ri|)ening. 

The  wood  of  the  A. -tree  is  hard,  durable,  and  fine- 
grained. The  crab  is  often  planted  both  as  an  orna- 
mental tree  and  for  the  sake  of  its  wood.  The  bark 
contains  a  yellow  dye. — As  a  fruit-tree,  the  A. 
requires  a  fertile  soil  and  sheltered  situation.  The 
various  uses  of  the  fruit — for  the  dessert,  for  baking, 
preserving,  making  jelly,  &c.,  as  well  as  for  making 
the  fermented  liquor  called  cider — are  sulhciently 
well  known.  Vinegar  is  al.*o  made  from  it ;  and 
eometimes  a  kind  of  spirit,  especially  in  Swit/crland 
and  Swabia.  It  contains  Malic  Acid,  which  is  ex- 
tracted for  medicinal  i)urposes. — The  fermented 
Juice  of  the  Crab  A.  is  called  Verjuice.  It  is  use<l 
in  cookery,  and  sometimes  medicinally ;  also  for  the 
purifying  of  wax.  Apples  are  an  iniporlaut  article 
of  commerce.  Great  quantities  are  imported  into 
Britain,  chiefly  from  France,  Canada,  an<l  the  north- 
ern parts  of  the  United  States.  The  A.  keeps  better 
than  most  kinds  of  fruit. 

BeniijinR  or  JiifflttseLvc  apples  slowly  dried  in  bakers' 
ovens,  and  occasionally  pressed  till  they  become  soft 
and  flat.  They  are  prepared  in  great  quantities  in 
Norfolk. 

The  SinERiAN  Crab  is  perhaps  the  parent,  by  hy- 
bridisation or  otherwise,  of  some  of  the  varieties  of 
A.  now  in  cultivation.  Two  species  partake  this 
designation,  both  natives  of  Siberia,  and  frequent  in 
gardens  in  Britain,  Pi/nts  haccnta  of  Linna'us,  and 
Pyrus  pruiiifolia  of  Willdenow,  which,  however, 
scarcely  differ,  except  that  in  the  former  the  sepals 
(leaves  of  the  calyx)  are  deciduous,  in  the  latter  they 
are  persistent — a  circumstance  of  very  doubtful  im- 
portance as  a  specific  distinction.  The  fruit  is  sub- 
globose,  yellowish,  and  rather  austere,  but  is  good 
for  baking  and  for  preserves. 

The  Amkrican  Crab  or  Swket-scented  Crab 
(P.  coronaria)  is  a  native  of  North  America,  especiallv 
of  the  southern  part  of  the  Alleghanies.  It  is  a  small 
tree  with  broad  leaves  and  white  flowers,  becoming 
purple  before  they  drop  off,  and  which  have  a  power- 
ful smell,  resembling  that  of  violets.  The  fruit  is 
flatly  orbicular,  of  a  deep  green  colour,  and  sweet 
scented.  It  is  very  acid,  but  is  made  into  cider,  and 
also  into  preserves.  P.  a^ipustifolia,  a  native  of 
Carolina,  much  resembles  this,  but  has  much  nar- 
rower leaves  and  smaller  fruit. 

The  Chisksk  Crab  {P.  spectabilis)  is  a  small  tree, 
a  native  of  China.  It  is  very  ornamental  when  in 
flower;  the  flowers  being  in  sessile,  many-flowered 
umbels,  and  of  a  bright  rose-colour.  The  fruit  is  ir- 
regularly round,  about  the  size  of  a  cherry,  yellow, 
and  fit  to  be  eaten,  like  the  medlar,  only  when  in  a 
state  of  incipient  decay. 

APPLE  OF  SODOM.     See  Solanum. 
A'PPLEBERRY.     See  Billardiera. 
A'PPLEBY,  the   countv  town  of  Westmoreland, 
lies  in  lat.  54°  3.5'  \.,  long.  '1°  28'  W.     It  is   in  the 
north  of  the  county,  on  the  river  Eden,  which  flows 
past  Carlisle    into  the  Solway  Firth.     A.    has  two 
parishes,  one  on  each  side  of  the  river,  which  is  here 
crossed  by  an  old  stone  bridge  of  two  arches.     There 
828 


is  a  castle  in  the  town,  the  k<-ep  of  which,  cali'-d 
Cwsar's  Tower,  is  still  in  tolerable  condition.  The 
Lent  and  summer  assizes  are  held  at  A.  I'ntil  the 
passing  of  the  Reform  Hill,  it  returned  two  members 
to  parliament.  It  was  then  disfranchised,  though  it 
still  possesses  a  municipal  corporation.     Pop.  2824. 

A'PPLETON,  a  town  of  Outagamie  cc,  Wisconsin, 
on  the  Grand  Chute  of  the  Fo.\  River,  ami  on  the  Chi- 
cago and  N.  W.  R.  II.  37  miles  N.  of  Fond  du  Lac. 
The  Grand  Chute,  affords  immense  water-power ;  and 
at  the  same  time  a  series  of  dams  renders  the  stream 
navigable  for  steamboats  through  its  whole  course — 
a  navigation  which,  with  the  aid  of  a  canal  Ix-twoen 
the  Fox  on  the  north  and  the  Wisconsin  to  the  south, 
is  carried  all  the  way  from  I.4ike  Michigan  to  the  Mis 
8issipf)i.  A.  is  the  seat  of  Lawrence  University. 
PoDulation  (1860)  2,345. 

APPO(;iATr'RA,  an  Italian  musical  term,  desig- 
nating a  form  of  embellishment  by  insertion  of  notes 
of  pas.xage  in  a  melody.  The  notes  are  printed  in  a 
smaller  character  than  the  leading  notes  of  the  mel- 
ody, and  shoidd  always  be  given  with  considerable 
expres.'iion.  When  they  are  extemporised  by  a  per- 
former or  singer,  they  serve  as  an  indication  of  good 
or  of  bad  taste.  The  time  of  an  A.  is  taken  from 
the  essential  note  to  which  it  belongs,  as  m  the  fol- 
lowing example: 

VTrUtefi. 


^§ 


w 


^ 


J'Utj/ed. 


^-^^^i^^Pf^ 


For  Appooia'to,  sec  Portamento. 

APPOINTMEXT.  In  the  law  of  England,  there 
are  frequently  reserved  in  common  law  conveyances 
granted  on  a  consideration,  and  in  family  settle- 
ments, certain  poverg,  a.s  they  are  called,  such  as 
powers  of  jointuring,  selling,  charging  land  with  the 
payment  of  money ;  and  the  subsecpient  exercise  of 
the  power  is  called  an  A.  This  A. — which  may  be 
made  either  by  deed  or  by  will,  is  not  considered  as 
an  independent  conveyance,  but  is  merely  ancillary 
to  the  deed  or  instrument  in  which  the  power  of  A. 
is  reserved,  and  from  which  the  party  in  whose 
favour  the  A.  is  made  for  most  purposes  derives  his 
title.  The  Courts  of  Equity  give  relief  against  a 
defective  A.,  or  defective  execution  of  a  power,  where 
there  is  what  is  called  a  'meritorious  consideration  ' 
in  the  person  applying  for  such  relief.  As  to  what 
amounts  to  such  meritorious  consideration.  Lord  St. 
Leonards,  in  his  work  on  Powers,  lays  down  that 
E(iuity  will  relieve  the  following  parties:  1.  A  pur- 
chaser, including  in  such  term  a  mortgagee  and 
lessee  ;  2.  A  creditor ;  3.  A  wife ;  4.  A  legitimate 
cliild  ;  and  5.  A  charity.  But  in  the  case  of  a  de- 
fective A.  by  a  wife  in  favour  of  her  husband,  there 
is  no  relief  in  Equity  ;  nor  is  the  Equity  extended 
to  a  natural  child ;  nor  to  a  grandchild ;  nor  to  a 
father  or  mother,  or  brother  or  sister,  even  of  the 
n  hole  blood,  much  less  of  the  half-blood ;  nor  to  a 
nephew  or  cousin.  Against  the  legal  consequences 
of  an  A.,  the  conrts  of  Equity  give  no  aid. 

In  the  Scotch  law,  the  expressions  reserved  power 
and  /acuity  to  burden  correspond  to  the  English 
phrase  'power  of  A.;'  and  the  deed  or  instrument 
subsequently  executed  in  virtue  of  the  reserved 
power,  is  simply  described  according  to  the  nature 
arid  quality  of  the  conveyance  so  made  ;  but  the 
term  .^1.  is  not  a  technical  word  in  Scotland. 


APPOINTMENTS— ArPREHEXD. 


APPOINTMENTS.  The  ' A.'  of  a  ship  are,  col- 
lectively, all  her  various  articles  of  equipment  and 
furniture.  In  like  manner,  the  '  A.'  of  a  soldier, 
especially  a  trooper,  comprise  many  miscellaneous 
necessaries  which  can  come  collectively  under  no 
other  name,  but  which,  in  part,  will  be  found  noticed 
under  later  headings.     See  Equipment,  Kit,  Kmap- 

SACK. 

APPO'RTIONMENT  is  a  legal  term  derived 
from  the  3  and  4  Will.  IV.  c.  22,  called  the 
Apportionment  Act,  which  has  given  rise  to  much 
litigation  in  England  and  Scotland,  and  the  prin- 
ciple of  which  may  be  stated  to  be  this — that  in  the 
event  of  the  termination  of  a  life-interest  by  death, 
or  of  a  more  limited  interest  at  a  fixed  period,  the 
current  rent  or  income  shall  be  apportioned  or  paid 
over  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  the  personal  repre- 
sentatives of  the  party,  or  the  party  himself,  as  the 
case  may  be,  a  sum  corresponding  to  the  period  that 
may  have  elapsed  between  the  last  date  of  payment 
and  the  death  or  other  determination  of  the  interest 
or  estate.  But  the  act  has  no  application  to  annual 
sums  payable  by  any  policy  of  assurance,  nor  to  any 
case  in  which  a  stipulation  has  been  made  that  no 
A.  shall  take  place. 

This  act  was  not  understood  to  apply  to  Scot- 
land till  the  year  1844,  when  it  was  decided  by 
the  Court  of  Session  that  it  did  so  apply,  and  the 
judgment  was  afterwards  affirmed  by  the  House  of 
Lords.  But,  in  consequence  of  the  act  being  ex- 
pressed exclusively  in  the  technical  phraseology  of 
the  law  of  England,  it  has  given  much  trouble  and 
difficulty  to  the  Scotch  courts  and  Scotch  lawyers, 
whose  system  of  conveyancing,  and  of  real  property 
in  general,  is  altogether  different  from  the  English. 
In  the  case  referred  to  in  the  Court  of  Session,  Lord 
Jeffrey,  who  was  one  of  the  judges,  stated  that 
he  was  Lord  Advocate  at  the  time  the  act  was 
passed,  but  he  had  no  knowledge  of  its  passing. 
See  an  able  article  on  this  subject  in  the  Journal  of 
Jurispmdence  (Scotch)  for  1857,  vol.  i.  p.  2.3. 

In  English  law,  A.  also  takes  place  where  the 
tenant,  under  a  lease,  has  been  deprived  of  part 
of  the  land  out  of  which  the  rent  issues,  by  a  person 
having  a  better  title  than  that  of  the  lessor,  or 
proprietor,  or  where  part  of  the  rent  has  been 
surrendered  by  the  tenant  to  the  lessor,  or  where 
the  lessor  has  disposed  of  the  reversion  as  to  part. 
But  where  the  tenant  has  been  wrongfully  deprived 
by  the  act  of  the  landlord  himself,  even  of  a  part  of 
the  premises,  there  can  be  no  A.,  but  the  whole  rent 
wiU  be  su.spended  so  long  as  such  a  state  of  things 
continues. 

A.  also  obtains  in  the  case  of  a  conveyance  of  land 
to  which  the  common  of  pasture  is  an  appurtenance, 
the  party  getting  the  land  being  entitled  to  a  pro- 
portionate use  of  the  common. 

APPOSI'TION,  a  term  in  Grammar  signifying  the 
annexing  of  one  substantive  to  another,  in  the  same 
case  or  relation,  in  order  to  explain  or  limit  the  first ; 
as,  3fy  brother,  the  phyxician  ;  Thomas,  the  Rhymer. 
Whole  sentences  or  clauses  admit  of  A.  :  thus, 
'  Napoleon  sought  the  way  to  India  through  Russia, 
a  stroke  of  genius.'  Sometimes  a  connecting  word 
is  used  where  logical  propriety  would  require  A.  ; 
as,  the  city  of  Lo7idon,  for  the  city  London. 

APPRAISERS  AND  APPRAI'SE.MENT.  An 
appraiser  is  a  person  employed  to  value  property, 
but  he  must  be  licensed  for  the  office.  Formerly, 
under  the  55  Geo.  III.  c.  184,  this  annual  license 
cost  only  lO.f. ;  but  by  the  8  and  9  Vict.  c.  76,  s.  1, 
on  the  preamble  that  it  is  expedient  to  increase  this 
duty,  the  provision  of  the  55  Geo.  III.  is  repealed, 
and  a  duty  of  £2  substituted  for  the  10s.  Such  a 
license    must   now  be   taken   out   yearly   by   every 


person,  except  a  licensed  auctioneer,  who  shall 
exercise  the  occupation  of  an  appraiser,  or  who,  for 
any  gain,  fee,  or  reward,  shall  make  any  appraise- 
ment or  valuation  chargeable  by  law  with  any 
stamp-duty  (see  Tilsley  on  the  Stamp-laws,  2d  ed.. 
p.  65). 

By  an  old  English  statute,  passed  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  I.,  appraisers  are  enjoined  to  put  a  reason- 
able price  upon  goods ;  and  if  they  appraise  them  too 
high,  they  are  obliged  to  take  them  at  their  own 
valuation,  and  to  be  answerable  accordingly  to  the 
creditor  for  his  debt. 

Appraisement,  generally,  is  the  act  of  valuation 
made  by  the  appraiser;  but  in  legal  application 
in  England,  this  term  is  used  to  signify  a  valuation 
of  goods  taken  under  a  distress  for  rent  by  two 
appraisers,  who  are  sworn  by  the  sheriff,  under- 
sherift',  or  constable,  to  value  the  goods  truly,  ac- 
cording to  the  best  of  their  skill;  and  after' such 
appraisement,  the  goods  may  be  sold  at  the  best 
price  that  can  be  procured. 

The  duties  chargeable  on  appraisements  are  as 
follow  :  Where  the  amount  of  such  appraisement  or 
valuation  shall  not  exceed  .£50,  the  duty  to  be  2a-.  6d. ; 
and  where  it  shall  exceed 

£50,  and  not  exceed  £100,     £0     5     0 

100,  "  »        200,        0  10     0 

200,  "  "        500,        0  16     0 

500,  1     0     0 

The  exemptions  from  such  duties  are  appraisements 

or  valuations  made  in  pursuance  of  the  order  of  any 

Court  of  Admiralty  or  Vice-admiralty,  or  of  any  Court 

of  Appeal  from  any  sentence,  adjudication,  or  judg- 

ment  of  any  Court  of  Admiralty  or  Vice-admiralty; 

and    appraisements   or  valuations   of  any   property 

made  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  legacy-duty 

payable  in  respect  thereof. 

The  corresponding  proceeding  in  Scotland  is  known 
under  the  term  appreciation,  which  has  been  defined 
as  the  valuing  of  poinded  or  distrained  goods.  And 
by  the  old  Scotch  law,  these  goods  were  valued  twice 
by  different  valuators — once  in  the  house  or  on  the 
ground  where  the  poinding  took  place,  and  a  second 
time  at  the  market-cross  of  the  local  jurisdiction  or 
chief  county  town.  But  by  the  54  Geo.  III.  c.  137, 
s.  4,  one  valuation  in  the  place  where  the  goods  are, 
is  declared  in  every  case  to  be  sufficient. 

APPREHE'ND.  To  A.,  in  criminal  law,  means 
to  arrest  or  seize,  in  virtue  of  a  warrant  or  other 
legal  authority,  an  offender  taken  in  the  act,  or  who 
is  suspected.  Arrest  or  apprehension  by  officers 
without  warrant  may  be  executed  by  the  following 
persons:  1.  By  a  justice  of  the  peace,  who  may 
himself  A.,  or  cause  to  be  apprehended,  by  word 
only,  any  person  committing  a  felony  or  breach  of 
the  peace  in  his  presence  ;  2.  The  sheriff';  3.  The 
coroner ;  4.  The  constable  ;  5.  By  the  Larceny  Act 
(the  1  and  8  Geo.  IV.  c.  29),  and  by  the  7  and  8 
Geo.  IV.  c.  30,  called  the  Malicious  Injuries  Act, 
a  person  committing  any  offence  under  the  same, 
except  that  of  angling  in  the  daytime,  may  immedi- 
ately be  apprehended  without  warrant  ;  and  6. 
Watchmen — either  those  appointed  by  the  statute  of 
Winchester  (13  Edw.  I.  c.  4),  to  keep  watch  and 
ward  on  all  towns,  from  sunsetting  to  sunrising,  or 
such  as  are  mere  assistants  to  the  constables,  may, 
in  virtue  of  their  office,  arrest  all  offenders,  and 
particularly  night-walkers,  and  commit  them  to 
custody  till  the  morning. 

Any  private  person,  and  a  fortiori,  a  peace-officer, 
that  is  pre.-<cnt  when  any  felony  is  committed,  ia 
bound  by  the  law  to  arrest  the  felon,  on  pain  of 
fine  and  imprisonment,  if  he  is  negligently  permitted 
to  escape  ;  and  by  14  and  15  Vict.  c.  19,  ss.  10  and  11, 
they  may  apprehend  any  person  found  committing  any 

329 


APPREHEM). 


offence  against  the  provisions  of  that  statute,  or  any 
indictable  offence  Vjy  niplit ;  that  is,  between  nine  in 
the  evening  and  six  in  the  morning  of  the  next  day. 
They  may  also,  in  the  case  of  a  person  committing  a 
felony  in  their  presence,  justify  breaking  open  doors 
in  pursuit  of  him.  Upon  probable  suspicion,  more- 
over, any  one,  even  a  private  person,  may  arrest  the 
felon  or  other  person  so  suspected.  But  there  is  this 
distinction  between  the  case  of  a  peace-officer  and 
that  of  a  private  person — that  the  former  is  pro- 
tected, though  it  should  turn  out  that  no  such  crime 
as  supposed  has  been  in  f;ict  committed  by  any  one, 
providing  he  had  reasonable  ground  for  suspecting 
the  party  arrested ;  but  the  latter  acts  more  at  his 
peril,  and  is  not  protected,  unless  he  can  prove  an 
actual  commission  of  the  crime  by  scnne  one,  as  well 
as  a  reasonable  ground  for  suspecting  the  particular 
person.  It  is  also  to  be  observed  that  a  private 
person  cannot,  on  mere  susijicion,  justify  breaking 
open  doors,  which  a  constable,  though  acting  w  ithout 
a  warrant,  is  competent  to  do.  Within  the  metro- 
politan police  district,  a  constable  may  take  into 
custody,  without  warrant,  all  persons  whom  he  may 
find,  between  sunset  and  the  hour  of  eight  in  the 
morning,  loitering  or  lying  about  and  unal)Ie  to  give 
a  satisfactory  account  of  themselves ;  or  persons 
charged  with  aggravated  assaults  ;  or  persons  offend- 
ing against  the  metropolitan  police  acts,  whose 
address  cannot  be  ascertained.  See  2  and  3  Vict.  c. 
47,  ss.  36,  64,  65. 

The  Scotch  law,  with  regard  to  the  apprehension 
of  criminals,  is  substantiallv  the  same  as  the  Eng- 
lish. 

By  the  13  Geo.  III.  c.  31,  the  45  Geo.  III.  c.  92, 
and  the  54  Geo.  III.  c.  ISli,  facilities  are  aflbrded  for 
the  apprehension  of  criminals  in  England,  Irehind,  or 
Scotland,  under  warrants  issuing  from  tiie  respective 
authorities  of  the  three  countries,  no  further  for- 
mality being  necessary  in  the  case  of  English  and 
Irish  warrants  to  be  executed  in  Scotland,  and  vice 
versa,  than  that  they  should  be  endorsed  by  a  judge 
of  the  territory  whei'e  they  are  to  be  enforced.  And 
by  the  6  and  7  Vict.  c.  34,  jirovisions  are  made  for 
the  apprehension,  in  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  of  persons  committing  treason 
and  felony  in  Her  Majesty's  dominions  out  of  the 
United  Kingdom,  and  vice  versd,  for  the  apprehen- 
sion in  such  dominions  of  persons  offending  in  Eng- 
land, Ireland,  or  Scotland.  By  section  3,  offenders 
may  be  committed  to  gaol  until  they  can  be  sent 
back  to  the  place  where  the  offence  was  committed ; 
and  information  of  the  committal,  in  writing,  under 
the  hand  of  the  committing  magistrate,  accompanied 
by  a  copy  of  the  warrant,  is  directed  to  be  given,  in 
Great  Britain,  to  one  of  Her  Majesty's  principal 
secretaries  of  state,  and  in  Ireland,  to  the  chief  secre- 
tary of  the  lord-lieutenant ;  and  in  any  other  part  of 
Her  Majesty's  dominions,  to  the  governor  or  acting 
governor.  By  section  10,  the  important  enactment 
is  made,  that  it  shall  not  be  lawful  to  endorse  any 
warrant  for  the  apprehension  of  an  offender  under 
the  act,  unless  it  shall  appear  upon  the  face  of  such 
warrant  itself,  that  the  offence  is  such,  that  if  com- 
mitted within  that  part  of  Her  Majesty's  dominions 
•where  the  warrant  is  endorsed,  it  would  have 
amounted  in  law  to  treason,  or  some  felony  such  as 
the  justices  of  the  peace  in  general  or  quarter 
sessions  in  England  have  not  authority  to  try,  under 
the  5  and  6  Vict.  c.  38 — by  which  the  jurisdiction  of 
general  and  quarter  sessions  is  defined — or  unless 
the  depositions  taken  appear  sufficient  to  warrant 
committal  for  trial.  The  effect  of  this  enactment  is, 
that  the  offences  for  which  criminals  may  be  appre- 
hended, under  the  6  and  7  Vict.  c.  34,  are  as  follow: 
Any  treason,  murder,  or  capital  felony ;  or  any 
felonv  which,  when  committed  by  a  person  not 
330 


previously  convicted  of  felony,  is  punishable  by 
tiansportation  for  life,  or  for  any  of  the  following 
offences : 

1.  Misprision  of  treason.  2.  Offences  against  the 
Queen's  title,  prerogative,  person,  or  government,  or 
against  either  house  of  parliament.  3.  Offences  sub- 
ject to  the  penalties  of  praemunire.  4.  Blasphemy, 
and  offences  against  religion.  5.  Administering  or 
taking  unlawful  oaths.  6.  Perjury  and  subornation 
of  perjury.  7.  Making  or  suborning  any  other  per- 
son to  make  a  false  oath,  affirmation,  or  declaration, 
punishable  as  perjury  or  as  a  misdemeanour,  8. 
Forgery.  9.  Unlawfully  and  maliciously  setting 
fire  to  crops  of  corn,  grain,  or  pulse,  or  to  any  part 
of  a  wood,  coppice,  or  plantation  of  trees,  or  to  any 
heath,  gorse,  furze,  or  fern.  10.  Bigamy,  and  offences 
against  the  laws  relating  to  marriage.  11.  Abduc- 
tion of  women  and  girls.  12.  Endeavouring  to  con- 
ceal the  birth  of  a  child.  13.  Offences  against  any 
provision  of  the  laws  relating  to  bankrupts  and 
insolvents.  14.  Comj)osing,  printing,  or  {)ublishing 
blasphemous,  seditious,  or  defamatory  libels.  15. 
Bribery.  16.  Unlawful  combinations  and  conspira- 
cies, except  conspiracies  or  combinations  to  commit 
any  offence  which  justices  or  recorder  respectively 
have  or  has  jurisdiction  to  try  when  committed  by 
one  person.  17.  Stealing,  or  fraudulently  taking,  or 
injuring  or  destroying  records  or  documents  belong- 
ing to  any  court  of  law  or  equity,  or  relating  to  any 
proceeding  therein.  18.  Stealing  or  fraudulently 
destroying  or  concealing  wills  or  testamentary 
papers,  or  any  document  or  written  instrument 
being  or  containing  evidence  of  the  title  to  any 
real  estate,  or  any  interest  in  lauds,  tenements,  or 
hereditaments. 

On  the  22d  of  August,  1843,  an  act  of  parlia- 
ment (6  and  7  Vict.  c.  75)  was  passed,  by  which 
provisions  are  made  for  carrying  into  effect  a  co:2- 
vention  entered  into  between  the  British  and  French 
governments  (determinable  at  pleasure)  for  the 
apprehension  of  offenders  in  the  two  countriea 
respectively  in  cases  of  murder,  attempts  to  commit 
murder,  forgery,  or  fraiululent  bankruptcy.  On  the 
same  day,  another  act  was  passed  (the  6  and  7  Vict, 
c.  76),  containing  regulations  for  carrying  into  effect 
a  similar  convention  with  the  United  States  of 
America  in  cases  of  murder,  or  attempts  to  commit 
murder,  piracy,  arson,  robbery,  forgery,  or  utterivg 
forged  paper.  Both  these  acts  were  afterwards 
amended  by  another  (the  8  and  9  Vict.  c.  12o),  the 
object  of  which  is  to  give  more  immediate  opera- 
tion to  these  conventions,  by  facihtating  the  execu- 
tion of  the  warrant,  the  committal,  and  detention  in 
custody  of  the  person  apprehended,  and  his  ultimate 
delivery  into  the  hands  of  the  French  or  American 
authorities,  as  the  case  may  be. 

The  law  encourages  the  apprehension  of  offenders- 
by  parties  who  simply  act  from  a  feeling  of  duty  to 
assist  justice.  By  the  7  Geo.  IV.  c.  64,  s.  28 
(amended  and  extended  by  the  14  and  15  Vict.  c. 
."55),  it  is  provided  that  when  any  person  shall 
appear  to  any  court  of  oyer  and  terminer,  gaol 
delivery,  superior  criminal  court  of  a  county  pala- 
tine, or  any  courts  of  sessions  of  the  peace,  to  have 
been  active  in  or  towards  the  apprehension  of  any 
person  charged  with  the  various  crimes  contemplated 
by  these  statutes,  every  such  court  is  authorised  to 
order  the  sheriff  of  the  county  to  pay  to  the  person 
or  persons  who  shall  appear  to  the  court  to  have 
been  active  in  or  towards  the  apprehension  of  any 
person  charged  with  any  of  the  said  offences,  such 
sum  of  money  as  to  the  court  shall  seem  reason- 
able and  sufficient  to  compensate  such  person  or 
persons  for  his,  her,  or  their  expenses,  exertions,  and 
loss  of  time,  in  or  towards  such  apprehension  ;  but 
this  power    is    to    be    exercised    subject    to  Buch 


APPREHEND— APPRENTICE. 


re^ulation9,as  to  the  rate  of  allowance,  as  shall  be  made 
from  time  to  time  by  a  principal  secretary  of  state. 
Provision  is  also  made  by  the  above  statutes  for 
compensation  to  the  families  of  those  who  lose  their 
lives  in  attempting  to  A.  persons  charged  with 
criminal  offences ;  but  by  the  latter  of  these  (14  and 
15  Vict.  c.  5.5,  s.  7),  this  is  not  to  interfere  with  the 
power  of  the  criminal  court  to  order  payment  to 
any  person  who  shall  have  shewn  extraordinary  cour- 
age, diligence,  or  exertion,  in  the  apprehension. 

It  only  remains  to  be  added,  that  any  wilful 
obstruction  of  a  lawful  arrest  or  apprehension  is 
esteemed  an  offence  of  a  very  aggravated  nature. 
The  modern  enactments  on  this  subject  will  be 
foimd  in  the  acts  the  9  Geo.  IV.  c.  31,  s.  25,  and  7 
Will.  IV.  and  1  Vict.  c.  85,  s.  4  ;  and  see  also  the 
14  and  15  Vict.  c.  19,  s.  12,  already  referred  to.  By 
the  first  of  these  acts,  it  is  provided  that  where  any 
person  shall  be  convicted  of  any  assault  upon  any 
peace-officer,  or  revenue-officer,  in  the  due  execution 
of  his  duty,  or  upon  any  person  acting  in  aid  of  such 
officer,  or  of  any  assault  upon  any  person,  with 
intent  to  resist  or  prevent  the  lawful  apprehension 
or  detainer  of  the  person  so  assaulting,  or  of  any 
other  person,  for  any  offence  for  which  he  or  they 
may  be  liable  by  law  to  be  apprehended  or  detained; 
such  assault  shall  be  a  misdemeanour,  punishable 
with  fine  or  by  imprisonment,  with  or  without  hard 
labour,  for  any  term  not  exceeding  two  years.  By 
the  second  of  these  statutes  it  is  enacted  that  who- 
soever shall  unlawfully  and  maliciously  shoot  at  any 
person,  or  shall,  by  drawing  a  trigger,  or  in  any 
other  manner,  attempt  to  discharge  any  kind  of 
loaded  arms  at  any  person,  or  shall  stab,  cut,  or 
wound  any  person;  with  intent,  in  any  of  such  cases, 
to  resist  or  prevent  the  lawful  apprehension  or 
detainer  of  any  person  ;  shall  be  guilty  of  felony,  and 
be  punishable  with  transportation  for  life,  or  not 
less  than  fifteen  years,  or  with  imprisonment,  with 
or  without  hard  labour  and  solitary  confinement,  for 
not  more  than  three  years.  And  by  the  14  and 
15  Vict.  c.  19,  s.  12,  passed  for  the  prevention  of 
offences  at  night,  any  one  assaulting  a  person 
entitled  to  A.  or  detain  him,  shall  be  guilty  of  a 
misdemeanour,  and  on  conviction,  imprisoned,  with 
or  without  hard  labour,  for  any  term  not  exceeding 
three  years. 

The  same  subject  is  treated  in  Scotch  law- 
books under  the  head  of  Deforcement,  which  Sir 
Archibald  Alison,  in  his  work  on  the  Criminal  Law 
of  Scotland  (vol.  i.  p.  491),  says,  '  consists  in  the 
resistance  to  the  officers  of  justice  in  the  execution 
of  their  duty.'  It  is  essential  to  such  deforcement 
*hat  it  should  be  such  as  to  defeat  the  warrant  or 
other  process  which  authorises  the  apprehension. 
Mere  imsuccessful  attempts  with  this  view  are 
charged  under  the  name  of  resisiinq  and  obMructhig 
the  officers  of  the  law  in  the  execution  of  their  duty. 
See  Warrant. 

APPRE'NTICE  is  a  person  described  in  law- 
books as  a  species  of  servant,  and  called  A.  from 
the  French  verb  apprendre,  to  learn,  because  he  is 
bound  by  indenture  to  serve  a  master  for  a  certain 
term,  receiving  in  return  for  his  services  instruction 
in,  or  learning  his  master's  profession,  art,  or  trade ; 
the  master,  upon  the  other  hand,  contracting  to 
instruct  the  A.,  and  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
agreement,  to  provide  food  and  clothing  for  the  A., 
and  to  pay  him  small  wages.  Sometimes  a  premium 
Is  paid  by  the  A.,,  or  on  his  behalf,  to  the  master. 
By  a  provision  of  the  5  Eliz.  c.  4,  which  remained  in 
force  until  a  recent  period,  it  was  in  general  required, 
that  every  person  exercising  a  trade  in  England 
should  have  previously  served  as  A.  to  it  for  seven 
years;  but  by  54  Geo.  III.  c.  96,  that  provision 
was  abolished,  with   a   saving   of  the  customs  and 


by-laws  in  London  and  other  corporations;  and  the 
term  of  apprenticeship  is  now  determined  by  the 
mutual  convenience  of  the  contracting  parties.  By 
the  municipal  act,  5  and  6  Will.  IV.  c.  T6,  s.  14 
(which  does  not,  however,  extend  to  London),  all 
such  customs  and  by-laws  as  had  the  effect  of  pro- 
hibiting trades  and  occupations  to  persons  who  had 
not  served  as  apprentices,  were  also  done  away. 
Apprentices,  in  general,  are  bound  out  by  their 
friends,  though  with  their  own  consent,  testified  by 
their  executing  the  indentures,  without  which  the 
transaction  is  not  binding.  To  the  same  effect  it  is 
the  rule  of  the  Scotch  law  that  although  a  pupil — 
that  is,  a  boy  under  14,  or  a  girl  under  12  years  of 
age — may  be  a  party  to  an  indenture  as  an  A.,  yet  he 
must  have  the  concurrence  of  a  parent  or  guardian, 
who  alone  can  be  liable  to  the  master  for  the  A.'s 
non-performance  of  the  engagement.  An  A.,  on  the 
other  hand,  who  has  passed  the  years  of  pupilarity, 
may  effectually  enter  into  an  indenture  by  which  he 
will  be  personally  bound.  It  has  been  decided  in 
England  that  the  express  assent  of  an  infant  A.  to 
the  indentures  is  essential  to  the  contract ;  and 
therefore  indentures  of  apprenticeship  which  had 
been  executed  by  a  father  and  master,  but  not  by 
the  A.  himself,  were  held  invalid.  But  an  infant  may 
bind  him.self  A.,  because  it  is  for  his  benefit ;  for  the 
same  reason,  however,  he  cannot  himself  dissolve 
the  contract.  When  an  A.  is  bound  to  two  partners, 
on  the  death  of  one  of  them  he  becomes  the  A.  of 
the  other. 

There  is  a  class  who  are  bound  out  by  the 
guardians  of  the  poor,  and  are  called  parish  appren- 
tices, whose  binding  takes  place  under  different 
circumstances.  For  the  children  of  poor  persons 
might  formerly,  even  without  becoming  parties  to 
the  indentures,  be  apprenticed  out  by  the  overseers 
with  the  consent  of  two  justices  (and  may  now  by 
the  guardians,  without  such  consent),  till  twenty-one 
years  of  age,  to  such  persons  as  are  thought  fitting ; 
and  these  persons  were  formerly  also  compellable  to 
take  them.  But  by  7  and  8  Vict.  c.  101,  s.  1.3,  the 
reception  of  any  poor  child  as  an  A.  is  no  longer 
compulsory.  A  variety  of  statutes  regulate  the 
manner  in  which  parish  apprentices  are  to  be  bound, 
assigned,  registered,  and  maintained  ;  a  subject  which 
is  besides  now  placed  under  the  paramount  control  of 
the  Poor-law  Board,  who  have  power  to  introduce 
new  rules,  from  time  to  time,  as  they  may  think  fit; 
and  provisions  are  made  by  which  the  justices  of  the 
peace  are  empowered  to  settle  disputes  between  such 
apprentices  and  their  masters,  and  to  discharge  the 
former  from  their  indentures,  upon  reasonable  cause 
shewn.  Similar  powers  belong  also  to  the  justices, 
in  the  case  of  apprentices  in  general.  (Stephen's 
Commentaries,  vol.  ii.  p.  240,  fourth  edition.)  It  has 
been  decided  in  England  that  a  corporation  cannot 
make  a  by-law  limiting  the  number  of  apprentices 
which  each  member  shall  take,  because  such  a  regu- 
lation is  deemed  contrary  to  the  laws  of  the  land. 

A  mere  agreement  does  not  constitute  an  appren- 
ticeship ;  there  must  be  regular  indentures  formally 
executed.  By  statute  8  Anne  c.  9,  s.  39,  indentures 
of  apprenticeship  in  which  the  full  sum  or  sums  of 
money  received,  given,  paid,  secured,  or  contracted 
for,  are  not  truly  inserted,  are  void.  But  the  act 
does  not  apply  to  cases  where  the  sum  is  inserted  in 
the  indentures,  though  it  is  a  less  sum  than  that 
which  was  originally  agreed  for,  and  the  reduction 
made  to  diminish  the  amount  of  the  stamp-duty. 

In  the  performance  of  the  contract,  a  reasonable 
and  equitable  view  is  taken  of  the  relative  position 
of  the  parties.  The  master  is  not  bound  to  the 
literal  and  uniform  instruction  of  the  A.  by  himself 
personally,  but  under  his  own  superintendence,  and 
by  his  own  directions,  he  may  avail  himself  of  the 

331 


APPRISING— APPROrRIATION  CLAUSE. 


•assistance  of  jounieynier.,  or  other  persons  serving 
ill  his  place  of  business,  and  even  of  otlier  apprentices 
— the  object  of  the  agreement  being  tliat  the  A. 
shall  have  the  full  benefit  of  all  the  master's  arrange- 
ments in  practising  his  art,  craft,  or  trade.  The  A., 
on  the  other  hand,  although  in  the  position  of  a 
servant  to  some  extent,  is  not  bound  to  serve  as 
such,  but  may  rather  be  said  to  be  placed  under  the 
parental  control  of  the  master;  and  although  the 
master  may  correct  the  A.'s  faults  and  disobedience 
by  moderate  chastisement,  he  must  not  be  vindictive 
or  cruel ;  nor  can  he  discharge  the  A.  To  that  end, 
the  master,  under  an  unrepealed  enactment  of  the 
5  Eliz.  c.  4,  must  complain  to  the  Sessions,  who 
decide  whether  the  A.  has  ni(>rited  his  dismissal 
or  not ;  the  A.,  however,  having  a  corresponding 
privilege  in  the  case  of  his  complaint  against  his 
master.  But,  by  the  Scotch  law,  a  master  can 
dismiss  his  apprentice  in  the  case  of  his  proving 
'  incorrigitile.'  By  the  custom  of  the  city  of  London, 
a  freeman  may  turn  away  his  apprentice  for  r/n>ninff. 

It  was  decided  by  the  House  of  Lords,  on  an 
appeal  from  Scotland  in  18:n,  and  reversing  the 
decision  of  the  Court  of  Session,  that  a  barber's  A., 
whose  indentures  bound  him  '  not  to  absent  himself 
from  his  master's  business,  holiday  or  week-day, 
late  hours  or  early,  witliout  leave  first  asked  and 
obtained,'  could  not  be  lawfully  required  to  attend 
his  master's  shop  on  Sunday  mornings  for  the  pur- 
pose of  shaving  customers,  because  such  employment 
was  a  violation  of  the  old  Scotch  statutes  still  in 
operation,  and  which  were  enacted  for  enforcing 
the  observance  of  the  Sunday,  particularly  one 
passed  in  1559,  by  which  it  is  provided  '  that  na 
handy  lauboring  or  wirking  be  used  on  the  Sonduy.' 
The  Lord  Chancellor  (Lord  Cottenham)  observed  in 
his  judgment  that  the  English  law  on  this  suliject 
was  very  similar,  referring  in  particular  to  the  29 
Charles  II.  c.  7,  by  which  it  is  enacted  'that  no 
tradesman,  artificer,  workman,  labourer,  or  other 
person  whatsoever  shall  do  or  exercise  any  worldly 
labour,  business,  or  work,  of  their  ordinary  callings, 
upon  the  Lord's  Day,  or  any  part  thereof,  works  of 
necessity  and  charity  only  excepted.' 

An  A.'s  indenture  is  determinable  by  the  consent 
of  all  the  parties  to  it ;  and  also  by  the  death  of  the 
master.  But  the  executor  of  the  latter  may  bind 
the  A.  to  another  master  for  the  remainder  of  his 
term ;  and  he  must  also  discharge  any  covenant  or 
agreement  for  the  A.'s  maintenance,  so  far  as  he  has 
assets.  By  the  custom  of  London,  if  the  master  of 
an  A.  die,  the  service  must  be  continued  with  the 
widow,  if  she  continue  to  carry  on  the  trade.  In 
other  cases,  it  is  incumbent  on  the  executor  to  put 
the  A.  to  another  master  of  the  same  trade.  The 
bankruptcy  of  the  master  operates  as  a  discharge  of 
the  indenture  of  the  A.,  who,  if  he  has  paid  an  A. 
fee  to  the  bankrupt,  is  entitled  to  be  paid  by  the 
court  a  reasonable  sum  out  of  the  estate. 

By  the  Mutiny  Act,  apprentices  enlisting  in  the 
Army,  and  concealing  their  apprenticeship  when 
brought  before  a  magistrate  to  be  attested,  may  be 
indicted  for  obtaining  money  under  false  pretences  ; 
and  if,  after  the  expiration  of  their  apprenticeship, 
they  do  not  surrender  to  a  recruiting  officer,  they 
may  be  apprehended  as  deserters. 

There  is  some  curious  historical  matter  on  this 
eubject,  relating  for  the  most  part  to  a  state  of  the 
law  now  obsolete  or  repealed,  for  which  see  Knight's 
Political  Dictionary,  under  this  head. 

APPRI'SING  is  the  old  technical  term  in  the 
Scotch  law,  and  now  obsolete,  for  the  process  of 
adjudication.     See  Adjupication. 

APPROA'CHES,   in   military    language,    are   the 
sunken  trenches  or  excavated  roads  which  are  con- 
332 


structed  by  besiegers.  The  siege  camp  being  usually 
at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  fortress  or  city 
attacked,  the  soldiers  would  be  exi)0sed  to  imminent 
danger  while  hastening  across  a  belt  of  open  country 
to  enter  any  breaches  made  by  the  large  siege  guna, 
were  it  not  that  concealed  roads  are  first  constructed 
along  which  they  may  approach.  In  some  cases  the 
A.  are  not  actual  trenches,  but  merely  paths  shielded 
by  a  piled-up  wall  of  sand-bags,  fascines,  gabions, 
woolpacks,  or  cotton-bales.  The  most  tremendous 
combination  of  A.  ever  known  in  the  history  of 
military  enterprise,  was  at  the  siege  of  Sebastopol  in 
1854 — 5;  it  comprised  the  digging  of  no  less  than 
10  miles  of  sunken  trench,  and  the  employment  of 
60,000  fascines,  80,000  gabions,  and  l,ii(ii),o'(>0  sand- 
bags, to  protect  the  men  working  in  the  trenches  and 
at  batteries.     See  Sap,  Siege,  Trench. 

APPROBATE  AND  REPROBATE.  This  is  a 
technical  expression  in  the  law  of  Scotland,  which 
signifies  one  of  those  rules  of  justice  which  commend 
themselves  by  their  reasonable  logic,  and  which  are 
to  be  found  in  all  enlightened  systems  of  juris- 
prudence. It  simply  means,  that  no  one  can  be 
permitted  to  A.  and  B. — that  is,  to  accept  and 
reject  the  same  deed  or  instrument.  Thus,  if  a  will 
or  settlement,  purporting  to  dispose  of  real  and  per- 
sonal property,  all  of  which  it  directs  to  be  con- 
verted into  money,  and  in  that  form  either  to  be 
equally  divided  or  ajiportioned  among  the  testators' 
childien,  consisting  of  a  son  or  sons,  and  daughters, 
should,  owing  to  some  flaw  or  material  defect,  be 
invalid  for  the  conveyance  of  the  real  estate,  which, 
accordingly,  by  the  operation  of  the  law  of  descent, 
becomes  the  exclusive  property  of  the  eldest  son  as 
his  father's  heir — the  law  docs  not  permit  the  latter 
to  enjoy  such  estate,  and  at  the  same  time  to  take 
benefit  under  the  will  in  other  respects,  for  this 
would  be  simultaneously  to  accept  and  reject  the 
same  instrument :  he  must  elect  between  the  two 
alternatives,  and  either  avail  himself  entirely  of  his 
rights  at  law,  as  heir,  or  claim  his  share  of  the 
whole  estate  according  to  the  testator's  manifest 
intention — he  cannot  do  both.  Other  illustrations 
might  be  given,  shewing  distinctions  too  nice  per- 
haps for  popular  information.  The  analogous  doc- 
trine in  the  law  of  England  is  called  Election  (q.  v.). 
In  one  case  decided  by  the  House  of  Lords  in  1819, 
the  Lord  Chancellor  Eldon  treated  the  rule  in  the 
Scotch  and  English  legal  systems  as  identical, 
observing  that  it  was  equally  settled  in  Scotland  as 
in  England  that  no  person  can  accept  and  reject  the 
same  instrument;  and  he  puts  the  case  of  a  testator 
giving  his  estate  to  A,  but  also  giving  the  estate  to 
which  A  would  otherwise  have  been  entitled,  to  B ; 
in  that  case  his  lordship  stated  that  courts  of  equity 
hold  it  to  be  against  conscience  that  A  should  take 
the  estate  bequeathed  to  him,  and  at  the  same  time 
refuse  to  effectuate  the  implied  condition  contained 
in  the  will  of  the  testator.  The  court  will  not 
permit  him  to  take  that  which  cannot  be  his  but 
by  virtue  of  the  disposition  of  the  will,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  keep  what,  by  the  same  will,  is  given, 
or  intended  to  be  given,  to  another  person.  It  is 
contrary  to  the  established  principles  of  equity  that 
he  should  enjoy  the  benefit  while  he  rejects  the  con- 
dition of  the  gift. 

It  is  chiefly  in  the  case  of  wills  and  other  testa- 
mentary dispositions  that  this  legal  doctrine  most 
frequently  arises  in  practice,  although  there  can  be 
no  question  that  both  in  the  English  and  Scotch 
systems  of  law  it  extends  to  all  other  writings,  deeds, 
and  instruments. 

APPROPRI'ATION  CLAUSE.  The.  This  is 
the  name  given  to  an  innovation  on  the  ecclesiastical 
law  of  Ireland,  made  by  a  statute  passed  in  1833, 


APPROPRIATION  CLAUSE. 


the  3  and  4  Will.  IV.  c.  37,  entitled  '  An  Act  to  alter 
and  amend  the  Laws  relating  to  the  Temporalities  of 
the  Church  in  Ireland,'  by  which  the  temporalities  of 
ten  Irish  bishoprics  were  suppressed  and  applied  to 
other  ecclesiastical  purposes.  The  nature  of  the 
change  it  made  with  reference  to  these  bishoprics 
may  be  thus  stated.  The  first  important  section  of 
the"  act  on  the  subject  is  the  3-2d  ;  it  recites  that 
'  his  majesty  has  been  graciously  pleased  to  signify 
that  he  has  placed  at  the  disposal  of  parliament  his 
interest  in  the  temporalities  and  custody  thereof  of 
the  several  bishoprics  and  archbishoprics  mentioned 
in  this  act,  and  the  schedule  [B]  thereto  annexed :' 
and  the  following  is  the  schedule  in  question : 

Schedule  B. 


Archbishoprics  anfl  Bishop- 
rics to  which  the  Bishop- 
rics becoming  void  are  to  be 
united. 


Down  and  Connor. 
Derry. 


3.  Armagh. 

4.  Kilmore. 

5.  Tuam. 

6.  Killaloe   and    Kilfen- 
ora. 

1.  Dublin    and    Glande- 
lagh. 

8.  Ferns  and  Leighlln. 

9.  Cashel  and  Emly, 

10.  Cloyne. 


Bishoprics,  when  and  as  void, 
to  be  united  to  other  Bishop- 
rics or  Archbishoprics. 

1.  Dromore. 

2.  Raphoe. 

3.  Clogher. 

4.  Elphin. 

5.  Killala  and  Achonry. 

6.  Clonfert  and  Kilmac- 

dnagh. 

7.  Kildare. 

8.  Ossory. 

9.  Waterford    and    Lis- 
more. 

10.  Cork  and  Ross. 

It  then  proceeds  to  enact  that  the  bishoprics 
mentioned  in  the  first  column  of  this  schedule 
(Dromore,  &c.)  when  and  as  they  severally  become 
void,  shall  be  thenceforth  united  to  and  held  together 
with  the  bishopric  or  archbishopric  mentioned  in 
the  second  column  (Down  and  Connor,  &c.),  and 
that  thereafter  the  crown  shall  present  the  corre- 
sponding bishoprics  in  both  columns  to  one  and 
the  same  person  (i.  e.,  instead  of  there  being,  as 
formerly,  a  Bishop  of  Dromore,  and  a  Bishop  of  Down, 
and  Connor,  the  same  person  should  be  Bishop  of 
Down  and  Connor  and  Dromore);  and  by  section 
33  it  is  further  enacted,  that  if  any  bishopric  in 
the  second  column  of  the  schedule  should  become 
vacant  before  its  union  with  the  one  mentioned  in 
the  first  column,  then  the  bishop  of  the  latter  shall 
become  the  bishop  of  both  dioceses  ;  i.  e.,  for  example, 
in  the  event  supposed,  if  the  Bishop  of  Derry  were 
to  predecease  the  Bishop  of  Raphoe,  then  the  latter 
should  become  Bishop  of  Derry  and  Raphoe.  This 
section,  however,  contains  a  proviso  that  it  shall  not 
authorise  or  empower  any  bishop  of  a  diocese  men- 
tioned in  the  same  first  column  to  become  Archbishop 
of  Armagh  or  of  Dublin  ;  and,  to  complete  the  new 
arrangements,  it  is  declared  by  section  46,  that  the 
provinces  of  Tuam  and  Cashel  shall  '  thenceforth 
and  for  ever  cease  to  exist,'  and  that  their  archie- 
piscopal  and  metropolitan  jurisdictions  shall  be 
transferredrespectively  to  the  Archbishops  of  Armagh 
and  Dublin — a  provision  that  is,  perhaps,  in  principle 
the  most  serious  inroad  the  act  makes  on  the  old  law. 
In  other  respects,  the  sees  of  Tuam  and  Cashel — 
except  in  being  enlarged  under  schedule  B — continue 
as  formerly. 

But  it  is  the  36th  section  that  more  immediately 
deals  with  the  work  of  A.  It  enacts  that  the 
temporalities  of  the  bishoprics  in  the  first  column  of 
the  same  schedule  shall  be  transferred  to  and  vested 
in  ecclesiastical  commissioners,  who,  by  section  2, 
are  declared  to  be  the  Lord  Primate  of  All  Ireland, 
the  Irish  Chancellor  being  a  Protestant,  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Dublin,  the  Chief  Justice  of  Ireland  being 
a  Protestant,  all  for  the  time  being,  and  other  persona 


mentioned  in  the  same  section  ;  and  it  declares  that 
the  commissioners  shall  have  power  and  authority 
to  take,  purchase,  and  hold  lands,  tenements,  and 
hereditaments  for  the  purposes  of  the  act,  the  statutes 
of  mortmain,  or  any  other  act  or  acts  to  the  contrary 
notvfithstanding.  Section  36  further  provides  that 
the  said  temporalities  shall  be  received  and  applied 
by  the  commissioners  to,  for,  and  upon  the  several 
trusts,  uses,  and  purposes  in  the  act  mentioned. 
These  trusts,  uses,  and  purposes  are  afterwards 
declared  by  section  63  to  be  as  follow:  1.  For 
the  providing  in  such  manner  and  proportions,  and 
subject  to  such  regulations  as  the  commissioners 
shall  deem  fitting,  things  necessary  for  the  cele- 
bration of  divine  service  in  the  church  or  chapel  of 
every  parish,  union,  perpetual  curacy,  or  chapelry, 
or  chapel  of  ease  in  Ireland,  as  required  and  author- 
ised by  any  rubric  or  canon  in  force  in  England  or 
Ireland ;  2.  For  the  payment  of  the  salaries  of  the 
parish  clerks  or  sextons,  or  the  clerks  or  sextons  of 
any  chapelry  or  chapel  of  ease  ;  3.  For  defraying 
such  expenses  of  building,  rebuilding,  enlarging,  or 
repairing  any  church  or  chapel,  or  fencing  and  main- 
taining any  churchyard,  as  had  been  defrayed  by 
vestry  assessment  in  Ireland ;  4.  For  supplying 
such  parts  or  proportions  of  the  expenses  of  provid- 
ing for  the  said  several  matters ;  and  5.  For  put- 
ting into  and  keeping  in  repair  cathedral  and  parish 
churches,  to  which  purposes  the  commissioners  are, 
by  the  following  section,  the  64th,  empowered  to 
contribute.  Further,  by  section  71,  the  commis- 
sioners are  authorised  to  advance  money  for  extra- 
ordinary repairs  of  ecclesiastical  buildings ;  and  the 
act  contains  other  provisions  of  a  like  nature,  show- 
ing the  intention  of  the  legislature  to  be,  that  the 
revenues  and  other  temporalities  of  the  bishoprics 
before  mentioned  should  be  applied  to  strictly  eccle- 
siastical purposes. 

From  this  account  of  the  above  important  statute 
(the  3  and  4  Will.  IV.  c.  37),  and  its  celebrated 
'  appropriation  clause,'  it  would  appear,  1st,  That 
the  ten  bishoprics  themselves  were  not  strictly,  or 
in  a  spiritual  sense,  suppressed.  The  act  nowhere 
provides  that  they  shall  cease  to  exist  as  separate 
and  distinct  dioceses,  but  it  simply  declares  that 
they  shall  respectively  be  held  by  the  same  per- 
son in  union  with  the  other  and  correspond- 
ing dioceses  mentioned.  The  only  change,  there- 
fore, in  this  sense  which  the  act  makes  is,  that 
instead  of  having,  as  before,  separate  and  inde- 
pendent bishops  for  themselves,  the  'suppressed' 
bishoprics  shall,  under  their  old  names,  and  having 
regard  to  all  their  peculiarities,  have  their  ecclesi- 
astical laws  and  spiritual  duties  administered  and 
performed  by  a  prelate,  who  shall  also  be  the  bishop 
of  another  diocese ;  and  2d,  That  even  as  regards 
the  temporalities  of  the  ten  bishoprics,  these  are 
applied  exclusively  for  the  benefit  of  the  Established 
Church  of  Ireland,  in  the  strictest  meaning  of  its 
ecclesiastical  purposes.  In  fact,  in  regard  to  these 
temporalities,  the  act  does  no  more,  in  principle, 
than  many  benevolent  prelates  themselves  are  known 
to  do  spontaneously  in  the  charitable  and  consci- 
entious application  of  their  revenues.  The  munificent 
charities  of  the  late  Bishop  of  London  (Dr.  Blomfield), 
and  of  the  present  Protestant  Archbishop  of  Armagh, 
the  Irish  primate  (Beresford),  are  remarkable  in- 
stances of  the  generous  conduct  we  refer  to. 

The  effect  of  the  view  we  have  explained  respect- 
ing the  position  in  which  the  'appropriation  clause' 
has  put  the  Irish  Church  is  very  important ;  for  the 
act  of  parliament  containing  it,  simply  leaves  things 
in  such  a  state,  that  should  at  any  time  hereafter 
the  spiritual  wants  of  the  people  of  Ireland  require 
the  complete  restoration  of  the  ten  bishoprics  to 
their    former    administratioa    and    privileges,    all 

t82 


APPROVER— APPTTL. 


that  it  would  be  necessary  to  do,  so  far  as  the 
spiritual  and  ecclesiastical  character  of  the  said 
bishoprics  are  concerned,  would  be  to  repeal  sec- 
tion 32  of  the  3  and  4  Will.  IV.  c.  37,  with  all  the 
other  relative  and  dependent  provisions  ;  by  which 
simple  expedient  the  ten  bishoprics  would  necessarily 
and  of  themselves  revive  in  all  their  pristine  vigour 
and  authority,  without  the  necessity  of  any  new 
creation  or  canonical  formation,  according  to  the 
laws  ecclesiastical.  This  could  not  be,  however,  had 
these  ten  bishoprics  been  finally  and  for  ever  sup- 
prensed.  And  this  argument  ought  to  some  extent  to 
give  relief  to  the  feelings  and  hopes  of  those  jealous 
and  ardent  churchmen  who,  since  the  passing  of  the 
3  and  4  Will.  IV.  c.  37,  have  never  ceased  to 
denounce  its  A.  C. 

It  should,  however,  be  stated,  that  no  alteration  of 
the  ecclesiastical  arrangements  provided  for  by  that 
act  is  at  the  present  day  anticipated. 

APPROVER,  or  PROVER,  in  the  law  of  Eng- 
land, is  a  person  who  had  been  an  accomplice  in  the 
perpetration  of  a  crime,  but  who  is  admitted  to 
give  evidence  against  the  prisoner.  It  had  not  so 
simple  and  intelligible  a  meaning  in  the  ancient 
practice  of  the  criminal  law,  in  which  approvertient 
was  a  kind  of  confession  of  a  complicated  nature. 
Where  a  person  in  a  prosecution  for  treason  or 
felony  confessed  the  fact  before  pleading  to  the 
indictment,  and,  at  tht;  same  time,  accused  others, 
his  accomplices,  of  the  same  crime,  in  order  to  obtain 
his  pardon,  he  was  called  an  A.  or  P.  But,  as  the 
condition  of  the  pardon  he  thus  expected  was  the 
conviction  of  the  accomplice  he  accused,  if  that 
fiiiled,  the  A.  received  judgment  of  death  upon  his 
own  confession.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  accused 
accomplice  was  found  guilty,  the  A.  was  entitled 
to  his  pardon  ex  dcbito  jnstitue.  But  'this  course  of 
admitting  approvements,'  says  Blackstonc,  writing 
about  a  century  ago,  '  hath  long-  been  disused  ;  for 
the  truth  was,  as  Sir  Matthew  Hale  observes,  that 
more  mischief  arose  to  good  men  by  these  kinds  of 
approvements,  upon  false  and  malicious  accusations 
of  desperate  villains,  than  benefit  to  the  public  by 
the  discovery  and  conviction  of  real  offenders ;  and, 
therefore,  in  the  times  when  such  appeals  were  most 
frequently  admitted,  great  strictness  and  nicety 
were  held  therein ;  though,  since  their  discontinu- 
ance, the  doctrine  of  approvements  is  become  a 
matter  of  more  curiosity  than  use.' 

The  modern  practice  is  to  admit  accomplices  to 
give  evidence  for  the  prosecution,  or,  as  it  is  said, 
to  become  Queen\  evidence^  upon  an  implied  promise 
of  pardon,  on  condition  of  their  making  a  full  and 
fair  confession  of  the  whole  truth.  The  admission, 
however,  of  an  accomplice  to  give  evidence  against 
his  fellows,  requires  the  previous  sanction  of  the 
judges  of  jail  delivery,  and  a  motion  is  usually 
made  at  the  trial  to  the  judge  for  leave  to  admit  the 
accomplice  for  that  purpose.  The  testimony  of  an 
accomplice  is  in  all  cases,  however,  regarded  with 
just  suspicion;  and  unless  his  statement  is  corrobo- 
rated in  some  material  part  by  unimpeachable  evi- 
dence, the  jury  are  usually  advised  by  the  judge  to 
acquit  the  prisoner  ;  and  if  the  accomplice,  after 
having  confessed  the  crime,  and  being  admitted  as 
Queen's  evidence,  does  not  satisfy  the  condition  on 
which  he  was  so  received  by  failing  to  give  full 
information  without  equivocation,  reservation,  or 
fraud,  he  then  forfeits  all  claim  to  protection,  and 
may  be  tried,  convicted,  and  punished  on  his  own 
confession.  Accordingly,  upon  a  trial  at  York, 
towards  the  commencement  of  the  present  century, 
before  the  late  Mr.  Justice  Buller,  the  accomplice 
denied  in  his  evidence  all  that  he  had  before  con- 
fessed, upon  which  the  prisoner  was  acquitted.  But 
the  judge  ordered  an  indictment  to  be  preferred 
8S4 


against  the  accomplice  for  the  same  crime,  and  on 
his  previous  confession,  and  other  circumstances,  he 
was  convicted  and  executed. 

The  term  in  the  law  of  Scotland  analogous  to  that 
of  A.  is  socius  crivdnin,  and  the  principles  on  which 
such  socius  is  admitted,  and  on  which  his  evidence 
is  left  to  the  jury,  are  the  same  as  in  England.  But 
the  criminal  courts  in  Scotland  go  further  in  protect- 
ing and  assuring  safety  to  the  approver  than  the 
English  practice  does.  Sir  Archibald  Alison,  in  his 
Practice  of  the  Criminal  Law  of  Scotland,  vol.  ii., 
p.  453,  says :  '  It  has  long  been  an  established 
principle  in  o>ir  law,  that  by  the  very  act  of  calling 
the  socins,  and  putting  him  in  the  box,  the  prose- 
cutor debars  himself  from  all  title  to  molest  him  for 
the  future  with  relation  to  the  matter  libelled.  This 
is  always  explained  to  the  witness  by  the  presiding 
judge  as  soon  as  he  appears  in  court,  and  conse- 
quently he  gives  his  testimony  under  a  feeling  of 
absolute  security  as  to  the  effect  which  it  may  have 
upon  himself.  If,  therefore,  on  any  future  occasion 
the  witness  should  be  subjected  to  a  prosecution  on 
account  of  any  of  the  matters  contained  in  the  libel 
on  which  he  was  examined,  the  proceedings  would 
be  at  once  quashed  by  the  supreme  court.  Thia 
privilege  is  absolute,  and  altogether  independent  of 
the  prevarication  or  unwillingness  with  which  the 
witness  may  give  his  testimony.  Justice,  indeed, 
may  often  be  defeated  by  a  witness  retracting  his 
previous  disclosures,  or  refusing  to  make  any  confes- 
sion after  he  is  put  into  the  box ;  but  it  would  be 
much  more  put  in  hazard  if  the  witness  was  sensible 
that  his  future  safety  depended  upon  the  extent  to 
which  he  spoke  out  against  his  as.sociate  at  the  bar. 
The  only  r<.'mcdy,  therefore,  in  such  a  case,  is  com- 
mittal of  the  witness  for  contempt  or  prevarication, 
or  indicting  him  for  perjury,  if  there  are  sufficient 
grounds  for  any  of  these  proceedings.  In  this 
respect  the  security  of  the  socius,  and  the  safeguard 
against  the  contamination  of  the  sources  of  evidence, 
is  much  stronger  in  this  country  than  in  England, 
where  it  is  held  that  the  circumstance  of  having 
been  adduced  by  the  crown  is  not  a  bar  to  trial,  but 
only  the  foundation  for  a  recommendation  to  the 
crown  for  mercy,  and  is  entirely  dependent  on  the 
witnesses  making  a  full  and  fair  disclosure.'  And 
Sir  Archibald  mentions  a  case  where  a  soldier,  who 
was  adduced  as  an  A.  or  socius,  and  who  was  under 
confinement  as  a  military  delinquent  for  the  same 
oS'ence,  was  nevertheless  allowed  to  give  evidence ; 
and  upon  its  being  suggested  as  an  objection  to  the 
soldier's  being  admitted  as  a  witness,  that  he  would 
still  be  open  to  be"  tried  by  a  court-martial,  the 
court  declared  that  they  had  the  power  to  protect 
him  from  such  an  ordeal,  and  that  they  would  not 
fail  to  interfere  on  his  behalf,  if  he  were  in  any  way 
endangered  in  consequence  of  his  evidence. 

It  was  cliiefly  on  the  evidence  of  an  accomplice 
named  Williarn  Hare,  that  Burke  the  notorious 
criminal  was  convicted  before  the  High  Court  of 
Justiciary  in  1828.  See  this  case  noticed  previously 
in  Anatomy. 

APPROXIMA'TION,  a  terra  commonly  used  in 
mathematical  science  to  designate  such  calculations 
as  are  not  rigorously  correct,  but  approach  the  truth 
near  enough  for  a  given  purpose.  Thus  in  logarith- 
mic and  trigonometrical  tables  nearly  aU  the 
numbers  are  mere  approximations  to  the  truth.  The 
calculations  of  astronomy  generally  are  of  this 
nature.  Even  in  pure  mathematics  there  are  parts 
in  which  approaches  to  the  truth,  by  means  of 
interminable  series,  are  all  we  are  uble  to  gain.  The 
solution  of  equations  beyond  the  fourth  degree  can 
be  got  only  by  approximation. 

APPUI  (French),  d  stay  or  support     In  military 


APPULEius— ArmcoT. 


tactics,  the  points  dA.  are  such  parts  of  the  field  of 
Imttle  as  are  suited  to  give  support  or  shelter.  As 
the  wings  of  an  army  (like  the  extreme  sides  of  a 
chess-board)  are  the  weakest  points  of  resistance  to 
attack,  they  especially  require  support  or  protection, 
and  are  placed,  when  it  is  possible,  in  localities  which 
eerve  to  obstruct  the  attacking  forces.  Lakes, 
morasses,  woods,  streams,  and  steep  decHvities  may 
thus  serve  as  points  (TA. 


APPULEI'US,  or,  less  properly,  APULEIUS.  a 
eatirical  writer  of  the  2d  c,  was  born  at  Madaura,  in 
Africa,  where  his  father  was  a  magistrate,  and  a  man 
of  large  fortune.  A.  first  studied  at  Carthage,  which 
at  that  time  enjoyed  a  high  reputation  as  a  school 
of  literature.  Afterwards  he  went  to  Athens,  where 
he  entered  keenly  upon  the  study  of  philosophy, 
displaying  a  special  predilection  for  the  Platonic 
pchool.  The  fortune  bequeathed  to  him  at  his 
father's  death  enabled  A.  to  travel  extensively. 
He  visited  Italy,  Asia,  &c.,  and  was  initiated  into 
numerous  religious  mysteries.  The  knowledge  which 
he  thus  acquired  of  the  priestly  fraternities,  he  made 
abundant  use  of  afterwards  in  his  Golden  Ass.  His 
first  appearance  in  literature  arose  from  a  law- 
Buit.  Having  married  a  middle-aged  lady,  named 
Pudentilla,  very  wealthy,  but  not  particularly  hand- 
some, he  drew  down  upon  his  head  the  malice  of  her 
relations,  who  desired  to  inherit  her  riches,  and  who 
accused  the  youth  of  having  employed  magic  to  gain 
her  affections.  His  defence  (Apolor/ia,  still  extant), 
spoken  before  Claudius  Maximus,  proconsul  of  Africa, 
was  an  eloquent  and  successful  vindication  of  his  con- 
duct. After  this  event,  his  life  appears  to  have  been 
devoted  zealously  to  literature  and  public  oratory,  in 
both  of  which  he  attained  great  eminence.  He  was 
BO  extremely  popular,  that  the  senate  of  Carthage, 
and  other  states,  erected  statues  in  his  honor. 

The  Golden  Ass,  the  work  by  which  his  reputation 
has  survived,  is  a  romance  or  novel,  whose  principal 
personage  is  one  Lucian,  supposed  by  some,  though 
on^  in.iufficient  evidence,  to  be  the  author  himself. 
It  is  generally  understood  to  have  been  intended  as 
a  satire  on  the  vices  of  the  age,  especially  those  of 
the  priesthood,  and  of  quacks  or  jugglers  affecting 
Bupernatural  powers,  though  Bishop  Warburton,  and 
other  critics,  fancy  they  can  detect  in  it  an  indirect 
apology  for  paganism.  Its  merits  are  both  great  and 
conspicuous,  as  are  also  its  faults.  Wit,  humour,  satire, 
fancy,  learning,  and  even  poetic  eloquence  abound, 
but  the  style  is  disfigured  by  excessive  archaisms,  and 
there  is  a  frequent  affectation  in  the  metaphors,  &c. 
which  proves  A.  to  have  been  somewhat  artificial  in 
his  rhetoric.  The  most  exquisite  thing  in  the  whole 
work  is  the  episode  of  Cupid  and  Psyche  (imitated 
by  La  Fontaine).  It  is  supposed  to  be  an  alle- 
gory of  the  progress  of  the  soul  to  perfection. 
Besides  the  Apologia  and  Golden  ^s,s,  we  have  from 
the  pen  of  A.  an  Anthology  in  four  books,  a  work  on 
the  Daemon  of  Socrates,  one  on  the  doctrines  of  Plato, 
one  on  The  Universe,  &c.  A  considerable  number 
of  his  works  also  are  lost.  The  most  recent  and  care- 
ful edition  of  the  whole  works  of  A.  is  that  published 
at  Leipsic  in  1842,  by  G.  F.  Hildebrand.  The  Gol- 
den Ass  was  translated  into  English  by  T.  Tavlor 
(1822),  and  again  by  Sir  G.  Head  (1851).  An  Eng- 
lish version  of  the  works  of  A.  was  published  in  Lon- 
don, 1853. 

APRA'XIN,  Thepor  Mattatevich,  a  distin- 
guished Russian  admiral,  was  born  in  1671.  When 
hardly  twelve  years  of  age,  he  entered  the  service  of 
Peter  the  Great,  who  conceived  a  great  attachment 
for  him,  which  lasted  during  the  whole  life  of  the 
monarch.  In  1699,  he  took  part  in  the  first 
manoeuvres  of  the  Russian  fleet  at  Taganrog 
on  the  sea  of  Azof.     After  the  year  1700,  he  became 


the 


most  powerful  and  influential  person  at  the 
court  of  the  czar,  who  made  him  chief-admiral 
of  the  Russian  navy,  of  which,  in  fact,  A.  may  be 
considered  the  creator.  While  Peter  was  fighting 
the  Swedes  in  the  north,  A.  was  building  war-vessels, 
fortresses,  and  wharfs  in  the  south.  In  1707,  he  was 
appointed  president  of  the  Admiralty;  in  1708,  he 
defeated  the  Swedish  general,  Liibecker,  in  Inger- 
mannland,  and  saved  the  newly-built  city  of 
Petersburg  from  destruction ;  in  1710,  he  captured 
the  important  town  of  Viborg,  in  Finland;  and 
in  1711,  commanded  in  the  Black  Sea  during  the 
Turkish  war.  The  following  year  he  returned  to 
the  north  ;  and  in  1713,  with  a  fleet  of  200  vessels, 
he  sailed  along  the  coast  of  Finland,  took  Helsing- 
fors  and  Borgo,  and  defeated  the  Swedish  fleet. 
The  result  of  his  great  successes  was,  that  at  the 
peace  of  Xvstadt,  in  1721,  Russia  obtained  some 
most  valuable  advantages,  being  confirmed  in  her 
possession  of  Finland,  just  conquered,  and  of 
Esthonia.  In  spite  of  his  brilliant  reputation,  how- 
ever, he  twice  suffered  an  apparent  eclipse  of  im- 
perial favour.  In  1714 — 15  he  was  charged  with 
embezzlement,  tried,  and  condemned  to  pay  a  fine ; 
and  a  few  years  later,  was  denounced  by  Peter  him- 
self as  '  an  oppressor  of  the  people,'  and  again  con- 
demned to  pay  a  fine ;  but  his  services  were  too  use- 
ful to  be  dispensed  with,  and  in  both  instances  the 
czar  neutralised  the  effect  of  the  condemnation,  by 
conferring  upon  him  additional  riches  and  dignities. 
In  1722,  he  accompanied  Peter  in  his  Persian  war, 
and  was  present  at  the  siege  of  Derbend.  His  last 
naval  expedition  was  in  1726,  when  he  repaired  with 
the  Russian  fleet  to  Revel,  to  defend  that  place 
against  an  expected  attack  by  the  English.  He  died 
at  Moscow,  loth  November  1728,  in  the  57th  year 
of  his  age. 

A'PRICOT  {Prunns  Armeniaca),  a  species  of  the 
same   genus  with  the   Plum   (q.  v.),    is  a  native  of 
Armenia,    and   of  the  countries  eastward  to  China 
and  Japan;  a  middle-sized  tree  of  15 — 20,  or  even 
30   feet   high,  with  ovate,    acuminate,  and  cordate, 
smooth,  doubly-toothed  leaves  on  long  stalks ;  soH- 
tary,  sessile,  white  flowers  which  appear  before  the 
leaves,   and   fruit   resembling   the   peach,  roundish, 
downy,  yellow,  and  ruddy  on  the  side  next  the  sun, 
with  yellow  flesh.     The  A.  was  brought  into  Europe 
in  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  and  since  the 
days  of  the  Romans  has  been  diffused  over  all  its 
western  countries.     It  has  been  cultivated  in  Eng- 
land since  the  middle  of  the   16th  c.     It  is  only  in 
the  south  of  England  that  it  is  ever  trained  as  a 
standard,  nor  is  it  grown  in  the  more  northern  parts, 
even  as  an  espalier,  but  almost  always  as  a  wall-tree. 
More  than  twenty  kinds  are  distinguished,  amongst 
which  some  excel  very  much  in  size,  fine  colour, 
sweetness,  and  abundance  of  juice.     The  Moorpark 
is   generally   esteemed   the   finest  variety,  and  the 
Breda  as  best  suited  for  standards  in  the  south  of 
England,  and  in  Scotland  even  for  the  wall,  except 
in  the  most  favourable  situations. — The  A.  is  generally 
budded  on  plum  or  wild  cherry  stocks.     The  fruit 
keeps  only  for  a  very  short  time,  and  is  either  eaten 
fresh,  or  made  into  a  preserve  or  jelly.      Apricots 
split  up,  having   the    stone   taken    out,  and   dried, 
are  brought  from  Italy  as  an  article  of  commerce,  in 
particular  from  Trieste,  Genoa,  and  Leghorn :  in  the 
south  of  France,  also,  they  aie  an  article  of  export  in 
a  preserved  and  candied  state.     Dried  apricots  from 
Bokhara  are  sold  in  the  towns  of  Russia,  the  kernels 
of  which  are  perfectly  sweet,  like  those  of  the  sweet 
almond.       The   kernels   are   sweet   in   some   kinds, 
and  bitter  in  others — the  bitterness  being  probably 
more  natural,  and  the  sweetness,  as  in  the  almond, 
the     result     of    cultivation.      Generally     speaking, 
they    may    be    used    for    the    same    purposes    as 

885 


APRIL— APSE. 


almonds.  From  tlie  bitter  kernels,  -which  contain 
Prui^sic  acid,  the  Eau  de  noyaux  is  distilled  in 
France.  The  charred  stones  yield  a  black  pigment 
similar  to  Indian  ink.  The  wood  of  the  tree  is  good 
only  for  the  purposes  of  the  turner. 

The  Brianq:os  A.  {Prumtn  Brigantiacn)  very  much 
resembles  the  conmion  A.  The  fruit  is  glabrous.  It 
Is  found  in  Dauphiny  and  Piedmont.  At  Brian^on, 
an  oil,  called  Huile  de  mannottc,  is  expressed  from 
the  seed. 

The  Siberian  A.  (P.  Sibirica)  is  also  very  like  the 
common  A.,  but  smaller  in  all  its  parts.  The  fruit 
is  small.  It  is  a  native  of  Siberia,  especially  of  the 
southern  slopes  of  the  mountains  of  Dahuria. 

The  A.  Plum  is  an  excellent  kind  of  plum,  much 
cultivated  in  some  parts  of  France,  and  which,  pre- 
served in  sugar,  dried,  and  packed  in  shallow  boxes, 
forms  a  considerable  article  of  trade. 

A'PRIL.  The  Romans  gave  this  month  the  name 
of  Apj-ilis,  from  aperire,  to  open,  because  it  was  the 
season  when  the  buds  began  to  open  ;  by  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  it  was  called  Ooster,  or  Easter-month ;  and 
by  the  Dutch  Grass-month.  The  custom  of  sending 
one  upon  a  bootless  errand  on  the  first  day  of  this 
month,  is  perhaps  a  travesty  of  the  sending  hither 
and  thither  of  the  Saviour  from  Aimas  to  Caiaphas, 
and  from  Pilate  to  Herod,  because  during  the  iiiiddle 
ages  this  scene  in  Christ's  life  was  made  the  subject 
of  a  miracle-play  (q.  v.)  at  Easter,  which  occurs  in 
the  month  of  A.  It  is  possjble,  however,  that  it 
may  be  a  relic  of  some  old  heathen  festival.  The 
custom,  whatever  be  its  origin,  of  playing  off  little 
tricks  on  this  day,  %vhereby  ridicule  may  be  fixed 
upon  unguarded  individuals,  appears  to  be  universal 
throughout  Europe.  In  France,  one  thus  imposed 
upon  is  called  U7i  poisson  d'Avril  (an  A.  fish).  In 
England,  such  a  person  is  called  an  A.  fool ;  in 
Scotland,  a  gowk.  Gowk  is  the  Scotch  for  the 
cuckoo,  and  also  signifies  a  foolish  person.  The 
favourite  jest  in  Britain  is  to  send  one  upon  an 
errand  for  something  grossly  nonsensical — as  for 
pigeon's  milk,  or  the  History  of  Adam's  Grand- 
father; or  to  make  appointments  which  are  not  to 
be  kept ;  or  to  call  to  a  passer-by  that  his  latchet  is 
unloosed,  or  that  there  is  a  spot  of  mud  upon  his 
face.  When  he  falls  into  the  snare,  the  term  A.  fool 
or  gowk  is  applied  with  a  shout  of  laughter.  It  is 
curious  that  the  Hindus  practice  precisely  similar 
tricks  on  the  Slst  of  March,  when  they  hold  what  is 
called  the  Huli  Festival. 

A-PRIO'RI  reasoning  or  demonstration  is  that 
which  rests  on  general  notions  or  ideas,  and  is  inde- 
pendent of  experience.  Reasoning  from  experience 
is  called  a-posteriori  reasoning.  A  predilection  for 
one  or  the  other  of  these  forms  of  reasoning  forms 
one  of  the  most  important  distinctions  among 
schools  of  philosophy.  Plato  may  be  taken  as 
typical  of  the  A-P.  school,  Locke  and  Bacon  of  the 
other.  A-P.  speculation  is  more  in  accordance  with 
the  genius  of  the  Germans  than  with  that  of  the  prac- 
tical British.  A-P.  philosophy  claims  for  its  conclu- 
sions the  character  of  necessary  truths,  and  denies 
that  there  can  be  a-posteriori  proof  of  anything,  that 
kind  of  reasoning  furnishing  only  a  confirmation  or 
verification.  The  opposite  school  maintain  that  the 
general  notions  or  principles  on  which  A-P.  reason- 
ing rests,  are  themselves  the  results  of  experience, 
and  that,  therefore,  all  truth  rests  really  on  a-poste- 
riori grounds. 

A'PRON.  This  word  is  employed  both  in  mili- 
tary and  in  shipping  aflfiirs.  The  A.  of  a  cannon  is 
a  piece  of  sheet-lead  which  covers  the  touch-hole, 
tied  by  two  pieces  of  white  rope.  In  ship-building, 
the  A.  is  a  piece  of  curved  timber  fixed  behind  the 
lower  part  of  the  stem,  and  just  above  the  fore- 
S3d 


most  end  of  the  keel;  its  chief  use  is  to  fortify  the 
stem,  and  connect  it  more  firmly  with  the  keeL 
The  name  of  A.  is  also  given  to  the  plank-flooring 
raised  at  the  entrance  of  a  dock,  a  little  higher  than 
the  bottom,  to  form  an  abutment  against  which  the 
gates  may  shut. 

APSE  (Lat.  apsis),  a  semicircular  recess  naaally 
placed  at  the  east  end  of  the  choir  or  chancel  of  a 
romanesque,  or  what  is  commonly  called  in  England 
an  Anglo-Saxon  or  Anglo-Norman  church.  The 
origin  of  this  peculiar  termination  to  the  choir  is  so 
curious,  and  has  been  so  clearly  established  by 
recent  German  writers,  that  we  shall  endeavour  to 
state  it  in  a  very  few  words.  It  is  well  known  that 
the  heathen  structure  from  which  the  early  Chris- 
tians borrowed  the  form  of  their  churches,  was  not 
the  temple  but  the  Basilica  or  public  hall  which 
served  at  once  for  a  market  place  and  a  court  of 
justice.  The  Basilica,  for  the  most  part,  was  a 
parallelogram,  at  one  of  the  shorter  sides  of  which, 
opposite  to  the  entrance,  there  was  a  raised  platform 
destined  for  the  accommodation  of  the  persona 
engaged  in,  and  connected  with,  the  distribution  of 
justice.  This  portion  of  the  building  was  the  proto- 
type of  the  rounded  choir,  to  which  the  name  of  A. 


Church  at  Schwartz,  Eheindorf. 

was  given,  and  which  is  still  to  be  seen  in  so  many 
of  the  Rhenish  churches.  For  the  praetor's  chair, 
which  was  placed  in  the  centre  of  this  semicircular 
space,  the  altar  was  substituted ;  and  the  steps 
which  led  to  the  seat  from  which  he  dispensed 
justice,  were  destined  henceforth  to  lead  to  the  spot 
where  the  Fountain  of  all  justice  should  be  worshipped. 
Many  A.'s  are  to  be  met  with  in  English  churches, 
an  enumeration  of  which  will  be  found  in  Mr. 
Parker's  excellent  Glossary  of  Architecture.  But 
as  the  structure  is  not  only  much  more  frequent,  but 
continued  to  be  used  to  a  much  later  period  on  the 
continent,  we  shall  describe  it  as  it  may  still  be 
seen  in  almost  every  little  village  along  the  banks  of 
the  Rhine.  The  lower  part  of  the  A.  is  there 
usually  pierced  by  two  or  three  round  arched  win- 
dows, often  of  irregular  size  and  height,  over  which 
there  is  invariably  an  external  gallery  supported  by 
pillars,  in  the  form  of  which  the  rude  idea  of  a 
Roman  pillar  is  at  once  apparent ;  and  the  whole 
is  joined  to  the  end  of  the  nave,  which  rises  consider- 
ably above  it,  by  a  roof  in  the  form  of  the  segment 
of  a  cone.     Where  the  churches  are  larger,  there  ia  a 


Vol.  I.,  page  337.  APTERYX. 

[From  specimens  in  the  London  Zoologiciil  Uiinieii-;.     Those  hirds  are  led  upon  minicil  mutton  and  wcjrms.  of  which  i:»h 
consumes  about  half  a  pound  daily.j 


APSIDES— APULIA. 


complete  row  of  windows  of  tlie  same  rounded 
form,  divided  by  pillars  similar  to  those  by  which 
the  gallery  is  supported,  and  under  them  frequently 
a  line  of  arches  of  corresponding  construction,  whilst 
one  or  two  small  and  irregular  holes  of  the  same 
form  give  a  scanty  light  to  the  crypt  beneath. 
Many  of  the  smaller  churches  have  no  aisles  ;  and 
the  semicircular  A.  forms  the  termination  of,  or 
rather  contains  the  chancel.  The  more  complete 
specimens  of  the  style,  liowever,  such  as  the  minister 
at  Bonn,  afibrd — with  the  exception  of  the  tran- 
septs and  the  towers,  which  are  later  additions — 
about  the  most  perfect  examples  to  be  found  on 
this  side  the  Alps  of  the  form  of  the  Roman  basilica, 
as  first  adapted  to  Christian  uses.  Several  examples 
of  the  A.  are  to  be  seen  in  the  earlier  ecclesiastical 


omu,  and  perhaps  more  nearly  to  the  extinct  dodo. 
It  has   a  very   long    and    slender    bill,   of  which  it 


Church  of  Dalmeny. 

structures  of  Scotland ;  as  instances,  we  may  men- 
tion the  churches  of  Dalmeny  and  Kirkliston  in 
Linlithgowshire,  and  of  Leuchars  in  Fife. 

A'PSIDES  (Gr.  apsix,  connection),  the  two 
extreme  points  in  the  orbit  of  a  planet — one  at  the 
greatest,  the  other  at  the  least  distance  from  the 
sun.  The  term  A.  is  also  applied  in  the  same 
manner  to  the  two  points  in  the  orbit  of  a  satellite 
— one  nearest  to,  the  other  furthest  from,  its  primary ; 
corresponding,  in  the  case  of  the  moon,  to  the 
perigee  and  apogee.  A  right  line  connecting  these 
extreme  points,  is  called  the  line  of  A.  In  all  the 
planetary  orbits,  this  line  has  no  fixed  position  in 
space,  but  makes  a  forward  motion  in  the  plane  of 
the  orbit,  except  in  the  case  of  the  planet  Venus, 
where  the  motion  is  retrograding.  This  fact  in  the 
orbit  of  the  earth  gives  rise  to  the  anomalistic  year 
(q.  v.).  This  advancing  motion  of  the  line  of  A. 
is  especially  remarkable  in  the  orbit  of  the  moon, 
where  it  amounts  to  40°  40'  32"'2  annually,  an 
entire  revolution  thus  taking  place  in  rather  less 
than  nine  years. 

APSLEY,  a  river  of  Australia,  in  the  north 
division  of  New  South  Wales.  It  flows  into  the 
open  Pacific  about  40  miles  to  the  north-east  of  Port 
Macquarrie,  appearing  to  assume  at  its  mouth  the 
name  of  the  M'Leay. — A.  is  also  a  strait  between 
Melville  and  Bathurst  Islands,  on  the  north  coast 
of  Austraha.  Its  length  is  48  miles,  with  a  width 
varying  from  1^  to  4;  and  the  depth  of  its  channel 
is  from  8  to  24  fathoms. 

A'PTEROUS  INSECTS  are  insects  without 
wings.  In  the  Linnajan  system,  the  Aptera  form  an 
order  of  insects  ;  but  more  important  distinctive 
characters  being  found  to  belong  to  the  insects 
included  in  it,  it  is  no  longer  retained  as  an  order  or 
principal  division  in  the  most  improved  entomological 
systems. 

A'PTERYX  (from  the  Gr.  a,  priv.,  and  pteryx,  a 
wing),  a  geuus  of  birds  allied  to  the  ostrich  and 
-1% 


Apteryx. 

makes  a  remarkable  use  in  supporting  itself  when  it 
rests.  It  has  three  anterior  toes,  and  a  posterior 
one  which  is  scarcely  developed.  The  legs  are  of 
moderate  length,  the  wings  merely  rudimentary. 
The  feathers  have  no  accessory  plume.  The  dia- 
phragm is  more  complete  than  in  any  other  known 
bird.  Only  one  species  is  known  (A.  Australis), 
about  the  size  of  a  goose,  a  native  of  New  Zealand. 
It  is  a  nocturnal  bird,  and  preys  on  snails,  insects, 
&c.  It  is  much  prized  for  its  feathers.  The  natives 
call  it  kivi-kivi,  from  its  cry. 

A'PTILE  are  small  vesicles  formed  of  the  super- 
ficial layer  of  a  mucous  membrane,  elevated  by 
fluid  secreted  by  the  latter.  They  are  usually 
whitish  in  colour,  and  the  fluid  may  be  serous  or 
puriform.  At  the  end  of  a  few  hours  or  days,  the 
apthous  vesicle  bursts  at  its  summit,  and  shrivels 
up,  exposing  an  inflamed  and  painful  patch  of  the 
mucous  membrane.  The  most  common  site  of  A.  is 
the  mucous  membrane  of  the  lips  and  mouth,  but 
they  occasionally  appear  wherever  mudous  membrane 
approaches  the  skin. 

Infants  are  liable  to  an  apthous  eruption  termed ' 
thrush  (q.  v.).  A.  in  adults  are  generally  the  conse- 
quences of  fevers  and  other  diseases,  or  a  symptom 
of  disturbance  of  the  digestive  system.  In  some 
cases  of  pulmonary  consumption,  they  form  a 
painful  addition  to  the  patient's  su8"erings.  In 
ordinary  cases  of  A.,  a  preparation  of  borax,  or  some 
astringent  wash,  generaUy  effects  a  rapid  cure. 

APULIA,  a  part  of  ancient  lapygia  (so  named' 
after  Tapyx,  son  of  Dsedalus),  now  includes  the 
south-eastern  pan  of  Italy  as  far  as  the  promontory 
of  Leuca,  and  also  the  extreme  peninsula  of  Calabria. 
Here,  in  ancient  times,  lived  three  distinct  peoples — 
the  Messapiaus  or  Salentini,  the  Peuceni,  and  the 
Dauni  or  Apulians.  According  to  old  Latin  tra- 
ditions, Daunus,  king  of  the  Apulians,  when  banished  " 
from  Illyria,  settled  in  these  parts  of  Italy.  Later 
traditions  say  that  Diomedes,  the  JJtolian,  with 
several  other  heroes  returning  from  the  Trojan  war, 
came  to  Italy,  and,  in  his  war  with  the  Messapians 
was  assisted  by  Dauuus,  but  was  afterwards 
deprived  of  his  territory,  and  put  to  death.  Roman 
poetry  has  preserved  these  old  names  ;  but  in  history, 
no  mention  is  made  of  any  king  of  A.,  though 
we  find  the  names  of  its  principal  cities — Arpi, 
Luceria,  and  Canusium.  The  second  Punic  war  was 
for  some  time  carried  on  in  A.  In  the  present  day, 
A.  (now  styled  Pcglia)  is  merely  the  name  of  a 
geographical  district,  and  has  no  political  meaning. 
The  whole  territory,  including  the  Neapolitan  pro- 
vinces, Capitanata,  Terra  di  Bari,  Terra  d'Otranto, 
&c.,  is  but  a  shadow  of  its  former  self,  in  the  time 
of  the  Greek  colonies,  under  Roman  dominion,  or 
even  under  the  Normans,  who  took  possession  of  it 
in  1043  A.  D.     The  towna  are  depopulated,  industry 

337 


APURE— AQUARIUM. 


has  disappeared,  and  commerce,  once  so  flourishing, 
has  passed  away.  Agriculture  is  in  a  very  low- 
condition,  and  the  few  roads  are  infested  by  banditti. 
The  people  are  generally  ignorant  and  superstitious, 
but  deserve  praise  for  their  hospitality  to  travellers. 
APU'RE,  a  river  of  New  Granada  and  Venezuela, 
■which  rises  in  the  East  Andes,  near  hit.  7°  N.,  and 
long.  72°  W.  After  receiving  the  Portuguesa  and  the 
Guarico  fom  the  north,  it  joins  the  Orinoco,  in 
lat.  70°  40'  N.,  and  long.  66°  45'  W.  It  waters  the 
towns  Nutrias  and  San  Fernando. 

APU'RIMAC,  a  river  of  Peru,  which,  after  a 
course  of  500  miles,  assumes  the  name,  first,  of 
Tambo,  and  then  of  Ucayali,  which  again,  after  a 
course  of  500  miles  more,  joins  the  Tangaragua  to 
form  the  Amazon.  The  A.  proper  rises  to  the  north- 
west of  the  great  table-land  of  Lake  Titicaca,  receiving 
from  it,  however,  no  portion  of  its  waters.  Among 
the  tributaries  of  the  Amazon,  it  is  one  of  the  most 
southerly;  while  among  them,  it  approaches  pcrliaps 
the  nearest  to  the  Pacific.  The  A.,  from  its  source 
in  lat.  16°  S.,  drains  the  eastern  face  of  the  Andes 
through  about  5°,  till  it  changes  its  name,  as  above, 
in  10"  45'  S.,  meanwhile  receiving  several  consider- 
able affluents,  more  especially  the  Villcaniayo,  from 
the  opposite  quarter.  The  A.  and  its  feeders  partake 
of  the  nature  rather  of  mountain  torrents  than  of 
navigable  rivers ;  and  even  for  travelling  by  land, 
their  rocky  and  rugged  banks  are  always  dilficult, 
and  often  impracticable.  The  valleys  vary  in  climate 
and  productiveness  according  to  their  elevation.  The 
upper  ones  yield  wheat  and  barley,  and  most  of  the 
fruits  of  Europe;  while  the  lower,  or  at  least  the 
lowest  ones,  abound  in  sugar  and  cotton,  plantains 
and  pine-apples.  The  basin  of  the  A.,  as  a  whole,  is 
said  to  be  the  finest  part  of  Peru,  and  to  contain  the 
largest  proportion  of  native  population — the  best 
specimens  apparently  of  the  aboriginal  civilisation. 

A'QUA  FORTIS,  literally,  stro7>ff  water,  was  the 
term  used  by  the  alchemists  to  denote  nitric  acid, 
and  is  still  the  commercial  name  of  that  acid. 

A'QUA  MARINE,  a  name  sometimes  popularly 
given  to  the  Beryl  (q.  v.).  Some  green  and  blue 
varieties  of  topaz  have  also  been  styled  A. 

A'QUA  REGI'NJE,  literally,  queeii's  water,  is  a 
mixture  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  (oil  of  vitriol) 
and  nitric  acid,  or  of  sulphuric  acid  and  nitre.  Either 
mixture  evolves  much  fumes,  and  may  be  used  as  a 
disinfectant,  as  similar  mixtures  are  sold  under  the 
name  of  everlasting  disinfectants. 

AQUA  REGIS,  or  REGIA,  literally,  royal  water, 
is  the  common  name  applied  to  a  "mixture  of  1 
part  of  nitric  acid,  and  2,  3,  or  4  parts  of  hydro- 
chloric acid.  The  general  proportion  is  1  to  2.  The 
term  aqua  regia  (royal  water)  was  given  to  the 
mixture  from  the  power  it  possesses  of  dissolving 
gold,  which  is  the  king  of  the  metals. 

AQUA'RIUM,  a  tank  or  vessel  containing  either 
salt  or  fresh  water,  and  in  which  either  marine  or 
fresh-water  plants  and  animals  are  kept  in  a  living 
state.  The  name  was  formerly  sometimes  given  to  a 
tank  or  cistern  placed  in  a  hot-house,  and  intended 
for  the  cultivation  of  aquatic  plants.  It  is  not 
long  since  the  A.,  as  now  in  use — originally  called 
Vivarium  or  Aquavivarium,  and  intended  chiefly 
for  animals— was  first  invented  ;  but  it  soon  became 
extremely  common,  not  only  as  an  aid  to  scientific 
study,  but  as  an  ornament  of  drawing-rooms,  and  a 
source  of  rational  amusement.  It  depends  in  prin- 
ciple upon  the  relations  discovered  by  modern  science 
between  animal  and  vegetable  life,  and  particularly 
upon  the  consumpt  by  plants,  under  the  action  of 
light,  of  the  carbonic  acid  gas  given  forth  by  animals, 
and  consequent  restoration  to  the  air  or'  water  iri 
838 


which  they  live  of  the  oxygen  necessary  for  the 
maintenance  of  animal  life.  The  A.  must,  therefore, 
contain  both  plants  and  animals,  and  in  something 
like  a  proper  proportion.  Zoophytes,  Annelides, 
MoUusca,  Crustacea,  and  Fishes  may  thus,  with  due 
care,  be  long  kept  in  health,  and  their" habits  observed. 
The  water  must  be  frequently  aerated  by  agitation 
in  some  way,  lor  which  there  are  various  contriv- 
ances, but  which  is  very  well  accomplished  by 
taking  up  portions  of  it  and  pouring  them  in  again 
from  a  small  height.  The  fresh-water  A.  is  frequently 
provided  with  a  fountain,  so  that  in  it  there  is  a 
continual  ciiange  of  water ;  but  even  where  this  is 
the  case,  the  presence  both  of  plants  and  animals  is 
advantageous  to  the  health  of  both.  When  sea- 
water  cannot  easily  be  procured  for  the  marine  A., 
a  substitute  for  it  may  be    made    by  mixing  with 


Simple  form  of  an  Aquarium. 

rather  less  than  4  quarts  of  spring  water,  3^ 
ounces  of  common  table-salt,  \  ounce  of  Epsom  salts, 
200  grains  troy  of  chloride  of  magnesium,  and  40 
grains  troy  of  chloride  of  potassium.  With  due 
care,  the  water  may  be  kept  good  for  a  long  time. 
No  dead  animal  or  decaying  plant  must  be  permitted 
to  remain  in  it.  Salt  water,  artificially  prepared,  is 
not  fit  for  the  reception  of  animals  at  once ;  but  a 
few  plants  must  first  be  placed  in  it,  for  which  purpose 
some  of  the  green  algae,  species  of  Ulva  and  Con- 
ferva, are  most  suitable.  The  presence  of  a  number 
of  molluscous  animals,  such  as  the  common  periwinkle, 
is  necessary  for  the  consumption  of  the  vegetable 
matter  continually  given  off  by  the  growing  plants, 
and  of  the  multitudinous  spores  (seeds),  particularly 
of  confervas,  which  would  otherwise  soon  fill  the 
water,  rendering  it  greenish  or  brownish,  and  un- 
transparent,  and  which  may  be  seen  beginning  to 
vegetate  everywhere  on  the  pebbles  or  on  the  glass 
of  the  tank.  In  a  fresh-water  A.,  molluscous  ani- 
mals of  similar  habits,  such  as  species  of  Lymncea 
or  Planorbis,  are  equally  indispensable.  For  Aquaria 
of  a  large  size,  tanks  made  of  plate-glass  are  com- 
monly used  ;  smaller  ones  are  generally  in  the  form 
of  vases  or  basins,  and  are  made  of  bottle-glass  or 
of  crystal. 

Of  course,  the  plants  and  animals  with  which  the 
A.  is  stocked  are  various,  according  to  the  taste  and 
opportunities  of  its  owner,  or  the  desire  to  make 
particular  kinds  the  subjects  of  careful  and  continued 
observation.  Blennies,  gobies,  and  gray  mullets  are 
perhaps  the  kinds  of  fish  most  commonly  seen  in 
marine  aquaria;  gold-fishes,  sticklebacks,  and  minnows 
are  frequent  enough  in  fresh-water  ones.  These 
have  the  advantage  of  being  more  easily  kept  in 
good  health  than  many  other  kinds,  and  a  further 
recommendation  is  found  in  their  small  size,  and  in 
the  fine  colours  of  the  gold-fish.    The  nests  of  stickle- 


AQUARIUS— AQUATIC. 


bac'ka  are  a  subject  of  unfailing  interest.  Crabs 
of  various  species,  and  actinite,  or  sea-anemones,  are 
very  generally  among  the  larger  inmates  of  the  A. 
Serpulai  contribute  much  both  to  its  interest  ami 
beauty,  as  they  spread  out  their  delicate  and  finely 
tinted  branchiie  from  the  mouth  of  their  shelly  tube, 
and  withdraw  within  it,  quick  as  thought,  upon 
the  slightest  disturbance.  Balani,  or  acorn-shells, 
are  very  beautiful  objects  when  they  are  seen  open- 
ing their  summit-valves,  and  rapidly  stretching  out 
and  retracting  their  little  nets.  Even  periwinkles 
ajid  limpets  are  interesting,  particularly  when  they 
are  watched  by  the  aid  of  a  magnify ing-glass,  as 
they  feed  upon  the  spores  of  the  conferv.e  which 
havo  just  begun  to  vegetate  on  the  glass  of  the  A., 
moving  slowly  along,  with  continual  opening  and 
shutting  of  the  mouth,  like  cows  at  pasture,  when 
the  structure  and  motions  of  their  mouths  may  be 
observed,  and  the  singular  beauty  and  brilliancy  of 
colours  never  fails  to  command  admiration.  The 
use  of  a  good  magnifying  lens  adds  greatly  to  the 


AQUATIC  plants  and  animals  are  those  that 
live  either  wholly  or  partly  in  water.  The  term  is 
very  vaguely  used,  those  plants  being  often  called 
A.  which  grow  in  ponds,  ditches,  &c.,  although  not 
only  their  inflorescence,  but  great  part  of  their 
foliage,  is  above  the  surface  of  the  water,  as  well 
as  those  which  more  completely  belong  to  that 
element;  and  a  similar  latitude  of  meaning  prevails 
with   regard   to    animals.     Few    phanerogamous   (or 


Aquarium,  with  fountain  for  aGratiug. 


interest  of  the  A.,  and  zoophytes  of  exquisite  forms 
and  colours  may  be  watched  in  the  actual  processes 
of  life.  The  feeding  of  fishes,  crabs,  sea-anemones, 
&c.,  is  a  source  of  amusement,  and  it  is  interesting 
even  to  note  how  the  inrrrates  of  tlie  A.  occasionally 
feed  on  their  fellow-prisoners. 

The  idea  of  the  A.  seems  to  have  originated  from 
Mr.  Ward's  invention  of  the  cuses  which  bear  his 
name  (see  Warpian  Cases),  and  in  which  delicate 
ferns  and  other  plants  grow  so  well  even  in 
towns.  Mr.  Warrington  appears  to  have  been  the 
first  to  make  experiments  on  its  practicability,  and 
the  name  of  >[r.  Gosse  is  intimately  connected  with 
its  early  development  and  introduction  to  popula- 
rity. The  largest  aquaria  in  the  world  are  those  in 
the  Zoological  Gardens,  Regent's  Park,  London. 
But  private  ones  are  so  numerous,  that  not  only  the 
manufacture  of  them,  but  also  the  supplying  of  them 
with  plants  and  animals,  have  become  distinct 
branches  of  trade. 

AQUA'RIUS,  Ike  Water-bearer,  the  eleventh  sign 
of  the  zodiac,  through  which  the  sun  moves  in  part 
of  the  months  of  January  and  February.  It  is  also 
the  name  of  a  zodiacal  constellation,  whose  position 
in  the  heavens  may  be  found  by  producing  a  line  in 
a  southerly  direction  through  the  stars  in  the  bead 
of  Andromeda  and  the  wing  of  Pegasus. 


Aquatic  plant. 

flowering)  plants  exist  entirely  under  water,  al- 
though there  are  a  few,  like  the  common  Zostcra 
marina,  or  Grass- wrack,  which  do  so,  and  produce 
even  their  flowers  in  that  condition;  others,  of 
which  the  greater  part  of  the  plant  is  usually  under 
water,  produce  their  flowers  upon,  or  considerably 
above,  its  surface,  as  those  of  the  genera  Valisncria, 
Anacharis  (q.  v.),  &c.  The  leaves,  as  well  as  the 
flowers,  of  many  float  upon  the  water,  of  which 
the  water-lilies  "furnish  well-known  and  beautiful 
examples ;  whilst  in  Ranunculus  aquatilis,  that 
exquisite  ornament  of  our  river  margins,  we  have  an 
instance  of  a  kind  not  unfrequent,  of  great  diversity 
between  the  lower  leaves  which  remain  submersed, 
and  the  upper  leaves  which  float.  Of  cryptogamous 
plants,  one  great  order,  Algie,  is  exclusively  A.,  and 
these  seem  adapted  to  perform  under  water  all  the 
functions  of  their  life.  A.  plants  are,  in  general, 
of  less  compact  structure  than  is  usual  in  other 
plants,  and  are  thus  lighter  and  better  adapted  for 
rising  in  their  growth  towards  the  surface  of  the 
water;  in  order  to  which  also  some  of  the  alga;,  as 
may  be  seen  in  more  than  one  of  the  most  common 
sea-weeds  of  our  coasts,  are  provided  with  air- 
bladders  of  considerable  magnitude.  All  this  is  the 
more  necessary,  as  plants  completely  A.  have  gene- 
rally little  firmness  of  stem,  and  if  their  weight 
made  them  fall  to  the  bottom,  would  lie  in  a  mass, 
as  they  do  when  withdrawn  from  the  water,  in 
which,  however,  they  gracefully  float,  their  flexi- 
bility of  stem  enabling  them  to  adapt  themselves 
to  waves  or  currents  which  would  destroy  them  if 
they  were  more  rigid.  So  admirably  are  all  things 
in  nature  har-moniscd. 

Many  animals,  to  a  considerable  extent  A.  in 
their  habits,  must  not  only  breathe  air,  but  are 
adapted  for  spending  great  "part  of  their  existence 
on  dry  land.  Such  are  chiefly  those  that  seek 
their  food  in  the  water.  The  peculiarities  of 
structure  by  which  they  are  fitted  for  wading,  for 
swimming,  ibr  diving,  and  for  remaining  under  water 
a  longer  time  than  other  animals  can,  are  very 
interesting  and  admirable.  Even  the  fur  of  the 
Ijeaver,  the  otter,  the  water-rat,  and  other  animals  of 
this  descr-iption,  is  not  liable  to  be  drenched  like 
that  of  other  quadrupeds  ;  and  the  plumage  of  water- 
fowls exhibits  a  similar  peculiarity.  The  feet  of 
many  are  webbed,  so  as  to  enable  them  to  swim 
with  great  facility ;  and  to  this  the  general  form,  as 
in  water-fowls,  likewise  exhibits  a  beautiful  adapta- 
tion. The  webbed  feet  in  some,  of  which  the  habits 
are  most  thoroughly  A.,  as  seals,  assume  the  character 

889 


AQUATIXTA— AQUEDUCT. 


of  a  sort  of  paddle,  admirul)ly  fitted  for  use  in  the 
water,  but  by  means  of  wliich  they  can  only  move 
very  awkwardly  on  land.  The  forms  of  whales  and 
fishes  are  remarkably  adapted  for  progression  in 
water;  whilst,  instead  of  tlie  limbs  by  whieh  other 
vertebrate  animals  are  enabled  to  move  upon  the 
land  or  to  fly  in  the  air,  their  great  organ  of  locomo- 
tion is  the  tail,  or  rather  the  hinder  part  of  the 
elongated  body  itself,  with  the  tail  as  the  blade  of 
the  great  oar,  which  all  the  principal  muscles  of  the 
body  concur  to  move.  Remarkable  provision  is 
rcade  in  A.  animals  of  the  higher  vertebrate  classes 
for  the  maintenance  of  the  requisite  animal  heat,  by 
the  character  of  the  fur  or  plumage  ;  a  purpose  whicli 
the  blubber  of  whales  also  most  perfectly  serves. 
In  the  colder-blooded  animals,  where  no  such  provi- 
sion is  requisite,  the  structure  of  the  heart  is  accom- 
modated to  the  diminished  necessity  for  oxygenation 
of  the  blood  ;  and  although  reptiles  in  their  perfect 
state  must  breathe  air,  most  of  them  can  remain  long 
under  water  without  inconvenience.  Fishes,  and  the 
many  other  animals  provided  with  branchia3  or  gills, 
breathe  in  the  water  itself,  deriving  the  necessary 
oxygen,  which  in  their  case  is  comparatively  little, 
from  the  small  particles  of  air  with  which  it  is 
mingled.  They  cannot  subsist  in  water  which  has 
been  deprived  of  air  by  boiling.  Some  A.  insects 
carry  down  with  them  into  the  water  particles  of 
air  entangled  in  hairs  with  which  their  bodies  are 
abundantly  furnished. 

AQUATI'NTA,  a  mode  of  etching  on  copper,  by 
which  imitations  of  drawings  in  Indian  ink,  bister, 
and  sepia  are  produced.  On  a  plate  of  copper  a 
ground  is  prepared  of  black  resin,  on  which  the 
design  is  traced ;  a  complicated  series  of  nuinipula- 
tions  with  varnish  and  dilute  acid  is  then  gone 
through,  until  the  desired  result  is  attained.  The 
process  of  A.  has  fallen  into  comparative  disuse. 

A'QUA  TOFA'NA,  a  poisonous  liquid  which 
was  much  talked  of  in  the  south  of  Italy  about 
the  end  of  the  17th  c.  Its  invention  is  still  a 
matter  of  dubiety,  but  is  ascribed  to  a  Sicilian 
woman  named  Tofana,  who  lived  first  at  Palermo, 
but  was  obliged,  from  the  attention  of  the  author- 
ities having  been  attracted  to  her  proceedings,  to 
take  refuge  in  Naples.  She  sold  the  preparation 
in  small  phials,  inscribed  '  Manna  of  St.  Nicholas  of 
Bari,'  there  being  a  current  superstition  that  from  the 
tomb  of  that  saint  there  flowed  an  oil  of  miraculous 
efficacy  in  many  diseases.  The  poison  was  especially 
sought  after  by  young  wives  that  wished  to  get  riil 
of  their  husbands.  The  number  of  husbands  dying 
suddenly  in  Rome  about  the  year  1()59,  raised 
suspicion,  and  a  society  of  young  married  women 
was  discovered,  presided  over  by  an  old  woman 
named  Spara,  who  had  learned  the  art  of  poisoning 
from  Tofana.  Spara  and  four  other  members  of  the 
society  were  publicly  executed.  Tofana  continued 
to  live  to  a  great  age  in  a  cloister,  in  which  she  had 
taken  refuge,  but  was  at  last  (1T09)  dragged  from  it, 
and  put  to  the  torture,  when  she  confessed  having 
been  instrumental  to  600  deaths.  According  to  one 
account  she  was  strangled ;  but  others  affirm  that  she 
was  still  living  in  prison  in  1730. 

The  A.  T.  is  usually  described  as  a  clear,  colourless, 
tasteless,  and  inodorous  fluid  ;  five  or  six  drops  were 
sufficient  to  produce  death,  which  resulted  slowly 
and  without  pain,  inflammation,  or  fever;  under  a 
constant  thirst,  a  weariness  of  life,  and  an  aversion 
to  food,  the  strength  of  the  person  gradually  wasted 
away.  It  is  even  stated  that  the  poison  could  be 
made  to  produce  its  effiects  in  a  determined  time, 
long  or  short,  according  to  the  wish  of  the  adminis- 
trator— a  notion  generally  prevalent  in  those  ages 
respecting  secret  poisoning.  The  most  wonderful 
340 


stories  are  told  of  the  mode  of  |ire[)uriiig  this  poison ; 
for  example,  the  spittle  of  a  i)eison  tlriven  nearly 
mad  by  continued  tickling  was  held  to  be  an  essen- 
tial ingredient.  Later  investigations  into  the  real 
nature  of  the  A.  T.  lead  to  the  belief  that  it  was 
principally  a  solution  of  arsenic. 

AQUA  VI'T^E  (Lat.  water  of  life)  is  a  com- 
mon term  applied  to  ardent  spirits.  During  the 
alchemical  epoch,  brandy  or  distilled  spirits  was 
nmch  used  as  a  medicine,  was  considered  a  cure 
for  all  disorders,  and  even  got  the  credit  of  pro- 
longing life ;  and  as  Latin  was  the  tongue  employed 
in  the  conveyance  of  knowledge  in  those  days, 
this  restorer  of  health  and  prolonger  of  life  waa 
naturally  christened  A.  V. 

A'QUEDUCT  (Lat.  Aguce  ductus),  an  artificial 
course  or  channel  by  which  water  is  conveyed  along 
an  inclined  plane.  When  an  A.  is  carried  across  a 
valley,  it  is  usu.illy  raised  on  arches,  and  where 
elevated  ground  or  hills  intervene,  a  passage  is  cut, 
or,  if  necessary,  a  tunnel  Vjorcd  for  it.  Aqueducts 
were  not  unknown  to  the  Greeks ;  but  there  are  no 
remains  of  those  which  they  constructed,  and  the 
brief  notices  of  them  by  Pausanias,  Herodotus,  and 
others,  do  not  enable  us  to  form  any  distinct  notion 
of  their  character.  The  aqueducts  of  the  Romans 
were  amongst  the  most  magnificent  of  their  works, 
and  the  noble  supply  of  water  which  modern  Rome 
derives  from  the  three  now  in  use,  of  which  two 
are  ancient,  gives  the  stranger  a  very  vivid  concep- 
tion of  the  vast  scale  on  which  the  ancient  city  must 
have  been  provided  with  one  of  the  most  important 
appliances  of  civilisation  and  refinement,  wl.en  nine 
were  employed  to  pour  water  into  its  baths  and 
fountains. 

The  following  are  the  names  of  the  Roman  aque- 
ducts, chronologically  arranged : 

1.  The  Aqna  Appia,  begun  by  and  named  after 
the  censor  Appius  Claudius  about  313  n.c.  It  ran  a 
course  of  between  6  and  7  miles,  its  source  being  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Palestrina.  With  the  exception 
of  a  small  portion  near  the  Porta  Capena,  it  was 
subterranean.     No  remains  of  it  exist. 

2.  A)iio  Vetua,  constructed  about  273  B.C.  by 
M.  Curius  Dentatus.  It  also  was  chiefly  under- 
ground. Remains  may  be  traced  both  at  Tivoli 
and  near  the  Porta  Maggiore.  From  the  point  at 
which  it  quitted  the  river  Anio,  about  20  miles 
above  Tivoli,  to  Rome,  is  about  43  miles. 

3.  Aqua  Marcia,  named  after  the  pra;tor  Quintus 
Marcius  Rex,  145  B.C.,  had  its  source  between 
Tivoli  and  Subiaco,  and  was  consequently  about  60 
miles  long.  The  noble  arches  which  stretch  across 
the  Campagna  for  some  6  miles  on  the  road  to 
Frascati,  are  the  portion  of  this  A.  which  was  above 
ground. 

4.  Aqua  Teptila  (126  B.C.)  had  its  source  near 
Tusculum,  and  its  channel  was  carried  over  the 
arches  of  the  last-mentioned  A. 

5.  Aqua  Julia,  constructed  by  Agrippa,  and 
named  after  Augustus  34  B.C.  Like  the  Tepulan,  it 
was  carried  along  the  Marcian  Arches,  and  its  source 
was  also  near  Tusculum.  Remains  of  the  three 
last-mentioned  aqueducts  still  exist. 

6.  Aq^ia  Virgo,  also  constructed  by  Agrippa,  and 
said  to  have  been  named  in  consequence  of  the 
spring  which  supplied  it  having  been  pointed  out  by 
a  girl  to  some  of  Agrippa's  soldiers  when  in  search 
of  water.  The  Aqua  Vergine,  as  it  is  now  called, 
is  still  entire,  having  been  restored  by  the  Popes 
Nicholas  V.  and  Pius  IV.  1568.  The  source  of  the 
Aqua  Virgo  is  near  the  Anio,  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Torre  Salona,  on  the  Via  Collatina,  and  about  14 
miles  from  Rome.  The  original  object  of  this  A. 
was  to  supply  the  baths  of  Agrippa ;  its  water  now 


AQUEDUCT. 


flows  iu  the  Fontana  Trevi,  that  of  the  Piiizza 
Navona,  the  Piazza  Farnese,  and  the  Barcaccia  of 
the  Piazza  di  Spagiia.  The  water  of  the  Aqua  Virgo 
is  the  best  in  Rome. 

7.  Aqua  Alsietina,  constructed  by  Augustus,  .and 
afterwards  restored  by  Tmjan,  and  latterly  by  the 
popes.  This  A.,  now  called  the  Acjua  Paola,  is 
situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tiber,  and  sup- 
plies the  fountains  in  front  of  St.  Peter's  and  the 
Fontana  Paola  on  the  Montorio.  Its  original  object 
was  to  supply  the  Xauniachia  of  Augustus,  which 
■was  a  sheet  of  water  for  the  representation  of  sea- 
fights. 

8.  Aqua  Claudia,  commenced  by  Caligula  and 
completed  by  Claudius,  51  a.d.  A  line  of  magnifi- 
cent arches  which  formerly  belonged  to  this  A.  still 
stretches  across  the  Campagna,  and  forms  one  of  the 
grandest  of  Roman  ruins.  It  was  used  as  a  quarry 
by  Sextus  V.  for  the  construction  of  the  Aqua 
Felici,  which  now  supplies  th-e  Fountain  of  Termini, 
and  various  others  in  different  parts  of  the  city. 

9.  A7iio  Xovux,  which  was  the  most  copious  of  all 
tlie  Roman  fountains,  though  inferior  to  the  Marcia 
in  the  solidity  of  its  structure ;  it  was  also  the 
longest  of  the  aqueducts,  pursuing  a  course  of  no 
less  than  62  miles.  By  the  two  last-mentioned 
aqueducts,  the  former  supply  of  water  was  doubled. 
In  addition  to  the  aqueducts  already  mentioned, 
there  was  the  Aqua  Trajana,  which  may,  however. 


Section. 


Aqua  Alexandriua. 


be  regarded  as  a  branch  of  the  Anio  Novus,  and 
several  others  of  later  construction,  such  as  the 
Antoniana,  Alexandrina,  and  Jovia,  none  of  which 
were  to  be  compared  with  the  older  ones  in  extent 
and  magnificence. 

Nor  was  it  for  the  uses  of  the  capital  alone  that 
aqueducts  were  constructed.  The  A.  of  Trajan,  at 
Civita  Vecchia,  which  conveys  the  water  a  distance 
of  23  miles,  and  that  in  the  vicinity  of  Marzana, 
near  Verona,  with  others  that  might  be  mentioned, 
still  attest  the  existence  of  aqueducts  in  the  smaller 
towns  of  Italy  in  Romiin  times.  Even  during  the 
unpromising  period  which  succeeded,  the  habit  of 
their  construction  was  not  abandoned,  that  of 
Spoleto  having  been  built  by  the  Lombard  Duke 
Theodolapius  in  604.  The  extraordinary  A.  by 
which  the  fountain  at  Siena  is  supplied,  is  said  to 
have  occupied  two  centuries  in  building;  and  the 
modern  A.  of  Leghorn,  which  is  not  unworthy  of  the 
Roman  models  after  which  it  was  designed,  is 
surpassed  in  magnificence  by  that  of  Pisa,  with  its 
thousand  arches.  In  the  more  distant  provinces 
which  fell  under  the  Roman  power,  aqueducts 
were  likewise  constructed — at  Nicomedia,  Ephesus, 
Smyrna,  Alexandria,  Syracuse,  and  in  many  of  the 
towns  in  Gaul  and  in  Spain.  At  Merida  there  are  the 
remains  of  two  aqueducts,  of  one  of  which  there  are 
thirty-seven  piers  still  standing,  with  three  tiers  of 
arciies.     But  the  most  magnificent  structure  of  this 


class  in  Spain,  is  the  A.  of  Segovia,  in  Old  Castile, 
for  which  Spanish  writers  claim  an  antiquity  beyond 
that  of  the  Roman  dominion ;  but  which,  there  is 
reason  to  believe,  belongs  to  the  time  of  Trajan. 
At  Evora,  in  Portugal,  there  is  likewise  an  A.  in 
good  preservation,  with  a  castellum  or  reservoir  at 
its  termination  in  the  city,  consisting  of  two  stories, 
the  lower  one  being  decorated  with  pillars.  But  of 
all  the  provincial  aqueducts,  that  at  Nismes,  in 
Provence,  is  at  once  the  most  remarkable  and  the  best 
preserved.  The  following  description  of  it,  which 
we  transcribe  from  Mr.  Murray's  excellent  Hand-book 
for  France,  will  convey  to  the  reader  a  very  vivid 
conception  not  only  of  this  A.  in  particular,  but  of 
the  very  interesting  class  of  works  to  which  it 
belongs.  '  It  consists  of  three  rows  of  arches, 
raised  one  above  the  other,  each  smaller  than 
the  one  below  it ;  the  lowest  of  six  arches,  the 
centre  tier  of  eleven,  and  the  uppermost  of 
tliirty-tive  ;  the  whole  in  a  simple  if  not  a  stern 
style  of  architecture,  destitute  of  ornament.  It 
is  by  its  magnitude,  and  the  skilful  fitting  of  its 
enormous  blocks,  that  it  makes  an  impression  on  the 
mind.  It  is  the  more  striking  from  the  utter  solitude 
in  which  it  stands — a  rocky  valley,  partly  covered 
with  brushwood  and  greensward,  with  scarce  a 
human  habitation  in  sight,  only  a  few  goats  brows- 
ing. After  the  lapse  of  16  c  ,  this  colossal  monu- 
ment still  spans  the  valley,  joining  hill  to  hill,  in  a 
nearly  perfect  state,  only  the  upper  part,  at  the 
northern  extremity,  being  broken  away.  The  highest 
range  of  arches  carries  a  small  canal,  about  4-i-  feet 
high  and  4  feet  wide,  just  large  enough  for  a  man  to 
creep  through,  still  retaining  a  thick  lining  of  Roman 
cement.  It  is  covered  with  stone  skbs,  along  which 
it  is  possible  to  walk  from  one  end  to  the  other,  and 
to  overlook  the  valley  of  the  Gardon.  The  height 
of  the  Pont  du  Gard'is  188  feet,  and  the  length  of 
the  highest  arcade  8T3  feet.  Its  use  was  to  convey 
to  the  town  of  Nismes  the  water  of  two  springs, 
25  miles  distant.  .  .  .  The  conveyance  of  this 
small  stream  was  the  sole  object  and  use  of  this 
gigantic  structure,  an  end  which  would  now  be 
attained  by  a  few  iron  water-pipes.'  Neither  the 
date  nor  the  builder  of  the  Pont  du  Gard  is  known 
with  certainty,  but  it  is  ascribed  to  Agrippa,  the 
nephew  of  Augustus;  a  conjecture  which  is  rendered 
probable  by  the  fact  of  his  having  restored  the 
Appian,  Marcian,  and  Anienian,  and  constructed 
the  Julian  A.  at  Rome.  The  importance  which  the 
Romans  attached  to  their  aqueducts  may  be  gathered 
from  the  fact,  that  special  oflicers,  invested  with  con- 
siderable authority,  and,  like  all  the  higher  officials, 
attended  by  lictors  and  pubhc  slaves,  were  appointed 
for  their  superintendence.  Under  the  orders  of 
these  '  guardians  of  the  waters,'  we  are  told  that,  in 
the  time  of  Nerva  and  Trajan,  about  700  architects 
and  others  were  employed  in  attending  to  the  A. 
These  officials  were  divided  into  various  classes,  and 
known  by  different  names,  according  as  their  duties 
related  to  the  care  of  the  course  of  the  A.,  the 
Castella  or  reservoirs  at  its  termini,  the  pavement  of 
the  channel,  the  cement  with  which  it  was  covered, 
and  the  like. 

The  construction  of  aqueducts  in  recent  times 
is  comparatively  rare,  water  being  now  generally 
conveyed  in  pipes ;  but  two  instances  are  worthy 
of  notice — the  Lisbon  A.,  and  the  Croton  at  New 
York.  The  former,  completed  in  1738,  is  about 
3  leagues  in  length  ;  near  the  city,  it  is  carried  over 
a  deep  valley  for  a  length  of  2400  feet,  by  a  number 
of  bold  arches,  the  largest  of  which  has  a  height  of 
250  feet,  and  a  span  of  115.  The  Croton  A.,  which 
conveys  the  waters  of  the  Croton  river  for  a  distance 
of  38  miles  to  the  city  of  New  York,  is  one  of  the 
greatest    undertakings   of    modern    times.     It   was 

341 


AQUEOUS  HUMOUR— AQUILA. 


commenced  in  1837,  and  finished  in  1S42,  and  is 
calculated  to  discharge  upwards  of  60,000,(iU0  gallons 
in  'Ai  hours.  As  the  raagnificcnco  of  aqueducts  de- 
pends upon  the  height  and  number  of  arches  requi- 
site to  carry  them  across  valleys,  it  may  give  some 
idea  of  that  under  consideration  when  it  is  stated 
that  Haarlem  River  is  crossed  by  fifteen  arches, 
seven  of  which  are  of  50  feet  span,  and  eight  of  80 
feet,  the  greatest  height  being  150  feet  from  the 
foundation  to  the  top  of  the  mason-work. 

A'QUEOUS  HUMOUR  is  the  fluid  which 
occupies  the  space  in  the  eye  between  the  back  of 
the  cornea  and  the  front  of  the  lens,  which,  in  foetal, 
life,  is  divided  into  an  anterior  and  posterior  cham- 
ber by  the  membra  pupillaris  (q.  v.),  and  in  adult 
life,  by  the  iris.  It  consists  of  water,  with,  accord- 
ing to  Berzelius,  about  a  fiftieth  of  its  weight  made 
up  of  chloride  of  sodium  and  extractive  matters  held 
in  solution. 

Anatomists  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  spring  of  this 
watery  secretion,  and  are  inclined  to  doubt  the 
existence  of  a  special  secreting  membrane,  which 
used  to  be  taken  for  granted.  However,  a  layer  of 
delicate  epithalial  cells,  which  exists  at  the  back  of 
the  cornea  (q.  v.),  is  probably  concerned  in  its  for- 
mation. It  is  rapidly  re-secreted  if  allowed  to  escape 
by  any  wound  in  the  cornea,  and  in  some  cases  is 
formed  in  such  quantity  as  to  cause  dropsy  of  the  eye 
{hydrophthalmia). 

A'QUEOUS  ROCKS.  In  Geology,  every  layer 
which  forms  a  portion  of  the  solid  crust  of  the  earth 
is  called  a  rock,  it  matters  not  whether  its  particles 
are  incoherent,  like  soil  or  sand,  or  compacted 
together,  like  limestone  and  sandstone — to  all  alike, 
irrespective  of  ])opular  usage,  the  geologist  applies 
the  term  rock.  In  this  wide  sense,  the  rocks  of  the 
earth's  crust  are  either  igneous  (q.  v.)  or  sedimentary. 
These  sedimentary  rocks  have  an  aqueous  origin, 
with  the  exception  of  a  very  limited  number,  like 
drift-sand,  which  are  brought  into  their  presei'.t 
position  by  the  action  of  the  wind.  Unlike  the 
igneous  rocks,  whose  particles  have  assumed  their 
present  form  in  the  position  they  occupy,  the  mate- 
rials of  the  A.  R.  have  evidently  been  brought  from 
a  distance.  They  owe  their  origin  to  some  older 
rock,  whose  decomposition  or  destruction  has  afforded 
the  materials.  The  parent  rock  can  often  be  identi- 
fied. Its  distance  is  indicated  by  the  condition  of 
the  materials,  whether  they  are  rounded  and  water- 
worn,  or  angular  and  shingly. 

The  agents  now  at  work,  and  which  have  been 
active  in  past  geological  ages,  rubbing  down  and 
transporting  the  materials  from  which  these  rocks 
are  formed,  are  the  following:  1.  lite  sea,  destroying 
the  rocks  and  cliffs,  and  beaches  which  form  its 
boundary,  and  carrying  off  the  eroded  materials  to 
form  new  rocks  below  the  level  of  the  sea. 
2.  Rivers,  including  the  action  of  their  smallest 
tributary  rills,  and  even  of  the  drops  of  rain,  for 
these  abrade  and  carry  off  the  almost  imperceptible 
particles  from  the  surface  where  they  fall ;  and  when 
united,  they  form  the  rill  with  its  suspended  sedi- 
ment, and  these  again  unite  to  form  the  river,  which 
in  its  course  not  only  retains  what  it  has  got,  but 
scoops  up  more  from  its  own  bed,  and  carries  all  to 
the  sea  or  lake,  to  deposit  it  there  as  a  new  stratum. 
It  is  difficult  to  estimate  the  influence  of  this  agency. 
Sir  Charles  Lyell  calculates  that  the  Nile  annually 
deposits  in  the  Mediterranean  3,702,768,400  cubic 
feet  of  solid  matter.  3.  Glaciers  mid  iceberqs.  These 
enormous  moving  masses  of  ice  are  not  only  loaded 
with  rock-fragments,  which  are  deposited  as  the 
ice  melts,  but  are  ever  abrading  the  rocks  over  which 
they  pass,  and  thus  supply  materials  to  form  new 
laver*.     4.  Several  stratified  rocks  have  an  evidently 

■     S42 


orrianic  orioin,  such  as  chalk,  and  some  limestones 
chiefly  comi)Osed  of  animal  remains,  and  coal  consist- 
ing of  vegetable  carbon  ;  but  even  these  have  been 
influenced  in  their  formation  by  water  so  much  as  to 
justify  us  in  classifying  them  with  A.  R.  5.  The 
same  remark  applies  to  rocks  which  have  been  pre- 
cipitated from  a  ftuid  with  which  the  materials  ex- 
isted in  chemical  combination,  as  has  been  the  case 
with  beds  of  salt,  gyi)simi,  and  calcareous  tufa. 

As  the  result  of  these  various  actions,  we  have  a 
series  of  rocks  which,  from  their  composition,  may 
be  classed  as  Arenaceous,  Argillaceous,  Calcareous, 
Carbonaceous,  Saline  and  Silicious.  We  must  refer 
to  these  terras  for  the  descriptions  of  the  various 
rocks  included  under  them. 

The  arrangement  of  the  A.  R.  depending  on  their 
different  ages,  is  of  more  importance  in  modern 
geology  than  that  depending  on  their  internal  con- 
stitution. When  a  section  of  the  earth's  crust  is 
examined,  it  is  found  to  be  composed  of  a  series  of 
layers  which  have  been  produced  in  succession. 
Comparing  this  with  sections  in  other  districts,  it  is 
noticed  that  there  is  a  regularity  in  the  several 
parts ;  for  beds  of  the  same  structure  are  found  in 
different  localities,  and  these  occupy  the  same  rela- 
tive position  to  the  adjacent  beds.  A  number  of 
observations  have  shewn  that  the  crust  of  the  earth 
is  composed  of  a  regular  series  of  earthly  deposits 
formed  one  after  another,  during  successive  periods 
of  time.  This  general  induction  forms  the  basis  of 
the  following  classification.  For  the  description  of 
the  included  strata  we  must  again  refer  to  the  names 
of  the  different  divisions : 

I.  TcuTiARY  OK  Kainozoic  Epoch — 1.  Superfi- 
cial Deposits  or  Recent  Period ;  2.  Pleistocene 
Period ;  3.  Pliocene  or  Upper  Tertiary  Period ;  4. 
Miocene  or  Middle  Tertiary  Period ;  5.  Eocene  or 
Lower  Tertiary  Period. 

II.  Secondary  or  Mesozoic  Epoch — 6.  Creta- 
ceous Period  ;  7.  Oolitic  Period  ;  8.  Triassic  Period. 

III.  Primary  or  Paleozoic  Epoch — 0.  Perndan 
Period;  10.  Carboniferous  Period ;  11.  Devonian  or 
Old  Red  Sandstone  Period  ;  12.  Silurian  Period  ;  13. 
Cambrian  Period. 

AQUIFOLIA'CE/E,  a  natural  order  of  dicotyle- 
donous or  exogenous  plants,  of  which  the  conimon 
holly  (q.  V.)  is  the  best  known  example,  and  the  only 
species  that  is  a  native  of  Europe.  The  order,  how- 
ever, contains  more  than  one  hundred  species,  the 
greater  part  of  which  are  natives  of  America,  and 
many  of  them  belong  to  the  tropical  and  subtropical 
parts  of  it.  The  si)ecies  are  all  evergreen  trees  or 
shrubs,  with  simple,  leathery  leaves,  and  without 
stipules.  The  flowers  are  small  and  axillary,  with 
4 — 6  sepals,  and  a  4 — 6-parted  corolla,  into  which  the 
stamens  are  inserted,  alternating  with  its  segments. 
The  ovary  is  fleshy  and  superior,  with  two  or  more 
cells,  a  solitary  anatropal  pendulous  ovule  in  each 
cell,  the  cells  generally  becoming  bony  as  distinct 
stones  in  the  fruit,  which  is  fleshy.  The  order  is  allied 
to  Hhmmiacece,  Celastracece,  and  Ebenacecv.  The 
most  interesting  species  belong  to  the  genus  Ilex,  or 
Holly  (q.  v.). 

AQUILA     See  Eagle. 

A'QUILA,  the  capital  of  the  Neapolitan  pro- 
vince called  Abruzzo  Ultra,  situated  on  the 
Pescara,  near  the  loftiest  of  the  Apennines,  with  a 
population  of  10,000,  ranks  as  a  fortified  town  of 
the  fourth  class,  though  its  citadel  is  its  only  strong 
point.  A.  was  built  by  the  emperor  Frederic  II. 
from  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  Amiternurn,  a  town  of 
the  Sabines,  and  the  birthplace  of  Sallust  the 
historian.  In  1703  it  was  almost  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake,  in  which  2p00  persons  perished.  A. 
is  a  bishop's  see,  has  civil  and  criiaina'j  courts,  and 


AQUILA— AQUINAS. 


a  Lyceum,  and  is  considered  one  of  the  best  built 
towns  in  the  kingdom.  In  1841,  much  political 
disturbance  took  place  here,  and  several  of  the 
inhabitants  were  imprisoned  and  executed  in  conse- 
quence. Altogether,  public  feeling  in  this  town  and 
province  is  far  more  liberal  than  iu  most  other  parts 
of  the  kingdom. 

A'QUILA,  PoNTicrs,  a  celebrated  translator  of 
the  Old  Testament  into  Greek,  born  at  Sinope.  He 
flourished  about  the  year  130  A.n.,  is  said  to  have 
been  a  relation  of  the  Emperor  Hadrian,  and  to 
have  been  first  a  Pagan,  then  a  Christian,  and 
finally  a  Jew ;  submitting  in  his  last  conversion  to 
the  peculiar  religious  ceremony  of  circumcision.  His 
translation  of  the  Old  Testament — which  appears  to 
have  been  undertaken  for  the  benefit  of  his  llellen- 
ised  countrymen — was  so  literal,  that  the  Jews  pre- 
ferred it  to  the  Septuagint,  as  did  also  the  Judaising 
sect  of  Christians,  called  Ebionites.  Only  a  portion 
of  the  work  remains,  which  has  been  edited  by 
Montfaucon  and  others. 

AQUILARIA'CE.E,  a  natural  order  of  dicotyle- 
donous or  exogenous  plants,  containing  only  about 
ten  known  species,  all  of  which  are  trees  with 
smooth  branches  and  tough  bark,  natives  of  the 
tropical  parts  of  Asia.  The  leaves  are  entire ;  the 
perianth  leathery,  turbinate,  or  tubular,  its  limb 
divided  into  four  or  five  segments ;  the  stamens 
usually  ten ;  the  filaments  inserted  into  the  orifice 
of  the  perianth ;  the  ovary  two-celled,  with  two 
ovules ;  the  stigma  large  ;  the  fruit  a  2-valved  cap- 
sule, or  a  drupe.  The  order  is  chiefly  interesting  as 
producing  the  fragrant  wood  called  Aloes  Wood 
(q.  v.). 

AQUILEGIA  See  Columbine. 
AQUILEJA  or  AGLAR  (earlier,  Yelia  or  Aquila), 
is  a  town  in  Austrian  Italy,  at  the  head  of  the 
Adriatic,  22  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Trieste.  Pop.  1480. 
It  is  now  sunk  in  utter  insignificance,  possessing  no 
trade  or  public  buildings  of  any  note,  except  its 
cathedral ;  but  in  the  time  of  the  Roman  emperors, 
it  was  one  of  the  most  important  places  north  of  the 
metropolis.  Its  commerce  was  flourishing,  for  though 
8  miles  distant  from  the  sea,  vessels  could  reach  it 
by  canals  connecting  it  with  the  rivers  in  its  vicinity. 
It  was  both  the  central  point  of  the  transit-trade 
between  the  north  and  south  of  Europe,  and  the 
key  of  Italy  against  the  barbarians.  Founded  by 
a  Roman  colony  in  181  B.C.,  it  became  a  favourite 
residence  of  Augustus;  and  in  168  a.d.  was  so 
strongly  fortified  by  Marcus  Aurelius,  as  to  be  con- 
sidered the  first  bulwark  of  the  empire  on  the  north. 
It  was  called  Roma  Secunda,  the  Second  Rome. 
Here  the  Emperor  Maximin  perished ;  and  in  the 
vicinity  Constantius  lost  his  life  in  a  battle  against 
his  brother  Constans.  When  the  town  was  destroyed 
by  Attila  in  452,  it  had  10,000  inhabitants.  It  never 
recovered,  although  it  received  some  ecclesiastical 
honours,  but  has  continued  slowly  dwindling  down 
through  all  the  centuries  into  deeper  obscurity  and 
wretchedness.  Councils  were  held  at  A.  in  381,  558, 
698,  and  1184  a.d. 

AQUI'NAS,  Thomas,  or  THOMAS  op  AQUINO, 
one  of  the  most  influential  of  the  scholastic  theolo- 
gians, was  of  the  family  of  the  Counts  of  Aquino,  in 
the  kingdom  of  Naples,  and  wa.s  born  in  the  Castle 
of  Rocca  Secca,  in  1224.  He  received  the  rudiments 
of  his  education  from  the  Benedictine  monks  of 
Monte-Casino,  and  completed  his  studies  at  the 
university  of  Naples.  A  strong  inclination  to  philo- 
sophical speculation  determined  the  young  nobleman, 
against  the  will  of  his  fiimily,  to  enter  (1243)  the 
order  of  Dominicans.  In  order  to  frustrate  the 
attempts  of  his  friends  to  remove  hira  from  the  con- 
vent, he  was  sent  away  from  Naples,  with  the  view 


of  going  to  France  ;  but  his  brothers  took  him  by  force 
from  his  conductors,  and  carried  him  to  the  paternal 
castle.  Here  he  was  guarded  as  a  prisoner  for  two 
years,  when,  by  the  help  of  the  Dominicans,  he 
contrived  to  escape,  and  went  through  France  to  the 
Dominican  convent  at  Cologne,  in  order  to  enjoy  the 
instructions  of  the  famous  Albertus  Magnus  (q."  v.). 
According  to  another  account,  he  owed  his  release 
from  confinement  to  the  interference  of  the  emperor 
and  the  pope.  At  Cologne  he  pursued  his  studies 
in  such  silence,  that  his  companions  gave  him  the  name 
of  the  '  Dumb  Ox.'  But  Albert,  his  master,  is  reported 
to  have  predicted,  '  that  this  ox  would  one  day  till  the 
world  with  his  bellowing.'  Thoroughly  imbued  with 
the  scholastic,  dialectic,  and  Aristotelian  philosophy, 
he  came  forward,  after  a  few  years,  as  a  public 
teacher  in  Paris.  His  masterly  application  of  this 
philosophy  to  the  systematising  of  theology,  soon  pro- 
cured him  a  distinguished  reputation.  It  was  not, 
however,  till  1257,  that  A.  obtained  the  degree 
of  doctor,  as  the  university  of  the  Sorbonne  was 
hostile  to  the  mendicant  monks.  He  vindicated 
his  order  in  his  work.  Contra  Impurpiantes  Dei 
Cultwn  et  Religionein ;  and,  in  a  disputation  in 
presence  of  the  pope,  procured  the  condemnation  of 
the  books  of  his  adversaries.  He  continued  to 
lecture  with  great  applause  in  Paris,  till  Urban  IV., 
in  1261,  called  him  to  Italy  to  teach  philosophy  in 
Rome,  Bologna,  and  Pisa.  Finally,  he  came  to 
reside  in  the  convent  at  Naples,  where  he  declined 
the  offer  of  the  dignity  of  archbishop,  in  order  to 
devote  himself  entirely  to  study  and  lecturing. 
Being  summoned  by  Gregory  X.  to  attend  the 
General  Council  at  Lyon,  he  was  surprised  by  death  on 
the  way,  1274,  at  Fossanuova,  in  Naples.  According 
to  a  report,  he  was  poisoned  at  the  instigation  of 
Charles  I.  of  Sicily,  who  dreaded  the  evidence  that 
A.  would  give  of  him  at  Lyon. 

Even  during  his  life  A.  enjoyed  the  highest 
consideration  in  the  church.  His  voice  carried 
decisive  weight  with  it ;  and  his  scholars  called  him 
the  '  Universal,'  the  '  Angelic  Doctor,'  and  the 
'  Second  Augustine.'  A  general  chapter  of  Domini- 
cans in  Paris  made  it  obligatory  on  the  members  of 
the  order,  under  pain  of  punishment,  to  defend  his 
doctrines.  It  was  chiefly  the  narratives  of  miracles 
said  to  have  been  wrought  by  A.  that  induced 
John  XXII.,  in  1323,  to  give  him  a  place  among  the 
saints.  His  remains  were  deposited  in  the  convent 
of  his  order  at  Toulouse.  Like  most  of  the  other  scho- 
lastic theologians,  he  had  no  knowledge  of  Greek  or 
Hebrew,  and  was  almost  equally  ignorant  of  history ; 
but  his  writings  display  a  great  expenditure  of 
diligence  and  dialectic  art,  set  off'  with  the  irresist- 
ible eloquence  of  zeal.  His  chief  works  are — a 
Commentarif  on  the  Four  Books  of  Sentences  of  Peter 
Lombard,  the  Summa  TTieoloffiie  Quo'stione.i  Dixffutatxe 
et  Quodlihetales  and  Opuxcida  Theologica.  He  gave 
a  new  and  scientific  foundation  to  the  doctrine  of 
the  church's  treasury  of  works  of  supererogation, 
to  that  of  withholding  the  cup  from  the  laity 
in  the  communion,  and  to  transubstantiation.  He 
also  treated  Christian  morals  according  to  an  ar- 
rangement of  his  own,  and  with  a  comprehensive- 
ness that  procured  him  the  title  of  the  '  Father  of 
Moral  Philosophy.'  The  definiteness,  clearness,  and 
completeness  of  his  method  of  handling  the  theology 
of  the  church,  gave  his  works  a  superiority  over  the 
text-books  of  the  earlier  writers  on  systematic 
theology.  His  Summa  Tlieologim  is  the  first  attempt 
at  a  complete  theological  system.  Accordingly, 
Pius  v.,  to  whom  we  owe  the  publication  of  the 
completest  collection  of  A.'s  works  (18  vols.,  Rome, 
1570;  a  newer  but  less  trustworthy  ed.,  23  vols., 
Paris,  1636 — 41),  ranks  him  with  the  greatest 
teachers  of  the  church.     In  his  philosophical  writings, 

S43 


AQUITAXIA— ARABIA. 


the  ablest  of  which  is  his  Summa  Fidei  Catholicie 
contra  Gentiles^  he  throws  new  Hght  over  the  most 
abstract  truths.  The  circumstance  of  A.  being 
a  Dominican,  and  boasted  of  by  his  order  as 
their  great  ornament,  excited  the  jealousy  of  the 
Franciscans  against  him.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
1 4th  c.,  Duns  Scotus  (q.  v),  a  Franciscan,  came 
forward  as  the  declared  opponent  of  the  doctrines 
of  A.,  and  founded  the  philosophico-theological 
school  of  the  Scotists,  to  whom  the  Thomist.%  mostly 
Dominicans,  stood  opposed.  The  Thomists  leaned 
in  philosophy  to  Nominalism  (q.  v.),  although  they 
held  the  abstract  form  to  be  the  essence  of  things ; 
they  followed  the  doctrines  of  Augustine  as  to 
grace,  and  disputed  the  immaculate  conception  of 
the  Virgin.  The  Scotists,  again,  inclined  to  Realism 
(q.  v.),  and  to  the  views  of  the  Semipelagians,  and 
upheld  the  immaculate  conception. 

AQUITA'NIA,  the  Latin  name  of  a  part  of 
Gaul,  originally  including  the  country  between  the 
Pyrenees  and  the  Garonne,  peopled  by  Iberian 
tribes.  Augustus,  when  he  divided  Gaul  into  four 
provinces,  added  to  A.  the  country  lying  between 
the  rivers  Garonne  and  Loire.  Aiterwards,  A. 
passed  into  the  hands — first,  of  the  West  Goths,  and 
then  of  the  Franks ;  and  during  the  Merovingian 
djTiasty,  became  an  independent  duchy.  Though 
subjugated  by  Charlemagne,  the  duchy  again  claimed 
independence  under  the  weak  monarchs  of  the 
Carlovingian  dynasty.  In  11 3 Y,  it  was  united  to 
the  crown  of  France  by  the  marriage  of  Louis  VII. 
wiith  Eleanor,  heiress  of  A.  In  1152,  A.  became 
an  English  possession  through  the  marriage  of 
Henry  II.  with  Eleanor,  whom  Louis  had  divorced, 
and  a  long  series  of  disputes  took  place  between 
England  and  France  respecting  A.,  which  was  at 
length  ultimately  united  to  the  crown  of  France 
by  Charles  VIL  in  1461. 

ARABESQUE     (Fr.),     means    merely    after    the 
Arabian  manner ;  and,  so  fiir  as  etymology  is  con- 
cerned, might  therefore  be  general  in  its  application. 
In  practice,  however,  it  is  used  to  characterise  a  pecu- 
liar kind  of  fantastic  decoration  commonly  employed 
in    conjunction    with    architecture,    and    which    the 
Spanish   Moors  are   supposed  to 
have    introduced    into     modern 
Europe.     But  the  species  of  en- 
richment to  which   this   term   is 
now    applied,    was     extensively 
employed    both    by  the    Greeks 
and  Romans,  the   latter  in   par- 
ticular being  masters  of  the  style. 
The  Egyptians,  from  whom  the 
Moors  probably  derived  their  ori- 
ginal notions  of  this  and  other 
forms  of  art,    also   employed   it 
in   enriching    their    monumental 
decorations.     But  the  A.  of  the 
Moors  differed  from  that  of  the 
Egyptians  in  entirely  excluding  the 
figures  of  animals,  the  represent- 
ation of  which  was  forbidden  by 
the   Mohammedan   religion,    and 
confining   itself    entirely   to  the 
foliage,  flowers,  fruit,  and  tendrils 
of  plants  and  trees,  curiously  and 
elaborately    intertwined.        This 
limitation  of  the  field  of  A.  was 
again    departed   from   when   the 
decorations  were    discovered    on 
the  walls  of  the  baths  of  Titus, 
in   the   time   of  Leo   X. ;  and  more   recently  those 
in  the  houses   at   Herculaneum   and   Pompeii   came 
to  form  the  models  of  imitation,  and  the  modern  A. 
consists  usually  of  combinati(jns  of  plants,  birds,  and 
S44 


Arabesque  Panel. 

From  the  Mosque 

at  Cordova. 


animals  of  all  kinds,  including  the  human  figure, 
and  embracing  not  only  every  natural  variety,  but 
stepping  without  hesitation  beyond  the  bounds  of 
nature.  The  freedom  with  which  it  admits  the 
fantastic  is,  indeed,  the  leading  peculiarity  of  A.  ; 
and  as  it  is  found  in  some  form  amongst  every 
people  who  have  attempted  to  give  a  visible  repre- 
sentation of  their  fancies,  it  is  spoken  of  by  F. 
Schlegel  as  '  the  oldest  and  original  form  of  fancy.' 
The  arabesques  with  which  Raphael  adorned  the 
galleries  of  the  Vatican,  and  which  he  is  said 
to  have  imitated  from  those  which  lie  had  been 
instrumental  in  discovering  in  the  baths  of  Titus, 
are  at  once  the  most  famous  and  the  most 
beautiful  which  the  modem  world  has  produced. 
Arabesques  are  usually  painted,  though  the  term 
is  also  applied  to  sculptural  representations  of 
similar  subjects  in  low  relief. 

ARABIA — called  by  the  inhabitants,  Jczirat-al- 
Arab  (the  peninsula  of  A.) ;  by  the  Turks  and 
Persians,  Arabistan — is  the  great  south-wcsteni 
peninsula  of  Asia,  and  is  situated  12°  40' — 34° 
X.  lat.,  and  32°  30'— 60°  E.  long.  Its  length 
from  X.  to  S.  is  about  1500  miles  ;  its  breadth, 
about  800 ;  its  area,  l,2(iO,000  square  miles;  and  its 
population  is  roughly  estimated  at  8,000,000.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  X.,  by  Asiatic  Turkey ;  on  the  E., 
by  the  Persian  Gulf  and  the  Gulf  of  Oman  ;  on  the 
S.,  by  the  Gulf  of  Oman  and  the  Indian  Ocean ; 
and  on  the  W.,  by  the  Red  Sea.  It  is  connected 
with  Africa  on  the  X.  W.  by  the  Isthmus  of  Suez. 
Through  the  centre  of  the  land,  between  Mecca  and 
Medina,  runs  the  tropic  of  Cancer.  The  name  A. 
has  been  derived  by  .some  from  Araha  (which  means 
a  level  waste),  a  district  in  the  province  of  Tehama ; 
by  others,  from  Eber,  a  word  signifying  a  nomad 
('  wanderer'),  as  the  primitive  Arabs  were  such.  This 
would  connect  it  with  the  word  Hebrew,  which  has 
a  similar  origin.  Others,  again,  are  inclined  to  derive 
it  from  the  Hebrew  verb  Arab,  to  go  down — that  is, 
the  region  in  which  the  sun  appeared  to  set  to  the 
Semitic  dwellers  on  the  Euphrates.  There  is  also 
a  Hebrew  word,  Arabah,  which  means  '  a  barren 
place,'  and  whicli  is  occasionally  employed  in  Scrip- 
ture to  denote  the  border-land  between  Syria  and 
Arabia.  Ptolemy  is  supposed  to  be  the  author  of 
the  famous  threefold  division  into  Arabia  Peircea 
Arabia  Felix,  and  Arabia  Deaerta — the  first  of  which 
included  the  whole  of  the  X.  W.  portion  ;  the  second, 
the  west  pnd  south-west  coasts ;  and  the  third,  the 
whole  of  the  dimly-known  interior.  This  division, 
however,  is  not  recognised  by  the  natives  themselves, 
neither  is  it  very  accurate  as  at  present  understood, 
for  Peircea  was  not  intended  to  mean  rocky  or  stony. 
Ptolemy  formed  the  adjective  from  the  flourishing 
city  of  Petra  (the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  the 
Xabathseans),  whose  proper  name  was  Thamud — 
that  is,  the  rock  with  a  single  stream.  The  word 
Felix,  also,  arose  from  an  incorrect  translation  of 
Yemen,  which  does  not  signify  '  happy,'  but  the  land 
lying  to  the  rinht  of  Mecca — as  Al-Shan  (Syria) 
means  the  land  "lying  to  the  left  of  the  same.  The 
divisions  of  the  Arab   geographers  are  as  follows — 

1.  Bahr-el-Tour   Sinai    (Desert    of    Mount    Sinai)  ; 

2.  The  Hedjaz  (Land  of  Pilgrimage) ;  3.  2\hama 
and  Yemen,  along  the  Red  Sea  ;  4.  Hadramatd,  the 
region  along  the  southern  coast ;  5  Oman,  the  king- 
dom of  Muscat;  6.  Bahrein,  on  the  Persian  Gulf; 
7.  Nedjed  the  central  desert  region. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  interior  of  A.  is  still  very 
imperfect  in  detail,  but  its  general  characteristics  are 
decidedly  African.  The  largest  portion  of  it  lies  in 
that  great  desert  zone  which  stretches  from  the 
shores  of  the  Atlantic  to  those  of  the  Xorthern 
Pacific.  The  interior,  so  far  as  it  has  yet  been 
explored  by  Europeans,  seems  to  be  a  great  plateau, 


ARABIA. 


in  some  places  reaching  a  height  of  8000  feet.  The 
western  border  crest  of  tliis  plateau  may  be  regarded 
as  part  of  a  mountain-chain,  Ijeginning  in  the  north 
with  Lebanon,  and  stretching  south  to  the  Straits  of 
Bab-el-Mandeb.  From  Bab-cl-ilandcb  another  chain 
runs  north-east,  parallel  to  the  coast  to  Oman.  From 
the  mountain-range  on  the  west,  the  plateau  slopes 
to  the  north-east,  and  forms,  in  general,  a  vast  tract 
of  shifting  sands,  interspersed  here  and  there  about 
the  centre  with  various  ranges  of  hills,  which,  like 
the  shores  of  the  peninsula,  are  generally  barren  and 
uninteresting. 

A.  has,  on  the  whole,  an  African  climate.  Though 
surrounded  on  three  sides  by  the  sea,  its  chains  of 
hills  exclude  in  a  great  measure  the  modifying 
influence  of  currents  of  air  from  the  ocean.  In 
several  parts  of  A.  hardly  a  refreshing  shower  falls 
in  the  course  of  the  year,  and  vegetation  is  almost 
unknown :  in  other  sultry  districts,  the  date-palm 
is  almost  the  only  proof  of  vegetable  life.  Over 
large  sterile  tracts  hangs  a  sky  of  almost  eternal 
serenity.  The  short  rainy  season  which  occurs 
on  the  west  coast,  during  our  summer  months, 
fills  periodically  the  ioatlis  (hollow  places)  with 
water,  while  slight  frosts  mark  the  winters  in  the 
centre  and  north-east.  During  the  hot  season,  the 
simoom  (q.  v.)  blows,  but  only  in  the  northern  part 
of  the  land.  The  terraced  districts  are  more  favour- 
able to  culture,  and  produce  wheat,  barley,  millet, 
palms,  tobacco,  indigo,  cotton,  sugar,  tamarinds,  ex- 
cellent coffee,  and  many  aromatic  and  spice-plants,  as 
balsam,  aloe,  myrrh,  frankincense,  &c.  A.  is  desti- 
tute of  forests,  but  has  vast  stretches  of  desert  grass 
fragrant  with  aromatic  herbs,  and  furnishing  admir- 
able pasturage  for  the  splendid  breed  of  horses. 
Coffee,  one  of  the  most  important  exports,  is  an 
indigenous  product  both  of  A.  and  Africa. 

In  the  animal  kingdom,  an  African  character 
prevails  generally.  Sheep,  goats,  and  oxen  satisfy 
the  immediate  domestic  and  personal  necessities  of 
the  inhabitants,  to  whom  the  camel  and  horse  are 
trusty  companions  in  their  far  wanderings.  Gazelles 
and  ostriches  frequent  the  oases  of  the  deserts, 
where  the  lion,  panther,  hyena,  and  jackal  hunt 
their  prey.  Monkeys,  pheasants,  and  doves  are 
found  in  the  fertile  districts,  where  flights  of  locusts 
often  make  sad  devastation.  Fish  and  turtle  abound 
on  the  coast.  The  noble  breed  of  Arabian  horses 
has  been  cultivated  for  several  thousand  years ; 
but  the  most  characteristic  of  all  animals  in  the 
peninsula,  is  the  camel,  which  has  been  both  poet- 
ically and  justly  styled  '  the  ship  of  the  desert.'  It 
may  be  regarded  as  an  Arabian  animal,  for  it  seems 
to  be  proved  that  it  is  not  a  native  of  Africa,  but  has 
migrated  from  the  peninsula  with  its  master.  The 
camel  is  not  found  among  the  figures  of  animals  in 
the  ancient  Egyptian  paintings  on  walls,  nor  does 
it  appear  to  have  been  known  to  the  Carthaginians. 
The  breed  of  Oman  is  celebrated  for  its  beauty  and 
swiftness.  Among  the  minerals  of  A.  may  be 
mentioned — iron,  copper,  lead,  coal,  basalt,  and  as- 
phaltum,  and  the  precious  stones,  emerald,  carnelian, 
agate,  and  onyx.  Pearls  are  found  in  the  Persian 
Gulf. 

But  the  most  interesting  features  of  tJie  peninsula 
are  found  in  its  ancient  and  peculiar  population. 
The  Arab  is  of  medium  stature,  muscular  make, 
and  brown  complexion.  Earnestness  and  lofty  pride 
look  o\it  of  his  glowing  eyes ;  by  nature  he  is 
quick,  sharp-witted,  lively,  and  p:issionately  fond  of 
poetry.  Courage,  temperance,  hospitality,  and  good 
faith,  are  his  leading  virtues ;  but  these  are  often 
marred  by  a  spirit  of  sanguinary  revenge  and 
mpacity.  His  wife  keeps  the  house  and  educates 
the  children.  The  Arab  cannot  conceive  a  higher 
felicity  than  the  birth    of   a  camel    or    a  foal,   or 


that   his   verses   should    be   honoured    with   the  ap- 
plause of  his  tribe. 

Ara1)ian  life  is  either  nomadic  or  settled.  The 
wandering  tril)es,  or  Bedouins,  are  well  known  to 
entertain  very  loose  notions  of  the  rights  of  property. 
The  located  tribes,  styled  Hadesi  and  Fellahs,  are 
despised  by  the  Bedouin,  who  scorns  to  be  tied  down 
to  the  soil,  even  where  such  bondage  might  make 
him  wealthy.  As  Ritter  in  his  Comparative  Geog- 
raphy observes — Arabia  '  is  the  anti-industrial  cen- 
tral point  in  the  world  ; '  for  on  every  side,  branch- 
ing out  to  the  east  or  west,  we  find  industry  making 
progress,  while  here  centuries  pass  away  without 
any  improvement  save  what  has  been  introduced, 
almost  compulsorily,  by  foreigners.  The  trade 
carried  on  by  exports  of  coffee,  dates,  figs,  spices, 
and  drugs,  though  still  considerable,  is  said  to  be 
only  a  shadow  of  the  old  commerce  which  existed 
before  the  circumnavigation  of  Africa,  or  when  Aden 
was  in  its  prime  and  the  Red  Sea  was  the  great 
commercial  route.  A.  has  few  manufactures,  but 
carries  on  a  transit-trade  in  foreign  fabrics,  besides 
importing  these  to  some  extent  for  its  own  neces- 
sities. Few  nations  have  approached  so  near  as 
the  Arabs  to  the  condition  of  standing  still  in  a 
moral  and  social  point  of  view.  Considering  how 
little  progress  has  been  made,  it  is  remarkable  that 
a  greater  degeneracy  has  not  taken  place.  Even  in 
the  desert  the  children  are  taught  to  read,  write, 
and  calculate ;  and  in  the  towns,  education  to  a 
certain  degree  is  general.  The  division  of  the  people 
into  so  many  tribes  is  a  barrier  to  everything  like  a 
great  national  improvement ;  indeed,  the  word 
national  can  hardly  be  properly  applied  to  the 
Arabs.  It  would  require  a  series  of  extraordinary 
events  to  develop  afresh  that  terrible  unity  which 
Mohammed  gave  A.  for  a  time.  The  government 
is  patriarchal,  and  the  chief  men  of  the  various 
tribes  have  the  title  of  Emir,  Sheik,  or  Imaum. 
Their  function  appears  limited  to  leading  the  troops 
in  the  time  of  war,  to  levying  tribute,  and  to  the 
administration  of  justice.  A  spirit  of  liberty  in  the 
people  moderates  the  authority  of  their  chieftains ; 
but  instances  of  extreme  despotism  have  not  been 
unfrequent  both  in  early  and  modern  times. 

To  number  all  the  distinct  states  of  A.  would  be 
impossible  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge ; 
but  the  seven  great  divisions  are  those  which  we 
have  enumerated.  Of  these,  the  most  important  are 
Yemen  and  Oman,  the  former  of  which  has  its  seat 
of  government  at  Sana,  in  the  centre  of  the  country, 
and  also  possesses  two  very  important  commercial 
towns.  Mocha  and  Loheia,  situated  on  the  coast  of 
the  Red  Sea,  while  the  latter  has  of  late  made  con- 
siderable advances  in  civilisation.  It  forms  to  some 
extent  an  exception  to  the  general  lack  of  manufac- 
turing activity  exhibited  by  the  Arabians,  having 
manufactures  of  silk  and  cotton  turbans,  sashes, 
canvas,  arms,  gunpowder,  &c.  The  Imaum  of 
Muscat — the  largest  town  on  the  south-east  coast — 
is  by  fiir  the  most  liberal  and  powerful  native 
sovereign  in  Arabia,  and  claims  authority  over  the 
whole  of  Oman,  the  islands  in  the  Persian  Gulf,  a 
portion  of  the  Persian  coast,  and  a  vast  extent  of 
territory  on  the  east  coast  of  Africa,  including  some 
valuable  islands.  Rostak  is  another  large  town 
inland  from  Muscat.  The  district  or  division  of 
Ilcdjaz  contains  the  holy  cities  of  Mecca  and 
Medina,  with  their  seaports,  Jeddah  and  Yambo, 
all  of  which  will  be  described  in  their  proper  places. 

The  History  of  Arabia,  before  the  time  of 
Mohammed,  is  involved  in  mj-stery,  and  has  little 
interest,  on  account  of  its  want  of  connection  with 
the  world's  general  progress.  The  aborigines  of  A. 
were  probably  Cushitcs,  most  of  whom,  on  account 
of  the  hostile  immigration  of  certain  Semitic  races, 

345 


ARABIA— ARABIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


descended   from   Joktan,  grandson    of  Shem,  passed 
over    into    Abyssinia.     A    few,    however,    remained, 
•who    inhabited    the   western    coasts.      Subsequently, 
another    Semitic    race,    descended    from     Abraham, 
settled  in  the  land.     The  oldest  Arabian  tribes  are 
now  extinct,  and  only  a  traditional  memory  even  of 
their  names  exists;    but  the   Semitic  chiefs,  Joktan 
or  Kahtan,  and  Ishmael,  are  generally  considered  to 
be  the  fathers  of  the  present  inhabitants.     The   de- 
scendants of  the  former  are  the  pure  Araljs ;  those  of 
the    latter   are   held    to    be    only   Arabicised.     The 
princes  of  A.  belong  wholly  to  the  first.     A  great- 
grandson    of    Joktan,    Ilimzar    or    Homeir,    inaugu- 
rated   a    djTiasty — the   Himyarides    or    Homeritae — 
which  ruled  in  Yemen  for  upwards  of  2<)00  years. 
This  was  a  prosperous  time.     The  Arabs  of  Yemen, 
and  partly  those  of  the  desert,  dwelt  in  towns  and 
cultivated  the  soil ;    carried   on  commerce  with   the 
East  Indies,  Persia,  Syria,  and  Abyssinia,  in  the  last 
of  which  countries  they  planted  numerous  colonies. 
The  rest  of  the  people,  however,  lived  nomadically, 
as  now.     Bravel)',  for  thousands  of  years,  they  main- 
tained their  freedom,  their  faith,  and  their  peculiar 
customs  against   the   assaults   of  the   great  military 
empires.      Neitlier    the    Babylonian    and    As.«iyrian, 
nor   the   Egyptian   and   Persian   kings  could   reduce 
the   Arabs    to    a    state    of   suljjugation.     Alexander 
had  determined  to  try  his  power  against  A.,  when 
death   interrupted   his   plans.     Three   centuries  after 
Alexander's   death,  the  Romans  had  extended   their 
empire  to  the  borders  of  A.,  and  Trajan,  in  107  a.  d., 
penetrated    far  into   the   interior ;    but    though    the 
northern  chieftains  were  brought  into  a  formal  sub- 
jection to  the  empire,  A.  was  not  made  a  Roman  prov- 
ince.    The  old  Himyarides  in  Yemen  stoutly  main- 
tained their  independence,  and  an  expedition  against 
them  in  the  time  of  Augustus  completely  failed.     With 
the  decay  of  the  Roman  empire,  strife  and  lawless- 
ness   increased.     The    Arab    races    continued    in    a 
scattered,  disorganized  condition,  and  many  hundreds 
of  years  passed  away  in  intestine  wars,  during  which 
the  central  highland  region  Wiis  the  scene  of  those 
feuds  of  the   Arab  clans  so  copiously  sung  by  the 
native  poets.      Christianity  found   an   early  entrance 
into  A.     The  Jews,  in  considerable  numbers,  migrated 
into    A.    after    the    destruction    of    Jerusalem,  and 
made   many  proselytes,   especially  in    Yemen.     This 
diversity  of  creeds  in  the  peninsula  was  favourable 
to  the  introduction  of  the   doctrine  of  Mohammed, 
which    forms   the   grand   epoch   in    Arabian   history, 
and  brings  it  into  close  connection  with  the  general 
history  of  civilisation.     Now,  for  the  first  time,  the 
people  of  A.  became  united,  and   powerful   enough 
to    erect    new    empires    in    the    three    quarters    of 
the  world.     The   dominion  of  the   Arabs,  from   the 
time   of  Mohammed   to   the   fall   of   the   Califat   of 
Bagdad   in   1258,  or  even   to   the   expulsion  of  the 
Moors  from  Spain  in  1492,  is  an  important   period 
in    the    history    of    civilisation.      (See    the    articles 
Moors,   Califs.)    But    the    movements    which    had 
such  great  effects  on  the  destinies  of  other  nations, 
produced  but  little   change  in   the   interior  of  A. ; 
and,   after    the    brilliant    career    of    conquest    was 
ended,  the  peninsula  was  left  in  an  exhausted  con- 
dition.    Then    followed    the   subjugation   of   Yemen 
by  the  Turks  in  the  sixteenth  century ;  their  expul- 
sion in  the  seventeenth  century;    the   dominion  of 
the  Portuguese  over  Muscat,  1.508—1659;    the  con- 
quests of  Oman  and  the  temporary  victories  gained 
by  the  Persians  at  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century  ; 
and,  lastly,  the   appearance   of  the  Wahabis  (q.  v.) 
(1770),  whose  moral  influence  is  still  felt.     The  latter 
took  .an  important  part  in  the  political  affairs  of  A.,  but 
their  progress  was  interrupted  by  Mehemet  Ali,  the 
Pasha  of  Egypt,  who  subjugated  the  coast-country  of 
Hedjaz,  with  some  parts  of  the  coast  of  Yemen,  and 
346  ' 


in  1818  gained  a  desisive  advantage  through  the 
victory  of  Ibrahim  Pasha.  The  subf^cquent  events 
of  the  year  184t),  in  Syria,  compelled  Mehemet,  how- 
ever, to  concentrate  his  forces,  and  to  resign  all 
claims  up<;n  territories  lying  beyond  the  bouhdary- 
line  drawn  from  the  Red  Sea  to  the  Gulf  of  Akaba. 

ARABIAN  ARCHITECTURE.  So  inseparable 
is  the  connection  between  architecture  and  re- 
ligion, that  it  may  be  stated  as  a  general  rule 
that  no  sooner  is  a  new  religion  engendered  than 
it  finds  expression  in  new  architectural  forms. 
Of  this  we  have  an  interesting  instance  in  the 
sinmltaneous  rise  of  Mohannnedanism,  and  of  the 
style  of  architecture  commonly  called  Arabian,  or 
Moorish,  but  to  which  the  name  of  Mohammedan 
might  far  more  appropriately  be  given,  seeing  that 
it  has  everywhere  Ibllowed  the  religion  of  the 
Crescent,  and  that  the  Arabians  previously  Iwd  no 
architecture  peculiar  to  themselves.  It  is  further 
remarkable  that  the  style  of  which  we  speak  seems 
to  have  arisen,  as  it  were,  undesignedly,  or,  at  all 
events,  without  any  conscious  cttbrt  on  tlie  part  of 
the  people  amongst  whom  it  first  ajipcarcd.  The 
followers  of  the  Prophet  c-ontemplated  nothing  pecu- 
liar in  their  ecclesiastical  structures ;  and  at  first 
their  mos(|ues  were  built  by  Christian  architects 
from  Con.->tantinople.  As  a  natural  consequence, 
they  resembled  Byzantine  churches,  modified  in  the 


ri;llJl 


''lllil' 


Sl 


Moorish  Gateway. 


countries  of  which  the  Moors  successively  possessed 
themselves  by  the  features  of  the  existing  churches- 
Gradually  the  new  and  fanciful  ornamentation  known 
as  Arabesque  (q.  v.)  was  added  to  the  recognis- 
ed features  of  Greek  and  Roman  edifices.  The 
exclusion  of  animal  figures,  which  their  abhnrrenc« 
of   the    very    appearance    of    idolatry    necessitated, 


ARABIAN  GULF— ARABIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 


confined  the  Mohammedan  artists  to  the  imitation  of 
vef^etuble  productions,  varied  by  geometrical  patterns 
and  inscriptions,  of  which  the  letters  were  woven 
into  forms  which  suited  them  for  architectural  uses. 
But  the  most  original  feature  in  their  edifices,  and 
that  by  which  they  have  continued  to  be  marked 
from  all  others,  is  the  horse-shoe  arch.  The  example 
in  the  illustration  presents  a  form  which,  not- 
withstanding its  extreme  beauty,  has  strangely 
enough  scarcely  ever  been  imitated  in  the  Christian 
church.  The  pointed  arch,  on  the  other  hand,  and 
the  various  forms  of  the  trefoil  and  quatrefoil 
arches,  though  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  we  are 
indebted  for  them  to  the  rich  invention  of  the 
Moorish  architects,  have  become  so  entirely  Christian 
as  to  be  no  longer  associated  in  our  minds  with  the 
religion  of  the  prophet.  It  is  said  that  the  pointed 
arch  is  to  be  found  in  Mohammedan  buildings  so 
early  as  780  a.d.  (Parker's  Glossary  of  Architecture), 
whereas  the  earliest  examples  of  its  use  in  Chris- 
tian architecture  belong  to  the  12th  c.  Moorish 
architecture  probably  reached  its  highest  point  of 
development  in  the  Alhambra,  with  the  characteris- 
tics of  which  the  English  public  have  been  made 
familiar  by  means  of  the  court  which  bears  its 
name  in  the  palace  at  Sydenham. 

ARABIAN  GULF.     See  Red  Sea. 

ARABIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 
Regarding  the  oldest  literary  culture  of  the  Ara- 
bians, we  possess  but  slight  information.  That 
tlieir  poetry  at  least  must  have  had  a  very  early 
development,  may  be  inferred  from  the  natural 
disposition  of  the  inhabitants,  who  were  character- 
ised for  their  high  spirit,  courage,  love  of  adventure, 
and  delight  in  the  glory  of  war.  As  far  back  as 
Solomon's  time,  the  queen  of  Sheba  (probably 
Arabia  Felix)  was  noted  for  her  sententious  sayings. 
The  nomadic  tribes,  living  under  the  patriarchal  rule 
of  their  sheiks,  possessed  everything  that  was  favour- 
able to  the  growth  of  a  simple  and  natural  poetry. 
They  had  quick  and  vivid  feelings,  and  a,  rich, 
glowing  fancy,  which,  operating  upon  the  perils,  the 
hardships,  and  strange  confederate  life  they  led  in 
those  barren  sand-deserts,  and  amongst  naked  rocks, 
could  hardly  fail  to  call  forth  a  wild  and  vigorous 
minstrelsy.  Before  the  time  of  Mohammed,  the 
Arabians  had  celebrated  poets  who  sang  the  feuds  of 
tribes,  and  the  praises  of  heroes  and  fair  women. 
During  the  great  fairs  at  Mecca  and  Okadh,  poetic 
contests  were  held  before  the  people  as  at  the 
Grecian  games ;  and  the  poems  to  which  the  prize 
was  awarded,  were  re-written  in  golden  char- 
acters, and  suspended  in  the  Kaaba  at  Mecca, 
the  venerable  national  temple  which  the  Moham- 
medans affirm  to  have  been  built  by  Abraham,  or 
Islmiael.  They  are  termed  the  Moallakdt — i.  e., 
'the  Suspended' — from  the  honour  conferred  on 
them,  and  are  remarkable  for  their  pathos,  soaring 
conceptions,  richness  of  imagery  and  phraseology, 
free  and  unconstrained  spirit,  and  the  glow  of  their 
love  and  hate.  Among  the  famous  poets  of  this 
early  period  are  Nabegha,  Asha,  Shanfara— whose 
works  were  translated  and  published  by  De  Sacy 
in  his  Chrestainathie  Arahe — and,  lastly,  Kaab-ben- 
Zohair,  who  lived  to  celebrate  the  praises  of  the 
prophet  Mohanmied. 

But  the  most  brilliant  period  of  Arabic  culture  is 
that  which  Mohanmied  himself  inaugurated  in  the 
Koran.  His  new  doctrines  of  faith  and  life,  collected 
under  this  title  by  the  first  calif,  Abubekr,  were 
revised  and  published  by  Othman,  the  third  calif. 
The  naturally  adventurous  spirit  of  the  Arabs  found 
a  suitable  excitement  in  the  half-religious,  half-mili- 
tary system  of  Mohammed,  and,  after  his  death, 
their  fanaticism  prepared  them  for  their  subsequent 
career.     Like  an  overwhelming  torrent,  they  passed 


over  the  neighbouring  states,  and  in  the  short  space 
of  eighty  years  from  the  death  of  their  prophet,  had 
extended  their  dominion  from  Egypt  to  India,  and 
from  Lisbon  to  Samarcand.  During  this  time 
nothing  can  be  said  of  their  culture  and  refinement. 
A  fanatical  desire  of  conquest  prevailed.  Gradually, 
however,  by  their  intercourse  with  civilised  nations, 
the  Arabian  conquerors  were  themselves  subjected  to 
the  humanising  influence  of  letters,  and,  after  749 
A. p.,  or  during  the  reign  of  the  Abassides,  literature, 
arts,  and  sciences  appeared,  and  were  generously 
fostered  under  the  splendid  sway,  first  of  Almansor 
(754 — 775),  and  afterwards  of  the  celebrated  Ilarun- 
al-Raschid  (786—808).  Learned  men  were  now 
invited  from  many  countries,  and  remunerated  for 
their  labours  with  princely  munificence  ;  the  works 
of  the  best  Greek,  Syriac^  and  old  Persian  writers 
were  translated  into  Arabic,  and  spread  abroad  in 
numerous  copies.  The  Calif  Al-Mamun,  who  reigned 
from  813  to  833,  offered  to  the  Greek  emperor  five 
tons  of  gold  and  a  perpetual  treaty  of  peace,  on 
condition  that  the  philosopher  Leo  should  be 
allowed  for  a  time  to  give  histruction  to  the  former. 
There  are  few  instances  of  such  a  price  offered 
for  lessons  in  philosophy.  Under  the  sway  of  the 
same  Al-Mamun,  excellent  schools  were  founded 
in  Bagdad,  Basra,  Bokhara,  and  Kufa ;  while  large 
libraries  were  collected  at  Alexandria,  Bagdad, 
and  Cairo.  In  Spain,  the  high  school  of  Cordova 
rivalled  the  literary  fame  of  Bagdad,  and,  generally, 
in  the  10th  c,  the  Arabs  appeared  everywhere 
as  the  preservers  and  distributers  of  knowledge. 
Pupils  from  France,  and  other  European  countries, 
then  began  to  repair  to  Spain  in  great  num- 
bers,  to  study  mathematics  and  medicine  under 
the  Arabs.  There  were  fourteen  academies,  with 
many  preparatory  and  upper  schools  in  Spain,  and 
five  very  considerable  public  libraries;  that  of  the 
Calif  Hakem  containing,  as  is  said,  more  than 
600,000  volumes.  This  state  of  culture,  when  com- 
pared with  that  prevalent  before  Mohammed,  shews 
a  rapidity  of  progress  in  knowledge  almost  as  re- 
markable as  the  career  of  Arabian  conquest. 

In  geography,  history,  philosophy,  medicine, 
physics,  and  mathematics,  the  Arabians  rendered 
important  services  to  science ;  and  the  Arabic 
words  still  employed  in  science — such  as  algebra, 
alcohol,  azimuth,  zenith,  nadir,  with  many  names 
of  stars,  Ac. — remain  as  indications  of  their  influence 
on  the  early  intellectual  culture  of  Europe.  But 
geography  owes  most  to  them  during  the  middle 
ages.  In  Africa  and  Asia,  the  boundaries  of 
geographical  science  were  extended,  and  the  old 
Arab  treatises  on  geography  and  works  of  travels 
in  several  countries  by  Abulfeda,  Edrisi,  Leo  Afri- 
canus,  Ibn  Batuta,  Ibii  Foslan,  Ibn  Jobair,  Albiruni 
the  astronomer,  and  others,  are  still  interesting  and 
valuable. 

History  was  also  studiously  cultivated.  The 
oldest  Arabic  historian  of  whom  we  know  is 
Mohammed-al-Kclbi  (died  in  819).  About  the 
same  period,  however,  flourished  several  other 
historians.  After  the  dawn  of  the  10th  c,  history 
became  a  favourite  study  of  the  Arabs.  The  first 
who  attempted  a  universal  survey  of  the  subject 
were  Masudi,  Tabari,  Hamza  of  Ispahan,  and 
Eutychius,  the  Christian  patriarch  of  Alexandria. 
Masudi's  work  is  entitled  Meadows  of  Gold  and 
Mines  of  Gems.  These  were  followed  by  Abulfaraj 
and  George  Elmakin  (both  Christians),  Abulfeda, 
and  others.  Nuvairi  wrote  a  History  of  Sicily  under 
the  Government  of  the  Arabs.  Various  sections  of 
Arabic  histories  relating  to  the  Crusades  have  beea 
translated  into  French.  On  the  dominion  of  the 
Arabs  in  Spain,  several  works  were  written  by 
Abul-Kasem   of    Cordova   (died  in   1139),  Temini, 

347 


ARABIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 


and  others.  For  extended  notices  we  may  refer  the 
student  of  Arabic  Literature  to  the  translations 
by  Quatremcre  and  others;  but  especially  to  the 
Bncjiklopadischen  Uebersicht  der  Wixxenschaften  den 
Orients,  by  Von  Ilaniiner  (2  vols.     Leip.  18(i4). 

Arabian  theology  and  jurisprudence  are  intimately 
connected,  and  both  founded  on  the  Koran ;  but  are 
by  no  means  so  simple  and  uniform  as  is  generally 
supposed.  Speculation  first  began  to  prevail  during 
the  Omniaiade  dynasty,  and  the  Aristotelian  philo.s- 
ophy  to  be  studied  by  the  Arabs.  As  a  consequenee, 
the  vague  statements  of  the  Koran  were  soon  vari- 
ously interpreted,  and  a  host  of  sects  gradually 
arose.  Of  these,  four  only  are  regarded  as  orthodox, 
leawng  not  less  than  seventy-two  heretical,  whose 
disconlant  tenets  are  stated  in  the  work  of  Sharis- 
tani  (edited  by  Cureton,  London,  1842).  Tlie  four 
orthodox  sects  are  :  the  Hanefites,  wlio  do  not  reject 
tradition,  but  subordinate  it  to  rationalism ;  the 
Shafites,  who  entirely  refuse  the  aids  of  reason  and 
philosophy  in  their  treatment  of  theology ;  the 
Kambalites  and  the  MalechitfK,  who  allow  specula- 
tion on  points  where  there  is  no  tradition.  The 
collection  of  traditions  known  as  the  Sitmia  gives  an 
account  of  the  sayings  and  doings  of  Mohammed, 
and,  though  pedantic  in  its  details,  is  in  substance 
more  valuable  than  the  Koran.  Tlic  interpretation  I 
of  the  Koran  constitutes  tlie  )>rincipal  part  of 
education  in  theological  jurisprudence.  The  most 
celebrated  of  the  commentators  are  Samakhshari  and 
Baidhawi.  The  conf|uest  of  Algiers  has  rendered  the 
study  of  Arabic  or  Mohammedan  law  indispensable 
to  the  French.  The  result  is,  that  several  most 
important  works  on  that  subject  have  appeared  of 
late  from  the  Paris  press,  such  as  Priris  de  Juris- 
prudence  MuHidmnne,  selon  le  Bite  Malirhile  par 
Khnlil-Ibn-Ishah  (translated  by  Perron,  Paris,  184S), 
and  Legulation  Musulinane  Hunnite,  Rite  Haneji 
(Pari.s,  1848). 

Arabian  philosophy,  which  was  of  Grecian  origin, 
held  the  same  relation  to  the  Koran  as  the  Scholas- 
ticism of  the  middle  ages  did  to  the  Christian  Scrip- 
tures— that  is,  it  was  regarded  as  the  servant  of 
faith.  The  chief  study  of  the  Arabs  was  the 
writings  of  Aristotle,  who  became  known  in  Spain, 
and  subf:equently  in  all  Western  Europe,  through 
translations  from  Arabic  into  Latin ;  though  the 
Arabs  themselves  only  knew  the  Greek  philos- 
opher in  translations  made  during  the  time  of  the 
Abassides.  Especial  attention  was  paid  to  logic 
and  metaphysics.  The  most  distinguished  of  their 
philosophical  writers  are :  Alkendi  of  Basra,  who 
flourished  about  the  beginning  of  the  9th  c. ;  Alfa- 
rabi,  who  wrote  a  work  on  First  Principles  in  954 ; 
Avicenna  (died  lo3G),  who  combined  the  study  of 
logic  and  metaphysics  with  that  of  medicine,  and 
made  considerable  progress  in  chemistry,  nosology, 
and  medical  botany  ;  Ibn-Yahya,  who  acquired  a  high 
reputation  as  an  original  thinker ;  Alghazali  (died 
1111),  who  wrote  a  book  entitled  The  Destruction  of 
all  Idolatrom  Philosophical  Systems;  Abubekr-ibn- 
Tofail  (died  1190).  who  taught  in  his  philosophical 
novel  Hai-ebn-  Yokdan  (edited  by  Pococke,  Oxford, 
1671)  the  development  of  men  from  animals;  and  his 
pupil,  Averrhoes,  greatly  esteemed  as  an  expositor  of 
Aristotle.  For  an  account  of  these  men  and  their 
systems,  see  Sur  les  Ecoles  Philosophiqties  ckez  les 
Arabes,  &c.,  by  Schmolders  (Paris,  1842),  and  Ritter's 
l/eber  wisere  Kenntniss  der  Arab.  Philos»nhie  (Gott. 
1844). 

Many  of  these  illustrious  Arabian  philosophers 
•were  also  physicians.  The  great  skill  which  the  Arabs 
acquired  in  their  knowledge  of  the  uses  and  properties 
of  medicinal  herbs,  is  traced  by  Humboldt  to  their 
geographical  position.  The  southern  part  of  Arabia 
'  is  characterised  by  the  highly  developed  vital  force 
348 


pervading  vegetation,  by  which  an  abundance  of 
aromatic  and  balsamic  juices  is  yielded  to  man  from 
various  beneficial  and  deleterious  substances.  The 
attention  of  the  people  must  early  have  been  directed 
to  the  natural  products  of  their  native  soil,  and  those 
brought  as  articles  of  commerce  from  the  accessible 
coasts  of  Malabar,  Ceylon,  anil  Ea.stern  Africa. 
Hence  arose  the  wish  to  distinguish  carefully  from 
one  another  these  precious  articles  of  commerce, 
which  were  so  important  to  medicine,  numufacture, 

&c The  science  of  medicine,  when  considered 

with  reference  to  its  scientific  development,  is  essen- 
tially a  creation  of  the  Arabs,  to  whom  the  oldest, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  one  of  the  richest  sources  of 
knowledge — that  of  the  Indian  physicians — had  been 
early  opened.  Chemical  jiharmacy  (see  Alchemy) 
was  created  by  the  Arabs,  whilst  to  them  are  also 
due  the  first  official  prescri|)tion8  regarding  the 
preparation  and  admixture  of  different  remedial 
agents — the  dispensing  recipes  of  the  present  day. 
These  were  subse(|iiently  dilVtised  omt  the  south  of 
Europe  by  the  School  ofSaleriio'l  Humboldt's  Cosmos, 
vol.  ii.  p.  5sl,  Bolin's  translation).  Pharmacy  and 
materia  medica  naturally  led  to  botany  and  chends- 
try.  For  three  centuries — frtim  the  8th  to  the  11th 
— a  rich  scientific  culture  prevailed.  Schools  of 
phil(>so|)hy  and  medicine  sprung  up  at  Jondisahur, 
Bagdad,  Ispahan,  Firuzabad,  Bokhara,  Kufa,  Basra, 
Alexandria,  Cordova,  ic.  In  all  dcjtartmcnts  of 
medical  science  a  great  advance  was  made,  except 
in  anatomy.  The  reason  of  this  exception  lies  in 
the  fact,  that  the  Koran  forbids  the  dissection  of 
bodies.  The  most  famous  writers  on  medicine  are 
Aharun,  Alkendi,  Avicenna  (q.  v.),  who  wrote  the 
Vatiiiii  of  Medicine,  for  a  long  time  the  only  hand- 
book on  the  subject ;  Ali-lien-Abbas,  Ishak-ben- 
Soleiman,  Abulkascm,  Aviirhocs  (<).  v. ),  who  wrote 
a  complete  system  of  medicine  ;   .\li-ben-lsa,  &c. 

In  Mathematics,  the  Arabs  made  great  advances 
by  the  introduction  of  the  numerals  and  mode  of 
notation  now  in  use,  of  the  sine  instead  of  the 
chord  (in  trigonometry),  and  of  a  more  extended 
application  of  algebra.  Astronomy  was  zealously 
studied  in  the  famous  schools  and  observatories  of 
Bagdad  and  Cordova.  Alzahan  wrote  upon  optics; 
Nassereddin  translated  the  Elements  of  Euclid; 
Jeber-ben-Atla  furnislied  a  commentary  on  the  trigo- 
nometry of  Ptolemy,  &c.  The  Almagest  or  System  of 
Astronomy  by  Ptolemy,  was  translated  into  Arabic 
by  AUiazi  and  Sergius  as  early  as  812.  In  the  10th 
c,  Albaten  observed  the  advance  of  the  line  of  the 
apsides  in  the  earth's  orbit;  Mohammed-ben-Jeber- 
al-Batani,  the  obliijuity  of  the  ecliptic  ;  Alpetragius 
w  rote  a  theory  of  the  planets ;  and  Abul-Hassan-Ali, 
on  astronomical  inaitruments. 

Besides  these  advances  in  the  solid  branches  of 
knowledge,  the  genius  of  the  Arabs  continually 
flowered  into  poetry.  Numerous  poets  sprung  up  in 
all  lands  where  the  children  of  the  desert  had  carried 
their  irresistible  faith.  Their  verse,  however,  wa.s 
not  like  the  rude,  simple  minstrelsy  of  a  purely 
patriarchal  people ;  it  gradually  allied  itself  to  the 
prevailing  culture,  and  took,  especially  in  the  golden 
epoch  of  Arabian  civilisation,  a  highly  artistic  form. 
Motenebbi,  Abul-Ala,  and  others  acquired  a  great 
reputation  for  their  delicate  Idylls ;  Busiri,  for  his 
eulogy  of  Mohammed ;  Hamadini,  as  the  first  to 
introduce  novels  in  verse  (of  which  he  wrote  400 
under  the  title  of  Makdmdl),  a  style  of  literature 
which  was  brought  to  perfection  by  Hariri ;  Azzeddin, 
for  his  ingenious  allegorical  poem,  '  The  Birds  and 
the  Flowers.'  Besides  these,  a  singularly  wild  and 
f;intastic  prose  Uterature  made  its  appearance,  in 
which  the  craving  for  the  wonderful  and  gorgeous,  so 
characteristic  of  the  restless,  adventure-loving  Arabs, 
was  richly  gratified.     Eomances  and  legendary  tales 


ARABIAN  LANGUAGE— ARABIAX  NIGHTS'  ENTERTAINMENTS. 


abounded.  The  most  famous  of  these  are  :  The  Ara- 
bian Nirihts'  Eutertaintnents  (q.  v.),  ITie  Exploits  of 
Antar,  The  Exploits  of  the  Champions,  and  TIte  Ex- 
ploits of  the  Hero.  In  fact,  with  the  exception  of  the 
drama,  there  was  no  sort  of  poetry  which  the  Arabs 
did  not  attempt.  The  effect  of  this  universaUty 
and  richness  in  Arabic  literature  was,  that  it  exercised 
a  powerful  influence  on  modern  European  poetrv. 
The  tales  of  fays,  charms,  sorceries,  and  the  whole 
gorgeous  machinery  of  enchantment  passed  into  the 
poetry  of  the  West.  During  the  middle  ages  of 
European  history,  several  of  the  most  popular  and 
widely-spread  books  were  of  Arabic  origin ;  such 
as,  7'he  Seve7i  Wise  Masters,  and  The  Eahles  of 
Bidpai,  though  the  Arabians  themselves  borrowed 
largely  from  the  Persian  stories  and  the  Greek 
fables. 

All  this  culture  of  the  early  ages  of  Moham- 
medanism presents  a  strong  contrast  to  the  ignor- 
ance which  now  prevails  among  the  Arabs.  The 
brutal  fanaticism  of  the  Turks  nipped  the  blooming 
promise  of  the  East ;  sunk  in  stupid  indolence, 
the  peoples  await  in  apathetic  resignation  their 
deliverance  and  return  to  higher  modes  of  life. 
Literature  furnishes  now  nothing  worthy  of  notice. 
Learning  spends  itself  principally  in  commentaries 
and  scholia,  in  scholastic  discussions  on  the  subject- 
matter  of  dogmatics  and  jurisprudence,  and  in 
tedious  grammatical  disquisitions  concerning  the  old 
Arabic  speech,  generally  acute  and  subtle,  but  always 
unprofitable  and  unenlivening.  The  swift  and  mobile 
genius  of  the  East  has  departed,  and  pedantic  dul- 
ness  has  usurped  its  place.  There  are  '  Dryasdusts,' 
even  in  the  desert.  A  few  modern  writers  have 
attempted,  with  more  or  less  success,  to  imitate 
European  forms  of  thought  and  sentiment.  Of  these 
may  be  mentioned,  Michael  Sabbagh  of  Syria  {La 
Colomhe  Messafiere,  Arabic  and  French,  Paris, 
1805) ;  the  Sheik,  Refaa  of  Cairo  {Tlie  Broken  Lyre, 
Paris,  1827  ;  Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Euro- 
peans, Cairo,  1884;  Travels  in  France,  Cairo,  1825); 
and  Nasif-Eifendi,  of  Beirut,  who  wrote  the  critical 
observations  in  De  Sacy's  edition  of  Hariri  (Epistola 
Critica,  Leipsic,  1848). 

The  Arabic  also  possesses  a  Christian  and  Jewish 
literature,  which,  however,  is  chiefly  ecclesiastical. 
Its  principal  ornaments  are  Eutychius,  Elmakin, 
and  Abulfaraj.  Translations  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment were  made  not  from  the  Hebrew,  but  from 
the  Septuagint,  or  from  Latin  versions.  In  the 
middle  ages,  the  Spanish  Jews  employed  Arabic  for 
their  learned  compositions;  and  several  of  the  most 
important  works  of  Moses  Maimonides,  &c.,  were 
originally  written  in  that  tongue. 

The  Arabic  language,  it  has  been  remarked,  is  at 
once  both  rich  and  poor.  It  is  necessarily  destitute  of 
innumerable  words  describing  those  ideas  and  objects 
which  only  civilisation  can  develop  or  produce  ;  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  rich  and  nimble  fancy  of  the 
Arabians  has  multiplied,  to  an  almost  incredible 
extent,  the  synonyms  of  their  desert-tongue,  so  that 
in  some  cases  several  hundreds  of  expressions  are 
found  for  the  same  thing.  The  Arabic  belongs  to  the 
so-called  Semitic  family  of  languages,  among  which 
it  is  distinguished  for  its  antiquity  and  soft  flexible 
grace.  It  is  divided  into  two  dialects — a  northern 
and  southern.  The  former,  through  the  instru- 
mentality of  the  Koran,  became  the  predominant 
language  of  literature  and  commerce  throughout  the 
whole  extent  of  the  Arabian  dominions ;  the  latter, 
called  the  Himyarite,  although  in  all  probability 
the  source  of  the  Ethiopic  language  and  writing,  is 
known  as  yet  only  by  a  few  inscriptions,  &c.  The 
earliest  Arabic  grammarian  is  Abul-Aswad-al-Duli, 
who  flourished  under  the  fourth  calif,  Ali.  The 
first  who  reduced   the   prosody  and  metre   of  the 


Arabian  poets  to  a  system,  was  Khalil-ben-Ahmed- 
al-Ferahidi  of  Barsa.  Al-Jauhari,  who  died  in  1009 
A.  D.,  drew  up  a  dictionary  of  the  pure  Arabic  speech, 
which  he  entitled  Al-Siha  ('Purity'),  and  which  is 
held  in  high  estimation  to  this  day,  Mohammed-ben- 
Yakub-al-Firuzabadi,  who  died  in  1414,  was  the 
author  of  an  Arabic  Thesaurus,  entitled  Al-Katnus 
('The  Ocean'),  which  is  the  best  Lexicon  in  the 
language,  and  has  consequently  been  translated  into 
Persian  and  Turkish.  Jordshani  has  explained,  in 
alphabetical  order,  the  meaning  of  the  technical 
terms  used  in  Arabic  art  and  science.  His  work 
was  published  by  Fliigel  (Leip.  1845),  under  the  title 
of  Definitiones.  Meidani  made  a  large  collection 
of  Arabic  'saws,'  apophthegms,  &c.,  which  was 
published  by  Freytag,  Bonn,  1838.  Through  the 
conquests  of  the  Arabs  in  Sicily  and  Spain,  their 
language  became  known  in  Europe ;  but  notwith- 
standing the  numerous  traces  of  its  influence  in 
various  European  tongues,  it  became  forgotten  after 
the  expulsion  of  the  Moors  from  Spain.  The 
first  European  scholars  who  earnestly  took  up  the 
subject  were  the  Dutch,  in  the  17th  c. ;  after  them, 
the  Germans,  French,  and  English.  It  is  now,  how- 
ever, beginning  to  be  considered  a  necessary  part  of 
a  learned  theological  education.  The  modern  Arabic 
of  the  inliabitants  is  substantially  the  same  as  that 
of  the  Koran,  but  the  lapse  of  time  has  gradually 
introduced  changes  in  the  grammatical  forms  of  the 
language,  similar  to  those  which  have  occurred  ia 
other  languages.  The  purest  Arabic  is  said  to  be 
spoken  in  Yemen,  or  Arabia  Felix.  With  the 
exception  of  the  Roman  characters,  the  Arabic  have 
been  more  widely  diffused  than  those  of  any  other 
tongue  on  the  face  of  the  earth.  (See  MiiUer'a 
Oriental  Palceography,  Eisleben,  1844,  &c.) 

Arabic  Writing. — Like  all  Semitic  writing,  this 
proceeds  from  right  to  left.  It  is  borrowed  from 
the  old  Syriac,  and  was  probably  introduced  into 
Arabia  by  Christian  missionaries  about  the  time  of 
Mohammed.  In  its  oldest  form  it  is  called  Kufic, 
from  the  town  of  Kufa,  on  the  Euphrates,  where  the 
transcription  of  the  Koran  was  busily  carried  on. 
Its  characters  are  rude  and  coarse,  and  it  has  particular 
symbols  for  only  sixteen  of  the  twenty-eight  Arabic 
consonants.  This  writing,  nevertheless,  continued 
to  be  employed  for  300  years,  and  for  coins  and 
inscriptions  even  later;  but  in  the  10th  c.  it  was 
displaced  for  common  purposes  by  a  current  hand- 
writing, the  Neshhi,  introduced  by  Ebn  Mokla. 
This  is  the  character  still  in  use.  In  it,  the  conson- 
ants which  resemble  each  other  are  distinguished  by 
points,  and  the  vowels  by  strokes  over  and  under  the 
line. 

ARABIAN  NIGHTS'  ENTERTAINMENTS, 
a  collection  of  Oriental  tales,  first  made  known  to 
Europeby  Antony  Galland,  a  French  Orientalist,  under 
the  title  of  The  Thousand  a7id  One  Nights,  Arabian 
Stories,  Translated  into  French.  They  were  published 
at  Paris,  in  12  volumes  12mo,  from  1704  till  1717,  and 
were  received  by  many  as  the  production  of  the 
genius  of  the  translator  himself,  rather  than  the 
collection  of  an  unknown  Arabian  author,  as  Galland 
had  stated  in  his  dedication.  Oriental  scholars  did 
not  hesitate  at  first  to  declare  against  their  authen- 
ticity, and  denounce  them  as  forgeries.  Having 
taken  only  an  obscure  place  in  the  literature  of  the 
East,  and  their  style  unfitting  them  from  being 
classed  among  models  of  eloquence  or  taste — having 
no  object  of  a  religious,  moral,  or  philosophical  kind 
in  view,  while  the  manners  and  customs  delineated 
in  them  were  different  from  all  received  ideas  of 
those  of  the  Moslem  nations — their  success  took 
the  critics  by  surprise.  The  work  became  highly 
esteemed  by  the  public ;  it  filled  Europe  with  it3 
fame  ;  it  had  abundance  of  readers,  and  no  lack  of 

349 


ARABIAN  NUMERALS— ARABIAN  SEA. 


editors.  Few  books  have  been  translated  into  so 
many  different  languages,  and  given  delight  to  so 
large  a  number  of  readers.  It  may  be  said  that, 
in  these  Oriental  tales,  there  has  sprung  up  a  new- 
branch  of  literature,  for  their  influence  on  the  liter- 
ature of  the  present  day  is  easily  discernible.  Here 
are  found,  depicted  with  much  simplicity  and  great 
effect,  the  scenes  of  the  town-life  of  the  Moslem. 
The  prowess  of  the  Arab  knight,  his  passion  for 
adventure,  his  dexterity,  his  love,  and  his  revenge, 
the  craft  of  his  wives,  the  hypocrisy  of  his  priests, 
and  the  corruptibility  of  his  judges,  are  all  dramatic- 
ally delineated — far  more  vividly  represented,  in 
fact,  than  is  possible  in  a  book  of  travels;  while 
gilded  palaces,  charming  women,  lovely  gardens,  and 
exquisite  repasts  captivate  the  senses  of  the  reader, 
and  transport  him  to  the  land  of  wonder  and  enjoy- 
ment. Besides  entertaining  the  mind  with  the 
kaleidoscopic  wonders  of  a  teeming  and  luxurious 
fancy  which  is  their  most  obvious  merit,  they  present 
a  treasure  of  instruction  upon  life  in  general,  and 
Oriental  life  in  particular.  And  this  is  undeniable, 
notwithstanding  the  fact,  that  the  aspects  of  society 
they  depict  are  far  from  standing  high  in  the  social 
scale,  either  as  to  civilisation  or  morality.  In  them  no 
story  is  to  be  found  that  will  rank  in  morality  with  the 
story  of  Joseph  and  his  brethren,  simply  because  the 
Moslem  faith  will  not  admit  of  that,  any  more  than 
the  decline  of  Arab  civilisation  at  the  time  the  talcs 
must  have  been  originally  promulgated.  Indeed, 
the  first  translator,  having  a  conviction  of  a  demoral- 
ising tendency  of  this  kind,  avoided  giving  several 
objectionable  parts  of  some  of  the  stories.  The 
thread  of  the  narrative  in  these  entertainments  is 
generally  simple  and  clear,  often  leading  into  the 
departments  of  fable,  and  occasionally  into  the 
regions  of  the  supernatural  and  the  domains  of 
popular  superstition.  The  tales,  even  when  long,  are 
not  tiresome ;  for  they  consist  of  shorter  stories 
branching  off  from  the  main  one,  or  rather  encased 
■within  it,  the  smaller  within  the  larger,  and  perhaps 
a  smaller  within  that,  like  the  little  boxes  used  by 
conjurors. 

For  many  years  all  doubt  as  to  the  authenticity  of 
the  Thousand  and  One  Nights  has  been  dispelled. 
Several  MS.  copies  have  been  found,  and  no  less  than 
four  editions  of  the  Arabic  text  have  been  published. 
A  inore  thorough  acquaintance  with  medieval  and 
modern  Arab  life  has  proven  the  genuineness  of  the 
stories,  and  the  truthfulness  of  their  general  repre- 
sentation of  the  mind  of  the  Moslem.  In  them 
there  are  evident  signs  of  a  declension  from  a 
refined  and  superior  civilisation ;  the  marvellous  and 
supernatural  is  predominant;  despotism  in  all  its 
forms  is  manifest;  and  a  prevalent  falsity  and 
insincerity  of  character  visible,  not  only  in  the 
narrative,  but  in  the  tone  of  common  conversation, 
replete  as  it  is  with  oaths  and  asseverations. 

The  origin  of  the  work — where  and  by  whom 
written — is  still  involved  in  mystery.  According  to 
Bome,  the  tales. are  susceptible  of  a  threefold  division. 
The  most  beautiful,  and  in  fancy  the  richest,  appear 
to  have  come  from  Indiaj  the  cradle  of  story  and 
fable ;  the  tender  and  ofien  sentimental  love  tales 
Feem  of  Persian  origin ;  while  the  masterly  pictures 
of  Hfe,  and  the  witty  anecdotes,  claim  to  be  the 
product  of  Arabia.  Throughout,  however,  every- 
thing is  conformable  to  the  character  and  customs 
of  the  town  population  of  Arabia,  and  to  the  Mo- 
hammedan faith.  The  Baron  de  Sacy,  in  1829,  thus 
Htated  his  opinion  on  these  points.  Speaking  of  the 
work  he  says:  'It  appears  to  me  that  it  was  origin- 
ally written  in  Syria,  and  in  the  vulgar  dialect ;  that 
it  was  never  completed  by  its  author ;  that,  subse- 
quently, imitators  endeavoured  to  perfect  the  work, 
either  by  the  insertion  of  novels  already  known,  but 
350 


which  formed  no  part  of  the  original  collection,  or 
by  composing  some  themselves,  with  more  or  less 
talent,  whence  arise  the  great  variations  observable 
among  the  different  MSS.  of  the  collection  ;  that  the 
inserted  tales  were  added  at  different  periods,  and 
perhaps  in  different  countries,  but  chiefly  in  Egypt ; 
and,  lastly,  that  the  oidy  thing  which  can  be 
affirmed,  with  much  appearance  of  probability,  in 
regard  to  the  time  when  the  work  was  composed, 
is — that  it  is  not  very  old,  as  its  language  proves, 
but  still  that,  when  it  was  brought  out,  the  use 
of  tobacco  and  coffee  was  unknown,  since  no  mention 
of  either  is  made  in  the  work.' 

Galland's  French  edition  was  speedily  translated 
into  all  the  languages  of  Europe ;  edition  following 
edition  with  great  rapidity,  some  of  them  with 
enlargements,  and  others  with  modificafions.  Lat- 
terly, a  Dr.  Scott  gave  a  superior  English  edition, 
'  carefully  revised,  and  occasionally  corrected  from 
the  Arabic'  At  length  a  new  English  translation 
from  the  Arabic,  with  copious  notes  and  highly  artistic 
embellishments,  appeared  in  1839.  It  waa 
the  work  of  Edward  William  Lane,  a  gentleman 
whose  long  residence  in  Egypt  enabled  him  to 
acquire  so  thorough  a  knowledge  of  the  language, 
manners,  and  customs  of  the  Egyptian  Arabs,  as  has 
furnished  not  only  a  superior  version,  but  a  series 
of  notes  embodying  a  portraiture  of  Egypto-Arabian 
life  at  once  ftiithful  and  vivid. 

The  popularity  of  this  wonderful  book  has  given 
rise  to  hundreds  of  imitations.  Among  the  best  of 
the  French  are — Lea  Mille  et  Un  Jours,  Mille  et  line 
Quart  d^IIeiires,  and  the  Conies  d'nn  Endortneur ; 
perhaps  the  best  of  the  English  imitations  is  the  Tales 
of  the  Genii,  by  Sir  Charles  Morcll ;  while  the  best 
of  the  German  appears  to  be  one  got  up  from  the 
Perso-Arabic,  the  Faraj  bad  el  Shidda  (Joy  after 
Sorrow),  a  popular  work,  and  repeatedly  published. 

ARABIAN  NUMERALS  or  CIPHERS— the 
characters  0, 1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  fi,  7,  8,  9.  Properly,  they 
should  be  styled  Hindu  or  Indian  Numerals,  for  the 
Arabs  borrowed  them,  along  with  the  decimal  svstem 
of  notation,  from  the  Hindus.  According  to  one 
account,  Gerbcrt  (afterwards  Sylvester  II.)  learned 
the  use  of  them  from  the  Moors  in  Spain  in  the  10th 
c. ;  others  think  it  more  probable  that  Leonardo  of 
Pisa  (see  Algkbra)  first  introduced  them  from  the 
East  into  Italy  about  1202.  Yet  the  use  of  them 
was  long  in  making  its  way,  and  was  not  general 
before  the  invention  of  printing.  Accounts  con- 
tinued to  be  kept  in  Roman  numerals  up  to  the 
16th  c.     See  Numerals  and  Numeration. 

ARABIAN  SEA,  anciently  Mare  Erythraum,  or 
the  Red  Sea,  that  bay  of  the  Indian  Ocean  which 
lies  between  India  on  the  east  and  Arabia  on  the 
west.  Its  northern  boundary  is  Beloochistan ; 
while  its  natural  ami  convenient  limit  on  the  south 
is  a  line  drawn  from  Cape  Comorin  in  Hindustan 
to  Cape  Guardafui  in  Africa,  and  thence  continued 
along  the  coast  to  the  Strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb. 
In  E.  long,  it  extends  from  43°  32'  at  Cape  Bab-el- 
Mandeb,  to  7*7°  30'  at  Cape  Comorin  ;  and  in  N.  lat. 
from  8°  6'  at  Cape  Comorin,  to  about  26°  at  the 
south-west  point  of  Beloochistan.  Including  its 
two  great  arms,  the  Arabian  and  Persian  Gulfs, 
it  stretches  much  further  both  north  and  west, 
connecting  itself,  more  or  less  closely,  with  the  Medi- 
terranean by  means  of  the  Nile  and  the  Euphrates. 

In  this  last  aspect  the  A.  S.  long  occupied  a  most 
prominent  place  in  the  commerce  of  the  world — a 
place  which,  after  having  lost  it  for  more  than  300 
years  through  the  doubling  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  in  1497,  it  has  lately,  in  a  great  measure, 
regained,  through  the  enterprise  of  French  capitalists, 
and  the  Uberality  of  the  Egyptian  government. 


ARABINE— ARACIIIS. 


Ill  ilie  hisiory  of  navigation,  also,  the  A.  S.  proper 
is  speciallv  entitled  to  notice.  It  was  along  its 
northern  shores  that  Nearchus,  the  admiral  of 
Alexander  of  Macedon,  conducted  the  first  well- 
authenticated  voyage,  on  a  large  scale,  of  exploration 
and  discovery;  and  across  it  the  trade-winds,  blow- 
ing alternatelv  from  north-east  and  south-west,  were 
wont  to  waft  the  Greeks  of  Egypt,  without  either 
chart  or  compass,  about  the  coniraenceinent  of  the 
Christian  era. 

A'RABIXE  is  the  essential  principle  of  gnm- 
arabic  (q.  v.),  and  is  obtained  pure  by  adding 
alcohol  to  a  solution  of  gum-arabic  in  water,  when 
the  A.  is  precipitated  in  white  fiocculi. 

A'RACAN,  or  ARRACAN,  a  city  of  Farther 
India,  and,  till  lately,  the  capital  of  the  province  of 
the  same  name.  It  is  situated  about  50  miles  from 
the  sea,  in  lat.  20°  42'  N.,  and  long.  93°  24'  E.  Lying 
in  a  swampy  valley  which,  on  almost  every  side,  is 
confined  by'hills,  A.  is  subject  to  febrile  disease  in 
all  its  forms.  Previous  to  the  first  Burmese  war — 
the  occasion  which  brought  it  under  British  dominion 

it  is  said  to  have  contained  18,000  houses  ;  while 

in  1835,  after  an  interval  of  less  than  ten  years,  its 
population  is  represented  as  having  been  only  8000 
or  10,000 — the  decrease  being,  in  a  considerable 
degree,  the  consequence  of  its  having  ceased  to  be 
the  seat  of  government.  A.  is  now,  in  fact,  interest- 
in"'  only  from  its  old  associations.  The  most  striking 
memorial  of  antiquity  is  its  dilapidated  fort,  consist- 
ing of  three  concentric  walls  such  as  only  a  powerful 
state  could  have  constructed.  Beyond  the  Hmits,  too, 
of  this  citadel,  the  town,  as  a  whole,  appears  to  have 
been  surrounded  by  a  circumvallation  of  9  miles  in 
length,  composed  partly  of  steep  and  rugged  emi- 
nen^ces  and  partly  of  artificial  works.  These  defences, 
which  are  believed  to  be  several  centuries  old,  the 
British  carried  by  assault  on  1st  April  1825. 

A'RACAN,  or  ARRACAN,  a  province  of  Farther 
India,  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Chittagong,  on  the  E.  by 
Ava,  on  the  S.  by  Pegu,  and  on  the  W.  by  the  Bay  of 
Bengal.  It  extends  in  N.  lat.  from  18°  to  21°  33',  and 
in  E.  long,  from  92°  10'  to  94°  50'.  Its  extreme 
length  is  290  miles ;  and  its  breadth,  from  90  miles 
at  the  N.,  gradually  diminishes  towards  the  S.,  so  as 
to  yield  an  average  of  little  more  than  45.  The 
area  is  estimated  at  13,484  square  miles.  The  pro- 
vince is  divided  into  three  districts — Akyab  or  Arra- 
can  Proper,  Sandoway,  and  Ramree.  The  British 
conquest  of  the  province  seems  to  have  been  highly 
beneficial  in  every  way.  In  1825—6,  the  population 
was  only  about  100,000;  in  1831,  it  was  173,000, 
shewing  an  increase  of  73  per  cent,  in  5  or  6  years ; 
in  1839,  it  had  increased  to  248,000;  and  lastly, 
before  1854,  it  was  upwards  of  321,000.  With 
these  results  the  face  of  the  country  and  the  state 
of  trade  fully  correspond.  A  sterile  and  unpro- 
fitable tract  has  been  transformed  into  a  highly 
cultivated  country ;  trade  has  increased  to  an  extent 
that  could  not  have  been  contemplated ;  and  the 
variety  and  quality  of  the  productions  have  been 
found  to  equal  those  of  almost  any  other  region  in 
the  same  part  of  the  world.  Rice  and  salt  constitute 
the  chief  articles  of  exportation;  the  others  are 
tobacco,  sugar,  wood,  oil,  betel-nuts,  buffalo  hides  and 
horns,  elephants'  teeth,  dried  fish,  and  edible  birds- 
nests.  The  imports  consist  of  British  woollens, 
muslins,  cutlery,  and  glass. 

There  have  been  various  indications  of  a  volcanic 
nature  in  A.  In  the  islands  of  Ramree  and  Cheduba 
there  exist  springs  of  muddy  water  which  emit 
bubbles  of  gas.  Two  severe  earthquakes  have  taken 
place  respectively  in  1763  and  1833 — the  latter 
having  thrown  up,  in  several  places,  muddy  water  of 
a  sulphurous  smell,  and  also,  on  one  particular  spot, 


vapour  and  flame  to  the  height  of  several  hundred 
feet.  Of  the  mineral  resources  very  little  is  known. 
Iron-ore  has  been  found,  but  not  in  such  quantity 
and  quality  as  to  come  into  profitable  competition 
with  British  iron.  Coal  also  exists,  which  is  under- 
stood to  be  good,  but,  irom  whatever  cause,  it  has 
not  been  extensively  worked.  There  are  no  lakes  in 
the  province,  nor  are  there  any  rivers  of  much  im- 
portance, though  the  Aeng,  which  appears  to  be  the 
most  available  among  them,  is  said  to  be  navigable 
during  spring-tides  to  45  miles  from  its  mouth. 

ARACA'RI,  or  ARICARI  {Ptero(jlos.ms),  a  genus 
of  birds  closely  allied  to  the  Toucans  (see  Toucan), 
and  differing  from  them  chiefly  in  the  somewhat 
smaller  bill,  which  is  not  so  thick  as  the  head. 
They  are  generally  also  of  smaller  size,  and  the 
prevailing  colour  of  their  plumage  is  green,  often 
varied  with  brilliant  red  and  yellow.  Like  the 
toucans,  they  are  natives  of  the  warm  parts  of 
South  America. 

ARA'CE.E.     See  Arum. 

ARACHIS,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Legtiminosw,  sub-order  Papilionacece,  natives  of 
the  warm  parts  of  America,  of  which,  until  recently, 
the  only  known  species  was  the  A.  hypogna,  some- 
times called  the  underground  kidney-bean,  and  more 
frequently  the  ground-nut.  It  also  receives  the 
names  of  earth-nut,  American  earth-nut,  and  man- 
dubi.      It  is   an   annual  plant,   with   hairy   pinnate 


Arachis  hypogsea. 


leaves,  which  have  four  leaflets.  The  flowprg  are 
yellow,  the  standard  veined  with  red.  After  flower- 
ing, the  flower-stalks  elongate  and  bend  towards 
the  earth,  into  which  the  pods  penetrate,  ripening 
underground.  The  pods  have  a  lining  of  a  sort  of 
net-work,  and  generally  contain  two,  three,  or  four 
seeds,  which  are  about  the  size  of  a  hazel-nut,  of  a 
sweet  taste,  with  a  little  of  the  flavour  which  belongs 
to  most  kinds  of  pulse.  This  plant  is  now  cultivated 
in  all  the  warm  regions  of  the  globe,  and  its  useful- 
ness is  such  that  its  cultivation  is  likely  to  extend. 
It  was  introduced  from  Peru  into  Spain,  and  thence 
into  France.  It  succeeds  in  favourable  situations 
even  in  the  middle  of  France,  where  it  is  sown  after 
all  danger  of  frost  is  thought  to  be  over,  and  yields, 
from  eighty  to  one  hundred  fold.     Its  cultivation  is 

351 


ARACHNroA— ARAGO. 


BO  general  in  the  western  parts  of  Africa,  and  even 
in  the  interior,  that  doubts  have  been  therefore 
entertained  of  its  American  origin,  of  which,  how- 
ever, the  most  eminent  botanists  seem  to  be  quite 
satisfied.  The  seeds  are  sometimes  eaten  raw,  but 
more  generally  boiled  or  roasted.  In  New  Spain, 
and  in  some  parts  of  Africa,  they  form  one  of  the 
principal  articles  of  food  ;  but  the  importance  of  the 
plant  is  chiefly  owing  to  the  fixed  oil  contained  in 
them,  which  is  used  for  the  same  purposes  as  olive 
or  almond  oil,  and  is  quite  equal  to  olive  oil  either 
for  lamps  or  for  the  table.  This  oil  is  also  much 
used  in  Spain  in  the  manufacture  of  soap  and 
of  chocolate.  A  bushel  of  the  seeds  yields  one 
gallon  of  oil,  when  expressed  cold  ;  if  heat  is  applied, 
the  quantity  is  greater,  but  the  quality  inferior.  It 
has  become  a  considerable  article  of  commerce.  The 
A.  hypogcea  delights  in  a  light  and  sandy,  but  at  the 
same  time  fertile,  soil.  The  seeds  are  dug  up  as 
roots  or  tubers  usually  are.  The  root  has  qualities 
resembling  those  of  liquorice,  for  which  it  is  some- 
times used.  The  herbage  is  good  food  for  cattle. 
Several  new  species  of  this  genus  have  been  dis- 
covered in  Brazil. 

ARA'CHNIDA,  or  ARACHNIDES  (from  the  Gr. 
arachne,  a  spider),  a  class  of  articulated  animals, 
commonly  regarded  as  intermediate  between  insects 
and  Crustacea.  They  were  included  by  Linnjeus 
amongst  insects,  and  placed  in  the  order  Aptera. 
Like  the  Crustacea,  they  have  the  head  and  thorax 
united  into  one  piece,  but  they  differ  from  them  and 
from  insects  in  having 
simple  eyes,  and  in 
the  absence  of  proper 
antennte,  instead  of 
which  many  of  them 
arc  provided  with  a 
sort  of  antennal  claws 
called  chelicerce.  These 
and  other  organs  con- 
nected with  a  complex 
mouth, disappear,  how- 
ever, in  some  of  the 
lower  kinds,  which 
have  merely  a  sort  of 
proboscis  for  suction. 
Some  of  them  breathe 
by  means  of  pulmonary  cavities  ;  others  by  tracheae, 
like  insects;  and  upon  this  difference  is  founded 
the  primary  division  of  the  class  into  two  orders 
— Pidmonaria  and  Trachearia.  Spiders  and  scor- 
pions belong  to  the  first  of  these  orders,  and  mites, 
ticks,  &c.  {Acari)  to  the  second.  Some  of  the  A. 
inhabit  water,  but  their  mode  of  respiration  is 
that  of  terrestrial  animals;  and  they  seem  to  carry 
air  with  them  by  means  of  the  hair  which  covers 
their  bodies.  The  sexes  are  distinct.  They  are 
oviparous.  They  have  two  or  more  eyes,  very 
frequently  eight;  and  the  relative  position  of  these 
affords  marks  for  distinction  of  genera.  They 
have  generally  eight  legs,  but  some  have  only  six. 
With  the  exception  of  the  acari,  they  are  soHtary 
in  their  mode  of  life,  and  most  of  them  prey  upon 
insects,  of  which,  however,  in  general,  they  only 
suck  the  blood.  Some  of  the  lower  kinds  are 
parasitic  upon  insects,  and  a  few  live  on  decaying 
animal  and  vegetable  substances.  (See  Acarus, 
Mite,  Scorpion,  Spider,  and  Tick.) 

ARA'CIINOID  MEMBRANE,  one  of  the  three 
coverings  of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord,  is  a  thin, 
glistening,  serous  membrane,  which,  by  its  parietal 
layer,  adheres  inseparably  to  the  dura-mater  on  its 
outer  side,  and  more  loosely  to  the  pia-mater  which 
is  between  it  and  the  brain  substance.  Between  the 
pia-'uater  and  the  A.  M.  in  some  situations  there  I 
C5a 


Mygale  fodiens. 


are  considerable  intervals  (sub-arachnoid  spaces), 
they  arc  tilled  with  a  fluid  named  cerebro-spinal,  the 
presence  of  which  is  necessary  to  the  proper  action 
of  the  nervous  centres.  See  Cerebro-Spinal-Flcid 
— Pia-Matkr. 

ARAB,  a  town  in  the  district  of  A.  in  Upper 
Hungary.  It  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Marosh,  an  affluent  of  the  Theiss,  and  is  also  styled 
Old  A.,  to  distinguish  it  from  Is^ew  A.,  which  is 
built  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river.  A.  has  a 
population  of  19,564,  including  many  Jews,  who  are 
very  wealthy.  It  carries  on  a  large  trade  in  corn, 
tobacco,  &c ,  and  was  at  one  time  the  greatest 
cattle-market  in  Hungary,  and  is  even  yet  only 
inferior  to  Pesth  and  Bebreczin.  During  the  17th 
c,  it  was  often  captured,  and  at  last  destroyed 
by  the  Turks.  Its  new  fortifications,  erected  in 
1763,  made  A.  an  important  position  in  the  revolu- 
tionary war  of  1849,  when  it  was  occupied  for  a 
considerable  time  by  the  Austrian  general  Berger,who 
capitulated  here  in  July  1840.  From  this  place 
Kossuth  issued  his  proclamation  of  August  11,  1849, 
in  which  he  expressed  in  impassioned  terms  his 
despair  of  the  Hungarian  cause  for  the  present. 
After  the  catastrophe  of  Vilagos,  on  the  17th  August, 
A.  was  surrendered  to  the  Russians  through  the 
treachery  of  Gijrgcy. 

New  a.,  a  town  in  the  Banat  of  Temesvar,  contains 
some  4600  inhabitants,  including  many  Germans, 
who  are  the  principal  persons  in  the  place.  The 
district  or  province  of  A.  has  an  area  of  17(iO  square 
miles,  and  contains  about  260,000  inhabitants.  The 
eastern  district  is  occupied  by  a  branch-chain  of 
the  Carpathian  mountains,  which  contain  marble 
quarries,  and  mines  of  copper  and  iron  ;  the  west  is 
level,  and  produces  wheat,  maize,  and  several  varie- 
ties of  wine,  as  well  as  abundance  of  fruits.  The 
inhabitants  are  chiefly  Wallachians. 
AR.EO'METER.  See  Areometer. 
ARAFAT,  MoTTNT,  or  Jehelcr-rahme  ('  Moun- 
tain of  Mercy'),  is  a  granite  hill  about  15  miles 
S.E.  of  Mecca,  which  is  believed  by  the  Moham- 
medans to  be  the  spot  where  Adam,  conducted  by 
the  angel  Gabriel,  met  again  his  wife  Eve,  after  a 
punitive  separation  of  200  years,  on  account  of  their 
disobedience  in  Paradise.  It  is  not  above  200  feet 
high,  but  its  circuit  is  a  mile  and  a  half.  Its 
importance  since  the  time  of  Mohammed  arises 
from  its  being  the  scene  of  a  yearly  procession  of  the 
faithful  who  visit  Mecca.  Burckhardt,  who  wit- 
nessed the  procession  of  1814,  states  that  not  less 
than  70,000  people  were  present,  and  that  at  least 
forty  different  languages  were  spoken.  The  principal 
part  of  the  religious  ceremony  of  this  pilgrimage  is 
a  sermon,  the  hearing  of  which  entitles  all  to  the 
name  and  privileges  of  a  Hadji. 

A'RAGO,  Dominique,  a  celebrated  French 
astronomer  and  natural  philosopher,  was  born 
February  26,  1786,  at  Estagel  near  Perpignan,  in 
the  department  of  the  Eastern  Pyrenees.  At  the 
early  age  of  seventeen,  he  entered  the  Polytechnic 
School  at  Paris,  where  the  spirit,  promptitude,  and 
vivid  intelligence  he  exhibited  in  his  answers  to  the 
questions  of  Legendre,  excited  the  admiration 
of  every  one.  In  1804,  he  became  secretary  to  the 
Observatory  at  Paris.  Two  years  afterwards,  he 
was  engaged,  with  Biot  and  others,  by  the  French 
government,  to  carry  out  the  measurement  of  an  arc 
of  the  meridian,  which  had  been  commenced  by 
Delambre  and  Mechain.  A.  and  Biot  had  to  extend 
it  from  Barcelona  to  the  Balearic  Isles.  The  two 
sava7ts  established  themselves  on  the  summit  of 
Mount  Galatza,  one  of  the  highest  of  the  Catalonian 
branch  of  the  Eastern  Pyrenees.  Here  they  lived 
for  many  months,  communicating  by  signals  with 


ARAGO— ARAGOX. 


their  Spanish  coUaborateurs,  across  the  Mediterranean 
in  tlie  httle  isle  of  Iviga,  though  many  a  nipht  the 
furious  tfinpests  destroyed  their  hut  along  with  the 
hil)()urs  of  weeks.  Visitors  tiiey  had  none,  except  two 
Carthusian  monks,  who  were  wont  to  come  up  and 
spend  a  portion  of  tlio  evening  in  converse  w  itli  them. 
Before  A.  h;id  completed  his  calculations,  Biot  had 
returned  to  France,  and  war  had  l)roKen  out  betwixt 
the  two  nations.  A.  was  now  lield  to  be  a  sj>y  ;  iiis 
signals  were  interrupted  ;  and  witli  great  dilheulty  he 
succeeded  in  making  his  escape  to  Miijorca,  where 
he  voluntarily  imprisoned  himself  in  the  citadel 
of  Belver,  near  I'alma.  At  last  he  obtained  his 
liberty  on  condition  of  proceeding  to  Algiers,  which 
he  did;  but  was  captured,  on  his  return  to  France, 
by  a  Spanish  cruiser,  and  sent  to  the  hulks  at 
Palamos.  He  was,  liowever,  liberated  after  a  time, 
and  sailed  once  more  for  France ;  but  almost  as  he 
was  entering  the  port  of  Marseilles,  a  tempest  arose 
wliieh  drove  the  vessel  across  the  Mediterranean  all 
the  way  to  Algiers.  The  former  dey,  to  whose 
demands  he  had  owed  his  liberation  from  the  hulks, 
was  dead  ;  his  successor,  a  ferocious  tyrant,  placed 
bim  on  his  list  of  slaves,  and  intended  to  employ  him 
as  interpreter.  After  some  time,  he  was  released  at 
the  request  of  the  French  consul,  and,  narrowly 
escaping  another  capture  by  an  English  frigate, 
finally  found  his  way  to  Marseilles  in  July  1809.  As 
a  reward  for  his  suffering  in  the  cause  of  science,  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  suspended  its  standing  rules  in 
his  favour ;  and  though  only  twenty-three  years  of 
age,  he  was  elected  member  in  the  place  of  Lalande, 
who  had  just  died,  and  was  appointed  Professor  of 
Analytical  Mathematics  in  the  Polytechnic  School. 
Afterwards,  his  attention  was  devoted  more  to 
astronomy,  magnetism,  galvanism,  and  the  polarisa- 
tion of  light.  Ill  1811,  he  read  a  paper  to  the 
Academy,  which  may  be  considered  the  foundation 
of  'chromatic  polarisation.'  In  1812,  he  commenced 
his  extraordinary  course  of  lectures  on  astronomy, 
&c.,  which  fascinated  all  Paris — the  savans,  by  their 
scientific  rigour  and  solidity  ;  the  many,  by  their 
brilliancy  of  style.  In  1816,  along  with  Gay 
Lussac,  A.  established  the  Annales  de  Chimie 
et  de  Phi/aique,  and  confirmed  the  truth  of  the 
undulatory  theory  of  light.  In  the  same  year  he 
visited  England  for  the  first  time,  and  made  the 
acquaintance  of  various  persons  distinguished  in 
science,  especially  Dr.  Thomas  Young.  In  1818 
appeared  Ids  Keciieil  d' Observations  fjeodesiqucs, 
ax/ronomifjiies,  el  physiques.  In  1820,  he  turned  his 
facile  and  inventive  genius  into  a  new  channel,  and 
made  several  important  discoveries  in  electro- 
magnetism.  Oersted  had  shewn  that  a  magnetic 
needle  was  deflected  by  a  voltaic  current  passing 
along  a  wire.  A.  pursued  the  investigation,  and 
found  that  not  only  a  magnetic  needle,  but  even  non- 
magnetic substances,  such  as  rods  of  iron  or  steel, 
became  subject  to  deflection  also,  exhibiting,  during 
the  action  of  the  voltaic  current,  a  positive  magnetic 
power,  which,  however,  ceased  with  the  cessation  of 
the  current.  Some  time  after,  he  demonstrated  that 
a  bar  of  copper,  and  other  non-magnetic  metals, 
■when  moved  circularly,  exert  a  noticeable  influence 
on  the  magnetic  needle.  For  this  discovery  of  the 
development  of  magnetism  by  rotation,  he  obtained, 
in  1825,  the  Copley  Medal  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
London;  and  in  1834,  when  he  again  visited  Great 
Britain,  especial  honours  were  paid  to  him  by  the 
friends  of  science  in  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow.  Four 
years  previous  to  this  second  visit  to  Great  Britain, 
he  had  received  the  honour  he  most  coveted — that  of 
being  made  Perpetual  Secretary  of  the  Academy. 
It  was  while  holding  this  office  that  he  wrote  his 
famous  eloges  of  deceased  members,  the  beauty  of 
which  has  given  him  so  high  a  place  among  French 
23 


prose-writers.  As  a  politician,  also,  his  career  was 
remarkable.  He  was  a  keen  republican,  and  took 
a  prominent  part  in  the  July  revolution  (1830). 
In  the  following  year  he  was  elected  by  Perpignau 
as  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  where  he 
occupied  a  position  on  the  extreme  left.  In  the 
February  revolution  of  1848,  he  was  chosen  a  mem- 
ber of  the  provisional  government,  and  appointed 
minister  of  war  and  marine.  In  this  position  he 
resisted  the  proposed  measures  of  the  Socialist  party, 
regarding  the  constitution  of  the  United  States  as  the 
beau-ideal  of  democracy.  His  popularity  in  his  own 
province  was  the  means  of  preventing  the  discon- 
tented population  of  the  East  Pyrenees  from 
proceeding  to  lawless  and  violent  measures.  On 
the  question  of  the  presidency,  A.  opposed  Louis 
Napoleon,  declared  himself  against  the  policy  of  the 
new  ministry,  and  refused  to  take  the  oath  of 
allegiance  after  the  coup  d'Hat  of  1852.  The 
emperor,  in  a  letter,  paid  a  high  eulogium  on  his 
talents  and  virtues,  and  made  a  special  exception  in 
his  case.  A.  died  October  3,  1853.  In  his  general 
character  A.  was  sociable,  energetic,  and  fond  of 
fame.  He  was  the  intimate  friend  of  Alexander 
von  Humboldt. 

Arago,  Jacques  £tienne  Victor,  brother  of  the 
great  savant,  was  born  in  1790.  In  1817  he  accom- 
panied the  expedition,  under  Freycinet,  in  a  voyage 
round  the  world.  Afterwards,  we  find  him  engaged, 
first  at  Bourdeaux,  and  then  at  Toulouse,  in  several 
branches  of  light  literature,  industriously  writing,  in 
company  with  other  scribes,  a  multitude  of  vaude- 
villes, besides  publishing  several  poems  and  romances. 
In  the  year  1835,  he  undertook  the  management  of 
the  theatre  at  Rouen ;  but  having  become  afflicted 
with  blindness,  he  was  compelled  to  resign  this  post 
in  1837.  To  his  early  voyage  round  the  world,  we 
owe  two  very  pleasant  books  of  travel :  Promenade 
ardour  du  Monde  (Paris,  1838);  Souvenir  d'nn 
aveur/le,  Voyage  autour  du  Monde  (Paris,  1838). 
In  1849,  though  deprived  of  sight,  he  formed  a  com- 
pany of  speculators ;  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  it, 
and  departed  for  California,  to  search  for  gold  on  a 
large  scale.  His  companions  mutinied,  and  left  him, 
deserted  and  disappointed,  at  Valparaiso.  On  his 
return,  he  published  his  painful  experiences,  under 
the  title.  Voyage  d^un  avetigh  en  Californie  et  daiis- 
les  Regions  auriferes  (Paris,  1851).  He  died,  January 
1,  1855. — A.,  Etiennk,  another  brother  of  the  astro- 
nomer, was  born  1803,  and  is  well  known  in  France 
as  a  Yio\in\a.T  feuilletonist  in  the  Siecle,  and  other  jour- 
nals He  held  an  appointment  under  the  provisional 
government,  as  director-general  of  the  post-office, 
in  which  he  displayed  great  vigour,  promptitude,  and 
sense,  and  achieved  several  postal  reforms ;  was 
elected  member  of  the  National  Assembly  ;  was  com- 
promised by  the  insurrection  in  June,  and  sentenced 
to  exile  for  life.  He  went  to  Belgium,  from  which 
the  French  government  secured  his  expulsion  ;  then 
to  England,  Holland,  Geneva ;  and  finally  to  Turin, 
where  he  has  devoted  himself  to  literary  labours. — 
A.  Jean,  another  of  the  brothers  A.,  born  1789,  died 
1836,  was  general  of  the  republican  army  in  Mexico, 
and  wrote,  in  Spanish,  a  history  of  Mexico. 

A'RAGON,  a  province  in  the  north-east  of  Spain,, 
situated  between  40°  2'  and  42°  54'  N.  lat.,  and 
long.  2°  10'  W.,  and  0'  45'  E.  Greatest  length  from 
north  to  south,  190  miles;  breadth,  130.  Area, 
14,710  square  miles.  Pop.  (1864)  921,305.  It  is 
bounded,  N.  by  the  Pyrenees,  separating  it  from 
France ;  W.,  by  Navarre,  and  Old  and  New  Castile  ; 
S.,  by  Valencia,  and  part  of  New  Castile ;  and 
E.,  by  Catalonia,  and  part  of  Valencia.  The  river 
Ebro,  which  descends  from  the  northern  heights 
of   Old  Castile,   flows   through    the   middle   of  A. 

853 


ARAGUAY— ARALIA. 


in  a  south-easterly  direction,  rceeivin<^  mnnoroiis 
tributaries  both  from  the  lofty  regions  of  the  Pyre- 
nees, and  from  the  Sierras  in  the  south;  of  the 
former,  the  principal  are — the  Noguera,  which  forms 
the  boundary-line  between  Aragon  and  Catalonia, 
the  Essera,  and  the  Gallega ;  of  the  latter,  the  prin- 
cipal are — the  Guadalope,  the  San  Martin,  and  the 
Salon.  The  province  is  naturally  divided  into  the 
level  country,  along  the  Ebro,  and  the  northern  moun- 
tainous district  of  Upper  Aragon.  The  central  plain 
is  sterile,  poorly  supplied  with  water,  and  inter- 
sected by  deep  ravines  {barancos).  Agriculture  is 
here  confined  to  the  raising  of  maize,  vines,  and 
olives ;  but  on  the  sides  of  the  Ebro,  where  water 
abounds,  rice  and  other  grains  are  abumiantly  pro- 
duced ;  and  in  the  valleys  of  Upper  A.,  wliicli  are  at 
once  the  most  beautiful  and  fertile  of  all  the  Pyre- 
nean  valleys,  we  find  a  splendid  vegetation,  and  a 
soil  that  enables  the  inhabitants,  in  spite  of  the 
wretchedness  of  their  agriculture,  to  grow  consider- 
able quantities  of  wheat,  rye,  maize,  barley,  &c.  The 
climate  of  the  province  is  various ;  comparatively 
cool  in  the  mountain-districts,  but  often  very  sultry 
on  the  plains.  Spurs  of  the  Pyrenees  strike  down 
into  the  province  a  long  way.  It  is  between  these 
ridges  tliat  the  rich  valleys  lie,  some  of  them 
upwards  of  20  miles  long.  The  slopes  of  the  hills 
are  clothed  with  forests  of  oak,  beech,  and  pine,  and 
the  felled  timber  is  floated  down  the  rivers  into  tlie 
Ebro,  and  thence  down  to  Tortosa  at  its  mouth.  The 
minerals  of  the  province  are  copper,  lead,  iron,  salt, 
alum,  saltpetre,  coal,  and  amber.  The  manufactures 
are  inconsiderable.  A.,  peopled  by  a  brave,  active, 
enduring,  but  obstinate  race,  has  frequently  been  the 
arena  of  sanguinary  warfare.  It  early  became  a 
Roman  province;  and,  on  the  fall  of  the  Empire, 
passed  into  the  hands  of  the  West-Goths,  but  was 
conquered  by  the  Moors  in  the  beginning  of  the  Sth  c. 
The  rulers  of  A.,  after  it  had  been  recovered  from 
the  Moors,  and  united  with  Catalonia  (1137),  became 
powerftd  ;  obtained  possession  of  the  Balearic  Isles  in 
121.3,  of  Sicily  in  1282,  of  Sardinia  in  ]r,2(),  and  of 
Naples  in  14t0.  By  the  mariiage  of  Ferdinand  wlih 
I.-abella,  heiress  of  Castile,  in  1469,  the  two  states  of 
A.  and  Castile  were  united,  and  formed  the  foundation 
of  the  great  Spanish  monarchy.  After  Ferdinand's 
death  in  1516,  the  union  of  the  states  was  made  per- 
manent. In  the  war  with  the  French,  1S08 — 9,  Sara- 
■gossa,  the  capital  of  A.,  was  remarkable  for  its  heroic 
defence  under  Palafox ;  and  in  the  latest  Spanish 
wars,  the  people  of  A.  have  displayed  the  same 
eourage  which  marked  their  conduct  on  that  memor- 
able occasion.  Upper  A,  was  on  the  side  of  the 
queen ;  but  lower  A.  generally  adhered  to  the  party 
of  Don  Carlos.  The  province  is  now  divided  into 
three  departments — Saragossa,  TerucI,  and  Huesca. 
The  chief  towns  are  Saragossa,  Calatayud,  Huesca, 
and  Teruel.     See  Saragossa,  &c. 

ARAGUAY',  a  large  river  of  Brazil,  rising  in 
S.  lat.  18"  10'  and  W.  long.  51'  30°.  Like  most  of  the 
considerable  rivers  of  the  country,  it  flows  towards 
the  N.  After  a  course  of  about  1000  miles  to  San 
Joao,  it  there  joins  the  Tocantins,  which  again,  after 
a  northerly  course  of  300  miles  more,  mingles  its 
estuary  with  that  of  the  Amazon  round  the  Isle 
of  Marajo.  Like  most  of  the  rivers  in  this  part  of 
Brazil,  the  A.  is  of  difficult  navigation,  being  fre- 
quently interrupted  by  rapids. 

A'RAL,  Lake,  next  to  the  Caspian  Sea,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  the  plateau  of  Ust-Urt,  is 
the  largest  lake  in  the  steppes  of  Asia.  It  lies 
in  Independent  Tartary,  between  43°  42'  and  46° 
44'  N.  lat.,  and  58°  18'  and  61°  46'  E.  long.  Length 
from  N.  to  S.,  265  miles ;  breadth,  125.  It  is  fed 
by  the  river  Sir  (the  ancient  Jaxartes)  on  the  K  E. 
354 


side,  and  the  Amu  (or  aneii-nt  Oxus)  on  the  S.  E.  It 
is  worthy  of  rema-.k  that  Lieutenant  Wood,  in  1838, 
found  the  source  of  the  O.xus  in  Lake  Serikol  at  an 
elevation  of  15,600  feet,  as  described  by  Marco 
Polo  in  the  13th  c.  Lake  A.  prolongs  itself  at 
the  south-west  in  a  vast  marshy  swamp  of  8()  or 
100  miles,  called  Lake  Landau.  It  is  on  the  same 
level  as  the  Caspian,  and  at  a  remote  period  was 
probably  connected  with  it.  IIuTnl)oidt  supposes  it 
to  have  been  simply  an  cidargcment  of  the  Oxus, 
when  the  latter  was  a  tributary  of  the  Caspian.  It  is 
shallow,  has  no  outlet,  and  is  supposed  to  be  de- 
creasing in  size  on  account  of  the  excessive  evapo- 
ration. Like  other  lakes  which  arc  drained  only  by 
evaporation,  it  is  brackish.  The  middle  of  the  west 
coast  is  the  only  spot  where  the  scenery  is  at  all 
impressive.  The  rocks  there,  which  form  the  east- 
ern edge  of  the  plateau  of  Ust-Urt,  open  boldly  and 
abruptly  on  the  water  in  precipices  500  feet  high. 
A  numerous  group  of  small  islands  occu[)ie3  the 
southern  end.  It  contains  sturgeon  and  other  fish, 
which  supply  food  to  the  nomadic  hordes  on  the 
coasts. 

AR.V'LIA,  a  genus  of  plants,  the  type  of  the 
natural  order  Arafiacew.  This  order  is  dicotyle- 
donous or  exogenous,  and  consists  of  trees,  shrubs, 
and  herbaceous  plants,  resembling  the  UtubeHifcra: 
(q.  v.)  both  in  their  general  habit  ami  in  their 
botanical  characters,  but  differing  c.-sentially  in  the 
fruit,  which  is  not  didifmous  or  formed  of  two 
separable  carpels  as  in  tlie  I'liiht/lifoye.  Tlie  fruit 
of  the  Araliaceaj  consists  of  several  ono-seedcd  cells, 
and  is  often  suc^tnent.  The  order  contains  about 
160  known  species,  natives  of  tropical,  temperate, 
and  cold  climates,  generally  possessing  stimulant 
and  aromatic  properties.  Poisonous  qualities  are  not 
developed  as  in  the  Vrnbcllifera;.  The  herbage  of 
many  species  affords  good  food  for  cattle,  and  some 
arc  used  for  human  food.  The  genus  Aralia  con- 
tains a  considerable  number  of  species — trees,  shrubs, 
and  herbaceous  plants.  It  has  a  succulent  fruit, 
with  5  or  10  celU,  crowned  with  the  styles.  A. 
nudicaulis  is  a  native  of  the  United  States  of  America, 
a  species  of  humble  growth,  having  a  solitary  radical 
leaf  with  a  trifid  stalk  and  ovate  serrated  segments, 
the  scape  is  shorter  than  the  le  if.  The  root  is  said 
to  be  equal  in  value  to  sarsaparilla  as  an  alterative 
and  tonic.  A.  racnnoxa.  A.  npiitoxa,  and  A.  hispida, 
also  natives  of  North  America,  produce  an  aromatic 
gum  rosin.  A.  spinoxa  is  a  stimulant  diaphoretic 
The  berries,  infused  in  wine  or  spirits,  are  employed 
in  America  as  a  cure  for  rheumatism.  It  is  some- 
times called  Toothache-tree :  it  also  bears  the  name 
of  Angelica-tree.  It  is  a  native  of  moist  woods  in 
Virginia  and  Carolina,  growing  to  a  height  of  10  or 
12  feet,  with  a  single  stem,  spreading  head,  doubly 
and  trebly  pinnate  leaves,  and  ovate  leaflets,  and  is 
very  ornamental  in  a  lawn.  A.  po'arix,  foimd  in  the 
southern  island  of  New  Zealand,  and  in  the  greatest 
abundance  and  luxuriance  in  Lord  Auckl.ind's 
Islands,  is  described  by  Dr.  Hooker  as  a  "  very  mag- 
nificent plant,"  a  herbaceous  perennial,  4 — 5  feet  high, 
with  large  orbicular  masses  of  green  foliage  and  waxy 
flowers,  presenting  a  very  striking  appearance.  A. 
edulis,  now  called  Dimorphantfnts  cdulis,  is  employed 
in  China  as  a  sudorific.  Its  shoots  are  very  delicate 
and  pleasant  when  boiled ;  and  the  roots,  which 
have  an  agreeable  aromatic  flavour,  are  used  by  tlie 
Japanese  as  carrots  or  parsnips  are  in  Europe. 
Aralias  abound  in  the  warm  valleys  of  the  Himalaya. 
The  natives  collect  the  leaves  of  many  as  fodder  for 
cattle,  for  which  purpose  they  are  of  great  value  in  a 
country  where  grass  for  pasture  is  scarce ;  but  the 
use  of  this  food  gives  a  peculiar  taste  to  the  butter. 
Chinese  rice  paper  has  been  ascertained  to  be  cut  from 
cylinders  of  the  pith  of  an  A.     Ginseng  (.j.  v.),  the 


ARAM— ARAN  J  UEZ. 


root  of  a  species  of  Panax,  is  one  of  the  most 
important  products  of  the  order  Araliacew.  The 
astringent  roots  of  Gunnera  scahra,  or  Panke,  are 
used  in  tanning,  but  its  fleshy  Ica'-stalks  are  eaten 
like  those  of  rhuliarb.  It  has  been  seen  on  the 
sand-stone  cliffs  of  Chiloe  with  leaves  nearly  eight 
feet  in  diameter,. each  plant  with  four  or  five  of  these 
enormous  leaves.  It  has  been  introduced  into  Britain, 
and  is  found  to  succeed  well  in  the  climate  of  Edin- 
burgh. The  only  representatives  of  this  order  in  tlie 
British  flora  are  the  Ivy  (q.  v.),  and  a  small  plant 
called  the  Tuberous  Moschatel  {Adoxa  moschatel- 
lina). 

ARAM,  Eu'gene,  was  born  in  1704  at  Ramsgill, 
in  Yorkshire.  His  father  was  a  gardener,  and  could 
afford  to  keep  A.  at  school  only  for  a  short  time  ; 
but  even  while  assisting  his  father,  he  contrived 
to  gratify  his  passion  for  learning.  At  an  early 
period  of  his  life  he  married,  and  became  a 
schoolmaster,  first  in  Netherdale,  and  afterwards 
at  Knaresborough,  where  he  continued  to  reside 
till  1745.  In  the  town  of  Knaresborough  lived 
one  Daniel  Clarke,  a  shoemaker,  and  an  intimate 
acquaintance  of  A.'s.  On  one  occasion  Clarke 
happened  to  purchase  a  quantity  of  valualjle  goods, 
which  he  easily  obtained  on  credit ;  but  to  the 
surprise  of  everybody,  he  soon  after  disappeared,  and 
no  trace  of  hira  could  be  discovered.  Suspicion 
lighted  upon  A.,  not  as  Clarke's  murderer,  but  as  his 
confederate  in  swindling  the  public.  His  garden 
was  searched,  and  in  it  was  found  a  portion  of  the 
goods  which  Clarke  had  purchased.  A.  was  arrested 
and  tried,  but  acquitted  for  want  of  evidence.  He 
now  left  his  w^ife  at  Knaresborough,  and  went  to 
London,  and  other  parts  of  England,  in  his  capacity 
of  schoolmaster,  and  in  spite  of  his  nomadic  mode 
of  life,  contrived  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  botany, 
heraldry,  Chaldee,  Arabic,  Welsh,  and  Irish,  and 
was  planning  a  great  etymological  work,  to  be 
entitled,  '  A  Comparative  Lexicon  of  the  English, 
Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew,  and  Celtic  languages,'  when 
he  was  suddenly  dragged  away  from  his  ushership 
of^  Lynn  Academy,  in  Norfolk,  and  committed  to 
prison  on  a  charge  of  murder. 

The  circumstances  of  the  remaining  portion  of  the 
story  are  pretty  well  known.  In  1759,  a  skeleton  was 
dug  up  near  Knaresliorough,  wliich  the  inhabitants 
suspected  to  be  that  of  Clarke,  for  they  had  now  come 
to  the  conclusion  that  the  unfortunate  man  had  met 
with  foul-play,  especially  as  A.'s  wife  had,  on  several 
occasions,  made  strange  statements  to  the  effect  that 
her  husband  and  a  man  named  Houseman,  knew  more 
of  Clarke's  disappearance  than  they  chose  to  admit. 
Houseman  was  now  confronted  with  a  bone  of  a  skele- 
ton which  had  been  discovered.  He  very  emphatically 
denied  that  it  was  Clarke's.  People  naturally  wonder- 
ed how  he  could  be  so  positive,  the  bones  of  skeletons 
being,  to  the  uneducated  eye,  so  similar  in  appearance. 
They  became  convinced  that  if  the  skeleton  was  not 
Clarke's,  Houseman  must  know  where  the  latter  was. 
At  last  he  confessed  that  he  had  been  a  spectator  of  the 
murder  of  Clarke  by  A.  and  one  Terry.  He  named 
the  place  where  the  body  had  been  hidden.  It  was 
searched,  the  buried  skeleton  was  dug  up,  and  A.  was 
tried  at  York,  for  the  murder  of  Clarke,  on  the  3d 
Augsut  1759.  What  has  given  so  extraordinary  an 
eclat  to  this  trial,  is  the  fact  that  A.  conducted  his  own 
defence.  He  attacked  with  great  acumen,  plausibility, 
and  curious  erudition,  the  doctrine  of  circumstantikl 
evidence  ;  but  to  no  effect,  for  a  verdict  of  guilty  was 
returned,  and  he  w;is  condemned  to  be  executed  "three 
days  afterwards.  In  the  interval,  he  confessed  his  guiit 
to  t'ne  clergyman  who  attended  him.  While  in  the 
condemned  cell,  he  wrote  a  defence  of  suicide ;  but 
failed  in  a  practical  illustration  of  the  doctrine,  which 
he  forthwith  attempted. 


ARAM^E'A  (from  the  Hebrew  word  Armn^  signi- 
fying the  highland  in  ojiposition  to  the  lowland%t 
Canaan)  includes  the  whole  of  the  country  situated 
to  the  north-east  of  Palestine.  Its  boundaries, 
though  not  rigorously  defined,  were  as  follows :  N.* 
by  Mount  Taurus  ;  E.,  by  the  Tigris  ;  S.,  by  Arabia  ; 
and  W.,  by  Araljia,  Pha-nicia,  and  Lebanon.  It 
embraced  the  countries  known  to  the  Greeks  by  the 
various  names  of  Syria,  Babylonia,  and  Mesopotamia. 
Tlie  Aramaic  language,  a  branch  of  the  Semitic,  was 
common  to  the  whole  country,  and  was  divided  into 
two  principal  dialects — the  west  Aramaic  or  Svriac, 
and  the  east  Aramaic,  or,  as  it  is  improperly  termed, 
the  Chaldee.  The  former  was  that  spoken  almost 
universally  in  Palestine  in  the  time  of  Christ.  Ever 
since  the  Babylonian  captivity,  the  pure  Hebrew,  in 
which  the  whole  of  the  Olii  Testament,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  chapters  in  Daniel  and  Ezra,  had 
been  written,  had  gradually  given  place  to  the  Ara- 
maic. ^  The  Aramaic  version  of  the  Bible  was  that 
used  in  Christ's  time,  who  quotes  from  it,  and  not 
from  the  original  Hebrew;  as,  for  instance,  the 
beginning  of  the  22d  Psalm,  which  he  repeats  on  the 
Cross.  The  Talmud,  especially  the  Babylonian, 
has  a  large  admixture  of  Aramaic  elements.  The 
Aramaic  dialect  is,  in  general,  the  harshest,  poorest, 
and  least  elaborate  of  all  the  Semitic  languages, 
and  lias  now  almost  entirely  died  out,  and  given 
place  to  the  Arabic  and  Persian.  Indeed,  it  is 
only  found  living  among  some  tribes  in  remote  dis- 
tricts of  the  mountains  of  Kurdistan,  and  in  two  or 
three  villages  in  Syria ;  yet  it  is  considered  highly 
probajjle  that  it  is  the  root  of  the  whole  cluster  of 
Semitic  tongues. 

ARA'XDA,  Pedro  Pablo  Abarca  de  Bolea, 
Count  of,  born  in  1718  of  a  distinguished  Arago- 
nese  family,  at  first  embraced  a  military  career ; 
but  having  evinced  a  remarkable  spirit  of  observa- 
tion, he  was  appointed  l)y  Charles  III.  ambassador 
to  the  court  of  Augustus  III.,  king  of  Poland  ;  which 
post  he  filled  for  seven  years.  After  his  return,  he 
was  appointed  captain-general  of  Valencia,  and  in 
1766  recalled  to  Madrid  on  account  of  its  disturbed 
state,  and  the  presidency  of  the  Council  of  Castile 
was  bestowed  on  liira.  A.  not  only  soon  restored 
order  in  the  capital,  but  limited  the  power  of  the 
Inquisition,  procured  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits 
from  Spain,  and  carried  the  salutary  terror  of 
government  into  the  recesses  of  the  Sierra  Morena, 
then  infested  by  hordes  of  ferocious  banditti.  Like 
many  other  reformers,  he  was  not  al)le  fully  to 
carry  out  his  liberal  intentions.  In  1773,  he  was 
removed  from  his  high  position  through  the  influ- 
ence of  the  clergy,  the  Dominican  monks  especially, 
and  sent  as  ambassador  to  France.  Grimaldi  suc- 
ceeded him  in  his  office,  and  after  him  Count 
Florida  Blanca  ;  but  when  the  latter  lost  his 
office  in  consequence  of  court  intrigues,  A.  returned 
to  his  position ;  soon,  however,  to  lose  it  again 
through  the  agency  of  Godoy,  Duke  of  Alcudia, 
the  queen's  favourite.  He,  however,  still  remain- 
ed President  of  the  Council  of  State,  which  he 
had  organized ;  but  upon  his  expressing  his  views 
regarding  the  war  with  France,  he  was  banished 
to  his  native  province  of  Aragon  where  he  died  in 
1799. 

ARA'KEA  AND  ARAN'E'IDyE.     See  Spider, 

ARANJU'EZ  (a  corruption  of  the  Latin  Ara- 
Jovis,  altar  of  Jupiter),  a  town  in  the  province  of 
Toledo,  Spain.  It  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Tagus,  28  miles  south  south-east  from  Madrid,  in  a 
beautifully  wooded  valley,  and  is  now  connected  with 
the  Spanish  metropolis  by  a  railway.  The  town  is 
built  in  the  Dutch  style,  has  broad  and  regular 
streets  intersecting  each  other  at  right  angles,  and  a 

855 


ARAXY— ARAS. 


population  of  SGOO.  It  is  famed  for  its  palace  and 
gardens.  The  former  was  long  a  favourite  resort  in 
spring  of  the  royal  family,  during  which  period  A. 
occasionally  reckoned  as  many  as  20,000  inhabitants  ; 
the  latter  were  laid  out  by  Philip  II.,  who  built  a 
palace  also,  for  there  was  only  a  shooting  villa  here 
during  his  father's  time,  but  a  fire  destroyed  a 
portion  of  it,  and  more  was  taken  down  by 
Philip  v.,  who  reconstructed  the  edifice  in  French 
style.  The  present  chateau  was  completed  by 
Charles  IV.  On  account  of  its  gnrdens,  the 
natives  call  A.  '  the  metropolis  of  Flora.'  These 
gardens  are  interspersed  with  numerous  summer- 
houses,  the  most  celebrated  of  which  is  the  Cam 
del  Labrador^  or  Labourer's  Cottage  ;  but  their  most 
splendid  ornament  are  the  great  elm-trees  brought 
from  England  by  Philip  II.,  which  thrive  magnifi- 
cently. They  radiate  out  from  a  central  plot  in 
twelve  distinct  rows.  A.  is  known  historically  for 
the  treaty  of  alliance  concluded  here  between 
France  and  Spain  on  the  12t;h  of  April  1772,  and  as 
the  scene  of  the  abdication  of  Charles  IV.  on  the 
18th  of  March  1808. 

ARANY,  Janos,  next  to  Petiifi  the  most  distin- 
guished of  modem  Hungarian  poets,  was  born  at 
JTagy-Szalonta,  in  1819.  His  father  was  a  poor 
peasant,  who  spared  no  pains  to  get  him  into 
tlie  church.  In  1832,  he  entered  the  college  at 
Dobreczin,  where  he  distinguished  liimself  by  his 
diligence  ;  but  unable  to  restrain  his  love  of  adven- 
ture, he  joined,  in  183<),  a  company  of  strolling- 
players,  with  whom  he  travelled  about  for  several 
months,  till  driven  by  necessity  and  an  upbraiding 
conscience,  he  hurried  home  to  do  what  he  could  for 
the  support  of  a  now  blind  and  aged  parent.  For 
some  time  he  was  engaged  as  a  Latin  tutor ;  but  in 
1840  he  was  appointed  notary  at  Szalonta.  He  now 
married,  and  devoted  his  whole  time  to  his  profession. 
When  the  Kisfaludy  Society  of  Pesth  ofiered  a  prize 
for  the  best  humorous  poem,  A.  sent  in,  anonymously, 
his  Az  elveszett  Alkotnulnii  (The  Lost  Constitution  of 
the  Past.)  He  was  successful.  Thus  emboldened, 
he  ventured,  in  1847,  to  forward  to  the  same  society 
the  first  part  of  a  Trilogy,  Toldi.  Struck  by  the 
beauty  of  this  purely  national  effort,  the  members 
published  it  at  their  own  expense,  and  again  rewarded 
the  author.  A.  soon  became  a  popular  favourite.  His 
reputation  penetrated  even  into  the  lowest  ranks 
of  the  community.  In  1848  appeared  his  Mnravy 
Osfroma  (Conquest  of  Murany),  which,  however, 
received  less  attention  owing  to  the  political  excite- 
ment of  the  time.  The  poet  himself  took  a  slight 
part  in  the  revolution,  but  after  the  dismal  termi- 
nation of  the  war,  he  was  allowed  to  return  to 
his  country.  Since  then  he  has  published  a  nar- 
rative poem,  Katrdin  ('  Catherine  '),  Pesth,  1850. 
Besides  which  numeroTis  stray  pieces  have  appeared 
in  the  magazines.  Some  of  his  works  have  been 
translated  into  German. 

ARAPAI'MA,  a  genus  of  fresh  water  fishes,  the 
largest  known  fresh  water  fishes  in  the  world.  They 
are  found  in  the  rivers  of  South  America,  and  are 
sometimes  taken  in  the  Rio  Xegro  1.5  feet  in 
length,  and  of  the  weight  of  4  cwt.  They  are 
taken  with  the  harpoon,  and  are  highly  esteemed  for 
food,  both  fresh  and  salted.  In  tlie  salted  state,  they 
have  begun  to  form  an  article  of  commerce,  and  are 
conveyed  in  large  quantities  to  Para.  The  genus  A. 
belongs  to  the  family  of  Clupesockhe,  a  family  of 
malacopterous  fishes,  allied  to  the  Clupeidae  or 
herring  family,  and  is  remarkable  for  the  mosaic 
work  of  strong,  bony,  compound  scales  with  wb.ieh 
the  body  is  covered.     About  six  species  are  known. 

A'RARAT  (Airarat,  in  the  old  Armenian  dialect ; 
i.  e.,  the  plains  of  the  Aryans),  the  ancient  nanie  of 
S56 


the  fertile  plateau  tlirough  wliich  flows  the  river 
Aras  or  Araxes.  It  occupies  the  centre  of  tlic 
mountainous  region  of  Armenia,  belonging  partly  to 
Turkey  and  partly  to  Russia.  Notwithstanding  the 
passage  in  Genesis  viii.  4,  where  it  is  said  that  the 
ark  rested  '  on  the  mountains  of  Ararat,'  it  lias 
become  common  to  give  the  name  A.,  not  to  th.o 
entire  range,  but  to  the  mountain  called  by  the 
Armenians  Massis  Leusar — i.  e.,  '  mountain  of  the 
ark'  (known  among  the  Turks  as  Aghri-Dagh, 
'  steep  mountain  ;' and  among  the  Persians  as  Koh-i- 
Ni'.h,  '  Noah's  mountain  '),  a  solitary  volcanic  cone 
covered  with  perpetual  snow  and  rising  to  the  height 
of  17,212  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  This,  the 
highest  elevation  of  Western  Asia,  towers  up  from  the 
eastern  edge  of  the  Armenian  table-land,  and  forma 


Mount  Ararat. 

the  point  where  the  Russian,  Turkish,  and  Persian 
territories  meet.  It  stands  in  39'  42'  N.  lat.,  and  in 
44^  35'  E.  long.  The  table-land  of  this  part  of  Armenia 
has  an  elevation  of  7000  feet,  and  out  of  this  rises 
an  isolated  and  sublime  mass  of  rock  10,000  feet 
high,  whose  gleaming  pinnacles  of  ice  are  said 
to  be  visible  to  mariners  on  the  distant  Caspian. 
The  summit  from  certain  positions  represents  the 
appearance  of  a  ship.  The  first  ascent  of  the 
mountain  was  achieved  by  the  naturalist  Parrot 
and  his  companions  in  1829.  They  did  not,  however, 
quite  reach  the  top.  In  1850,  it  was  ascended  by 
Colonel  Khoelzko,  and  a  large  party  of  Russians 
engaged  in  the  transcaucasian  triangulation. 

ARAS,  the  ancient  Araxes,  a  river  of  Armenia, 
formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Bingol-Su  and  the 
Kaleh-Su,  and  uniting  its  waters  with  those  of  the 
Kur  (ancient  Ci/ru.i)  after  a  course  of  about  500 
miles.  The  main  stream  is  the  Bingol-Su,  which 
rises  in  the  Bingol-Tagh,  in  lat.  41°  30'  N.,  and 
long.  41°  10'  E;  and  flowing  N.  N.  E.,  is  joined 
a  little  below  Ilasan-kaleh  by  the  Kaleh-Su, 
after  which  the  combined  stream  is  called  the  A. 
It  then  flows  eastward,  forming  for  some  time  the 
southern  boundary  of  the  province  of  Kars,  till  it  is 
joined  by  the  Arpa,  which  flows  into  it  from  the 
north.  After  this,  it  divides  Russian  and  Turkish 
Armenia ;  at  some  distance  to  the  south  of  Erivan  it 
turns  to  the  south-cast,  along  the  base  of  Ararat ; 
soon  after  which  it  receives  the  waters  of  the  Zcnghi, 
a  river  descending  southward  past  Erivan.  Near 
Pjulfa  it  runs  eastward  for  about  60  miles  ;  after 
which  it  runs  to  the  north-east  for  upwards  of  125 
miles,  till  it  is  joined  by  the  large  river  Kur,  descend- 
ing from  the  Caucasus  through  Georgia.  Their 
united  waters,  after  a  short  eastward  course,  turn 
suddenly  to  the  south,  and  fall  by  three  moutlis 
into  the  Gulf  of  Kizilgat  ;h,  in  the  Caspian,  in  laL 
39°  20'  N. 


ARATUS— ARAUCARIA. 


ARA'TUS,  OF  SicYo.v,  a  distinguished  Greek 
statesman,  was  born  about  271  n.o.  His  youth  fell 
among  the  party  strifes  of  his  native  town,  in  which 
his  father  Clinias,  met  his  death  ;  and  he  him- 
self was  only  saved  by  the  eObrts  of  his  aunt,  who 
had  him  secretly  conveyed  to  Argos,  whence  he  re- 
turned, in  liis  twentieth  year,  and  libeiated  Sicyon 
from  its  tyrant,  Nicoclcs,  ^151  u.c.  i^upportcd  by 
Ptolenueus  riiiladelphus,  A.  restored  the  republican 
form  of  government  to  Sicyoii,  and  united  it  with 
the  Achaian  League,  of  which  he  was  appointed 
general,  '245  n.c.  During  his  honorable  but  check- 
ered career,  this  office  was  conferred  on  him  seven- 
teen times.  His  great  object  was  to  unite  the  (Jreek 
states,  and  form  out  of  them  an  independent  nation  ; 
but  this  was  thwarted  by  their  mutual  jealousies. 
A.  was  a  brave  general,  a  skilful  tactician,  and  a 
disinterested  patriot.  He  died  by  poison  admin- 
istered to  him  by  command  of  Philip  III.  of 
Macedon. 

ARA'TUS,  OF  Soli  (or  Pompeiopolis,  in  Cilicia), 
wrote  about  270  n.c,  a  Greek  didactic  ))oem,  entitled 
Phenomena,  founded  on  the  astronomical  system  of 
Eudo.\as  of  Cnidos,  and  appended  to  it  another 
poem,  Diotiemeia,  giving  rules  for  prognostication  of 
the  weather.  A  pure  style  and  correct  versification 
mark  both  poems,  which  were  translated  into  Latin 
by  Cicero,  Cajsar  Germanicus,  and  Rufus  Festus 
Avienus.  A.  was  a  native  of  the  same  province  as 
St.  Paul,  who  quotes  from  him  in  his  speech  on  Mars' 
Hill :  '  For  as  certain  of  your  own  poets  have  said, 
AYe  also  are  his  offspring.'  The  best  edition  is  that 
by  Buhle,  2  vols.     Leipsic,  1793 — ISOl. 

ARAUCA'XIA,  that  portion  of  Chili  which  lies 
between  the  Biobio  on  the  N.  and  the  Valdivia  on 
the  S.  But,  though  thus  embosomed  as  it  were 
within  Chili,  it  forms  an  aboriginal  state,  which  is 
virtually  independent  of  that  republic.  A.  extends 
in  S.  hit.  from  30°  4-1'  to  39"  50',  and  in  W.  long,  from 
70^  to  74°  30' — its  length  being  about  1(^0  miles,  and 
its  general  breadth  from  the  shore  of  t!ie  Pacific  to 
the  crest  of  the  Andes  being  150.  This  country, 
comprising  perhaps  about  25,000  square  miles,  is  di- 
vided from  north  to  south  into  four  parallel  regions, 
varying  from  each  other,  with  tolerable  regularity,  in 
soil  and  climate.  These  are  the  coast  region,  the 
plain  region,  the  region  of  the  Lower  Andes,  and  the 
region  of  the  Higher  Andes.  The  productions  of  A. 
are  sinular  to  those  of  Chili.  The  population  cannot 
be  acciu-ately  estimated  on  account  of  the  independ- 
ence of  the  nation  ;  but  from  their  successful  resist- 
ance to  the  Spaniards,  it  must  be  presumed  to  be 
comparatively  dense. 

A.  has  the  proud  distinction  of  being  the  only  por- 
tion of  the  New  World  that  has  never  received  the 
European  yoke.  From  the  days  of  Pizai'ro  and 
Almiigro  downwards,  it  has  uniformly  vindicated  its 
freedom — its  wars  of  independence  having  lasted, 
with  intervals  of  precarious  truce,  from  1537  to  1773. 
As  eaily  as  1568,  the  Araucanians,  taking  a  lesson 
from  their  enemy,  brought  into  the  field  some  squad- 
rons of  cavalry;  and  in  the  war  between  Chili  and 
Spain,  some  Araucanian  youtlis  of  the  first  rank  served 
as  olHcers  in  the  republican  armies. 

ARAUCA'RLA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Conifcrw  (q.  v.)  or  Pines,  consisting  of  lofty 
trees,  natives  of  the  southern  liemispliere,  and 
distinguished  by  having  the  male  and  female  ilowers 
on  separate  plants,  the  pollen  of  the  male  flowers 
contained  in  10 — 20  cases  pendent  from  the  apex  of 
each  scale,  the  female  flowers  two  under  each  scale ; 
each  having  one  ovule.  The  species  are  all  ever- 
green, the  leaves  broader  than  in  pines  and  firs, 
which,  however,  the  trees  resemble  in  iheir  general 
manner  of  growth.     A.  imhricata,  sometimes  called 


the  Cnii.i  Pine,  a  native  of  the  Andes  of  Chili, 
forming  forests  on  their  western  declivities,  attains 
a  height  of  150  feet,  the  trunk  quite  straight  and  free 


Araucaria  imbricata: 

End  (if  a  brancb,  rmich  n-dueeil.  shewing  tlie  mode  of  ramiflca* 
lion,  and  the  manner  in  which  the  leaves  are  imbricated. 


from  knots.  The  bark  of  the  young  tree  is  studded 
with  leaves  from  the  base  upwards,  even  until  12 
or  15  years  of  ago.  The  branches  are  'n\  whorls  of 
0,  7,  or  8.  Young  trees  have  branches  almost  from 
the  ground ;  old  trees  have  tall  naked  stems,  with  a 
crown  of  branches.  The  female  strobile  (cone)  is 
roundish  ovate,  8 — 10  inches  in  diameter,  the  scales 
terminated  by  a  long  awl-shaped  point,  the  seeds 
wedge-shaped,  and  more  than  an  inch  iu  length.    The 


Araucaria  imbricata: 
Sketched  in  the  Botanic  Gardens,  Edinburgh. 

outer  and  inner  bark  of  full-grown  trees  arc  each 
4 — 6  inches  in  thickness ;  the  outer  bark  of  a  cork- 
like texture  ;  the  inner,  fungous  and  porous.  From 
both  outer  and  inner  bark,  and  indeed  from  all  parts 
of  the  tree,  resin  flows  readily  and  in  great  abund- 
ance. The  leaves  are  lanceolate,  about  li^  inch  in 
length,  and  j  inch  in  breadth  near  the  base,  shar^>- 

857 


ARAUJO— ARBALESTIN'A. 


pointed.  The  tinil>cr  li  hoixvv,  solid,  hard,  fibrous, 
yellowish  white,  and  beautifully  veined.  It  is  very 
suitable  for  masta  of  ships.  The  resin,  which  is 
whito,  has  a  smell  like  frankincense,  and  a  not 
unpleasant  taste.  It  is  applied  as  a  plaster  to  con- 
tusions. The  seed  is  pleasant  to  the  taste,  not  unlike 
the  chestnut,  and  is  a  most  important  article  of  food 
to  the  Indians.  It  is  eaten  raw,  boiled,  or  roasted. 
A  spirituous  liquor  is  also  distilled  from  it.  A  sinfjle 
strobile  sometimes  contains  between  200  and  3nO 
seeds,  and  one  tree  may  be  seen  loaded  with  20  or  Si'* 
of  these  great  strobiles.  This  Araucaria  was  intro- 
duced into  Britain  in  the  end  of  last  century,  and  is 
now  pretty  frequently  planted.  It  promises  to  add 
a  new  feature  to  British  landscapes,  as  other  trees  of 
the  same  order,  particularly  the  larch  and  spruce, 
Lave  done  before,  and  will  probably  prove  important 
in  an  economical  point  of  view.  It  is  the  only 
species  which  seems  suited  to  the  climate  of  Britain. 
A.  Brasiliann,  the  Brazil  Pink,  has  loosely  imbri- 
cated lanceolate  leaves,  and  a  looser  and  more 
spreading  habit  than  A.  imhricafa.  The  seeds  or 
nuts  are  sold  as  an  article  of  food  in  Rio  Janeiro. 
The  resin  which  exudes  from  the  tree  is  nii.xed  with 
wax  to  make  candles.  A.  exceha,  now  called 
Uutassa  excelsa  (and  by  some  Altina/ji),  the  Norfolk 
Island  Pink,  a  native  of  Norfolk  Island,  New  Cale- 
donia, &c.,  attains  a  height  of  IGo — 220  feet,  free 
fiom  branches  to  80 — 100  feet,  and  with  a  trunk 
sometimes  11  feet  in  diameter.  The  wood  is  white, 
tough,  close-grained,  and  so  heavy  as  almost  to  sink 
in  water.  The  leaves  of  the  young  trees  are  linear 
and  spreading;  those  of  the  adult  are  ovate,  and 
closely  imbiicated.  The  strobiles  arc  ovate,  4 — 5 
inches  in  length.  A.  Cun7ii)i_q/ia»iii,  now  also 
ranked  in  the  new  genus  Eutanxa  or  Altinr/ia,  the 
MoRETON  Bay  Pink,  a  native  of  the  shores  of 
Moreton  Bay  and  banks  of  the  Brisbane  River  in 
New  South  Wales,  very  much  resembles  the  last. 
It  attains  a  height  of  60 — 130  feet,  and  a  diameter 
of  4 — 8  feet.  The  leaves  of  the  adult  trees  are 
lanceolate  and  imbricated.  The  wood  is  yellowish, 
and  is  used  for  boat-building,  house-carpentry,  and 
the  common  kinds  of  furniture.  Tlie  large  seeds  of 
A.  Bidn'iUii  are  used  for  food  by  the  natives  at 
Moreton  Bay. 

Certain  fossil  Conifcrce  found  in  carboniferous  sand- 
stone have  received  the  name  Arcmcaritex.  Living- 
stone found  a  forest  of  large  silicified  trees  near  the 
Zambesi,  which  Mr.  Quekett,  on  examination  of 
specimens,  ascertained  to  be  'silicified  coniferous 
wood  of  the  Araucarian  type.'  Fossil  trees  of  the 
same  type  occur  in  the  carboniferous  strata  of 
Bfitain.  A  trunk,  for  instance,  47  feet  long,  was 
found  in  Craigleith  Quarry,  near  Edinburgh,  in  1830. 

ARAUJO,  D'Azete'do  Anto'nio,  afterwards  Count 
da  Barca,  was  born  at  Sa,  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Ponte  de  Lima,  in  Portugal,  on  the  14th  of  May  1754. 
At  the  age  of  11,  he  was  sent  to  Oporto  to  study 
under  his  uncle,  who  held  a  high  military  command 
there.  In  1787  he  was  appointed  Portuguese  em- 
bassador to  the  Hague.  Before  entering  on  his  du- 
ties, he  visited  England,  where  he  omitted  no  oppor- 
tunity of  obtaining  a  knowledge  of  Enghsh  manufac- 
tures, commerce,  politics,  &c.  He  next  proceeded  to 
Paris,  where  he  similarly  employed  himself.  Soon 
after  his  arrival  at  the  Hague,  he  found  himself  en- 
tangled in  political  difficulties.  The  French  Revolu- 
tion had  broken  out,  but  the  part  which  he  plaved 
in  the  complication  of  political  aflttirs  which  ensued 
falls  to  be  treated  more  properly  under  the  History 
of  Portugal  (q.  v.). 

At  length  he  threw  up  his  ambassadorship,  and 
travelled  through  Germany,  enlarging  the  sphere  of 
his  studios.  He  paid  especial  attention  to  minera- 
logy and  chemistry,  and  was  fortunate  enough  to 
358 


become  ac(iuainted  with  Hoethe,  Wielaiid,  Schiller, 
Herder,  &c.  After  the  Peace  of  Amiens.,  A.  was 
sent  as  ambassador  to  St.  Peter.«biirg ;  in  18n3  ho 
was  recalled  to  Lisbon,  to  assume  the  office  of 
Secretary  of  State;  and  in.  ISisH  he  obtained  the 
highest  political  dignity  in  the  kingdom.  Ilig 
eflbrts  to  introduce  the  various  agencies  of  civilis- 
ation, while  he  occupied  this  situation,  were  un- 
remitting. Glass,  paper,  wool,  and  cotton  nianu- 
j  factures,  received  liberal  encouragement.  But  the 
I  sudden  approach  of  the  French  army  put  an  end 
j  to  all  his  improvements.  The  royal  family,  which 
Bonaparte  had  formally  dethroned  in  his  victorious 
proclamation,  emigrated  to  Brazil.  A.  embarked 
also,  taking  along  witli  him  a  complete  printing 
apparatus,  his  mineralogical  collection,  arranged  by 
Werner,  and  all  necessary  chemical  instruments. 
During  the  first  years  of  his  residence  in  the  New 
World,  lie  devoted  himself  assiduously  to  scientific 
and  literary  pursuits ;  founded  a  school  of  medicine 
and  chemistry,  introduced  the  cultivation  of  tea,  an 
improved  machine  for  sawing  wood,  and  a  sugar- 
alembic,  and  established  a  porcelain  numufactory. 
He  had  also  a  magnificent  garden,  the  plants  of 
which  were  scientifically  arranged.  He  died  ou  the 
21st  June  1817. 

ARAL"R]iI,  a  town  of  Venezuela,  South  America. 
It  is  situated  in  lat.  9°  17'  N.,  long.  09°  28'  W.,  60 
miles  E.N.E.  of  Trujillo,  in  a  region  noted  for  it3 
fertility  in  the  production  of  cotton,  coffee,  cattle, 
&c.  The  town  itself  is  rather  handsome,  and  con- 
tains 10,000  inhabitants. 

A'RBALEST,  ARCU'BALEST,  or  CROSS- 
BOW, was  a  weapon  much  in  use  during  the  feudal 
times.  Its  recognised  position  among  military  arms 
may  be  dated  from  about  the  period  of  Richard  I. 
The  smaller  kinds  of  A.  were  bent  by  pressing  the 


Arbalest. 


hand  on  a  small  steel  lever  called  the  'goat's  foot;' 
but  the  larger  kinds  were  bent  by  placing  the  foot 
in  a  loop  or  stirrup  at  the  end  of  the  central  shaft, 
and  drawing  the  cord  upwards  with  the  hand.  At 
a  later  period,  the  bow  was  made  very  strong,  often 
of  steel;  in  this  form  it  required  a  mechanical  con- 
trivance, called  a  '  moulinet,'  to  bend  it.  Sometimes 
ordinary  arrows  were  used  with  the  A.,  but  more 
usually  arrows  of  a  shorter  and  stouter  kind,  called 
'  carrials'  or  '  quarrels,'  were  employed  ;  these  had 
a  four-sided  pyramidal  form  of  head.  Occasionally 
stones  and  leaden  balls  were  shot  from  the  larger 
Arbalests.  The  arbalestiers,  or  cross-bowmen,  carried 
a  quiver  with  fifty  arrows  as  an  armament  in  some 
of  the  battles  of  the  13th  c.  They  were  an  essen- 
tial component  of  armies  of  that  period,  taking  up 
their  position  in  the  van  of  the  battle-array ;  some 
were  mounted,  some  on  foot,  and  they  occasionally 
wore  armour.  The  supply  of  arrows  or  quarrels 
was  carried  after  them  to  the  battle-field  in  carts. 
The  A.  continued  to  be  a  favourite  weapon  in  Eng- 
land throughout  the  13th  c. ;  but  in  the  14;h,  it 
gave  way  to  the  long-bow,  which  was  found  to  be  a 
more  convenient  weapon  in  battle.  The  long-bow 
is  tlescribed  under  Bow  and  Arrow;  and  the  gene- 
ral military  system  to  which  it  belonged,  under 
Archers  and  Archery. 

ARBALESTI'NA,  in  the  military  system   of  the 


ARBELA— ARBITRATIOX. 


middle  apes,  was  a  small  window  or  wicket  through 
"which  the  cross-ljowraen  shot  their  (iu;irrel3  or 
arrow3  at  an  enemy  besieging  a  fortified  place. 

ARBELA,  now  Erbil  or  Arbil,  a  small  town  of 
Assyria,  east  from  Mossul,  famous  as  having  given 
name  to  the  buttle  in  which  Alexander  finally 
defeated  Darius,  Sol  v.  c.  The  battle  was  really 
fought  near  Guagamela  (the  '  camel's  house'),  to  the 
north-west  of  A. 

ARBITRATION"  is  the  adjudication  by  private 
persons  appointed  to  decide  a  matter,  or  matters  in 
controversy,  on  a  reference  made  to  them  for  that 
purpose,  either  by  agreement  of  the  disputants  or  by 
the  order,  or  on  the  suggestion,  of  a  court  of  law. 
The  proceeding  generally  is  called  a  subniisxion  to 
nrbU ration,  ov  reference;  the  parties  appointed  to 
decide  are  termed  arbitrators,  or  referees ;  and  tlieir 
adjudication  is  called  an  award.  This  mode  of  set- 
tling disputes  is  not  only  frequently  resorted  to  by 
litigants  themselves,  who  are  anxious  to  avoid  the 
delay  and  expense  of  proceedings  in  the  public 
tribunals,  but  the  Statute-Book  bears  witness  to  the 
approval  of  it  by  the  legislature  at  various  times. 
An  old  act,  the  9  and  10  Will.  III.  c.  15,  testifies 
the  benefits  of  A.  in  strong  terms,  declaring  that  '  it 
hath  been  found  by  experience  tiiat  references  made 
by  rule  of  court  have  contributed  much  to  the  ease 
of  the  subject  in  the  determining  of  controversies, 
because  the  parties  become  thereby  obliged  to  sub- 
mit to  the  award  of  the  arbitrators,'  and  it  proceeds 
to  authorise  and  encourage  merchants,  traders,  and 
others  to  put  an  end  to  their  controversies  and  quar- 
rels by  means  of  A.;  and  a  modern  act,  passed  in 
1833,  the  3  and  -i  Will.  lY.  c.  42,  ss.  89,  40,  and  41, 
contains  still  more  anxious  provisions  for  rendering 
references  to  A.  effectual.  Since  that  act  was  passed, 
the  practice  and  feeling  in  favour  of  A.  has  Increased, 
so  much  so  that  there  are  recent  statutes  which  con- 
tain provisions  rendering  A.,  or  private  reference  in 
certain  cases,  compulsory.  The  Railwav  Acts  of 
1845,  the  Bublic  Health  Act  of  1848,  and  the 
Common  Law  Procedure  Act  of  1854,  are  modern 
examples  of  this  legislative  peculiarity. 

The  matters  that  may  be  determined  by  an  arbi- 
trator are  all  personal  disputes  and  differences  which 
Tuiglit  otherwise  be  made  the  subject  of  controversy 
in  the  courts  of  civil  jurisdiction.  Thus  breaches  of 
contracts  generally,  breaches  of  promises  of  mar- 
riage, trespass,  assaults,  charges  of  slander,  differ- 
ences respecting  partnership  transactions  or  the  pur- 
chase price  of  property,  and  questions  relating  to 
tolls  or  the  right  to  tithes,  may  all  be  referred  to 
A.  Questions  relating  to  real  property  may  also  be 
referred,  such  as  those  relating  to  the  partition  of 
lands  of  joint  tenants  or  tenants  in  common,  to  set- 
tlements of  disputed  boundaries — to  differences  be- 
tween landlord  and  tenant  respecting  waste — and  to 
the  title  to  land.  Pure  questions  of  law  may  also 
be  referred  to  the  decision  of  an  arbitrator.  An 
arbitrator  may  have,  therefore,  to  determino  the 
liability  of  a  party  on  a  promissory-note  or  bill  of 
exchange,  or  to  construe  an  act  of  fw,rliament,  or  to 
give  a  judicial  opinion  on  the  effect  of  a  will  or 
deed.  Actions  at  law,  and  suits  in  equity,  may 
also  be  settled  by  A. ;  and  this  kind  of  reference 
may  be  made  at  any  stage  of  the  proceedings,  some- 
times even  after  verdict,  and  probably  by  analogy, 
after  decree  in  equity.  Questions  relating  to  tlie 
future  use  and  enjoyment  of  property,  and  future 
or  anticipated  diff"erences  between  parties,  may 
hkewise  be  referred. 

A  matter,  however  clearly  illegal,  cannot  be  made 
the  subject  of  a  valid  reference.  But  where  trans- 
actions between  parties  have  been  brought  to  a  close 
by  a   general   award,  apparently  good,  the  courts 


have  refused  to  re-open  them  on  a  suggestion  that 
some  illegal  item  has  been  admitted  in  account. 

There  are  certain  matters  which  are  specially 
referred  to  A.  by  statute.  Besides  those  we  have 
already  alluded  to,  the  following  matters  are  all 
referable  to  A. :  Questions  relating  to  the  expenses 
of  prisoners,  under  the  5  Geo.  IV.  c.  85 ;  to  the 
regulation  of  municipal  corporations  in  England 
and  Wales,  under  the  5  and  6  Will.  IV.  c.  76  ; 
to  the  laws  concerning  prisons,  under  the  5  and 
6  Vict.  c.  98  ;  to  disputes  between  masters  and 
workmen,  under  the  5  Geo.  IV.  c.  96,  amended  by 
the  7  Will.  IV.  and  1  Vict.  c.  67  ;  to  the  laws  re- 
lating to  savings'  banks,  under  the  9  Geo.  IV.  c. 
92,  and  7  and  8  Vict.  c.  83  ;  to  the  land  rights  and 
other  possessions  of  certain  ecclesiastical  and  col- 
legiate corporations,  under  the  2  and  3  Will.  IV.  c. 
80;  to  the  management  and  improvement  of  epis- 
copal and  cipitular  estates  in  England,  under  the 
n  and  18  Vict.  e.  110  ;  to  the  conveyance  of  mails 
by  r.iihvays,  under  the  1  and  2  Vict.  c.  98;  to  insol- 
vents and  to  insolvency,  bankruptcy,  and  execution, 
under  the  1  and  2  Viet.  c.  110,  7  and  8  Vict.  c.  96, 
12  and  13  Vict.  c.  106;  to  the  constitution  of  com- 
panies incorporated  for  carrying  on  public  under- 
takings, under  the  8  and  9  Vict.  c.  16  ;  to  the  taking 
of  lands  for  undertakings  of  a  public  nature,  under 
8  and  9  Vict.  c.  18;  to  the  metropolitan  sewers, 
under  the  11  and  12  Vict.  c.  112  (continued  and 
amended  by  the  12  and  13  Vict.  c.  93,  the  14  and  15 
Vict.  c.  75,  the  15  and  16  Vict.  c.  64,  the  16  and  17 
Vict.  c.  125,  the  17  and  18  Vict.  c.  Ill) ;  to  friendly 
societies,  under  the  17  and  18  Vict.  c.  56,  and  the  18 
and  19  Vict.  c.  93. 

Lender  these  acts  of  parliament,  the  class  of  cases 
which  may,  or  which  must,  be  referred  to  A.,  have 
been  greatly  enlarged.  The  railway  acts,  in  par- 
ticular, have  largely  contributed  to  this  kind  of 
amicable  determination,  although  the  parties  in  such 
cases  cannot  be  said  to  have  much  discretion  in  the 
matter.  Under  the  provisions,  again,  of  the  Common 
Law  Procedure  Act,  1854  (17  and  IS  Vict.  c.  125, 
ss.  3  and  6),  parties  may  be  compelled  by  the  court, 
or  judge  who  tries  the  case,  to  refer  matters  of  mere 
account  in  an  action  which  cannot  be  conveniently 
tried  in  the  ordinary  way. 

Among  the  questions  that  cannot  be  referred  to 
A.,  are  matters  arising  out  of  the  administration  of 
the  criminal  law  in  the  case  of  felonies  and  relating 
to  agreements  or  transactions  against  public  policy. 
Felonies  and  offenses  of  a  public  nature  cannot  be 
referred,  because  the  public  safety  and  good  require 
theui  to  be  punished,  and  for  this  purpose  they 
can  only  be  properly  tried  in  one  of  the  ordinary 
courts  of  the  country. 

With  respect  to  matters  which  cannot  be  referred 
on  account  of  their  being  against  public  policy,  the 
rule  is  so  obviously  just  as  not  to  need  illustration. 

But  there  are  certain  misdemeanours  which  may 
be  either  settled  by  agreement  or  by  means  of  an 
A.,  on  a  principle  of  very  general  application  stated 
by  Chief-justice  Gibbs — that  where  there  is  a 
remedy,  by  action  as  well  as  by  indictment,  a 
reference  of  the  matter  in  controversy  is  good.  And 
in  these  cases  of  misdemeanour,  a  compromise  or 
settlement  under  a  reference  may  be  made,  even 
after  conviction,  but  with  the  sanction  of  the-court. 

As  to  the  parties  who  may  make  a  reference  to  A., 
it  may  be  stated  generally,  that  every  one  capable 
of  making  a  disposition  of  his  property  or  release  of 
his  rights  may  make  a  submission  to  an  award,  and 
in  this  category  may  be  placed  a  married  woman, 
who  has  a  separate  estate  settled  to  her  separate  use, 
and  there  are  even  cases  where  a  reference  between 
a  husband  and  wife  has  been  held  valid  ;  and  of 
course    a    husband    may  submit    to    A^    differences 

359 


AIIDITRATION. 


respecting  his  wile's  personal  estate  which  has  not 
been  settled  to  her  separate  use. 

Respecting  the  powers  of  infants  or  persons  under 
age  to  submit  to  A.,  there  are  numerous  decisions  in 
the  courts  of  law  and  equity:  but  tlicy  go  upon 
refinements  and  nice  distinctions  more  suited  for  the 
professional  lawyer  than  for  tlie  ordinary  reader, 
and  we  therefore  do  not  think  it  neces-ary  to  give 
any  explanation  of  them  in  a  popular  article  such  as 
this  professes  to  be. 

Partners  and  corporations  may  make  references  to 
A.  on  the  principles  already  explained,  and  according 
to  the  relation  in  which  they  stand  to  the  matter  in 
dispute. 

Those  who  cannot  submit  to  A.  are  persons  in  the 
following  position:  Persons  who  cannot  contract; 
married  women  without  any  estate  settled  to  tlieir 
separate  use ;  and  along  with  them,  as  laid  down  in 
old  ante-reformation  boolvs,  persons  professed  in  reli- 
gion, and  persons  under  duress.  There  is  an  exception 
to  the  incapacity  of  married  women  to  refer  to  A. 
where  the  husband,  by  exile,  banishment,  or  other 
cause,  is  held  to  be  civilly  dead,  and  wlien  he  is  an 
alien  enemy.  To  these  exceptions  it  may  be  added, 
that  in  suits  respecting  tiie  property  of  charities  the 
Court  of  Chancery  will  not  permit  a  reference, 
however  advisable  such  a  course  may  seem,  unless 
the  attorney-general  gives  his  consent. 

It  has  generally  been  the  opinion  of  the  legal  pro- 
fession, and  held  to  be  the  doctrine  of  the  courts, 
that  a  reference  by  the  consent  of  counsel  in  a  cause 
is  biiuling  on  his  client;  and  Lord  Cluincellor  Eldon 
once  said,  that  it  was  for  the  counsel  to  consider 
whether  he  was  authorised  to  refer,  and  if  so,  he  (the 
chancellor)  would  act  on  the  consent  so  given;  and 
the  riglit  and  privilege  of  counsel  to  make  a  refer- 
ence has  been  very  strongly  laid  down  in  the  Scotch 
courts.  But  a  very  recent  case  in  the  Court  of 
Common  Pleas  (Swinfen  v.  Swinfen),  where  a  com- 
promise by  counsel  was  successfully  resisted  by  the 
client,  has  very  much  unsettled  tlie  English  law  on 
this  subject ;  and  now  the  feeling  of  the  Bar  in  Eng- 
land is,  that  it  is  inisafe  to  refer  or  compromise  a 
litigation  on  the  independent  authoritv  of  counsel. 

Submissions  to  reference  may  also  be  made  by 
executors  and  administrators,  by  trustees,  bv  the 
committee  of  a  lunatic,  and  by  the  officer  of  a  public 
company,  who  is  authorised  by  a  statute  to  sue  and 
be  sued  in  the  name  of  the  company.  And  there 
are  persons  especially  empowered  to  refer  by  the 
statutes  which  we  have  already  enumerated. 

Disputes  may  be  referred  to  A.  in  any  manner 
that  expresses  the  agreement  or  understanding  of 
the  parties  to  be  bound  by  the  decision  of  the 
arbitrator ;  and  for  this  purpose  no  formal  submission, 
either  verbal  or  written,  is  necessary  ;  but  the 
arrangement  must  be  such  as  manifestly  to  shew  an 
intention  to  have  the  difference  concluded  l)y  a 
private  adjudication  in  the  luiture  of  an  award. 
But  where  the  submission  is  in  writing,  it  must  be 
executed  in  due  form.  A  testator,  however,  cannot 
exclude  his  will  from  litigation  by  a  proviso,  that  all 
differences  respecting  it  shall  be  referred  to  A., 
although  it  is  thought  that  the  parties  benefited  by 
the  will  might  themselves  so  refer.  Generally 
speaking,  it  is  advantageous  to  make  the  A.  in  such 
a  form  as  that  the  award  may  be  made  a  rule  of 
court — that  is,  may  be  adopted  by  a  court  of  law  as 
its  judgment  on  the  matter  submitted,  a  proceeding 
that  affords  an  oljvious  facility  in  enforcing  the 
award ;  and  for  this  purpose  it  is  necessary  to  make 
the  procedure  conforniahle  to  the  directions  of  the 
statutes  9  and  10  Will.  III.,  and  3  and  4  Will.  IV., 
already  referred  to.  Where  the  submission  is  merely 
verbal  or  constituted  by  a  private  bond  or  deed,  it  is 
liable  to  be  capriciously  revoked,  and  proceedings 
360 


on  the  award,  in  such  a  case,  can   only   be   taken  in 
the  Court  of  Chancery. 

The  arbitrator  ought  to  be  a  person  who  stands 
perfectly  indifferent  between  the  disputants  ;  but 
there  are  no  other  particular  qualifications  for  the 
office.  And  the  choice  by  parties  of  the  person 
who  they  agree  shall  decide  between  them,  is  per- 
fectly free.  Some  legal  writers  have  even  gone  so 
far  as  to  maintain,  that  not  only  infants  and  married 
women,  but  even  idiots  and  lunatics,  can  be  arbitra- 
tors, on  the  argument  that  every  ]ierson  is  at  liberty 
to  choose  whom  he  likes  best  for  his  private  judge, 
and  he  cannot  afterwards  object  to  the  deficiencies 
of  those  whom  he  has  himself  selected.  But  this, 
it  is  thought,  is  going  too  far,  and  the  policy  of 
tiie  law  would  probably  be  interposed  against  such 
extreme  eases.  It  is  better  to  state  the  rule  to  be, 
that  on  the  condition  that  the  party  selected  is  of 
ordinary  intelligence,  the  choice  of  an  arbitrator  is 
al)soluti'ly  unfettered.  The  only  exception  to  this 
rule  is  the  case  of  a  party  who,  by  olHce  or  position, 
is  the  person  pointed  out  for  the  duty  under  a 
reference  made  by  statute.  In  matters  of  compli- 
cated accounts,mcrcan  tile  men  a:e  genera  llyj)referred. 
In  other  cases,  it  is  usual  to  appoint  barristers  who, 
being  accustomed  to  judicial  investigations,  are  able 
to  estimate  the  evidence  properly,  to  confine  the 
examination  strictly  to  the  points  in  question,  and, 
in  making  the  award,  to  avoid  those  informalities  in 
respect  of  wliich  it  tuight  afterwards  be  set  aside. 
Both  time  and  expense  are  thus  saved  l)y  fixing  on 
a  professional  arbitrator.  It  has,  indeed,  been 
wisely  remarked,  that  an  arbitrator  should  endeavour 
to  arrive  at  his  conclusions  upoi\  the  same  rules  and 
principles  which  would  have  actuated  the  court  for 
which  he  is  siibstituied — a  rule  of  conduct  that 
obviously  points  to  the  expediency  of  a  l.iwyer  being 
the  referee.  But  tin  arliiirator  is  not  bound  by  the 
mere  rules  of  practice  which  prevail  in  the  ordinary 
courts  of  justice,  and  he  has  been  held  justified  in 
allowing  interest  on  both  sides  of  an  uiditpudated 
account,  although  such  a  deterndnation  was  against 
the  practice  of  the  Court  of  Chancery,  where  the 
suit,  which  had  been  referred,  had  been  commenced. 

The  proceedings  before  an  arbitrator  are  regulated 
nccording  to  the  pi'culiar  circumstances  of  the  case 
sul)mitted,  but  generally  it  is  advisable  to  conduct 
them  according  to  the  forms  ol)served  in  courts  of 
law,  and  they  usually  are  so  conducted.  Each  of  the 
parties  furnishes  the  arbitrator  with  a  statement  of 
his  case,  wiiich  is  done  by  giving  hitn  a  copy  of  the 
brii'fs  ou  each  side;  and  on  the  day  ap[)ointed  he 
proceeds  to  hear  (hem  (cither  in  person  or  by  their 
counsel  or  attorneys),  and  to  receive  the  evidence  on 
each  side,  nearly  in  the  same  manner  as  a  judge  at 
an  ordiiuiry  trial.  Having  so  heard  the  case,  the 
arbitrator  proceeds  to  make  his  award,  which  need 
not  necessarily  be  in  writing,  for  a  verbal  award  is 
perfectly  valid ;  but  in  practice  it  is  usual  for  the 
arbitrator  to  make  his  award  on  paper  stamped  with 
the  proper  award  stamp,  and  this  he  delivers  to  the 
successful  party.  The  unsuccessful  party  gets  a  copy 
of  the  award  oTi  unstam[>ed  paper.  This  award  in 
its  effect  operates  as  a  final  and  conclusive  judgment 
respecting  all  the  matter  submitted,  and  it  binds  the 
rights  of  the  parties  for  all  time. 

An  award  may  be  set  aside  on  the  ground  of  cor- 
ruption and  fraud  in  the  arl)itrator,  and  for  any 
material  iiregidarity  or  illegiility  appearing  on  the 
face  of  the  proceedings.  But  the  tendency  of  the 
courts  is  to  favour  arbitrations  and  maintain  awards, 
unless  such  serious  grounds  as  we  have  referred  to 
can  be  substantiated. 

Where  there  arc  two  arbitrators,  the  submission 
often  provides  that  in  the  case  of  tiicir  dir.cring 
in  opinion  the  matter  referred  shall  be  decided  by  a 


ARBOGA— ARBORICULTURE. 


third  person,  called  an  uniipire,  who  is  generally 
ap])ointed  under  a  power  to  that  eflfect,  by  tlit  arbi- 
trators themselves.  But  they  cannot  make  such  an 
appointment  unless  specially  authorised  so  to  do  by 
the  terms  of  the  submission.  This  um[)ire  rehears 
the  case,  and  for  this  purpose  is  invested  with  the 
same  powers  as  those  possessed  by  the  arljitrators, 
and  bound  by  the  same  rules. 

In  Scotland  an  A.  takes  place  in  virtue  of  a 
written  submission  executed  by  the  parties  in  favour 
of  the  chosen  referee,  who  there  is  called  an  arbiter, 
instead  of  arbitrator,  as  in  England  ;  and  his  award 
is  called  a  decree-arbitral.  This  submission  is  in  the 
form  of  a  regular  deed,  and  is  said  to  be  general  or 
sjiccial,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  matters  sub- 
mitted by  it,  the  submission  specifying  all  the  jiarti- 
culars  of  the  reference,  and  the  name  of  the  referee 
— the  arbiter's  powers  and  duties,  which,  in  the  ordi- 
nary case,  are  of  the  most  comprehensive  character 
— the  specification  of  the  time  within  which  the 
award  or  decree-arbitral  is  to  be  made — a  clause 
oblii'ing  the  parties  to  perform  the  award  under  a 
specilied  penalty ;  and  other  anxious  provisions, 
which  are  all  carefully  specified  in  the  submission. 
The  case  then  proceeds  before  the  arbiter,  generally 
according  to  the  forms  observed  in  the  ordinary 
Scotch  courts;  and  the  arbiter  makes  his  award  in  a 
very  solemn  manner,  the  decree-arbitral  commencing 
with  a  recital  of  the  submission  and  of  all  the  pro- 
cedure— and  after  stating  that  the  arbiter  has  ripely 
considered  the  whole  matter,  and  has  '  God  and  a 
good  conscience  before  his  eyes,'  it  gives  the  arbiter's 
judgment,  and  among  other  things  ordains  the  sub- 
mission and  decree  to  be  recorded  according  to  the 
clause  of  registration  in  the  former,  and  the  extract 
IVom  the  registry  so  made  forms  a  judgment  which 
may  be  put  in  execution  by  either  party  against  the 
other.  The  decree-arbitral,  like  the  submission 
itself,  must  be  executed  and  attested  in  the  form  of 
a  regular  deed.  Where  there  are  two  arbiters,  the 
submission  usually  provides,  that  in  the  event  of 
their  differing  in  opiiuon,  they  shall  name  an  umpire 
or  oversman,  as  he  is  called  in  Scotland,  whose 
judgment  is  final. 

In  conclusion,  and  as  a  remark,  on  A.  generally,  it 
only  remains  to  l)e  stated,  that  of  course,  from  the 
nature  of  the  case,  there  can  be  no  appeal  on  the 
merits  of  the  dispute  submitted  to  any  public  tribunal 
whatever. 

AIIBO'GA,  an  ancient  city  in  Sweden,  in  the 
province  of  Westmannland,  on  a  small  river  of  the 
same  name,  by  which,  with  the  aid  of  a  canal,  the 
lakes  Hialmar  and  Malar  are  united.  A.  used  to  be 
an  iuipottant  commercial  town,  but  it  has  now  sunk 
into  insignificance,  and  only  possesses  an  historical 
interest  from  the  antiquities  in  its  neighbourhood. 
Of  all  its  churches,  cloisters,  and  chapels  there  only 
now  remain  the  town  and  jiarish  churches,  the 
former  with  an  altar-piece  of  Rembrantlt's.  Several 
kings  of  the  family  of  Vasa  have  resided  here.* 
Church  assemblies  were  held  here  in  lo'Jd,  1112, 
1117,  1423,  and  1474;  diets  in  1435,  144u,  1471, 
1529,  and  loCl,  in  which  last  year  also  certain 
articles,  known  as  the  Arboga  Articles,  were  passed 
by  which  Eric  XIV.  was  enabled  to  limit  the  power 
of  the  nobles;  and  in  1G25,  Gustavus  Adolphus 
issued  an  edict  here,  commanding  that  the  copper 
roin  of  the  realm  should  contain  its  full  worth  of 
copper. 

ARBORE'SCEXT  (from  Lat.  arbor,  a  tree),  a 
term  apphed  to  plants  to  signify  that  they  pos.sess 
either  altogether,  or  in  some  measure,  the  character 
of  trees.  Even  the  dwarf  willows  and  birches,  on 
the  confines  of  polar  or  alpine  perpetual  snow,  are 
described  as  the  A.  vegetation  of  these  regions. 


ARBORICULTURE  (from  Lat.  arbor,  a  tree),  a 
term  literally  signifying  the  cultivation  of  trees,  but 
in  use  generally  restricted  to  the  jilantiiig  and  man- 
agement of  timber  trees,  or  employed  as  exclusive 
at  least  of  the  cultivation  of  fruit  trees,  which  is  a 
branch  of  horticulture  or  gardening. 

The  ancients  practised  A.  to  some  extent,  but 
chiefly  with  the  view  of  beautifying  their  villas,  or  of 
forming  public  walks  in  the  vicinity  of  cities.  It  is 
only  for  similar  purposes,  and  on  a  very  limited 
scale,  that  A.  is  yet  anywhere  practised  in  America. 
The  planting  of  timber  trees  for  economical  pur- 
poses, or  with  a  view  to  profit,  is  unnecessary  whilst 
natural  forests  are  abundant,  and  can  scarcely  be 
referred  even  in  Britnin  to  an  earlier  period  than  the 
beginning  of  the  10th  c,  nor  did  it  become  at  all 
general  till  a  much  later  date.  The  early  forest 
laws  of  England,  as  of  other  feudal  countries,  had 
reference  chiefly  to  game,  for  the  sake  of  which  it 
was,  and  in  order  to  the  enjoyment  of  the  chase, 
that  large  tracts  were  depopulated  and  converted 
mio  forests  by  the  first  Xormau  kings.  Plantations 
for  timber  and  fuel  were,  however,  certainly  made  in 
England  in  the  IGth  c. ;  and  the  importance  of  the 
subject  was  urged  on  public  attention  by  authors 
of  that  period.  In  the  17th  c,  the  greatly  increased 
demand  for  oak,  for  the  building  both  of  ships  and  of 
houses,  gave  a  new  impulse  to  A.,  which  attracted 
more  than  ever  before  the  attention  both  of  the  go- 
vernment and  of  the  great  landowners;  the  publication 
of  Evelyn's  Sijlva  also  did  more  than  any  previou.'? 
work  to  promote  a  taste  for  it.  It  was  in  tliis  century 
that  nurseries  for  forest  trees  were  first  establislud. 
It  was  not  until  the  beginning  of  the  18th  c.  that  the 
first  extensive  plantations  were  made  in  Scotland,  nor 
until  towards  the  end  of  that  century  that  A.  became 
general  in  that  country  or  in  Ireland.  How  much 
the  very  landscape  has  been  changed  by  it — how 
great  a  difference  has  been  made  by  the  conversion 
of  bleak  hills  and  barren  wastes  into  woods — how 
much  the  scene  has  l)een  changed  by  the  new  forms 
of  foreign  trees,  some  of  which  are  now  in  many 
districts  more  abundant  than  those  which  are  indi- 
genous, it  is  not  easy  to  imagine ;  and  how  much 
these  changes  have  promoted  and  are  indicative  of 
improvements  in  agriculture  and  increased  produc- 
tiveness of  fields,  is  equally  difficult  to  estimate. 

The  A.  of  France,  Germany,  and  other  parts  of 
Europe,  to  this  day,  consists  in  a  great  measure  of 
the  management  of  natural  forests  ;  and  in  the  more 
eastern  parts  of  the  continent  this  is  almost  exchtsive- 
ly  the  case.  Without  a  careful  management  of  the 
natural  forests,  many  districts  of  France  and  Ger- 
many would  soon  be  destitute  of  fuel ;  by  means  of 
it  an  increased  supply  of  valuable  timber  is  also  ob- 
tained ;  and  extensive  domains  belonging  to  the 
state,  or  to  private  proprietors,  are  rendered  much 
more  productive.  It  is  in  (iermany  that  the  man- 
agement of  the  forests  has  received  the  greatest  at- 
tention, and  has  been  most  .systematically  and  scien- 
tifically conducted. 

Tlie  forest  trees  of  Britain,  and  of  temperate 
climates  generally,  are  conveniently  divided  into 
two  classes — the  one  consisting  of  coniferous  trees  or 
pines  and  1\vs{Nailclholz,  i.e.,  the  'needlewood'  of  the 
Germans),  the  other  including  all  other  kinds  (i«M6- 
holz,  i.e.,  the  'leaf-wood'  of  tlie  Germans);  the  latter 
being  sometimes  subdivided  into  hard-wooded  trees, 
of  which  the  most  important  in  Britain  arc  oak,  ash, 
elm,  beech,  birch,  hornbeam,  sycamore,  walnut,  and 
chestnut ;  and  s<  ft-woodcd  trees,  as  willow,  poplar, 
lime,  alder,  and  horse-chestnut.  Of  these  and  other 
trees,  of  their  particular  uses,  and  of  the  soils  and 
situations  to  which  they  are  adapted,  notice  is  taken 
in  separate  articles. 

Plantations  are  generally  formed    in   Britain   by 

361 


ARBORICULTURE. 


means  of  trees  raised  from  seed  in  a  nursery  ;  but 
Fonietimes  also  by  sowing  the  seed  on  the  ground 
intended  for  the  phintatiou ;  in  which  case,  if 
circumstances  permit,  a  crop  of  grain  is  often  sown 
along  with  the  seeds  of  the  tree,  as  these  do  not  in 
general  vegetate  very  soon ;  and  the  young  plants 
derive  advantage  from  the  absence  of  choking  weeds 
when  the  grain-crop  is  reaped,  and  from  the  protec- 
tion afforded  by  the  stubble.  It  has  been  supposed 
by  some,  but  there  is  no  sufficient  evidence  in  sup- 
port of  the  opinion,  that  more  healthy  and  vigorous 
trees  are  obtained  by  sowing  on  the  spot  than 
by  planting  those  which  have  been  raised  in  a 
nursery.  However,  only  very  young  trees  can  be 
planted  with  advantage,  those  which  have  attained 
a  greater  size  requiring  a  degree  of  attention  far 
beyond  what  is  possible  in  plantations  even  of  very 
moderate  extent.  The  time  of  planting  is  from 
November  to  February.  The  most  a[)proved  mode 
of  planting  is  in  small  pits,  in  which  the  roots  are 
disposed  in  a  natural  manner,  and  which  arc  then 
carefully  filled  up  with  earth ;  but  it  is  often 
thought  sufficient  when  the  tree  to  be  planted  is  very 
young,  to  make  a  slit  for  it  with  the  spade,  or  two 
slits,  one  at  right  angles  to  the  other  in  the  form  of 
the  letter  T.  Other  methods  are  also  adopted,  par- 
ticularly for  rocky  situations,  in  which  the  spade 
cannot  be  used.  Economy  is  often  a  consideration 
of  great  importance  in  determining  the  mode  of 
planting. 

The  formation  of  plantations  by  the  sowing  of 
seed  has  been  more  generally  practised  on  the  con- 
tinent than  in  Britain.  In  this  way  the  vacancies 
in  the  natural  forests  of  France  and  Germany  arc 
filled  up.  In  this  way  also  great  sandy  tracts  have 
been  covered  with  wood  on  the  coasts  of  Fomerania 
and  of  France.  This  has  particularly  been  accom- 
plished on  a  scale  of  extraordinary  magnitude  in  tiie 
downs  of  drifting  sand,  between  the  rivers  Adour 
and  Gironde.  The  operations  there  were  begun  by 
M.  Bremonticr  in  1789,  and  deserve  to  be  mentioned 
as  perhaps  the  most  important  operations  in  A.  that 
have  ever  been  performed  in  the  world.  Vast 
forests  of  jiinaster  now  occupy  what  was  originally 
loose  sand  destitute  of  vegetation. 

Too  little  attention  has  hitherto  been  generally 
paid  to  the  adaptation  of  the  kinds  of  trees  that  are 
planted  to  the  soil  and  climate ;  and  to  this  cause 
many  failures  in  A.  are  to  be  ascribed.  Some  trees 
grow  well  even  in  exposed  situations,  and  are  fit  to 
be  employed  in  these,  either  to  form  entire  planta- 
tions, or  to  occupy  the  outer  part,  and  so  to  shelter 
other  trees,  which  in  general  are  not  planted  until 
the  outer  zone  or  belt  of  the  most  hardy  kinds  is 
somewhat  advanced;  some  succeed  only  in  rich 
soila ;  some  are  incapable  of  enduring  the  sea-breeze ; 
others,  as  the  sycamore,  the  elder,  and  the  pinaster, 
arc  comparatively  unaflected  by  it.  Some  trees 
suffer  from  an  amount  of  moisture  from  which 
alders  or  willows  would  rather  derive  advantage ; 
but,  in  general,  the  thorough  drainage  of  the  land 
intended  for  a  plantation  is  one  of  the  circumstances 
most  important  to  its  success. 

To  the  necessity  of  this  thorough  drainage  we 
must  look  as  compensating,  or  more  than  compensat- 
ing, the  influence  which  woods  exercise  in  condens- 
ing the  moisture  of  the  atmosphere,  and  in  render- 
ing a  climate  cold  and  damp ;  marshy  soils  being 
in  this  respect  still  worse.  The  shelter  afforded  bv 
plantations  judiciously  disposed,  whether  in  belts 
or  otherwise,  is  also  of  great  importance  is  render- 
ing them  suitable  for  that  improved  agriculture  in 
which  thorough  drainage  is  of  the  first  necessity, 
and  which  is  always  productive  of  amelioration  of 
climate.  The  influence  of  plantations  is  therefore, 
upon  the  whole,  beneficial,  although  vast  masses  of 
362 


forest  are  injurious  to  climate;  and  it  must  be 
admitted  that  in  some  localities  the  planting  of  treea 
has  been  carried  to  excess,  so  that  fields  olten  suffer, 
particularly  in  autumn,  from  want  of  free  circula- 
tion of  air,  an<l  the  landscape  is  often  restricted  to 
very  narrow  limits.  The  remedy  in  .such  cases  is 
obvious ;  and  it  not  unfrequently  happen.s  that 
within  a  short  distance  new  plantations  might  be 
formed  with  every  prospect  of  benefit. 

Much  has  been  written  about  the  pruning  of 
forest  trees,  with  a  view  especially  to  the  produc- 
tion of  taller  and  straighter  stems  ;  and  considerable 
dilfercncc  of  opinion  exists  as  to  the  extent  to  wiiich 
pruning  should  be  practised.  It  is,  however,  very 
generally  delayed  till  the  branches  to  be  removed 
have  attained  too  great  a  size,  and  is  then  very 
rudely  performed,  to  the  spoiling  of  the  timber 
ratlier  than  to  the  improvement  of  it.  The  prac- 
tice of  leaving  .fwaz/s',  instead  of  cutting  branches 
clean  oil",  has  particularly  bail  effects.  Pines  and 
firs,  from  their  manner  of  growth,  need  pruning 
less  than  trees  of  other  kinds.  When  trees  have 
been  planted,  not  merely  for  profit  but  for  ornament, 
this  ought  to  be  remembered  in  pruning,  which, 
however,  is  too  often  intrusted  to  persons  utterly 
devoid  of  taste;  and  trees  which,  as  they  naturally 
grew,  were  very  beautiful,  are  so  treateii  with  axe 
and  saw  that  they  become  deformities  instead  of 
adorning  the  scene. 

In  forming  plantations,  different  kinds  of  trees  are 
very  generally  mixed,  although  masses  of  one  parti- 
cular kind  are  also  fre((uently  planted.  It  is  usual, 
however,  to  plant  along  with  those  which  are 
destined  most  permanently  to  occupy  the  ground, 
trees  of  other  kinds  as  nurses,  to  be  giadiially 
removed  as  the  plantation  advances  in  growth.  For 
this  purpose,  spruce  and  larch  are  more  generally 
emi)loyed  than  any  other  tree  ;  although  Scotch  fir 
and  birch  are  also  deemed  suitable  for  certain  situa- 
tions. The  removal  of  some  of  these  nurses  affords 
the  first  returns  of  profit  from  the  plantation,  which 
is  afterwards  thinned  from  time  to  time.  Plantations 
far  more  fre(|ucntly  suffer  from  being  thinned  too 
little,  tlian  fiom  bcitg  thiimed  too  much.  To  the  want 
of  proper  thinning  is  to  be  in  part  ascribed  the  failure 
of  many  of  these  narrow  belts  o^ planting  which  are  too 
common  in  Scotland,  and  which  having  been  intended 
for  shelter,  very  imperfectly  serve  their  purpose,  and 
seem  to  have  suffered  from  the  hardest  usage  them- 
selves. The  thinning  of  a  plantation  which  has  been 
allowed  to  grow  too  thick,  must,  however,  be  very 
gradually  performed,  that  it  may  be  beneficial,  and 
not  injurious.  After  a  sudden  thinning,  a  planta- 
tion sometimes  ceases  to  thrive,  and  many  trees  are 
often  laid  prostrate  by  the  next  storm  ;  for  treea 
accommodate  themselves  both  in  their  roots  and 
branches  to  the  situations  in  which  they  grow. 

A  considerable  ntmibcr  of  years  must  elapse  before 
any  pecuniary  return  is  derived  from  a  plantation, 
yet  this  mode  of  employing  soils  is  often  found  to  be 
the  most  remunerative  of  which  they  are  capab'e, 
even  without  reference  to  the  improvement  of  adja- 
cent lands  to  which  shelter  is  afforded ;  and  the 
increased  demand  for  timber  in  Britain,  for  sleepers 
of  railways  and  other  purposes,  tends  to  the  still 
further  encouragement  of  A. 

The  resinous  products  of  pine-woods  are  not  con- 
sidered as  a  source  of  profit  in  Britain  ;  but  the  tar, 
turpentine,  and  resin  obtained  from  them  in  some 
parts  of  Europe,  form  articles  of  commerce.  The 
great  pinaster  plantations  already  mentioned,  on  the 
sands  between  the  Adour  and  Gironde,  now  yield 
products  of  this  kijid  in  large  quantity.  The  employ- 
ment of  trees  for  ornamental  purposes  belongs  not  so 
much  to  A.  as  to  Landscape  Gardening  (q.  v.)  The 
transplanting  (q.  v.)  of  large  trees  is  only  practised  for 


ARBOR  VITvE— ARBUTHNOT. 


ornamental  purposes.  Hedgerow  trees  arc  planted 
cliiefly  for  orriainent,  although  sometimes  they  may 
afford  useful  shelter;  but  where  this  is  not  the  case, 
they  can  seldom  be  reckoned  profitable,  as  they  are 
injurious  to  crops.  Copse  or  co]ipice-wood  ditl'ers  so 
much,  both  in  its  uses  and  in  the  mode  of  its  man- 
agement, from  other  plantations,  that  it  must  be 
briefly  noticed  in  a  separate  article. 

A'RBOR  VI'T.^^  (  Thujn\  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Conifcne,  allied  to  the  cypress,  and 
consisting  of  evergreen  trees  and  shru!)S  with  com- 
pressed or  flattened  branchlets  —  small,  scale-like, 
imbricated  leaves — and  monwcious  flowers,  which 
have  4-cellcd  anthers,  and  the  scales  of  the  strobiles 
(or  coues)  with  two  upright  ovules. — The  common 


Arbor  Yitaj  {Thuja  occidentalis). 

A.  T.  {T.  occidentalis)  is  a  native  of  Nortli  Ame- 
rica, especially  between  lat.  4  5°  and  lat.  49°,  but  has 
long  been  well  known  in  Europe.  It  is  a  tiee  of 
40 — 50  feet  high ;  its  branches  are  horizontally 
expanded,  and  the  strobiles  (cones)  small  and  obo- 
vate.  The  young  leafy  twigs  liave  a  balsamic  smell, 
and  both  they  and  the  wood  were  formerly  in  great 
repute  as  a  medicine;  the  oil  obtained  by  distilla- 
tion from  the  twigs,,  which  has  a  pungent  and 
camphor-like  taste,  has  been  recently  recommended 
as  a  vermifuge.  The  wood  of  the  stem  is  reddish, 
soft,  and  very  light,  but  compact,  tough,  and  duralile, 
bearing  exposure  to  the  weather  remarkably  well. 
The  tree  is  very  common  in  Britain,  but  planted 
chiefly  as  an  ornamental  tree,  and  seldom  attaining 
so  great  a  size  as  in  its  native  country.  It  delights 
in  cool,  moist  situations. — The  Ciii.nese  A.  Y.  (  T. 
oricntulis),  a  native  of  China  and  Jiipan,  which  is 
i:nmediatcly  distinguishable  from  the  former  species 
by  its  upright  branches  and  larger,  almost  globose 
and  rough  stroliiles,  is  also  in  Britain,  and  upon  the 
continent  of  Europe,  a  common  ornament  of  pleasure- 
grounds  ;  but  it  does  not  attain  so  great  a  size  as  the 
preceding,  and  is  more  sensible  of  the  cold  of  severe 
winters.  Tlie  balsamic  smell  is  very  agreeable. 
The  tree  yields  a  resin,  having  a  pleasant  odour,  to 
which  high  medicinal  virtues  were  formerly  ascribed ; 
hence  the  remarkable  name.  Arbor  Vitce  (Latin,  signi- 
fying Tree  of  Life),  given  to  this  species,  and  extended 
to  the  genus.  Other  .species  are  known,  but  they  are 
less  important  than  these.  In  its  native  country,  this 
species  also  attains  the  size  of  a  considerable  tree. — 
There  are  several  otner  species  of  llntja,  some  of 
which  seem  well  suited  to  the  open  air  in  the  climate 


of  Britain,  and  others  require  the  protection  of  green- 
houses. Amongst  the  former  are  2\  plicata,  from 
Nootka  Sound;  and  7'.  dolahrata,  a  native  of 
Japan,  a  tree  of  great  height  and  thickness,  and 
wliicli  will  not  improbably  prove  the  most  important 
of  the  whole  genus. — A  tree,  common  in  North 
America,  and  there  known  by  the  name  of  White 
Ckdar,  is  sometimes  included  in  the  genus  Thnja, 
under  the  name  of  T.  sphccroidea,  but  is  more  gene- 
rally ranked  in  the  genus  Cupressus  as  C.  tlujoidcx. 
See  Cypress.  The  timber  is  highly  esteemed,  and 
an  infusion  of  the  scrapings  is  sometimes  used  as  \\ 
stomachic. — Closely  allied  to  the  genus  lliuja  is  Cal- 
litris.     See  Sandakach. 

ARBROATH,   ABERBRO'THWICK,   or  ABER- 

BRO'TIIOCK,  a  small  seaport  town  in  the  east  of 
Forfarshire,  situated  at  the  mouth  of  a  stream 
called  the  Brothock.  Here  King  William  tl;o 
Lion  founded  a  Tyronensian  abbey  in  honour  of 
Thomas-a-Becket  in  1178.  The  king  was  interred 
in  it  in  1214.  In  the  abbey,  Bruce  and  the  Scot- 
tish nobles  met  in  1320,  to  resist  the  claims  of 
Edward  II.  to  Scotland.  Cardinal  Beaton  was  the 
last  of  its  abbots.  Next  to  Holyrood,  the  abbey  was 
the  most  richly  endowed  monastery  in  Scotland.  It 
was  destroyed  by  the  Reformers  in  15C0.  Its  ruins 
— which  are  cruciform,  270  by  160  feet — are  very 
picturesque,  presenting  lofty  towers,  columns,  Gothic 
windows,  and  a  fine  circular  cast  window,  '  the 
Round  0  of  A.'  The  chief  manufactures  of  A.  are 
leatlicr,  thread,  coarse  linens,  and  canvas.  Its 
harbour  is  artificial,  and  defended  by  a  battery,  but 
a  bar  of  rock  in  front  injures  its  entrance.  In  ISfp? 
the  number  of  vessels  belonging  to  the  port  was 
104;  tonnage,  13,896.  The  chief  exports  are  grain, 
potatoes,  fish,  pork,  and  pavement,  chiefly  from 
Lower  Devonian  quariies  8  or  10  miles  inland.  A. 
is  a  royal  burgh,  and  in  conjunction  with  Montrose, 
Brechin,  Foriar,  and  Bervie  burghs,  returns  one 
member  to  parliament.  Population,  in  1861,  of 
municipal  burgh,  8500;  of  parliamentary,  17,591. 
A.  is  supposed  to  be  the  Fairport  of  ITie  Anti- 
quary, and  its  Redhead  Crags  and  Coves  form 
some  of  the  scenes  in  that  novel.  The  famous  Bell- 
rock  Light-house  stands  in  the  sea,  12  miles  south- 
east of  A. 

ARBU'THNOT,  John,  a  distinguished  writer 
and  physician,  the  contemporary  and  friend  of  Pope 
and  Swift,  was  the  son  of  a  Scottish  episcopal 
clergyman,  and  born  at  Arhuthnot,  in  Kincar- 
dineshire, shortly  after  the  Restoration.  He  studied 
medicine  at  Aberdeen,  where  he  took  his  degree. 
A.'s  father  was  obliged  to  resign  his  charge  at  the 
revolution.  His  sons'  prospects  being  thus  blighte  I 
in  their  own  country,  they  were  under  the  neces- 
sity of  going  abroad  to  seek  their  fortune.  John 
removed  soon  after  to  London,  and  there  sup- 
ported himself  by  teaching  mathematics.  In  1G97 
he  publitjhed  an  examination  of  Dr  Woodward's 
account  of  the  Deluge,  which  brought  him  into 
notice  as  a  person  of  no  common  ability.  Accident 
called  him  into  attendance  on  Prince  George  of 
Denmark,  who  thenceforth  patronized  •  him.  In 
1709  he  was  appointed  physician  to  the  queen,  and 
in  1710  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Royal  College 
of  Physicians.  On  the  death  of  Queen  Anne,  in  1714, 
he  lost  his  situation,  and  his  circumstances  were 
never  so  prosperous  afterwards.  In  1717,  A.,  along 
with  Pope,  gave  assistance  to  Gay  in  a  farce, 
entitled  Three  Honra  after  Marriar/e,  which,  how- 
ever, in  spite  of  having  the  aid  of  a  trio  of  wits, 
proved  a  complete  failure.  In  1723  he  was  chosen 
second  censor  of  tl;e  Royal  College  of  Physicians  ; 
in  1727  he  was  made  an  Elect,  and  had  the  honour  to 
pronounce  the  Harveian  oration  for  the  year.   He  died 

303 


ARIiUTUS— ARCADIA. 


nt  Ilaiiipstoiid,  ill  17">o.  A.  was  one  of  the  leaders  in 
that  circle  of  wits  which  adorned  the  rei:.'!!  of  Queen 
AiHio,  and  was  still  more  nobly  distinguished  by  the 
rectitude  of  his  morals  and  the  goodness  of  his  heart. 
He  assisted  Swift  and  Pope  in  the  composition  of 
that  brilliant  satire,  the  Memoirs  of  Martinus 
■Scriblericx,  contributing  those  portions  of  it  which 
refer  to  science  and  philoso|)hy ;  and  ho  was  un- 
doubtedly the  author  of  the  celebrati  <1  political  jcu 
cVeyprit,  the  J/istor-;/  of  John  Bull,  which  has  fO  often 
been  imitated.  Besides  several  medical  essays,  he 
published  Tables  of  Greek,  Bovinn,  and  Jewish 
Measures,  Weights,  and  Coins  (London,  17t'5 — 1708), 
a  work  which  was  long  the  best  authority  on  the 
subject.  There  is  also  a  philosophical  poem  of  his 
composition  in  Dodsley's  Miscellanies,  entitled  Know 
Thyself 

A'RBUTUS,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order,  Ericta\  containing  a  number  of  species,  small 
trees  and  shrubs,  the  greater  p:irt  of  which  are 
American.  The  fruit  is  fleshy,  5-celled,  many-seeded, 
usually  dotted  with  little  projections,  whence  that  of 
some  species  lir.s  a  sort  of  resemblance  to  straw- 
berries ;  the  corolla  is  urn-shaped. — .1.  U'nedo,  the 


STRAM-nEURT  Trek,  is  a  native  of  the  south  of 
Europe,  found  also  in  Asia  and  America,  and  in  one 
locality  in  the  ]5ritish  Lies,  the  Lakes  of  Killarney, 
where  its  fine  foliage  adds  much  to  the  charm  of  the 
Bccnery.  It  requires  protection  in  winter  in  the 
climate  of  Paris.  In  Britain,  it  is  often  planted  as 
an  ornamental  evergreen.  It  grows  to  the  height  of 
20 — 30  feet,  but  is  rather  a  great  bush  than  a  tree. 
The  bark  is  rugged ;  the  leaves  oblongo-lanceolate, 
smooth  and  shining,  bluntly  serrated  ;  the  flowers 
nodding,  large,  greenish  white ;  the  fniit  globose,  of 
a  scarlet  colour,  with  a  vapid  sweetish  taste.  It  is, 
however,  sometimes  eaten.  Of  late,  excellent  alcohol 
has  been  made  from  it  in  Italy.  A  wine  is  made 
from  it  in  Corsica,  which,  however,  is  narcotic,  if 
taken  in  considerable  quantity,  as  the  fruit  itself  is, 
if  eaten  too  freely.  The  bark  and  leaves  are  astrin- 
gent.— A.  Axdraehne  is  also  sometimes  cultivated  as 
an  ornamental  plant  in  Britain,  but  is  impatient  of 
severe  frosts.  Its  fruit,  and  that  of  A.  inlegrfolia, 
are  eaten  in  Greece  and  the  east.  But  all  the  species 
.«eem  to  possess  narcotic  qualities  in  greater  or  less 
degree;  the  fruit  of  A.  fureiis,  a  small  shrub,  a 
native  of  Chili,  so  much  as  to  cause  delirium. — A. 
aculeafa,  which  abounds  at  Cape  Horn  and  on  Staten 
Island,  is  an  elegant  and  most  pleasing  evergreen, 
very  much  resembling  the  myrtle.  It  grows  to  the 
height  of  3  or  4  feet,  and  produces  small  white 
flowers,  followed  by  a  profusion  of  red  shining 
berries,  which  ornament  the  bush  during  winter. 
364 


Their  flavour  is  insijjid,  but  somewhat  astringent. 
Mixed  with  a  few  raisins,  they  have  been  made  by 
voyagers  into  tolerable  tarts. — A.  Uva  ursi,  now 
generally  called  Arcto.sta/>h>/los  Uva  ursi,  the  Red 
Beariserrv,  is  a  small  trailing  evergreen  shrub, 
common  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  and  in  the 
Hebrides,  and  indeed  iu  the  northern  parts  of 
Europe,  Siberia,  and  North  America.  It  grows  in 
dry,  heathy,  and  rocky  places.  The  flowers  are  in 
small  crowded  terminal  racemes,  of  a  beautiful  rose 
colour.  The  berries  are  austere  and  mealy;  they 
are  said  to  form  a  principal  part  of  the  food  of  bears 
in  northern  regions.  Grouse  also  feed  on  them. 
The  dried  leaves  arc  used  as  an  astringent  and  tonic 
medicine,  and  as  such  have  a  place  in  the  jjharma- 
copoeias,  being  principally  emiiloyed  in  chronic 
aifections  of  the  bladder;  but  those  of  Vaceinimn 
Vilis  Id:;a  arc  often  fraudulently  substituted  for 
them. — The  Black  BKARiiEKUY  (.1.  or  Arctostaph;ilos 
aljiina)  is  also  a  native  of  the  northern  parts  of  the 
globe,  a  small  trailing  shrub,  with  black  berries 
about  the  size  of  a  sloe,  relished  by  some,  but 
having  a  peculiar  taste,  which  to  others  is  disagrec- 
alile.  The  plant  is  found  on  many  of  the  Highland 
mountains  of  Scotland. 

ARC  (Lat.  arcus,  a  bow)  is  any  part  of  a  curved 
line.  The  straight  line  joining  the  ends  of  an  A.  is 
its  chord,  which  is  always  less  than  the  A.  itself. 
Ares  of  circles  are  similar  when  they  subtend  equal 
angles  at  the  centres  of  their  respective  circles  ;  and 
if' similar  arcs  belong  to  ecpial  circles,  the  ares  them- 
selves are  ei/iial.  The  length  of  an  A.  is  readily  found 
'ft'  the  angle  which  it  subtends  at  the  centre  of  the 
circle  is  known,  and  also  the  length  of  the  whole 
circumference.  Let  the  whole  circumference  be  100, 
and  the  angle  of  an  A.  50°,  the  length  of  the  A.  is 

.360°  :  50°  ::   100  :  ^'^"  ^  ^^  =  14  nearly. 
360 

ARC.     See  Joan  of  Arc. 

ARCA,  or  ARK-SIIELL,  a  genus  of  bivalve  shells, 
and  lamello-branchiate  mollusca,  the  type  of  a  family 
called  Arcadiv,  or  Arcacea;.  In  the  true  ark-shells, 
the  hinge  is  straight,  and  occupies  what  at  first  seems 
the  whole  length  of  the  shell,  but  is  in  reality  its 
whole  breadth,  the  breadth  being  greater  than  the 
length.  One  species  is  Ibund  on  the  British  shores ; 
the  species  are  larger  and  more  numerous  in  the 
seas  of  warmer  climates,  and  some  of  them  are  fre- 
quently to  be  seen  among  the  shells  employed  for  the 
ornament  of  drawing-rooms,  &c.  Fossil  Arcadce  are, 
however,  more  numerous  than  recent  species,  and 
are  found  in  various  rock  systems. 

ARCA'DE  (Fr.),  a  row  of  arches,  supported  by 
columns,  either  luniiigan  open  space  of  greater  or  less 
width  behind  them,  or  in  contact  with  masonry.  The 
A.  in  Gothic  corresponds  to  the  colonnade  in  classical 
architecture,  the  diiference  between  them  being  that, 
whereas  the  pillars  in  the  colonnade  support  straight 
architraves,  those  in  the  A.  support  arches.  The 
term  A.  is  sometimes  applied  to  the  row  of  piers,  or 
columns  and  arches,  by  which  the  aisles  are  divided 
from  the  nave  of  a  church,  or  by  which  cloisters, 
or  what  are  erroneously  called  piazzas  in  Britain, 
are  enclosed;  but  it  is  more  generally  confined  to 
those  series  of  smaller  arches  which  are  employed 
simply  for  purposes  of  ornamentation.  Arcades  of 
the  latter  kind  are  often  found  surrounding  the 
square  towers  of  English  churches.  Of  this  we  have 
early  examples  in  the  church  of  Middlctown  Stoney, 
Oxfordshire,  and  in  the  still  older  ones  of  Tewkes- 
bury, and  Christ  Church  in  Oxford.  The  term  is 
also  applied,  improperly,  to  a  glass-covered  street  or 
lane,  with  a  row  of  shops  or  stalls  on  each  side. 

ARCATTA,  the  middle  and  highest  part  of  Pelo- 
ponnesus,  was  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Achaia,  on 


ARCADirS— ARCH. 


the  E.  by  Aigo'.i^,  on  the  S.  by  Messenia  and 
Liiconia,  and  on  the  \Y.  by  E'.is.  Aoconiing  to 
P;ius!iniiis,  it  derived  its  name  from  Areas,  tlie  son 
of  Cullisto.  Next  to  Laconia,  A.  was  tiie  largest 
country  in  the  Peloponnesus.  It  had  an  area  of 
1700  square  miles,  and  was  girt  round  by  a  circle 
of  mountains,  which  cut  olf  to  a  large  extent  its 
communication  with  the  rest  of  the  peninsula. 
Motmtaiws  also  intersected  it  in  different  directions. 
Tiie  western  part  of  what  was  anciently  A.,  is  wild, 
bleak,  and  rugged,  and  was  at  one  time  covered 
w  itli  huge  forests  ;  the  eastern  is  more  fertile,  the 
mountains  not  so  high,  and  the  vales  more  luxuriant. 
In  these  eastern  valleys  lay  all  the  principal  cities 
of  A.  The  loftiest  peak  in  A.— the  loftiest  also  in 
the  Peloponnesus — is  Mount  Cyllene,  in  the  north- 
east (778  feet).  The  chief  river  was  anciently  the 
Alpheius  (q.  v.).  Originally  A.  was  named  Pelasgia, 
after  its  first  inhabitants,  the  Pelasgi.  Subsequently, 
it  was  divided  into  several  small  states,  which 
formed  a  confederation.  Of  these  united  states,  the 
chief  were  Mantinea,  Tegea,  Orchomenos,  Pheneus, 
Psophis,  and  Megalopolis.  The  inhabitants,  engaged 
chiefly  in  tending  cattle  and  in  hunting  amcmg 
the  wild  highlands,  remained  long  in  a  state  of 
barbarism.  After  civilisation  had  advanced,  and 
tlie  Arcadians  had  become  known  by  their  love 
of  music  and  dancing,  they  still  retained  some  mili- 
tary spirit,  and  were  sometimes  engaged  as  mer- 
cenary soldiers.  But  generally  their  character 
accorded  with  their  simple,  rural  mode  of  life ; 
though  it  seems  certain  that  human  sacrifices  were 
offered  as  late  as  the  period  of  the  Macedonian" 
sway.  The  Arcadians  were  not  remarkable  for 
their  intelligence.  In  fact,  an  '  Arcadian  youth ' 
was  a  synonym  for  a  blockhead.  Pan  and  Diana 
were  their  liivourite  deities.  Ancient  and  modern 
poets  (the  latter  especially  in  the  time  when 
'  jjastorals '  were  popular)  have  described  A.  as 
the  land  of  peace,  innocence,  and  patriarchal 
manners. 

ARCA'DIUS,  first  emperor  of  the  East  (39.0—408 
A.  P.),  was  born  in  Sj>ain,  383  a.  n.,  and  was  the  son 
of  the  Emperor  Theodosius,  after  whose  death  the 
Roman  empire  was  divided  into  East  and  West. 
A.  lived  in  oriental  state  and  splendour,  and  his 
dominion  extended  from  the  Adriatic  Sea  to  the 
river  Tigris,  and  from  Scythia  to  Ethiopia  ;  but  the 
real  rulers  over  this  vast  empire  were,  first,  the  Gaul 
Rufinus,  and  afterwards  the  enunch  Eutropius,  who 
openly  assumed  the  reins  of  government  and  the 
commaml  of  the  army,  while  A.  reposed  in  luxurious 
indifference.  In  399,  the  eunuch  Eutropius  was 
deposed  by  another  usurper,  Gainas,  who,  in  his 
turn,  soon  fell  a  victim  to  his  own  ambition.  After- 
wards, Eudoxia,  the  wife  of  the  emperor,  assumed 
the  suprennicy.  One  really  great  man  adorned  this 
period,  the  virtuous  and  eloquent  Chrysostom,  who 
was  persecuted  by  Eudoxia,  and  through  her 
influence  exiled  in  404,  on  account  of  his  firm 
opposition  to  Arianism,  which  tlie  empress  herself 
favoured.  During  the  reign  of  A.,  his  territories 
suffered  by  barbarian  incursions,  earthquakes, 
and  famine,  but  nothing  could  disturb  the  indif- 
ference of  the  monarch.     He  died,  unlamented,  408 

A.  D. 

ARCESILA'US,  a  Greek  philosopher,  founder 
of  the  New  Academy,  was  born  at  Pitane  in  .^^olia, 
Asia  Minor,  316  b.  c.  He  studied  philosophy,  first 
under  Theophrastus  the  Peripatetic,  and  afterwards 
under  Grantor.  After  the  death  of  Grantor,  A. 
became  the  chief  master  of  the  Academic  party,  or 
those  who  held  to  the  doctrines  of  Plato;  but  he  intro- 
duced so  many  changes  that  its  philosophic  character 
was  completely  changed.     His  great  rivals  were  the 


Stoics,  whose  opinions  he  attacked,  but  he  dues  not 
appear  to  have  attained  any  certainty  in  his  own 
convictions.  He  had  studied  under  too  many  mas- 
ters, and  discussed  too  many  different  systems,  to  be 
sure  of  the  truth  of  any.  He  denied  the  Stoical  doc 
trine  of  a  'convincing  conception,'  wiiich  he  affirmed 
to  be,  from  its  very  nature,  uninteliigble  and  contra 
dictory.  He  also  denied  the  existence  of  any  sutfi 
cient  criterion  of  truth,  and  recommended  absti- 
nence from  all  dogmatic  judgments.  In  practice  he 
maintained  that  we  must  act  on  grounds  of  proba- 
bility. It  is  not  easy  to  determine  satisfactorily 
what  his  moral  character  was.  A  wit,  a  poet,  and  a 
man  of  frank  and  generous  disposition,  which  seems 
to  have  captivated  his  disciples  even  more  than  his 
philosophy,  he  has  yet  been  accused  by  his  enemies 
of  the  grossest  profligacy  ;  and  whatever  extrava- 
gance there  may  be  in  such  an  extreme  charge,  it  is 
tolerably  certain  that  he  died  of  a  debauch  in  his 
76th  year  (241  B.  c).  Nevertheless,  his  adversary 
Gleanthes,  the  Stoic,  passed  this  high  eulogium  on 
him  :  '  The  morality  which  A.  abolishes  in  his  words, 
he  re-establishes  in  his  actions.' 

ARCH,  an  arrangement  of  bricks,  stones,  or 
other  materials  over  an  open  space,  by  which  thev 
are  made  not  only  to  support  each  other  by  mutual 
pressure,  but  to  sustain  a  superincumbent  weight. 
We  have  the  excellent  authority  of  Sir  G.  Wilkinson 
for  stating  that  the  A.  was  known  to,  and  used  by, 
the  ancient  Egyptians ;  and  that  the  Assyrians  were 
acquainted  with  its  principles  is  placed  beyond 
doubt  by  the  arched  gateways  so  frequently  repre- 
sented in  their  bass-reliefs.  The  A.  is  generally  sup- 
posed to  have  been  unknown  to  the  Greeks — a  sup- 
position which  becomes  very  improbable  if  we  hold 
it  to  be  proved  that  it  was  used  by  nations  with 
whose  works  they  must  have  been  familiar.  But 
that  the  Greeks  did  not  employ  it  generally  in  their 
architectural  structures,  is  certain;  and  as  it  is  not  less 
certain  that  the  Rom.ans  did,  it  is  to  the  latter  people 
that  the  nations  of  modern  Europe  are  indebted  for 
their  acquaintance  with  its  great  utility.  The  intro- 
duction of  the  A.  by  the  Romans  gradually  effected 
a  complete  revolution  in  the  architectural  forms 
which  th?y  borrowed  from  the  Greeks.  The  predo- 
minance of  horizontal  lines  gave  way  by  degrees, 
till,  as  the  Romanesque  passed  into  the  Gothic  style, 
it  was  superseded  by  the  segments  of  a  circle,  placed 
generally  more  or  less  in  a  perpendicular  direction. 
In  its  earliest  application  by  the  Romans,  the  A.  did 
not  spring  from  the  entablature  of  the  columns,  but 
was  generally  placed  behind  them,  and  rested  upon 
separate  imposts.  Subsequently,  this  arrangement 
was  departed  from,  and  the  A.  assumeil  the  position 
which  it  has  since  retained  above  the  columns ; 
sometimes  having  an  entablature  interposed,  and 
sometimes  rising  directly  from  the  capital  of  the 
colunm  or  pier,  as  in  the  Romanesque.  Before  men- 
tioning very  briefly  the  different  forms  of  the  A.,  it 
seems  natural  to  refer  to  a  very  simple  structure, 
frequently  met  with  in  those  early  edifices  in  our 
own  country  which  we  are  in  the  habit  of  desig* 
nating  as  Saxon.  It  consists  of  two  stones,  their 
lower  ends  resting  on  rude  piers,  their  tops  lean- 
ing against  each  other,  and  thus  forming  two 
sides  of  a  triangle,  which  is  capable  of  support- 
ing a  moderate  superincumbent  weight.  Tb.c  me- 
chanical principles  upon  which  the  A.  depends,  though 
here  very  imperfectly  employed,  seem  suliiciently 
called  into  play  to  suggest  their  more  extensive 
application ;  and  it  is  not  impossible  that  out  of 
this  rude  construction  the  A.,  in  its  later  and 
more  elaborate  forms,  might  have  developed  itself 
amongst  ourselves  without  hints  from  foreign 
sources. 

Of  the  A.  itself,  the  following  variations  of  form 

365 


ARCH. 


may  be  enuiiierated :  Tlie  semicircle  (1),  the  seg- 
ment (2),  the  ellipse  (3),  which  were  the  only  forms 
employed  by  the  ancients,  and  which  alone  were 
known  in  medieval  architecture  up  to  the  time  at 


1.  Semicircle, 


2,  Segment. 


8.  Ellipse. 


4.  Stilted  .\.      5.  Horseshoe  A. 


which  the  pointed  A.  was  introduced.  Of  these,  the 
Btiltcd  A.  (4),  and  the  horseshoe  A.  (5),  arc  modi- 
ficaiions,  in  both  of  which  the  centre  or  point  from 
which  the  A.  is  described  is  above  the  line  of  the 
impost,  but  in  the  former  of  wiiich  the  mouldinps 
are  continued  downwards  vertically  ;  whilst  in  the 
latter  they  are  slightly  inclined  inwards,  or  the  curve 
is  prolonged  till  it  meets  the  impost.  The  horse- 
shoe A.  belongs  peculiarly  to  Arabian  architecture 
(q.  v.),  not  only  from  its  having  originated  simulta- 
neously with  the  faith  of  the  Prophet,  but  from  its 
continuing  to  be  used  exclusively  by  his  followers. 
Next,  in  point  of  time,  though  fixr  surpassing  all  the 
others  in  beauty  and  variety,  is  the  pointed  A.,  the 
origin  of  which  is  still  a  subject  of  antiquarian 
controversy.  The  greater  or  less  acutenoss  of  the 
pointed  A.  depends  on  the  position  of  the  two  centre 
points  from  which  it8  curved  sides  are  described. 
Its  various  proportions  will  be  better  umlerstood 
from  the  accompanying  diagrams  (6,  7,  8,  9)  than 
from  any  verbal  description. 


6.  Equilateral  A. 


7.  Lancet  A. 


8.  Drop  A. 


9.  Segmental  A 


Of  the  foil  arches  (10,  11,  12,  13,  14),  or  arches 
in  which  the  forms  of  a  leaf  are  imitated,  the  first 


10,  11,  12.  Trefoil  Arches. 

three  are  examples  of  the  trefoil,  the  fourth  of  the 
cinquefoil,  and  the  fifth  of  the  polyfoiU  the  latter 
3C6 


being  met  with  in  Arabian  and   Uouianesijue  build- 
ings.    At  a  later  period  of  Gothic  architecture,  with 


1.3.  Cinquefoil  A, 


14.  Polj-foll  A. 


the  decorated  style,  the  ogee  A.  (15)  was  introduced, 
and  the  Tudor  or  four-cornered  A.  (IT,)  ap[»  ared 
about  the  commencement  of  the  perpendicular  style. 


15.  Ogee  A. 


16.  Tudor  A. 


When  first  introduced,  the  proportions  of  this  A. 
were  bold  and  efl'ective  ;  but  it  was  gradually 
depressed  till  the  principle  of  the  A.  was  lost,  and 
its  very  form  was  again  merged  first  in  two  and 
then  in  one  flat  stone  or  lintel  over  an  opening. 
With  the  last  form  of  the  Tudor  A.  we  thus  reach 
almost  the  point  of  departure  in  the  construction  of 
the  A.,  and  complete  our  enumeration  of  its  forms. 

The  sides  of  an  A.  are  termed  hnuvchct  or  flnnkn, 
and  its  highest  part  is  called  the  crown.  The  wedge- 
shaped  stones,  bricks,  or 
other  materials  of  which  an 
A.  is  constructed,  are  called 
roiisxnirs  (*?,  a,  a)  ;  the 
uppermost  one  of  all  (h)  is 
called  the  In/ntonc  ;  the 
lowest,  which  is  placed 
immediately  over  the  im- 
post, tlie  Kprinficr,  or  spring- 
ing-stone  ;  the  under  or 
lower  side  of  the  voussoirs, 
t'.ic  iiitrados ;  the  upper 
side,  the  exfrados  or  back. 
For  the  investigation  of 
tlie  mechanical  principle  of 
the  arch,  and  of  the  con- 
ditions of  stability,  see 
Mos(^ley'8  Mechanical  Principles  of  Engineering  and 
Architecture.  See  also  Bridge,  Lvipost,  Pier, 
Buttress. 

ARCH,    Triumphal,    was    a    structure     erected 
by  the  Romans  across  roads,  or  at  the  entrance  of 


Triumphal  Arch  of  Constantine  at  Rome, 
cities,  In  honour  of  victorious  generals.     The  original 


ARCHEOLOGY— ARCHANGEL. 


triumphal  arch  was  the  Porta  Triumphalis,  one  of 
the  fjates  of  Rome  through  which  the  triumphal  pro- 
cession entered  the  city.  Among  the  earliest  detached 
arches  built  at  Rome  was  that  built  by  Scipio 
Africanus  (190  B.  c.)  on  the  CapitoHne  Plill.  Under 
tlie  emperors,  these  structures  became  numerous  and 
magnificent,  and  were  decorated  with  bass-reliefs  and 
inscriptions.  Three  of  what  were  properly  triumphal 
arches  still  remain  in  Rome,  those,  namely,  of  Titus, 
Septimius  Severus,  and  Constantine.  Numerous 
f  imilar  monuments  exist  also  in  other  parts  of  the 
old  Roman  empire,  as  at  Rimini,  Susa,  Verona, 
Ancona,  Orange  (in  France),  Capura  (in  Spain). 

ARCHAEOLOGY  (Gr.  archaios,  ancient,  and 
loffos,  a  discourse)  is  the  name  now  very  generally 
given  to  the  study  which  was  formerly  known  as 
that  of  'antiquities.'  The  term  is  well  enough 
understood,  although  its  meaning  is  not  at  all 
definitely  fixed.  In  its  widest  sense,  it  includes 
the  knowledge  of  the  origin,  language,  religion, 
laws,  institutions,  literature,  science,  arts,  manners, 
customs — everything,  in  a  word,  that  can  be  learned 
cf  the  ancient  life  and  being  of  a  people.  When  so 
u?ed,  it  comprehends  more  or  less  of  several  branches 
of  knowledge  which  are  recognised  as  distinct  or 
independent  pursuits,  such,  for  example,  as  eth- 
nology, philology,  history,  chronology,  biography, 
mythology,  numismatics.  In  its  narrower  but  per- 
haps more  popular  signification,  A.  is  understood  to 
mean  the  discovery,  preservation,  collection,  arrange- 
ment, authentication,  publication,  description,  inter- 
pretation, or  elucidation  of  the  materials  from  which 
a  knowledge  of  the  ancient  condition  of  a  country 
is  to  be  attained.  These  materials  will  be  found 
to  divide  themselves  into  three  great  classes : 
(1.)   written,  (2.)  monumental,  and  (3.)  traditional. 

1.  What  maybe  called  written  A.,  maybe  again  sub- 
divided into  palfeography  (q.  v.),  or  diplomatics  (q.  v.) 
— that  is,  the  science  of  ancient  writings  ;  and  bibli- 
ography (q.  v.),  or  the  knowlodge  of  printed  books. 

2.  Monumental  A.  admits  of  almost  endless  sub- 
divisions, according  to  the  character  of  the  remains 
to  be  studied,  which  may  be  works  of  art,  such  as 
buildings,  sculptures,  paintings,  engravings,  inscrip- 
tions, coins,  medals,  seals,  armorial-bearings,  tapestry, 
furniture,  plate,  jewels,  enamels,  glass,  porcelain, 
pottery  ;  works  of  engineering,  such  as  roads,  canals, 
mines,  piers,  camps,  forts,  walls ;  works  of  unskilled 
labour,  such  as  pillars  of  unhewn  stone,  caves,  dikes, 
ditches,  mounds  of  earth  or  stone  ;  articles  of  dress, 
armour,  or  personal  ornament ;  tools,  weapons, 
implements,  utensils,  machines ;  appliances  for  loco- 
motion, such  as  canoes,  boats,  ships,  carriages ; 
modes  of  sculpture,  such  as  mummies,  sarcophagi, 
urns,  catacombs,  graves ;  vestiges  of  man  and 
animals,  such  as  skulls,  bones,  skins.  3.  Tradi- 
tional A.  includes  as  well  the  unwritten  language 
and  oral  literature  of  a  people,  their  dialects,  legends, 
tales,  proverbs,  rhymes,  songs,  and  ballads,  as  those 
sports,  customs,  ceremonies,  rites,  and  superstitions 
now  beginning  to  be  known  by  the  name  '  folk- 
lore,' and  formerly  called  '  popular  antiquities.' 

The  study  of  A.  in  modern  Europe  may  be  held 
to  date  from  the  revival  of  letters.  It  was  long 
almost  exclusively  confined  to  the  antiquities  of 
the  Greeks  and  Romans.  About  the  middle  of  the 
loth  c.  Medieval  A.,  or  the  antiquities  of  the  Dark 
and  Middle  Ages,  began  to  be  cultivated.  Egyptian 
A.,  or  'Egyptology,'  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  made 
comparatively  little  progress  until  the  discovery  of 
the  Rosetta  Stone,  containing  a  bilingual  and  tri- 
literal  inscription,  which  enabled  Young  in  1819,  and 
ChampolUon  in  1821,  to  find  a  key  to  the  hiero- 
glyphics. The  more  recent  discoveries  of  Botta, 
Layard,  Rawlinson,  and  others,  have  already 
advanced  Assyrian  A.  to  a  point  bcyoud  all  expecta- 


tion. Indian  A.  has  been  successfully  prosecuted, 
especially  during  the  last  forty  years,  chiefly  by 
officers  of  the  East  India  Company.  Something  also 
has  been  done  by  them  and  others  for  Chinese  A. 
Men  of  letters  in  the  United  States  have  devoted  their 
time  to  the  rude  and  scanty  remains  of  the  aboriginal 
inhabitants  of  North  America.  The  A.  of  Central 
and  South  America,  as  it  attracted  attention  much 
earlier,  so  its  more  stately  and  instructive  monu- 
ments have  much  better  rewarded  such  investiga- 
tions as  those  of  Lord  Kingsborough,  Messrs  Stephens 
and  Catterwood,  and  others. 

The  study  of  A.  has  been  largely  promoted  by 
the  publication,  at  the  expense  of  the  State,  in 
various  countries,  of  the  national  chronicles,  char- 
ters, and  records;  by  societies  and  clubs  contri- 
buting to  the  same  end,  or  printing  essays  on 
questions  of  A. ;  and  liy  the  establishment  by 
the  state,  by  associations,  or  by  individuals,  of 
museums  for  the  collection  and  classification  of 
antiquities.  In  England,  a  society  for  promoting 
the  study  of  antiquity  was  founded  so  early  as  the 
year  1572.  The  irrational  jealousy  of  the  govern- 
ment dissolved  it  in  1604.  It  was  revived  1707, 
enlarged  in  1717,  and  incorporated  by  royal  charter 
in  1761,  under  the  name  of  the  'Society  of  Anti- 
quaries of  London.'  An  attempt  to  institute  a  simi- 
lar society  in  Scotland  was  made  about  1700  by  'some 
honourable  and  knowing  gentlemen,'  who  resolved 
to  continue  their  conferences  till  a  complete  historical 
account  be  made  of  the  nation.  But  it  was  not 
until  1780  that  the  Society  of  Antiquaries  of  Scot- 
land was  incorporated  by  royal  charter.  The 
Royal  Irish  Academy  for  promoting  '  the  study  of 
science,  polite  literature,  and  antiquities,'  was  char- 
tered in  1786.  The  Society  of  antiquaries  of  Scot- 
land and  the  Royal  Irish  Academy,  have  good 
museums  of  national  antiquities.  The  British 
Museum  in  London  (established  in  1753),  besides  a 
great  collection  of  early  manuscripts  and  printed 
books,  has  galleries  of  Assyrian,  Egyptian,  Etrus- 
can, Greek,  Roman,  British,  and  Medieval  antiqui- 
ties. One  of  the  most  remarkable  collections  of 
antiquities  on  the  continent,  is  that  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Antiquaries  of  the  North,  at  Copenhagen, 
arranged  so  as  to  illustrate  a  favourite  theory  of 
the  Scandinavian  archteologists — that  the  primitive 
antiquities  of  a  country  may  be  assigned  to  three 
successive  ages  or  periods  of  stone,  bronze,  and  iron, 
with  as  much  certainty  and  precision  as  the  com- 
parative antiquity  of  geological  strata,  or  periods  of 
the  world's  creation  may  be  determined  by  theJ 
fossils  which  they  are  found  to  contain.  The 
museums  of  the  Louvre  and  the  Hotel  de  Cluny,  in 
Paris,  contain  fine  collections  of  Assyrian,  Egyptian, 
Greek  and  Roman  antiquities,  and  an  unrivalled 
collection  of  Medieval  antiquities.  The  Royal 
Museum  at  Naples  has  gathered  together  the  statues, 
paintings,  vases,  household  utensils,  and  other 
objects  recovered  during  the  last  hundred  years 
from  the  ruins  of  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii.  These 
long  buried  cities  may  be  regarded  as  being  in 
themselves  museums  of  Roman  A. 

ARCHANGEL,  the  chief  city  in  the  Russian 
department  of  Archangel,  is  situated  in  hit.  64°  32' 
N.  and  long.  40°  33'  E.,  about  40  miles  above  the 
junction  of  the  river  Dwina  with  the  White  Sea  ; 
is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop,  and  contains  19,584 
inhabitants.  Its  name  is  taken  from  the  monastery 
of  St.  Michael.  A.  is  the  chief  commercial  city  for  the 
north  of  Russia  and  Siberia,  and  is  visited  by  nume- 
rous vessels — especially  British — from  July  io  Sep- 
tember, the  port  being  clear  of  ice  only  during  that 
period.  The  houses  are  built  chiefly  of  wood  ;  and 
their  general  appearance  is  far  from  handsome.  The 
finest  edifices  are  the    bazaar    or    mart,  and    the 

867 


ARCHANGEL— ARCnBISnOP. 


rnariiie  hospital.  A.  has  an  ecclesiastical  oollcfre 
with  9  prolessors,  schools  for  engineering  and  navi- 
gation, &c.  The  chief  articles  of  traffic  are  fish, 
train-oil,  skins,  furs,  tiinl)er,  wax,  iron,  tallow, 
bristles,  caviare.  The  town,  whicli  is  the  oldest 
seaport  of  the  ereipire,  and  was  for  a  long  period  the 
only  one,  was  founded  in  1584.  Its  merchants 
trade  as  far  east  as  China,  and  have  all  the  com- 
merce of  Siberia.  Dnring  summer,  A.  has  a  con- 
tinual market. 

ARCIIA'XGEL  (from  the  Greek  prefix  arcM- 
or  arc/i-,  denoting  chief,  and  anffclos,  an  angel),  a 
term  which  occurs  in  tlie  New  Testament  ;  and 
which,  according  to  some,  is  there  a  title  of  our 
Saviour — but,  according  to  others,  designates  an 
angel  superior  in  power  and  glory  to  the  other 
angels.  We  read,  in  the  Epistle  of  Jude,  of  '  Michael 
the  A.',  and  in  Rev.  xii.  7,  of  '  Michael  and  his 
angels.'  In  1  Thess.  iv.  16,  we  are  told  that  the 
coming  of  our  Lord  at  the  last  day  shall  be  '  with 
the  voice  of  the  A.,  and  with  the  trump  of  God.' 
We  nowlicrc  read  in  the  Holy  Scriptures  of  arc'h- 
angeh,  although  the  plural  is  popularly  as  much  used 
as  tlie  singular.  The  notion  of  an  angelic  hierarchy 
certainly  prevailed  among  the  Jews,  the  highest 
place  being  assigned  to  Michael  ;  and  the  same 
notion  lias  extensively  prevailed  in  the  Christian 
church.  There  are  passages  of  Scripture  which 
seem  to  indicate  diilcrent  degrees  and  classes 
among  the  angelic  hosts,  but  no  clear  revelation 
has  been  made  upon  this  subject.     See  Angels. 

ARCHANGEL,  Nhw.     See  Sitka. 

ARCHBI'SHOP  (Gr.  arch-,  and  episcopos,  over- 
seer) is  the  tide  given  to  a  metropolitan  bishop 
who  superintends  the  conduct  of  the  suifragan 
bishops  in  his  province,  and  also  exercises  episcojial 
authority  in  his  own  diocese.  The  title  arose,  in  the 
od  and  4th  centuries,  from  the  provincial  synods 
being  held  once  or  twice  a  year  in  the  chief  town  of 
the  province  Mnder  the  presidency  of  the  bishop  of 
the  place.  Another  cause  of  the  origin  of  the  title  is 
said  to  be  the  custom  of  planting  new  bishoprics  as 
Christianity  spread,  a  slight  supremacy  being  still 
retained  by  the  original  over  the  newly-appointed 
chief  pastors.  In  the  Oriental  Church,  the  arch- 
bishops are  still  called  '  metropolitans,'  from  the 
circumstance  first  mentioned.  In  the  African  Church, 
on  the  otlier  hand,  the  term  used  was  'primus.'  The 
great  archbishoprics  of  the  early  Church  were  those  of 
Jerusalem,  Antioch,  Ephesus,  Alexandria,  Constanti- 
nople, and  Rome.  Since  the  0th  c,  the  A.  of  Rome 
has  assumed  the  name  of  Pope  (papa).  There  is  an 
official  letter  by  Justinian,  addressed  to  '  John, 
A.  of  Rome  and  Patriarch  ;'  and  several  ecclesiastical 
constitutions  are  addressed  to  '  Epiphanius,  A.  of 
Constantinople  and  Patriarch.'  The  synod  of 
Antioch,  in  341,  assigned  to  the  A.  the  superintend- 
ence over  all  the  bishoprics,  and  a  precedence  in 
rank  over  all  the  bishops  of  the  church,  who,  on 
important  matters,  were  bound  to  consult  him  and 
be  guided  by  his  advice.  By  degrees  there  arose,  out 
of  this  superiority  of  rank,  privileges  which  at  length 
assumed  the  character  of  positive  jurisdiction  in 
ecclesiastical  matters.  Many  of  these  rights  passed 
to  the  patriarchs  (q.  v.)  towards  the  end  of  the  4th 
and  diu-ing  the  5th  centuries,  and  still  more  to  the 
pope  in  the  9th.  The  archbishops  still  retained 
jurisdiction,  in  the  first  instance,  over  their  suifragans 
in  matters  which  were  not  criminal,  and  over  those 
who  were  subject  to  them  they  acted  as  a  court 
of  appeal.  They  possessed  also  the  light  of  cuHing 
together,  and  presiding  in,  the  provincial  synods  ; 
the  superintendence  and  power  of  visitation  over 
the  bishops  of  the  metropolitan  see ;  the  power  of 
enforcing  the  laws  of  the  church ;  the  dispensation 
SG3 


of  indulgences,  and  the  lii;e.  The  archbishops 
further  eijoyed  the  honour  of  having  the  cros.s 
carried  before  them  in  tlieirown  arcliiepiscopate,  even 
in  jiresence  of  the  pope  himself,  and  of  wearing  the 
pallhun.  In  England,  there  are  two  archbishopa, 
of  whom  the  one  has  his  seat  at  Canterbury,  the 
capital  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Kent ;  the  other  at 
York,  the  capital  of  Northuuibria.  But  though  as 
ruling  over  a  jirovince  in  place  of  a  single  diocese, 
both  have  enjoyed  the  rank  of  metro])olitans  from 
the  first,  the  A.  of  Canterbury  has  all  along  enjoyed, 
not  merely  pr(>cedence  as  the  successor  of  Augustine 
and  the  senior  A.,  but  as  possessing  a  pre-eminent 
and  universal  authority  over  the  whole  kingdom. 
This  pre-eminence  is  marked  in  the  titles  which 
they  respectively  assume — the  A.  of  Canterbtiry  being 
styled  the  Primate  of  all  England  (melropoHtmnis 
ct  prhniis  totius  Anr/lice),  whilst  the  A.  of  York  is 
simply  called  Primate  of  England  {prh/ins  ct  inctro- 
politaiins  Angl'ue).  It  is  also  indicated  by  the  places 
which  they  occupy  in  processions — the  A.  of  Canter- 
bury, who  lias  precedence  of  all  the  nobility,  not 
only  preceding  the  A.  of  York,  but  the  Lord 
Chancellor  being  interposed  between  them.  Previ- 
ous to  the  creation  of  an  archbishopric  in  Ireland, 
the  authority  of  the  A.  of  Canterbury  extended 
to  that  island.  The  amount  of  control  which 
belongs  to  an  A.  over  the  bishops  of  his  province  is 
not  very  accurately  defined  ;  but  if  any  bishop 
introduces  irregularities  into  his  diocese,  or  is 
guilty  of  immorality,  the  A.  may  call  him  to 
account,  and  even  deprive  him.  In  1822,  the  A.  of 
Armagh,  who  is  primate  of  all  Ireland,  deposed  the 
Bishop  of  Clogher  on  the  latter  ground.  To  the 
A.  of  Canterbury  belongs  the  honour  of  placing 
the  crown  on  the  sovereign's  head  at  his  coronation  ; 
and  the  A.  of  York  claims  the  like  privilege  in  the 
case  of  the  Queen-consort,  whose  perpetual  chaplain 
he  is.  The  province  of  the  A.  of  York  consists 
of  the  six  northern  counties,  with  Cheshire  and 
Nottinghamshire.  The  rest  of  England  and  Wales 
form  the  province  of  the  A.  of  Canterbury.  The 
dioceses  of  the  two  archbishops — that  is  to  say,  the 
districts  in  which  they  exercise  ordinary  episcopal 
functions — were  remodelled  by  6  and  7  Will.  IV.  c.  77. 
The  diocese  of  Canterbury  comprises  Kent,  except 
the  city  and  deanery  of  Rochester,  and  some  parishes 
transferred  by  this  act ;  a  number  of  parislies  in 
Sussex  called  '  peculiars  ;'  with  snuill  districts  in  other 
dioceses,  particularly  London.  The  diocese  of  the 
A.  of  York  embraces  the  county  of  York,  except 
that  portion  of  it  now  included  in  the  dioceses  of 
Ripon  and  Manchester ;  the  wdiole  county  of  Notting- 
ham ;  and  some  other  detached  districts. 

In  Ireland,  there  are  two  Protestant  and  four 
Roman  Catholic  archbishops.  Of  the  former,  the 
A.  of  Armagh  is  primate  of  all  Ireland ;  the  A.  of 
Dublin  being  primate  of  Ireland.  They  sit  alter- 
nately in  the  House  of  Lords ;  the  three  bishops  who, 
along  with  them,  represent  the  Church  of  Ireland, 
being  also  chosen  by  rotation  from  the  whole  body. 
The  election  of  an  A.  does  not  differ  from  that  of  a 
bishop  (see  Bishop)  ;  but  when  he  is  invested  with 
his  office,  he  is  said  to  be  '  enthroned,'  whereas  a 
bishop  is  '  consecrated.'  He  also  writes  himself,  '  by 
L'ivine  Providence ;'  a  bishop  being,  '  by  Divine 
permission  ;'  and  has  the  title  of  '  Grace,'  and  '  Most 
Reverend  Father  in  God,'  whilst  a  bishop  is  styled 
'  Lord,'  and  '  Right  Reverend  Father  in  God.'  The 
A.  is  entitled  to  present  to  all  ecclesiastical  livings 
in  the  disposal  of  diocesan  bishops,  if  not  filled  up 
within  six  months  ;  and  every  bishop,  whether 
created  or  translated,  is  bound  to  make  a  legal 
conveyance  to  the  A.  of  the  next  avoidance  of  one 
such  dignity  or  benefice  belonging  to  his  see  as  the 
A.  shall  choose.     This  is  called  the  A.'s  optiou. 


AKCIIDEACOX— AnCHEGOSAUnUS. 


ARCIIDEA'CON  (Gr.  arch-,  and  diaconox, 
servant).  An  ecclesiastical  ciigiiitaiy  whose  juris- 
diction is  immediately  subordinate  to  tliat  of  the 
bishop.  The  A.  orijrinally  was  siini'ly  the  chief  of 
the  deacons,  who  were  the  attendants  and  assistants 
of  the  bishop  in  church  afTairs.  His  duties  con- 
sisted in  attending  the  bishop  at  the  altar  and  at 
ordinations,  assisting  him  in  manafriiig  the  revenues 
of  the  church,  and  directing  the  deacons  in  their 
duties.  From  being  thus  mere  assistants,  archdea- 
cons in  the  5th  c.  began  to  share  the  bisho]i's  powers, 
and  step  by  step  attained  to  the  authority  which 
they  now  enjoy,  which  from  the  0th  c.  became  in 
many  respects  distinct  from  that  of  the  bishop. 
Several  synods  protested  against  the  innovation, 
but  it  was  continued  in  the  11th  and  12th  cen- 
turies, when  the  archdeacons  were  recognised  as  the 
most  influential  of  prelates.  In  the  ISth  c,  their 
powers  were  limited  by  the  establishment  of  episco- 
pal courts.  Their  dignity  and  influence  is  now  very 
much  reduced  in  the  Catholic  Church.  There  were 
formerly  sixty  archdeaconries  in  England,  but 
their  number  has  been  considerably  increased  since 
the  passing  of  the  act  for  carrying  into  efTect  the 
report  of  the  Ecclesiastical  Commissioners  (6  and  7 
Will.  IV.  c.  77);  and  it  is  probable  that  imder  the 
provisions  of  that  act  they  may  be  still  further 
increased.  No  person  can  be  appointed  an  A.  till 
he  has  been  six  years  complete  in  priest's  orders 
(3  and  4  Yict.  c.  113,  s.  27).  The  duty  of  parochial 
visitation  has  long  been  regarded  as  belonging 
specially  to  the  archidiaconal  oflice,  and  it  was 
by  its  exercise  mainly  that  the  archdeacons  attained 
to  the  dignity  of  ordinary  instead  of  delegated 
jurisdiction.  Even  in  performing  this  function, 
however,  and  in  holding  general  synods  or  visita- 
tions, ordering  repairs  of  churches,  and  the  like, 
the  A.  is  properly  to  be  regarded  as  being  what 
the  canon  law  called  him,  'the  bishop's  eye.' 
The  judge  of  the  A.'s  court,  when  he  does  not  pre- 
side, is  called  'the  oflicial.'   There  is  an  appeal  to  the 


Court  of  the  Bisliop,  or  in  the  case  of  an  A.  of  an 
archbishopric,  to  the  Court  of  Arclies.  See  DrACON, 
D-AN,  PuiKST.  See  also  Cripps'  Law  lielatiyig  to  the 
Church  and  Clerpy.     Edinburgh,  1857. 

ARCHDUKE.  A.  and  Archduchess  are  titles 
now  ta!:en  by  all  the  sons  and  daughters  of  the 
Emj'.cror  of  Austria,  and  by  their  descendants 
tlirough  the  male  line.  The  title  of  A.  was  gradu- 
ally assumed  by  the  dukes  of  Austria,  as  a  mark  of 
precedence  over  the  other  dukes  of  the  ci:;pire. 
Dd:e  Paidolph  IT.  of  Austria,  in  1359,  called  himself 
Palatinus  Archidux,  but  he  was  not  so  styled  by  the 
emperor.  His  brothers,  Albert  and  Leopold,  did  not 
assume  the  title  after  his  death,  though  they  had 
occasionally  done  so  in  his  lifetime.  The  third 
son  of  Leopold,  however,  Ernest-the-Iron,  revived 
it.  Siill  lie  was  addressed  by  the  emperor  simply 
as  duke.  At  last  the  title  was  formally  conferred 
on  them  by  the  Emperor  Frederick  HI.  in  1453, 
who  himself,  as  duke,  was  the  first  recipient  of  the 
imperial  gift.  Still  the  usage  was  not  uniform,  for 
he  afterwards  speaks  of  himself  as  duke.  The 
privilege  was  extended  to  the  Tyrolian  branch  of  the 
Austrian  House  in  the  person  of  Sigi?mund.  The 
value  of  the  dignity  thus  assumed  was  a,  cause  of 
contention  with  Bavaria  in  1589.  The  Austrian  view 
was,  that  to  duke  it  held  the  same  relation  that 
archbishop  does  to  bishop.  The  dukes  of  Austria 
claimed  to  have  always  had  precedence  over  the 
otlicr  ducal  houses,  and  regarded  the  title  as  a  mere 
indication  of  what  had  been  universally  acknow- 
ledged. Bavaria,  on  the  other  hand,  relied  on  the 
greater  antirpnty  of  its  dukedom.  The  contest  was 
decided  by  the  Emperor  Budolph  II.  in  favour  of 
Austria,  the  precedence  of  which  has  not  since  been 
called  in  question.  Other  dukedoms  claimed  the 
privilege  of  being  so  called,  but  it  was  invariably 
denied  by  the  emperor. 

ARCHEGOSAU'RUS,  a  remarkable  fossil  batra- 
chian  reptile,  so  named  by  Goldfuss  {archegos,  leader ; 


Archcgosaurus : 
a,  section  of  a  tooth ;  b,  scales. 


and  xatiros,  lizard),  as  constituting  the  real  begin- 
ning of  reptilian  life,  which  had  previously  been 
considered  as  not  extending  below  the  Permian  series 
of  rocks. 

From  the  engraving,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  head 
of  the  A.  is  protected  by  a  firm  dermal  skeleton, 
composed  of  numerous  plates,  which  the  internal 
primary  catilage  seems  to  have  continued  unossified. 
The  skull  is  flattened  and  triangular,  with  rounded 
angles,  the  front  one  being  somewhat  lengthened. 
The  teeth  are  simple  cones,  having  a  labyrinthic 
structure  similar  to  that  of  the  recent  Zcpidosteiix. 
The  vertebral  column  remains  in  an  embryonic  con- 
dition ;  the  arches  and  peripheral  elements  of  the 
vertebrffi  are  ossified  ;  but  the  chorda  dorsn/is,  which 
is  persistent,  is  unprotected  below.  The  ribs  are 
short  and  almost  straight,  round  and  slender  in  the 
middle,  expanded  and  flattened  at  the  ends.  The  two 
pairs  of  limbs  are  nearly  equal  in  size,  and  in  struc- 
ture very  much  resemble  those  of  the  Proteus.  They 
24 


have  each  four  long,  slender  digits,  which  obviously 
supported  a  longish,  narrow-pointed  paddle,  adapted 
for  swimming.  Externally,  the  body  was  protected 
by  a  covering  of  oblong  quadrangular  scales,  which 
have  been  preserved  in  some  specimens. 

Four  species  have  been  described. 

The  history  of  the  A.  is  shortly  this:  Its  remains, 
found  in  the  Bavarian  coal-measures,  had  been 
described  as  those  of  a  fish  under  the  name  of 
Pygopterus  Lucius  (Agassiz).  In  1844,  H.  von 
Meyer  first  described  it  under  the  name  of  Apateon 
pedestris.  This  specimen  was  found  in  the  coal- 
measures  of  Miinster-Appel,  in  Rhenish  Bavaria, 
and  was  supposed  by  Meyer  to  be  related  to  the 
salamanders,  and  yet  not  without  considerable 
doubt :  for  he  says,  '  its  head  might  be  that  of  a  fish, 
as  well  as  that  of  a  lizard,  or  of  a  batrachian.'  In 
1847,  Goldfuss  figured  and  described  three  distinct 
species  discovered  in  large  concretionary  nodules  of 
clay-ironstone,   from    the   coal  field   of  Saarbriick, 

369 


ARCITELAUS— ARCHERS  AND  ARCHERY. 


giving  to  them  the  generic  name  of  A.  He  con- 
sidered them  to  be  a  transition  state  between  the 
fish-like  batrachia  and  the  lizards  and  crocodiles. 
Professor  Owen  has  subsequently  described  thi.s 
fossil ;  he  makes  it  a  remarkable  connecting  link 
between  the  reptile  and  tlie  fish,  and  on  these 
grounds:  it  is  related  to  the  salaniamlroid-gunoid 
fishes  by  the  conforn;ity  of  pattern  in  t!ie  pkitc.s  of 
the  external  cranial  .skeleton,  and  by  the  persistence 
of  the  chorda  dorsalis,  as  in  the  stur:rcon,  while  it  is 
allied  to  the  reptiles  by  the  persistence  of  the  chorda 
dorsalis,  and  the  branchial  arches,  and  by  the 
absence  of  the  occipital  condyle,  or  condyles,  an  in 
Zepidosiren,  and  by  the  presence  of  labyrinthic 
t<elh,  as  in  Lnh;iri)ithodon,  which,  however,  also 
ally  it  to  the  ganoid  Lejndosteus.  This  genus  is  repre- 
sented in  North  America  by  two  genera,  Arnphihdmns 
(Cope)  and  Colosteus  (Cope),  the  former  from  the  Illi- 
nois, the  latter  from  the  Ohio,  coal  measures.  Their 
skeletons  are  mostly  cartilaginous.  .3  species  of  Colos- 
teus are  known:  the  largest,  C.  craasvicutatux^hMl  the 
belly  protected  by  closely  arranged  osseous  scales,  and 
the  limbs  were  very  rudimental.    Length,  about  2  feet. 

ARCHELATS,  one  of  the  Heraclidie,  who.  when 
driven  by  his  brothers  from  his  native  land,  fled  to 
JIacedon,  where  he  became  the  founder  of  a  powerful 
family,  of  which  Alexander  the  (!reat  was  said  to 
1)0  a  descendant — AuriiKi.Ats,  natural  son  of  the 
Macedonian  king,  Perdiccas  II.,  came  to  the  throne 
(after  he  had  murdered  the  rightful  heir)  in  413  n.c. 
His  reign  was  fir  better  than  its  commencement, 
as  he  introduced  several  salutary  measures,  and  was 
a  generous  patron  of  art  and  literature.  Eurijjides 
and  Zeuxis  fre([uentcd  his  court ;  and  the  palace 
of  the  monarch  was  splendidly  adoined  by  the 
paintings  of  the  latter.  It  is  said  that  Pocrates 
refused  an  invitation  to  proceed  thither,  having  no 
great  respect  for  the  character  of  A.,  wliicli  was 
stained  with  odious  vices.  lie  is  believed  to  have 
been  murdered  by  Craterus,  one  of  his  favourites  ; 
but  the  .story  of  his  death  is  told  difl'erently. — A.,  a 
general  under  Mithridates  the  Great,  was  sent  into 
Greece  with  a  large  fleet  and  an  army  of  120,000 
men  to  oppose  the  Romans  in  87  n.c.  Sulla  was 
sent  against  him,  and  besieged  him  in  Pira-us, 
whence  A.  moved  to  Boeotia,  and  here  collected 
all  his  forces.  A  battle  took  place  at  Cha-roneia, 
when  victory  declared  for  the  Romans.  A.  now 
retreated  to  Chalcis,  where  he  waited  until  Mith- 
ridates had  dispatched  another  army  of  80,000 
men  into  Greece.  The  second  fight  took  place  at 
Orchomenos,  in  BiT>otia,  and,  after  two  days'  contest, 
the  whole  host  led  by  A.  was  tot:illy  routed  by 
Sulla.  A.,  after  hiding  for  three  days  in  a  morass, 
escaped  to  Chalcis.  After  a  treaty  of  peace  had  been 
effected  between  Sulla  and  Mithridates,  A.  fell 
under  the  displeasure  of  his  monarch,  being  unjustiv 
suspected  of  treason,  and,  fearing  for  his  life,  as  also 
perhaps  disgusted  at  the  return  he  had  received 
for  his  many  services,  he  went  over  to  the  Romans 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  second  war,  in  81  B.C. 
After  this  time,  he  appears  no  more  in  history. — A., 
son  of  the  former,  married  Berenice,  daughter  of 
King  Ptolemjeus  Auletes  (56  B.C.),  and  ruled  over 
Egypt  for  the  short  space  of  six  months  during  the 
banishment  of  Ptolemseus.  The  usurper  lost  his  life 
in  a  battle  against  Aulus  Gabiiiius,  proconsul  of 
Syria.  His  grandson,  also  named  A.,  obtained  from 
Marcus  Antonius  the  province  of  Cappadocia,  and 
retained  it  during  the  i-eign  of  Augustus.  Tiberius 
accused  him  of  political  innovations,  and  condenmed 
him  to  death  ;  but,  as  he  was  old  and  fatuous,  his  life 
was  spared.  He  died  soon  after  his  trial,  at  Rome, 
in  17  A.n. — A.,  son  of  Herod,  the  tyrant  of  Judea, 
succeeded  his  father  in  1  a. p.,  and  maintained 
his  position  against  an  insurrection  raised  by  the 
370 


Pharisees.  His  heirship  to  the  throne  being  di.-j.u'.cd 
by  his  brother  Anti])as,  A.  went  to  Rome,  where  his 
authority  was  confirmed  liy  Augustus,  who  made  liira 
Etlinarch  of  Judaja,  S.imaria,  and  Idunuea.  After  a 
reign  of  nine  years,  he  was  deposed  by  Augustus,  on 
account  of  his  cruel  tyranny,  and  banished  to  Vienna, 
in  G.uil,  where  he  died.  His  territories  were  added 
to  the  Ronuin  province  of  Syria. 

ARCHENIIOLZ,  Joitaxn  WiLUELxt,  Baron 
Von,  a  German  author,  born  Sep.  .S,  174.^,  died  J'eb. 
28,  1812.  After  service  in  the  army,  he  gained  his 
discharge  at  the  close  of  the  Seven  Years'  War,  and 
passed  several  years  in  travel,  visiting  nhnost  all  tlie 
principal  cities  of  Europe,  and  supporting  himself  by 
authorship,  and,  as  it  was  generally  reported,  also  by 
gambling.  He  wrote  a  Histori/  of  the  Scvr7i  Yfarii' 
War  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  170"),  which,  when  compared 
with  the  geneniUy  dry  style  of  his  German  contem- 
poraries, deserves  praise  on  account  of  its  narrative 
interest.  He  also  wrote  Encdaiid  and  Itahj  (2d 
edition,  Leip.  1787),  Annals  of  Brithh  Ilisfori/  {MS9 
— 1711S),  and  b'ographies  of  Queen  Elizabeth  of  Eng- 
land, and  Gustavus  Vasa  of  Sweden. 

A  RCIIER  FISH,  a  name  given  to  certain  small 
East  Indian  fishes  of  the  Acanlhopterygious  family 
oi  Si/ua7nipr7incs  or  Chatodofifidw,  which  have  the 
faculty  of  projecting  drops  of  water  with  sure  aim  at 
insects,  and  therel)y  causing  them  to  fall  into  the 
water,  where  they  arc  instantly  seized  as  prey.  Tox- 
otcx  jacnlnfor,  one  of  these  species,  is  a  fish  about  six 
or  se\en  inriies  in  length,  a  native  of  Java  and  other 
y)arts  of  the  Indian  Archi[)elago,  and  is  that  to  which 
the  name  A.  F.  has  been  more  strictly  appro()riated. 
It  can  project  a  drop  of  water  to  the  height  of  four  or 
five  feet.  It  is  the  only  known  recent  species  of  its 
gen\is,  but  there  is  a  fossil  one.  Chehnoii  roxtrafux, 
also  a  Javanese  fish,  possesses  the  same  power,  and 
the  Chinese  in  Java  1  eep  it  in  jars  for  their  amuse- 
ment, causing  it  to  practise  its  art  by  placing  insects 
within  its  range. 

ARCHERS  AN-n  A'RCHERY.  Archers  are 
soldiers  wl-.ose  weapons  are  the  bow  and  arrow. 
Among  the  ancients  specially  eminent  in  this 
mode  of  warfare,  we  may  particularise  the  Thra- 
cians,  Cretans,  Parthians,  and  Numidians;  among 
the  moderns,  the  Arabians,  Germans,  and  Saracens. 
The  Emperor  Frederick  II.  employed  Saracenic 
archers  with  great  effect  in  his  Lombard  campaign  ; 
and  to  them  is  ascribed  the  victory  at  Cortenuova 
in  1237.  The  arciiers  belonged  to  the  light  troops, 
and  their  province  was  to  open  the  battle.  The 
Emperor  Leo  especially  lauded  the  dexterity  of  the 
Arabian  archers.  In  later  ages,  the  bow  came 
to  be  employed  in  England,  where  the  archers  wore 
light  armour,  a  short  sword,  and  a  quiver  with 
twenty  or  more  arrows.  At  first,  these  archers 
fought  in  small  groups ;  in  later  years,  in  large 
masses.  At  the  battle  of  Cressy,  they  formed  in  divi- 
sions of  400O  men,  2i>0  in  line  and  400  deep.  The 
archers  decided  the  fate  of  the  day  in  several  battles — 
such  as  Cressy  and  Poitiers  (135ti),  Agincourt  (1415), 
Crevaut  (1423),  Verneuil  (1424),  and  Rovernay 
(1429).  The  French  archers  never  equalled  the 
English,  in  spite  of  the  pains  Charles  VI.  and 
Charles  A^II.  took  with  them.  The  latter  organised 
in  1448  the  Franc-archers,  to  which  corps  every 
parish  had  to  contribute  one  man ;  but  this  measure 
was  attended  with  so  little  success  that  the  king 
was  induced  to  take  Scottish  archers  into  his  pay,  to 
make  any  head  against  the  English.  The  French 
archers  wore  a  coat  of  buffalo-hide  lined  with  strong 
linen,  and  were  accompanied  by  shield-bearers.  In 
this  manner  2000  bowmen  with  their  shield-bearers 
fought  under  the  Count  de  Foix  at  the  siege  of 
Bayonne  in  1451.     The  archers  universally  belonged 


AECHERS  AXD  ARCHERY. 


to  t!ie  elite  of  llie  troops,  and  received  higher  pay 
than  the  rest.  At  one  period,  the  arljalest  or  cross- 
bow was  more  in  favour  than  the  loii<;-ho\v.  See 
Arbai.kst.  Long  after  the  discovery  of  frnnpowder, 
we  find  the  bow  and  arrow  still  used  ;  as,  for  o.\- 
mple,  at  the  siege  of  Capua  in  150() ;  an<l  the  siege 
of  Feineburg  in  15(i2.  Nay,  even  in  ]r,T'2,  Queen 
Elizabeth  promised  to  place  at  the  di-posal  of 
Charles  IX.  60fiO  men,  of  whom  the  half  were 
archers.  The  English  archers  are  the  subject  of 
frequent  mention  by  our  old  writers.  Chaucer,  in 
his  Canterbury  Talc's,  speaks  of  the  archer 

'  Cladde  in  cote  and  hode  of  jrrono, 
A  sheiife  of  peacock  arwis  brii'lito  and  kone, 
Under  bis  belt  lie  bare  fill  tbiiflilie. 
■\Vel  coudo  he  dre.sse  liis  t:ikcl  yowmiinlie, 
His  arwes  ih-ouped  not  with  follieres  lov.e, 
And  in  bia  luind  he  bare  a  mighty  bowe.' 

In  a  Treatise  on  Martial  Discipline,  by  Ralph  Sniitho, 
written  in  the  time  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  we  have  a 
picture  of  the  English  archer  two  centuries  after 
Chaucer's  time:  '  Captens  and  officers  should  be 
skilful  of  that  most  noble  weapon  the  long-bow  ;  and 
to  see  that  their  soldiers,  according  to  thrir  draught 
and  strength,  have  good  bowes,  well  nocked,  well 
strynged,  everie  strynge  whippe  in  their  nocl  e,  and 
in  the  middes  rubbed  with  wax  braser,  and  shut- 
ing-glove,  some  sjiaie  strynges  trymed  as  aforesaid ; 
every  man  one  shefe  of  arrows,  with  a  case  of  leather 
defensible  against  the  rayne,  and  in  the  same  four- 
and-twentie  arrowes,  whereof  eight  of  them  should 
be  lighter  than  the  residue,  to  gall  or  astoyne  the 
encmye  with  the  hailshot  of  light  arrowes  before  they 
s'.iall  come  within  the  danger  of  their  harquebus 
shot.  Let  every  man  have  a  brigandine  or  a  little 
coat  of  plate,  a  skull  or  hufkyn,  a  muule  of  leade 
of  five  foote  in  lengthe,  and  a  pike,  and  the  same 
hanging  by  his  girdle  with  a  hook  and  a  dagger.' 

Among  the  Asiatic  Turks,  the  Persians,  t!ie  Tatars, 
and  other  nations  of  the  east,  as  well  as  the  Ameri- 
can Indians,  the  bow  and  arrow  are  still  used  as  wea- 
pons of  war.  In  Europe,  they  are  nearly  abandoned 
for  military  purposes.  The  chief  differences  between 
the  two  kinds  of  weapon  employed  by  the  archers 
of  the  middle  ages  are  noticed  under  Arbalest  ; 
Bow  ANn  Arrow. 

Although  archers  are  still  included  among  the 
fighting-men  of  barbarous  and  semi-barbarous 
nations;  in  England,  archery  is  now  nothing  more 
than  a  pastime,  encouraged  by  archery  clubs  or 
societies.  In  this  sense,  however,  archery  is  expe- 
riencing a  revival,  being  healthful  as  an  out-door 
exercise,  even  if  no  further  useful.  During  the 
reign  of  Charles  II.,  archery  was  much  patronised 
by  the  court,  Tothill  Fields  being  the  chief  scene 
of  exercise.  After  his  reign,  archery  fell  into 
desuetude  for  about  a  century.  In  1776,  a  Mr. 
Ashton  revived  archery  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
London  ;  and  very  shortly  there  were  several  toxo- 
philite  or  archery  societies  formed.  The  system 
survived  till  17D3,  when  another  period  of  inactivity 
supervened,  lasting  till  184-1.  In  this  last-named 
year,  archery  was  revived  in  Yorkshire,  and  has 
since  gone  on  extending  every  year.  A  recom- 
mendation to  the  sport  is  that  ladies  can  take 
part  in  it  —  one  of  the  few  open-air  pastimes 
of  which  this  can  be  said.  In  the  modern  exer- 
cise of  archery,  there  are  several  varieties  of 
contests  between  the  antagonistic  parties  ;  but 
the  usual  variety  is  target-shooting.  In  archery- 
matches,  a  number  of  prizes  are  generally  awarded, 
the  principal  being  for  the  greatest  number  of 
arrows  shot  into  any  part  of  the  target,  and  for 
the  nearest  approach  to  the  exact  centre.  The 
target  has  a  gold  spot  in  the  centre,  a  red  ring 
around  this,  then  a  white  ring,  then  a  black,  and 


outside  of  all  a  white  ring  bordered  with  green.  The 
merit  of  the  shooting  consists  in  a  near  approach 
to  the  exact  centre  or  'gold.'  Two  targets  are 
generally  used  in  a  match,  on  opposite  sides  of  the 
iield,  each  by  one  party.  The  apparatus  mostly 
used  at  these  archery  meetings  is  represented  in  the 


Archery  Apparatus. 


annexed  cut.  1  is  the  bow,  varying  in  weight 
according  to  the  strength  of  the  person  who  is  to 
use  it ;  '2  is  the  arrow  ;  3  is  the  quiver,  a  tin  case 
for  holding  arrows  not  immediately  in  use ;  4  and  o 
are  the  pouch  and  belt  for  holding  the  arrows 
actually  in  use.  The  tassel  of  the  belt  serves  to  clean 
the  arrows  when  dusty.  6  is  the  brace,  buckled 
round  the  left  arm,  to  protect  it  from  being  hurt 
by  the  string  when  shooting  ;  7  is  the  shooting- 
glove,  formed  to  protect  the  three  fingers  used  in 
drawing  the  string.  Besides  these  articles  and  the 
target,  archers  are  sometimes  provided  with  a  large 
case  called  an  '  ascham,'  fitted  up  with  the  neces- 
sary drawers  and  compartnients  for  the  reception 
of  "the  bow,  arrows,  string,  and  other  necessary 
accoutrements. 

In  archery  competition,  the  total  number  and 
value  of  each  person's  hits  are  registered  on  a 
scoring-card.  The  shots  are  usually  punctured  on  a 
card  WMth  a  pin,  as  being  preferable  to  pencil  or  ink 
marks  ;  and  the  mode  of  ascertaining  the  value  of 
the  hits,  which  is  increased  in  proportion  as  they 
reach  the  centre,  will  be  seen  by  the  following 
example : 

Form  or  the  Scoring-oakd. 


Names. 
A 

B 

Gold. 

Red. 

Inner 
White. 

Blnrk. 

Outer 
White. 

Total. 

Value. 

85 
2G 

68 

4S 

It  appears  by  the  card  that  A  has  two  in  the  gold, 
four  in  the  red,  six  in  the  inner  white,  ten  in  the  , 
black,  and  thirteen  in  the  outer  white,  making  a 
total  of  thirty-five.  The  real  value  of  these  is  ascer- 
tained by  multiplying  the  hits  in  the  gold  by  nine; 
in  the  red,  by  three  ;  in  the  inner  white,  by  two ;  by 
adding  a  fourth  to  those  in  the  black,  and  leaving 
without  alteration  the  number  in  the  outer  white. 
By  this  process  it  will  appear  that  A's  numbers, 
according  to  the  value  of  each  circle,  amount  to  08, 
and  B's  to  48 — hence  A  is  the  winner  by  20.  But 
A's  total  might  have  been  less  than  B's,  and  still 
he  might  have  been  the  winner,  providing  the  shots 
had  lain  more  towards  the  gold  than  B's. 

•S7I 


ARcniL— ARcniLOcnr?. 


As  an  instance  of  tho  skill  which  long  and  carolul 
practice  may  insure,  Mr.  Horace  A.  Ford,  who  has 
written  an  excellent  work  on  Archery,  on  one 
occasion,  out  of  144  shots,  made  143  hit- — 705  score  ; 
on  another,  144  shots,  137  hits — 8n9  score;  and  on 
another,  75  shots,  75  hits — 555  score. 

A'RCHIL,  or  ORCHIL,  is  a  colouring  sul)stance 
obtained  from  various  species  of  lichens.  The  A. 
is  not  originally  present  in  the  lichens,  but  is 
developed  during  a  process  of  putrefaction  and 
fermentation.  The  lichens,  collected  from  rocks 
near  the  sea,  are  cleaned,  ground  into  a  powder  with 
water,  placed  in  tanks,  and  amnioniaci;l  liquids — 
such  as  purified  gas  liquor  or  stale  urine — added  ; 
when,  by  the  combined  influence  of  the  ammonia, 
air,  water,  and  the  constituents  of  the  lichens,  a 
A'iolet-coloured  matter  is  generated,  which  appears 
for  a  time  to  dissolve  in  the  water,  l)Ut  finally  falls 
to  the  bottom  of  the  v;it  in  the  condition  of  a 
moist  powder  or  paste.  The  latter  is  then  mixed 
with  some  suVjstance  like  challv  or  stucco,  to  give 
it  consistence.  The  lichens  which  yield  the  best 
A.  in  largest  quantity,  are  Jioccella  tlnctoria  and 
fuciformis.  The  former  is  called  the  Archil  plant, 
and  is  obtai-ncd  in  large  amount  fi'om  the  Canaries 
and  Cape  de  Verd  Islands,  and  the  Levant.  Another 
lichen,  Lecanora  iartarea,  collected  from  rocks  in 
Sweden,  is  largely  imported  into  Britain.  It  is 
sometimes  called  cudbear  (f|.  v.),  or  cudbear  lichen, 
and  sometimes  white  Swedish  moss.  A.  is  soluble 
in  water  and  ia  alcohol,  to  either  of  which  it 
imparts  a  violet  colour,  with  a  good  deal  of  a 
crimson  hue.  It  .is  much  employed  in  the  dyeing 
of  silks,  where  a  beautiful  lilac  colour  is  required; 
but  though  a  brilliant  rich  hue  is  imparted  to 
the  silken  fabric,  the  colour  is  not  a  permanent 
one,  being  easily  acted  upon  by  the  rays  of  the 
sun.  Hence  the  A.  is  seldom  used  by  itself,  and 
the  cloth  is  first  dyed  lilac  by  another  colouring 
mutter,  and  is  then  passed  through  an  A.  dye,  which 
imparts  a  brilliant  lilac  hue  to  the  clotli.  A,  is 
seldom  eiyployed  to  dye  cotton  cloth,  but  it  is 
olten  used,  along  with  indigo,  in  the  dyeing  of 
woollen  cloth;  and  besides  enabling  the  indigo 
colour  to  go  much  further,  it  impaits  its  peculiar 
rich  tint  to  the  blue  or  black  cloth  or  yai-n  im- 
mersed in  it;  the  colour,  however,  so  obtained  is 
not  so  permanent  as  where  the  A.  is  left  out. 
Cudbear  (q.  v.)  and  Litmus  (q.  v.)  are  analogous 
to  A.,  and  are  obtained  f:om  the  same  lichens. 

The  lichen  distinguished  by  the  name  of  the 
A.  plant  or  lichen,  Roccdla  tinctoria,  grows  very 
sparingly  on  the  southern  coasts  of  England,  but 
aliundantly  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  and 
of  the  neighbouring  parts  of  the  Atlantic,  where  it 
often  covers  rocks  near  the  sea,  so  as  to  form  what 
has  been  likened  to  a  sort  of  turf  upon  them.  The 
Spanish  name  is  Orcir/lia,  from  which  the  French 
Orseille,  the  English  A.  or  Orchil,  and  even  the 
botanical  name  Jioccella,  are  derived.  It  is  of  a 
substance  between  cartilaginous  and  leathery,  round- 
isli,  pretty  erect,  branching  in  a  dichotomous  mannerj 
of  a  grayish  brown  colour,  with  powdery  warts 
(soredia);  the  apothecia  (q.  v.)  orbicular,  flat,  horny, 
almost  black,  with  a  scarcely  prominent  border. 
That  from  the  Canary  Isles  is  generally  regarded  as 
the  best.  It  seldom  exceeds  the  thickness  of  a  pin, 
and  about  an  inch  and  a  half  iu  length.  A  less 
branched  and  more  slender,  prostrate,  or  pendulous 
variety  [Roccella  h'jpomccha  of  Dory  de  St.  Vincent) 
is  common  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  in  the  island 
of  Mauritius,  and  appears  in  commerce  along  with 
the  other,  but  is  of  very  inferior  quality.  A  variety 
remarkable  for  its  large  size,  or  perhaps  a  distinct 
species  (/?.  Jlaccida),  is  brought  from  Lima  and 
other  parts  of  the  west  coast  of  South  America ; 
372 


it  is  sometimes  as  thick  as  a  goose-<iui!l,  and 
G  or  8  inches  long,  and  is  of  excellent  quality. 
All  these,  and  Roccella  fuciformix,  very  generally 
receive  in  conmierce,  and  from  A.-mal:ers,  the 
name  of  Orchella  weed,  the  dilferent  kinds  being 
distinguished  according  to  the  countries  from  which 
they  are  imported.  They  are  also  popularly  called 
Dyer's  Moss. — li.fitcifornih  now  yields  perhaps  more 
of  the  A.  or  Orchella  weed  of  commerce  than  li. 
iincforiii.  It  differs  from  7i'.  fhicforia  chiefly  in  being 
not  rounded,  but  flat,  and  in  having  the  apothecia 
very  distinctly  bordered.  It  grows  in  similar  situa- 
tions, and  is  also  a  native  of  Britain,  but  abundant 
only  in  warmer  climates,  as  on  the  coasts  of  Africa, 
Madagascar,  &c.  That  from  Angola  is  reckoned  of 
the  very  best  quality. 

Among  the  lichens  from  which  A.  is  manufac- 
tured is  the  Pnrolh  tT Anrcrtjne  or  Orxeillc  de  tcrre 
{(Jroimd  A.)  of  the  French,  Variolaria  orcina  or 
corallina,  which  is  gathered  for  this  pm-pose  in 
mountainous  districts  of  the  south  of  France  and 
other  parts  of  the  south  of  Europe,  and  is  also  an 
article  of  export  (with  other  similar  lichens)  from 
Sweden  to  Holland.  But  the  greater  facility  with 
which  A.  of  the  finest  quality  can  be  procured  from 
the  si)ecies  o(  Roccella,  and  the  increasing  abundance 
of  the  sn[)ply  fi'om  different  quarter.s,  particularly 
from  Angola,  tend  to  diminish  the  demand  lor  other 
lichens. 

ARCHILOCHUS  of  Raros,  in  Lydia,  flourished 
about  714 — C<~G  u.  c,  and  is  regarded  as  the  first  of 
the  Greek  lyric  poets,  although  the  origin  of  the  elegy 
is  claimed  for  Callinu.*,  a  writer  whose  age  seems  to 
have  slightly  preceded  tlxit  of  A.  Glimpses  of  his 
life,  especially  of  the  calamities  which  befell  him,  were 
frequently  given  in  his  writings.  His  father's  name 
was  Telesiclcs,  his  mother  was  a  .slave  called  /•^n/jio. 
At  an  early  age,  becoming  entangled  in  ])olitical  con- 
tests, he  abandoned  his  native  town,  and  led  a  colony 
of  the  citizens  toThasos.  While  here,  as  he  iulorms 
us  in  some  extant  verses,  he  lost  his  shield  in  a  battle 
against  the  Thracians,  yet  not  through  cowardice. 
Subsequently  he  was  banished  from  Sparta,  to 
which  he  had  gone,  some  say  because  he  had  vindi- 
cated his  conduct  in  running  away  from  the  tight, 
others,  because  of  the  licentiousness  of  his  verses. 
He  is  said  to  haA-e  gained  the  laurel-wreath  at  the 
Olympic  Games  by  an  ode  in  honour  of  Hercules, 
but  this  is  doubtful.  Having  returned  to  Paros.  he 
took  part  in  the  war  which  broke  out  betwixt  it  and 
Naxos,  in  the  coin-se  of  which  he  lost  his  life,  either 
in  battle  or  by  assassination.  The  Delphian  oracle 
pronounced  a  curse  ujion  his  slayer.  Variety, 
novelty,  and  satirical  bitterness  characterised  hi8 
lyric  poems;  so  much  so,  that  ' Archilochian  bitter- 
ness,' and  '  Parian  verse,'  became  by-words  in 
ancient  times.  lie  scourged  his  enemies  in  the 
most  merciless  fashion,  and  always  displayed  the 
most  malicious  skill  in  selecting  for  his  sarcasm  the 
points  on  which  they  were  most  sensitive.  It  is 
said  that  Lycambes,  who  had  promised  his  daughter 
Xeobule  in  marriage  to  A.,  having  failed  to  fulfil  the 
promise,  was  so  severely  satirised  by  the  poet,  that, 
to  escape  ridicide,  both  father  and  daughter  hanged 
themselves.  Among  the  ancients,  A.  was  ranked  with 
Homer.  They  dedicated  the  statues  of  both  on  the 
same  day,  and  placed  the  head  of  A.  beside  that  of 
Homer  on  tlie  same  bust.  It  is  therefore  supposed, 
and  with  high  probability,  that  there  must  have 
Vjeen  far  more  in  A.  than  mere  vehemence  of  satire. 
Even  Plato,  who  was  not  likely  to  err  on  the  side  of 
admiration  in  such  a  case,  calls  him  '  the  very 
wise ;'  and  Gorgias,  the  rhetorician,  is  reported  to 
have  said,  when  Plato  sent  forth  his  dialogues 
against  the  Sophists,  'Athens  has  given  birth  to  a 
new   A.'      There    must    have    been    strong    sense. 


ARCniMANDRITE— ARCHIMEDES. 


and  a  keen  peieeptioii  of  trutli  in  the  man,  to 
have  won  so  universal  and  permanent  a  reputation. 
Still  the  line  of  Horace — who  was  a  vif^orous  imi- 
tator of  him  in  many  respects — proves  that  '  rage ' 
was  considered  '  the  spi'cial  i'aculty '  of  A. 

^  ArchilocJium  projyrio  rabies  armarif  inmho.^ 

Ars  I'oeticii,  line.  79. 
'  Rage  hath  armed  Arcbilochus  with  his  owu  iambus.' 

The  word  htmhua  was  in  use  before  the  time  of  A., 
and  was  employed  to  denote  a  species  of  rude  rail- 
lery, such  as  flashed  out  spontaneously  under  the 
inspiring  excitement  of  the  Bacchic  and  other  festi- 
vals. A.  was,  however,  the  first  to  reduce  these 
irregular  and  capricious  eftusions  to  fixed  rules.  Sec 
Iambics.  The  semi-pentameter,  of  which  he  tnade 
abundant  use,  was  called  after  him  Arehilochian 
verse. 

The  fragments  extant  of  his  poetry  liave  been 
edited  bv  Bergk  in  his  PucUe  Lyrlci  Grtccorum 
(Leipsic,  1843). 

ARCHIMANDRITE  (Gr.  archi-,  chief,  and 
mandra.  a  fold  or  a  convent),  the  title  of  the  highest 
order  of  superiors  of  convents  in  the  Greek  Church 
(see  Aimor).  The  Russian  bishops  are  chosen  from 
among  the  archinuindrites. 

ARCHIME'DES,  the  most  celebrated  of  ancient 
mathematicians,  was  born  at  Syi'acuse  about  287 
B.  c.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a  kinsman  of  King  Iliero, 
though  he  does  not  seem  to  have  held  any  public 
office,  but  devoted  himself  entirely  to  science.  In 
regard  to  mathematics,  we  cannot  estimate  fully  the 
merits  of  A.  without  a  more  exact  knowledge  of  the 
State  of  the  science  as  he  fomid  it ;  we  know,  how- 
ever, that  he  enriched  it  with  discoveries  of  the 
highest  importance,  on  which  modern  mathemati- 
cians have  founded  their  methods  of  measuring 
curved  surfaces  and  solids.  Euclid  only  considers  a 
few  curved  figures  in  relation  to  one  another,  but 
without  comparing  them  with  rectilineal  surfaces 
and  solids.  The  theorems  necessary  to  this  transi- 
tion are  laid  down  by  A.  in  his  treatises  'on  the 
Sphere  and  Cylinder,'  '  on  Spheroids  and  Conoid-;,'  and 
'  on  the  Measurement  of  the  Circle.'  His  demonstra- 
tion that  the  area  of  a  segment  of  a  parabola  is  two- 
thirds  of  the  enclosing  parallelogram,  is  the  first 
real  example  of  the  quadrature  (q.  v.)  of  a  curvilinear 
space.  In  his  treatise  on  spirals,  ho  rises  to  yet 
higher  investigations,  which,  however,  are  not  very 
easily  understood  even  by  masters  of  the  subject. 

A.  is  the  only  one  of  the  ancients  that  contriljuted 
anything  satisfactory  on  the  theory  of  mechanics 
and  on  hydrostatics.  He  first  established  the 
truth,  that  a  body  plunged  in  a  fluid  loses  as 
much  of  its  weight  as  is  equal  to  the  weight  of 
an  equal  volume  of  the  fluid.  (See  the  following 
article.)  It  was  by  this  law  that  he  determined 
how  much  alloy  the  goldsmith,  Avhom  Hiero  had 
commissioned  to  make  a  crown  of  pure  gold,  had 
fraudulently  mixed  with  the  metal.  The  solution  of 
the  problem  suggested  itself  to  him  as  he  was  enter- 
ing the  bath,  and  he  is  reported  to  have  been  so  over- 
joyed as  to  hasten  hoiue  without  waiting  to  dress, 
exclaiming:  'I  have  found  it!  I  have  found  it!' 
(^Eureka!  Eureka!)  Practical  mechanism  seems  to 
have  been  an  equally  new  science  in  the  days  of  A.  ; 
for  his  boast,  that  if  he  had  a  fulcrum  or  stand-point, 
he  could  move  the  world,  betrays  ttie  enthusiasm 
with  which  the  extraordinary  effects  of  his  newly 
invented  machines  inspired  him.  Among  the 
numerous  inventions  ascribed  to  A.,  is  that  of  the 
endless  screw,  ami  the  coe/ilca  or  water-screw  (see 
AiiCHiMiDEs'  Sc'KKw),  in  which  the  water  is  made  in 
a  manner  to  ascend  by  its  own  gravity.  During  the 
siege  of  Syracuse  by  the  Romans,  he  exerted  all  his 
ingenuity  in  the  defence  of  the  city.     Polybius,  Livy, 


and  Plutarch  speak  with  astonishment  of  the 
machines  with  which  he  op[)osed  the  attacks  of  the 
enemy.  But  while  giving  detailed  accounts  of  his 
other  contrivances,  they  say  nothing  of  his  having 
set  fire  to  the  ships  by  means  of  mirrors,  a  story 
which  is  not  very  probable  in  itself,  and  rests  on 
later  narratives.  When  the  Romans  took  the 
city  by  surprise  (212  n.  c),  A.,  according  to  the 
tradition,  was  sitting  in  the  public  square  lost 
in  thought,  with  all  sorts  of  geometrical  figures 
before  him  drawn  in  the  sand.  As  a  Roman  soldier 
rushed  upon  him,  he  called  out  to  him  not  to 
spoil  the  circle  !  But  the  rude  warrior  cut  him  down. 
According  to  his  own  direction,  a  cylinder  enclosing 
a  sphere  was  engraved  upon  his  tombstone,  in  com- 
memoration of  his  discovery  of  the  relation  between 
these  solids — a  discovery  o:i  which  he  set  particular 
value.  When  Cicero  was  in  Sicily  as  questor,  he  dis- 
covered the  tomb  hid  among  briers.  His  collected 
extant  works  were  edited  by  Torelli  (Oxf.  1792). 
There  is  a  French  translation  with  notes  by  F. 
Peyrard  (Paris,  1808,  2  vols.),  and  one  in  German  by 
Nizze  (Strals.  1824).  The  Arenariits  was  translated 
into  English  by  G.  Anderson  (Lond.  1784).  The 
object  of  the  treatise  is  to  prove  that  it  is  possible 
to  assign  a  number  greater  than  that  of  the  grains 
of  sand  that  would  fill  the  sphere  of  the  fixed  stars, 
the  diameter  of  which  A.  assumes  at  a  certain  num- 
ber of  stadia.  The  difficulty  lay  in  expressing  such 
a  vast  nutuber  by  means  of  the  clumsy  notation  of 
Greek  arithmetic,  and  the  device  by  which  the 
difficulty  is  eluded  is  considered  as  affording  a 
striking  instance  of  A.'s  genius. 

ARCHIMEDES,  the  Principle  of,  is  one  of  the 
most  important  in  the  science  of  Hydrostatics,  and 
is  so  called  because  the  discovery  of  it  is  generally 
ascribed  to  the  Syracusan  philosopher.  It  may  be 
thus  stated :  A  body  when  immersed  in  a  fluid  loses 
exactly  as  much  of  its  weight  as  is  equal  to  the  weight 
of  tlie  fluid  it  displaces ;  or  :  A  fluid  sustains  as  much 
of  the  weight  of  a  body  immersed  in  it  as  is  equal  to 
the  weight  of  the  fluid  displaced  by  it.  It  is  proved 
experimentally  in  the  following  way.  A  delicate 
balance  is  so  arranged  that  two  brass  cylinders,  A 
and  B,  maybe  suspended  from  one  of  the  scale-pans, 


the  one  under  the  other.  The  lower  cylinder,  P>,  is 
solid,  or  closed  all  round,  and  fits  accurately  into  the 
upper  cylinder.  A,  which  is  hollow.  When  the  two 
cylinders  are  placed  under  the  one  scale,  pan-weights 
are  yilaced  upon  the  other  until  perfect  equilibrium 
is  obtained.  The  cylinder  B  is  now  immersed  in 
water,  and  in  consequence  of  the  buoyant  tendency 
of  the  water  exerted  upon  it,  the  equilibrium  is 
destroyed  ;  but  it  may  be  completely  restored  by 
filling  the  hollow  cylinder.  A,  with  water.  The 
amount  of  weight  which  B  has  lost  by  being  placed 
in  the  water,  is  thus  found  to  be  exactly  the  same  as 
the  weight  of  a  quantity  of  water  equal  to  its  own 
bulk,  or  which  is  the  same  thing,  to  the  quantitv  oi 

S73  " 


ARCHIMEDES'  SCREW— ARCHIPELAGO. 


water  displaced  by  it.  When  bodies  lighter  than 
water  are  wholly  immersed  in  it,  they  displace  an 
amount  of  water  of  greater  weight  than  their  own, 
so  that  if  left  free  to  adjust  themselves,  they  swim 
on  the  surface,  only  as  much  of  their  bulk  being 
submerged  as  will' displace  a  quantity  of  water 
weighing  the  same  as  themselves.  Accordingly, 
while  bodies  heavier  than  water  displace,  when  put 
into  it,  their  own  bulk,  bodies  lighter  than  water 
displace,  when  allowed  to  flout  on  the  surfiice,  their 
own  weight  of  the  fluid.  Bodies  of  the  .same  weight 
as  water,  according  to  the  principle  of  Archimedes, 
have  no  tendency  to  rise  or  sink  in  it,  for  the  water 
displaced  bv  them  weighs  precisely  the  same  as 
they  do.  The  pretty  scientific  toy  called  the 
Cartesian  Diver  is  intended  to  illustrate  this. 
Although  the  principle  of  Archimedes  is  generally 
established  with  reference  to  water,  its  application 
extends  equally  to  bodies  immersed  in  air  or  any 
other  fluid. 

ARCIIIME'DES  SCREW  (called  also  the  .ynral 
fiiinp),  a  machine  for  raising  water,  s;iid  to  have  been 
invented  by  Archimedes,  during  his  stay  in  Egypt, 
for  draining  and  irrigating  the  land.  Fig-  1  repre- 
sents it  in  its   simplest   form.      This   consists   of  a 


ing  the  place  of  such  tubes  as  are  seen  in  Fig.  1, 
Fig.  2  represents  a  double-threaded  A.  S.  of  this  des- 
cription, with  the  case  removed  in  front.  It  is  some- 
times found  convenient  to  fix  the  exterior  envelope, 


Fig.  1. 

flexible  tube  bent  spirally  round  a  solid  cylinder,  the 
ends    of  which  are  furnished  with   pivots,  so  as  to 
admit  of  the    whole  turning  round    its    axis.       The 
machine  is  placed  in  an  inclined  position,  so  that  the 
lower  mouth  of  the  tube  may  dip  below  the  surface 
of  the  water  to  be  raised.     In  the   position  repre- 
sented in  the  figure,  the  lowest  bend  [a)  of  the  tube 
will  be  filled  with  water,  and  if  now  the  handle  be 
made  to  turn  in  the    direction   of   the    hands  of   a 
watch,  the  mouth  of  the  spiral  tube  will  be  raised 
above  the  surface;    and    the  water  enclosed  in   the 
tube,  having  no  means  of  escape,  will  flow  within  it 
until,  after  one  revolution,  it  will  occupy  the  second 
bend,  b.     The  first  bend  (a)  has  meanwhile  received 
a  second  charge,  which,  after  a  second  revolution, 
flows  up  into  the  second   bend   {bi,  and   takes  the 
place  of  the  first   charge,  which  has  now  moved  up 
to  the  tliird  bend,  c.    When,  therefore,  as  many  revo- 
lutions of  the  cylinder  have  been  made  as  there  are 
turns  in  the  spiral  tube,  each  of  the  lower  bends  will 
be  filled  with  water;  and  in  the  course  of  another 
revolution,  there  being  no  higher  bend  for  the  water 
of  the  first  charge  to  occupy,  it  will  flow  out  of  the 
tube  by  its  upper  mouth.    At  each  succeeding  revolu- 
tion, the  lowest  bend  will  be  charged,  and  the  highest 
discharged.     It   will  be    seen   from    the  figure   that 
there    is    room    to    dispose    a   second    tube    side  by 
side  with  the  first,  round  the  cylinder,  in  which  case 
the  screw  would  be  called  double-threaded.     In  the 
ordinary  construction  of  these  machines,  the  cylinder 
itself  is  hollowed  out  into  a  double  or  triple  threaded 
screw,  and  enclosed  in  a  water-tight  case,  which  turns 
round  with  it,  the  space  between  the  threads  supply- 


>.-^, 


Fi" 


and  to  make  the  screw  work  within  it,  the  outer  edge 
of  the  latter  being  as  close  as  possible  to  the  Ibiiner 
without  actual  contact.  This  modification  of  the  A. 
S.  receives  the  name  of  water-screw,  and  frequently 
of  Dutch  screw,  from  its  being  entensively  used  in 
Holland  for  draining  low  grounds. 

ARCHIPE  L.\(;0,  a  term  (of  doubtful  etymology) 
applied  originally  to  that  gulf  of  the  Mediterranean 
which  separates  Greece  from  Asia  ;  but  now  extended 
to  any  sea,  like  it,  thickly  interspersed  with  i.slands, 
or  rather  to  tlie  group  of  islands  themselves.  The 
islands  in  the  Greek  Arcliipeligo  or  .Kgean  Sea 
consist  of  two  groups,  called  Cyclades  and  Sporadea; 
the  first  from  their  being  massed  after  the  manner 
of  a  circle,  the  second  from  their  being  scattered  in 
something  of  a  line.  The  former  lie  to  the  east  of 
Southern  Greece,  while  the  latter  skirt  the  west  of 
Asia  Minor. 

Of  the  Cyclades  the  principal  i.slands  are :  Lyra, 
Kythnos,  Tliera,  Tenos,  Andros,  Naxos,  Melos,  and 
many  more  of  inferior  size.  They  all  belong  to 
Greece,  and  will  more  conveniently  be  considered  in 
connection  with  if.  The  chief  islands  of  the  Sporadea 
are  :  Scarpanto,  Rhodes,  Cos,  Patmos,  Nicaria,  Samos, 
Scio,  Metelin,  Lemnos,  Imbros,  Sainolhraki,  Thasos, 
and  many  more  of  inferior  size.  They  will  fall  to  be 
considered  under  the  head  of  Tnrkct/,  to  which  they 
still  beloug.  Of  both  groups,  the  more  consider- 
able islands  will  be  noticed,  under  the  alphabetical 
arrangement,  in  their  respective  places. 

The  other  Archipelagoes,  loosely  so  called,  will 
receive  separate  notice  each  in  its  proper  place. 

A  remarkable  circumstance  may  be  mentioned  in 
connection  with  Archipelagoes.  The  islands  of  the 
globe  rarely  stand  alone  With  very  few  exceptions, 
they  may  all  be  classified  into  clusters.  In  most 
clusters,  again,  there  is  generally  more  or  less  of  simi- 
litude between  the  diflbrent  members  of  each — simili- 
tude sometimes  of  one  kind,  and  sometimes  of  another. 
Perhaps  the  similitude  that  is  most  obvious  even  on 
the  face  of  an  ordinary  map,  is  that,  really  like  the 
links  of  a  chain,  the  members  of  a  cluster  have  their 
lengths,  as  distinguished  from  their  breadth.^,  in  one 
and  the  same  direction.  In  the  West  Indies,  for 
instance,  look  at  the  Bahamas,  and  look  also  at  the 
Antilles,  Greater  and  Lesser.  In  the  East  Indies, 
again,  the  same  thing  is  seen  in  carrying  the  eye 
from  the  north  end  of  the  Philippines  to  the  north 
end  of  Sumatra,  or  even  of  the  Andamans.  Lastly 
on  the  opposite  coasts  of  the  Upper  Pacific,  observe 
the  American  side  upwards  from  the  south  end  of 
Ynncouver's  Island  to  Mnnnt  St.  Elias,  and  the 
Asiatic  side  downwards  from  the  upper  extremity 
of  Kamtchatka — which  is  all  but  an  island — through 
the  Kuriles,  to  the  lower  extremity  of  Japan. 


ARCHITECTURAL  PAINTDfG— ARCHITECTURE. 


ARCHITECTURAL  PAIXTIXG  has  for  its 
subjects  the  exteriors  or  interiors  of  remarkable 
buildings  ;  churclies,  castles,  streets  in  cities,  &e. 
It  is  ni^entioned  by  Vitruvius,  l)ut  is  comparatively 
a  modern  art.  Benozzo  (iozz.oli,  (ihirlandajo,  and  the 
Venetian  school,  cultivated  this  department  of  art  in 
the  middle  ages ;  and  Pinturicchio,  by  order  of  Pope 
Innocent  VIII. ,  painted  a  series  of  views  of  cities  in 
the  style  of  the  Flemish  school,  which,  under  the 
brothers  Van  Eyck,  had  distinguished  itself  l)y 
careful  treatment  of  architectural  backgrounds,  &e. 
For  a  long  time,  A.  P.  was  regarded  only  as  accessory 
to  other  styles  of  art  ;  but,  at  the  close  of  the  IGth 
c,  P.  Keefs,  in  his  views  of  the  interiors  of  Gothic 
churches,  gave  to  this  branch  of  the  fine  arts  an 
independent  form ;  and  Steenwyck  the  younger,  in 
the  following  century,  extended  its  application  in 
his  views  of  the  interiors  of  prisons,  of  which  his 
picture  of  '  Peter  Liberated  from  Prison  '  is  an 
example.  The  art  was  still  further  extended  and 
cultivated  by  Van  der  Heijden,  Blick,  Van  Deelen, 
E.  de  Ville,  Johann  Ghering,  and  others,  who  painted 
views  of  church  interiors  in  the  Italian  style,  palaces, 
and  chambers.  The  interior  view  of  the  Church 
of  Amsterdam,  painted  by  Ruisduel,  deserves  especial 
notice.  In  the  18th  c.,  the  Venetian  Canale  and  his 
nephew  Bellotto  (generally  known  by  the  name  of 
Canaletto),  painted  many  views  of  cities,  but  espe- 
cially of  the  canals  and  buildings  of  Venice.  Col- 
lections of  their  numerous  works  are  found  at  Dresden, 
Woburn  Abbey,  &c. 

In  recent  times,  A.  P.  has  been  very  successfully 
cultivated  in  Germany,  France,  England,  Holland, 
and  Belgium.  Suhinkel  is  celebrated  for  his  fine 
union  of  classical  taste  with  richness  of  decorative 
invention.  His  two  most  striking  works  are  St. 
Peter's,  and  the  Duomo  at  Milan  ;  Paul  Gropius 
has  shewn  great  talent  in  his  Cathedral  at  Rheims, 
built  in  honour  of  Joan  of  Are.  His  dioramas  are 
well  known ;  an. I  Domenico  Quaglio,  who  died  in 
1837,  throughout  his  innumerable  compositions,  has 
exhibited  an  exquisite  appreciation  of  perspective, 
and  of  the  poetical  arrangement  of  details.  Among 
modern  A.  painters  may  be  mentioned — in  England, 
Prout  (views  of  Italy,  Germany,  &c.),  Roberts  (whose 
genius  has  sought  for  its  materials  in  Spain  and  the 
East,  and  who  paints  the  architecture  of  foreign 
lands  with  rare  truthfulness  and  lively  vigour), 
Mackenzie,  Goodall,  Williams,  and  the  water-colour 
painters  Haghe,  Chase,  Ilowse,  and  others  ;  in 
France — Granet  (died  1849),  the  most  celebrated 
art  painter  of  the  new  French  school ;  and  the 
water-colour  painters  Ouvrie,  (larnery,  Rochebrune, 
and  Villeret ;  in  Italy — Migliara  and  Nehrlich  (a 
German,  who  has  been  styled  '  the  modern  Cana- 
letto ')  ;  in  Germany — Von  Bayer,  Hasenptiug  of 
Halberstadt  (who  paints  beautifully  old  cloister- 
alleys  under  winter-effects),  Ainmuller,  Vermeersch, 
Pulian  of  Diisseldorf  (who  displays  great  skill  in 
tlie  representation  of  old  streets  and  time-worn 
churches),  Conrad,  Gartner,  Groeb,  Helflft,  Dietrich, 
&c.  ;  in  Holland  and  Belgium — Waldorp,  Carsen, 
Boosborn,  Von  Haanen,  Ten  Kate,  Springer,  and 
Bossuet. 

A'RCHITECTURE  (Lat.  arrlnfcctnra,  from  the 
Gr.  arcliitcctCm,  the  chief  fabricator,  the  architect),  the 
art  of  building  or  constructing.  In  this  country,  A.  is 
usually  divided  into  Civil,  Military,  and  Naval.  In 
the  present  article  we  shall  confine  ourselves  to  the 
first,  the  two  latter  being  treated  of,  the  former 
under  the  head  of  Fortification,  the  latter  under 
that  of  Ship-iu-ilding.  Civil  A.,  when  taken  in 
the  widest  sense,  may  be  regarded  either  from  an 
artistical,  a  scientific,  or  a  utilitarian  point  of  view. 
I:i  the  first  case,  as  a  means  of  giving  external  form 
ail    sensible   expression   to   mental    conceptions    or 


ideas,  it  is  a  branch  of  aesthetics,  or  of  the  fine  arts 
properly  so    called    (see    Akt),    and   takes   rank    with 
sculpture    and  j)ainting ;    in  the  second  case,  it  con- 
sists  in    a    knowledge    of    certain    laws   of    physical 
nature,  and  a  conseipient  power  of  calling  them  into 
play,  or  counteracting  their  operation,  and   is  conse- 
quently, a  branch  of  that  wider  department  of  science 
to   which  the  name   of  Mechanics  (q.    v.)  is  given; 
whereas  in  the  last  it  becomes  a  practical  art,  which 
has  for   its  object  the  application   of  the  principles, 
both    artistic  and   scientific,    which    A.    embraces,   to 
the   elevation    of    national    and    individual    character, 
and  the  increase   of    the  physical  comfort  and  well- 
being  of  mankind.     But  though  it  admits    of  being 
thus  analysed   or    separated   in  thought,  it  must  not 
be  imagined  that  A.  can  exhibit  in  jiractice  any  one 
of  these    principles   to   the    exclusion  of  the  others. 
The    abstract   conception    of    all-pervading    deity,    as 
embodied    in  the  Greek  temple — the    religious  aspira- 
tion after  a   personal   god,  as  shadowed  forth  in  the 
Gothic   cathedral — can   be    realized    only   in    accord- 
ance with  the  principles  of  mechanics,  and  the  most 
rigorous  adaptation   of  means  to   ends ;    whereas,   in 
an  opposite  direction,  the  kraal  of  the  Hottentot,  the 
hut    of  the    Indian    in    the    American    wilderness,  or 
even    the    vulgar   chimnev-stalk   in    the    dingy  manu- 
facturing   suburb,    if    properly   constructed   for   their 
respective   purposes,   will   be   found   to   have  obeyed 
such  aesthetical  principles  as  they  may  have  come  in 
contact   with.     Nature   is   not  self-contradictory  •,  and 
art   and    science,    beauty   and   utility,    when    rightly 
understood,    are    never    in    conflict.      A    celebrated 
German  writer  and  thinker  (F.  Schlegel)  has  described 
A.     as    '  frozen    music ;'  ,^and    the    comparison    is    in 
accordance  with   the    remarks  which  we  have  made  ; 
for   music,    though    apparently   the    freest   and   most 
lawless,  is  in  reiility  the  most  rigorously  scientific  of 
the  arts.     But  though  a  strict  adherence  to  all  the 
principles   of  A.    be   indispensable   to   every  genuine 
architectural    structure,    whatever    be    its    object,    it 
by   no    means   follows   that   equal    prominence    must 
be    given    to    each    of    these    principles    on    every 
occasion.     If  a  building   has   for   its   primary   object 
the    expression   and    commemoration    of    such   feel- 
ings  as   grief,    gratitude,   devotion,    or   the   like,  this 
object  manifestly  will  be  best  obtained  by   subordi- 
nating  the   scientific   and  utilitarian   to   the  aesthetic 
principles  of  A.  ;    and   the  reverse  will   be  the  case 
where  mere  convenience,  and  also,  though  in  a  lesser 
degree,    where     convenience,     in     combination    with 
beauty  or   magnificence,  is   sought.     It   is   in  a   great 
measure  by  the  prominence  which  they  have  given 
to    one    or   other   of  these    principles,    that   different 
nations  have  displayed    their   diversities   of  character 
in  their  A.     The  speculative  and  poetical  character 
of  the   Greeks  was   exhibited   in  their  temples,  whilst 
their   preference    of  the    state    to  the    individual    ap- 
peared in  the  fact  that  these  structures  were  designed 
for  the  worship  of  the  protecting  divinity  of  the  city 
by  the   citizen,    not   for  the   worship   of  a  personal 
god  by   the   individual  man.     Amongst  the  Romans, 
again,  terrestrial   jjower  and  material  aggrandisement 
were  the  exclusively  national   aspirations,  and  conse- 
C|uently    their   A.  had    their   own    honour   and   glory 
primarily  in  view.     The  basilicas,  amphitheatres,  and 
triumphal  arches  of  the  Romans  were  their  own  ;  but 
the  temples  which  they  raised  in  honour  of  the  gods, 
were    little    else    than    imperfect     copies    from    the 
Greek,    with    scarcely   any   assignable    national    cha- 
racteristics.      Then,    when    we    come    to     medieval 
times,  though,  on  the  revival  of  spiritual  tendencies, 
aesthetic    ])rineiples    again   become    prominent,    they 
exhibit    themselves     under     totally  different    forms ; 
and  the    distinctions    Ijetween  heathen  and    Christian 
thought  could   scarcely  be   more  distinctly  stated   in 
words   than   they   are   exhibited   to   the   eye   in  the 

3To 


ARCHITECTURE. 


diffurence  between  a  Greek  temple  and  a  Gothic 
cathedral.  Even  the  relation  -wliieh  sulisists  between 
Christian  and  Molianimedun  A.  (Gotliic  A.  and  Arabian 
A.,  q.  V.)  strikinj;ly  reminds  us  of  the  faet  tliat  Mo- 
liammcdanisni  w'as  but  a  sort  of  bastard  Christianity. 
Domestic  life  aj,'ain  apjieared  in  full  ptn-ity  and 
\  igour  only  in  modern  times ;  and  then  only  do  we 
the  the  utilitarian  principles  of  A.  finally  prevailing 
over  the  astlietie.  But  apart  from  the  mental  cha- 
racteristics and  tendencies  of  a  people,  tlierc  are 
many  other  circumstances  whicii  modify  their 
A.  Of  tliese,  one  of  tlie  most  important  is  climate. 
Arrangements  for  the  permanent  and  commodious 
residence  of  the  family  within  doors  coulil  not  be 
expected  to  attain  much  perfection  amongst  a  race 
like  the  Greeks,  whose  life  was  spent  in  the  open 
air ;  and  the  climate  of  Holland,  as  well  as  the 
genius  of  the  people,  and  the  character  of  their  occu- 
pations, has  had  mueh  to  do  with  the  fact  that  the 
Dutch  have  rarely  risen  above  a  town  house.  Fol- 
lowing thus  the  pecidiaritics  of  national  character  and 
circumstances,  it  is  obvious  that  the  more  widely  these 
differ  in  any  two  nations,  the  more  dissimilar  will 
be  the  styles  of  A.  which  they  produce  rcsj)ectively. 
Moreover,  it  is  apparent  that  the  higher  the  stage  of 
national  development,  the  niore  marked  will  be  the 
character  which  the  A.  of  a  people  will  assume.  A. 
thus  bears  a  strict  analogy  to  language.  I?oth  are 
an  expression  of  thought,  and  in  tiie  one  and  in  the 
other,  the  richness,  variety,  and  jirccision  of  the 
expression  will  be  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  and 
quality  of  the  thought  to  be  expressed.  Lastly,  in 
the  faet  that  all  genuine  A.  is  the  expression  of  the 
ruling  national  ideas  and  forms  of  thouglit  of  some 
one  jjarticular  jx'Ople,  we  perceive  the  reason  why  a 
building  compounded  of  several  styles  should  be 
characterless  and  unpleasing ;  and  why  tliis  should 
be  more  and  more  the  case,  the  more  characteristic 
the  styles  compounded,  and  the  greater  the  equality 
preserved  amongst  them.  The  Doric  pillar  in  itself, 
and  still  more,  perhaps,  the  Romati  adaptation  of  it, 
is  the  simplest  and  most  rudimentaiy  of  all  pillars; 
and  what  we  are  in  the  habit  of  calling  Saxon,  is  the 
simplest  and  most  rudimentary  of  all  the  styles  of 
Gothic  A.  ;  and  hence  tlie  introduction  of  a  few 
Tuscan  ]>illars  considcral)ly  modilied  into  a  Saxon 
or  Romanic  church,  does  not  awaken  feelings  of 
very  decided  repugnance,  whereas  an  attempt  to 
combine  equally  the  beauties  of  the  Parthenon  and  of 
Cologne  Cathedral  in  the  same  buikling  would  be 
unspeakal)ly  revolting.  The  limits  of  the  present 
article  preclude  us  from  presenting  to  the  reader  a 
consecutive  account  of  the  origin  and  development 
of  the  different  styles  of  A.  These  will  be  treated 
under  separate  heads  (see  Egyptian  A.,  Indian  A., 
Greek  A.,  Gothic  A.,  Arabian  A.  ;  see  also  Arch, 
Pillar,  Architrave,  &e.) ;  and  all  that  can  be  here 
attempted  is  to  trace  the  earlier  stages  through 
which  A.  passed  in  the  historical  nations,  before  it 
reached  the  point  at  which  it  afforded  the  means  of 
expressing  the  feelings  or  supplying  the  wants  of 
mankind. 

1.  The  earliest  stage  of  monumental  A.  in  every 
part  of  the  world  seems  to  have  been  that  in  which 
it  supplied  to  the  existing  generation  the  means  of 
setting  a  mark  on  the  face  of  the  earth,  of  a  nature 
so  ineffaceable  as  that  it  should  continue  to  V>e 
visible  to  future  generations.  No  attemj)t  was  yet 
made  to  tell  a  tale  either  by  the  form  of  the  monu- 
ment, or  by  any  figure  or  inscription  engraven  on 
it.  Apart  from  the  tradition  intended  to  accompany 
it,  it  was  speechless — confessedly  unintelligible. 
But  it  is  easy  to  see  how  powerful  would  be  the 
effect  of  such  an  erection  in  preserving  that  tradi- 
tion from  oblivion,  and  fixing  it  down  to  the  parti- 
cular locality ;  for  so  long  as  a  conspicuous  object 
3T6 


existed,  which  obviously  was  the  work  of  human 
hands,  the  cause  of  its  existence  would  be  a  sulyect 
of  curiosity,  which  could  be  gratified  only  by  in- 
quiries which  must  lead  to  a  recital  of  the  events 
intended  to  be  commemorated.  It  was  with  this 
view  that  Joshua  (xxiv.  2())  took  a  stone,  and  set  it 
up  under  an  oak  that  was  by  tlie  .«anctuaty  of  the 
Lord — '  And  said  unto  all  the  ])eople  :  Behold,  this 
stone  shall  be  a  witness  unto  us;  for  it  hath  heard 
all  the  words  of  the  Lord.'  To  this  ]>rimary  class  of 
monuments  belong  those  tumuli  or  barrow.s,  and 
conical  heaps  of  stones  called  cairns,  earns,  or 
kcanis,  wliich,  when  the)'  occur  in  Britain,  we 
per!.a])s  rightly  ascribe  to  the  Celtic  portion  of  our 
forefathers,  but  which  there  is  much  reason  to 
believe  have  been  erected  ]>y  every  race  at  a  certain 
stage  of  their  progress.  The  barrow,  it  is  true,  is 
not  wholly  destitute  of  architectural  arrangement.'!. 
Occasionally  it  contains  a  passage  or  narrow  gallery 
leading  to  a  sipiare  enclosure  or  small  chamber, 
in  whieh  tlic  remains  of  bones,  and  of  rude  urns, 
drinking  cups,  and  other  articles,  sometimes  of 
Roman  or  Brito-Roman  manufacture,  are  found. 
The  barrows  are  always,  however,  of  the  rudest 
and  most  inartificial  construction,  and  in  consider- 
ing them,  we  are  only,  as  it  were,  on  the  threshold 
of  architectural  siience. 

2.  The  earliest  class  of  erections  to  which  this 
title  can  with  any  propriety  be  given,  are  those 
wl-.ich  arc  commonly  spoken  of  as  Druidical  temples. 
These  consist  generally  of  .separate  stones,  often  of 
enormous  size,  raised  on  their  ends,  sometimes  in  a 
circle,  and  at  other  times  so  as  to  enclose  an  oblong 
space,  which  in  some  cases  is  roofed  in  by  horizon- 
tal slabs.  These  roofir;g-sfoncs  are  frequently  of 
such  prodigious  weight  as  to  give  rise  to  many  con- 
jeeturcs  regarding  the  mcch.anical  means  by  which, 
and  the  mechanical  knowledge  of  those  by  whom, 
tliey  were  j)laccd  in  the  positions  in  which  we  see 
them.  These  strange,  and,  to  us,  almost  wholly 
unintelligil)le  remains  of  anticiuity,  when  of  great 
extent,  assume  an  air  of  savage  and  gloomy  majesty. 
Of  this  tlie  most  consiiicuous  instance  anywhere 
to  1)0  found  is  that  of  Stonehcnge  (q.  v.),  in  Salis- 
bury Plain  in  AViltshire.  "Whciever  a  Celtic  popu- 
lation existed,  these  monuments  are  to  be  found. 
Druidical  monuments  are  more  common  in  France 
than  in  England  ;  and  in  France,  as  might  be 
expected,  thoy  exist  in  the  greatest  numbers  and 
variety  in  Brittany  (q.  v.),  though  none  of  them 
a]ii)roach  the  magnitude,  or,  in  some  respects, 
tl;e  woikmanship  of  Stonehcnge.  The  Celtic  monu- 
ments of  Brittany  are  of  diffei'cnt  classes,  and  have 
received  different  names — that  which  is  most  arclii- 
tectural  in  character  being  the  dolmen,  or  cromlech, 
as  it  is  called  in  England.  The  cromlech  consists 
generally  of  two  rows  of  perpendicular  stones, 
arranged  so  as  to  fit  pretty  closely  to  each  other, 
and  covered  with  horizontal  roofing  slabs,  thus  form- 
ing a  chamber,  which  is  generally  of  such  height  as 
to  allow  a  man  to  walk  through  it  upright.  But  the 
largest  and  most  perfect  specimen  of  the  dolmen  is 
to  be  seen,  not  in  Brittany,  but  in  tlie  neighbour- 
hood of  Saumur  on  the  Loire.  It  measures  m.ore  than 
80  feet  in  length.  To  the  same  early  stage  in  the 
science,  though  probably  to  a  much  earlier  period  in 
jioint  of  time,  are  to  be  referred  tl.ose  cyclopean  walls 
and  fortifications  which  at  Tiryns  and  Myceiiie  in 
Argolis  excited  the  wonder  of  the  later  Greeks  ;  the 
Etruscan  walls  at  Fiesole ;  and  the  similar  struc- 
tures which  are  found  both  in  Central  and  South 
America. 

3.  The  next  stage  in  advance  of  that  primeval  and 
pre-historic  one  of  wh.iih  the  traces  are  thus  so 
widely  spread,  is  that  at  wliich  tlie  science  seems  to 
have   culminated   in   all   but   the  classical  nations  of 


ARCHITRAVE— ARCIS-SUR-AUBE. 


antiquity,  and  those  races  wliich  have  had  the  benefit 
of  tlieir  genius  and  invention.  We  have  here  an 
accurate  measurement  of  parts,  and  a  corresponding 
division  of  the  building.  Tiie  pillar  also  makes  its 
appearance,  though  it  is  by  no  means  used  with  the 
same  freedom,  nor  does  it  exhibit  the  same  variety 
of  form  to  which  it  attained  in  Greek  A.  The  stage 
of  which  we  here  speak  was  attained  by  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Central  and  Southern  America  before  its  dis- 
covery by  Europeans ;  and  in  Mexico,  even  by  the 
Toltecans,  an  earlier  race,  which  had  given  way 
before  the  Mexicans  of  the  days  of  Cortes.  Peru- 
vian A.  exhibits  neither  columns  nor  arches  ;  but  the 
remains  of  tlie  palace  iit  Mitla  possessed  a  portico  with 
j)lain  cylindrical  columns;  and  the  walls  were  covered 
with  rude  sculpture.  In  the  cloisters  of  a  building 
at  Palenque,  a  species  of  inartificial  triangular  arch, 
formed  by  courses  of  stones  jjrojecting  over  each 
other,  was  found.  It  is  very  instructive  as  shew- 
ing t!ie  natural,  and,  so  to  speak,  necessary  char- 
acter of  certain  architectural  forms  at  certain  stages 
of  national  development,  to  find  that  the  pyramid, 
which  is  little  more  than  a  regularly  constructed 
cairn,  is  met  with  even  more  frequently  in  Mexico, 
than  in  E_rypt ;  and  whether  or  not  we  regard  it 
as  the  primary  form  of  the  pagoda  of  India,  it 
certainly  formed  the  basis  both  of  Mexican  and 
E-pyptian  A.  The  discussions  which  have  been  car- 
ried on  with  so  much  keenness  as  to  the  priority 
of  date  of  Indian  and  Egyptian  A.,  lose  much  of 
their  importance  when  we  find  a  race,  acting  in  all 
probability  independently  cf  both,  starting  from  the 
game  primary  form  as  the  one,  and  in  the  discovery 
of  tlie  pillar  and  the  arch,  making  two  of  the  most 
inportant  of  the  further  steps  in  advance  to  which 
tlioy  respectively  lay  claim.  Keeping  these  facts  in 
view,  it  would  seem,  moreover,  that  something  more 
is  required  to  prove  an  historical  connection  between 
Doric  and  Egyptian  A.  than  the  circumstance  that 
the  columns  which  they  respectively  employ  possess  a 
base,  a  shaft,  and  a  capital,  or  that  l)oth  are  used  to 
rapport  an  entablature.  Even  the  long  unbroken  hori- 
zontal lines  which  seem  to  indicate  an  afiiuity  between 
the  architectural  styles  of  Egypt  and  of  Greece,  and 
wliich  distinguish  them  both  so  sharply  from  the 
Christian  A.  of  medieval  Europe,  may  be  the  result 
rather  of  a  similarity  of  circumstances  than  an  iden- 
tity of  origin.  Though  these  styles  agree  in  having 
columns,  and  though  the  columns  support  horizontal 
entablatures  in  each,  they  disagree  in  the  forms  of 
the  columns,  in  the  character  of  the  entablature,  and 
i  ideed,  in  almost  every  other  particular.  Whilst 
Greek  pillars  taper  towards  the  top,  and  the  walls 
are  vertical,  in  Egyptian  buildings  the  very  reverse 
is  the  case,  the  pillars  being  vertical,  and  the 
■walls  sloped.  When  the  eftect  of  a  whole  Greek 
b'lilding,  surrounded  by  a  colonnade,  and  of  an 
E:;yptian  l)uilding  is  considered,  a  certain  similarity 
appears — the  base  in  each  case  being  wider  than  the 
upper  part ;  but  the  result  is  produced  in  the  one 
case  by  sloping  the  pillars,  and  in  the  other,  by  sloping 
the  walls,  the  external  edges  of  Aviiich  form  a 
slightly  acute  angle  with  the  base  of  the  building. 
The  great  distinction,  however,  between  the  A.  of 
Eirypt  and  Greece  consists  in  the  stages  which  they 
respectively  reached.  The  A.  of  Egypt  retained 
throughout  a  character  of  gloomy  strength,  and 
never  attained  to  the  lightness,  freedom,  or  variety 
of  tliat  of  Greece.  In  tlie  one  case,  the  traditionary 
forms  continued  throughout  to  dominate  and  subdue 
the  free  spirit  of  art ;  in  the  latter,  art  triumphed 
over  tradition,  and  owned  no  laws  but  its  own. 
It  is  in  this  circumstance  that  the  distinction  con- 
sists between  the  stage  of  A.  of  which  Egyptian  may 
be  considered  the  type,  and  of  which  Assyrian, 
Babylonian,  and  Persian   A.  are   also   examples,  and 


that  ultimate  st.age  whith  was  reached  by  the  Greeks 
in  one  direction  and  by  the  various  Germanic  nations 
in  another.  See  Arabian'  A.,  Byzantine  A.,  and 
Gothic  A. 

ARCHITRAVE  (Gr.  arrhl,  chief;  Lat.  irabx, 
beam),  the  lowest  ))art  of  the  entalilature  ((i.  v.),  of 
that  which  rests  immediately  upon  the  columns. 

ARCHIVES.     See  Records. 

A'RCIIIVOLT,  the  ornamental  Ijand  or  moulding 
which  runs  round  the  lower  part  of  the  voussoirs  of  au 
arch. 

A'RCHOX,  the  highest  magistrate  in  Athens.  The 
government  was  originally  monarchical  ;  but  on 
the  death  of  Codrus  (q.  v.),  the  Athenians,  according 
to  the  traditionary  account,  resolved  that  no  one 
should  succeed  him  with  the  title  of  king  {baxileus:\ 
and  therefore  appointed  his  son  Medon  with  the 
title  A.  (ruler).  The  office  was  at  first  for  life,  and 
confined  to  the  family  of  Medon  ;  but  in  752  B.C.,  the 
time  of  office  was  limited  to  ten  years  ;  and  in  714, 
the  exclusive  claims  of  Medon's  family  to  the  office 
of  A.  were  abrogated,  and  it  was  thrown  open  to  all 
persons  of  noble  birth ;  afterwards  to  all  citizens, 
without  distinction  of  rank  (477  B.C.).  In  683,  the 
office  had  been  made  annual,  and  the  number  of 
archons  had  been  extended  to  nine.  The  year  was 
named  from  the  first  A.  ;  to  the  second,  styled 
Basileus,  belonged  the  care  of  religious  affairs ;  the 
third  Avas  Polcmarchos,  or  commander-in-chief;  and 
the  remaining  six,  having  to  conduct  all  criminal 
trials,  were  styled  Thesmothetae,  or  lawgivers.  — 
Among  the  Jews,  during  the  time  of  their  subjection 
to  the  Romans,  the  title  of  A.  had  various  meanings ; 
but  was  generally  given  to  the  members  of  the 
Sanhedrim  or  su[ircme  council. — In  the  mystical 
jargon  of  the  Gnostics,  the  term  A.  was  frequently 
employed,  and  hence  one  of  their  sects,  especially 
opposed  to  Judaism,  received  the  name  of  Archontics. 
See  Gnostics. 

ARCHY'TAS  of  Tarentum,  one  of  the  most  illus- 
trious men  of  anti(|uity,  flourished  about  the  year 
40(1  B.C.  His  fathers  name  was  Mnesagaros.  A.  is 
said  to  have  been  a  contemporary  of  Plato,  and 
on  one  occasion  to  have  saved  the  life  of  the  latter 
when  the  tyrant  Dionysius  wislied  to  put  him  to 
death.  His  public  career  was  glorious.  He  was 
seven  times  elected  general  of  his  city,  though  it 
was  customary  for  the  office  to  be  held  only  lor  one 
year ;  and  in  every  campaign  which  he  undertook, 
he  was  victorious.  His  civil  administration  was 
equally  fortunate.  Affairs  of  the  highest  moment 
were  repeatedly  intrusted  to  him  ;  and  yet,  though 
deeply  skilled  in  philosophy  and  politics,  he  was 
possessed  of  a  childlike  simplicity  of  character  He 
was  drowned  on  the  Apulian  coast.  A.'s  virtues 
were  as  conspicuous  as  his  talents.  He  paid  the 
most  humane  attention  to  the  comfort  and  education 
of  his  slaves,  and  although  one  of  the  greatest 
geometricians,  he  did  not  disdain  to  make  a  rattle 
for  tlie  amusement  of  his  children.  He  solved  the 
proltlem  of  the  doubling  of  the  cube,  and  secured 
almost  the  reputation  of  a  magician  by  his  numerous 
mechanical  contrivances,  the  most  wonderful  of  which 
was  the  flying  pigeon.  A  Pythagorean  in  i)hilosophy, 
he  is  generally  supposed  to  have  exerted  a  consider- 
able influence  on  Plato,  and  some  affirm  that  even  the 
gigantic  understanding  of  Aristotle  was  indelrtcd  to 
him  for  the  idea  of  his  categories.  Only  fragments  of 
his  writincjs  remain.  They  relate  to  metaphysics, 
ethics,  logic,  and  physics. 

ARCIS-SUR-AUBE,  a  small  tovN-n  in  the  French 
department  of  Aube,  situated  in  lat.  48°  82'  N., 
long.  4°  8'  E.,  contains  2719  inhabitants,  and  is 
remarkable  on  account  of  the  battle  fought  here, 
March    20,    21,    1S14,    bcweeu    Napoleon    and    the 

877 


ARCOLA— ARCTIC  ITIGIILANDS. 


allied  lurtes  under  Prinee  Sehwartzenljerg.  The 
battle,  beginning  with  several  skirmishes  on  tlie 
first,  and  ending  in  a  general  engagement  on  the 
seeond  day,  wlien  the  Freneli  retreated  over  th.e 
Aube,  was  not  in  itself  very  important.  But  Napo- 
leon now  formed  the  plan  of  ojjerating  in  the  rear  of 
the  Allies,  and  left  the  road  to  Paris  open  ;  assinning 
that  they  would  not  venture  to  proceed  without  attempt- 
ing first  to  seeure  their  rear.  The  Allies  niurehed, 
nevertheless,  on  the  capital,  and  thus  decided  the 
campaign. 

A'RCOLA,  or  A'RCOLfi,  a  village  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Adige,  in  northern  Italy,  15  miles 
E.S.E.  of  Verona,  famous  for  the  victory  gained  by 
P.onaparto  over  the  Austrians,  17th  November  170(i. 
The  Austrians,  relieved  l)y  the  retreat  of  Moreau 
from  the  Rhine,  had  begun  to  take  the  oflfensive  in 
Italy,  and  General  Alvinzy  appeared  at  the  head  of 
50,000  men,  with  the  main  body  of  which  he  advanced 
to  Caldiero,  and  threatened  Verona.  Bonaparte,  recog- 
nising the  danger,  descended  ))y  night  the  course  of 
the  Adige,  crossed  that  river  at  Ronco,  and  was  thus 
in  a  position  to  threaten  the  left  flank  of  Alvinzy's 
army,  which  was  jiosted  at  A.  A  causeway  leads 
from  Ronco  across  the  morasses  to  A.,  bel'ore  reach- 
ing which,  the  road  crosses  the  small  stream  of  tlie 
Alpon  by  a  narrow  bridge.  This  bridge  was  de- 
fended by  the  Austrian  general,  Mittrowsky,  with 
fourteen  battalions  of  infantry,  and  two  s(|uadrons 
of  cavalry.  On  the  14th  of  November,  Augereau 
attacked  the  bridge  with  two  l)attalions  of  grena- 
diei's,  but  being  exposed  in  flank  to  tlic  Austrian 
fire,  was  obliged  to  withdraw.  Bonaparte  now 
seized  the  standard  himself,  and  ru.shed  on  the 
bridge,  followed  by  the  grenadiers ;  but  again  the 
fire  of  the  Austrians,  who  were  in  much  greater 
force  than  the  French,  made  it  necessary  to  draw 
back.  The  struggle  was  renewed  on  the  Kith,  with 
a  similar  result;  and  it  Avas  only  on  the  17th  that 
the  French  succeeded  in  getting  possession  of  A., 
not,  however,  by  forcing  the  biidge,  but  by  sending 
a  column  across  the  Alpon,  lower  down,  and  getting  in 
rear  of  the  Austrians.  On  this  Alvinzy  was  obliged 
to  retreat  to  Vicenza.  It  fared  no  better  with  the 
other  column  of  the  Austrians  under  Davidovich.  In 
this  series  of  battles  the  Austrians  lost  18,0(iO  men 
killed,  and  6000  prisoners.  The  French  loss  was 
15,000. 

AR^ON,  Jean  CLArnE  I)',  a  distinguished  French 
engineer,  born  at  Pontarlicr,  17;):5,  was  originally 
intended  for  the  church,  but  on  manifesting  a  decided 
preference  for  the  study  of  Vauhan,  his  father,  an 
eminent  jurisconsult,  consented  to  his  choice  of  a 
military  profession.  In  1754,  he  entered  the  Mili- 
tary School  at  Mezieres,  and,  in  the  following  year, 
he  passed  as  an  engineer.  During  the  Seven  Years' 
War,  he  acquired  considerable  reputation,  especially 
in  the  defence  of  Cassel.  His  fertility  of  invention 
was  surprising,  an<i  of  the  greatest  benefit  to  that 
branch  of  tlie  service  with  which  he  was  connected. 
In  all  his  writings — which,  in  spite  of  a  very  fiiulty 
style,  can  be  read  with  pleasure — there  are  indica- 
tions of  a  lively,  rich,  and  vigorous  genius.  He  was 
even  bold  enough  to  question  the  wisdom  of  certain 
strategical  propositions  of  the  Great  Frederick.  But 
his  most  famous  scheme  was  that  by  which  he  hoped 
to  reduce  Gibraltar,  then  in  the  Viands  of  the  English, 
and  defended  by  Governor  Elliot.  Ho  contrived 
floating  batteries,  incombustible,  and  not  liable  to 
sink,  which,  however,  were  not  successful,  though 
this  is  mainly  to  be  attributed  to  the  fact  of  his 
efforts  being  indifferently  supported.  When  the 
French,  under  Dumouriez,  overran  Holland,  A.  took 
several  strongly-fortified  places,  amongst  others, 
Breda.  After  this,  he  retired  from  public  life,  and 
878 


confined  himself  to  the  literature  of  his  professi<  n. 
His  most  imiiortant  Avork  is,  Conxidi ratuiiix  Jlili' 
/aires  ft  Politujucx  xur  lix  Fortificatidnx  (Paris,  1795). 
In  17!>0,  Bona]iarte  called  him  to  the  senate,  but  he 
died  the  year  after. 

ARCOS  I)E  LA  FRONTERA  a  town  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  (Juadalete,  in  Andalusia,  Spain.  Its 
[trincipal  manufacture  is  that  of  tanned  leather, 
which  was  the  first  established  in  Andalu.-ia  ;  thread 
and  ropes  are  also  manufactured.  Pop.  11,270.  A. 
de  la  F.  has  a  wild  and  romantic  situation,  which 
harmonises  well  with  the  picturcsciue  garb  of  the 
inhabitants,  who  still  wear  tlie  old  national  costume. 
It  was  called  Arcos,  from  being  built  in  the  form  of 
a  '  bow ; '  and  alter  Alfonso-el-Sabio  had  rescued  it 
from  the  lloors,  it  received  the  additional  name  of 
de  la  Frontrra,  from  its  frontier  i)osition,  being  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  Moorish  kingdom  of  Granada.  Almost 
impregnable  by  nature,  it  was  furthermore  embattled 
with  walls  and  towers,  j)art  of  which  still  remain, 
and  afl'oi-d  a  magnificent  view  of  the  Ronda  moun- 
tains. The  y\iA\  jiains  that  lie  below  the  rocky  town 
are  famed  in  the  Sjianish  ballads  for  their  breed  of 
war-steeds,  '  Arcos  barbs.' 

AI!('t)T,  a  city  of  Hindu.stan,  in  the  prcsidenel 
of  Madras,  the  capital  of  the  division  of  the  same 
name.  It  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Palar, 
a  river  which,  rising  in  Mysore,  is,  in  the  rainy 
sca.son,  about  iialf  a  mile  wide  before  the  town.  It 
stands  in  N.  hit.  12'  64',  and  in  E.  long.  79"  24',  and 
is  distant  from  Madras  65  miles.  Besides  the  mili- 
tary cantonment,  which  can  accommodate  three 
regiments  of  cavalry,  A.  contains  some  mosques 
in  a  tolerable  state  of  repair,  and  the  ruins  of  the 
Nawaab's  palace.  The  town  and  district  of  A. 
are  stated  to  contain  10,042  houses,  and  53,474 
inhabitants. 

A.  is  chiefly  noticeable  for  its  history.  It  was  the 
spot  wl'.cre  Clive  first  firmly  established  liis  military 
reputation.  With  a  force  of  3t)0  Sc])oys,  2(iO  Euro- 
peans, and  three  field-pictcs,  he  marched  against  A., 
which  was  garrisoned  by  lino  nien  ;  and  after  having 
taken  it,  he  stood  a  siege  of  fifty  days  against  thou- 
sands of  a.s.sailants,  amid  hardships  and  privations 
of  every  description. 

Arcot,  a  division  of  the  presidency  of  Madras.  It 
consists  of  two  parts,  the  northern  and  the  southern, 
of  which  the  respective  areas  are  5790  square  miles, 
and  7(',00,  and  the  respective  populations  1,485,873, 
and  1,(M)6,0()5. 

As  most  of  the  rivers  are  destitute  of  water  in  the 
dry  season,  there  arc  thousands  of  tanks  in  A.  Some 
of  them  are  of  an  enormous  size  :  that  of  Cavery-palc, 
in  particular,  measures  eight  miles  by  three.  These 
tanks  are  indispensable,  as  well  for  irrigation  as  for 
domestic  use.  The  hot  and  parching  winds  from  the 
west,  sweeping  down  the  valleys  of  the  Eastern  (ihaats, 
are  often  fatal  to  birds  on  the  wing,  and  also  to  human 
beings  when  exposed  for  any  length  of  time.  Glass 
cracks  and  flies  in  pieces ;  and  wood  shrinks,  splits, 
and  shivers ;  and  from  the  mutual  friction  of  the 
sapless  trees,  spontaneous  combustion  sometimes  takes 
place  in  the  jungles. 

ARCTIC  means,  properly,  lying  near  the  con- 
stellation of  the  Bear  {(ir.  arrtos),  and  hence,  nortliern. 
The  Arctic  Circle  is  a  circle  drawn  round  the  north 
pole,  at  a  distance  from  it  equal  to  the  obliquity 
of  the  ecliptic,  or  23^'.  The  corresponding  circle 
round  the  south  pole  is  the  J  w<rtrc<?'c  Circle.  Within 
each  of  these  circles  there  is  a  period  of  the  year 
when  the  sun  does  not  set,  and  another  when  he  is 
never  seen,  this  period  being  longer  the  neanr-r  to  the 
pole. 

ARCTIC  HIGHLANDS,  a  name  sometimes  ap- 
plied, though  not  very  appropriately,  to  that  portion 


ARCTIC  OCEAX. 


of  the  American  continent  whicli  lies  between  Hud- 
son's Bay  and  the  nioutli  of  the  Mackenzie.  It  has 
been  the  scene  of  all,  or  nearly  all,  the  oviMland 
efforts  in  connection  with  the  exploration  of  a  North- 
Wcst  Passage,  from  Ilearne's  discovery  of  the  Copper- 
mine, down  to  the  recent  voyage  of  Anderson — the 
most  prominent  among  the  intermediate  laljourors 
having  been  Franlilin,  Richardson,  Back,  Deasc, 
Sim[)Son,  and  Rac. 

A'RCTIC  OCEAN,  that  part  of  the  universal 
sea  which  surrounds  the  north  pole.  Its  single 
boinidary,  that  towards  the  south,  naturally  divides 
itself  into  four  sections — the  northern  shores  respec- 
tively of  the  two  continents,  and  the  northern  limits 
respectively  of  the  two  intercontinental  oceans. 

The  A.  0.  meets  the  Pacific  at  Behring  Strait, 
in  about  66°  of  N.  lat.,  so  that  here  the  A.  0. 
overlaps  the  Arctic  Circle  by  about  30'.  On 
the  side  of  the  Atlantic,  again,  the  common  border 
seems  to  be  equally  independent  of  arbitrary 
definition,  for  Scoresby  Sound  almost  as  definitely 
terminates  the  south-east  coast  of  Greenland  as 
North  Cape  terminates  the  north-west  coast  of 
Europe  ;  so  that,  as  both  extremes  are  intersected 
by  about  the  same  parallel  of  71°,  the  A.  0.  here 
falls  short  of  the  Arctic  Circle  by  about  4-^°. 

In  the  Old  World,  the  A.  0.,  if  we  include  its 
gulfs,  stretches  south  of  the  Arctic  Circle,  in  the 
White  Sea,  fully  2° ;  while  at  Cape  Severo,  the  most 
northerly  point  of  Asia,  in  lat.  78°  25'  N.,  it  falls 
short  of  the  same  by  11°  55  .  Lastly,  within  the 
range  of  the  Xew  World,  the  A.  0.,  in  its  strict 
acceptation,  is  everywhere  forced  back  within  the 
Arctic  Circle,  about  5°  at  Point  Barrow,  about  74-° 
on  Barrow's  Strait,  and  about  3°  at  the  Strait  of  the 
Fury  and  Hecla. 

The  waters  of  the  A.  0.,  however,  may  conve- 
niently be  extended  beyond  these  their  strict  limits. 
So  far  as  the  mere  aspect  of  the  map  is  concerned, 
Davis's  Strait,  Baffin's  Bay,  and  Hudson's  Bay 
may  be  regarded  as  gulfs  rather  of  the  Atlantic 
than  of  the  A..  0.  But  if  essential  characteristics 
are  permitted  to  outweigh  mere  position,  they  must 
be  assigned  rather  to  the  A.  0.  than  to  the  Atlantic. 
Besides  being  all  fed  by  currents  from  the  A.  0., 
they  are  all  hyperborean  in  temperature.  Even  the 
most  southerly  of  the  three  illustrates  this.  While 
Hudson's  Straits  present,  in  general,  more  ice  than 
Davis's  Strait  or  Baflin's  Bay,  Hudson's  Bay  itself 
has  been  the  scene  of  perhaps  the  two  most  abor- 
tive, if  not  most  disastrous,  of  all  modern  attempts 
at  northern  discovery.  On  opposite  sides  of  South- 
ampton Island,  Lyons  and  Back  were  arrested  by 
impenetrable  packs,  the  one  near  the  Bay  of  God's 
Mercy,  and  the  other  oft'  Cape  Comfort — the  latter 
point  being  1-^°  and  the  former  being  twice  as 
much,  south  of  the  Arctic  Circle.  Reckoning, 
therefore,  to  the  bottom  of  James's  Bay,  as  an 
arm  of  Hudson's,  the  arctic  seas,  thus  apjiended  to 
the  A.  ().  Proper,  reach  as  fixr  south  as  the  parallel 
of  London. 

Little  as  is  yet  known,  at  least  accurately,  of  the 
A.  0.,  its  discovery  and  exploration  have  developed 
and  tasked  more  skill  and  heroism  than  perhaps 
the  exploration  and  discovery  of  all  the  rest  of 
the  world  since  the  age  of  Columbus.  Without 
anticipating  anything  to  be  said  on  this  su!)ject 
under  the  separate  heads  of  Noith-Ea.^t  Passage, 
North-West  Pass;ige,  and  Polar  A'oyages,  it  may  not 
be  out  of  place  here  to  state  summarily  the  compa- 
ratively easy  labours  of  the  Russians  while  issuing, 
as  it  were,  from  their  domestic  rivers  to  survey  their 
domestic  shores.  About  a  century  and  a  quarter 
ago,  the  Muscovites  simultaneously  sent  forth  five 
expeditions  to  complete,  if  possible,  the  North-East 
Passage.     From   the    White   Sea   to   the   Oby,  four 


seasons  were  consumed ;  from  the  Oby  to  the  Yenissci, 
four  seasons ;  from  the  Yenissei  to  the  Lena,  season 
after  season  was  spent  in  both  directions  without 
success:  from  the  Lena  to  the  Kolyma,  six  seasons 
were  occupied ;  from  the  Kolyma  to  the  Pacific 
every  eflbrt  was  fruitless,  though  the  Cossack  Dcsh- 
iieff  was  known  to  have  accomplished  this  part  of 
the  enterprise  about  a  century  before. 

Arctic  navigation,  in  fact,  is  beset  by  almost 
every  imaginable  ditficulty  and  danger.  In  addition 
to  the  peculiar  perils  of  ice  in  all  possible  states, 
the  adventurer,  often  blinded  by  fogs  and  snows, 
has  to  i'ace,  generally  without  guide  or  sea-room, 
the  storms,  tides,  and  currents  of  comparatively 
unknown  waters.  If  such  be  bis  three  montlis 
of  summer,  what  must  be  his  nine  months  of 
winter!  Take  a  general  illustration  from  the  per- 
sonal experience  of  the  most  successful  of  all  the 
arctic  navigators.  On  the  parallel  of  73°,  and  under 
a  tempi'rature  of  15°  below  zero  of  J'ahrenhcit. 
Captain  M'Clure  spent  the  night  of  3tlth  October 
1851  on  the  ice,  amid  prowling  bears,  and  that  with- 
out food  or  ammunition — his  only  guide  being  a 
pocket-compass,  which,  however,  the  darkness, 
thickened  by  mist  and  drift,  rendered  useless.  The 
gallant  officer  whiled  away  the  time  by  sleeping 
three  hours  on  '  a  famous  bed  of  soft  dry  snow,'  and 
by  wandering  1()  miles,  by  the  crow's  flight,  over  a 
surface  so  rugged  as  to  endanger  his  limbs.  It  was 
at  the  close  of  a  pedestrian  expedition  of  nine  days, 
on  very  short  allowance  of  food  and  water,  that  the 
adventure  took  place;  and  it  hid  been  immediately 
occasioned  by  a  generous  desire  of  reaching  the 
winter-quarters  by  a  nearer  cut,  so  as  to  have  'a 
warm  meal  ready  for  his  men  on  their  arrival.' 

Notwithstanding  the  labours  an<l  researches  of 
two  centuries  and  a  half,  very  little  of  this  vast 
ocean  has  been  even  seen  by  man.  To  the  north  of 
the  83d  parallel,  in  fact,  the  A.  0.,  so  far  as  authentic 
evidence  goes,  is  a  mere  blank  to  geographers,  for 
Parry,  in  1827,  barely  reached  lat.  82°  45';  and 
Kane,  in  1854,  touched  only  81°  22',  sighting,  at  the 
same  time,  a  lofty  mountain,  which  he  estimated  to 
be  in  82°  30'.  Between  these  extreme  points,  how- 
ever, the  difference  of  long,  was  precisely  85° — Kar.e 
having  been  in  65°  35'  AV.,  and  Parry  in  19°  25'  E. 
Along  the  remaining  275°  of  long.,  more  than  throe 
quadrants  of  the  circumference,  the  northern  limit 
of  geographicid  knowledge  fiills  short,  more  or  less 
at  every  point,  of  the  parallel  of  83°.  Pchaps  the 
actual  average  of  such  northern  limit,  even  on  the 
full  tale  of  3G0°  of  long.,  may  not  exceed  lat.  75°,  so 
as  to  leave  absolutely  unknown  a  ciicle  of  3u°  of 
lat.,  or  nearly  2100  miles  in  diameter — an  area 
little  inferior  to  that  of  Europe.  This  untrodden 
world,  however,  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  a  continuous 
wilderness  of  ice.  Parry,  at  his  furthest  point,  found 
not  an  unbroken  field,  but  separate  floes,  with 
more  or  less  of  open  water  between  them — the  mild- 
ness of  the  temperature  being  indicated  by  falls  of 
rain;  and  Kane,  again,  at  his  furthest  point,  saw  a 
free  sea  to  the  north,  as  f.ir  as  the  eye  could  reach, 
from  a  promontory  240  feet  hig'.i ;  while,  to  use  his 
own  words,  'a  gale  from  the  north-east,  of  fifty-four 
hours  in  duration,  brought  a  heavy  swell  from  that 
quarter  without  disclosing  any  drift  or  other  ice.' 
This  is  quite  in  keeping  with  the  fact  already 
noticed,  that  Hu(!so:.'s  Straits  and  Bay  are  ol'tea 
more  encumbered  with  pack  than  the  waters  of  far 
higher  latitudes.  The  oidy  certainty  with  respect 
to  this  central  portion  of  the  A.  <*.  is  this,  that 
there  is  from  it  a  current,  more  or  less  steady, 
towards  the  south.  Parry,  during  nearly  the  whole 
of  his  boat-sleigh  expedition  of  1827,  found  that 
his  place  by  reckoning  was  considerably  ahead  of 
his   place   by  observation,  or,  in   other  words,  that 

379 


ARCTIUM— ARDEN'NES. 


his  northward  progress  on  the  floes  was  neutrahsed 
more  or  loss  by  the  southward  progress  of  the 
floes  themselves.  Such  a  current,  though  doubt- 
less accelerated  or  retarded  by  the  direction  of 
the  wind,  must  be  deemed  a  jjliysical  necessity, 
as  tlie  only  means,  in  the  absence  of  eviipora- 
tion,  of  preventing  the  perpetual  accretions  and 
accumulations  of  snow  and  rain.  Now,  as  the 
Pacific  is  understood  rather  to  send  off  than  to 
receive  water  through  Behring  Strait,  the  grand 
Bct  of  the  polar  currents  nuist  be  into  the  Atlantic. 
Fnder  these  conditions,  the  Xorlh-West  Passage 
would  ajjpear  to  h;ive  been  always  more  easy  of 
accomplislinient  from  the  Pacilic  to  the  Atlantic 
than  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific;  and,  accord- 
ingly, M'Clure  derived  advantage  from  the  current, 
whether  advancing  through  open  water  or  drifting 
along  at  the  mercy  of  the  i)ack. 

Of  the  more  southerly  ))()rtion  of  the  A.  0.,  the 
only  section  that  is  toleral)ly  well  known  to  a  dis- 
tance from  tlie  continent,  is  that  which  washes  the 
north-east  of  America.  Itcontains,\uuler  the  collective 
name  of  I'olar  Archipelago,  these  islands,  or  parts  of 
islands:  Banks  Land,  Prince  Albert  Land,  Wollas- 
ton  Land,  Victoria  Land,  Prince  Patrick  L-land, 
Princess  Royal  Islands,  Melvilic  Island,  Cornwallis 
Island,  North  Devon,  (jliinnell  Land,  North  Lincoln, 
and  various  others.  Off  the  coast  of  the  Old  World, 
again,  are  Si)itzbergen,  Nova  Zeml.la,  New  Siberia, 
,&:c.  Of  all  these  the  iirincipal  will  be  noticed  in 
their  ]iropcr  places,  and  shewn  in  the  map  of  North 
America,  which  will  be  given  at  the  end  of  Vol.  I. 
The  chief  straits  arc  Lancaster  Sound,  Barrow's 
Strait,  Smith's  Sound,  Regent's  Inlet,  Strait  of  the 
Fury  and  Ilecla,  Wellington  Channel,  Banks  Strait, 
Prince  of  "Wales  Strait,  &c.  The  chief  Rivers,  all  of" 
them  on  the  mainland,  are  the  Oby,  the  Yenissei, 
and  the  Lciui,  of  the  first  class;  the  Mackenzie,  the 
Yana,  the  I  uligirka,  and  the  Kolyma,  of  the  second; 
and  many  others  of  the  third. 

The  principal  production  of  the  A.  0.  has  been 
the  whale.  This  valuable  fish  abounds  chiefly  where 
the  current  is  strongest — near  the  respective  conflu- 
ences, as  it  were,  of  the  A.  O.  with  the  Atlantic  and 
the  PaciSc.  The  whule-Iisheries  on  the  west  of 
Spitzbcrgen,  and  on  both  sides  of  Greenland,  scarcely 
need  to  be  mentioned  further.  But  it  may  not  be 
generally  known,  that,  according  to  official  returns  as 
quoted  by  Admiral  Beechey,  t!ic  Americans  had,  in 
two  years,  drawn  more  than  8,00(>,(K)0  of  dollars,  or 
npwards  of  £l,0O(\(^OO  sterling,  from  the  whale 
llshcry  of  Behring  Strait  alone. 

On  the  side  of  East  Siberia,  however,  the  A.  0. 
produces  a  more  remarkable  article  of  traffic.  Here 
are  found,  in  the  gi-eatest  abundance,  the  bones  of 
the  mammoth.  Spring  after  sju-ing,  the  alluvial 
banks  of  the  lakes  and  rivers,  crumbling  under  the 
thaw,  give  up,  as  it  were,  their  dead;  while  tlie 
islands  lying  off  the  Yana,  and  even  the  depths  of 
the  sea  i'.self,  literally  teem  with  these  mysterious 
memorials  of  antiquity. 

Tiic  American  half  of  the  A.  0.,  if  it  cannot  boast 
of  fo-isil  ivory,  presents  something  still-more  difficult 
jicrhaps  to  be  explained.  In  lat.  74°  25',  and  hit.  7<i° 
15'  respectively,  Captain  M'Clure  and  Lieutenant 
Mecham  discovered  large  deposits  of  trees,  appa- 
rently indigenous,  of  considerable  size.  Writing  of 
B, inks'  Island  M'Clure  has  the  following  passages: 
'From  the  summit  of  these  hills,  which  are  300  feet 
high,  to  their  base,  abundance  of  wood  is  to  be 
found,  and  in  many  places  hiyers  of  trees  are  visible, 
some  protruding  12  or  l-i  feet,  and  so  firm  that 
Several  people  may  jump  on  them  without  their  break- 
ing: the  laigest  trunk  yet  found  measured  1  foot 
7  inches  in  diameter' — eiinivalcnt  in  girth  to  about 
5  feet.  Again, '  1  entered  a  ravine  some  miles  inland, 
3S0 


and  found  the  north  side  of  it,  for  a  depth  of  -Jo  feet, 
composed  of  one  mass  of  wood.  Some  of  it  was  jjetri- 
fied,  tlie  remainder  very  rotten,  ami  worthless  even 
for  burning.'  Writing  of  Prince  Patrick  Island, 
Meeliani  has  the  following  passage :  '  Biscovered 
buried  in  the  east  bank  of  the  ravine,  and  protrud- 
ing about  8  feet,  a  tree  of  considerable  size.  During 
the  afternoon  I  found  several  others  of  a  sindlar 
kind:  circumference  of  first  and  second  tree  seen, 
',i  feet;  of  another,  2  feet  10  inches.  From  the  per- 
fect state  of  the  bark,  and  the  distance  of  the  trt>cs 
from  the  sea,  there  can  be  but  little  doubt  that  they 
giew  originally  in  this  country.  I  sawed  one 
through ;  it  appeared  very  close-grained,  and  was 
so  immensely  heavy  that  we  could  carry  but  little 
of  it  away.' 

A'RcflUM.     See  Birdock. 

A'RCTOMYS.     See  M.\umot. 

ARD,  or  AIRD,  a  Celtic  root,  moaning 'height 
(compare  Lat.  ai-duus,  high),  which  ajipears  in  many 
geographical  names,  especially  in  Irchmd  and  Scot- 
land. 

A'RDEA.     See  IlKnox. 

ARDi^CIIE,  a  department  in  the  south  of  Franco, 
takes  its  name  from  the  river  A.,  which  rises  in 
the  Cevennes,  flows  towards  the  south-cast  through 
a  romantic  valley,  and  falls  into  the  Rhone  near 
Pont-St-Es])rit.  the  department  of  A.  lies  between 
Lozerc  and  Drome,  with  Loire  on  the  north  and 
Gard  on  the  south,  and  includes  the  most  northern 
part  of  ancient  Languedoc.  Its  greatest  length 
from  north  to  south  is  74  ndles;  its  greate.'-t 
breadth,  -11.  The  area  of  tlie  department  is  2133 
sfiuare  miles;  the  population  in  1861,  388,529. 
A.  is  almost  wholly  mountainous.  In  the  north- 
west of  the  department,  the  Cevennes  culminate 
ill  the  volcanic  Mont-Mezene,  5972  feet  in  height. 
The  variety  of  the  numerous  extinct  volcanic 
jjeaks,  dec])  craters,  rugged  lalleys,  masses  of  tufa, 
grottos,  rock-  labyrinths,  ranges  of  basaltic  columns, 
gigantic  dams,  kc,  give  a  most  extraordinarily 
picturesque  appearance  to  the  scenery.  The  upland, 
which  has  winter  for  six  or  eight  months,  is  devoted 
to  pasturage ;  but  the  terraces  and  valleys  near  the 
Rhone  enjoy  a  warm  climate,  and  produce  good  w  ine 
(white  and  red),  olives,  figs,  almonds,  chestnuts,  &c. 
There  are  manufactures  of  silk,  paper,  leather,  iron, 
<S:c.;  and  good  roads,  with  water  carriage,  facilitate 
commerce.  Lead,  iion,  copper,  manganese,  &c.,  are 
wrought.  The  chief  towns  are  Privas,  Aubcnas, 
Bourg,    St  Andcol. 

ARDE6  (Ath-air-doe — 'Ford  on  the  Doe'),  a 
town  in  the  west  of  Louth  County,  Ireland,  on  the 
river  Deo,  twelve  miles  inland.  It  contains  two 
ancient  castles — one  built  about  the  year  12n(i,  and 
now  used  as  the  town  house;  the  other,  a  S(|uare 
building,  and  now  used  as  a  prison.  Pop.  3ri7!l. 
The  chief  trade  is  in  corn  and  otlier  agricultural 
products. 

ARDE'NNES,  the  western  division  of  the  slate- 
plat.-an  of  the  Lower  Rhine.  It  extends  over  portions 
of  Belgium,  France,  and  Rhenish  Prussia,  and  con- 
sists of  a  broken  mass  of  hills,  for  the  most  part  of 
no  great  elevation,  which  gradually  slope  towards 
the  plains  of  Flanders.  In  e'lrly  times,  the  name  was 
given  to  the  whole  of  the  region  lying  between  the 
Rliine  and  the  Sambre,  a  length  of  about  160  milo.=. 
The  average  height  of  the  hills  is  less  than  2o00fe(t; 
but  in  the  east,  Mont  St.  IUi'.ert  attains  an  elevation 
of  2300  feet.  Large  tracts  of  this  region  consist  not 
of  hills,  but  of  gently  undulating  plateaus,  which 
are  densely  covered  with  oak  and  beech  forests, 
while  other  portions  are  marshy,  heathy,  and  b.irrcn. 
The  districts  through  which  the  Meuse  and  other 


ARDENNES— AR7J0PAGU?. 


rivers  flow,  present  soiiie  extraordinary  appear- 
ances. The  channel  of  the  river  is  sometimes  bound 
in  by  rugged  and  precipitous  clifis  more  than  COO 
feet  liighr"  The  principal  rocks  of  the  A.  are  clay- 
slate,  grauwacke,  (piartz,  &c.,  interspersed  with 
extensive  strata  of  primitive  limestone.  Coal  and 
iron  mines  are  wrouglit  in  the  north-west;  lead, 
antimony,  and  manganese  are  also  found.  There  is 
little  cultivation  of  grain,  but  multitudes  of  cattle 
and  sheep  are  reared. 

ARDENNES,  a  frontier  department  in  the  north- 
east of  France,  bordering  upon  the  provinces  of 
Kamur  and  Luxembourg  in  Belgium.  It  formed  a 
part  of  the  old  province  of  Champagne.  Length, 
from  north  to  south,  G3  miles ;  breadth,  from  cast  to 
west,  CO;  area,  2o21  square  miles;  pop.  329,1  U. 
The  north-east  of  A.  belongs  to  the  basin  of  tlie 
Meuse ;  the  south-west  is  watered  by  the  Aisne ; 
both  of  these  rivers  are  enriched  with  afHuents,  and 
united  by  the  Canal  of  A.  About  one-eighth,  of  the 
whole  surfiice  is  hilly,  and  is  covered  with  forests 
and  wide  tracts  of  pasturage.  In  the  north  extre- 
mity of  the  department,  near  Givet,  marble  is 
obtained ;  but  the  prevailing  rock  is  limestone, 
veined  with  lead  and  iron.  South  of  this,  and 
stretching  across  the  depaitnient  from  east  to  west, 
are  great  layers  of  slate,  with  here  and  there  flint, 
quartz,  &c.  In  the  south-east,  nuischclkalk  abounds, 
which  is  rich  in  iron-ore ;  and  in  the  south-west,  the 
soil  is  composed  of  arid  chalk,  a  naked,  treeless, 
elevated  plain.  Only  the  valleys  are  fertile,  and  pro- 
duce corn.  The  vine  is  nowhere  cultivated,  except 
at  Mezieres,  in  the  south-west.  Besides  slate,  marble, 
and  iron,  porcelain-clay  and  sand  for  making  glass 
are  obtained.  Excellent  work-horses  and  valuable 
sheep  are  reared.  There  are  manufactures  of  earthen- 
ware, glass,  marble,  woollen  cloths,  metallic  wares, 
&c.  The  principal  towns  are  Mezieres,  Rethel, 
Rocroy,  Sedan,  and  Vouziers. 

ARDNAMU'RCHAN  ROINT,  the  N.  W.  pro- 
montory of  Argyleshirp,  and  the  extreme  western 
point  of  the  mainland  of  Ri-itain.  A  light-house  was 
erected  here  in  1849,  which  is  visible  at  a  distance  of 
20  miles.  J^or  10  miles  around,  the  country  consists 
of  trap,  resting  on  sandstone  often  hardened,  and 
blue  slates.  The  trap  veins  form  many  striking 
reticulations  in  the  strata.  South  of  the  point  are 
found  numerous  oolitic  and  lias  fossils. 

A'RDOCH,  a  small  village  in  Scotland,  county  of 
Perth,  8  miles  south-south-west  of  Crieff,  celebrated 
for  a  Roman  camp,  the  most  entire  now  in  Britain. 
The  camp  is  2  V  miles  north  of  the  Greenloaning  Station 
of  the  Scottish  Central  Railway,  in  the  grounds  of 
A.  House.  The  intrenched  works  form  a  rectangle 
BOO  by  430  feet,  the  four  sides  facing  the  cardinal 
points.  The  north  and  cast  sides  are  protected  by 
five  ditches  and  six  rauT^iarts,  these  works  being  2*70 
feet  broad  on  the  north  side,  and  180  feet  on  the  east. 
A  deep  morass  exists  on  the  south-east,  and  the  per- 
pendicular banks  of  Knaig  Water,  rising  50  feet 
high,  protect  the  camp  on  the  west.  The  prretorium, 
or  general's  quarter,  now  called  Chapel  Hill,  rises 
above  the  level  of  the  camp,  but  is  not  exactly 
in  the  centre,  and  is  nearly  a  square  of  CO  feet  each 
side.  Three  of  the  four  gates  usual  in  Roman  camps 
are  still  seen.  A  subterranean  passage  is  said  to 
have  formerly  extended  from  the  prjctorium  under 
the  bed  of  the  Knaig.  Not  f\ir  north  of  this  station, 
on  the  way  to  Crietl",  may  be  traced  three  temporary 
Roman  camps  of  difierent  sizes.  Portions  of  the 
ramparts  of  these  camps  still  exist.  A  mile  west  of 
A.,  an  inunense  cairn  of  stones  lately  existed,  182 
feet  long,  45  feet  broad  at  the  base,  and  30  feet  in 
sloping  height.  A  human  skeleton,  7  feet  long,  in  a 
Btone  coffin,  was  found  iu  it. 


ARDIlO'i^SAN,  a  small  seaport  town  and  si-.m- 
mer  bathing-place  in  Ayrshire.  It  owes  its  rise 
to  the  pul)lic  spirit  of  the  Eglintoun  family.  ItiS 
harbor,  which  is  sheltered  by  an  island  oif  the 
coast,  is  one  of  the  safest  and  most  accessible  on  the 
west  coast  of  Scotland,  and  has  been  greatly  improved, 
at  vast  expense,  by  the  Earls  of  Eglintoun.  There 
is  a  large  export  of  coal  from  this  jilace,  and  ship- 
bidldir.gis  carried  on  to  a  considerable  extent.  On  a 
l:iil  above  the  town  stand  the  ruins  of  A.  Castle,  said 
to  have  been  surprised  by  Wallace  when  held  by 
the  forces  of  Edward  I.  Wallace  destroyed  the 
garrison,  and  threw  the  dead  bodies  into  a  dungeon 
called  '  Wallace's  Larder.'     Pop.  in  1851,  2071. 

ARE,  the  unit  of  the  French  land-measure,  is  a 
square,  the  side  of  which  is  10  metres  (or  32'8o9  f(  el) 
long  (see  Metrk),  and  which,  therefore,  contains 
loo  square  metres  =  lo76  English  square  feet.  The 
next  denomination  in  the  ascending  scale  is  the 
(kcare,  containing  10  ares ;  but  the  denomination 
comnioidy  used  in  describing  a  quantity  of  land  is 
the  hectare  of  100  ares,  =  2-47  English  statute  or 
imperial  acres. 

A'REA  (Lat.)  is  a  term  in  mathematics  meaning 
qnant'dy  of  surface.  The  calculation  of  areas,  or  men* 
suration  of  surfaces,  is  one  of  the  ultimate  olijccts  of 
geometry.  The  measuring  unit  is  a  S(;uare  inch,  a 
square  foot,  &c.,  according  to  the  unit  of  length.  As 
a  figure  is  thus  measured  by  finding  an  equivalent 
for  its  surface  in  ftfjuarea,  the  process  is  sometimes 
called  the  gnadratiire  of  the  figure. 

ARE'CA,  a  genus  of  Palms,  containing  several 
species,  having  pinnate  leaves  and  double  spathcs. 
The  fruit  is  a  fibrous  ono-sceded  drupe,  a  nut  with  an 
outer  fibrous  husk.  A.  Catechu,  the  Pinano  Palm, 
or  Betel-nut  Palm,  is  a  native  of  the  East  Indies, 
whose  nut  yields  a  sort  of  catechu.  See  Catechu. 
This  Areca-nut,  or  Betel-nut,  is  very  much  used  in 
all  parts  of  the  East,  the  chewing  of  it  with  quick- 
lime and  the  leaf  of  the  betel-pepper  being  one  of  the 
most  prevalent  habits  of  the  people.  See  Betel. 
The  nut  is  about  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg ;  the 
fibrous  husk  about  half  an  inch  thick.  It  is  austere 
and  astringent.  It  is  doubtful  if  it  possesses  a 
narcotic  power,  or  if  this  is  to  be  ascril>ed  entirely 
to  the  leaf  which  is  used  along  with  it.  Areca- 
nuts  form  a  considerable  article  of  trade  in  the 
East.  The  timber  of  the  palm  which  produces  them, 
and  its  leaf-stalks  and  spalhes,  are  also  used  lor 
domestic  purposes.  The  tree  is  often  40  or  50  fi  et 
high,  and  in  general  less  than  a  foot  in  diameter. 
The  leaves  are  few,  but  very  large,  their  leaflets 
more  than  a  yard  long.  In  Malabar,  an  inchriatii.g 
lozenge  is  prepared  from  the  sap. — A.  oleracea,  the 
CAiiBAfiE  Palm  of  the  West  Indies,  is  a  very  tajl 
tree,  100 — 200  feet,  whose  huge  terminal  leai-bud  is 
sweet  and  nutritions,  and  is  sometimes  used  for  the 
table  as  cabliage,  but  when  it  is  cut  off,  the  tree  is 
destroyed.  The  stem  of  this  tree,  notwithstanding 
its  great  height,  is  remarkably  slender.  The  nuts 
arc  pioduccd  in  great  numbers  ;  they  are  about  the 
size  of  a  filbert,  and  have  a  sweet  kernel. — A. 
Kapida,  the  New  Zealand  Palm,  is  remarkable  as 
extending  southward  beyond  the  geographical  limits 
of  any  other  of  its  order,  as  far  indeed  as  lat.  38° 
22' S.  It  is  a  small  palm,  only  from  6  to  10  feet 
high,  with  leaves  4 — 6  feet  long.  The  young  inflo- 
rescence is  eaten. — A.vesfiaria,  a  native  of  the  East, 
is  so  called  because  clothing  is  made  from  its  fibres. 

AREIO'PAGUS  (Gr.  for 'Mars'  Hill'),  a  mount 
Iving  to  the  west  of  the  Acropolis,  at  Athens, 
and  celebrated  as  the  spot  where  tl.e  most  venerable 
court  of  justice  in  ancient  times  held  its  sittings.  It 
is  not  easy  to  determine  satisfactorily  why  the  hill 
obtained  its  name ;  most  probably  it  was  on  accoimt 


ARENA— AREOMETER. 


of  Pacrificc3  having  been  olTeyeil  there  at  an  early 
period  to  tlie  God  of  Wnv;  but  ull  its  historic 
importance  is  derived  from  the  Areiopagitic  Council, 
the  origin  of  which  readies  far  baclv  into  anticjuity, 
and  is  ascribed  l)y  some  to  the  senii-mylhological 
Cccrops.  Orestes,  according  to  tradition,  was  tried 
before  this  court,  and  it  is  certain  tiiat  it  must  liave 
existed  long  before  the  first  Messenian  War  (740  k.  c.\ 
for  the  Messeiiians,  in  offering  to  sul)niit  to  its  deci- 
sions certain  points  of  dispute,  speak  of  it,  even  then, 
as  'old.'  Solon,  however,  made  many  clianges  in 
its  constitution,  enlarging  its  s|iherc  of  jurisdiction 
to  such  an  extent  that  it  ceased  to  be  any  longer  a 
more  criminal  court,  ami  accpiired  henceforth  social 
r.nd  political  powers  in  ad(!i;ion  to  the  former. 
Eefore  Solon's  time,  it  was  striclly  oligarchical.  It 
now  Vjecame  a  tertium  (^(//'/between  aristocracy  and 
democracy,  the  new  qualifii-ation  for  olhce  intro- 
duced by  Solon  being  jifopertfi  instead  of  hirth.  It 
thus  naturally  allied  itself  with  aristocracy,  so  that 
we  can  perfectly  miderstand  why  it  should  have 
been  considered  a  check  upon  the  impetuous  demo- 
cracy, though  it  would,  perhaps,  be  fairer  to  regard 
it  as  a  check  upon  both  extremes.  It  is  not  known 
how  many  members  were  included  in  its  council. 
The  nine  archons — if  they  had  recommended  them- 
selves by  a  faiiliful  discharge  of  their  duties — wore 
elected  life-membei-s  of  it.  Solon  made  tlic  council 
'overseers  of  everything,'  and  we  find  instances  of 
their  manifold  authority  in  the  subsefpient  history 
of  Greece.  They  granted  money,  at  the  time  of  the 
Persian  invasion,  ironi  a  reserve  treasury  of  their 
own,  the  ordinary  puljlic  treasury  being  empty. 
After  the  battle  of  ChaMoneia,  they  executed  all  who 
had  deserted  their  country.  In  social  matters,  their 
powers  appear  to  have  been  curiously  minute.  They 
Lad  officers  whom  they  sent  or  accompanied  into 
private  houses,  on  occasion  of  a  festivity,  to  see  that 
the  rooms  were  not  overcrowded  ;  they  called  to 
account  persons  who  lived  in  sr.ch  riotous  extra- 
vagance that  their  example  might  be  considered 
hurtful  to  the  community,  ami  conferred  marks  of 
honour  on  those  of  an  opposite  character.  Their 
sphere  of  inlluence  seems  to  have  extended  itself  to 
religion  also.  Innovatioiis  in  the  worship  of  the 
gods,  neglect  of  the  sacred  ceremonies,  impiety  in 
any  form,  broTight  the  offenders  under  the  rel)uke 
r.nd  punishment  of  the  A.  It  is  likewise  asserted 
that  they  possessed  and  exercised  great  authority  in 
the  education  of  the  young,  althougli  this  statement, 
and  that  regarding  some  charitable  ''unctions  attri- 
buted to  them,  are  of  dubious  value. 

Until  the  time  of  Pericles,  the  brilliant  and  power- 
ful ruler  of  the  democracy,  the  A.  continued  to 
maintain  its  ancient  dignity.  lie  soon  discovered, 
however,  that  it  would  prove  an  insurmountable 
obstacle  to  the  realisation  of  his  designs  if  not  shorn 
of  its  privileges.  After  much  and  vigorous  opposi- 
tion, he  succeeded  in  carrying  a  decree  (458  B.C.),  by 
which,  as  Aristotle  says,  the  A.  was  '  mutilated,' 
and  democratic  tribunals  acquired  supreme  autho- 
rity. It  is,  however,  far  from  being  clear  what  were 
the  precise  changes  which  Pericles  effected,  whether 
he  abridged  its  powers  as  a  criminal,  or  as  a  social 
and  political  court.  From  the  high  estimation  in 
which  it  was  held  for  centuries  after,  in  the  first  of 
these  capacities,  we  are  inclined  to  think  that  it  was 
its  social  and  political  supremacy  that  was  destroyed. 
Pro'jably  the  A.  was  made  responsible  to  the  dennis, 
or  body  of  citizens.  It  lingered  in  life  for  a  very 
long  period.  We  hear  of  it  as  late  as  380  a.  d.,  and 
it  would  seem,  from  the  case  of  St.  Paul,  that  it 
possessed  in  his  day  a  certain  authority  in  religious 
matters. 

ARE'NA,  a  part  of  an  amphitheatre  (so  called 
because  it  was  usually  strewed  with  sand,  though 


when  a  fit  of  extravagance  seized  the  Roman  empe- 
rors, they  used  borax  and  cinnabar  instead),  where 
the  condjats  of  gladiators  and  wild  beasts  took  |)lace. 
It  had  four  main  entrances,  and  was  surrounded  by 
a  wall  about  !.■)  feet  high,  so  that  the  spectators  were 
perfectly  safe.  The  name  was  afterwards  ajiplicd  by 
the  Romans  to  any  building  for  exhibitions  of  baiting 
animals,  horsemanship,  &c.  On  the  contiricnt,  the 
name  has  been  given  to  the  large  summer  theatres 
for  dramatic  performances  in  the  open  air.  It  is 
applii'd  also,  in  a  general  sense,  to  any  scene  of  con- 
test or  disi)!ay  of  power. 

ARENACEOUS  ROCKS.  All  rocks  composed 
entirely,  or  to  a  large  extent,  of  grains  of  silex,  are 
included  under  this  title.  Beds  of  loose  sand  occur 
extensively  in  the  more  recent  deposits.  The  grains, 
either  of  quartz  or  flint,  are  generally  water-worn 
and  rounded.  In  older  deposits,  the  grains  of  sand 
are  bound  together  by  silicious,  calcar.'ous,  argilla- 
ceous, or  ferruginous  cements.  It  is  seldom  that  a 
lock  is  composed  of  (juart/.y  materials  alone  ;  grains 
or  particles  of  other  mineral  substances  are  fre- 
quently mingled  with  the  grains  of  (juartz.  Silvery 
flakes  of  mica  are  .seldom  absent;  and  they  often 
occur  in  layers  jiarallel  to  the  planes  of  stratifica- 
tion, causing  the  rock  to  S[)lit  into  thin  slabs,  and 
exposing  a  glittering  surface.  These  arc  called 
micaccoux  siDHlstmie.s.  When  grains  of  felds|)ar 
occur,  it  is  a  fchlipat/iic  snmh'nnc.  Often  large  quan- 
tities of  calcareous  matter,  either  as  cement  or  as 
distinct  grains,  occur  ;  and  these  are  called  valcnreoua 
snndstoncx.  The  presence  of  lime  can  always  be 
detected  by  the  effervescence  which  takes  place  on 
the  api)lication  of  muriatic  or  other  acid.  When 
the  sandstone  is  coai-se-grained,  it  is  usually  called 
fp-lt.  If  the  grains  are  large  enough  to  l)e  called 
pebliles,  it  becomes  conf^lomcraie  or  puddhirjxtonc ; 
if  the  fragments  are  sharp  and  angular,  it  is  called 
breccia. 

ARENATJA  or  SANDWORT,  a  genus  of  plants 
of  the  natuial  order  C<ir>jojihiil,lr(e,  differing  from 
Stellaria  (Stitch wort,  q.  v.)  chiefly  in  the  undivided 
petals.  The  species  are  numerous,  annual  and  peren- 
nial herbaceous  plants  of  humble  growth,  rarely 
somewhat  shrubby,  natives  of  the  temperate  and 
colder  parts  of  the  world.  Some  of  them  are  arctic 
and  alpine  plants.  Many  of  them  are  chiefly  found 
in  sandy  soils.  The  flowers  are  generally  small  and 
inconspicuous,  but  if  closely  examined,  are  seen  to 
possess  no  little  beauty.  A  number  of  species  are 
natives  of  Britain. 

A'RENDAL,  a  town  on  the  south-east  coast  of 
Norway,  situated  near  the  mouth  of  the  Nid-elf  in 
tiie  bay  of  Chrisliania,  with  a  population  of  2200. 
It  is  built  partly  on  poles,  partly  on  rock,  and  this 
circumstance,  as  well  as  its  situation,  gives  it  a  very 
romantic  aspect.  The  bay,  which  is  protected  by 
the  island  of  Tromiie,  forms  an  excellent  harbour, 
and  favours  the  commerce  of  the  town,  which  is 
considerablo,  in  proportion  to  its  size.  A.  is  inter- 
sected by  canals;  its  exports  are  iron  from  the 
neighbouring  mines,  and  wooden  articles.  Ship- 
building is  also  carried  on ;  and  on  a  smaller 
scale,  (listilleries  and  tobacco-factories.  King  Louis 
Philippe,  after  the  French  Revolution,  when  wander- 
itig  in  the  north  as  Duke  of  Orleans,  made  some  stay 
here. 

ARE'NG  or  ARENGA.     See  Gomcto  Palm. 

ARENI'COLA.     See  Annelipa  and  Saxdworm. 

AREO'METER  {araios,  thin,  and  metrcO,  I  mea- 
sure ;  Fr.  ariomctre  or  phc-liqueur  ;  Ger.  Araotiietcr 
or  Scnk-icoffe),  called  also  Hydrometer,  an  instrument 
which  is  allowed  to  float  freely  in  liquids,  to  deter- 
mine their  specific  gravity  or  that  of  solid  bodies. 
By  specific  gracity  (q.  v.)  is  meant  the  ratio  that  the 


AREOMETER. 


weight  of  any  volume  of  a  substance  bears  to  the 
weight  of  the  same  volume  of  water.  Thus,  a  cubic 
foot  of  alcohol  weighs  793  ounces,  while  the  same 
quantity  of  water  weiglis  lono  ounces;  the  specific 
gravity  of  alcohol  is  set  down,  therefore,  as  -f"/j,'*fj  or 
•793.  A  cubic  foot  of  sul|)huric  acid  weighs  1841 
ounces,  and  has,  consequently,  a  sjjecific  gravity  of 
1"8-11.  These  relations  are  not  confined  to  the  \nu- 
ticular  volume,  one  cubic  foot,  of  these  bodies,  but 
hold  for  any  equal  volumes  of  them.  E(iual  volumes 
of  alcohol,  water,  and  sulpliurie  acid,  have  always  to 
each  other  the  ratio  respectively  of  793,  liiott,  and 
1841  ;  and  this  is  only  an  instance  of  the  general 
principle,  that  equal  volumes  of  dilfcrcnt  substances 
have  weights  bearing  to  each  otlier  the  direct  ratio 
of  the  specific  gravities  of  those  substances.  This 
is  the  principle  on  which  areometers  with  weights, 
or  weight-areometers,  are  constructed.  II',  how- 
ever, equal  weights  of  any  two  of  these  licpiids 
were  taken,  it  would  be  found  that  "793  of  a  cubic 
foot  of  water  would  weigh  as  much  as  1-000  ciibic 
foot  of  alcohol ;  1-000  cubic  foot  of  sulphuric  acid  as 
much  as  1-841  cubic  feet  of  water;  or -793  of  a 
cubic  foot  of  sulphuric  acid  as  much  as  1-841  cubic 
feet  of  alcohol :  more  generally  thus — when  equal 
weights  of  two  diff"erent  fluids  are  taken,  the 
volumes  of  each  are  inversely  as  their  specific 
gravities.  On  this  latter  principle  depends  the  use 
of  areometers  with  scales,  or  scale-areometers.  The 
8caIe-A.  is  much  more  commonly  employed  than  the 
weight-A.,  and  is,  in  consequence,  a  much  more 
important  instrument.  Of  the  various  forms  of 
scale  -  areometers,  that  contrived  by  Gay-Lussac 
deserves  partii  ular  notice,  from  the  simplicity  of 
tlie  mode  of  graduation;  and  an  account  of  it  will 
give  the  best  idea  of  the  general  nature  of  such 
instruments.     Fig.  1  gives  a  representation  of  it.     It 


Areometers. 

consists  of  a  uniform  glass  tube,  AB,  blown  into  two 
bulbs,  C  and  D,  at  the  bottom.  The  lower  bulb, 
D,  is  loaded  with  mercury,  so  that  when  the  instru- 
ment floats  in  any  liquid,  the  stem,  AB,  is  main- 
tained in  a  vertical  position.  We  shall  suppose  that 
the  quantity  of  mercury  is  so  adjusted  that  when 
placed  in  water,  the  A.  sinks  to  the  point  W,  which 
may,  in  consequence,  be  called  the  water-point. 
According  to  the  principle  of  Archimedes,  the  weight 
of  the  volume  of  water  displaced  by  the  instrument 
up  to  this  point  ia  equal  to  the  weight  of  the  instru- 


ment. Let  us  suppose,  for  the  sake  of  simplicity, 
that  the  water  so  displaced  is  a  cubic  inch,  the 
weight  of  the  A.  will  be  that  of  a  cubic  inch  of 
water,  or  '2.511  grains  (more  correctly  •Ib-l.o  grains  at 
60°  F.).  If  the  A.  be  now  placed  in  a  fluid  heavier 
than  water,  such  as  a  mixture  of  sulphuric  acid 
and  water,  having  a  8i)ecific  gravity  -^  or  1"25,  it  is 
maidfest  that  if  it  is  sunk  again  to  the  water-point, 
the  displaced  fluid  would  weigh  |  of  2oO  =  312^ 
grains,  or  (52^  grains  more  than  the  weight  of 
the  in.strument.  As  much,  therelbre,  of  the  stem 
of  the  A.  must  rise  above  the  liquid  as  will 
reduce  the  weight  of  the  displaced  liquid  to 
250  grains,  or  reduce  the  volume  to  ^  of  what 
it  was  before.  If  the  stem  in  this  case  rises  to 
B,  the  volume  displaced  by  the  part  WB  is  ^  of 
the  volume  displaced  by  the  instrument  at  the 
water-point.  If  we  consider  the  whole  divided  into 
100  parts,  and  mark  li)0  at  W,  B  must  be  marked 
80,  as  the  A.  displaces  up  to  that  point  ^  of  loO; 
and  if  the  intervening  space  on  the  stem  be  divided 
into  20  equal  parts,  each  of  them  will  correspond 
with  ^i^  of  the  water-volume — viz.,  -01  of  a  cubic 
inch,  or  with  ^^Ig  of  the  weight  of  the  instrument — 
viz.,  2-0  grains.  If  the  same  scale  be  carried  above 
the  point  W,  and  the  divisions  marked  as  ascending 
from  loo,  the  A.  will  be  serviceable  likewise  for 
fluids  less  dense  than  water,  and  will  mark  the 
volumes  which  it  disj)laces  in  each  of  them.  The 
A.  thus  graduated  gives  immediately  the  volumes 
which  it  displaces  in  different  hquids;  and  from 
these,  seeing  that  it  displaces  in  every  case  a  weight 
of  liquid  equal  to  its  own,  the  specific  gravities 
may  be  calculated  according  to  the  principle  alrcadv 
stated — viz.,  that  equal  weights  of  two  different 
fluids  have  volumes  inversely  as  their  specific 
gravities.  If,  in  a  mixture  of  suljihuric  acid  and 
water,  the  A.  stands  at  90,  according  to  the  above 
principle,  90  volumes  of  the  mixture  weigh  as  much 
as  loo  of  water  ;  therefore,  its  specific  gravity  is  yj" 
or  ll.  If,  again,  in  a  mixture  of  spirits  and  water, 
it  should  stand  at  110,  lit)  volumes  of  the  mixture 
weigh  as  much  as  100  of  water,  so  tiiat  its  specific 
gravity  is  f~",  or  |^.  In  all  cases,  then,  100  is 
to  be  divided  by  the  numl)er  read  on  the  A.,  to 
determine  the  specific  gravity  of  the  liquid  in  which 
it  floats. 

The  delicacy  of  the  A.  depends  on  the  distance  of  the 
divisions  on  the  scale,  or  on  the  thinness  of  the  stem 
compared  with  the  bulbs.  An  instrument  possessing 
this  advantage  cannot  be  made  to  serve  both  for 
liquids  heavier  and  lighter  than  water,  for  the  stem 
would  be  of  an  inconvenient  length  ;  and  it  is  usual 
to  construct  two  areometers  —  one  marked  with 
the  water-point  at  the  top,  and  the  scale  descending 
to  50,  for  fluids  heavier  than  water;  and  the  other, 
with  the  water-point  at  the  bottom,  and  the  scale 
ascending  to  150,  for  fluids  lighter  than  water.  The 
scale  is  generally  marked  on  a  slip  of  paper,  which 
is  fixed  inside  the  stem.  Gay-Lussac's  A.  is  also 
known  under  the  name  of  '  volumometer.'  Although 
it  cannot  be  surpassed  either  for  accuracy  or  sim- 
plicity, it  is  much  less  used  than  other  instruments 
of  a  similar  nature  furnished  with  arbitrary  scales, 
requiring  the  aid  of  tables  to  interpret  the  readings. 
The  best  known  of  these  is  Twaddle's  A.,  used  in 
England  ;  and  Beaume's  A.,  extensively  adopted 
on  the  continent.  The  A.  with  an  equally  divided 
scale  is  a  very  ancient  instrument ;  it  was  known 
among  the  Greeks  under  the  name  of  "baryllion." 
Ou  some  areometers  the  divisions  arc  not  at  equal 
distances,  but  are  so  drawn  as  to  give  at  once,  without 
table  or  calculation,  the  specific  gravity  of  the  fluid 
in  which  they  are  placed.  Although  very  desirable, 
in  practice  they  do  not  possess  the  accuracy  of  the  A. 

383 


AREQUIPA— ARET^US. 


with  cquiilly  dividod  scales,  because  the  graduation 
of  them  is  attended  with  considerable  difficulty. 

Ko  lorni  of  A.  can  be  made  to  determine  specific 
gravities  with  perfect  accuracy,  and  such  instruments 
!ire  only  useful  where  a  ready  and  good  approxima- 
tion is  all  that  is  needed.  They  are,  in  consequence, 
employed  cliicfly  to  ascertain  the  specific  gravity  of 
the  various  li(iuors  and  solutions  which  occur  in  the 
arts  and  manufactures,  and  very  frequently  they 
are  graduated  with  reference  to  special  licpuds,  as 
spirits,  wine,  milk,  brine,  &c.  The  Alcoholometer 
or  Hydrometer  of  Sikcs  is  an  instrument  of  this 
latter  description,  and  is  in  general  use  in  the 
Excise  for  estimating  the  strength  of  spirits.  It  is 
represented  in  fig.  2.  BC  is  a  hollow  brass  ball, 
surmounted  by  a  flat  stem  AB,  and  loaded  below 
by  a  short  conical  stem  CD,  terminated  by  the 
pear-shaped  bulb  D.  It  is  accompanied  by  eight 
weights,  by  which  the  weight  of  the  instrument 
may  he  increased,  ami  the  range  of  the  scale 
extended  to  fluids  heavier  as  well  as  lighter  than 
water.  One  of  the«e  weights,  W,  is  shewn  in  the 
figure  ;  it  is  furnished  with  a  slit,  so  as  to  allow  of 
it  being  slipped  on  to  the  narrowest  part,  C,  of  the 
lower  stem.  The  stem,  AB,  is  graduated  into  11 
equal  parts,  and  thc.^e  again  into  halves;  and  the 
instrument  is  so  adjusted  that  its  indications  give 
the  volumes  of  water  that  nnist  be  added  to  or  taken 
from  lf)(»  volumes  of  the  mixture  under  examination 
to  reduce  it  to  proof-spirit  (see  Alcohol),  which  is  a 
mixture  of  nearly  equal  parts  of  water  and  alcohol. 
Thus,  if  the  A.  indicates  11  over-proof,  11  volumes 
of  water  must  be  added  in  order  to  bring  the  liquid 
down  to  proof-strength ;  and  100  gallons  of  such 
strength  would  be  reckoned  as  1 1 1  ;  100  gallons,  at 
11  under-proof,  would  in  the  same  way  be  charged 
as  89.  Very  carefully  constructed  tables  accom- 
pany the  instrument,  in  which  the  specific  gravity 
and  percentage  of  alcohol  of  different  mixtures,  at 
different  temperatures,  are  marked,  corresponding  to 
each  degree  of  the  A.  Since  the  specific  gravity  of 
alcohol  is  known,  it  might  be  thought,  that  if  that  of 
a  mixture  of  it  with  water  were  known,  the  relative 
proportions  of  each  would  also  be  known.  Such, 
however,  ia  not  the  case,  for  alcohol  and  water 
possess  a  chemical  affmity  for  each  other,  which 
causes  the  combined  volumes  of  the  two  to  measure 
less  than  the  two  volumes  separately.  Thus,  50 
volumes  of  alcohol  mixed  with  .50  volumes  of  water 
docs  not  make  lOO  volumes  of  the  mixture,  but  only 
90,  and  thereby  the  specific  gravity  of  the  mixture 
is  higlier  than  it  would  have  been  if  no  contraction 
had  taken  place.  As  the  law  of  this  contraction 
is  very  complicated,  the  relative  proportions  of 
the  two  in  a  combination  of  given  specific  gravity, 
arc  only  to  be  estimated  from  tables  founded  upon 
experimental  data. 

The  peculiar  feature  of  areometers  with  weights 
is,  that  instead  of  a  scale  they  have  only  one  mark 
on  the  stem,  to  which  the  A.  is  in  all  cases  sunk. 
One  of  the  best  known  instruments  of  this  kind  is 
the  A.  of  Nicholson.  It  consists  of  a  brass  tube, 
BC  (fig.  ,3).  about  1  inch  in  diameter,  closed  above 
and  below  by  conical  ends,  to  the  upper  of  which 
a  wire  is  fixed,  carrying  on  the  top  of  it  a  cup  A, 
capable  of  containing  the  weights  ;  and  to  the  lower, 
a  hook  is  attached,  from  which  hangs  the  cup  D. 
The  lowcT  part  of  the  cup,  D,  is  also  provided  with 
a  hook,  and  the  whole  instrument  is  kept  vertical, 
partly  by  the  weight  of  the  cup,  and  partly  by  the 
weight  of  the  ball,  E,  suspended  from  it.  On  the 
wire,  a  notch,  W,  is  made,  to  serve  as  the  mark  or 
fixed  point  to  which  the  A.  is  sunk.  The  specific 
gravities  of  liquids  are  determined  by  Nicholson's  A. 
in  the  following  way  :  The  weight  of  the  A.  itself  is 
first  ascertained — let  it  be  in  a  given  case  2000  grains 
S81 


— it  is  then  j)ut  into  water  at  the  temi)crature  (in  J'., 
and  weights  (say  50(1  grains)  put  in,  till  it  is  suidc 
to  W.  It  is  now  removed  to  the  licpiid  under 
examination  ;  and  if  the  weight  refpiired  to  sink 
the  instrument  now  to  the  standard  point  be 
only  1(J0  grains,  we  have  the  specific  gravity  of 
the  liquid  equal  to  #i|n,  or  |J.  In  both  fluids, 
the  same  volume  has  been  displaced,  and  that 
is  in  each  case  equal  to  the  weight  of  the  A. ;  but 
the  weight  of  the  A.  in  the  second  case  was 
20(tO-(-10i),  and  in  the  former,  2(M)(i-)-500  ;  hence 
the  above  result.  Nicholson's  A.  is  seldom  used  for 
finding  the  specific  gravity  of  fluids ;  its  use  is 
almost  entirely  restricted  to  ascertaining  that  of 
small  solid  substances,  as  gems  and  small  pieces  of 
minerals.  The  following  example  will  show  how 
this  is  done :  If  in  the  cup  of  the  A.  already 
mentioned,  when  placed  in  water,  the  gem  be  put, 
and  only  440  grains  be  then  necessary  to  bring  the 
instrument  to  W,  60  grains  is  manifestly  the  weight 
of  the  gem,  because  500  grains  were  needed  without 
it  to  do  the  same  thing.  Tlie  gem  is  next  placed 
in  the  lower  cup,  D,  and  if  4('>o  grains  are  now  needed 
to  sink  to  the  standard  point,  the  gem  has  thus  lost 
20  grains  of  its  weight  by  being  immersed  in  the 
water.  According  to  the  principles  of  Archimedes 
(q.  v.),  these  20  grains  are  also  the  weight  of  a 
volume  of  water  equal  to  that  of  the  gem  ;  so  the 
specific  gravity  of  the  gem  is  ^^,  or  3.  By  revers- 
ing the  cup  D,  which  is  furnished  with  perforations, 
to  allow  free  passage  to  the  air,  and  attaching  the 
weight,  E,  to  the  liandle  of  it,  the  si)ecific  gravity  of 
substances  lighter  than  water  may  also  be  deter- 
mined by  this  instrument.  The  other  forms  of 
weight-areometers  are  those  of  Fahrenheit,  Tralles, 
and  Charles.  For  the  more  accurate  determination 
of  the  specific  gravities  of  lujuids  and  solids,  see 
Specific  Gravity. 

AREQUITA,  a  term  primarily  applied  to  a 
mountain  in  the  west  CordiUera  of  the  Peruvian 
Andes,  and  secondarily  to  a  city  at  its  foot,  being 
from  this,  again,  extended  to  a  district,  a  province, 
a  department,  and  a  diocese.  1.  The  city,  which  is 
in  lat.  16'  13'  S.,  and  in  long.  76°  IS'  W.,  "is  the  third 
largest  in  Peru,  being  inferior  only  to  Lima  and 
Cuzco,  and  is  said  to  contain  30,ooO  inhabitants. 
It  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  both  with  the 
interior  and  by  sea.  Its  port  is  Islay,  one  of  the 
larger  harbors  of  the  republic.  2.  The  department 
is  bounded  N.  by  Lima  ;  E.  by  Ayacucho,  Cuzco,  and 
Puno ;  S.  by  Moquega,  which,  along  with  it,  forms 
the  diocese ;  and  W.  by  the  Pacilic.  It  contains 
137,509  inhabitants,  and  is  subdivided  into  seven 
provinces.  Like  nearly  the  whole  of  the  maritime 
region  of  Peru,  it  is  generally  arid  and  sterile. 
3.  The  mountain  is  volcanic,  of  the  form  of  a  trun- 
cated cone,  and  of  the  height  of  2i>,S20  feet.  Its 
neighbourhood  is  subject  to  earthquakes. 

ARfiS.     See  Mars. 

ARET^E'US,  a  famous  physician  of  Cappadocia, 
who  flourished  in  the  latter  half  of  the  1st,  and  in 
the  beginning  of  the  2d  century  after  Christ.  He  is 
considered  to  rank  next  to  Hippocrates  in  the  skill 
with  which  he  treated  diseases ;  but  he  did  not,  in 
every  instance,  follow  the  practice  of  the  "Father  of 
Medicine."  He  was  less  attentive  to  "  the  natural 
actions  "  of  the  system,  which  he  frequently  counter- 
acted, if  he  thought  it  desirable  ;  administered  active 
purgatives  copiously,  employed  narcotics,  and  did 
not  object  to  bleeding.  He  was,  in  fact,  noted  for 
his* total  want  of  professional  bigotry;  and  hence, 
not  committing  himself  to  any  particular  set  of 
opinions,  in  his  accuracy  in  the  detail  of  symptoms 
and  the  diagnosis  of  disease,  he  is  superior  to  most  of 
the  ancient  physicians.     His  great  work,  written  in 


ARETHUSA— ARGALT. 


singularly  elcgiint  and  concise  Ionic  Greek,  is  divided 
into  two"  parts.  The  first  four  books  treat  of  the 
causes  and  sj-mptonis  of  acute  and  chronic  dis- 
eases ;  the  second,  the  cure  of  the  same.  They  are 
almost  in  a  state  of  complete  preservation,  and  have 
been  translated  into  various  European  languages, 
besides  having  been  frequently  edited  in  the 
original.  The  finest  edition  is  the  Oxford  one  of 
1723,  by  J.  Wigan  ;  a  German  translation  appeared 
at  Vienna  (1790—1802),  and  an  English  by  T.  F. 
Reynolds,  Lond.  1837. 

ARETIIU'SA.     See  Alpiieius. 
ARETIXIAN"    SYLLABLES     are    the     syllables 
id,  re,  mi,  fa,  sol,  la,  used  by  Guido  d'Arezzo  for  his 
system  of  hexachords. 

ARETI'NO,  Pie'tko,  an  Italian  author  of  the 
16th  c,  was  the  natural  son  of  a  gentleman  named 
Luigi  Bacci,  and  was  born  at  Arezzo,  in  Tuscany,  on 
the  20th  of  March  1492.  Banished  from  his  native 
town,  he  went  to  Perugia,  where  he  wrought  as  a 
bookbinder,  and  gathered  up  a  few  scraps  of  learn- 
ing, until,  seized  with  a  desire  of  becoming  famous, 
he  abandoned  his  occupation,  and  wandered  through 
Italy  in  the  service  of  various  noblemen.  At  Rome, 
he  distinguished  himself  by  his  wit,  impudence,  and 
talents,  and  secured  even  the  papal  patronage, 
which,  however,  he  subsequently  lost  by  writing 
licentious  sonnets.  A.  now  Avent  to  the  Medicean 
court,  where  John  de'  Medici  grew  so  fond  of  him 
that  he  shared  his  bed  with  the  adventurer,  and  even 
procured  him  an  opportunity  of  ingratiating  himself 
with  Francis  I.  at  Milan  in  1524.  A  few  years  later, 
he  settled  at  Venice,  where  he  also  acquired  power- 
ful friends.  The  Bishop  of  Vicenza  not  only  soothed 
the  irritation  of  the  pope  against  A.,  but  also  recom- 
mended him  to  the  Emperor  Ciiarles  V.  The  latter, 
as  well  as  his  chivalrous  rival,  Francis,  and  other 
great  persons,  pensioned  the  fortunate  wit,  besides 
enriching  him  with  splendid  presents.  He  likewise 
obtained  considerable  sums  for  his  literary  efforts. 

Nature  had  undoubtedly  gifted  A.  with  some  fine 
qualities,  but  these  were  vitiated  by  his  love  of 
sensual  gratifications.  His  death  in  1556  accorded 
with  the  character  of  his  life.  It  is  said  that  while 
laughing  heartily  at  some  trifling  adventure  of  one 
of  his  abandoned  sisters,  he  fell  from  a  stool,  and 
was  killed  on  the  spot.  His  poetical  works  include 
five  comedies  and  a  tragedy.  The  former  are  full 
of  wit  and  genuine  comic  humour  ;  the  latter  is  not 
without  merit.  His  Sonetti  Lussnriosi  have  been 
translated  into  French  under  the  title  of  Academie 
deft  Dames.  Besides  these,  he  wrote  a  number  of 
other  pieces,  some  of  which  have  not  been  published. 
His  satire  procured  for  him  the  name  of  '  the 
Scourge  of  Princes  ;'  but  it  seems  clear  that  he  was 
equally  well  fitted  to  be  their  sycophant.  Although 
the  very  impersonation  of  licentiousness,  he  had 
nevertheless  the  impudence  to  publish  some  books 
of  a  devotional  kind,  with  the  view  of  obtaining  the 
favour  of  the  pope. 

ARETI'NO,  Spinello,  an  early  Italian  painter  of 
great  genius,  was  born  at  Arezzo  in  1316,  or,  accord- 
ing to  others,  in  1328.  He  studied  under  Jacopo  del 
Casentino  ;  but  before  he  had  attained  his  majority, 
he  had  surpassed  his  master  in  the  vigour  and  liveli- 
ness both  of  his  conceptions  and  colouring.  His 
reputation  attained  its  full  bloom  after  he  went  to 
Florence,  where  he  painted  in  Fresco,  in  the  chapel 
of  St.  Maria  Maggiore,  several  incidents  in  the  life 
of  the  Virgin  and  of  St.  Antonio  Abate.  The 
monastery  of  San  Miniato,  near  Florence,  contains 
to  the  present  day  a  few  of  his  frescoes.  He  also 
adorned  the  monasteries  of  San  Bernardo  at  Arezzo, 
and  Monte  Oliveto  near  Florence.  Vasari  thought 
that  the  finest  works  of  A.  were  those  which  he 
25 


executed  for  the  Campo  Santo  at  Pisa,  illustrating 
the  life  of  San  Ranieri.  Of  these,  however,  we  have 
only  prints,  and  cannot  therefore  judge  satisfac- 
torily. His  principal  works,  still  remaiidng,  are 
those  from  the  life  of  Pope  Alexander  III.  in  the 
town-hall  of  Siena.     He  died  in  1408. 

Throughout  all  Italy,  A.  was  greatly  admired  for 
his  invention,  the  grace  and  simplicity  with  which 
he  arranged  his  figures,  and  the  finish  of  his  style. 
His  Madonnas  possessed  a  remarkable  sweetness  of 
expression  ;  and  his  colouring  was  in  most  cases  bold 
and  beautiful.     Vasari  prefers  him  to  Giotto. 

AREZZO  (Aretium),  the  chief  city  of  the 
Tuscan  province  of  A.,  is  situated  in  a  fertile  valley 
near  the  confluence  of  the  Chiana  with  the  Arno, 
lat.  43°  27'  N.,  long.  11°  52'  E.  It  is  38  miles  E.S.E. 
from  Florence.  A.  is  peihaps  the  oldest  town  in 
Tuscany,  and  formed  one  of  tiie  twelve  cities  of  the 
ancient  Etruscans.  It  was  devastated  by  Sylla 
during  the  Social  War;  and,  like  many  other  Italian 
cities,  was  sacked  by  the  Goths  when  they  burst  into 
the  peninsula.  During  the  contest  of  the  Guelphs 
and  GhibeUines,  in  a  later  age,  it  became  subject 
to  Florence,  whose  troops  defeated  those  of  A. 
at  the  battle  of  Camaldino,  in  which  the  poet 
Dante  took  part.  Arezzo  contains  10,000  inhabit- 
ants ;  but  its  extensive  walls  and  numerous  churches 
bear  record  of  its  more  flourishing  period,  when 
it  had  30,000.  The  Piazza  Grande,  the  Fieve, 
an  old  church  founded  on  the  site  of  a  heathen 
temple,  and  the  cathedral,  which,  like  almost  all 
the  other  churches,  has  an  unfinished  facade,  are 
the  principal  public  buildings.  The  cathedral  has 
a  splendid  high  altar  in  marble  by  Giovanni 
Pisano  ;  and  the  several  churches  contain  fine  speci- 
mens of  the  old  Tuscan  school  of  painting.  These 
ecclesiastical  decorations  are  contrasted  with  the 
general  aspect  of  the  city,  which  has  dark  and  dirty 
streets.  Its  industry  is  at  present  at  a  very  low 
ebb,  there  being  few  or  no  manufactures,  and  its 
people  are  not  generally  favourites  in  Italy  ;  but 
perhaps  no  city  of  its  size  ever  produced  a  greater 
number  of  celebrated  men,  among  whom  may  be  men- 
tioned— Mascenas,  the  famous  patron  of  letters  in  the 
time  of  the  Emperor  Augustus;  Petrarch;  Pietro 
Aretino  ;  Guido  de  A.,  inventor  of  the  gamut  ; 
Leonardo  de  A.,  the  historian  ;  Cesalpino,  the 
botanist;  Redi,  the  physician  ;  Pope  Julius  III. ;  the 
notorious  Marshal  d'Ancre  ;  and  Vasari,  author  of 
Lives  of  the  Painters.  Michael  Angelo  was  also 
born  in  the  vicinity  of  A.  The  province  of  A.  con- 
tains 1268  square  miles,  with  a  pop.  (1864)of  222,654. 
The  soil  is  fertile  in  corn,  wine,  and  oil. 

A'RGALA.     See  Adjutant. 

A'RGALI  {Ovis  Amnion),  the  great  wild  sheep  of 
Siberia  and  Central  Asia.  It  is  found  from  Kam- 
tchatka  to  the  Himalaya  Mountains,  where,  however, 
it  is  only  seen  in  the  more  elevated  regions.     '  We 


Argali. 

came  suddenly,'  says  Dr.  Hooker  in  his  Himalayan 
Journal.  '  upon  a  flock  of  gigantic  wild  sheep,  feed- 
ing on  scanty  tufts  of  dried  sedge  and  grass  ;  there 
were  twenty-five  of  these  enormous  animals,  of  whose 
dimensions  the  term  sheep  gives  no  idea ;  they  are 

385 


ARGAN— ARGEXS. 


vciv  long-legged,  stand  as  liigli  as  a  calf,  and  liave 
immense  horns,  so  large  that  the  fox  is  said  to  take 
up  his  abode  in  their  hollows  when  detached  and 
bleaching  on  the  barren  mountains  of  Tibet.'  The 
horns  of  the  male  are  nearly  4  feet  long,  and  14 
inches  in  circumference  at  the  base,  where  they  are 
triangular.  The  general  colour  is  fulvous  gray, 
while  beneath,  ■with  a  whitish  disk  around  the  tail. 
The  wool  is  concealed  by  hair.  The  name  A.  is 
3Iong6lian,  and  was  adopted  by  Pallas.  A  similar 
but  smaller  species  is  also  found  on  the  Himalaya 
Mountains.  The  Rocky  Mountain  Sheep,  or  Big- 
horn, is  sometimes  called  the  American  A.  See 
Sheep. 

ARGAX  (Arfffiriia  siderort/lon,  St/deroxj/lon 
gpino.tum  of  Linnaeus),  a  low  spiny  evergreen  treo  of 
the  natural  order  Snpofacefe,  a  native  of  the  southern 
parts  of  the  kingdom  of  Marocco,  bearing  an  ovate 
drupe  about  the  size  of  a  plum,  dotted  with  white, 
and  full  of  a  white  milky  juice.  The  Moors  extract 
an  oil  from  the  fruit,  which  they  use  with  their  food. 
ARGAND,  AiME,  physician  and  chemist,  was 
born  at  Geneva  about  the  middle  of  the  ISth  c. 
He  was  the  inventor  of  the  well-known  Arr/nrid  lamp. 
The  chief  difficulties  that  attended  the  use  of  lamps 
as  a  source  of  light  were — first,  in  procuring  the 
complete  combustion  of  the  oil,  so  as  to  keep  the 
flame  from  smoking  ;  and  second,  in  preventing  the 
level  of  the  oil  in  the  reservoir  from  sinking  as  the 
combustion  goes  on.  The  round  cotton-wick,  used 
ill  the  old  simple  form  of  lamp,  was  always  attended 
with  smoke  and  smell.  Tlie  oils  and  fats  are  exceed- 
ingly rich  in  carbon,  containing  70  to  80  per  cent, 
of  that  element,  and  only  10  to  12  of  hydrogen. 
The  round  thick  column,  tlien,  of  oil-vapour  rising 
from  the  wick  of  an  old-fashioned  lamp,  presented 
too  little  extent  of  surface  to  the  air;  the  oxygen  of 
all  the  air  that  could  get  access  was  chiefly  taken 
up  in  burning  the  hydrogen, 
and  a  large  proportion  of  the 
carbon  ascended  in  the  burnt 
air  as  smoke.  A.'s  improvement 
was  that  he  made  the  wick  in 
the  form  of  a  ring.  The  flame 
thus  became  a  hollow  cylinder 
with  a  current  of  air  ascending 
through  the  inside,  so  that  the 
burning  surface  was  doubled.  It 
would  appear,  however,  that  the 
lamp  did  not  satisfy  the  expectations  of  A.,  till  his 
younger  brother  accidentally  discovered  the  effect 
of  a  glass  cylinder,  as  a  chimney  over  the  flame, 
by  which  the  flame  was  steadied,  a  draught  created, 
and  the  greatest  possible  amount  of  light  yielded. 

A.  was  soon  involved  in  a  dispute  with  one  Lange 
of  Paris  regarding  the  originality  of  his  invention. 
He  went  thither  to  vindicate  his  claim,  but  rather 
than  risk  the  chances  of  a  lawsuit,  he  consented  to 
share  the  honour,  and  a  patent  was  obtained  by 
which  Lange  and  A.  alone  were  authorised  to  make 
and  sell  the  new  lamps  in  France  for  15  years.  The 
French  Revolution,  however,  destroyed  their  privi- 
lege, and  A.  retired  to  England.  After  some  time, 
he  returned  to  his  native  country,  a  victim  to 
melancholy  and  fantastic  humours,  and  died  on  the 
24th  October  1SG3. 

ARGAU'M,  a  village  in  the  territory  of  the 
Nizam.  It  is  in  lat.  21°  2'  N.,  and  in  long.  77"  2'  E., 
on  the  route  between  Ellichpore  and  Aurungabad. 
Its  single  claim  to  notice  is  that,  on  2Sth  November 
1803,  about  two  months  after  the  battle  of  Assaye, 
Major-general  Wellesley  here  gained  another  victory 
over  the  Mahrattas.  To  commemorate  this  action, 
a  medal  was  struck  in  1851,  about  a  year  before 
the  death  of  the  illustrious  conqueror. 
386 


Argand  Burner. 


A'K(JEL,  or  A'K(;iIEL  {SolenoMevima  A.,  or 
Ci/nanc/iian  A.),  a  plant  of  the  natural  order  Ancle- 
piadaccie,  a  native  of  Arabia  and  of  the  north  of 
Africa,  deserving  of  notice  only  because  of  the  fre- 
quent use  of  its  leaves  for  the  adulteration  of  senna. 
They  are  lanceolate  and  leathery,  and  may  readily 
be  distinguished  from  genuine  senna  leaves  by  their 
texture,  their  being  downy,  their  great  heaviness, 
the  comparative  absence  of  veins,  and  the  symmetry 
of  their  sides,  the  sides  of  the  true  senna-leaves 
being  unequal.  They  are  acrid,  and  cause  sickness 
and  griping,  but  a  difference  of  opinion  subsists  as  to 
their  possessing  purgative  properties. 

ARGELANDER,  Fkiedrich  Wiliielm  Acgust, 
one  of  the  most  eminent  astronomers  of  our  time, 
was  born,  March  22,  1799,  at  Memel.  He  studied 
at  Kiinigsberg,  where  the  science  of  finance  first 
attracted  him  ;  but  he  was  subsequently  drawn  away 
to  that  of  astronomy  by  the  lectures  of  Bessel,  by 
whom  he  was  employed  to  make  calculations  and 
ol)servations.  In  ]82n,  he  was  appointed  assistant  to 
Bessel  in  the  Kiinigsberg  Observatory,  and  in  1823 
succeeded  Walbcck  as  astronomer  at  the  observatory 
of  Abo,  in  Finland.  Here  he  commenced  a  series  of 
observations  on  the  fixed  stars  which  have  a  per- 
ceptible '  proper  motion.'  His  studies  were  unfortu- 
nately interrupted  by  a  fire  which  destroyed  the 
observatory;  but  after  a  time,  he  resumed  them  in 
a  new  observatory  at  Helsingfors,  and  published  a 
catalogue  of  not  less  than  6tK)  stars  having  '  proper 
motions.'  This  contained  the  results  of  his  obser- 
vations at  Abo,  and  received  from  the  Academy 
of  St.  Petersburg  the  great  Demidov  prize.  After 
removing  to  the  university  of  Bonn  in  1837,  A.  pub- 
lished his  Urniwinetria  Nova  (Berlin,  1843),  con- 
taining celestial  charts  of  the  fixed  stars  seen  in  our 
hemisphere  with  the  naked  eye  ;  also  (in  1846)  his 
Astronomical  Obxervations,  containing  the  results  of 
an  examination  of  the  northern  heavens  from  46°  to 
8(t°  declination,  and  giving  the  positions  of  22,000 
stars.  For  a  considerable  number  of  years,  A.  has 
been  engaged  in  a  series  of  observations  on  the 
changes  of  tight  in  variable  stars.  He  has  also  de- 
monstrated the  theory  that  the  solar  system  has  a 
progressive  motion  in  space. 

ARGE'M0X6,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Pap>avcracr{e,  distinguished  l)y  4 — 6  petals,  4 — 7 
radiating  concave  stigmas,  and  an  obovatc  capsule, 
opening  by  valves  at  the  point.  A.  Mexicana,  some' 
times  called  Mexican  Poppy,  is  an  annual  herbaceous 
plant  with  large  yellow  flowers,  and  sessile,  waved 
and  siiniated,  spiny  leaves,  variegated  with  white.  It 
is  a  native  of  Mexico  and  of  the  southern  parts  of  the 
United  States,  and  is  now  also  common  in  many 
tropical  and  sub-tropical  countries,  in  which  it  has 
been  naturalised.  Its  seeds  are  narcotic,  purgative, 
and  diuretic,  exhibiting  in  a  strong  degree  those 
qualities  of  the  order  of  which  the  seeds  of  the  poppy 
are  devoid.  They  are  used  in  the  West  Indies  as  a 
suVjstitute  for  ipecacuanha,  also  instead  of  opium ; 
and  the  juice  of  the  plant  is  employed  as  a  remedy 
for  ophthalmia. — This  ])lant  is  not  unfrequently  to 
be  seen  in  flower-borders  in  Britain  ;  but  in  the 
northern  parts,  at  least,  the  seed  is  generally  sown  in 
a  hot-bed, 

ARGEXS,  Jean  Baptistk  pe  Boter,  Marquis  d', 
born  at  Aix,  in  Provence,  June  24,  1704.  He  was 
originally  intended  for  a  learned  career  ;  but,  from  a 
love  of  adventure,  he  entered  the  army  at  fifteen. 
Fascinated  by  a  certain  actress,  he  eloped  with  her 
to  Spain,  hut  was  captured,  and  brought  back  to 
Provence.  In  spite  of  his  glaring  breach  of  disci- 
pline, he  had  the  good  fortune  to  be  employed  in 
the  French  embassy  to  Constantinople,  and  on  his 
return,  re-entered   the   army.      Being   disabled  by 


AKGEXSOLA— ARGEXTIXE  REPUBLIC. 


accidents  in  military  service,  and  disinherited  by  Lis 
father,  he  tried  liis  fortune  in  authorship,  and  by 
his  Lcttrcs  Juives,  Lettrcs  Chinoixes,  Lcttres  Cabalis- 
tiqnrs,  and  Jm  Philosophie  dii  Bon  Sens  (London, 
1737),  attracted  the  notice  of  Frederick  IL,  then 
Crown-prince  of  Prussia,  and  became  a  favourite  at 
the  court  of  Prussia  Avhen  Frederick  came  to  the 
throne.  The  king  appointed  him  chamberlain,  and 
a  director  of  the  Art  Academy  at  Berlin,  with  a 
salary  of  6000  livres.  He  was  a  constant  associate 
of  Frederick,  who  liked  exceedingly  his  frank  and 
Tiracious  character,  but  used  to  tease  him  on 
account  of  his  hypochondriacal  fits.  When  almost  a 
sexagenarian,  he  renewed  the  adventures  of  his 
youth  by  again  falling  a  victim  to  the  charms  of  an 
actress.  Mademoiselle  Cochois,  whom  he  married 
without  Frederick's  permission.  This  and  other 
circumstances  irritated  the  despotic  monarch,  who 
deprived  A.  of  his  pension.  The  latter  now  returned 
to  Provence,  and  died  at  Toulon,  January  11,  1771. 
His  numerous  writings,  but  cs,)ecially  his  Histoire 
<le  PA'tiprit  Humain^  Lcttres  et  Mei/toires,  and  those 
above  mentioned,  once  enjoyed  a  considerable  repu- 
tation, 

ARGE'NSOLA,  Lupercio  and  Bartolome 
Leonardo  de,  two  of  the  first  among  the  Spanish 
poets  in  the  'golden  age,'  were  born  at  Bar- 
fa  ustro,  m  Aragon  ;  the  former  in  1565,  the  latter  in 
1566.  They  studied  at  the  imiversity  of  Hnesca. 
Lui)ercio  afterwards  went  to  Madrid,  while  Barto- 
lome entered  the  church.  In  character  and  for- 
tune, however,  they  were  closely  united  through- 
out the  whole  of  their  career.  Both  were 
patronised  by  Maria  of  Austria,  who  appointed 
the  one  her  chaplain,  and  the  other  her  private 
secretary.  The  latter  was  subsequently  made 
chamberlain  to  the  Archduke  Albert  of  Austria, 
and  Philip  III.  appointed  him  historiographer  of 
Aragon.  Bartolome  was  employed  by  the  Count 
de  Lemos  to  edit  the  Conquista  de  las  Molucas 
(Madrid,  1609)  ;  and  when  this  nobleman  was 
appointed  as  viceroy  of  Naples,  both  the  brothers 
A.,  who  had  acquired  fame  as  poets,  attended  his 
court  at  Xaples,  where  Lupercio,  who  then  filled  the 
office  of  Secretary  of  State,  died  in  1613.  Bartolome 
returned  to  Spain  with  the  viceroy  in  1616,  and 
occupied  the  position  formerly  held  by  his  brother, 
as  historiographer  of  the  kingdom  of  Aragon,  where 
he  proceeded  with  the  work  left  unfinished  by 
Lupercio — a  continuation  of  Zurita's  Annals  of  Ara- 
gon. While  engaged  in  this  work,  he  died,  February 
26,  1631.  The  collected  poems  of  the  two  brothers 
were  first  published  in  1634,  by  the  son  of  Lupercio, 
and  passed  through  several  editions.  These  poems 
{Rbnas)  consist  of  epistles,  odes,  sonnets,  and  satires, 
and  are  singularly  alike  in  character.  They  are 
itnitative  of  the  style  of  the  Latin  poets  (especially 
Horace,  for  which  reason  the  brothers  have  been 
styled  '  the  Spanish  Horaces'),  and  display  more  care 
and  polish  than  originality  of  invention  or  richness 
of  fancy.  Bartolome  A.,  as  a  prose-writer,  is  reck- 
oned among  the  Spanish  classics.  The  style  of  his 
continuation  of  Zurita  is  a  great  advance  on  the 
original,  especially  in  correctness. 

ARGENSON,  Marc  Pierre,  Comte  d',  a 
celebrated  French  statesman,  was  bora  in  1696. 
After  holding  a  number  of  inferior  offices,  he 
succeeded  M.  de  Bretueil  as  Secretary  of  State 
to  the  war  minister  in  1742.  On  the  death  of 
Cardinal  Fleury,  in  the  following  year,  the  whole 
care  of  the  war  then  raging  devolved  upon  him. 
He  found  matters  in  the  most  deplorable  condi- 
tion. The  French  troops,  decimated  by  sword  and 
disease,  were  in  full  retreat  across  the  Rhine ;  the 
Austriaas  already  swarmed  in  Alsace  and  Lorraine, 


and  the  very  political  existence  of  Franco  was 
imperilled  ;  but  the  vigorous  efTorts  of  A.,  and  his  sin- 
gularly lucky  choice  of  generals,  completely  crianged 
the  fortunes  of  the  war  in  the  course  of  one  year. 
The  theatre  of  strife  was  transferred  to  the  Low 
Countries ;  and  after  the  victories  of  Fontenoy  and 
Lawfeldt,  the  capture  of  Bergen-op-Zoom,  and  the 
investment  of  Maestricht,  peace  was  secured  by  the 
famous  treaty  of  Aix-la-chapelle,  signed  in  1748. 
A.,  however,  did  not  remain  inactive.  He  built 
new  fortresses  and  repaired  old  ones,  established  the 
E'cole  Mllitaire  in  1751,  and,  by  various  measures, 
sought  to  keep  alive  the  military  ardour  and  spirit 
of  the  nation.  He  was  likewise  an  illustrious  patron 
of  literature.  Diderot  and  D'Alembert  dedicated  to 
him  their  great  £nci/clopedle.  He  was  the  friend  of 
Voltaire,  whose  fellow-student  he  had  been,  and  fur- 
nished him  with  materials  for  his  Siecle  de  Lords  XIV. 
On  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  again  in  1756,  his 
valuable  services  were  neglected,  and  next  year  he 
was  deprived  of  the  office,  and  exiled  to  his  estate  of 
Ormes,  where  he  spent  six  dreary  years.  It  is  sup- 
posed that  this  calamity  befell  him  through  the  mach- 
inations of  Madame  Pompadour,  his  worst  enemy. 
On  her  decease,  he  returned  to  Paris,  where  he  died 
in  1764. 

A'RGEXT,  the  French  word  for  silver,  is  always 
used  in  English  heraldry  to  eignify  that  metal.  In 
engraving  shields,  it  is  left  white. 

ARGE'NTEUS  CODEX.     See  Ulfilas. 

A'RGENTINE  (^Arr/entina),  a  genus  of  small  fishes 
of  the  family  SalmonUkc,  of  which  one  is  rarely  found 
on  the  British  shores,  and  two  or  three  are  found  in 
the  Mediterranean.  They  are  chiefly  remarkable  for 
the  resplendent  silvery  lustre  of  their  sides,  and  the 
abundance  of  tiacre,  the  substance  used  in  making 
artificial  pearls,  with  which  their  air-bladder  is  exter- 
nally loaded.  It  consists  of  a  coat  of  silvery  fibres. 
Upon  account  of  it,  they  are  sought  after.  They  are 
commonly  taken  in  nets  along  with  anchovies  or  sar- 
dines. 

A'RGENTINE  REPUBLIC,  the  confederation 
of  the  Rio  de  La  Plata,  or  River  of  Silver,  South 
America — -the  Latinised  epithet  and  the  Spanish  term 
being  merely  copy  and  original  of  one  and  the  same 
misnomer.  This  confederation  may  be  described, 
accurately  enough  for  the  present  purpose,  as  ex- 
tending in  S.  lat.  between  22°  and  41°,  and  W.  long, 
between  57°  and  7o°.  In  addition,  however,  to  the 
thirteen  confederated  provinces  themselves,  these 
limits  comprise  Buenos  Ayres,  which,  separated  in 
1853,  was  re-united  to  the  republic  in  1859.  Includ- 
ing Buenos  Ayres,  the  whole  country,  constituting 
nearly  a  rectangle  of  19°  of  lat.  by  13°  of  long.,  may 
be  estimated  to  contain  rather  less  than  1,100,000 
square  miles ;  so  that,  after  deducting  200,000  as 
the  computed  area  of  Buenos  Ayres  alone,  there 
will  remain  for  the  thirteen  provinces  about 
900,000  square  miles — a  sum-total  of  which  falls 
somewhat  short  of  the  generally  received  aggregate. 
This  vast  surface,  7^  times  the  extent  of  the  British 
Isles,  contains  only  874,000  inhabitants,  being  not 
quite  an  inhabitant  to  a  square  mile.  This  popula- 
tion is  said  to  be  thus  distributed  among  the  fourteen 
provinces : 


Province. 
Cordova, 
Catamarca, 
Corrientes, 
Entre  Rios, 
Jujuy, 
Salta, 

Mendoza,     . 
Rioja, 


Capital. 
Cordova, 
Catamarca, 
Conception, 
Parana, 
Jujuv,    . 
Salta', 
Mendoza, 
Rioia. 


Popnlation. 
.   140,000 

97,000 

.     85,000 

107,000 

.     40,000 

80,000 
.     58,000 

40,000 

387 


ARGENTLVE  REPUBLIC— ARGES. 


Province. 
San  Ja<^o  del  P^stcro, 
Sun  Juan, 
Santa  Fe, 
San  Luis, 
Tucaman, 
Buenos  Ayres, 


Capital. 
San  .Tagf*, 
San  Juan, 
Santa  Fc, 
San  Luis, 
Tucaman, 
B.  Ayies, 


Population. 
90,000 
70,000 
4.5,000 
58,000 
100,000 
450,000 


The  A.  R.,  as  a  whole,  is  bounded  on  the  W.  by 
Chili,  on  the  N.  by  Bolivia,  on  the  E.  by  Para<;uay, 
Brazil,  Uruguay  or  Banda  Oriental,  and  Atlantic 
Oeean,  and  S.  by  Patagonia,  on  about  the  40th 
parallel.  Excepting  the  almost  purely  Indian 
districts  to  the  west  of  Buenos  Ayrcs,  it  lies  chiefly 
in  the  basin  of  the  Rio  de  La  Plata,  embracing 
much  the  larger  lialf  of  the  same.  Mountains 
abound  in  the  north-west ;  and  elevated  ranges 
are  found  also  in  Eutre  Rios,  which  is  situated, 
as  its  name  implies,  between  the  Parana  and  the 
Uruguay.  But,  with  these  exceptions,  nearly  the 
■whole  country  presents  boundless  plains,  covered 
alternately  with  rich  pasturage  and  gigantic  thistles. 
The  climate  and  productions  vary  considerably — 
being  tropical  and  temperate  respectively  to  the  north 
and  south  of  Corrientes  (in  27^  27'  X.  hit.).  Agricul- 
ture, however,  of  every  description  is  very  backward — 
less,  ])crhaps,  than  , ,,',  ,y  of  the  surface  being  under 
cultivation.  The  rearing,  in  fact,  of  live-stock  is 
the  grand  business  of  the  country.  Jlillions  of 
cattle  wander  at  will  across  the  plains,  or  arc  kept 
on  breeding-estates  of  vast  extent ;  and  likewise 
of  nmles  and  horses  there  are  immense  bands. 
Besides  the  Rio  de  La  Plata,  which  is  rather  an 
estuary  than  a  river,  and  its  far-reaching  afflu- 
ents, the  hydrography  of  the  A.  R.  comprises  the 
head-waters  of  sonic  southern  streams,  which  fall 
into  the  open  Atlantic,  such  as  the  Rio  Colorado, 
the  Rio  Negro,  kc. ;  and  along  the  west  border, 
under  the  shadow,  as  it  were,  of  the  Andes, 
salt-lakes  are  common.  In  connection,  doubtless, 
with  this  feature  in  the  hydrography,  mines  of 
rock-salt  exist,  and  salt  here  aiul  there  abundantly 
encrusts  the  plains,  both  to  the  satisfaction  and 
benefit  of  the  roaming  herds.  Tiie  names  of  the 
country  and  its  estuary,  as  indicating  the  presence 
of  silver,  have  been  already  characterised  as  mis- 
nomers ;  and  though  mines  of  otlicr  minerals — such 
as  sulphur  and  alum — are  found  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  Andes,  yet  few,  if  any,  of  them  are 
wrought. 

In  1515,  Juan  Diaz  da  Solis,  while  searching 
for  a  passage  into  the  Great  South  Sea  newly  seen 
by  Balboa,  entered  the  Rio  de  La  Plata.  In  1526, 
Sebastian  Cabot,  son  of  the  discoverer  of  Newfound- 
land, penetrated  nearly  to  the  confluence  of  the 
Parana  and  the  Paraguay,  being  arrested  by  the 
rapids,  which  afterwards  gave  name  to  Corrientes. 
In  1535,  Buenos  Ayrcs  was  founded,  to  command, 
though  indirectly,  the  most  practicable  channel  of 
the  only  outlet  of  the  country,  a  city  which,  in 
conjunction  with  its  own  colony  of  Monte  A^'ideo, 
on  the  opposite  bank,  has  virtually  monopolised 
the  history  of  a  region  equal  in  extent  to  Western 
Europe.  Gradually  other  cities  were  planted,  partly 
by  colonists  from  Spain,  and  partly  by  adventurers 
from  Peru,  generally  giving  each  its  own  name  to 
its  own  province  ;  and  the  grand  staples  of  the 
country — horses  and  cattle — had  been  largely  intro- 
duced before  1552.  Down  to  1775,  the  basin  of  the 
Rio  de  La  Plata  was  a  dependency  of  the  vieeroyalty 
of  Lima  In  that  year,  however,  was  erected  the 
vieeroyalty  of  Buenos  Ayres,  which,  to  the  basin 
in  question,  added  Bolivia,  under  the  name  of 
Upper  Peru,  thus  embracing  the  head-waters  of 
the  Amazon,  and  also  most  of  the  plateau  of 
Titicaca.  The  year  1806  ushered  in  a  new  order 
388 


of  things.  Spain,  as  an  ally  of  France,  lieing 
then  at  war  with  England,  both  Buenos  Ayrcs 
and  Monte  Video  were  occupied  by  the  English 
— a  change  whicli,  brief  as  was  its  duration,  virtu- 
ally sowed  the  seeds  of  revolution.  The  colonists 
bad  felt  the  inconvenience  of  belonging  to  a  state 
wliich  left  them,  in  a  great  measure,  to  defend 
themselves ;  they  had  successfully  tried  their 
strength  against  a  foe  moie  i)owerrul  than  their 
own  masters ;  and  they  had  been  encouraged  not 
less  Ijy  the  sayings,  than  by  the  doings,  of  their 
invaders  to  assert  their  independence.  These 
influences  were,  in  fact,  instantaneously  exemplified. 
The  triumphant  militia,  after  deposing  and  expelling 
the  legitimate  viceroy  for  cowardice,  elected  in 
his  stead  the  French  officer  who  had  led  them  to 
victory.  Thus  bad  the  vieeroyalty  of  Buenos  Ayrcs 
become  peculiarly  ripe  for  taking  its  share  in  the 
outbreak,  which  Napoleon's  dethronement  of  the 
Bourbons,  in  the  spring  of  1808,  almost  immediately 
occasioned  throughout  Spanish  America.  Neither 
the  revolutionary  struggles,  nor  the  intestine  broils 
that  have  been  almost  without  interruption,  are 
entitled  to  special  notice  in  this  article,  inasmuch 
as  they  will  more  naturally  fall  under  the  heads  of 
such  sections  of  the  vieeroyalty  as  no  longer  form 
part  of  the  A.  R.,  Bolivia,  and  Uruguay  or  Banda 
Oriental. 

Two  general  remarks,  however,  on  the  subject 
may  not  be  out  of  place.  The  struggles  of  inde- 
pendence, at  least  within  the  purely  Argentine 
provinces  of  the  vieeroyalty,  terminated  in  181G — 
sooner  than  in  any  other  division  of  Spanish 
America.  Again,  the  intestine  broils,  beyond  the 
example  even  of  Spanish  republics,  have  been 
aggravated  by  peculiar  elements  of  discord.  The 
population,  consisting  chiefly  of  hunters  and  herds- 
men of  mixed  race,  is  always  as  ready  for  rapine 
and  bloodslied  as  it  is  indiflerent  to  law  and  order; 
the  boundless  interior  has  a  standing  feud  with 
the  narrow  sea-board,  which  shuts  it  out  from  the 
ocean  ;  the  Banda  Oriental  has  been  a  bone  of 
contention  between  the  Brazilians  and  the  Argen- 
tines; while  England  and  France,  with  a  view  to 
the  freedom  of  cunnnerce,  have  thrown  their  weight 
in  favour  of  its  separate  and  independent  existence. 
But  beyond,  perhaps,  all  these  grounds  of  strife,  have 
ijcen  the  mutual  jealousies  of  Buenos  Ayres  and 
Monte  Video.  While  the  latter  enjoys  easier  access 
to  the  Atlantic,  the  former  has  long  commanded  a 
more  practicable  channel  to  the  vast  country  behind 
and  above.  Recently,  however,  Buenos  Ayres  seems 
to  have  lost  something  of  its  superiority  through 
the  explorations  of  the  Americans.  The  following 
passage  is  from  the  pen  of  Lieutenant  Page  of  the 
Waterwitch :  '  We  have  discovered  also  a  new 
chamiel  between  the  island  Martin  Garcia  and 
the  Banda  Oriental  of  two  feet  more  water  than 
the  old  channel  contains.  The  importance  attached 
to  this  discovery  is  not  confined  to  the  greater 
depth  of  water  in  the  new  channel,  but  it  assumes 
a  political  character.  Instead  of  Buenos  Ayres  pos- 
sessing, as  she  now  claims,  exclusive  jurisdiction 
over  the  entrance  of  the  rivers  Parana  and  Uruguay, 
she  has,  over  the  new  channel,  only  concurrent  juris- 
diction with  the  Banda  Oriental.  The  new  chan- 
nel is  more  easily  entered,  and  in  it  vessels  are 
not  obliged  to  pass  nearer  to  Martin  Garcia  than 
l\  mile. 

A'RGES,  a  genus  of  small  fishes,  of  the  family 
Siluridct,  of  extreme  interest  on  account  of  their 
being  frequently  thrown  out  in  vast  numbers 
by  some  of  the  South  American  volcanoes,  with 
torrents  of  muddy  water.  Humlioldt  was  the  first 
accurately  to  inquire  into  this  wonderful  fact,  and 
to  describe  one  of  these  fishes,  which   he  referred 


ARGIL— ARGOLIS. 


to  tlie  genus  Phiichxlcx,  and  called  P.  ci/clopnm.  It 
is  now  caileil  A.  ci/c/opum.  Tlie  quantities  of  these 
fishes  ejected  from  the  volcanoes  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Quito  is  sornetiines  so  great,  that  the  stench 
of  their  putrefaction  is  felt  at  a  gieat  distance, 
and  putrid  fevers  are  catised  by  it.  They  are 
expelled  from  craters  or  from  lateral  openings  at 
an  elevation  of  1(5,000  or  17,000  feet  above  the  sea. 
It  is  supposed  that  they  exist  in  lakes  within 
the  cavernous  recesses  of  the  mountains,  but  nothing 
is  positively  known  on  this  suly'ect.  Their  capacity 
of  enduring  the  high  temperature  of  the  water  with 
which  they  are  ejected,  has  excited  much  interest. 
Several  species  are  known,  to  which  the  common 
name  of  prehadUlas  is  given  in  the  country,  and 
which  are  placed  by  ichthyologists  in  the  genus 
A.,  and  the  closely  allied  genera  Brontes  and 
Astroblcptis. 

A'JiGlL,  clay  or  white  clay,  a  term  now  little 
used,  but  of  which  the  derivative  ar<jillaceous  is  still 
in  frequent  use  as  descriptive  of  soils,  geological 
deposits,  &c.,  and  in  the  name  Arr/illaceotis  Slate  or 
Argillaceotis  Schist,  instead  of  which,  however,  the 
name  Clay-Slate  (q.  v.)  is  more  generally  employed. 
The  term  argillaceotis  is  rather  vague,  and  some- 
times clayey,  sometimes  aluminous,  would  seem  to  be 
its  equivalent.     See  Argillackous  Rocks. 

ARGILE  PLASTIQUE,  a  series  of  beds  at  the 
base  of  the  Tertiary  system  in  France,  resting  on  a 
conglomerate  or  breccia  of  rolled  and  angular  chalk- 
flints.  They  consist  of  extensive  deposits  of  sand, 
with  occasional  beds  of  plastic  clays,  used  for  pottery. 
Marls  occur,  enclosing,  in  some  places,  the  fluviatile 
shells  that  are  met  with  in  the  same  position  in  the 
London  basin,  and  in  others,  large  numbers  of  a 
species  of  oyster.  Beds  of  impure  lignite  also  occur. — 
The  A.  P.  is  the  eqtiivalent  in  the  Paris  basin  of  the 
Woolwich  and  Reading  series,  or  Lower  Eocene  of 
the  English  geologists.     See  Eocene. 

ARGILLA'CEOUS  ROCKS.  All  rocks  com- 
posed entirely  or  to  some  extent  of  clay  are  included 
under  this  title.  Pure  clay  is  known  as  kaolin  or 
porcelain  clay.  It  is  a  hydrated  silicate  of  alumina. 
Decomposed  feldspar,  from  which  the  silicates  of 
potash,  soda.  &c.,  have  been  washed  out,  supplies  the 
material  which  forms  kaolin.  Common  clay,  how- 
ever, contains  many  impurities  ;  the  chief  are  sand, 
in  variable  proportions,  and  oxide  of  iron,  which 
gives  its  colour  to  the  mass.  Any  matter  that  con- 
tains suflicient  alumina  (more  than  10  per  cent.)  to 
enable  it  to  retain  its  shape  when  moulded  and 
pressed,  is  called  clay.  Plastic  clays  occur  abun- 
dantly in  the  superficial  deposits  and  in  the  Tertiary 
strata.  Tlie  older  clays  become  more  or  less  indu- 
rated. When  they  are  regtdarly  laminated,  and 
split  into  thin  layers  in  the  direction  of  the  laminaj, 
they  are  called  shale.  In  clay-slate,  the  clay  has 
become  highly  indurated  and  metamorphosed,  so  as 
to  split  into  plates  that  are  altogether  independent 
of  the  original  lamination,  and  frequently  cross  it  at 
right  angles.  Clay-slate  forms  extensive  deposits  in 
the  Azoic  rocks,  but  it  is  not  confined  to  these,  for 
the  Palffiozoic  shales  are  often  converted  into  clay- 
slate,  when,  from  their  proximity  to  crystalline 
rocks,  or  other  cause,  they  have  been  subjected  to 
the  action  of  heat. 

A.  R.  can  generally  be  distinguished  by  the  pecu- 
liar '  argillaceous '  odour  which  they  give  out  when 
breathed  upon. 

A'RGOL  is  a  crude  variety  of  cream  of  tartar 
■which  forms  a  crust  in  the  interior  of  wine-vats 
and  wine-bottles.  Originally,  it  exists  in  the  jiuee 
of  the  grape,  and  is  soluble  therein  ;  but  during  the 
fermentation  of  the  juice,  and  as  it  passes  into 
wine,  much  alcohol  is  developed,  which  remaining 


in  the  fermenting  liquor,  causes  the  precipitation 
of  the  A. ;  the  latter  being  very  sparingly  soluble  in 
an  alcoholic  liquid.  Some  wines,  when  they  are 
liottled,  are  not  fully  ripe,  and  more  alcohol  being 
thereafter  developed,  a  further  precipitation  of  A. 
takes  place  as  a  crust  in  the  bottles,  and  hence  the 
meaning  of  the  term  crusted  port.  A.  is  generally 
of  a  reddish  tinge,  obtained  from  the  colour  of  the 
grapes,  but  sometimes  is  of  a  greyish-white  colour, 
when  it  has  been  deposited  during  the  fermentation 
of  the  juice  of  colourless  grapes.  The  red  ov  white 
A.  is  denominated  in  commerce  cr^ide  tartar,  and  its 
principal  uses  are  in  the  preparation  of  cream  of 
tartar  ((j.  v.)  and  tartaric  acid  (q.  v.  i.  The  constitu- 
ents of  A.  are  bitartrate  of  potash  (cream  of  tartar), 
(KO,IIO,T),  tartrate  of  lime,  with  colouring  and 
extractive  matters. 

A'RGOLA.     See  Adjutant. 

V 

A  RGOLIS,  a  peninsula  of  the  Morea  (Greece), 
lying  between  the  bays  of  Nauplia  and  ^gina ,  forms 
with  Corinth  a  nome,  or  department,  in  the  modern 
kingdom  of  Greece.  The  plain  of  Argos,  famous  in 
ancient  times  for  its  breed  of  horses,  is  naturally 
fertile,  but  is  now  made  pestilential  by  morasses.  It 
is  surrounded  by  an  eastern  continuation  of  the 
range  of  mountains  on  the  north  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesus, which  also  girds  the  riven  and  shattered- 
looking  coast.  The  highest  summits  attain  an 
elevation  of  between  500()  and  60o0  feet.  The  plain 
of  A.  is  the  most  extensive  in  the  whole  peninsula, 
being  12  miles  in  length  and  5  in  breadth.  The 
eastern  part  is  higher  and  more  rocky  than  the 
western.  '  Near  where  the  plain  opens  on  the  sea, 
the  ground  is  marshy.  This  was  the  Lernean 
marsh  of  antiquity.  The  nome,  or  department,  has 
now  Nauplia  as  its  capital,  and  contained  in  1861 
113,719  inhabitants. 

It  was  from  the  importance  of  the  ancient  king- 
dom of  A.  that  the  Greeks  were  collectively  often 
styled  Argivi  by  ancient  writers.  A.  was  colonised 
in  very  early  times.  According  to  the  old  traditions, 
Inachus,  the  Pelasgic  chief,  settled  here  in  ISOit,  and 
Danaus  in  15nO  is.c,  with  colonists  from  Egypt. 
Here  Pelops  ruled,  and  was  succeeded  by  Atreus, 
Agamemnon,  (tc.  Here  also  Hercules  was  born,  and 
achieved  his  victories  over  the  Lernean  hydra  and 
the  Nemean  lion. 

The  ancient  capital,  Argos,  was  situated  about 
3  miles  from  the  sea,  and  was  considered  the  oldest 
city  in  Greece.  It  was  supposed  to  have  been  built 
by  that  Inachus  of  whom  we  have  spoken,  or  by  his 
grandson  Argus  ;  but  as  the  whole  period  in  which 
his  deeds  are  said  to  have  been  accomplished 
belongs  to  the  unhistorical  age,  we  cannot  possibly 
determine  the  truth  of  such  a  statement.  It  is 
certain,  however,  that  at  one  period  A.  was  the 
head  of  a  league  composed  of  several  Doric  states  or 
cities — Cleona?,  Phlius,  Sicyon,  Troezen,  Hermione, 
jEgina,  and  Epidaurus.  Latterly,  Sparta  robbed  it 
of  its  supremacy  and  influence.  Tiie  population  of 
A.,  during  its  most  prosperous  condition  in  ancient 
times  was — inclusive  of  the  town  terriiory — upwards 
of  100,1  »00.  It  was  noted  for  the  attention  it  paid 
to  the  worship  of  the  gods.  Juno  was  the  principal 
divinity,  but  many  of  the  other  gods  had  temjiles 
and  statues  also.  This  gave  a  stimulus  to  the  fine 
arts,  and  we  know  that  A.  possessed  one  of  the 
most  famous  of  the  ancient  schools  of  statimry. 
The  natives  were,  moreover,  renowncnl  for  their  love 
of  music.  Herodotus  considered  tliem  the  finest 
musicians  in  Greece.  They  do  not,  however,  seem 
to  have  cultivated  literature.  Few  poets,  and  no 
orators  or  philosophers,  were  born  amongst  them. 
The  modern  Argos,  l)uilt  on  the  site  of  the  ancient, 
is  7  miles  from  Xauplia,  and  is  a  large  and  thriving 

389 


ARGONAUT— ARGONAUTS. 


town.  It  still  exhibits  some  remains  of  antiquity, 
tliough  these  were  nearly  wholly  destroyed  in  1S25, 
during  the  Greek  war  of  independence.  Cotton, 
vines,  and  rice  are  grown.     Pop.  8'>00. 

A'RGOXAUT  {Arr/onanta),  a  penus  of  cephal- 
apoilous  mollusca,  pretty  generally  known  by  the 
name  of  Paper  Nautilus,  and  in  consequence  of 
similarity  in  the  form  of  the  shell,  often  confounded 
with  the  genus  Natitilus  (q.  v.),  but  in  fact  much 
more  nearly  allied  to  the  Poulpe  (^Octojms).  The 
shell  is  not  chambered  like  that  of  the  true  nautilus, 
but  has  one  spiral  cavity,  into  which  the  animal  can 
entirely  withdraw  itself.  The  animal  has  no  muscular 
attachment  to  the  shell,  and  some  naturalists  there- 
fore susjjected  that  it  might  be  merely,  like  the 
Hermit  Crab,  the  inhabitant  of  a  shell"  originally 
belonging  to  some  other  animal ;  but  this  question 
has  been  set  at  rest  by  the  observations  of  Madame 
Power,  proving  the  beautiful  but  fragile  shell  to  be 
the  production  of  tiie  A.  itself.  It  has,  however, 
ako  been  discovered  that  the  shell  is  peculiar  to  the 
female  A.,  and  doe.s  not  answer  the  ordinary  pur- 
poses of  the  shells  of  mollusca,  but  rather  that  of  an 


Fig.  1. 

'  incubating  and  protective  nest.'  The  eggs,  which 
are  very  numerous,  are  attached  to  filamentary 
stalks,  and  by  these  the  whole  compacted  mass  is 
united  to  the  involuted  spire  of  the  shell,  where 
it  is  usually  concealed  by  the  body  of  the  parent. 
The  descriptions,  until  recently  admitted  into  the 
•works  of  the  most  respectable  naturalists,  of 
argonauts  sailing  about  in  pretty  little  fleets  upon 
the  surface  of  the  water,  employing  six  of  their 
tentacula   as   oars,  and   spreading  out   two,  which 


Fig.  2. 

are  broadly  expanded  for  the  purpose,  as  sails  to 
catch    the    breeze,    are    now    regarded    as    entirely 
fabulous,    and  indeed  are  founded  upon  an  entire 
S90 


misapprehension  of  the  position  of  the  animal  in  its 
shell,  and  of  the  use  of  the  two  expanded  arms  or 
vela  (sails).  The  membranes  of  these  arms  are 
extended  at  the  pleasure  of  the  animal,  so  as  to 
envelop  the  shell,  and  appear  to  be  the  secreting 
organs  employed  in  its  fabrication.  Two  species 
of  A.  are  common  in  the  Mediterranean.  Fig.  1 
represents  one  of  them  as  it  used  to  be  commonly 
represented  with  oars  and  sails.  Fig.  2  represents 
it  as  it  really  exists,  with  the  memliranes  of  the 
dorsal  arms  covering  the  shell.  The  other  arms  are 
cut  oft'.     At  a,  in  fig.  2,  is  seen  the  mass  of  eggs. 

ARGONAUTS,  heroes  of  Greek  anti(|uity  (so 
named  from  their  ship  Arr/(>),  who,  according  to 
tradition,  about  a  generation  before  the  Trojan  war, 
undertook  a  long  voyage  into  luiknown  seas,  under 
the  command  of  Jason.  Homer  alludes  to  the  story; 
Hesiod,  Mimnermus,  Pindar,  the  Pseudo-Orpheus, 
and  many  others  relate  it,  all  in  diffic'rent  ways,  the 
accounts  in  some  instances  )>eing  utterly  irrecon- 
cilable. The  jilainest  and  most  complete  narrative 
is  that  of  Apolodorus,  which  is  as  follows:  Jason 
was  commi-ssioned  by  his  uncle,  Pelias — who  ruled 
over  lolcus.  in  Thessaly — to  fetch  from  the  country 
of  yEetes  (Colchis)  the  golden  fleece  of  the  ram, 
which  was  suspended  on  an  oak,  and  guarded  by  a 
sleepless  dragon.  He  therefore  caused  Argus,  the 
son  of  Phrixus,  to  build  a  ship  of  fifty  oars;  and  in 
pursuit  of  this  adventure,  gathered  together  the 
choicest  heroes  from  all  parts  of  Greece,  fifty  in 
luunber,  with  whom  he  sailed.  Their  first  landing- 
place  was  Lemnos,  where  the  A.  stayed  two  years, 
because  the  women,  in  consequence  of  the  wrath  of 
Aphrodite,  had  slain  all  the  men,  excepting  Thoas, 
Next  they  sailed  to  the  Poliones,  and  were  hospit- 
ably received  by  King  Cizycus,  who  was  after- 
wards accidentally  killed  bv  Jason.  After  hinding  at 
Mysia,  where  they  left  Hercules  and  Polyphennis 
— who  had  wandered  too  far  inland  in  pursuit  of 
the  lost  Hylas — they  came  to  the  country  of  the 
Bebryces,  where  King  Amycus  was  killed  by  Pollux, 
or  Polydeuces,  in  a  pugilistic  fight.  They  next  sailed 
along  the  coast  of  Thrace  to  Salmydessus,  where 
two  of  their  number,  Zetes  and  Calais,  having 
delivered  the  blind  seer,  Phineus,  from  certain 
winged  monsters  called  Harpies,  he  in  return  gave 
them  good  counsel  respecting  their  future  adven- 
tures, and  especially  warned  them  against  the 
dangerous  passage  between  the  opening  and  closing 
Symplegades,  from  which  they  escaped  with  but 
little  injury  to  their  vessel.  The  story  goes  that 
Phineus  advised  the  A.  to  let  loose  a  dove  when 
they  approached  the  dreaded  rocks,  and  to  judge 
from  its  fortune  what  they  themselves  might  expect. 
The  bird  escaped  with  the  loss  of  its  tail.  The  A. 
resolved  to  risk  the  passage,  and  after  heroic  efforts, 
got  safely  through,  their  ship  only  losing  some  of  the 
ornaments  of  its  stern.  After  visiting  several  other 
lands,  they  arrived  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Phasis, 
in  Colchis.  Here  the  king,  ^Eetes,  promised  to  give 
up  the  golden  fleece  to  Jason,  on  condition  that  the 
latter  should  yoke  to  a  plough  the  two  lire-breathing 
hulls  with  brazen  hoofs,  and  shoidd  sow  the  dragon's 
teeth  left  by  Cadmus  in  Thebes.  Jason,  by  the 
help  of  the  famous  sorceress  Medea,  daughter  of 
.Eetes,  who  had  fallen  passionately  in  love  with  the 
bold  navigator,  fulfilled  these  conditions;  and  was 
also  assisted  by  Medea  in  still  more  wonderful 
exploits.  He  obtained  from  her,  under  promise  of 
marriage,  a  charm  against  fire  and  steel,  and  was 
enabled  to  destroy  all  the  warriors  who  sprung  up 
from  the  land  sown  Avith  the  dragon's  teeth.  While 
this  was  taking  place,  ^Eetes  had  resolved  to  burn  the 
ship  Arr/o,  and  put  to  death  the  crew  ;  but  Jason, 
informed  of  the  scheme  by  Medea,  anticipated  it, 
hastened  into  the  grove,  stupified  the  dragon-sentinel 


-W' 


i  .^»^ 


i".f  M 


Vol.  I.,  pasi-  3*1. 


PAl'KK    NAUTII-US    (AnrmnWa  Atqo). 


ARGOSTOLI— ARGUS. 


by  ail  opiate-charm  prepared  by  Medea,  seized 
the  {loldcn  fleece,  and,  embarking  in  tlie  Apjo 
with  his  mistress  and  her  brother  Absyrtus,  sailed 
away  from  Colchis  by  night.  uEetes  Ibllowed,  but 
was  hindered  in  his  pursuit  by  an  atrocity  committed 
by  his  lierce  daughter.  It  is  said  that  she  slew  her 
brother  Absyrtus,  and  cut  him  into  several  pieces, 
which  she  threw  overboard,  one  at  a  time.  While 
King  yEetes  stayed  to  gather  up  thefragments  of  his 
son,  Jason  escaped  from  the  pursuit.  The  A.  now 
reached  the  mouth  of  the  river  Eridanus  ;  but  were 
driven  on  the  Absyrtian  Islands  by  a  storm  sent 
from  Jove,  who  was  angry  on  account  of  the  murder 
of  Absyrtus.  Meanwhile  the  mast  of  the  Arrio — 
which  had  been  cut  from  the  sacred  grove  of  Dodona 
— delivered  an  oracle  to  the  eft'ect  that  Jove  could 
not  be  appeased  unless  they  sailed  towards  Ausonia, 
and  were  purified  through  the  expiatory  agency  of 
Circe.  This  was  accomplished  ;  and  next,  the  A. 
passed  by  the  Sirens,  from  whose  charms  they  were 
preserved  by  Orpheus,  who  sang  to  them,  but  could 
not  hinder  one  of  their  number,  Butes,  from  swim- 
ming off  to  the  sea-maidens ;  then  through  Scylla 
and'^Charybdis,  by  the  help  of  Thetis,  and  at  length 
landed  on  the  island  of  Corcyra,  where  Alcinous 
ruled.  On  leaving  this  place,  they  encountered  a 
storm  at  night,  but  were  saved  by  Apollo,  who,  in 
flashes  of  lightning,  revealed  to  them  the  haven  of 
Anaphe,  where  they  raised  an  altar  to  their  pre- 
server. At  Crete,  their  landing  was  opposed  by  the 
giant  Talus,  who  was  slain  by  Medea.  They  subse- 
quently touched  at/Egina,  and  sailing  between  Eubwa 
and  Locris,  arrived  safely  at  lolcus,  after  a  four 
months'  voyage.  Jason  dedicated  the  good  ship 
Argo  to  Neptune,  at  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth. 

It  is  perhaps  useless  to  speculate  on  the  real  char- 
acter of  the  Argonautic  expedition,  even  if  it  be  more 
than  a  mere  myth.  The  accounts  given  by  other 
writers  differ  so  widely,  especially  in  the  geographi- 
cal parts,  from  those  of  Apollodorus,  that  it  becomes 
impossible  to  determine  satisfactorily  whether  the 
expedition  sailed  north,  east,  or  west.  The  common 
historical  interpretation  of  the  legend  is  that  Jason 
sailed  on  a  voyage  of  discovery,  which  had  for  its 
aim  and  stimulus  the  hope  of  new  commercial  rela- 
tions ;  others  would  modify  this  hypothesis,  and 
suggest  that  the  enterprise  was  partly  commercial, 
partly  piratical,  and  partly  adventurous,  and  that 
Jason's  crew  was  in  all  probability  composeii  of 
young,  restless,  and  ambitious  spirits,  who  were 
ready  for  anything  that  might  turn  up. 

ARGO'STOLI,  a  seaport  on  the  south-west  of 
Cephalonia,  and  capital  of  the  island.  Its  lat.  is  88° 
10'  N.,  and  long.  19°  50'  E.  Its  pop.  is  5000 ;  and 
its  quay  is  a  mile  long. 

ARGUELLES,  Augustin,  a  prominent  Spanish 
politician  of  the  modern  liberal  school.  On  the 
breaking  out  of  the  War  of  Independence  in  1808, 
he  went  to  Cadiz,  where  he  agitated  ibr  the  organ- 
isation of  a  regency  along  with  a  free  constitution, 
as  the  best  method  of  strengthening  and  consolidat- 
ing the  powers  and  resources  of  the  nation.  In 
1812  he  was  sent  as  representative  of  his  native 
province  to  the  Cortes,  where  he  was  appointed  one 
of  the  members  of  the  committee  to  whom  were 
intrusted  the  drawing  up  of  t!ie  plan  of  a  new 
constitution.  His  splendid  talents  as  a  public 
speaker  soon  won  him  the  admiration  of  the  liberal 
party,  who  used  to  term  him  the  Spanish  Cicero. 
But  on  the  return  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  A.  fell  a 
victim  to  the  reactionary  spirit  which  ensued.  On 
the  10th  of  May  1814,  he  was  arrested  and  impris- 
oned ;  but  at  his  trial  he  displayed  such  dexterity 
that  it  was  found  impossible  to  convict  him.  Differ- 
ent judges  were  nominated  five  successive  times,  but 


they  could  not  agree  in  their  decision.  At  last  the 
monarch  himself  passed  sentence,  which  was,  that 
A.  should  be  confined  for  ten  years  in  the  prison 
at  Ceuta.  He  was  not,  however,  alone  in  liis  mis- 
fortunes. Fourteen  persons  were  condemned  along 
with  him,  amongst  whom  was  his  friend  Juan 
Alvarez  Guerra.  In  their  confinement  they  ex- 
perienced such  barbarous  treatment,  that  in  four 
years  three  died,  two  became  mad,  and  the  rest 
received  grievous  injuries.  The  revolution  of  1820 
restored  them  to  freedom.  A.  became  Minister  of 
the  Interior,  but  soon  resigned,  in  consequence  of  the 
king  complaining  of  the  weakness  of  the  executive. 
Although  provoked  beyond  measure  by  the  narrow 
bigotryof  the  court,  he  did  not  rush  into  extremes, 
but  continued  a  constitutional  liberal  to  the  end  of 
his  life.  In  the  Cortes  held  in  Seville  in  1823,  he 
voted  for  the  suspension  of  the  royal  power ;  but 
after  the  violation  of  the  constitution  he  fled  to 
England,  where  he  remained  till  the  amnesty  of 
1832.  On  his  return  to  Spain,  being  nominated  to  the 
Cortes,  he  was  repeatedly  made  president  and  vice- 
president  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  and  always 
shewed  himself  a  moderate  but  unwavering  reformer. 
In  July  1841,  on  the  discussion  of  the  law  regarding 
the  sale  of  church  property,  he  delivered  himself 
strongly  against  all  concordats  with  the  pope.  Next 
to  Espartero,  he  was  the  most  popular  man  in  the 
kingdom  with  the  enlightened  party.  During  the 
regency,  he  was  appointed  guardian  to  the  young 
queen,  Isabella,  but  died  soon  after,  on  the  23d  of 
March  1844,  at  Madrid.  In  his  old  age,  he  still  e.x:- 
hibited  the  fiery  eloquence  that  marked  his  youth. 

A'RGUMENT  (Lat.  arguvienfum\  in  Logic, 
means  properly  the  ground  or  premiss  on  which  a 
conclusion  is  rested ;  popularly,  it  is  applied  to  a 
series  of  arguments,  or  to  a  controversy.  Argument- 
ation is  reasoning  put  into  regular  shape,  with  a 
view  to  convince  or  silence  an  objector.  Logicians 
have  given  distinctive  names  to  various  kinds  of 
arguments.  Thus,  we  have  the  Argiimentum  ad 
hmnincm,  which  is  no  real  proof,  but  only  an  appeal 
to  the  known  prepossessions  or  admissions  of  the 
persons  addressed.  In  tins  style,  when  a  man 
upholds  one  method  of  fraud,  he  may,  by  an  appeal 
to  his  consistency,  be  driven  to  uphold  another. 
The  A.  ad  veritatem,  again,  has  no  regard  to  any- 
thing save  objective  truth.  Next  we  have  the  A. 
e  consensu  gentium,  or  an  appeal  to  the  common 
belief  of  mankind,  which,  of  course,  may  be  used  to 
prove  or  disprove  anything.  The  A.  a  info  rests 
upon  the  supposed  safety  or  prudence  of  adopting  a 
certain  conclusion.  It  is  sometimes  used  by  Roman 
Catholics  against  Protestants  in  the  following  form  : 
Protestants  teach  that  salvation  is  possil)le  in  any 
church  ;  this  is  denied  by  Catholics ;  therefore,  it 
is  safer  to  belong  to  the  Catholic  Church,  as  even 
the  Protestants  admit  that  a  man  may  be  saved  in 
that  church.  Lastly,  the  Argumentum  a  haciilo  (or 
use  of  the  cudgel),  though  objectionable,  is  concise 
in  its  style,  and  has  settled  many  controversies. 

ARGUMENTUM  AD  HO'MINEM.  See  Ar- 
gument. 

A'RGUS,  the  son  of  Zeus  and  Niobe,  succeeded 
Phoroneus  in  the  government  of  the  Peloponnesus, 
which  took  from  him  its  name  of  Argos,  as  did  also 
the  territory  of  Argolis. — A.,  surnamed  Panoptes 
(all-seeing),  had  one  hundred  eyes,  some  of  which 
were  always  awake.  He  was  enormously  strong, 
and  on  account  of  the  wonderful  exploits  he  per- 
formed, Juno  appointed  him  to  watc-h  over  lo,  trans- 
formed into  a  cow.  Mercury  being  commissioned  by 
Zeus  to  carry  off  the  cow,  slew  A.  by  stoning  him  ; 
or,  as  Ovid  says,  first  charmed  him  to  sleep  by 
playing  on  the  iiute,  and  then  beheaded  him.     Juno 

891 


ARGUS— ARGYLE. 


used  the  cji'S  of  A.  to  decorate  the  peacock's  tiiil. — 
A.  the  builder  of  the  ship  Ari/o  (see  Argonauts). 

A'RGUS,  a  genus  of  gallinaceous  birds,  remark- 
able for  magnificence  of  plumage.  The  only  known 
species  is  A.  giyanteus,  formerly  called  Phasianus 
A.,  and  still  very  generally  the  A.  pheasant.  The 
sides  of  the  head  and  of  the  neck  are  destitute  of 
feathers  ;  the  tail  consists  of  twelve  feathers,  of 
whicli  the  two  middle  ones  in  the  male  are  very 
much  elongated;  the  secondary  feathers  of  the 
wings  are  much  longer  than  the  primary.  The  nanu; 
A.   has   allusion   to   the   many   beautiful   eye  -  like 


Argus. 

markings  wliich  adorn  the  plumage  of  the  male, 
and  particularly  the  secondaries  of  the  wings.  The 
long  secondaries  are  said  to  impede  the  flight  of  the 
bird  ;  but  its  wings  are  much  employed  to  aid  it  in 
running.  The  female  is  of  comparatively  tame 
plumage,  not  oidy  wanting  the  eye-like  markings, 
but  even  the  great  length  of  the  secondaries  and  of 
the  middle-tail  feathers.  The  size  of  the  bird,  when 
divested  of  its  plumage,  is  not  much  greater  than 
that  of  a  common  barn-door  fowl,  but  the  tail- 
feathers  of  the  male  are  nearly  four  feet  long.  The 
A.  is  a  native  of  Sumatra  and  other  eastern  islands, 
of  the  peninsula  of  Malacca,  Siam,  &c.  It  is  said  to 
be  found  even  in  the  northern  parts  of  China.  It  is 
impatient  of  confinement,  and  has  very  seldom  been 
brought  alive  to  Europe. 

ARGY'LE,  Archibald  Campbell,  Marquis  of, 
an  eminent  political  character  of  the  17th  c,  was 
born  in  1598,  and  succeeded  to  the  earldom  of  A.  in 
1638.  Already  he  had  given  proofs  of  that  strength 
of  religious  principle  which  marked  his  whole  life, 
and  of  a  perilous  union  of  attachment  to  the  king 
and  of  faith  in  the  principles  against  which  the  king 
made  war.  In  the  General  Assembly  at  Glasgow, 
in  November  1638,  he  openly  took  the  side  of 
the  Covenanters,  and  thenceforth  became  recognised 
as  their  political  head.  In  16-10,  he  commanded 
a  mihtary  expedition  through  Badenoch,  Athole, 
Mar,  and  Angus,  for  the  purpose  of  enforcing 
subjection  to  the  Scottish  Parliament.  On  the 
king's  visit  to  Scotland,  in  1G41,  he  found  it  con- 
venient to  shew  peculiar  favor  to  A.,  and  created 
him  a  marquis.  On  the  breaking  out  of  hostilities, 
A.  was  still  desirous  for  negotiation,  but  was  finally 
compelled  to  take  the  field.  In  April  1641,  he 
dispersed  the  royalist  forces  under  the  Marquis 
of  Huntly,  in  Aberdeenshire.  He  was  less  suc- 
cessful in  withstanding  the  genius  of  Montrose,  - 
392 


who,  on  the  2d  February  1045,  almost  annihilated 
his  army  at  Inverlochy.  IHs  estates  had  sufl'ered  so 
much  in  the  preceding  year  with  the  ravages  of 
the  brilliant  Cavalier,  that  a  sum  of  public  money 
was  voted  for  his  support.  In  August  (1646),  he 
went  to  London,  with  Loudon  and  Dunfermline, 
to  treat  with  the  parliament  for  a  mitigation  of 
the  articles  presented  to  the  king.  He  was  at 
the  same  time  the  bearer  of  a  secret  commission 
from  the  king  to  treat  with  the  Duke  of  Richmond 
and  the  Mar(|uis  of  Hertford,  on  the  ])ropriety  of 
a  Scottish  demonstration  in  favour  of  Charles.  On 
the  defeat  of  the  '  Engagement '  plan,  to  which 
he  had  been  decidedly  o[)i)oscd,  the  government 
of  Scotland  devolved  on  A.  and  the  other  Presby- 
terian leaders.  In  the  parliament  of  February 
1049,  Charles  II.  was  proclaimed  king,  and  at  Scone, 
on  the  1st  of  January  1651,  A.  put  the  crown 
on  his  head.  At  this  time,  it  was  even  said  that 
the  complaisant  monarch  intended  to  marry  one 
of  his  daughters.  As  head  of  the  Conmiittee  of 
Estates,  A.  took  vigorous  measures  to  oppose  Crom- 
well's invasion  of  Scotland,  and  still  adhered  to  the 
king,  after  the  sulijugation  of  the  country.  After 
the  battle  of  Worcester,  he  retired  to  Inverary, 
where  he  held  out  for  a  year  against  Cromwell's 
troops.  Falling  sick,  he  was  taken  prisoner  by 
General  Dean.  lie  refused  submission  to  the  Pro- 
tector, but  took  an  engagement  to  live  peaceai>ly, 
which  he  strictly  kept.  On  the  Restoration,  he  re- 
paired to  Whitehall,  encouraged  by  a  flattering  letter 
I'ro.n  the  king  to  his  son.  Impeached  with  the  crime 
of  having  submitted  to  the  usurper  (to  whom  he  had 
refused  allegiance),  he  was  committed  to  the  Tower, 
and  on  the  loth  February  1661,  was  brought  before 
the  Scottish  Parliament  on  the  charge  of  treason. 
He  defended  himself  with  spirit,  but  in  vain.  On 
the  27th  May  he  was  executed  at  Edinburgh — 
having  displayi'd  throughout  his  whole  tiial,  and  on 
the  scafibld,  the  dignity  of  a  true  nobleman,  and  the 
meekness  of  a  Christian. 

His  son,  Archibald,  9Tn  Earl  of  A.,  was  early 
distinguished  by  personal  accomplishments,  and 
exhil)ited  great  bravery  on  the  disastrous  day  of 
Dunbar,  where  he  commanded  a  regiment  on  the 
royal  side.  After  Worcester,  he  continued,  like  his 
father,  in  arms,  and  made  himself  so  oljnoxious  to 
the  parliamentary  leaders,  that  he  was  specially 
excepted  by  Cioniwell  from  the  act  of  grace  in  1654. 
After  much  hai'assing  persecution  he  submitted  to 
the  parliament,  but  continued  to  be  closely  watched. 
On  the  restoration  of  Charles  II.,  he  was  received 
into  high  favour  (as  a  balance  to  the  execution  of  his 
father),  and  unfortunately  for  his  own  fame,  partici- 
pated in  some  of  the  iniquitous  acts  of  the  Scottish 
legislature.  He  had,  however,  numerous  and  active 
enemies  ;  and,  on  the  ground  of  an  intercepted  letter, 
ill  which  he  had  complained  of  neglect,  he  was  tried 
and  condemned  to  death  by  the  Scottish  Parliament 
for  the  imaginary  crime  of  Ucsa  majexta:^.  The 
influence  of  Clarendon  restored  him  to  liberty  and 
favour  ;  even  the  king  himself  was  pri^judiced 
in  his  favour  ;  but  a  new  opportunity  was  offered 
to  the  malice  of  his  enemies,  by  his  explanation 
in  subscribing  the  infamous  test  framed  by  the 
Scottish  Parliament  in  1681.  He  was  indicted  for 
treason,  and  again  condemned  to  death  by  a  jury 
of  his  peers.  The  devotion  of  his  wife  enabled  hiin 
to  escape  from  Edinburgh  Castle,  in  the  disguise  of  a 
puge ;  and  after  remaining  concealed  some  time  in 
Derbyshire  and  the  vicinity  of  London,  he  fled  to 
Holland.  Landing  in  the  North  of  Scotland,  in  May 
1685,  with  an  armed  force,  to  co-operate  in  the 
revolt  of  Monmouth,  he  was,  after  a  series  of  mis- 
fortunes, taken  prisoner,  hastily  tried,  condemned, 
and  beheaded,  June  30,  1685. 


^\^^:.        V''^^^        .Xn'^^     ^^^^^1"^     '        '"1S^J^^^|l/)^^,->^'.;7V' 


/  ^- 


^, 


Vol.  I.,  page  Z'Sl. 


ARGUS    PHEASANT    (Argus  Giganteus). 


ARGYLE— ARGYLESniRE. 


ARGYLE,  John  Campdkll,  Duke  ok,  wus  born 
m  107!^,  and  took  an  important  part  in  political  and 
military  affairs  in  the  ri-i^tis  of  Quoen  Anne  and  her 
successor.  As  royal  coinnii-'sioner  in  lTn5,  he  had  a 
principal  share  in  bringing  about  tiie  Act  of  Union. 
As  a  soldier,  he  disiin<iuished  himself  under  Marl- 
borough at  Raniilies,  Oudenarde,  Lille,  Ghent,  and 
Malplaquet.  Previous  to  the  change  of  ministry  in 
1710,  A.  had  been  a  keen  whig,  lie  now  veered 
■with  the  wind  of  the  court,  and  became  a  deelaimer 
against  the  Duke  of  Marlborough.  As  the  reward 
of  his  apostucy,  he  was  ai)pointed  by  the  Tories 
generalissimo  of  the  British  army  in  Spain  ;  but 
considering  himself  to  have  been  unhandsomely 
treated  by  the  ministry,  he  shortly  after  returned, 
and  finding  his  influence  greatly  diminished,  he  again 
became  a  Whig.  Ilia  career  up  to  the  rebellion  of 
1715,  was  most  tortuous  and  unprincipled,  and 
seriously  detracts  from  his  meritorious  services  dur- 
ing that  critical  period.  He  was,  however,  completely 
successful  in  quelling  disturbances,  and  his  services 
were  rewarded  in  1718,  among  other  dignities,  with 
an  English  peerage,  and  the  title  of  Duke  of 
Greenwich.  His  restless  vanity  and  amljition,  how- 
ever, constantly  prompted  him  to  political  intrigues. 
In  17;21  he  again  played  into  the  hands  of  the  Tories, 
for  the  purpose  of  securing  the  entire  patronage  of 
Scotland.  In  1737  he  rose  into  immense  popularity 
in  his  own  country,  by  his  sjiirited  defence  before 
parliament  of  the  city  of  Edinburgh  in  regard  to  the 
Porteous  mob.  He  died  on  the  3d  September  1743. 
He  was  a  man  of  lax  principles  and  selfish 
character,  but  possessed  of  considerable  shrewdness 
and  talent,  and  noted  for  his  kindness  and  courtesy 
in  private  life.  The  benevolence  of  his  di-^position 
jirocured  him  the  title  of  '  the  Grand  Duke  of 
Argyle.' 

ARGYLE,  Duke  of.  George  John  Douglas 
Campbell,  8th  Duke  of  A.,  was  born  in  1823,  and 
succeeded  his  father  in  1847.  At  the  age  of  19,  his 
Grace,  then  Marquis  of  Lorn,  gave  evidence  of 
unusual  ability  in  a  pamphlet  entitled  A  Letter  to  the 
Peerafroin  a  Pcer^s  Seyn,  on  the  subject  of  the  struggle 
which  ended  in  the  disruption  of  the  Scottish  Church. 
Seven  years  subsequently,  he  gave  proof  of  nuire 
extensive  study  in  the  same  field,  by  the  pui)lication 
of  his  Essay  on  Presl)ytery,  which  contains  an 
elaborate  historical  vindication  of  the  Presbyterian 
system  against  Prelacy.  On  taking  his  seat  in  the  j 
House  of  Peers,  he  soon  gave  proof  of  considerable 
oratorical  ability,  and  both  by  the  matmity  of  his 
judgment  and  the  readiness  of  his  powers,  com- 
manded the  respect  of  that  dignified  assembly.  On 
the  formation  of  the  coalition  ministry  by  Lord 
Aberdeen,  his  Grace  was  considered  of  suflicient 
importance  to  receive  a  place  in  the  governnu-nt, 
and  was  invested  with  the  office  of  Lord  Privy 
Seal,  which  he  continvied  to  hold  in  Lord  Pal- 
merston'a  administration.  In  November  18o5,  he 
relinquished  his  ofiiee,  and  accepted  that  of  Post- 
master-general. On  tlie  fall  of  Lord  Pahnerston's 
administration,  he  retired  into  opposition;  but  in 
1859,  on  that  nobleman's  return  to  the  helm,  he  again 
accepted  the  office  of  I^rd  Privy  Seal,  and  was  again 
appointed  Postmaster-General  in  1860.  His  Grace 
has  distinguished  himself  not  only  in  politics  but  in 
science.  In  1854  he  was  chosen  Ijovd  Rector  of  the 
university  of  Glasgow,  and  in  1855  jiresided  at  the 
meeting  of  the  British  Association  in  that  city.  He 
is  also  Chancellor  of  the  university  of  St.  Andrews. 
[n  1844  he  married  Lady  Elizabeth  Georgiana  Gower, 
eldest  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Sutherland,  and  niece 
of  the  Earl  of  Carlisle.  Li  1866  he  published  The 
Jieig?i  of  Law,  and  in  1868  was  Secretary  for  India. 

ARGY'LESHLRE  iEarra  Ohaidheal,  West  Gael 


Covnitry),  an  extensive  maritime  county  in  the  West 
of  Scotland,  including  numerous  islands,  and  a  large 
mainlaiul  track,  cut  up  into  many  peninsulas  by  arm3 
of  the  sea.  It  is  Ijounded,  X.  by  Inverness-shire;  W. 
and  S.  by  the  sea;  E.  by  Perthshire,  Dumbarton, 
Loch  Long,  and  Firth  of  Clyde.  Its  greatest  length 
is  about  115  miles;  its  greatest  breadth,  about  60 
miles  ;  its  extent  of  coast-line  is  very  great,  amount- 
ing to  063  miles,  owing  to  the  indentation  of  the 
coast  by  numerous  lochs  running  inland.  Next  to 
Inverness,  it  is  the  largest  county  in  Scotland — area, 
3210  square  miles,  of  -which  1063  are  occupied  by 
the  numerous  islands.  No  pait  is  al>ove  12  miles 
from  the  sea  or  from  large  inland  lochs.  The  county  is 
divided  into  the  districts  of  Cantire,  North  and  South 
Argyle,  Lorn,  Appin,  Cowal,  Morvcn,  and  Sunart. 
Thechief  islands  are  Mull,  Islay,  Jura,  Tirce,  Coll, 
Lismore,  and  Colonsay.  There  are  upwards  of  thirty 
other  islands  of  smaller  size.  The  general  aspect  of 
A.  is  wild  and  picturesque,  juarked  by  rugged  and 
lofty  mountains,  deep  inland  bays,  and  often  preci- 
pitous coasts.  Some  fertile  valleys  exist.  The  north 
part  is  entirely  mountainous,  and  presents  some  of 
the  grandest  scenery  in  Scotland,  as  Glencoe.  The 
highest  peaks  are  (Ord.Trig.  Survey) — Bedan-ambran, 
3760  feet ;  Ben  Cruachan,  3G()8  ;  Buachael  Etive, 
3341 — all  in  Lorn  ;  Ben  Ima  (end  of  Loch  Long), 
3319  ;  Ben  More  (Mull),  3174  ;  Ben  Creach  (Morven), 
2790  ;  North  Pap  of  Jura,  2567.  The  chief  bays  are 
(going  south) — Loch  Moidart,  Loch  Suiuirt,  Linnhe 
Loch,  branching  off  into  Loch  Eil  and  Loch  Leven, 
Loch  Fyne,  and  Loch  Long.  There  are  no  rivers  of 
any  size.  The  streams  are  short  and  rapid,  the 
principal  being  the  Urchvy,  runiung  through  Glan- 
orchy  into  Loch  Awe,  and  the  Awe  connecting  that 
lake  "with  Loch  Etive.  The  inland  or  fresh-water 
lochs  are  Loch  Awe  and  Loch  Lydoch.  The  rocks 
of  A.  are  mica-slate,  which  predominates  on  the 
mainland  ;  trap  in  Mull  and  Lorn  ;  quartz  rock  in 
Islay  and  Jura;  granite  around  Loch  Etive  and 
in  Knapdale  ;  patches  of  lias  and  oolite  in  many  of 
the  isles ;  and  a  little  old  red  sandstone  west  of 
Loch  Fyne  and  in  South  Cantire.  Lead-mines 
occur  at  Strontian  (where  the  mineral  Strontianite 
was  discovered,  and  from  which  the  names  of  the 
earth  called  Strovtta  and  the  metal  Strontium 
are  derived)  at  Tyndrum,  and  in  Islay  and  Coll. 
A  copper-mine  exists  in  Islay.  The  Easdale  and 
Ballachidish  quarries  supply  the  best  roofing-slates 
in  Scotland.  Coal  occurs  near  Camiibelton ;  fine 
marble  in  Tiree,  &c. ;  excellent  granite  near  Inverary  ; 
and  limestone  in  most  parts  of  the  county.  The 
fertile  parts  of  A.  lie  along  the  arms  of  the  sea  and 
the  mountain  sti'cams.  The  soil  is  mostly  a  light, 
sandy,  and  gravelly  loam,  along  the  coast  and  the  sides 
of  rivers,  and  gravelly,  with  a  till  bottom,  on  the  hill- 
sides. Sheep  and  cattle  rearing  are  the  chief  occu- 
pations of  the  farmer.  More  sheep  are  reared  in  A. 
than  in  any  other  Scotch  county,  and  nearly  a 
million  acres  are  in  permanent  pasture.  In  num- 
ber of  cattle,  A.  yields  only  to  the  counties  of 
Aberdeen,  Ayr,  and  Perth.  In  1857,  838,535  bushels 
of  oats,  and  10y,(')57  tons  of  turnips,  were  raised.  A. 
abounds  in  deer  and  game.  Loch  Fyne  is  famed  for 
the  abundance  and  quality  of  its  herrings.  Loch 
Awe  abounds  in  salmon,  and  in  trout  uiu-ivalled  in 
size. 

In  many  parts  of  A.  the  peasantry  are  still  very 
poor,  notwithstanding  that  steamers  now  connect 
every  portion  of  the  coast  with  the  commercial 
centre  of  Scotland.  The  manufactures  are  unim- 
portant, the  chief  being  whisky,  in  Campbelton 
and  Islay,  and  coarse  woollens  for  home  use.  The 
chief  towns  and  villages  are  Inverary,  Campbelton, 
OI)an,  Dunoon,  Appin,  Lochgilphead,  and  Tarbert. 
The   three   former   unite   with    Ayr  and   Irvine   in 

393 


ARIA— ARIES. 


returning  one  nieniber  to  parliauient ;  the  county 
returns  another.  Pop.  in  1S61,  83.859,  represented 
as  mostly  using  the  Gaelic  language.  This  exhibits 
a  decrease  of  20,000  since  IbSl,  ^^hich  has  chiefly 
resulted  from  emigration.  Bay-schools,  201,  with 
11,847  pupils;  places  of  worship,  117 — 18  of  Estab- 
lished, 39  of  Free  Church,  and  the  remainder 
divided  amongst  various  small  sects.  The  principal 
proprietors  are  the  Duke  of  Argyle,  the  head,  and 
the  Marquis  of  Breadalbane,  a  branch  of  the 
Campbell  family.  Among  the  antiquities  of  A.  may 
be  mentioned  the  ruins  of  lona  and  Oronsay,  and 
many  dunx,  or  circular  forts,  along  the  coast.  In 
Cantire  formerly  lived  the  famous  Macdonalds,  or 
Lords  of  the  Isles,  whose  power  was  weakened  by 
James  III. 

ARIA  (Air),  in  Music,  a  rhythmical  song,  as 
distinct  from  recitative.  The  term  was  formerly 
applied  to  a  measured  lyrical  piece  either  for  one  or 
several  voices ;  but  is  now  commonly  applied  to  a 
song  introduced  in  a  cantata,  oratorio,  or  opera, 
and  intended  for  one  voice  supported  by  instruments. 
Arietta,  a  short  melody.  Arioso,  a  passage  in  the 
style  of  the  A.,  often  introduced  into  recitative. 
A.  Buffo,  a  comic  song,  &c. 

ARIA'DNE,  daughter  of  Minos,  king  of  Crete,  by 
Pasiphae.  When  Theseus,  with  the  offerings  of  the 
Athenians  for  the  Minotaur  landed  in  Crete,  A. 
conceived  a  passion  for  the  beautiful  stranger,  and 
gave  him  a  clew  by  means  of  which  he  threaded 
the  mazes  of  the  labyrinth,  and  was  enabled  to 
slay  the  monster.  For  this  service,  Theseus  pro- 
mised to  marry  her,  and  she  escaped  with  him, 
but  was  slain  by  Diana  on  the  island  of  Naxos. 
— According  to  another  tradition,  A.  was  left 
by  Theseus  at  Naxos,  where  she  was  found  by 
Bacchus  returning  from  his  triumph  iu  India,  who 
was  captivated  by  her  beauty,  and  married  her.  At 
her  death,  he  gave  her  a  place  among  the  gods,  and 
suspended  her  wedding-crown  as  a  constellation  in 
the  sky.  A.,  as  left  forsaken  by  Theseus,  and  as 
married  to  Bacchus,  has  been  a  favorite  subject  with 
artists. 

ARIA'LDUS,  a  deacon  of  the  church  of  Milan, 
who  flourished  during  the  11th  c.  He  took  a  promi- 
nent part  in  the  ecclesiastical  contentions  of  his 
times.  The  Catholic  Church  in  the  north  of  Italy 
was  then  very  corrupt,  a  wide-spread  licentious- 
ness, originating  from  the  unnatural  institution  of 
priestly  celibacy,  prevailed.  Great  numbers  of  the 
clergy  kept  concubines  openly.  Such  as  looked 
earnestly  in  those  days  at  this  flagrant  evil,  were 
disposed  to  consider  the  strict  enforcement  of 
celiljacy  the  only  effectual  cure.  Chief  among  these 
reformers  stood  A.,  whose  life  was  one  continued 
scene  of  violent  controversy.  Although  succes- 
sively sanctioned  by  Popes  Stephen  X.,  Nicholas 
II.,  and  Alexander  II.,  he  found  little  sympathy 
among  his  brethren,  and  used  to  complain  that  he 
could  only  get  laymen  to  assist  him  iu  his  agitation. 
Having  at  length  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  papal 
bull  of  exconmiunication  against  the  Archbishop  of 
Milan,  a  fierce  tumult  ensued  in  the  city,  whose 
inhabitants  declared  against  A.  and  his  coadjutors. 
A.  now  fled  to  the  country ;  but  his  hiding-place 
being  betrayed,  he  was  conveyed  captive  to  a  desert 
isle  in  Lake  Maggiore,  where  he  was  murdered  by 
the  emissaries  of  the  archbishop,  and  his  remains 
thrown  into  the  lake,  June  28,  lOtifi.  lie  was  after- 
ward canonized  by  Pope  Alexander  II. 

ARIA'NA.     See  Aryan  Races. 

A'RIANS.     See  Arius. 

A'RIAS  MONTA'XUS,  Benedictus,  a  Catholic 
divine  noted  for  his  great  linguistic  attainments,  was 
born,  1527,  in  the  village  of  Frexenal  de  la  Sierra, 
394 


situated  amongst  the  mountains  separating  Estrema- 
dura  from  Andalr.cia.  He  studied  first  at  Seville,  and 
afterwards  at  Alcala  de  Ilenares,  whei'e  he  distin- 
guished himself  by  the  ardour  lie  manifested  in  the 
ac(iuisition  of  the  oriental  languages,  Arabic,  Syriac, 
and  Chaldee.  He  next  pioceided  on  a  tour  through 
Italy,  France,  Germany,  England,  and  the  Nether- 
laiuls,  in  the  course  of  which  he  obtained  a  know- 
ledge of  various  modern  tongues.  He  was  present 
at  the  celebrated  Council  of  Trent ;  but  on  his  return 
to  his  own  country,  he  resolved  to  retire  into  seclu- 
sion, and  dedicate  his  whole  time  to  Literature.  In 
1508,  however,  Philip  II.  persuaded  him  to  repair 
to  Antwerp  and  su])erintend  the  publication  of  the 
famous  edition  of  the  '  Polyglot  Bible,'  executed  in 
that  city  at  the  suggestion  of  the  printer,  Christo- 
pher Plantin.  After  four  years'  labour,  the  woik 
was  issued  under  the  title  Biblia  Sacra,  JJebraice, 
Chaldaicc,  Grace,  et  Latine.  PhUijipi  11.  Regis 
C'ntholui  Pittate  ct  Studio  ad  Sacrofiauct(e  Ecclesice 
Usnni  Chph  Flantinus  excudebat.  It  was  received 
with  universal  applause.  The  Jesuits,  to  whom  A. 
was  sincerely  and  strenuously  opposed,  alone 
attempted  to  fasten  the  charge  of  heresy  on  the 
author,  who  made  several  journeys  to  Rome  to 
clear  himself  of  the  accusation.  Philip  II.  rewarded 
him  with  a  pension  of  2nu0  ducats,  besides  bestow- 
ing on  him  various  other  emoluments.  He  died  at 
Seville  in  1598.  His  literary  works  arc  very  nume- 
rous. They  relate  princi])ally  to  the  Bible  and  to 
Jewish  antiquities  ;  but  he  also  wrot^e  a  poem  on 
Rhetoric,  and  a  History  of  Nature. 

ARI'CA,  a  seaport  of  Moquega,  the  most  southci^ 
ly  department  of  Peru,  in  hit.  18°  28'  S.,  and  long. 
70°  24'  W.  Though  it  has  merely  a  roadstead,  it 
affords  safe  anchorage  to  shiy>ping,  and  is  one  of  the 
chief  outlets  of  the  trade  of  Bolivia,  being  connected 
with  La  Paz  in  that  republic  l)y  a  mule-path  which 
leads  across  the  west  Cordillera  of  the  Andes. 
Its  exports  mostly  consist  of  copper,  silver,  alpaca 
wool,  and  guano.  A.  is  subject  to  intermittent 
fevers,  and  has  frequently  suffered  from  earthquakes. 
It  is,  therefore,  merely  a  village,  though  possessed 
of  a  custom-house,  a  ])ier,  and  a  battery.  The  lead- 
ing merchants  do  not  reside  at  A.,  but  at  Tacna, 
about  30  miles  up  the  coimtry,  the  chief  city  of  the 
department,  with  10,000  inhabitants. 

ARICHAT,  a  seaport  of  Cape  Breton  Island,  in 
the  province  of  Nova  Scotia,  in  lat.  45°  28'  N.,  and 
long.  01"  3  W.  It  is  near  the  Gut  of  Canso,  which 
.si'parates  Nova  Scotia  Proper  from  Cape  Breton, 
being  the  most  southerly  of  the  three  channels  of 
communication  between  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence 
and  the  open  Atlantic.  It  has  about  17,500  in- 
habitants, and  is  largely  engaged  in  fishing. 

ARIEGE,  or  ARRIEGE,  a  river  in  the  south  of 
France,  rises  in  the  department  of  the  East  Pyrenees, 
flows  through  a  beautiful  vale,  and  falls  into  the 
Garonne  near  Toulouse. — The  department  of  Ariege, 
which  lies  along  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Pyrenees, 
formed  a  part  of  the  old  county  of  Foix,  the  terri- 
tory of  Conserans,  and  the  province  of  Languedoc, 
is  bounded  N.  and  W.  by  Haute  Garonne,  E.  by 
Aude,  S.  by  the  republic  of  Andorra  and  the  Pyrenees. 
It  contains  some  of  the  highest  mountain-summits 
iu  France,  such  as  Fontargente,  9104  feet;  Serrere, 
9592  feet;  Montcalm,  10,513  feet;  Estats,  10,011 
feet;  Montvalier,  9120  feet.  The  department, 
nevertheless,  has  a  mild  climate.  Pop.  251,850. 
These  are  engaged  chiefly  in  agriculture,  pasturage, 
iron  mines,  and  the  manufacture  of  woollens,  linen, 
pottery,  &c.  The  three  arrondissements  are  Foix, 
Pamiers,  and  St.  Girons.  Chief  towns — Foix, 
Pamiers,  and  St.  Girons. 

A'RIES,  the  Ram,  one  of  the  signs  of  the  zodiac, 


ARIL— ARIOVISTUS. 


including  tlie  first  3i)  degrees  of  the  ecliptic  measured 
from  the  venial  e([uinox,  or  that  point  whore  the 
vernal  jiassage  of  the  sun  across  the  equator  takes 
place.  The  vernal  e(iuino.\,  or,  as  it  is  also  called, 
the  first  ])oint  of  A.,  is  constantly  changing  its  i)Osi- 
tion  among  the  fixed  stars,  in  consequence  of  the 
precession  of  the  equinoxes,  moving  westward  at  the 
rate  of  50""2  annually.  It  is  from  this  circumstance 
that  the  sign  A.  no  longer  corresponds  with  the 
constellation  A.,  which  was  the  case  al)out  'inoo 
years  ago,  when  the  ecliptic  was  divided  into  12 
etjual  paits  called  signs,  each  named  after  the  group 
of  stars  through  which  it  passed.  The  present  sign 
A.  is  ill  the  constellation  Pisces,  about  3ii°  west  of 
the  original  sign  ;  and  although  the  sun  at  the 
vernal  equinox  will  always  be  at  the  first  point  of  A., 
yet  nearly  '24,000  years  will  elapse  before  that  point 
will  again  coincide  with  the  beginning  of  the  con- 
stellation A. 

A'RIL  {arillus),  a  peculiar  covering  of  the  seed 
in  some  plants,  formed  by  an  expansion  of  the 
funiculus  (the  cord  which  attaches  the  ovule  to  the 
placenta)  or  of  the  placenta  itself  This  expansion 
takes  place  after  fertilisation,  and  sometimes  invests 
the  seed  entirely,  sometimes  only  partially.  In  the 
nutmeg,  the  A.  forms  what  is  called  inoce.  In  the 
spindle-tree  {Euomiinns  Europieus),  it  forms  the  re- 
markable orange-coloured  covering  of  the  seed. 

ARI'XOS,  a  river  of  Brazil,  which  after  a  north- 
west course  of  700  miles,  enters  the  Tapajos,  itself 
an  affluent  of  the  Amazon,  in  lat.  9°  80'  S.,  and  long. 
50°  2o'  W. 

ARI'ON,  a  celebrated  lute-player,  a  native  of 
Methymna,  in  Lesbos,  about  700  B.C.,  was  regarded 
by  the  ancients  as  the  inventor  of  the  dithyrambic 
metre.  According  to  a  tradition  first  given  by 
Herodotus,  and  afterwards  decorated  by  the  poets, 
A.  was  sent  by  Periander,  ruler  of  Corinth,  to  Sicily, 
and  Italy,  and  at  Tarentum  won  the  prize  in  a  poeti- 
cal contest.  As  he  returned  laden  with  gifts  in  a 
Corinthian  ship,  the  avaricious  mariners  determined 
to  slay  him  and  seize  his  wealth  ;  of  this  the  poet- 
musician  was  forewarned  by  Apollo  in  a  di'eam. 
He  asked  for  permission  to  try  his  skill  in  music  ; 
and  after  playing  on  his  lute,  threw  liimself 
from  the  deck  into  the  sea.  Here  several  dolphins, 
chai'med  by  his  music,  had  assembled  round  the 
Vessel.  On  the  back  of  one  of  them  the  musician 
rode  safely  to  the  promontory  of  Tfenarus,  where 
he  landed,  and  journeyed  on  to  Corinth.  The 
sailors  who,  arriving  afterwards,  assined  Periander 
that  A.  was  dead,  were  confronted  with  him,  when 
they  confessed  their  guilt  and  were  crucified.  The 
lute  and  dolphin  were  raised  among  the  constella- 
tions ;  and  the  story  became  a  favourite  theme  with 
artists.  A.  W.  Schlegcl,  in  one  of  his  best  poems, 
gives  this  story  of  A. 

ARIO'STO,  LuDovico,  one  of  the  greatest  of 
Italian  poets,  was  born  at  Reggio,  September  8,  1474, 
being  the  eldest  son  of  the  military  governor  of  that 
city.  He  was  bred  to  the  law,  but  abandoned  it 
for  poetry.  However,  at  an  early  period  of  life,  he 
was  compelled  to  exert  himself  for  the  support  of  a 
large  family,  left  as  a  burden  on  him  at  the  death  of 
his  father.  His  imaginative  powers  were  developed 
in  early  life.  In  1.503,  after  he  had  wi'itten  two 
comedies,  with  several  lyrical  poems  in  Latin  and 
Italian,  he  was  intioduced  to  the  court  of  the  Car- 
dinal Hijjpolytus  d'Este,  who  employed  him  in  many 
negotiations.  Here,  in  Ferrara,  in  the  space  of 
about  ten  years,  he  produced  his  great  i)oem  Orlando 
Furioso^  which  was  published  in  that  city,  in  one 
volume  4to,  in  1510,  in  forty  cantos.  After  the 
death  of  the  cardinal,  the  duke,  his  brother, 
invited    the    poet    to    bis    service,  and    acted    to 


him  with  great  kindness  and  liberality.  In  the 
early  j)art  of  1.521,  a  second  edition  of  his  poems 
was  published,  the  Orlando  Fitrinso  being  still  iu 
forty  cantos.  Shortly  after,  he  was  commissioned  by 
the  duke  to  suppress  an  insurrection  which  had 
broken  out  in  the  wild  mountain  district  of  Garfag- 
nana ;  a  task  which  seems  more  like  a  punishment 
than  a  mark  of  honour.  A.,  however,  succeeded 
in  this  arduous  undertaking  ;  and  after  remaining 
three  years  goveinor  of  the  quarter,  he  returned  to 
Ferrara,  whei'C  he  lived  comfortably,  nominally  iu 
the  service  of  his  jjatron,  but  in  reality  enjoying 
what  he  highly  ])iized — an  abundant  leisure  for  pro- 
secuting his  studies.  It  was  at  this  time  that  he 
composed  his  comedies,  and  gave  the  finishing  touch 
to  his  Orlando.  At  length,  in  the  latter  part  of 
1532,  that  poem  made  its  appearance  in  a  third 
edition,  enlarged  to  its  present  dimensions  of  forty- 
six  cantos.  He  now  became  seriously  ill  of  a  pain- 
ful internal  distemper,  of  which,  after  a  few  months 
of  suffering,  he  died  ou  the  Cth  of  June,  1533,  in 
his  fifty-ninth  year,  and  was  buried  in  the  church  of 
San  Benedetto,  at  Farrara,  where  a  magnificent 
monument  indicates  the  resting-place  of  his  remains. 
A.  is  described  as  a  man  of  noble  personal  appear- 
ance and  amiable  character.  His  Orlando  Furioso 
is  a  romantic,  imaginative  epic,  marked  by  great 
vivacity,  playfulness  of  fancy,  and  ingenuity  in  the 
linking  together  of  the  several  episodes.  It  takes 
its  name  and  its  theme  from  a  chivalrous  romantic 
poem  by  Boiardo,  the  Orlando  Innaniorato.  That 
poem  treats  of  the  wars  between  Charlemagne  and 
the  Saracens,  confounded  as  they  were  by  tradition 
with  those  of  Charles  Martel,  wherein  Orlando,  or 
Roland,  stood  forward  as  the  champion  of  Christen- 
dom. Orlando  is  the  hero  of  Boiardo's  piece,  and 
fiiiis  in  love  with  Angelica,  a  clever  and  beautiful 
oriental  princess,  sent  by  the  Paynim  to  sow  di.s- 
cord  among  the  knights  of  the  Christian  armies. 
The  story  of  this  lady  being  left  unfinished  in  the 
Orlando  Innamorato  is  taken  up  by  A.,  who  makes 
her  fall  in  love  herself  with  an  obscure  juvenile 
squire,  on  which  Orlando  gets  furious,  and  long 
continues  in  a  state  of  insanity.  Besides  his  great 
W'Ork,  A.  wrote  comedies,  satires,  sonnets,  and  a 
number  of  Latin  poems,  all  more  or  less  marked 
with  the  impress  of  his  genius.  In  1845,  Giam- 
peri,  a  librarian  of  Florence,  announced  that  he 
had  discovered  at  Argenta,  near  Farrara,  an  auto- 
graph manuscript  by  A.,  containing  a  second  epic, 
Rinaldo  Ardito,  describing,  like  the  Orlando,  the 
battles  of  Charlemagne  and  his  paladins  against  the 
Saracens.  The  manuscript  had  been  mutilated,  and 
contained  in  a  complete  form  only  the  cantos  3, 
4,  5,  while  2  and  6  were  imperfect ;  and  it  w^as 
stated  that  the  entire  poem  had  consisted  of  twelve 
cantos.  The  work  was  published  under  the  title 
Rinaldo  Ardito  di  L.  Ariosto,  Framnienti  hiediti 
Pubblicati  sill  Manuseritto  Original^.  (Florence, 
184()).  In  genius  and  style,  it  has  been  found  by 
critics  by  no  means  to  accord  with  the  Orlando. 
Of  the  Orlando  there  are  three  several  trans- 
lations into  the  English  language  :  the  first,  by  Sir 
John  Harrington,  appeared  in  the  year  1034  ;  the 
second,  by  John  Huole,  in  1783  ;  and  the  tiiird  by 
W.  Stewart  Rose,  in  1823  and  following  years. 
In  the  last  only  is  there  to  be  found  a  fair 
representation  of  tho  feeling  and  spirit  of  the 
original. 

ARIOVrSTUS  (probably  the  Latinised  form  of 
the  German  Hccr-fiirst ,  army  prince),  a  (ierman 
chief,  leader  of  the  Marcomanni  and  other  German 
tribes,  was  requested  by  the  Sequani,  a  Gallic  people, 
to  assist  them  in  a  contest  against  the  yEdui.  Hav- 
ing gained  a  victory  for  the  Sequani,  A.  was  so  well 
pleased  with  their  fine  country  (now  Burgundy),  that 

3yo 


ARISPE— ARISTIDES. 


'he  and  his  followers  deteriniiied  to  abide  there. 
Many  other  Germans  followed  him  into  Gaul,  where 
he  soon  collected  an  army  of  120,000  men.  The 
Gallic  people  turned  now  for  help  towards  the 
Romans,  and  Caesar  demanded  an  interview  with  A., 
who  proudly  replied,  that  '  he  did  not  see  what 
Caesar  had  to  do  w^ith  Gaul.'  After  another  mes- 
sage from  Caesar  had  been  treated  in  the  same  scorn- 
ful manner,  the  Roman  forces  under  Caesar  advanced 
and  occupied  Vesontium  (now  Besanfon),  the  chief 
city  of  the  Sequani.  A  fuiious  engagement  took 
place  (58  B.C.),  in  which  the  Roman  discipline  pre- 
vailed over  the  German  forces,  which  were  utterly 
routed.  A.,  with  only  a  few  followers,  escai)ed  over 
tJie  Rhine  into  his  own  country.  IJis  subsequent 
history  is  unknown. 

ARI'SPlS,  the  capital  of  Sonora,  the  extreme 
north-west  department  of  the  Mexican  Confederation. 
It  is  situated  in  the  Sierra  Madre,  the  western  range 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  on  the  banks  of  the  Sonora, 
which  is  said  to  lose  itself  in  an  inland  lake.  Its 
population  has  been  estimated  as  high  as  7G(iO.  The 
surrounding  district  abounds  in  the  [irecious  metals, 
as  also  in  cotton,  w  ine,  grain,  and  live-stock. 

ARI'STA  AND  ARI'STATE.     See  Awn. 

ARISTAE'US  (from  a  Greek  word  signifying  the 
bent),  an  ancient  divinity  whose  worship  in  the  ear- 
liest times  was  widely  diffused  throughout  (jrecce, 
but  whose  myth  is  remarkably  obscure.  According 
to  the  common  tradition,  he  was  the  son  of  Apollo, 
and  Cyrene,  the  latter  the  graml-daughter  of  Pe- 
neius,  a  river-god  of  Thessaly.  She  is  .said  to  have 
given  birth  to  A.  on  the  coast  of  Libya,  in  Africa, 
whence  the  region  is  alleged  to  have  derived  its 
name  of  Cyrenaica.  Hermes  phiced  the  cliild  under 
the  protection  of  the  Uoise,  the  fosterers  of  cities, 
culture,  and  education.  According  to  another  tra- 
dition, A.  was  the  son  of  the  nymi)h  Melissa,  who 
fed  the  infant  with  nectar  and  ambrosia,  and  after- 
wards intrusted  his  education  to  Chiron.  The  great 
diversities  in  the  legend  were  prol)ably  caused  by 
the  fusion  into  one  of  separate  local  divinities,  whose 
functions  were  similar,  and  whose  histories  were,  in 
conse([uence  carelessly  commingled.  After  A.  left 
Libya,  he  went  to  Thebes,  in  Boeotia,  where  he  was 
taught  by  the  Muses  the  arts  of  healing  and  prophecy, 
and  where  he  married  Autonoe,  the  daughter  of 
Cadmus,  by  whom  he  had  several  children.  After 
the  unfortunate  death  of  his  son  Action  (q.  v.),  he 
went  to  Ceos,  where  he  liberated  the  iuliabitants 
from  the  miseries  of  a  destructive  drought  by  erect- 
ing an  altar  to  Zeus  Icmceu-t — i.e.,  the  rain-maker. 
He  now  returned  to  his  native  land;  but  shortly 
after,  set  out  a  second  time  on  a  voyage  of  benefi- 
cence. He  visited  the  islands  of  the  ^-Egean  Sea, 
Sicily,  Sardinia,  and  Magna  Graecia,  leaving  every- 
where traces  of  his  divine  benignity.  At  last  he 
went  to  Thrace,  where  he  was  initiated  in  the  mys- 
teries of  Dionysus ;  and  after  a  brief  residence  in 
the  vicinity  of  Mount  Haemus,  he  disappeared  from 
the  earth. 

This  myth  is  one  of  an  extremely  pleasing  charac- 
ter, from  the  invariable  beneficence  which  is  attrib- 
uted to  A.  It  is  less  disfigured  by  anthropopathic 
errors  than  most  of  the  myths  of  Greek  divinities. 
A.  was  especially  w^orshipped  as  the  protector  of  vine 
and  olive  plantations,  and  of  hunters  and  herdsmen. 
He  also  trained  men  to  keep  bee-hives,  and  averted 
the  burning  heats  of  the  sun  from  the  open  fields. 
Later  mythology  often  identified  A.  with  the  higher 
gods  Zeus,  Apollo,  Dionysus. 

ARISTA'RCHUS,  of  Samos,  a  celebrated  ancient 
astronomer,  of  the  Alexandrian  school,  who  flour- 
ished 281 — 264  B.C.  All  his  writings  have  perish- 
ed, excepting  a  short  essay  on  the  Sizes  and  dis- 
396 


tances  of  the  sun  and  the  moon.  In  this  he  shews 
the  method  of  estimating  the  relative  distances  of 
the  Sim  and  the  moon  from  the  earth,  by  the  angle 
formed  by  the  two  bodies  at  the  observer's  eye 
at  that  moment  when  the  moon  is  exactly  half- 
luminous.  It  will  be  obvious  from  a  glance  at  the 
annexed  figure  that  the  three  bodies  must  then  form 
a  right-angled  triangle,  of  which  the 
moon  is  at  the  right  angle.  The  angle 
MES,  then,  being  observed,  it  is  easy 
to  find  the  ratio  between  EM  and  ES. 
This  is  quite  correct  in  theory  ;  but  the 
impossibility  of  determining  when  the 
moon  is  exactly  half-illuminated,  ren- 
ders the  method  useless  in  practice. 
Besides  in  the  days  of  A.,  there  were 
no  instruments  for  measuring  angles 
with  anything  like  accuracy.  A.  esti- 
mated the  angle  at  E  at  83°,  and 
determined  EM  to  be  if^  of  ES ;  the 
truth  being  that  the  angle  at  E  differs 
only  by  a  fraction  of  a  minute  from  a 
right  angle,  and  that  EM,  the  distance  of  the  moon 
from  the  earth,  is  about  ^-]-^  of  ES,  the  distance  of 
the  sun.  According  to  some  accounts,  A.  held,  with 
the  Pythagorean  school,  that  the  earth  moves  round 
the  sun  ;  but  this  seems  to  be  a  mistake.  Vitruvius 
speaks  of  A.  as  the  inventor  of  a  kind  of  concave 
sun-dial. 

ARISTA'RCHUS,  of  Samotiirace,  a  grammarian, 
who  lived,  ai)0Ut  1.50  B.C.,  in  Alexandria,  where 
he  founded  a  school  of  grammar  and  criticism,  and 
educated  the  children  of  Ptolemy  Philopator.  His 
life  was  chiefly  devoted  to  the  elucidation  and  re- 
storation of  the  text  of  the  Greek  poets,  especially 
of  Homer.  The  form  in  which  we  now  have  the 
Homeric  poems  preserved  is  in  a  great  measure 
owing  to  his  judgment  and  industry.  The  strict- 
ness of  his  critical  principles  has  made  his  name  a 
general  term  for  a  severely  just  and  judicious  critic. 
Being  afflicted  with  an  incurable  dropsy,  he  ended 
his  life  by  voluntary  starvation  at  the  age  of  72. 
The  fragments  of  his  writings  that  have  been  pre- 
served are  to  be  found  scattered  through  the  Scholia 
on  Homer,  first  published  by  Villoison  (Venice, 
1788). 

ARI'STEAS,  an  entirely  fiibulous  character,  who 
may  be  styled  '  the  Wandering  Jew'  of  popular 
tradition  in  ancient  Greece.  First  we  find  A. 
teaching  Homer  ;  then,  some  ages  afterwards, 
born  at  Proconnesus,  an  island  in  the  Sea  of  Mar- 
mora. It  is  stated  that  having  visited  the  Arimas- 
pae,  the  gold-watching  griffin,  and  the  Hyperboreans, 
he  died  on  his  return  home ;  but,  soon  afterwards, 
a  traveller  asserted  that  he  had  been  met  and  ac- 
costed by  A.  Consequently,  neighbours  searched 
the  house  where  the  body  of  A.  was  supposed  to 
be  lying,  but  it  could  not  be  found.  Seven  years 
afterwards,  he  appeared  as  an  author,  and  wrote  a 
poem  entitled  Arimaspeia,  in  three  books,  giving 
accounts  of  Xorthern  and  Central  Asia,  which  were 
copied  by  Herodotus  and  others.  After  thus  estab- 
lishing himself  as  a  poet,  he  vanished  again  ;  and 
after  3-40  years  of  mystery,  reappeared  at  Metapon- 
tum,  in  the  south  of  Italy,  where  he  advised  the 
people  to  erect  an  altar  to  Apollo,  and  an  altar  to 
•  the  everlasting  A.,'  assuring  them  that,  when  Ai>ol- 
lo  founded  their  city,  he  (A.),  in  the  form  of  a  raven, 
had  accompanied  the  god,  and  had  a.ssisted  in  the 
ceremony.  In  the  early  controversy  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church,  heathens  sometimes  quoted  this  tale  of 
A.,  as  a  counterpart  of  the  miracles  recorded  in  the 
New  Testament. 

ARISTIDES,  surnamed  '  The  Just,'  was  the  son 
of  Lysimachus,  and  descended  from  one  of  the  best 


ARISTIPPUS— ARISTOCRACY. 


families  in  Athens.  He  was  one  of  the  ten  lenders  ,  Lais,  but  towards  the  close  of  his  life,  he  is  supposed 
of  the  Athenians  against  the  Persians  at  the  battle  of  j  to  have  retired  to  Cyrene.  His  daugliter  Aiete 
Marathon  (-H»0  n.c).  It  had  lieen  arranged  that  each  seems  to  have  been  a  person  of  superior  abilities, 
leader  (or  .si-ra^^^gos)  sliould  hold  the  supreme  com- j  inasmuch  as  her  father  imparted  his  leading  doctrines 
niand  for  one  day;  but  A.,  who  saw  the  folly  of  this  ,  to  her,  and  she  to  her  son,  A.  the  Younger  (hence 
want  of  unity,  induced  his  comijanions  to  give  uj) '  called  M(frodii!,d-tos,  'taught  by  the  mother'),  by 
their  claims,  and  nuUve  Miltiades  commander-in-chief,  |  whom  they  arc  supposed  to  have  been  systemat'ised. 
which  proved  the  means  of  winning  the  battle.  In  A.,  iu  all"  probabilitv,  publisiied  nothing  during  his 
the  following  year,  A.  was  chief  archon,  and  in  this  |  life.  He  prideil  himself  more  upon  spending  his 
position,  as  in  every  other,  secured  the  general  days  in  what  lie  conceived  to  be  a  philosophical 
respect  of  the  citizens.  Some  years  later,  probably;  manner,  than  in  elaborating  a  philosophical  system 
because  he  had  ojiposed  the  plans  of  Thcmistocles,  j  for  the  benefit  of  the  race. 

that  unscrupulous  leader  brought  about  the  banish-  j  The  Cyrenaic  school,  all  the  teachers  of  which 
ment  of  A.  It  is  said  that  when  an  illiterate  ^  were  probably  imbued  with  the  spirit  of  A.,  and 
citizen,  who  did  not  know  him  personally,  requested  '  merely  carried  out  his  doctrines  to  tluir  legitimate 
him  to  write  his  own  name  on  the  voting  shell,  he  {  restdts,  professed  a  great  contempt  for  speculative 
asked  the  man  whether  A.  had  injured  him.  'No,'  philosophy,  and  for  physical  and  mathematical 
said  the  voter ;  '  but  I  am  weary  of  hearing  him  knowledge.  Thev  confined  their  investigations  to 
always  styled  "the  Just.'"  A.  submitted  to  the  morals,  and  formed  an  ethical  system  completely  in 
sentence  with  dignity,  praying  to  the  gods,  as  he  harmony  with  the  gav,  self-possessed,  worldly,  and 
left  the  city,  that  the  Athenians  might  not  have  sceptical  character  of  their  master.  The  chief 
cause  to  repent  of  their  decision.  Only  three  yeais  points  of  the  Cyrenaic  system  were:  1.  That  all 
later  Xerxes,  with  an  overwhelming  force,  had  human  sensations  are  either  pleasurable  or  painful, 
invaded  Greece.  A.,  hearing  that  the  Greek  fleet  [  and  that  pleasure  and  pain  are  the  only  criterioiis  of 
was  surrounded  by  that  of  the  Persians,  hastened  i  good  and  bad.  2.  That  pleasure  consists  in  a  gentle, 
from  .Lgiiia  to  apprise  Themistocles  of  the  danger,  and  and  pain  in  a  violent  motion  of  the  soul.  3.  That 
offer  Ills  aid.  After  taking  a  prominent  part  in  the  happiness  is  simply  the  result  of  a  continuous  series 
battle  of  Salamis,  A.  was  restored  to  popular  fiivour,  )  of   pleasurable  sensations.      4.   That  actions  are  in 


and  soon  afterwards  aided  greatly  in  achieving  the 
victory  at  Platjea,  in  which  he  commanded  the 
Athenians.  In  477  n.c.  he  introduced  a  change 
of  the  constitution,  by  which  all  citizens,  without 
distinction  of  rank,  were  admitted  to  political  offices. 
As  shewing  the  confidence  reposed  in  A.,  it  is  related 
that  Thcmistocles  having  announced  that  he  had  a 
scheme  very  advantageous  for  Athens,  but  which  he 
could  not  disclose  in  a  public  assembly.  A,  was 
deputed  to  consult  with  Theniistocles  on  the  subject. 
The  plan  was  to  secure  the  naval  supremacy  of 
Athens  by  burning  all  the  vessels  of  the  other  Greek 
states,  her  allies,  then  lying  in  a  neighbouring 
harbour.  A.  reported  to  the  people  that  nothing 
could  _  be  more  advantageous  than  the  plan  of 
Theniistocles,  but  nothing  could  be  more  unjust ;  and 
the  matter  was  immediately  rejected  by  the  people. 
After  a  variety  of  other  pubhc  services,  A.  died  in 
old  age,  and  universally  respected,  408  b.c,  so  poor 
that  it  is  said  his  funeral  had  to  be  provided  for  by 
the  public. _  He  left  a  son  and  two  daughters,  for 
whom  provision  was  made  by  state  bounty. 

ARISTI'PPUS,  the  founder  of  the  Cyrenaic  school 
of  philosophy  among  the  Greeks,  was  the  son  of 
Aritades,  a  wealthy  gentleman  of  Cyrene,  in  Africa, 
and  was  born  in  that  city  about  the  year  4'24  b.c. 
Having  come  over  to  Greece  to  attend  the  Olympic 
games,  he  heard  so  much  of  Socrates,  that  he  was 
filled  with  an  eager  desire  to  see  the  sage,  and 
hurried  to  Athens,  where  he  became  one  of  his  pupils. 
He  remained  with  Socrates  up  nearly  to  the  last 
moments  of  the  great  teacher,  though  he  does  not  at 
any  period  seem  to  have  followed  his  doctrines  or 
his  practice.  AVe  know  that  subsequently  he  was 
the  object  of  strong  dislike,  both  to  Plato  and  to 
Antisthenes  the  Stoic.  He  passed  a  considerable 
part  of  his  life  in  .Syracuse,  at  the  court  of  Diouysius, 
the  tyrant,  where  he  acquired  the  reputation  of  a 
philosophic  voluptuary.  That  his  manners  must 
have  been_  at  once  extremely  graceful  and  accom- 
modating, is  clear  from  the  saying  of  his  opponent, 
Plato,  who  declared  that  '  A.  was  the  only  man  he 


themselves  morally  indifferent,  and  that  men  are 
concerned  only  with  their  results.  Wieland  in 
his  historico-philosophical  romance,  Arisitipp  und 
einige  seiner  Zeitgenossen  (A.  and  some  of  his 
Contemporaries),  presents  us  with  a  charming 
picture  of  the  life  and  opinions  of  the  great  philo- 
sophic sensualist,  who  stood  out  in  strong  relief 
against  the  gloom  and  austerity  of  Antisthenes  and 
the  Cynical  school.  See  Wendt's  De  P/iilosophid 
Cyrenaicd  (Gott.  1842). 

ARISTOBU'LUS,  an  Alexandrian  Jew  who 
lived  under  Ptoleniffius  Philometer  about  175  B.C., 
and  was  considered  by  the  early  Fathers  as  the 
founder  of  the  Jewish  philosophy  in  Alexandria. 
He  was  long  considered  the  author  of  the  Exegetu-al 
Commentaries  on  the  Books  of  Moses  which  went 
under  his  name,  but  it  is  now  admitted  that  the 
work  in  question  was  the  composition  of  a  latter 
period.  Only  fragments  of  it  remain.  It  was 
intended  to  shew  that  the  oldest  Greek  writers 
borrowed  from  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  ;  and  to  sup- 
port this  theory,  numerous  quotations  were  pro- 
fessedly taken  from  Linus,  MusaBus,  Orpheus,  &c.,  of 
which  the  Christian  apologists  made  abundant  use. 
These,  however,  have  long  been  considered  for- 
geries, inasmuch  as  they  do  not  exhibit  a  trace  of 
the  antique  Greek  spirit,  but  make  the  writers  speak 
in  the  tone  and  style  of  the  Old  Testament.  See 
Valckenier's  treatise,  Be  Aristobulo,  Judao  (Levden 
1806). 

ARISTO'CRACY  (Gr.  aristocratia,  from  arisfos, 
best,  and  kratos,  power)  means  etyniologically  the 
power  of  government  of  the  best,  noblest,  or  most 
worthy  ;  and  in  the  sense  which  it  originally  bore,  A. 
had  reference  not  to  a  social  class,  but  to  a  form  of 
government  in  which  the  sovereignty  was  placed  in 
the  hands  of  a  minority  of  the  citizens  of  the  state, 
exclusive  altogeth>'r  of  the  slave  population,  which 
generally  existed  in  antiquity.  It  is  in  this  sense 
also  that  we  use  it  when  we  speak  of  the  Italiaa 


.,    --  .  states  of  the  middle  ages  as  aristocracies.     In  order 

knew  who  could  wear  with  equal  grace  both  fine  to  constitute  an  A.,  it  was  further  necessary  that  the 
clothes  and  rags.'  Diogenes  Laertius  records  a  minority  which  composed  it  should  consist  of  the 
number  of  his  dicta,  some  of  which  take  the  form  highest  class,  in  point  not  of  wealth  alone,  but  of 
of  bons-mots,  and  indicate  a  sharp,  cutting,  lively,  birth  and  culture :  the  government  of  a  minoritv  in 
and^  self-complacent  nature.  A.  also  lived  at  numbers  simply,  being  known  by  the  more  odious 
Connth,   iu    intimacy   with    the   famous    courtesan  I  name  of  an  oligarchy.    Were  the  whole  government 

S97 


ARISTOGEITON— ARISTOLOCniA. 


of  Etighmd  intrusted  to  tlie  House  of  Lords,  even  j 
though  that  body  were  to  become  vastly  more 
numerous  than  it  is,  so  long  as  it  did  not  include  half 
of  the  whole  adult  males,  atid  were  not  elective,  but 
hereditary,  we  should  be  ruled  by  an  A  ,  and  our 
rulers  would  be  aristocrats  in  the  anticjue  sense  of 
the  term.  In  this,  its  political  sense,  the  term  A. 
has  never  been  acclimatised  in  England,  because  the 
thing  which  it  signifies  has  always  been  unknown. 
Our  territorial  nobility,  though  possessing  great  influ- 
ence in  the  government  of  the  country,  has,  at  every 
stage  of  its  career,  been  controlled  either  by  the 
Crown  from  above  or  the  Commons  from  below  ; 
and  thus  it  is  that,  though  more  important  as  a 
social  influence  than  in  any  other  country,  the  Eng- 
lish A.  has  never  assumed  the  form  of  a  ruling- 
cliiss.  When  used  with  reference  to  English 
society,  the  term  A.  has  two  significations — a.  nar- 
rower and  a  wider  one.  According  to  the  first,  it  is 
nearly  synonymous  with  nobiUti/.  In  this  sense,  it 
will  be  treated  of  under  that  head,  and  its  relative 
subdivisions.  According  to  the  second,  it  is  synony- 
mous with  gentrj/,  and  includes  the  whole  body  of  the 
people,  titled  and  untitled,  above  a  certain  very  inde- 
finite social  line.  Perhaps  the  nearest  approximation 
which  we  shall  make  to  a  definition  of  A.  in  this, 
its  proper  English  sense,  will  be  by  adopting  that 
which  Aristotle  has  given  not  of  aristocrat ia,  but 
of  curje.neia,  or  good  birth.  '  Good  birth,'  he  says,  '  is 
ancient  (long  inherited)  wealth  and  virtue.'  {Politic. 
lib.  iv.  c.  7.)  The  question  as  to  the  extent  to 
which  either  of  these  qualities  is  reciuisite  to  consti- 
tute a  claim  to  admission  into  the  ranks  of  the  A., 
is  one  to  which  probably  not  two  persons,  either 
within  or  without  the  pale,  would  return  the  same 
answer;  but  that  the  absence  of  either  would  be  a 
ground  of  exclusion,  is  a  point  on  which  there  will 
be  little  difference  of  opinion.  No  amount  of  mere 
wealth  will,  in  general,  confer  it  either  on  a  tradesman 
or  his  immediate  descendants  (see  Gentleman);  and 
scarcely  any  deeds,  however  noble,  will  give  it  to 
him  who  is  not  the  pcesessor  of  inherited  fortune. 
Neither  Burns  the  ganger,  nor  Shaw  the  life-guards- 
man, has  ever  been  regarded  as  an  aristocrat,  though 
nobody  denies  that  the  one  was  a  poet,  and  the  other 
a  hero.  But  when  the  claim  to  recognition  as  an 
aristocrat  has  been  inherited,  it  will  scarcely  be  lost 
by  the  individual  himself,  however  adverse  may  be 
his  worldly  circumstances,  or  however  ignoble  his 
conduct;  and  it  is  not  difiicult  to  imagine  an  eleva- 
tion of  moral  tone  which  would  confer  it  even  on  a 
beggar. 

ARISTOGEI'TOX.     See  Harmodius  and  Aris- 

l-QGEITON. 

ARISTOLO'CHIA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Aristolochiacece  or  Anarinece.  This 
order,  which  is  dicotyledonous  or  exogenous,  consists 
of  herbaceous  plants  or  shrubs,  often  climbing  shrubs, 
and  contains  upwards  of  130  known  species,  chiefly 
natives  of  warm  climates,  and  particularly  abundant 
in  the  tropical  regions  of  South  America.  The 
leaves  are  alternate,  simple,  stalked,  often  with  a 
stipule;  the  flowers  axillary,  solitary,  hermaphro- 
dite, of  a  dull  colour;  the  perianth  at  its  base 
adhering  to  the  ovary,  tubular,  sometimes  regular, 
but  generally  very  irregular;  the  stamens  6 — 12, 
epigynous  (or  inserted  upon  the  ovary),  distinct,  or 
adhering  to  the  style ;  the  ovary  is  generally  six- 
celled,  with  numerous  ovules ;  the  style  simple,  the 
stigmas  radiating,  as  numerous  as  the  cells  of  the 
ovary  ;  the  fruit  dry  or  succulent ;  the  seeds  with  a 
■rery  minute  embryo  at  the  base  of  fleshy  albumen. 
^— The  genus  A,  is  distinguished  by  a  tubular 
oblique  perianth,  generally  inflated  at  the  base,  the 
mouth  dilated  on  one  side,  and  by  stamens  adherent 
398 


to  the  style,  so  that  it  is  included  in  the  Liimaean 
class  Gi/nandria.  The  species  are  mostly  shrubby, 
and  natives  of  tropical  countries,  some  of  them 
climbing  to  the  summits  of  the  loftiest  trees.  Several 
are  found  in  the  south  of  Europe ;  one  only,  the 
common  BiRTinvoux  (A.  C'lemafitin),  occurs  upon  the 
continent  as  far  north  as  aboiit  lat.  50',  and  is  a 
doubtful  native  of  England.  It  is  a  perennial  plant, 
with  erect,  naked,  striated  stem — heart-shaped  dark- 
green  leaves  on  long  stalks — the  flowers  stalked,  and 
growing  to  the  numl)er  of  sometimes  seven  together 
from  the  axils  of  the  leaves,  the  tube  of  the  perianth 
al)Out  an  inch  long,  and  of  a  dirty  yellow  colour. 
It  grows  chiefly  in  vineyards,  hedges,  about  the 
borders  of  fields,  among  nil)bish,  and  in  waste 
places.  It  has  a  long  branching  root,  with  an  un- 
pleasant taste  and  smeU,  which,  with  the  roots  of  A. 
rotunda  and  A.  lonr/a,  two  herbaceous  species,  natives 


Aristolochia  Clematitis. 

of  the  south  of  Europe,  was  formerly  much  used  in 
medicine,  being  regarded  as  of  great  service  in  cases 
of  ditficult  parturition,  whence  the  English  name. 
These  roots  possess  powerful  stimulating  properties, 
and  those  of  the  southern  species  are  still  used  as 
emmenagogues.  The  root  of  A.  Indica  is  used  In 
the  same  way  by  the  Hindoos.  A.  Serpe7}taria,  Vir- 
ginian Snakf.root,  is  a  native  of  most  parts  of  the 
United  States,  growing  in  woods.  It  has  a  flexuous 
stem,  8 — 10  inches  high,  bearing  heart-shaped  very 
acute  leaves.  The  flowers  are  on  stalks,  which  rise 
from  the  root ;  the  orifice  of  the  perianth  is  trian- 
gular. The  root  has  a  penetrating  resinous  smell, 
and  a  pungent,  bitter  taste.  It  has  long  been  a 
fancied  remedy  lor  the  bite  of  the  rattlesnake. 
It  possesses  stimulant  and  tonic  properties.  It 
forms  an  article  of  export  from  the  United  States  to 
Europe,  and  bears  a  high  price,  being  highly  esteemed 
as  a  medicine  in  certain  kinds  of  fever. — Its  reputa- 
tion as  a  cure  for  serpent-bites  is  shared  by  other 
species,  particularly  A.  angiii' cida  and  A.  gna'co  (the 
Guaco  of  Colombia),  natives  of  the  warmer  parts 
of  America.  The  juice  has  certainly  the  power  of 
stupefying,  and  even  of  killing  serpents ;  and  it  is 
said  that  a  number  of  species  are  used  by  Egyptian 
jugglers,  in  order  to  their  handling  serpents  with 
impunity. — Several  South  American  species  seem 
also  to  possess  medicinal  properties  analogous  to 
those  of  the  Virginian  snake-root. — A.  Sipho,  a  climb- 
ing shrub,  of  15 — 20  feet  in  height,  a  native  of  the 
southern  parts  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains,  is  fre- 
quently planted  in  the  United  States,  in  Britain,  and 
on  the  continent  of  Europe,  to  form  shady  bovvers. 


ARISTOLOCHIA— ARISTOPHANES. 


It  hi\s  very  l.irfie  hoart-sliiiped  loaves  (a  foot  in 
breadth),  of  a  beautiful  green.  The  flowers  hang 
singly,  or  in  pairs,  on  long  stalks ;  the  tube  of  the 
periantli  is  crooked  in  its  upper  part,  inflated  at  the 
base,  and  veiitcd  with  reddisli-ljrown  veins,  having  a 
sort  of  resemblance  to  the  bowl  of  a  tobacco-pipe,  for 


Aristolochia  serpentaria : 

a,  a  flower;  h,  a  flower  not  open,  shewins  the  parts  of  friicti- 

ficution,  c;  d,  the  stamens;  e,  the  stiguias. 

which  reason  the  shrub  is  sometimes  called  Pipe- 
shrub,  Pipe-vine,  or  Dutchman's  Pipe. — The  tropical 
species  are  distinguished  for  their  beauty  and  the 
peculiar  forms  of  their  flowers.  Some  of  them  are 
much  prized  ornaments  of  our  hot-houses. 

To  the  natural  order  Aristolochiacece  belongs  also 
the  genus  Asarum  (q.  v.). 

ARISTO'PHAXES,  the  only  writer  of  the  old 
Greek  comedy  of  whom  we  possess  any  entire  works, 
was  the  son  of  one  Philippus,  and  was  born  at  Athens 
about  the  year  444  b.c.  We  know  very  little  of  his 
history.  Plato,  in  his  S>/mposimn,  relates  that  he 
was  fond  of  pleasure — a  statement  which  it  is  easy  to 
credit  when  we  consider  the  tendencies  of  his  profes- 
sion in  all  ages.  It  seems  equally  clear,  however, 
from  the  vigorous  and  consistent  expression  of  his 
convictions  in  his  various  works,  and  from  the  fear- 
less manner  in  which  he  assails  the  political  vices  of 
his  day,  that  he  was  possessed  of  an  honest  and  inde- 
pendent spirit.  He  appeared  as  a  comic  wi'iter  in 
the  fourth  year  of  the  Pehiponnesiau  war  (427  B.C.). 
The  piece  which  he  produced  was  entitled  Daitaleis 
(the  Banqueters),  and  received  the  second  prize. 
It  ridiculed  the  follies  of  extravagance,  and,  like  all 
his  subsequent  works,  was  pervaded  by  a  contempt 
of  modern  life,  and  an  admiration  of  the  sentiments 
and  manners  of  the  earlier  generations.  Next  year, 
he  wrote  the  BahyloiuatiR,  in  which  he  satirised 
Cleon,  the  so-called  demagogue,  so  sharply,  that  the 
latter  endeavoured  to  deprive  him  of  the  rights  of 
citizenship,  by  insinuating  that  he  was  not  a  real 
Athenian.  This,  in  all  probability,  gave  rise  to  the 
various  traditions  of  A.  having  been  born  in  Rhodes, 
Egypt,  &c.  Fragments  of  these  plays  remain.  In 
425,  his  Acharnians  obtained  the  first  prize.  It 
was  written  to  expose  the  madness  of  the  war 
then  waging  between  Athens  and  Sparta,  and 
exhibits  the  feeHiigs  of  the  '  peace-party'  in  the 
former  city.  It  is  still  extant.  In  424  appeared 
Hippeis,  the  Knights  or  Horsemen.  It  was  the  first 
which  the  poet  produced  in  his  own  name,  and 
evinces   the   singular   boldness  of   the   author.     It 


is  levelled  against  Cleon,  and  presents  us  with  a 
striking  picture  both  of  a  vulgar  and  insolent 
charlatan,  and  of  the  fickle,  cunning,  creduious, 
and  rather  stupid  mob  over  whom  he  precaiiously 
despotises.  It  is  related  of  this  piece  that,  when 
no  actor  would  undertake  to  play  the  part  of  the 
influential  Cleon,  A.  himself  impersonated  the 
demagogue.  Unfortunately  for  the  character  of 
Cleon,  as  well  as  that  of  the  Athenian  democracy, 
these  caricatures  and  misrepresentations  of  A.  have 
been  received  as  historical  jiictures.  How  far 
they  are  from  the  truth,  has  been  clearly  shewn  by 
Grote  in  his  History  of  Greece.  See  Cleon.  In 
423,  A.  produced  the  Clouds,  which,  along  with  the 
Knights,  are  the  two  most  famous  of  his  comedies. 
They  exhibit  in  overflowing  richness  that  fancy,  wit, 
hiniiour,  satire,  and  shrewd  insight  which  charac- 
terise this  greatest  of  all  Greek  coinic  writers.  The 
Cloitck,  however,  displays  at  the  same  time  the 
weaknesses  and  limitations  of  A.'s  mind.  Its  aim 
was  to  deride  the  pretensions  of  the  new  sophistical 
school,  and  to  point  out  its  pernicious  tendencies. 
So  far  well.  But  A.,  who  was  no  philosopher, 
demonstrates  his  own  incapacity  to  appreciate  the 
highest  range  of  thought  and  cliaracter,  by  selecting 
no  less  a  person  than  Socrates  as  the  most  perfect 
representative  of  a  sophist.  A.,  who  was  both 
religiously  and  politically  conservative,  had  appar- 
ently no  clearer  conception  of  abstract  truth  than 
is  involved  in  reverence  for  the  sanctities  of  the 
past,  the  old  gods,  old  traditions,  old  manners,  and 
old  sentiments.  He  had  an  instinctive  hatied  of 
innovations,  and  considered  all  equally  pernicious. 
As  he  had  represented  Cleon  the  reformer  as  a 
vulgar  innovator  and  demagogue,  ruled  by  the  lowest 
considerations,  he  makes  the  innovating  views  of 
Socrates  also  proceed  from  corrupt  motives,  veiled 
perhaps  with  more  craft.  Alcibiades  is  caricatured 
in  this  brilliant  comedy  as  a  wildly  extravagant 
youth,  whose  career  of  ruin  is  accelerated  by  the 
insidious  instructions  of  Socrates ;  and  a  hint  is 
thrown  out  towards  the  end  of  the  piece,  which 
unfortunately  proved  to  be  the  'shadow'  of  a 
'coining  event.'  A.  represents  the  father  of  Alci- 
biades as  about  to  burn  the  philosopher  and  his 
whole  phroniisterion  (subtlety-shop)  ;  and  there  can 
be  little  doubt  that  this  dramatic  vilification  of  the 
purest  of  heathen  moralists  led  to  that  persecution 
which,  twenty  years  later,  culminated  in  his  con- 
demnation and  death.  In  422  ap[)eared  the  Wasps, 
still  extant,  in  which  the  popular  courts  of  justice 
are  attacked :  and  three  years  later,  in  his  Peace, 
he  returns  to  the  subject  of  the  Peloponnesian 
war,  which  is  ridiculed  with  great  cleverness.  In 
414  he  produced  two  comedies,  Amphiaratis  and 
the  Birds,  both  of  which  caricature,  in  the  liveliest 
manner,  the  Sicilian  expedition,  then  being  medi- 
tated, but  which  proved  so  utter  a  failure.  The 
Lysistrata  belongs  to  the  year  411,  and  exhibits  a  civil 
war  of  the  sexes,  as  the  monstrous  issue  of  that  in 
the  Peloponnesus.  In  his  Plutus  and  Ecclesiazics(t, 
which  respectively  appeared  in  408  and  392,  true  to 
his  mission  as  the  enemy  of  innovation,  he  assailed 
the  new  passion  for  Doric  manners  and  instittitions, 
and  ventured  to  ridicule  Plato,  in  that,  however,  in 
which  the  philosopher  is  weakest — namely,  his  polit- 
ical theory.  Eiu-ipides,  also,  as  the  sophist  among 
poets,  is  severely  handled  in  the  Frogs,  which  belongs 
to  the  year  4()o. 

A.  wrote  fifty-four  comedies,  of  which  only  eleven 
are  extant.  He  is  acknowledged  to  stand  far  above 
all  his  contemporaries  or  successors  of  the  middle 
and  new  comedy  in  wealth  of  fancy  and  beauty  of 
language.  His  choruses  bometitues  exhibit  the 
purest  spirit  of  poetry  ;  and  Plato  himself  says  that 
the  soul  of  A.  was  a  temple  for  the  Graces.    The 

899 


ARISTOTELIA— ARISTOTLE. 


ingenuity  which  he  disphiys  in  the  mechanical  arti- 
fices of  verse  is  not  less  wonderful.  Frogs  are  made 
to  ctoak  choruses,  pigs  to  giunt  through  a  series  of 
iambics,  and  words  are  coined  of  amazing  length — 
the  Ecdcsiazuste  closes  with  one  composed  of  170 
letters.  It  only  remains  to  be  added,  what  might 
naturally  be  expected,  that  the  personalities  in  which 
A.  indulged  descend  at  times  into  coarseness  and  in- 
decency, and  that  even  the  gods  whom  he  undertook 
to  defend  are  treated  with  levity,  and  placed  in  the 
most  ludicrous  lights. 

The  comedies  of  A.  have  been  edited  bv  Brunck 
;i781— 1783,)  Dindorf  (1794— 1826),  Bckker  (1829). 
They  have  all  been  translated  into  German  by  Voss 
(Brunswick,  1821,)  and  there  are  several  translations 
of  single  plays  into  English. 

ARISTOTE'LIA.     See  Macqui. 

A'RISTOTLE  was  born  at  the  Grecian  colonial 
town  of  Stagcira,  on  the  west  side  of  the  Strymonic 
Gulf  (now  tlie  Gulf  of  Contessa,  in  Turkey  in  Europe), 
in  the  year  384  B.C.  He  belonged  to  a  family  in 
which  the  practice  of  physic  was  hereditary.  His 
father,  Nikomachus,  was  the  friend  and  physician  of 
Amyntas  II.,  king  of  Macedonia,  father  of  Philip,  and 
grandfather  of  Alexander  the  Great.  A.  lost  both 
parents  while  he  was  quite  young,  and  was  brought 
up  under  the  care  of  Proxcnus,  a  citizen  of  Atarneus, 
in  Asia  Minor,  who  was  then  settled  at  Stageira. 
It  is  to  be  conjectured  that  his  education,  such  as  it 
■was,  would  take  the  direction  of  preparing  him  for 
the  family  profession,  and  that  whatever  knowledge 
and  power  of  manipulation  attached  to  the  practice 
of  physic  at  that  time,  would  rank  among  his  early 
acquisitions.  In  after-life,  he  occupied  himself  largely 
in  the  dissecting  of  animals,  and  was  acquainted  with 
all  the  facts  that  had  been  derived  from  this  source 
by  others  before  him.  It  seems  probable,  however, 
that  he  early  abandoned  the  intention  of  following 
physic  as  a  profession,  and  aspired  to  that  cultivation 
of  universal  knowledge  for  its  own  sake,  in  which  he 
attained  a  distinction  without  parallel  in  the  history 
of  the  human  race. 

In  his  18th  year  (367  B.C.)  he  left  Stageira  for 
Athens,  then  the  intellectual  centre  of  Greece  and 
of  the  civilized  world.  Plato,  on  whom  he  doubtless 
had  his  eye  as  his  chief  instructor,  was  then  absent 
at  Syracuse  in  that  extraordinary  episode  of  his  life, 
connecting  him  as  political  adviser  with  the  two  suc- 
cessive Syracusan  despots — Dionysius  the  Elder,  and 
Dionysius  the  Younger — and  with  Dion.  A.,  there- 
fore, pursued  his  studies  by  books,  and  by  the  help 
of  any  other  masters  he  could  find,  during  the  first 
three  years  of  his  stay.  On  the  return  of  Plato,  he 
became  his  pupil,  and  soon  made  his  master  aware 
of  the  remarkable  penetration  and  reach  of  his 
intellect.  The  expressions  said  to  have  been  used  by 
Plato  imply  as  much  ;  for  we  are  told  that  he  spoke 
of  A.  as  tlie  '  Intellect  of  the  School.'  Unfortunately, 
there  is  a  total  absence  of  particulars  or  precise  infor- 
mation as  to  the  early  studies  of  the  rising  philosopher. 
He  remained  at  Athens  twenty  years,  during  which 
the  only  facts  recorded,  in  addition  to  his  studying 
with  Plato,  are,  that  he  set  up  a  class  of  rhetoric, 
and  that  in  so  doing,  he  became  the  rival  of  the 
celebrated  orator  and  rhetorical  teacher,  Isocrates, 
Avhom  he  appears  to  have  attacked  with  great  sever- 
ity. It  was  in  the  schools  of  rhetoric  that  the  young 
men  of  Athens  got  the  principal  part  of  their  educa- 
tion for  public  Hfe.  They  learned  the  art  of  speaking 
before  the  Dikasteries,  or  courts  of  law,  and  the  pub- 
lic assembly,  with  efficiency  and  elegance  ;  and  inci- 
dentally acquired  the  notions  of  law  and  public  policy 
that  regulated  the  management  of  affairs  at  the  time. 
We  can  easily  suppose  that  A.  would  look  with  con- 
tempt upon  the  shallowness — in  all  that  regarded 
400 


thought  or  subject  matter — of  the  conmion  rhetorical 
teaching,  of  which,  doubtless,  the  pievailing  excel- 
lence would  lie  in  the  form  of  the  address,  being  ar- 
tistic rather  than  profound  or  erudite.  One  of  the 
disciples  of  Isocrates,  defending  his  master  against  A., 
w^rote  a  treatise  wherein  allusion  was  made  to  a  work 
(now  lost)  on  proverbs,  the  first  recorded  publication 
of  the  philosopher. 

The  death  of  Plato  (347  B.C.)  was  the  occasion  of 
A.'s  departure  from  Athens.  It  was  not  extraordi- 
nary or  unreasonable  that  A.  should  hope  to  succeed 
his  master  as  the  chief  of  his  school,  named  the  Acad- 
emy. We  now  know  that  no  other  man  then  exist- 
ing had  an  equal  title  to  that  pre-eminence.  Plato, 
however,  left  his  nephew  Spensippus  as  his  successor. 
We  may  suppose  the  disappointment  thus  arising  to 
have  been  the  principal  circumstance  that  determined 
A.  to  stay  no  longer  in  Athens;  but  there  are  also 
other  reasons  that  may  be  assigned,  ari.«ing  out  of 
his  relations  with  the  Macedonian  royal  family  at  a 
time  when  the  Athenians  and  Philip  had  come  into 
open  enmity. 

Whatever  may  be  the  explanation,  he  went  in 
his  thirty-seventh  year,  after  a  stay  of  nearly  twenty 
years  in  Athens,  to  the  Mysian  town  of  Atarneus, 
in  Asia  Minor,  opposite  to  the  island  of  Lesbos. 
Here  he  lived  with  Hermeias,  the  chief  of  the 
town,  a  man  of  singular  energy  and  ability,  who 
had  conquered  his  dominion  for  himself  from  the 
Persians,  at  that  time  masters  of  nearly  all  Asia 
Minor.  A.  had  taught  him  rhetoric  at  Athens,  and 
he  became  in  return  the  attached  friend  and  admirer 
of  his  teacher.  For  three  years  the  two  lived 
together  in  the  stronghold  of  Atarneus ;  but  by 
treachery  and  false  promises,  the  Rhodian  Mentor, 
an  officer  in  the  Persian  service,  got  possession  of 
the  i)erson  of  Hermeias,  put  himfo  death,  and  became 
master  of  all  the  places  held  by  him.  A.  accordingly 
fled,  and  took  refuge  in  Mitylene,  the  chief  city  of 
the  neighbouring  island  of  Lesbos.  He  also  took 
with  him  Pythias,  the  sister  of  Hermeias,  and  made 
her  his  wife.  In  a  noble  ode,  he  has  commemorated 
the  merits  of  his  friend  thus  lost  to  him  through  the 
treachery  of  a  Greek  renegade.  His  wife,  Pythias, 
died  a  few  years  afterwards  in  Macedonia,  leaving 
him  a  daughter  of  the  same  name.  His  son,  Niko- 
machus,  to  whom  he  dedicated  his  chief  work  on 
ethics — called,  in  consequence,  the  Kikomachean 
Ethics — was  born  to  him  at  a  later  period  of  his  life 
by  a  concubine. 

After  two  years'  stay  at  Mitylene,  he  was  invited 
(in  the  year  342  B.C.,  age  42)  by  Philip  to  Macedonia, 
to  educate  his  son  Alexander,  then  in  his  fourteenth 
year.  What  course  of  study  Alexander  was  made 
to  go  through,  we  cannot  state.  He  enjoyed  the 
teaching  of  A.  for  at  least  three  years,  and  contracted 
a  strong  attachment  to  his  preceptor,  which  events 
afterwards  converted  into  bitter  enmity.  The  two 
parted  finally  when  Alexander  commenced  his 
expedition  into  Asia  (334  B.C.),  and  A.  came  from 
Macedonia  to  Athens,  having  recommended  to  the 
future  conqueror,  as  a  companion  in  his  campaigns, 
the  philosopher  Callisthenes,  whom  he  educated 
along  with  Alexander.  Now  at  the  age  of  fifty, 
he  entered  on  the  final  epoch  of  his  life ;  he  opened 
a  school  called  the  'Lyceum,'  from  its  proximity 
to  the  temple  of  Apollo  Lyceius.  From  his  practice 
of  walking  up  and  down  in  the  garden  during  his 
lectures,  arose  the  other  name  of  his  school  and 
sect,  the  Peripnteiic.  It  would  appear  to  have  been 
his  habit  to  give  a  morning  lecture  to  select  pupils 
on  the  more  abstruse  subjects,  and  one  in  the  even- 
ing of  a  ivrtre  popular  kind  to  a  general  audience.  He 
may  now  be  supposed  to  have  composed  his  principal 
writings ;  but,  unfortunately,  there  is  nothing  known 
of  the  dates  of  any  of  them.     This  crowning  period 


ARISTOTLE— ARISTOXENXS. 


of  his  life  lasted  twelve  years.  After  the  death  of  ,  deal  with  the  extreme  abstractions  or  generahties  of 
Alexander,  the  anti-Macedonian  party  at  Athens  oh-  all  sciences.  It  is  a  collection,  partly  of  doubts  and 
tained  an  ascendency,  and  among  other  consequences,  difficulties,  partly  of  attempted  solutions,  upon  these 
an  accusation  was  prepared  against  A.,  the  pretext  j  last  refinements"  of  the  human  mind.  It  includes 
being  impiety.  With  the  fate  of  Socrates  before  his  '<  many  valuable  comments  on  the  i)iu!osophy  of  Plato 
eyes,  he  chose  a  timely  escape,  and  in  the  beginning  I  and  others  anterior  to  or  contem[)orary  with  A. 
of  322  ii.c,  took  refuge  at  Chalcis  in  Euboea,  where,  !  The  general  terms  and  subtle  distinctions  which  this 


the  autumn  of  the  same  year,  he  died,  aged  fi2. 
He  had  long  been  afflicted  with  indigestion,  and  ulti- 
mately sank  binder  this  malady. 

The  philoxophu  of  A.  differed  from  that  of  Plato  on 
many  points,  especially  in  the  fundamental  doctrine 
termed  the  Theory  of  Ideas.  The  Platonic  '  ideas  ' 
or  'forms'  were  conceived  as  real  existences,  impart- 
ing all  that  is  common  to  the  particular  facts  or 
realities,  instead  of  being  derived  from  them  by  an 
operation  of  the  mind.  Thus,  the  actual  circles 
of  nature  derive  their  mathematical  properties  from 
the  pre-existing  '  idea,'  or  circle  in  the  abstract ; 
the  actual  men  owe  their  sameness  to  the  ideal  man. 
A.  was  opposed  to  this  doctrine  throughout,  although 
he  always  speaks  of  its  author  with  respect,  and 
sometimes  with  affection.  The  whole  method  of  A. 
was  in  marked  contrast  to  the  Platonic  handling  of 
philosophical  subjects  :  he  was  a  most  assiduous 
observer  and  collector  of  facts,  from  which  he  drew 
inductions  with  more  or  less  accuracy.  Plato,  on 
the  other  hand,  valued  facts  merely  in  criticising  the 
views  that  he  was  bent  upon  demolishing,  and  not 
as  a  means  of  establishing  sound  theories. 

The  writings  of  A.  may  be  said  to  have  embraced 
tlie  whole  circle  of  the  knowledge  of  his  time.  Many 
of  them  are  lost :  those  that  remain  refer  principally 
to  the  following  departments. 

Astronomy,  Mechanics,  Physics,  were  treated 
of  by  him  at  some  length  ;  but  here  his  failure 
was  complete,  if  we  look  at  his  writings  from 
the  point  of  view  now  acquired.  He  was  the 
victim  of  capricious  fancies,  based  upon  doctrines 
common  among  his  contemporaries,  accepted  by 
him  as  principles  of  reasoning,  and  conducting  him 
to  the  most  unsound  conclusions.  His  theory  of 
the  rotation  of  the  sphere,  the  necessary  perfection 
of  circular  motion,  of  the  impossibility  of  a  vacuum, 
and  the  like,  did  more  to  confuse  than  to  explain 
the  phenomena  of  nature.  Xor  can  it  be  said  that 
the  time  was  not  ripe  for  putting  these  subjects  on  a 
rational  basis ;  for  he  was  very  shortly  followed  by 
a  series  of  men,  who  both  observed  and  reasoned 
soundly  respecting  them,  and  laid  the  foundation  of 
their  great  subsequent  progress  —  namely,  Euclid, 
Apollonius,  Archimedes,  Eratosthenes,  and  Hippar- 
chus. 

The  thirteen  books  called  Metaphysics  contain 
much  profound  thought,  but  are  obscure  and  de- 
fectively arranged  ;  indeed,  neither  the  actual  ar- 
rangement of  the  books,  nor  the  title  which  they 
bear,  can  be  ascribed  to  A.  himself  The  subject  to 
which  they  are  devoted  is  Ontology — the  science 
of  Ens,  quatenus  Ens — which  he  terms  Philosophia 
Prima,  and  sometimes  Theology.  He  distinguishes 
three  branches  of  theoretical  philosophy,  1.  Physics 
— the  study  of  sensible  material  particular  things, 
each  of  which  differs  from  every  other,  and  all  of 
which  have  in  themselves  the  princii)le  of  change 
or  motion.  2.  Mathematics — that  of  geometrical 
and  numerical  entities,  known  by  general  definitions, 
susceptible  neither  of  change  nor  of  movement, 
capable  of  being  considered  and  reasoned  upon  apart 
from  matter,  but  not  capable  of  existing  apart 
from  matter.  3.  The  First  or  Highest  Philosophy — 
which   studies   the   essences   of  things  eternal,  "un 


treatise   first   brought   to  view,   were   highly   prized 
throughout  all  the  philosophy  of  the  middle  ages. 

He  appears  in  a  very  different  light  in  his  great 
work  on  Animals.  He  has  here  amassed  a  stock  of 
genuine  observations,  and  also  introduced  a  method 
of  classification,  which  continues  to  this  day  as  the 
most  approved  groundwork  of  zoological  classification. 
In  this  work  we  see  perhaps,  in  the  most  advan- 
tageous light,  the  two  great  qualities  of  his  mind, 
rarely  coupled  in  the  same  individual — the  aptitude 
for  observation,  and  logical  method.  The  excellence 
shewn  in  his  various  writings  generally  depends  upon 
one  or  other  of  these  qualities. 

His  Organon  or  Logic  is  his  complete  develop- 
ment of  formal  reasoning,  and  is  the  basis  and 
nearly  the  whole  substance  of  syllogistic  or  scholas- 
tic logic.  This  science  he  almost  entirely  created. 
Mr.  Grote  observes  {History  of  Greece,  part  ii. 
chap.  Ixviii.)  that  '  what  was  begun  by  Socrates, 
and  improved  by  Plato,  was  embodied  as  a  part  of  a 
comprehensive  system  of  formal  logic  by  the  genius 
of  A. ;  a  system  which  was  not  only  of  extraordinary 
value  in  reference  to  the  processes  and  controversies 
of  its  time,  but  which  also,  having  become  insensibly 
worked  into  the  minds  of  instructed  men,  has  con- 
tributed much  to  form  what  is  correct  in  the  habits 
of  modern  thinking.  Though  it  has  now  been 
enlarged  and  recast  by  some  modern  authors  (espe- 
cially by  Mr.  John  Stuart  Mill  in  his  adniiraljle 
System  of  Logic)  into  a  structure  commensurate 
with  the  vast  increase  of  knowledge  and  extension 
of  positive  method  belonging  to  the  present  day — 
we  must  recollect  that  the  distance  between  the  best 
modern  logic  and  that  of  A.  is  hardly  so  great  as 
that  between  A.  and  those  who  preceded  him  by  a 
century — Empedocles,  Anaxagoras,  and  the  Pytha- 
goreans ;  and  that  the  movement  in  advance  of  these 
latter  commences  with  Socrates.' 

A  considerable  portion  of  his  writings  relate  tO' 
the  Human   Mind   and   Body.     In  one  of  these,  a 
short  treatise  on  Memory  and  Recollection,  he  gave 
the  first   statement  of  the  laws  of  Association  of- 
Ideas. 

His  treatises  on  Rhetoric  and  Poetics  were  the 
earliest  development  of  a  Philosophy  of  Criticism, 
and  still  continued  to  be  studied.  The  same  remark 
is  applicable  to  his  elaborate  disquisitions  on  Ethics. 
Perhaps  one  of  his  greatest  works  is  his  Politics, 
based  upon  a  collection  made  by  himself  of  158 
different  Constitutions  of  States;  the  collection  itself 
being  unhappily  lost.  Here  we  see  the  spirit  of  the 
inductive  observer,  which  indeed  is  no  less  apparent 
in  the  works  mentioned  in  the  last  paragraph.  It  is, 
however,  a  singular  fact,  that  he  gives  no  evidence  of 
having  read  the  historian  Thucydides  ;  and  his  only 
reference  to  Herodotus  is  on  a  point  of  natural  his- 
tory. Yet  the  narratives  and  descriptions  contained 
in  the  works  of  both  these  writers  are  probably  of 
as  much  value,  and  as  much  in  point,  in  a  Political 
Philosophy,  as  the  very  best  observations  made  by 
himself. 

The  great  current  distinctions  of  Matter  and  Form, 
Substance  and  Quality,  Actuality  and  Potentiality, 
are  due  to  A. 

ARISTO'XENUS,  of  Tarentum,  a  pupil  of  Aris- 


changeable   and  apart  from  all  that  change,  move-    totle's,  and   one  of  the  oldest  writers  upon  music, 

ment,  and  differentiation  which  material  embodiment  |  flourished  about  330  years  n.  c.     He  was  extraordi- 

mvo  ^  ^^;  TT      -r.,  .,         ,       ,         .    ,        I  narily  active  and  versatile  in  his  literary  studies,  and 

IheMetaphysicSjOrFirstPhilosophy,  does,  mfact,  lissaid  to  have  composed  upwards  of  450  treatises 

2«  401 


ARITHMETIC— ARIUS. 


on  music,  history,  and  philosophy.  On  the  death 
of  Aristotle,  he  fully  expected  to  be  appointed  his 
successor,  and  is  said  to  have  been  deeply  morti- 
fied when  Theophrastus  was  preferred ;  but  this 
statement  is  discredited  by  many.  He  founded  a 
school  of  musicians,  who  were  called  after  him, 
Aristoxeneans,  and  whose  distinguishing  character- 
istic was  that  they  judged  of  the  notes  in  the 
diatonic  scale  exclusively  by  the  ear,  while  the 
Pythagoreans  determined  these  mathematically. 
Except  his  ElemenU  of  Hartnoinj^  in  three  books, 
which  we  still  possess,  only  a  few  fragments  of  his 
writings  survive  in  later  authors. 

ARI'THMETIC  is  the  science  that  treats  of 
numbers  (Gr.  arithmos).  It  is  sometimes  divided 
into  theoretical  and  practical ;  the  former  investigat- 
ing the  properties  of  numbers  and  their  combinations, 
the  latter  api)lying  the  principles  so  established,  in 
the  form  of  rules,  to  actual  calculations.  Some  re- 
strict the  term  A.  to  this  art  of  reckoning,  assigning 
the  investigation  of  the  principles  to  analysis. 

Among  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans,  A.  made 
little  progress,  owing  to  their  clumsy  modes  of 
notation.  Few  of  their  writings  on  the  subject 
have  conic  down  to  us ;  the  most  important  arc 
those  of  Pvuclid  (7 — 10  B.  of  the  Elements),  Archi- 
medes, Diophantus,  and  Nicomachus.  After  the 
introduction  of  the  decimal  system  and  the  Arabic 
or  Hindu  immerals  (see  Numerals),  about  the  lltii 
c.,  A.  began  to  assume  a  new  form  ;  but  it  was 
not  till  the  ICith  c.  tliat  the  Double  Rule  of  Three, 
or  Compound  Proportion,  was  discovered,  and  deci- 
mal fractions  were  introduced.  The  invention  of 
Logarithms  in  the  I7th  c.  is  the  last  great  step  in 
advance  that  the  art  has  made.  Passing  over  the 
elementary  operations  of  Addition,  &c.,  the  chief 
heads,  such  as  Fractions,  Decimals,  Proportion, 
Logarithms,  &c.,  will  be  noticed  in  their  proper 
places. 

ARITHME'TICAL  MEAN  is  that  number  that  lies 
equally  distant  between  two  others  :  thus,  the  A.  M. 
between  11  and  17  is  14,  which  is  found  by  taking 
half  their  sum. 

ARITHME'TICAL  PROGRESSION  is  a  series  of 
numbers  that  increase  or  diminish  by  a  common  dif- 
ference, as  7,  10,  13,  10,  19,  22  ;  or  12,  h)i,  9,  7*,  6. 
To  find  the  sum  of  such  a  series,  multiply  the  sum 
of  the  first  and  last  terms  by  half  the  number  of 
terms.  The  series  of  natural  numbers,  1,  2,  3,  4, 
&c.,  form  an  A.  P.,  of  which  the  diftcrence  is  1. 

ARITHMETICAL  SIGNS  are  arbitrary  marks  or 
symbols  used  to  denote  the  operations  to  be  per- 
formed on  numbers,  or  the  relatioivs  existing  between 
them.  Ex.  (/r.,  7  -j-  indicates  that  7  and  5  are  to  be 
added  together;  7  —  5,  that  6  is  to  be  subtracted  from 
7  ;  7^  that  7  is  to  be  raised  to  the  fifth  power; 
7 -f- 5  =  16  —  3,  that  when  7  and  5  are  added  to- 
gether, the  result  is  equal  to  the  difference  between 
15  and  3.  The  same  signs  are  also  used  in  Algebra  ; 
and  an  enumeration  and  explanation  of  them  may 
be  found  in  almost  any  treatise  on  Arithmetic  or 
Algebra. 

A'RICS,  the  celebrated  founder  of  Arianism,  was 
a  native  of  Libya,  and  is  generally  supposed  to 
have  been  born  shortly  after  the  middle  of  the 
8d  c.  About  the  year  306  a.  d.,  Alexandria  was 
thrown  into  confusion  by  the  violence  of  its  religious 
disputes,  and  in  these  A.  was  largely  mixed  up.  At 
first,  he  took  part  with  Meletius,  Bishop  of  Lyco- 
polis,  in  Upper  Egypt,  a  man  who  was  strenuously 
opposed  to  certain  notions  of  discipline  entertained 
by  Peter,  Bishop  of  Alexandria ;  but  afterwards 
he  became  reconciled  to  the  latter,  who  made  A. 
a  deacon.  The  reconciliation,  however,  was  brief. 
A.  once  more  took  the  part  of  Meletius,  and  was 
402 


excommunicated  by  Peter  in  consequence ;  but  tho 
latter  dying  soon  after,  Achillas,  his  successor 
restored  A.  to  his  office,  and  even  advanced  him  to 
the  dignity  of  a  presbyter,  313  a.  n.  His  new  func- 
tion required  that  he  should  interpret  the  Scriptures, 
and,  as  he  possessed  an  abundance  of  natural  gifts, 
united  with  great  learning,  it  is  not  wonderful  that 
his  preaching  should  have  become  popular,  and  his 
peculiarities  of  opinion  been  vehemently  end)raced. 
The  first  time,  however,  that  A.  was  brought  into 
collision  on  a  point  of  doctrine  with  his  ecclesiastical 
superiors,  was  in  318  a.  n.  Alexander,  15ishop  of 
Alexandria,  and  successor  of  Achilhis,  liaving  in  a 
public  assembly  of  clergy,  while  speaking  of  the 
Trinity,  said  that  it  contained  one  single  essence, 
or  indivisible  unity  of  substance,  A.  alleged  that 
such  a  conception  was  impossible  to  the  hinnan 
mind,  and  accused  Alexander  of  Sabcllianism — i.  e., 
of  destroying  the  distinction  of  persons.  The  dis- 
pute grew  hot,  and  a  conference  which  was  held  to 
settle  it  oidy  embittered  the  disptitants.  In  main- 
taining his  ground,  A.  went  beyond  his  first  state- 
ment of  the  absolute  distinctness  of  person  between 
the  Father  and  the  Son;  he  maintained  that  the 
Son  was  not  co-eipial  or  co-eternal  with  the  Father, 
but  only  the  first  and  highest  of  all  finite  beings, 
created  out  of  nothing  by  an  act  of  (iod's  free  will, 
and  that  he  ought  not  to  be  ranlicd  with  the  Father. 

A.  was  successful  in  securing  the  adherence  of  large 
numbers  both  of  the  clergy  and  laity  in  Egypt,  Syria, 
and  Asia  Minor.  In  321  a  synod  of  bishojis  was 
held  at  Alexandria.  These  deposed  and  excommu- 
nicated A.,  and  active  measures  were  taken  to  let  this 
decision  be  known  over  all  the  Christian  churches; 
Alexander  himself  wrote  numerous  letters  (two  of 
which  are  still  extant),  exhorting  the  bishops  not  to 
receive  the  'heretic'  In  conS('(|uence  of  these  violent 
steps,  the  breach  w as  widened  between  both  parties. 
To  escape  persecution,  A.  retired  to  Palestine,  where 
he  wrote  a  letter  to  his  friend  EuseVjius,  who  was 
bishop  of  Nicomedeia,  a  city  of  Bithynia,  and  not  far 
from  Constantino[)le.  Eusebius,  one  of  the  most  in- 
fluential Christians  of  his  time,  warmly  sympathized 
with  him  ;  wrote  in  his  behalf  to  Paulinus,  Bishop  of 
Tyre,  and  others  ;  absolved  him  from  the  Alex- 
andrian synod's  excommunication;  and  in  323  con- 
vened another  synod  in  Bithynia,  which  pronounced 
favourably  on  A.  He  even  enlisted  Constantine  on 
the  side  of  the  latter,  to  this  extent  at  least,  that 
the  half-pagan  emperor  addressed  admonitions  to 
both  Alexander  an(l  A.,  assuring  them  that  the  point 
in  dispute  was  a  trifling  one,  and  ought  not  to  pro- 
voke a  serious  quarrel.  While  A.  was  residing  at 
Nicomedeia,  he  wrote  a  theological  work  in  verse 
and  prose,  called  Tfialeia,  some  fragments  of  which 
remain,  and  indicate  an  earnest  and  philosophic 
mind,  but  at  the  same  time  contain  expressions 
which  could  not  but  pain  a  believer  in  the  divinity 
of  Christ.  The  Thaleia  is  said  to  have  been  sung 
by  the  Arian  neophyte.  Mho  thus  kindled  the  pas- 
sions of  their  adversaries,  and  increased  the  virulence 
of  the  contest.  The  comedians,  who  were  pagans, 
took  advantage  of  the  occasion  to  ridicule  the 
Christian  religion  in  the  theatres.  The  officers  of 
the  emperor  in  several  cities  wished  to  repress  this 
profane  temerity,  but  the  interference  only  created 
greater  confusion. 

It  now  became  impossible  for  the  emperor  to 
remain  neutral  or  indifferent,  with  safety  to  him- 
self, or  to  the  tranquillity  of  the  empire.  Hosiua, 
Bishop  of  Corduba,  whom  he  had  appointed  me- 
diator betwixt  Alexander  and  A.,  took  part  with 
the  former,  and  reported  unfavourably  of  A.  The 
result  was,  that  Constantine,  in  order,  as  he  thought, 
to  effect  a  final  settlement  of  the  question,  convoked 
the   memorable  Council  of  Nicsea  (Nice,    q.  v.),  in 


ARirs. 


Bithynia,  325  a. P.  Three  hundred  and  eiglitcen 
bishops  from  almost  all  parts  of  the  Christian 
world,  but  especially  from  the  east,  were  present, 
besides  numbers  of  priests,  deacons,  and  acolytes. 
A.  boldly  expounded  and  defended  Ids  opinions. 
He  declared  in  the  most  unambif^uous  manner  that 
the  Son  of  God  was  created  out  of  nothing ;  that 
he  had  not  always  existed;  that  he  was  not  immut- 
able or  impeccable  ;  that  it  was  through  his  free- 
will he  remained  good  and  holy ;  that  if  he  had 
chosen,  he  could  as  easily  have  sinned  as  not ;  in  a 
word,  that  he  was  a  mere  creature  and  work  of  tlie 
Deity.  He  further  allirnied  that  the  Son  of  (lod 
was  not  of  the  same  substance  with  the  Father;  that 
he  was  not  the  '  Word '  or  '  "Wisdom,'  properly  speak- 
ing; and  that  the  Scrij)tures  only  attribute  these 
names  to  him  as  they  do  to  other  created  intelli- 
gences. These  propositions  were  listened  to  with 
great  calmness  by  the  bishops,  but  the  inferior 
clergy,  or  at  least  a  majority  of  them,  manitested 
the  most  violent  opposition.  The  document  con- 
tidning  his  confession  of  faith  was  torn  to  pieces 
before  his  face.  Arguments,  however,  of  a  more 
rational  kind  were  also  employed.  Alexander  was 
ably  seconded  by  the  young  deacon,  Athanasius,  the 
equal  of  A.  in  eloquence,  and  in  the  power  of  his  logic. 
It  was  principally  by  the  reasonings  of  Athanasius 
that  the  Council  was  persuaded  to  define,  in  the 
most  precise  manner,  the  doctrine  of  the  Godhead — 
viz.,  the  absolute  unity  of  the  divine  essence,  and  the 
absolute  equality  of  the  three  persons.  All  the 
bishops  subscribed  it  except  two,  Theouas  of  Mar- 
marica,  and  Seeundus  of  Ptolemais,  who  had  the 
heroism  (for  it  must  be  considered  such)  to  follow 
the  banished  A.  into  Illyricum. 

An  imperial  edict  was  now  issued  commanding  the 
writings  of  A.  to  be  burned,  and  threatening  with 
capital  punishment  all  who  should  be  convicted  of 
concealing  them.  This  change  in  the  emperor's  senti- 
ments as  to  the  importance  of  the  doctrine  at  issue  is 
attributed  by  some  writers  to  his  recognising  the  will 
of  Heaven  in  the  harmonious  consent  of  so  many 
bishops.  A  more  probable  explanation  is,  that  he 
anticipated  the  utmost  social  confusion  from  the  col- 
lision of  opinions,  and  resolved  to  crush  that  which 
was  at  once  the  youngest  and  the  weakest,  hoping 
thereby  to  remove  the  ground  of  disturbance.  He 
was  mistaken,  however.  At  Alexandria,  the  Arians 
continued  in  a  state  of  open  insurrection,  and  began 
to  league  themselves  with  other  condemned  sects,  for 
the  purposes  of  mutual  defence.  The  great  influence 
of  Eusebius  was  also  exerted  on  behalf  of  the  exiled 
heretic,  as  well  as  that  of  Constantia,  the  sister 
of  the  Emperor,  who  had  herself  embraced  Arian 
tenets,  and  in  3'28,  pernussion  was  granted  him  to 
return  from  Hlyrieum.  Constantino  was  very  gra- 
cious, perhaps  because  he  thought  the  chances  of 
peace  being  restored  to  the  community  were  now 
greater,  for  it  had  been  represented  to  him  by 
Eusebius  that  the  doctrines  of  A.  did  not  essentially 
differ  from  those  of  theNicene  Council.  In  330  A.n., 
A.  had  an  interview  with  the  emperor,  and  succeeded 
in  convincing  him  that  Eusebius  had  only  spoken  the 
truth.  In  the  confession  of  faith  which  he  pre- 
sented, he  declared  his  belief  that  the  Son  was  born 
of  the  Father  before  all  ages,  and  that  as  the  '  Word,' 
he  had  made  all  things  both  in  heaven  and  earth. 
The  emperor  was  satisfied,  and  sent  orders  to 
Athanasius,  now  Bishop  of  Alexandria,  to  receive  A. 
into  the  communion  of  the  church.  This  Athanasius 
refused  to  do,  and  a  series  of  tumults  was  the  con- 
sequence. Eusebius  was  greatly  irritated.  He  called 
a  synod  of  bishops  at  Tyre,  in  335  a.d.,  which  pro- 
ceeded to  depose  Athanasius.  The  emperor  was  even 
prevailed  on  to  remove  the  latter  to  Gaul,  though  he 
alleged  as  bis  reason,  that  he  wished  to  deliver  him  I 


from  the  iiiachina'.  ions  of  his  enemies.  In  the  same 
year,  another  synod  met  at  Jerusalem,  which  revoked 
the  sentence  of  cxeomniunieation  uttered  against  A. 
and  Ids  friends.  Still  the  majority  of  the  Ciiirstians 
of  Alexandria  clung  to  the  doctrines  of  Athanasius, 
and  resolutely  resisted  every  effort  to  establish  the 
new  opinions  among  them.  Disappointed  in  his 
expectations.  A.,  in  336  A.n.,  proceeded  to  Constan- 
tinople, where  he  presented  the  emperor  with  another 
apparently  orthodox  confession  of  faith  ;  whereupon 
orders  were  issued  to  Alexander,  Bishop  of  Constan- 
tinople, to  administer  to  Arius  the  holy  communioD 
on  the  Sunday  following.  This  was  considered  a 
grand  triumph  by  Eusebius  and  his  friends,  and 
when  the  day  arrived,  they  escorted  A.,  as  a  guard 
of  honour,  through  the  streets  of  the  metropolis. 
When  about  to  enter  the  temple  in  which  it  was 
intended  tliat  he  should  be  received  with  solemn 
pomp,  he  retired  a  moment  to  relieve  nature,  but 
fainted,  and  died  of  a  violent  hemorrhage.  His  dis- 
ciples declared  that  he  had  been  ]>oisoned,  while  the 
orthodox  devoutly  affirmed  that  God  had  answered 
the  prayers  of  Alexander. 

A.  was  exceedingly  handsome,  but  the  harassing 
cares  of  a  life  spent  in  a  continual  struggle  with  his 
adversaries,  is  said  to  have  given  him  a  worn  and 
haggard  look.  His  manners  were  graceful  and 
modest;  he  was  noted  for  even  an  ascetic  abstinence, 
and  the  purity  of  his  moral  character  was  never 
challenged  by  a  single  enemy.  A.  is  said  to  have 
composed  songs  for  sailors,  millers,  and  travellers,  iu 
popular  measures,  i'or  the  purpose  of  spreading  his 
peculiar  tenets  ;  but  no  traces  of  these  survive. 

After  the  death  of  A.,  his  followers  rallied  round 
Eusebius,  now  Bishop  of  Constantinople  (338),  from 
whom  they  were  styled  Eusebians.  The  reconciliatory 
middle  party  of  Eusebius  of  Cassarea  (died  340  A.n.), 
who  wished  to  end  the  great  controversy  by  abstain- 
ing from  all  strict  dogmatic  assertions  on  the 
matter,  soon  dwindled  into  insignificance  between 
the  two  contending  parties.  Constans,  who  ruled 
the  West  after  the  death  of  Constantino  (337),  and 
Constantius,  in  the  East,  made  an  essay  towards  re- 
conciliation; but  it  failed  at  the  synod  ofSardeis(3-47), 
where  the  occidental  bishops  gathered  themselves 
round  Athanasius  iu  support  of  the  Homoousian 
doctrine  (identity  or  snmenetis  of  substaitce),  while  in  a 
separate  council  at  Philippopolis,  the  oriental  bishops 
asserted  the  Ilotnoiousiau  doctrine  (implying  merely 
similarity  of  substance).  Slight  as  might  appear  the 
verbal  difference  between  the  two  parties,  the  bitter- 
ness of  the  controversy  was  intense,  and  pervaded 
almost  all  departments  of  public  and  private  life. 
Constantius  having,  by  the  death  of  Constans  (oo'ij 
and  conquest  over  Magnentius  (353),  gained  domi- 
nion  over  the  west,  the  Arian  cause,  which  he 
favoured,  triumphed  at  the  synod  of  Arelate  or  Aries 
(353)  and  at  that  of  Milan  (355.)  These  victories, 
however,  were  more  apparent  than  real.  The  Nicene 
doctrine  had  still  strong  support  on  its  side,  and 
was  strictly  maintained  by  the  banished  Athanasius 
and  his  friends,  while  the  Antinicieans,  soon  after 
their  triumph,  were  divided  into  at  least  three 
parties.  The  old  Arians,  also  styled  Anomceoi,  or 
Heterousians,  asserted,  in  the  boldest  style,  their 
doctrine  of  '  distinct  substances.'  The  semi- Arians 
(a  large  majority  in  the  Eastern  Church)  maintained 
the  Homoiousian  doctrine  of  similar  substances. 
A  third  party  held  the  same  doctrine  with  some 
qualification.  Morally,  the  victory  was  leaning  to 
the  side  of  the  Nieteans.  Jufian  the  apostate 
(361 — 3G2),  in  his  hatred  of  the  Christian  religion, 
left  all  parties  at  liberty  to  contend  as  they  pleased 
with  one  another,  so  that  they  did  not  interfere  with 
his  plans.  Jovianus  and  his  followers  in  the  west, 
Valentinianus  I.,   Gratianus,  and  Valentinianus  II., 

403 


ARKANSAS— ARK  OF  THE  COVENANT. 


extended  full  toleration  to  both  parties.  Arianisni, 
at  latit,  was  virtually  aboiislied  in  the  Roman  empire, 
under  Theodosins  in  the  east  (:579 — 395),  and  Valen- 
tinianus  II.  in  the  west.  Among  the  GerTiian 
nations,  however,  it  continued  to  spread  through 
missionary  efforts.  Bishop  I'llilas,  the  translator  of 
the  Bible  into  the  JIa'so-Gothic  language,  had  been 
the  means  of  converting  the  West  Goths  to  Arian 
Christianity  as  earlv  as  348 ;  and  they  adhered  to 
it  until  the  synod  "of  Toledo  in  689.  The  East 
Goths,  Vandals,  Burgundians,  the  Suevi  in  Spain, 
and  the  Longobards  also  adopted  Arianism  ;  but  in 
all  these  instances  the  Nicene  doctrine  ultimately 
prevailed,  most  slowly  among  the  Longobards,  who 
retained  the  Arian  creed  until  662.  The  Arian  con- 
troversy has  never  excited  any  great  interest  in 
modem  times,  though  in  England  it  was  revived  for 
a  time  by  the  writings  of  the  learned  Dr  Samuel 
Clarke  (1675 — 1729),  and  also  by  Whiston,  who  died 
in  1752.  More  recently,  a  part  of  the  Arian  doctrine, 
the  denial  of  '  the  eternal  sonship,'  was  broached  in 
tlie  "Wesleyan  Methodist  Society  by  Dr  Adam  Clarke 
and  a  few  followers ;  but  it  was  soon  suppressed  by 
the  Conference.  Pure  Arianism  can  hardly  now 
be  said  to  exist.  It  has  gradually  lapsed  into 
Unitariauism  (q.  v.);  see  also  Socinianism. 

ARKANSAS,  one  of  the  larger  states  of  the 
American  Union,  taking  its  name  from  the  river 
A.  Thro\ighout  its  entire  length,  it  occupies  the 
right  bank  of  the  Mississippi,  being  separated  by 
that  stream,  towards  the  east,  from  Tennessee 
and  the  north  half  of  Mississippi.  Its  boundaries 
to  the  soutli,  west,  and  north  are  purely  arbitrary 
and  conventional,  and  are  best  learned  from  a  map. 
With  a  length  of  24(1  miles,  and  a  breadth  of  224, 
the.  area  of  A.  is  52,198  square  miles,  being  pretty 
nearly  the  same  as  that  of  England  proper.  In 
1860,  out  of  the  equivalent  33,406,720  acres,  only 
1,983,313  were  cultivated  —  very  little  more  than 
yV  of  the  whole,  or  than  -J  of  the  lands  liable 
to  taxation  as  being  allotted  and  occupied.  Ar- 
kansas had  in  1820,  14,273  inhabitants;  30,388 
in  1830;  97,574  in  1840;  209,877  in  1850;  in 
1860,  435,450,  of  whom  324,143  were  whites,  144 
free  colored,  111,115  slaves,  and  48  Indians.  Though 
nominally  colonized  by  the  French  in  1685,  yet 
in  1803  it  was  still  virtually  a  wilderness,  when, 
as  a  portion  of  Louisiana,  it  came  by  purchase 
into  the  possession  of  the  United  States,  while 
it  was  only  in  1819  and  1836  respectively  that 
it  became  first  a  territorj',  and  then  a  state  of 
the  Union.  The  towns  of  Arkansas  are  small,  the 
principal  being  Little  Rock,  which  is  the  scat  of  gov- 
ernment, wth  3727  inhabitants,  Camden  ^\dth  2219, 
Fort  Smith  wth  1530,  Pine  Bluff  with  1396,  Van 
Biiren  with.  969,  and  Arkadelphia  with  817. 

In  climate  and  productions  A.  occupies,  as  it  were, 
an  intermediate  position  between  the  states  of  the 
west  and  those  of  the  south.  A.  is  rich  in  minerals, 
particularly  in  manganese,  zinc,  and  gypsum.  It 
also  contains  the  principal  varieties  of  coal — cannel, 
anthracite,  and  bituminous.  It  likewise  possesses 
lead-ores,  which  are  said  to  contain  a  large  proportion 
of  silver.  The  manufactures  of  the  state  are  com- 
paratively insignificant. 

The  internal  improvements  of  A.  are  confined 
chiefly  to  plank  roads  and  levees  or  embankments 
against  the  Mississippi.  Of  a  projected  railway  of 
155  miles  from  Little  Rock  to  Memphis  in  Tennessee, 
only  29  miles  appear  to  have  been  actually  com- 
pleted. In  fact,  the  state  is  comparatively  inde- 
pendent of  works  of  this  description,  penetrated  as 
it  is  by  so  many  navigable  rivers — the  A.,  the  White 
River,  the  St  Francis,  the  Red  River,  the  Washita, 
&c. 

404 


On  1st  October  185S,  the  jiublic  debt  of  A.,  con- 
fr^icted  mainly  in  support  of  banks,  atnounted  to 
;i, 138, 972  dollars,  nearly  half  of  it  rcprtscnting 
'interest  accrued  and  unpaid.'  Tiie  revenue  for  the 
preceding  two  years  was  945,884  dollars,  being 
generally  the  result  of  a  direct  assessment  on  pro- 
perty of  almost  every  description — lands,  houses, 
furniture,  horses,  mules,  cuttle,  stock-in-trade  of  all 
trades,  gold  watches,  jewellery,  &c. 

The  state  legislature  meets  only  once  in  two  years. 
To  the  Lower  House  of  Congress,  A.,  in  the  propor- 
tion of  its  population,  sends  two  representatives  ; 
while,  like  every  other  state,  it  has  two  senators  in 
the  Upper  House. 

ARKA'NSAS  RIVER,  next  to  the  Missouri  the 
largest  aflluent  of  the  Mississippi.  It  is  2u(iO  miles 
long,  rising  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  on  the  borders 
of  Utah,  atid  joining  the  'Father  of  Waters'  in  lat. 
33°  54'  N.,  and  long.  91°  li»'  W.  Flowing  gener- 
ally through  a  level  counfiy,  it  presents  V>ut  few 
obstacles  to  navigation.  Tlie  principal  diniculty  is 
coiiiucted  with  its  periodical  rise  and  fill — the 
dill'erence  between  season  and  season  being  not 
less  than  25  feet.  Notwithstanding  this,  however, 
the  A.  is  practicable  for  steamboats  during  nine 
months  of  the  year,  to  a  distance  of  8(m>  miles 
from  its  mouth.  It  divides  the  state  which  takes 
its  name  into  nearly  eipial  parts,  vnrying  in  breadth 
within  tin;  limils  of  the  same  from  3  furlongs  to  half 
a  mile.  lis  banks  also,  in  its  lower  course,  contain 
a  good  deal  of  stone-coal.     - 

A'RKLOW,  a  seaport  town  in  the  south-cast 
corner  of  Wicklow  county,  in  lat.  43°  40'  N., 
and  long.  4°  38'  W.,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Avoca,  which  is  crossed  here  by  a  bridge  of  nine- 
teen arches.  It  consists  of  an  upper  well-built  town, 
and  a  lower,  inhalnted  by  fishermen.  200  boats 
are  employed  in  the  herring  and  oyster  fishery. 
Near  the  town  is  Shelton  Abbey,  the  scat  of  the 
Earl  of  Wicklow.  Sand-banks  unfit  the  harbour  for 
ships  of  any  size,  and  extensive  sand-dunes  exist  on 
tiie  adjacent  coast.  In  1798,  a  bloody  encounter 
took  ])lace  here  between  the  royal  troops  and  the 
L'nited  Irishmen.     Pop.  4760. 

ARK  OF  THE  COVENANT,  ARK  OF  THE 
TESTIMONY,  or  ARK  OF  JEHOVAH,  one  of 
the  most  important  parts  of  the  furniture  of  the 
tabernacle,  which,  by  divine  direction,  the  Isiaelitcs 
constructed  in  the  wihh'rness,  and  afterwards  of 
the  temple  bnilt  by  Solomon  at  Jerusalem.  A 
description  of  it  is  to  be  found  in  Exodus  xxv.,  in 
the  command  given  to  Moses  for  its  construction; 
and  also  in  Exodus  xxxvii.,  from  which  it  appears 
that  it  was  a  chest  of  shittim-w  ood  (very  generally 
supposed  to  be  the  wood  of  a  species  of  acacia,  but 
by  some  regarded  as  more  probaVily  that  of  the 
wild-olive),  overlaid  with  gold  within  and  without, 
two  cubits  and  a  half  in  length,  one  cubit  and  a  half 
in  breadth  and  in  height — that  is,  according  to  the 
common  estimate  of  the  length  of  the  cubit,  3  feet 
9  inches  in  length,  and  2  feet  3  inches  in  breaJth 
and  height — the  lid  being  formed  entirely  of  pure 
gold,  with  a  crown  or  raised  border  of  gold  round 
about.  Within  the  ark  was  deposited  the  'testi- 
mony,' consisting  of  '  the  two  tables  of  the  law,'  i.e., 
the  stone  tablets  upon  which  the  ten  commandments 
were  inscribed.  The  golden  lid  of  the  ark  was  called 
the  mercy-seat  ov  propitiatory,  and  above  it  were  the 
cherubiinn  (q.  v.),  made  of  the  same  piece  of  gold  with 
it,  and  between  them  was  the  place  of  the  Bherhiuah 
or  manifestation  of  the  Divine  presence.  The  ark 
had  also  golden  rings,  through  which  passed  staves 
of  shittim-wood,  overlaid  with  gold,  for  carrying  it 
in  the  journeyings  of  the  Israelities,  concerning 
which   very   particular   rules   were   laid    down   (see 


ARKONA— ARKWRIGnT. 


Xunibers,  iv.).  "Whilst  being  carried  from  one  place 
to  another,  it  was  covered  first  with  a  '  covering 
of  badgers'  skins,'  and  above  this  with  'a  cloth 
wholly  of  blue  ; '  and  in  the  tabernacle  and  temple 
it  was  i)ut  into  the  '  most  holy  place,'  into  which  the 
high-priest  alone  was  to  enter  upon  the  '  day  of 
atonement.'  The  ark  was  called  the  A.  of  the  C, 
because  it  was  the  api)ointed  symbol  of  the  presence 
of  God  as  the  God  of  Israel,  and  of  his  covenant 
with  his  people.  The  things  of  the  Jewish  dispen- 
sation being  regarded  as  typical,  and  the  Jewish 
religion  as  essentially  one  with  the  Christian,  the 
ark  is  commonly  regarded  as  a  tyjie  of  Christ ;  the 
ixccllency  and  unchanseableness  of  the  moral  law, 
as  indicated  by  the  place  assigned  to  it  within  the 
ark,  which,  however,  sprinkled  with  the  blood  of 
typical  sacrifice,  was  interposed  between  it  and 
men,  who,  having  transgressed  it,  were  exposed 
to  its  curse  ;  and  the  mercy-seat,  in  like  manner 
sprinkled  with  the  blood  of  sacrifice,  was  interposed, 
as  it  were,  between  the  law  and  God,  who  is  repre- 
sented in  the  Old  Testament  as  'dwelling  between 
the  cherubims,'  and  thence  shining  forth  as  the 
God  of  mercy,  favourable  to  his  worshippers.  A 
complete  harmony  is  thus  made  out  between  these 
Old-Testament  types  and  Christian  theology. — It  is 
worthy  also  of  notice,  that  sacred  arks  or  chests 
have  been  connected  with  the  worship  of  various 
heathen  nations,  and  have  been  placed  as  the  most 
sacred  things  in  the  innermost  parts  of  the  temple, 
Avhich  only  the  priests  were  permitted  to  enter. 
The  relation  of  these  to  the  ark  of  the  Jews  has 
been  the  subject  of  much  learned  inc[uiry,  but  has 
not  yet  received  thorough  and  satisfactory  elucida- 
tion.— The  ark  appears  not  to  have  been  brought 
back  from  Babylon,  and  so  never  to  have  been  in 
the  second  temple.  No  figure  of  it  appears  among 
the  sacred  vessels  of  the  temple  represented  on  the 
Arch  of  Titus. 

ARKO'XA,  the  north-east  promontory  of  the 
island  of  RLigen,  iu  the  Baltic,  almost  the  most 
northern  extremity  of  Germany.  Its  steep  cliffs 
mainly  consist  of  mixed  chalk  and  loam,  with  hori- 
zontal veins  of  flint ;  there  is  a  small  deposit  of  pure 
chalk  towards  the  east.  Myriads  of  sand-martins 
build  in  the  clefts  of  these  cliifs.  The  view  from 
their  svunmit  extends  to  the  coast  of  Jasmund  on 
the  right,  on  the  left  to  the  islands  of  HiddensiJe 
and  Moen.  The  name  A.  is  very  ancient.  In  the 
chronicles  of  Saxo  Giannnatieus  we  find  it  written 
Archona,  but  its  derivation  is  quite  uncertain.  On 
the  west  side  is  the  famous  wall  or  fortified  enclo- 
sure in  which  stood  the  temple  of  the  Wend 
deity  Swantewit.  King  Waldemar  I.  of  Denmark, 
after  a  bloody  conflict,  took  possession  of  the  fortress 
in  1168,  burnt  the  idol  and  its  temple,  and  carried 
away  its  treasures  to  Denmark.  On  its  site,  a  light- 
house, 75  feet  high,  was  built  iu  1827. 

A'RKWRIGHT,  Sir  Richard,  celebrated  for  his 
inventions  in  cotton-spinning,  was  born  at  Preston, 
in  Lancashire,  December  23,  1732.  Of  humble  origin, 
the  youngest  of  thirteen  children,  and  bred  to  the 
trade  of  a  barber,  his  early  opportunities  of  cultivation 
were  exceedingly  limited.  In  17tJ(t,  he  gave  up  his 
business  as  a  barber,  and  became  a  dealer  in  iiair. 
A  secret  process  for  dyeing  hair,  said  to  have  been 
discovered  by  himself,  increased  considerably  the 
profits  of  his  trade.  Very  little  is  known  regarding 
the  first  movements  of  his  mind  in  the  direction  of 
mechanical  invention.  His  residence  in  the  midst  of 
a  cotton-spinning  population  naturally  led  him  to 
take  an  interest  in  the  processes  used  in  that  manu- 
facture. That  the  development  of  his  mechanical 
ingenuity  was  not,  however,  due  to  circumstances,  is 
suliiciently  proved  by  the  fact,  that  his  first  effort 


was  an  attempt  to  discover  the  perpetual  motion- 
Having  uo  practical  skill  in  mechanics,  he  secured 
the  Services  of  a  watchmaker,  named  Kay,  to  assist 
hiui  in  the  construction  of  his  apparatus.  About 
1707,  he  seems  to  have  given  himself  wholly  up  to 
inventions  in  cotton-spinning.  In  the  following  yeai 
he  removerl  to  Pi-eston,  where  he  set  up  his  first 
machine,  the  celebrated  Rpinning-fvamc^  consisting 
chiefly  of  two  pairs  of  rollers,  the  first  pair  moving 
slowly  in  contact,  and  passing  the  cotton  to  the  other 
pair,  which  revolved  with  such  increased  velocity  as  to 
draw  out  the  thread  to  the  required  degree  of  fineness. 
No  previously  invented  machinery  had  been  able 
to  produce  cotton-thread  of  sulficient  tenuity  and 
strength  to  be  used  as  warp.  An  invention,  indeed, 
by  Mr.  Charles  Wyatt  of  Birmingham,  which  was 
patented  in  1738,  but  never  succeeded,  deprives 
A.  of  the  honour  of  having  been  the  first  to  use 
rollers  iu  spinning ;  but  there  is  no  reason  to  believe 
that  he  owed  anything  to  this  previous  attempt. 
The  first  suggestion  of  the  idea,  he  said,  was  derived 
from  seeing  a  red-hot  iron  bar  elongated  by  being 
made  to  pass  between  rollers.  At  this  time  A.  Avas 
so  poor  that  he  needed  to  be  furnished  with  a  suit  of 
clothes  before  he  could  appear  to  vote  at  an  election 
as  a  burgess  of  Preston.  Soon  after,  he  removed  to 
Nottingham,  to  escape  the  poptilar  rage,  which  had 
already  driven  Ilargreaves,  the  inventor  of  the 
sphi>ii}u/-Jeiui>/,  out  of  Lancashire.  Here  he  fortu- 
nately telf  in  with  Mr.  Jedidiah  Strutt  of  Derby,  the 
celebrated  improver  of  the  stockinij-frcvne,  who 
entered  into  partnership  with  him,  in  conjunction 
with  his  partner  Mr.  Need.  In  1709  A.  set  up  his 
first  mill,  driven  by  horses,  and  took  out  a  patent 
for  his  invention.  In  1771  he  set  up  a  larger  fac- 
tory, with  water-power,  at  Cromfbrd,  in  Derbyshire. 
The  remarkable  capabilities  of  his  mind  were  strik- 
ingly evinced  in  the  management  of  the  great  busi- 
ness which  now  demanded  his  undivided  attention. 
Without  personal  experience,  and  with  no  model  to 
guide  him,  he  introduced  a  system  of  management 
so  admirable  that  it  was  afterwards  universally 
adopted,  and  has  never  been  materially  improved. 
In  1775  he  took  out  a  fresh  patent  for  various  addi- 
tional improvements  in  machinery.  The  success 
attending  these  undertakings  stimulated  rivals  to 
invade  his  patent;  and  to  such  an  extent  did  other 
cotton-spinners  use  his  designs,  that  he  was  obliged, 
in  1781,  to  prosecute  at  once  nine  different  manufac- 
turers. The  first  action  against  Colonel  Mordaunt, 
backed  by  a  strong  combination  of  Lancashire 
manufiicturers,  was  lost,  solely  on  the  ground  that 
his  description  in  his  specification  was  not  suffi- 
ciently clear  and  distinct.  The  other  actions  were 
abancioned;  and,  in  the  following  year,  A.  published 
a  pamphlet  containing  a  statement  of  his  case.  In 
a  new  trial,  in  1785,  he  obtained  a  favourable  ver- 
dict. The  whole  question,  however,  was  brought 
finally  before  the  Court  of  King's  Bench,  a  few 
months  after,  when  A.'s  claim  to  the  inventions 
patented  was  for  the  first  time  called  into  dispute. 
On  the  doubtful  evidence  of  a  person  named  Highs, 
or  Hayes,  combined  with  that  of  A.'s  old  assis- 
tant Kay,  the  jury  decided  against  him,  and  his 
patent  was  annulled.  This  was  but  the  formal  out- 
come of  an  opposition  which  had  from  the  beginning 
marked  out  A.  as  an  object  of  hostility.  The  manu- 
facturers at  first  comliined  to  discountenance  the 
use  of  his  yarn.  When  the  yarn  was  made  into 
calicoes,  and  parliament  was  petitioned  to  lessen  the 
duty  on  that  cloth,  they  strenuously  opposed  the 
measure,  but  in  vain.  Poptdar  animosity  was  also 
excited  against  the  man  who  abridged  labour,  but  in 
reality  increased  its  sphere ;  and  on  one  occasion, 
a  large  factory  belonging  to  A.  was  destroyed  in  the 
presence  of  a   powerful   military  and   police  force, 

405 


ARLES— ARM. 


■nitliout  a  word  of  interference  from  the  magis- 
trates. The  energy  and  good  .sen.se  of  A.,  however, 
triumphed  over  all  opposition  ;  and  at  tlie  time  of 
his  death,  in  1792,  the  value  of  his  property 
amounted  to  about  half  a  million  .sterling.  In  17 SO 
he  was  appointed  high-shcrift' of  Dei'bysliire  ;  and  on 
the  occasion  of  presenting  an  address  to  the  king, 
congratulating  him  on  his  escape  from  the  knife  of 
the  maniac  Margaret  Nicholson,  he  received  the  well- 
merited  honour  of  knighthood.  A  severe  asthma 
had  pressed  upon  him  from  his  youth;  and  a 
complication  of  disorders,  the  result  of  his  busy 
sedentary  life,  terminated  his  honourable  career  at 
the  comparatively  early  age  of  sixty. 

ARLES  (anciently,  Arelate),  one  of  the  oldest 
towns  in  Franco,  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
principal  brancli  of  the  Rhone,  after  it  has  divid.  d 
into  a  delta,  in  the  department  of  Bouches  du 
Rhone.  Population  of  the  municipality,  25,.54.3  ;  of 
the  town,  i-t,75n.  A.  carries  on  a  considerable 
trade.  It  has  manufactures  of  silk,  hats,  tobacco, 
brandy,  &c.,  and  forms  a  market  for  the  productions 
of  the  surrounding  counti'v.  It  also  possesses  a 
college,  a  naval  school,  a  public  libi-ary,  and  a  superb 
museum  of  antiquities  in  natural  history.  The 
marshes  which  rendered  the  district  so  unhealthy  for 
a  long  time,  have  been  consideralily  drained,  and  a 
canal  has  been  formed  which  connects  it  with  the 
south  coast.  Railways  also  bring  it  into  easy  com- 
munication with  Marseille,  Avignon,  Nimes,  Mont- 
pellier,  &c.  Under  tlie  Romans,  it  was  the  seat  of  a 
prefect;  afterwards,  for  some  time,  the  residence  of 
the  Gothic  king,  Eiirich ;  and,  in  879,  was  the  metro- 
polis of  the  kingdom  of  Arelate  (see  Bukgundy).  In 
the  early  Christian  times,  several  important  synods 
were  convened  here  (314,  354,  452,  and  475  a.d.). 
Among  the  antiquities  of  A.  are  a  magnificent  amphi- 
theatre, which  could  contain  between  20,000  and 
80,000  spectators;  the  ruins  of  the  theatre,  also  of  a 
palace  of  Constantine  the  Great ;  an  obelisk  of 
granite,  dug  up  from  the  mud  of  the  Rhone  in  1389; 
a  burial-place  (the  Elysiaa  Fields)  used-  by  the 
Romans;  and  a  medieial  cathedral,  in  the  old 
Roman  style,  with  a  splendid  portal  arch. 

ARM,  the  upper  extremity  of  the  human  body, 
consist.?  of  two  portions — the  A.,  strictly  so  called, 
and  the  forearm  ;  the  former  having  one  bone,  the 
humerus  (1),  which  moves 
freely  by  a  globular  head 
upon  the  scapula, forming 
the  shoulder-joint;  and 
the  Litter  having  two 
bones,  the  radius  (3)  and 
ulna  (2),  which  move  on 
the  lower  end  of  the 
humerus,  forming  the 
elbow-joint,  and  below, 
with  the  carpus,  forming 
the  wrist. 

The  humerus  is  attach- 
ed by  a  loose  capsular 
ligament  to  the  scapula, 
allowing  great  freedom  of 
motion  ;  and  were  it  not 
for  the  muscles  passing 
into  I  and  K,  would  be 
tiequently  dislocated, but 
it  is  supported  by  these 
nmscles  on  all  sides  ex- 
cept underneath  or  oppo- 
site the  armpit  (q.  v.)into 
which  the  head  of  the  bone  is  often  driven.  The 
roundness  of  the  shoulder  is  due  to  the  head  of  the 
humerus,  so  that  any  displacement  is  accompanied 
bv  a  flattening,  which  at  once  suggests  the  nature 
406 


of  the  accident.  On  the  shoulder  is  a  large  trian- 
gular muscle,  the  deltoid,  which  lifts  the  A.  from 
the  side.  At  the  back  is  the  triceps,  which  extends 
the  forearm  ;  in  front  are  two  muscles  which  flex  or 
bend  it — the  biceps,  and  the  brachialis  auticus  ;  and 
on  each  side  below  are  muscles  passing  to  the 
forearm  and  hand;  while  on  each  side  above,  the 
great  muscle  of  the  back  (latissimus  dorsi)  and  that 
of  tlie  chest  (the  pectoralis  major)  are  inserted  on 
each  side  of  the  groove,  wlierein  lies  one  of  the  ten- 
dons of  the  biceps  (q.  v.).  The  motions  of  the  ulna 
arc  flexion  or  bending  effected  by  the  biceps,  and 
extension  or  straightening  by  the  brachialis  anticus 
and  the  triceps,  its  projections  I)  and  A  being 
received  in  these  movements  into  corresponding 
depressions  on  the  humerus.  The  movements  of 
the  hand  are  principally  due  to  the  radius,  the  head 
of  whicli  rolls  at  C  and  II  upon  the  ulna  at  F  and 
L,  thereby  turning  the  palm  <lownwards  (pronation), 
or  restoring   the  palm  upwards  (supination),   these 


Bones  of  the  Human  Arm. 


Human  Arm  : 

ahc,  deltoid  mnsole  ;  f/,  coraco  brachialis muacle;  r,  r,  triceps; 
e,  i,  extonsors  of  wrist  and  li)n<r  supinator  of  the  hand ;  km, 
flexor  of  fingers  and  radial  and  ulnar  sides  of  the  wrist,  and 

1,  palm  of  the  hand,  or  palinaris  longus ;  p,  palniaris  brevis ; 

2,  palmar  fascia ;  o,  biceps. 

movements  being  effected  by  muscles,  two  for  each 
movement,  which  taking  their  fixed  points  from  the 
humerus  and  ulna,  pull  the  radius  round  on  the 
latter.  The  elbow-joint  is  ginglymoid  or  hinge-like, 
and  therefore  has  strong  lateral  ligaments ;  but  it  is 
extremely  liable  to  dislocations,  often  accompanied 
by  fracture,  especially  in  the  young.  The  accident 
being  followed  by  severe  inflammation,  the  joint 
is  very  apt  to  stift'en,  thereby  seriously  (see  Anky- 
losis) deteriorating  from  the  usefulness  of  the 
limb ;  it  is,  therefore,  unadvisable  to  keep  the 
limb  too  long  in  any  one  position  after  such  an 
injury.  This  joint  is  also  very  liable  to  di'jease  ;  but 
as  this  is  confined  to  the  ends  of  the  bones,  the 
small  portions  of  the  latter  affected  can  be  readily 
cut  out,  and  the  arm  be  restored  to  usefulness  and 
mobility  in  a  few  weeks. 

The  upper  extremity  is  supplied  \rith  blood  by 


ARM— ARMADA. 


the  brachiul  artery,  the  continuation  of  the  axillary 
trunk.  The  veins  "collect  into  luijre  superficial  trunks, 
which  unite  at  the  bend  of  the  elbow,  at  which  situ- 
ation one  is  frequently  selected  for  venesection,  and 
then  pass  on  to  the  axillary,  on  the  outside  by  the 
cephalic  vein,  on  the  inner  side  by  the  basilic. 

The  nerves  pass  down  as  large  cords  by  the  side 
of  the  artery,  and  diverge  from  it  to  their  ultimate 
distributions;  the  musculo-spiral  soon  passing 
round  at  the  back  to  appear  on  the  outside,  and 
become  the  radial  and  posterior  interosseous  nerves ; 
the  ulnar  running  behind  the  internal  condyle,  X, 
for  which  it  has  obtained  the  term  'funny  bone,' 
from  the  electric-like  thrill  which  passes  along  the 
arm  when  the  nerve  is  struck  or  pressed.  The 
median,  as  its  name  implies,  keeps  a  middle  course 
vpith  the  artery. 

In  woiwids  of  the  forearm,  the  bleeding  is  often 
excessive,  but  may  be  at  once  controlled  by  pressure 
on  the  brachial  artery,  on  the  inner  side  of  the 
biceps. 

The  arm  affords  excellent  illustrations  of  some  of 
the  principles  of  mechanics.  The  insertion  of  the 
muscles  so  near,  as  will  be  seen,  to  the  fulcra  or 
centres  of  motion,  involves  a  loss  of  power  in  the 
usual  sense  of  the  word  ;  there  is,  however,  a  corre- 
sponding gain  in  velocity  at  the  end  of  the  lever  ;  and 
for  most  of  the  purposes  to  which  the  hand  is  put, 
agility  is  of  far  greater  moment  than  dead  strength. 

ARM.  In  maritime  language,  besides  the  obvious 
application  to  weapons  of  warfare,  this  term  is  applied 
to  each  extremity  of  a  bibb,  or  bracket,  attached  to 
the  mast  of  a  ship  for  supporting  the  trestle-trees. 
The  same  name  is  also  given  to  a  part  of  the  anchor. 
See  Anchor. — In  military  language,  the  infantry,  the 
cavalry,  the  artillery,  and  the  engineers  arc  each 
called"' an  A.'  of  the  service — equivalent  to  branch 
or  department. 

ARMA'DA,  a  Spanish  word  signifying  simply  an 
armed  force,  but  applied  specially  to  the  great 
Spanish  fleet  which  invaded  England  in  1588.  The 
king  of  Spain,  Philip  II.,  had  resolved  to  strike  a 
decisive  blow  at  the  Protestant  interest,  by  conquer- 
ing England,  which  Pope  Sixtus  V.  had  made  over 
to  him.  The  ports  of  Spain,  Portugal,  and  other 
maritime  dominions  belonging  to  him,  had  long 
resounded  with  the  noise  of  his  preparations,  and  the 
most  ennnent  Catholic  soldiers  from  all  parts  of 
Europe  flocked  to  take  a  share  in  the  expedition. 
The  Marquis  of  Santa-Croce,  a  sea-officer  of  great 
reputation  and  experience,  was  destined  to  command 
the  fleet,  which  consisted  of  a  hundred  and  thirty 
vessels,  of  greater  size  than  any  that  had  been  hitherto 
seen  in  Europe.  The  Duke  of  Parma  was  to  conduct 
the  land-forces,  20,01)0  of  whom  were  on  board  the 
ships  of  war,  and  34,000  more  were  assembled  in  the 
Netherlands,  ready  to  be  transported  into  England  ; 
so  that,  as  no  doubt  was  entertained  of  success,  the 
fleet  was  ostentatiously  styled  the  Invincible  A. 
Kothing  could  exceed  the  terror  and  consternation 
which  seized  all  ranks  of  people  in  England  upon  the 
news  of  this  terrible  A.  being  under  sail  to  invade 
them.  A  squadion  of  not  more  than  thirty  ships  of 
the  line,  and  those  very  small  in  comparison,  was  all 
that  Elizabeth  had  to  oppose  it  by  sea ;  and  it  was 
considered  impossible  to  make  any  effectual  resist- 
ance by  land,  as  the  Spanish  army  was  composed  of 
men  well  disciplined  and  long  inured  to  danger. 
But  although  the  English  fleet  was  much  inferior  in 
numbef  and  size  of  shipping  to  that  of  the  enemy,  it 
was  much  more  manageable,  while  the  dexterity  and 
courage  of  the  mariners  were  greatly  superior. 
Lord  Howard  of  Effingham,  a  man  of  great  valour 
and  capacity,  took  upon  him,  as  lord  high  admiral. 


Frobisher,  the  most    renowned    seamen    in    Europe, 
served  under  him  ;  while  another  squadron,  consist- 
ing  of  forty  vessels,  English  and  Flemi.'^h,  commanded 
by  Lord  Seymour,  lay  off  Dunkirk,  in  order  to  inter- 
cept the  Duke  of  Parma.     Such  was  the  preparation 
made    by   the   English ;    while   all    the    Protestant 
powers  of  Europe    regarded   this  enterprise  as  the 
critical  event  which  was  to  decide  for  ever  the  fate 
of  their  religion.     In  the  meantime,  while  the  Spanish 
A.  was  preparing  to  sail,  the  admiral,  Santa-Croce, 
died,  as  likewise  the  vice-admiral,  Pahano ;  and  the 
command  of  the  expedition  was  given  to  the  Duke 
of  Medina  Sidonia,  a  person  utterly  inexperienced  in 
sea  affairs ;  these  unexpected  circumstances  served, 
in   some   measure,  to   frustrate   the   design.     Some 
other  accidents  also  contributed  to  its  failure.     Upon 
leaving  the  port  of  Lisbon,  the  A.  next  day  met  with 
a  violent  tempest,  which  sank  some  of  the  smallest 
of  the  ship.s,  and  obliged  the  rest  to  put  back  inio 
the  harbour.     After  some  time  spent  in  refitting,  the 
Spaniards  again  put  to  sea,  where  they  took  a  fisher- 
man, who  gave  them  intelligence  that   the  English 
fleet,  hearing  of  the  dispersion  of  the  A.  in  a  storm, 
had  returned   to   Plymouth,  and   that  most  of  the 
mariners   were    discharged.     From  this  false  intelli- 
gence, the  Spanish  adndral,  instead  of  going  to  the 
coast  of  Flanders,  to  take   in  the  troops  stationed 
there,  resolved    to   sail   directly    to   Plymouth,  and 
destroy  the  shipping   laid  up  in  the  harbour.     But 
Effingham  was  very  well   prepared   to  receive  him, 
and    had   just   got    out    of  port,  when    he    saw  the 
Spanish  A.  coming  full  sail  towards  him,  disposed  in 
the  form  of  a  half-moon,  and  stretching  seven  miles 
from  the  one  extremity  to  the  other.     The  English 
admiral,  seconded  by  Drake,  Hawkins,  and  Frobisher, 
attacked  the  Spaniards  at  a  distance,  pouring  in  their 
broadsides  with  admirable  dexterity.     They  did  not 
choose  to  engage  the  enemy  more  closely,  because 
they  were  greatly  inferior  in  number  of  ships   and 
guns,  as  well  as  in  weight  of  metal ;  nor  could  they 
pretend  to  board  such  lofty  vessels  without  manifest 
disadvantage.     In  this  action,  however,  two  Spanish 
galleons    were    disabled    and    taken.       As   the   A. 
advanced  up  the  Channel,  the  English  still  followed 
and  infested  its  rear ;  and  as  their  ships  continually 
increased  from  different  ports,  they  soon  found  them- 
selves in  a  capacity  to  attack  the  Spani.sh  fleet  more 
nearly,  and  accordingly  fell    upon  them  while  they 
were  taking  shelter  in  the  port  of  Calais.    To  increase 
their  confusion,  Howard  selected  eight  of  his  smaller 
vessels,  which,  after  filling   them    with  combustible 
materials,  he  sent  one  after  another,  as  if  they  had 
been  fire-ships,  into  the  midst  of  the  enemy.     The 
Spaniards,  taking  them  for  what  they  seemed  to  be, 
immediately  bore  off  in   great  disorder;    while  the 
English,  profiting  by  their  panic,  captured  or  destroyed 
about  twelve  ships.       The  Duke  of  Medina  Sidonia 
being  thus  driven  to  the  coast  of  Zealand,  held  a 
council  of  war,  in   which   it  was  resolved,  that,  as 
their  ammunition  began 'to    fivil,  as  their   fleet  had 
received  great  damage,  and  as  the  Duke  of  Parma 
had  refused  t-o  venture  his  army  under  their  protec- 
tion, they  should  return  to  Si)ain  by  sailing  round 
the  Orkneys,  as    the   winds  were    contrary  to  their 
passage  directly  back.     Accordingly,  they  proceeded 
northward,  and  were  followed  by  the  English  fleet 
as    far   as    Flamborough    Head,    where   they    were 
terril)ly   shattered   by   a   storm.     Seventeen  of  the 
ships,  having  .'iOOO  men  on  board,   were  afterwards 
cast   away  on  the  Western    Isles  and   the   coast  of 
Ireland.  "  Of   the    whole    A.,    fifty-three    ships    only 
returned  to  Spain,  and   these  in  a   wretched   condi- 
tion.      The   seamen,    as   well   as   the   soldiers   who 
remained,    were    so    overcome    with    hardships    and 
fatijrue,  and  so  dispirited  by   their  discomfiture,  that 


the  command   of  the   navy :    Drake,  Hawkins,  and  '  they  tilled  all  Spain  with  accounts  of  the  desperate 


ARMADILLO— ARMAGH. 


valour  of  the  English,  and  of  the  tunipei^tuous  violence 
of  that  ocean  by  which  they  were  surrounded. 

ARMADI'LLO  {Da  nypus),  a  genus  of  nianimalia 
of  the  Order  Edentata  (i.  e.,  toothless) — not,  however, 
truly  toothless,  but  having  feeble  tet'th  destitute  of 
true  roots,  and  set  apart  from  each  other,  and  so  that 
those  of  the  one  jaw  tit  into  the  interstices  of  those 
of  the  other.  The  number  of  the  teeth  is  different  in 
different  species.  The  muzzle  is  elongated,  and  the 
tongue  smooth  and  slender,  with  a  glutinous  saliva, 
adapted  to  the  capture  of  ants  and  other  insects, 
after  the  manner  of  the  ant-eaters,  but  not  long  and 
extensile,  like  theirs.  The  limbs  are  short  and 
strong,  as  are  also  the  claws,  and  the  animals  have 
a  great  aptitude  for  digging  and  burrowing,  by 
means  of  which  they  seek  to  shelter  themselves 
fiom  enemies — burrowing  in  sand  or  soft  earth  with 
such  rapidity  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  dig 
them  out,  and  indeed  it  can  only  be  done  by  persever- 
ing till  they  are  exhausted.  IJut  that  which  peculi- 
arly distinguishes  the  A.,  and  in  which  this  genus 
differs  from  all  the  other  mammalia,  except  the 
Chlainj/phorus  (q.  v.),  is  the  bony  armour  with  which 
the  body  is  coveied,  and  which  consists  of  polygonal 
plates  not  articulated,  luiited  on  the  head  to  form  a 
so4id  covering,  and  similarly  to  form  solid  bucklers 
over  the  shoulders  and  the  haunches ;  and  between 


<3^ 


Armadillo. 

these,  disposed  in  transverse  bands,  which  allow  of 
freedom  of  motion  to  the  Ijody,  similar  hands  in  most 
species  protecting  also  the  tail.  Armadillos  feed  not 
only  on  insects,  but  on  vegetable  and  animal  food 
of  almost  every  kind,  which  by  decomposition  or 
otherwise  has  acquired  a  sufficient  softness.  Some 
of  them  prefer  vegetable  food,  others  delight  chiefly 
in  carrion.  They  are  all  natives  of  the  warm  and 
temperate  parts  of  South  America,  in  the  woods  and 
pampas  of  which  they  are  found  in  immense  numbers. 
They  are  timid  and  inoffensive,  although,  when  they 
are  incautiously  assailed,  injury  may  be  received  from 
their  claws.  Their  flesh  is  esteemed  a  delicacy,  par- 
ticularly that  of  the  species  which  feed  chiefly  on 
vegetable  food.  The  largest  species  is  fully  three  feet 
long,  exclusive  of  the  tail ;  the  smallest,  not  above 
ten  inches.  The  species  are  numerous,  and  the  genus 
has  been  divided  into  a  number  of  subgenera,  which 
some  naturalists  elevate  into  genera,  naming  the  fam- 
ily Loricata  (i.  e.,  mailed).  To  this  family  belongs 
also  the  genus  Chlnmiiphorus^  also  South  American. 
Fossil  remains  of  gigantic  extinct  armadillos  have 
been  found  in  the  pleistocene  strata  of  South  Ameri- 
ca, forming  the  genus  Gly'ptodon  of  Owen,  so  named 
from  the  fluted  teeth. 

ARM.iDI'LLO  is  also  the  scientific  name  of  a 
genus  of  Crustacea  of  the  order  hnpoda  of  Cuvier. 
This  is  one  of  the  genera  usually  includecf  imder  the 
popular  name  of  Woodlouse,  and  one  of  which 
{Porcellio)  is  very  generally  known  by  that  of 
Slater.  The  armadillos  derive  their  name  from  the 
408 


scaly  armour  of  their  body,  in  which  an  analogy  is 
found  to  the  mailed  quadrupeds  of  South  America. 
They  have,  in  a  remarkable  degree,  the 
power  of  rolling  themselves  into  a  ball,  when 
alarmed,  so  as  to  expose  nothing  but  the 
plates  of  the  back,  and  have  thence  received 
the  name  of  Till  Beetles.  Like  some  of 
the  other  closely  allied  hopoda,  they  were 
at  one  time  reputed  to  possess  medicinal 
virtues,  now  accounted  merely  imaginary. 
They  were  not  only  used  in  a  dried  and 
pulverised  state,  but  they  are  said  to  have  A^iy"*' 
been  actually  swallowed  entire  as  pills. 
A.  vul(/arig  is  not  uncommon  in  damp  places,  under 
stones,  &c.,  in  Britain. 

ARMA'GH,  a  small  inland  county  in  I'lsteri 
Ireland ;  bounded  N.  by  Lough  Neagh,  E.  by  Down, 
S.  by  Louth,  W.  by  Monaghan  and  Tyrone.  Its 
greatest  length  is  3'2  miles,  and  breadth  20.  It  is 
the  '27th  in  size  of  the  Irish  counties;  area,  51'2^ 
square  miles,  about  four-fifths  being  arable,  and  a 
3fith  part  in  woods.  The  surface  is  hilly  in  the 
south,  and  undulating  in  the  centre,  attaining  in 
Slieve  Gullion,  in  the  south-west,  the  height  of 
ISOo  feet.  The  other  chief  heights  are  the  Newry 
Mountains,  13S5  feet;  the  Armagh-breague  Hills, 
l-JOo;  and  .MuUyash,  1034,  The  country  bordering 
upon  Lough  \eagh  is  low  and  boggy,  and  the  Louth 
plain  extends  into  the  south  end  of  A.  The  prin- 
ci[ial  rivers,  navigable  in  their  lower  parts,  are  the 
Upper  Bann,  flowing  out  of  Down  north-west  for  11 
miles  before  it  enters  Lough  Xeagh ;  and  the  Black- 
water,  which,  in  its  lower  part,  separates  A.  from 
Mona.f.'han.  The  rocks  of  A.  are — Lower  Silurian  in 
the  south  and  middle  of  the  couuty  ;  the  trap  of 
.\ntrim,  with  the  underlying  greensand,  aroimd 
Portadown  ;  carboniferous  limestone  in  the  basins  of 
the  Black-water,  and  its  tributary  the  Callan  ;  granite 
in  the  mountains  of  the  south-east;  and  tertiary 
strata  bordering  Lough  Neagh.  The  soil  is  fertile 
except  in  the  southern  extremities.  In  1858,  179,598 
acres — nearly  half  the  county — were  in  crop,  the 
principal  crops  being  oats,  potatoes,  wheat  and  flax. 
The  stock  in  that  year  was  13,943  horses,  72,170  cat- 
tle, 8o43  sheep,  21,(547  pigs.  The  north  and  central 
parts  of  A.  exhibit  a  dense  population,  low  hills  cul- 
tivated to  the  tops,  hedgerows,  orchards,  and  thickly 
scattered  farm-steadings.  Pop.  in  1861  190,086, 
shewing  a  decrease  of  6702  in  ten  years.  The  county 
is  mostly  in  the  diocese  of  Armagh,  and  contains  28 
parishes  and  parts  of  parishes.  It  returns  three  mem- 
bers of  paiiiament — two  for  the  county,  and  one  for 
the  city.  The  chief  towns  are  A.,  Lurgan,  Porta- 
down, and  Newry. 

Armagh,  the  capital  of  the  county  of  A.,  in  a  car- 
boniferous limestone  district,  in  the  north-west  of  the 
county.  It  is  stuated  round  the  base  and  on  the 
slopes  of  a  gentle  eminence,  hence  its  original  name, 
Ard-Magha,  'the  high  field.'  It  is  well  built,  of  lime- 
stone. The  only  edifice  of  other  material  is  the 
cathedral,  which  is  built  of  red  sandstone,  and  is 
cruciform — 184  by  119  feet — crowning  the  central 
eminence,  and  is  supposed  to  occupy  the  site  of  that 
erected  by  St.  Patrick  in  the  5th  c.  It  has  recently 
been  repaired  and  beautified,  cliicfly  at  the  cest 
('£10,00(1)  of  the  present  Lord  Primate,  Lord  Beres- 
ford.  Lesser  eminences  rise  on  the  north-east  and 
south  of  A.  A  new  Gothic  Roman  Catholic  cathe- 
dral occupies  the  principal  height  to  the  north,  and 
the  primatial  palace  that  to  the  south.  There  is 
a  fever  hospital  for  forty  patients,  maintained  by 
the  present  primate,  and  a  lunatic  asylum  for  four 
counties.  A.  is  the  seat  of  the  Archiepiscopal  see 
of  the  Primate  and  Metropolitan  of  all  Ireland,  who 
has  an  income  of  £12,o87  a  year.  Pop.  of  the  town 
in  1861,  8909-     A.  returns  one  member  to  parliament. 


ARMAGNli.C— ARMED  SHIP. 


The  cliii'fiiiaiiulacture  is  linen-weaving.  A.,  from  the 
vear  4115  to  the  9tii  c,  was  tlie  nietru|iolis  of  Irehmd, 
the  native  kinps  living;  at  Eaniania,  2  miles  to  the 
west  of  the  city.  It  was  then  renowned  as  a  school 
of  theolo<^y  and  literature — its  college  being  the  first 
in  Enrope.  After  the  Keformation,  it  suffered  severely 
in  the  conflicts  between  the  English  an<l  Irish  ;  and 
it  contained  only  three  slated  houses  iu  17(J5. 

ARMAGXAC  {Ager  Areinonicus),  the  old  name 
of  a  district  in  the  south  of  France,  which  at  one 
time  seems  to  liave  extended  from  the  valleys  of  the 
Pyrenees  to  the  Garonne.  It  is  now  included  in 
the  dcpartmetits  of  Ilautes  Pyrenees  and  Gers.  The 
remaikably  fertile  land,  producing  grain  and  the 
best  descriptions  of  wine,  and  also  faAOurablc  for 
pasturage,  is  cut  up  into  an  extraordinary  number 
of  small  estates,  and  divided  among  luuncrous  petty 
propiietors.  The  principal  branch  of  trade  is  the 
distillation  of  the  brandy  known  in  commerco  as 
£!au  d'Artnaf/nac,  which  rivals  those  of  Cognac  and 
Saintonge.  The  ancient  capital  is  Lectoure,  on  the 
river  Gers,  with  2879  inhalntants.  To  the  south  of 
it  lies  Auch,  the  chief  town  of  the  department  of 
Gers.  Pop.,  7942.  The  people  are  noted  for  their 
simjjlicity,  strength,  and  bravery  ;  but,  on  the  other 
liand,  they  are  exti-emely  credulous  and  ignorant. 
Formerly,  their  services  were  highly  valued  in  times 
of  war.  The  A.  family,  descended  from  the  old 
JIerovigi\ian  king,  Clovis,  played  an  important  part 
in  French  history. 

A'RMAMENT  is  a  general  name  for  the  weapons 
of  war  employed  in  sea  and  land  battles;  all  the 
weapons  collectively  being  called  the  A.  of  a  ship  or 
an  army. 

ARMAXSPERG,  Jos.  Lrnw.,  CorxT  of,  formerly 
president  of  the  government  in  Greece,  was  born  in 
Lower  Bavaria  in  1787,  and  early  embraced  an  admini- 
strative and  diplomatic  career.  On  the  accession  of 
King  Louis  to  the  throne,  A.,  who  had  already  occu- 
pied several  important  posts,  was  summoned  to 
Munich,  where,  rapidly  i-ising  from  one  dignity  to 
another,  he  at  length  became  minister  of  finance  and 
of  foreign  .affairs.  In  both  capacities  he  proved  active 
and  successful;  but  he  drew  upon  himself  the  hatred 
of  the  Camarilla  by  liis  strenuous  opposition  to 
the  claims  of  Rome,  as  well  as  by  his  attempts  to 
identify  himself  with  the  decidedly  liberal  party. 
The  consequence  was  that,  in  1831,  he  lost  his  post, 
and  in  the  same  year  was  appointed  ambassador  to 
London,  but  preferred  retiring  to  his  family  estate. 
However,  he  could  not  resist  the  king's  repeated 
request  that  he  would  undertake  the  formation  of 
his  son's  government  in  Greece,  and  accordingly, 
accompanying  young  King  Otho,  A.  landed  at  Nau- 
plia  in  Januai-y  1833.  For  four  years  he  was  at  the 
head  of  public  affairs,  and  Greece  derived  many 
benefits  from  his  administration  ;  but  the  heat  of 
party  strife  and  court  intrigues  led  to  his  dismissal, 
and  he  left  Greece  in  March  1837.  His  remaining 
vears  he  passed  in  retirement  upon  his  propertv,  near 
beggendorf.     He  died  in  1853. 

ARMATO'LES,  a  boay  of  Greek  militia,  first 
formed  under  the  reign  of  Sultan  Selim  L  about  the 
beginning  of  the  lOtli  c.  They  were  intended  to 
preserve  the  fertile  plains  from  the  ravages  of  the 
Klcphts  (mountain  robbers  of  Thessaly),  who  had 
never  been  entirely  conquered  by  the  Turks.  The 
A.  themselves  were  originally  Kleplits,  but  received 
their  more  honourable  designation  when  the  Porte 
had  metamorphosed  them  into  a  sort  of  militarv 
police.  The  safety  of  the  public  roads  was  intrusted 
to  their  care.  The  whole  of  Northern  Greece  was 
divided  into  sixteen  districts  {capitaineries\  each 
placed  under  the  supervision  of  a  chief  of  these 
militia,  who,  however,  had  himself  to  receive  orders 


from  a  Turkish  pasha  or  Greek  bishop.  15\it  although 
the  A.  fre()uently  suppressed  the  brigandage  of  the 
Kleplits,  they  still  regarded  them  in  the  light  of 
brothers,  inasmuch  as  they  had  a  connnon  origin 
and  faith;  both  detested  the  oppressors  of  their 
country  ;  and  the  sentiment  of  patriotism  overruled 
every  other  consideration.  This  sympathy  at  last 
appeared  to  the  Tmks  so  dangerous  that  they  grew 
alarmed,  and  desired  to  substitute  for  the  A.  the 
Moliammedan  All)anians,  who  were  the  implacable 
enemies  of  the  (ireeks,  which  resolution  did  not  a 
little  to  hasten  the  insiurectiou  which  the  Porte  ever 
dreaded.  The  moment  it  broke  out,  the  A.  pro- 
nounced themselves  iu  favour  of  the  national  cause, 
and  in  the  war  of  independence  that  ensued,  distin- 
guished themselves  by  their  brilliant  exploits. 

A'RMATURE  [armntura,  armour ;  Ger.  anker)- 
The  term  A.  is  applied  to  the  pieces  of  soft  iron  that 
aie  placed  at  the  extremities  or  poles  of  magnets  to 
preserve  their  magnetic  power.  When  magnets  are 
allowed  to  remain  any  length  of  time  without  such 
appendages,  in  consequence  of  the  disturbing  influ- 
ence of  terrestrial  magnetism  they  lose  considerably 
in  strength  ;  but  when  they  are  provided  with  them 
their  magnetism  is  kept  in  a  state  of  constant 
activity,  and  thereby  shielded  from  this  disturbance. 
The  reason  of  this  is  found  in  two  facts  well  known 
in  the  science  of  magnetism — viz.,  that  when  a  piece 
of  soft  iron  is  brought  into  contact  with  the  ex- 
trenuty  of  a  magnet,  it  is  itself  induced  to  become 
magnetic  ;  and  that  the  unlike  poles  of  two  different 
magnets  powerfully  attract  each  other.  Referring  to 
the  figure,  the  north  pole,  X,  of  the  horseshoe 
magnet,  XHS,  acting  on  the  arma- 
ture, s«,  induces  it  to  become  a 
magnet,  having  its  south  pole,  .s, 
next  to  N,  and  its  north  pole,  n, 
at  the  opposite  extremity.  The 
jiolc,  S,  by  virtue  of  its  magnetic 
affinity,  powerfully  attracts  the 
north  pole,  w,  thus  formed,  and 
adds  its  own  inducing  influence 
to  heighten  the  magnetic  condi- 
tion previously  induced  in  the 
armature  by  the  pole  N.  The 
A.,  from  the  combined  action 
of  both  poles  of  the  horseshoe 
magnet,  is  thus  converted  into  a 
powerful  magnet,  with  its  poles 
lying  in  an  opjjosite  direction  to  that  of  the  primary 
poles.  The  original  magnet  is,  in  consetjuence, 
))rought  into  contact  with  one  of  its  own  making, 
the  exact  counterpart  of  itself — a  condition  highly 
favourable  to  the  maintenance  of  its  strength. 
It  is  due  to  the  same  mutual  attractions  that  a 
much  larger  weight  can  be  suspended  from  the  A. 
thus  placed,  than  what  the  single  poles  can  together 
sustain.  Bar  magnets  may  be  armed  in  the  same 
way  by  laying  them  at  some  distance  parallel  to  each 
other,  with  their  unlike  poles  towards  the  same 
parts,  and  then  connecting  their  extremities  by  two 
pieces  of  soft  iron.  When  a  magnet,  such  as  a 
compass-needle,  is  free  to  take  up  the  position  re- 
quired by  the  magnetism  of  the  earth,  the  earth 
itself  plays  the  part  of  an  armature. 

ARMED  SHIP,  in  the  official  language  of  the 
Royal  X'avy,  occupies  a  sort  of  medium  position 
between  a  merchant-ship  and  a  man-of-war.  It  is  a 
private  vessel,  hired  occasionally  by  the  Admiralty 
for  a  siiecial  purpose,  and  connnissioned  for  a 
temporary  period.  The  duty  is  usually  that  of 
guarding  some  particular  coast,  or  attending  on  a 
particular  fleet,  during  a  time  of  war;  and  while  so 
employed,  it  is  officered  and  equipped  like  one  of  the 
smaller  ships-of-war  in  the  Roval  Xavy. 

409 


ARMENIA. 


ARME'NIA,  a  high  tablc-hind  on  the  southern 
slope  of  the  Caucasus,  stretching  down  towards 
Mesopotamia.  Il  has  had  diflerent  boundaries  in  the 
various  centuries  of  its  history.  It  is  the  original 
seat  of  one  of  the  oldest  civilized  peoples  in  the 
world,  the  Armenians,  who  belong  to  the  Indo- 
Gernianic  family  of  nations.  Their  oldest  records 
contain  nothing  certain  beyond  the  facts  that,  in 
ancient  times,  they  were  governed  by  independent 
kings,  but  afterwards  became  tributary  to  the 
Assyrians  and  Medes.  That  dim  period  which 
wavers  between  myth  and  history  begins,  in  the 
case  of  A.,  about  the  middle  of  the  6th  c.  b.  r.,  when 
King  Dikran,  or  Tigranes  I.  of  the  Ilaig  Dynasty, 
restored  the  independence  of  the  kingdom.  Tiie  last 
king  of  this  dynasty  was  slain  in  battle  against 
Alexander  the  Great,  who  conquered  the  country. 
After  Alexander's  death,  A.  passed  through  several 
changes  of  fortune  under  the  Seleucid»,  who  ap- 
pointed governors  over  it.  Of  these,  two — Artaxias 
and  Zariadres — made  themselves  independent  of 
their  sovereign,  Antiochus  the  Great,  during  the 
time  when  he  was  engaged  in  his  contest  with  the 
Komans,  223 — 190  n.  c.  They  divided  the  piovince 
into  two  districts — Artaxias  taking  A.  Mnjor  (that 
part  of  the  country  lying  E.  of  the  Euphrates),  and 
Zariadres  A.  Minor  (the  part  to  the  west  of  that 
river).  The  dynasty  of  Artaxias  did  not  reign 
long;  for  about  the  middle  of  the  2d  c.  n.  c,  we 
find  A.  Major  in  the  possession  of  a  branch  of 
the  Parthian  Arsacida%  of  which  the  most  powerfid 
king  was  Tigranes  the  Great,  who  added  to  the 
conquests  made  by  his  predecessors  in  Lower  Asia 
and  the  region  of  the  Caucasus,  Syria,  Capi)adocia, 
and  A.  Minor;  defeated  the  Parthians,  and  took 
from  them  Mesopotanua  and  other  countries.  He 
lost  all  these  territories  by  his  war  with  the  Ro- 
mans, into  which  he  was  led  by  his  father-in-law 
Mithridates,  king  of  Pontus,  in  63  B.  c.  After  this, 
the  assaults  of  the  Romans  from  the  west  ever 
growing  more  and  more  vigorous,  and  those  of  the 
Parthians  from  the  east,  liastene(i  the  downfall  of 
A.  Major.  The  successors  of  Tigranes  became 
dependent,  partly  on  the  one  nation  and  partly  on 
the  other,  while  internally  the  nobles  broke  through 
the  restraints  of  a  feeble  monarchy,  and  claimed  the 
privileges  of  petty  kings.  Under"  Trajan,  A.  Major 
was  for  a  short  time  a  Roman  province.  Its  subse- 
quent history  exhibited  an  unbroken  serii-s  of 
tumults  and  wars,  of  violent  successions  to  the 
throne,  despotic  reigns,  and  rapid  decay.  In  232 
A.  1).  the  province  was  conquered  by  the  Sassanides, 
who  lield  possession  of  it  28  years,  until  Tiridates  III., 
the  rightful  heir,  was  restored  to  the  throne  by 
Eoman  assistance. 

It  was  about  this  time  that  Christianity  became 
the  religion  of  A.,  which  was  thus  the  first  nation  to 
embrace  the  new  religion.  Tiridates  himself  had 
been  converted  by  St.  Gregory  the  Illuminator 
as  early  as  about  276  a.  D.  The  old  religion  of 
Armenia  had  for  its  basis  the  doctrines  of  Zoroaster, 
with  a  curious  intermixture  of  Greek  mythology,  and 
of  ideas  jteculiar  to  the  country.  It  is  certain  that 
the  Armenians  worshipped  as  their  mightiest  gods, 
Aramazt  and  Mihir  (the  Ormuzd  and  Mithras  of 
the  old  Persians);  but  they  had  also  a  kind  of 
Venus,  whom  they  styled  Anaitis,  and  several  other 
deities,  to  whom  they  offered  animal  sacrifices.  This 
change  of  creed,  however,  made  no  improvement  in 
the  political  circumstances  of  the  falling  state.  The 
Byzantine  Greeks  on  one  side,  and  the  Persians  on 
the  other,  regarded  A.  as  their  prey ;  and  in  428, 
Bahram  V.  of  Persia  made  A.  a  province  of  the 
empire  of  the  Sassanides,  and  with  the  deposition  of 
Artasir  the  dynasty  of  the  Arsacidse  was  brought 
to  a  close.  The  rule  of  the  Sassanides  in  A.  was 
410 


marked  chiefly  by  their  sanguinary  but  unsuccessful 
attempts  to  extirpate  Christianity.  In  632,  the  un- 
happy country  was  subjected  to  another  form  of 
desfjotism  under  the  Arabian  califs,  and  suflered 
terribly  during  their  contest  with  the  Byzantine 
emperors.  In  885  A.n.,  Aschod  1.,  of  an  old  and 
powerful  Armenian  family,  ascended  the  throne, 
with  the  permission  of  the  califs,  and  founded  the 
third  Armenian  dynasty — that  of  Bagratidw.  Under 
them  A.  was  prosperous  till  the  11th  c,  when  divi- 
sions and  internal  strife  began  to  weaken  the  country ; 
till  at  length  the  Greeks,  having  nmrdered  the  last 
monarch  of  the  Bagratidit,  seized  a  part  of  the 
kingdom,  while  the  Turks  and  Kurds  made  themselves 
masters  of  the  rest — oidy  one  or  two  of  the  native 
princes  maintaining  a  perilous  independence.  In 
1242,  the  whole  of  A.  ^lajor  was  conquered  by  the 
Mongols,  and  in  1472  became  a  Persian  province. 
Afterwards  the  western  part  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Turkish  sultan,  Scliiu  II. 

The  fate  of  A.  Minor  was  hardly  better.  The 
dynasty  founded  by  Zariadres  prevailed  to  the  time 
of  Tigranes  the  Great,  sovereign  of  A.  Major,  who 
coiK(nered  the  country  about  70  B.C.  Aftcirwards 
A.  Minor  was  subjugated  by  the  Romans,  and  made 
a  Roman  province.  On  tlie  division  of  the  Emjjire 
into  eastern  and  western,  it  became  attached  to  the 
former,  and  shared  in  all  its  changes  of  fortune 
until  near  the  close  of  the  11th  c.  At  this  time 
A.  Minor — which  had  long  been  a  place  of  refuge 
for  many  who  had  fled  from  the  rage  of  the  TurliS 
and  Persians  in  the  sister  province — was  again 
raised  to  independence  by  Rhu[)en  (a  refugee  from 
A.  Major,  and  descendant  of  the  Bagratida').  His 
successors  extended  their  dominion  over  Cilicia  and 
Cappadocia,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
Crusades.  This  dynasty  ruled  prosperously  until 
1374,  when  A.  Minor  was  conquered  by  the  Egyptian 
sultan  Schaban.  Since  that  time  A.,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  parts  which  Russia  has  won  in  the 
present  century  from  Persia,  and  which  are  better 
governed,  has  remained  subject  to  the  despotism  of 
the  Turks  and  Persians.  Notwithstanding  this,  the 
Armenians  have  steadily  preserved  their  nationality, 
both  in  its  physical  and  moral  lineaments ;  their 
faith  ;  and  even — though  only  a  relic  of  their  ancient 
culture — a  higher  civilization  than  their  conquerors. 
The  political  storms  which  devastated  the  country 
during  the  middle  ages,  and  the  persecutions  of  the 
Turks,  have  driven  many  of  the  inhabitants  from 
their  homes.  This  is  the  reason  why  we  find  them 
scattered  over  all  Asia  and  Europe.  In  Hungary, 
Transylvania,  and  Galicia  they  number  1(),(m»(). 
They  are  very  numerous  in  Russia,  but  most  of  all 
in  Asia  Minor,  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Constan- 
tinople, where  they  number  2(»0,0t)0. 

The  greater  part  of  A.  is  an  elevated  table-land. 
Its  area  is  estimated  at  90,000  square  miles ;  pop. 
about  2,000,000.  It  is  watered  by  the  rivers  Kur, 
Aras,  Joruk,  Euphrates,  and  to  a  slight  extent  by 
the  Tigris.  The  lakes  which  lie  within  this  moim- 
tainous  region  are  Van,  Urumiyah,  and  Sevan.  The 
Armenian  plateau,  on  the  eastern  side  of  which 
the  volcanic  range  of  Ararat  lifts  itself,  forms  the 
central  jioint  of  several  mountain  chains,  such  as 
Taurus  and  Antitaurus,  the  mountains  of  Kurdistan, 
and  those  which  run  north  to  the  Black  Sea.  It 
exhibits  numerous  traces  of  having  been  subject  to 
volcanic  agency,  and  even  yet — as  was  shewn  by 
the  severe  earthcjuake  of  the  summer  of  1840,  and 
the  recent  (1859)  total  destruction  of  Erzcrum — 
possesses  an  internal  volcanic  activity.  The  climate 
in  the  higher  regions  is  hot  in  summer  and  cold  in 
winter,  but  in  the  valleys  it  is  more  temperate. 
The  country  labours  under  a  great  scarcity  of  wood, 
and  in  some  parts  is  sterile,  through  a  deficiency  of 


AKMENIAX  CHURCn— ARMENIAN  LITERATURE. 


v.itccr  ;  in  othor  parts  the  soil  is  extremely  fertile, 
produeiiif^  rice,  hemp,  flax,  tobacco,  wine,  cotton,  and 
many  varieties  of  fruit.  Cattle  breediui,'  and  f,'razinj^ 
are  nioie  extensive  than  agriculture.  The  iiioiintains 
contain  iron,  copper,  lead,  salt,  and  naphtha.  The 
number  of  the  inhabitants  of  pure  Armenian  origin 
is  reckoned  at  nearly  1,000,(»00,  but  there  is  a  large 
admixture  of  Turkomans,  Greeks,  Jews,  Kurds,  &c. 
The  Armenians  belong  physically  to  the  finest  variety 
of  the  Indo-Germanic  race.  Thoir  intellectual 
capacity  is  also  remarkable,  as  is  shown  both  by  their 
literatuie,  and  their  singular  dexterity  in  business. 
Still,  long  centuries  of  oppression  have  exerted  a 
withering  influence  on  their  native  strength  of 
character,  so  that  the  mass  of  those  who  remain  at 
home  are  sunk  in  superstition  and  ignorance.  They 
profess  Christianity.  The  principal  towns  in  A.  are 
Erivan  (q.  v.)  and  Akhalzikh  (both  belonging  to 
Russia).  Akhalzikh  has  a  population  of  I'J.OOO  or 
13,0t)(),  is  fortified,  and  adorned  by  a  mos([ue  and 
many  Armenian  churches.  It  possesses  a  college  and 
library,  and  has  trade  in  silk  and  honey.  Besides 
these  there  are  in  Turkish  A.  Erzerum,  Van,  &c. 
(q.  V.) 

ARME'NIAX  CHURCH.  Christianity  appears 
to  have  been  introduced  into  Armenia  as  early  as 
the  2d  c,  for,  according  to  tradition,  Dionysius, 
Bishop  of  Corinth,  wrote  an  epistle  to  the  Armenian 
Christians,  who  were  then  under  the  autliority  of  a 
bishop  named  Meruzanes.  It  svas  first  firmly  estab- 
lished, however,  about  the  end  of  the  3d  c.  by  the 
apostolical  exertions  of  Bishop  Gregory  (q.  v.),  who 
converted  Tiridates  (see  Armknia).  The  Bible 
was  translated  into  the  Armenian  language  in  the 
5th  c.  After  this  jjcriod  great  animation  prevailed 
in  the  A.  C.  Numbers  flocked  to  the  colleges  at 
Athens  and  Constantinople.  In  the  ecclesiastical 
controversy  concerning  the  twofold  nature  of 
Christ,  the  Armenian  Christians  held  with  the 
Monophysites  (q.  v.);  refused  to  acknowledge  the 
authority  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  ;  and  con- 
stituted themselves  a  separate  church,  which  took 
the  title  of  Gregorian  from  Gregory  himself.  For 
several  centuries  a  spirit  of  scientific  inquiry, 
especially  in  theology,  manifested  itself  among 
them  to  a  far  wider  extent  than  in  the  other 
Eastern  churches.  Their  greatest  divine  is  Nerses 
of  Klah,  belonging  to  the  12th  c,  whose  works 
have  been  repeatedly  published.  The  most  recent 
edition  was  issued  in  Venice,  1833.  The  GT'cgorians 
have  continued  to  entertain  a  deeply  rooted  aver- 
sion to  the  so-called  orthodox  church.  It  is  true 
the  Roman  Catholic  popes  have  at  various  times 
(114f>,  1341,  14r4U),  when  the  Armenians  accepted 
the  help  of  the  West  against  the  Mohammedans, 
tried  to  persuade  them  to  recognise  the  papal  supre- 
macy ;  but,  for  the  most  part,  only  the  nobles  con- 
sented to  do  so,  while  the  mass  of  the  people  clung 
to  their  peculiar  oi)inions,  as  we  see  from  the  com- 
plaint of  Pope  Benedict  XII.,  who  accuses  the 
A.  C.  of  117  errors  of  doctrine.  There  is  a  sect 
of  United  Armenians  in  Italy,  Poland,  Galicia, 
Persia,  Russia,  and  Marseille.  These  recognise  the 
spiritual  sovereignty  of  the  pope,  and  hold  the  same 
doctrines  as  the  Roman  Catholic  Clnirch,  but  have 
their  own  form  of  church-government.  On  the 
irruption  of  the  Persians  into  Armenia,  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  17th  c.,  many  of  the  inhabitants  were 
forced  to  become  Mohammedans,  but  by  far  the 
greater  number  remained  true  to  their  ancient 
faith.  The  A.  C.  has  never  scrupled  to  put 
itself  under  the  protection  of  the  Porte  against  the 
aggressive  demands  of  the  (^atholics,  and  recently 
of  Russia  against  the  intrusions  of  Catholic  and 
Protestant  missionaries.  Its  theology  differs  from 
that   usually  styled   orthodox,   iu   attributing   only 


one  nature  to  Christ,  and  holding  that  the  Spirit 
proceeds  from  the  Father  alone  ;  the  latter  doctrine, 
however,  being  held  by  it  in  common  with  the 
'  orthoilox  Greek  Church,'  although  contrary  to  the 
theology  of  the  western  churches.  With  respect  to 
the  '  seven  sacraments,'  it  entertains  the  peculiar 
notions  that  at  baptism  one  nmst  be  sprinkled 
three  times,  and  as  often  dipped ;  that  confirma- 
tion is  to  be  conjoined  with  baptism ;  that  the 
Lord's  supper  nuist  be  celebrated  with  pure  wine 
and  leavened  bread  ;  that  the  latter,  before  being 
handed  round,  must  be  dipped  in  the  former ; 
and  that  extreme  unction  is  to  be  administered  to 
ecclesiastics  alone,  and  that  immediately  after  (and 
not  before)  their  death.  It  believes  in  the  worship 
of  saints,  but  not  in  purgatory.  It  exceeds  the 
Greek  Church  in  the  number  of  its  fasts,  but 
has  fewer  religious  festivals.  These,  however,  are 
more  enthusiastically  kept.  Divine  service  is  held 
in  Turkey  chiefly  by  night.  Mass  is  celebrated 
in  the  old  Armenian  language  ;  preaching  is 
carried  on  in  the  new.  Its  sacerdotal  8onstitution 
differs  little  from  the  Greek.  The  head  of  the 
church,  whose  title  is  Catholikos,  resides  at  Etsh- 
miadzin,  a  monastery  near  Erivan,  the  capital  of 
Russian  Armenia.  To  this  place  every  Armenian 
must  make  a  pilgrimage  once  in  his  life.  The  monks 
of  this  church  follow  the  rule  of  St  Basil.  The  War- 
tabieds  form  a  pecuUar  class  of  ecclesiastics ;  they 
live  like  monks,  but  are  devoted  exclusively  to  learn- 
ing. Secular  priests  must  marry  once,  but  none  are 
at  liberty  to  take  a  second  wife. 

ARME'NIAN  LITERATURE.  Previous  to 
the  introduction  of  Christianity  by  Gregory  (3oO  a.p.), 
the  Armenians  had  adhered  to  the  Assyrian  or  Medo- 
Persian  system  of  culture ;  but  excepting  a  few 
old  songs  or  ballads,  no  remains  of  that  early  period 
exist.  After  their  conversion  to  Christianity,  the 
Greek  language  and  its  literature  soon  became 
favourite  objects  of  study,  and  many  Greek  authors 
were  translated  into  Armenian.  (See  Wenrich  De 
Auctorum  Gra>coruni  versionih^if!  Arabicis,  Annenia- 
cis,  .&c.  Leipzig,  1842.)  The  Armenian  language 
has  an  alphabet  of  its  own,  consisting  of  36  letters, 
introduced  by  Miesrob  in  4U(i.  The  most  flourishing 
period  of  A.  L.  extends  from  the  4th  to  the  14th  c. 
The  numerous  Armenian  theological  writers  and 
chroniclers  of  this  era  supply  materials  for  a  history 
of  the  East  during  the  middle  ages  which  have 
hitherto  been  too  much  neglected.  These  Armenian, 
writers  generally  copied  the  style  of  the  later  Greek 
and  Byzantine  authors;  but  in  adherence  to  facts  and 
good  taste,  they  are  superior  to  the  geneial  order  of 
oriental  histoiians.  In  the  14th  c,  literature  began 
to  decline,  and  few  remarkable  works  were  afterwards 
produced ;  but  since  the  time  of  their  dispersion, 
the  Armenians  have  preserved  recollections  of  their 
national  literature  ;  and  wherever  they  are  found 
— in  Amsterdam,  Lemberg,  Leghorn,  Venice,  Astra- 
kan,  Moscow,  Constantinople,  Smyrna,  Ispahan, 
Madras,  or  Calcutta — the  printing-office  is  always 
a  feature  in  their  colonies.  The  most  interesting 
Armenian  settlement  is  that  of  the  Mechitarists 
(q.  v.),  on  the  island  of  San  Lazaro,  near  Venice. 

The  Bible  tianslatcd  into  Armenian  (the  Old 
Testament  from  the  text  of  the  Septuagint)  by 
Miesrob  and  his  scholars  (411  a. v.),  is  esteemed  the 
highest  model  of  classic  style.  Translations  of 
several  Greek  authors,  made  about  the  same  time, 
have  been  partly  preserved,  and  contain  some  writ- 
ings of  which  the  originals  have  been  lost — namely, 
the  Chronicle  of  Eusebius;  the  Discourses  of  Philo  ; 
Homilies  by  St  Chrysostom,  Severianus,  Basil  the 
Great,  and  Ephraim  Syrus.  Several  old  geographi- 
cal and  historical  works  have  been  preserved. 
Among  philosophical  and  theological  writers  mav  be 

41l" 


ARMERIA— ARMIES. 


mentioned :  David,  the  translator  and  commentator 
of  Aristotle,  Esnik,  and  Joannes  Ozniensis.  The 
Vitie  Sanctorum  Calendar H  Anncniaci  (Lives  of 
Armenian  Saints,  12  vols.  Yen.  1814)  contains  many 
notices  of  the  history  of  Armenia.  In  poetry  and 
fiction,  A.  L.  is  poor.  Somal,  in  his  work  entitled 
Quadro  delta  Storia  Litfcraria  di  Armenia  (Venice, 
1829),  gives  a  general  view  of  the  contents  of  A.  L. 
The  Armenian  belongs  to  the  Iiido-(iermanic  group 
of  languages,  but  has  many  peculiarities  of  strucluic. 
It  is  harsh  and  disagreeable  to  the  car.  The  old 
Armenian,  the  language  of  literature,  is  no  longer 
a  living  tongue;  while  the  new  Armenian,  split  up 
into  four  dialects,  contains  many  Turhisli  words  and 
granmiatical  constructions. 

ARME'RIA.     See  Thrift. 

ARMFELT,  Gustak  Maiimtz,  a  celebrated 
Swede,  whose  public  life  was  characterised  by  strik- 
ing vicissitudes  of  fortune,  was  the  eldest  son  of 
Baron  Armfelt,  and  born  at  Juva,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Abo,  on  the  1st  of  April  1757.  Having, 
as  an  officer  of  the  royal  guard,  displayed  great 
activity  and  zeal  in  ojjposing  the  machinations 
of  the  nobles,  who  were  at  that  period  disailected 
towards  (xustavus  III.,  the  hitter  a|i])reciated  the 
value  of  his  services,  and  appointed  Idni  to  a  post 
in  the  service  of  the  Crown  Prince.  During  the 
war  between  Sweden  and  Russia  (1788 — '.)(>),  in 
which  he  was  commander  of  one  of  tlie  three  divi- 
sions of  the  Swedish  army,  he  displayed  remarkal)le 
courage  and  spirit,  and  advanced  still  higher  in  the 
good  graces  of  the  moniirch.  lie  defeated  a  Russian 
force  at  Sunana,  near  Fredrikshamni ;  and  as  mili- 
tary representative  of  (Justavus,  had  tlie  honour  of 
concluding  a  peace  at  Yerela  on  the  14th  of  August 
1790.  On  the  l(3th  of  March  1792,  Gustavus  was 
assassinated.  His  wound,  though  mortal,  did  not 
instantly  deprive  him  of  life,  and  he  employed  the 
brief  interval  that  elapsed  before  his  death  in 
drawing  up  a  codicil  to  his  will,  by  which  the 
regency  was  intrusted  to  the  king's  brother,  Charles, 
Duke  of  Sudermania,  during  the  nunority  of  Gustavus 
IV.,  A.  being  named  governor  of  Stockholm,  and 
member  of  the  council  appointed  to  advise  with 
the  regent.  The  Duke  of  Sudermania,  however, 
cotdd  not  brook  the  idea  of  a  check  being  placed 
upon  his  liberty  of  action,  and  found  means  to 
destroy  the  codicil,  the  conditions  of  which  he 
never  intended  to  observe.  A.  soon  became  con- 
scious that  his  influence  was  rapidly  evaporating. 
He  was  rarely  permitted  to  see  the  young  king;  and 
at  lust,  after  a  secret  interview  with  young  Gustavus, 
departed  as  ambassador  to  Naples  in  July  1792. 
Wlule  in  Italy,  he  entered  into  cori-espondence  with 
cei'tain  parties  in  Sweden  for  the  purpose  of  over- 
throwing the  regency,  and  inducing  the  States  to 
proclaim  Gustavus  IV.  of  age.  The  correspondence 
was  discovered.  A.  fled  to  Poland,  and  afterwards  to 
Russia.  He  was  condemned,  during  his  absence,  for 
high  treason,  and  stripped  of  his  goods  and  titles, 
while  one  of  his  associates,  the  beautiful  Countess 
Rudenskold,  was  subjected  to  the  most  brutal 
punishment,  being  publicly  declared  '  infamous,' 
exposed  on  a  scaffold  for  some  hours,  and  imprisoned 
in  a  house  of  correction  for  life.  A.  expressed  his 
horror  of  such  an  atrocity  in  language  sufficiently 
emphatic,  yet,  at  a  later  period,  he  did  not  scruple 
to  accept  office  under  Charles,  on  his  election 
to  the  throne.  In  1799,  Gustavus  IV.  received 
the  cro\vn  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  and  A.  was 
restored  to  all  his  honours.  In  l8n.5,  he  was 
appointed  governor-general  of  Finland;  and  in 
1808  he  commanded  the  Swedish  army  raised  for 
the  invasion  of  Norway  ;  but  his  plans  were  so 
completely  frustrated,  that  he  was  compelled  to 
412 


witness  the  invasion  of  Sweden  by  the  successful 
Norwegians,  and  was  in  consequence  recalled  and 
disndssed  by  the  king.  In  the  lollowing  year  a  revo- 
lution took  i)lace,  (iustavus  was  dejiosed,  the  Duke 
of  Sudermania  elected  in  his  place,  and  A.  was 
appointed  president  of  the  Military  Council.  But 
shortly  after,  being  implicated  in  tl'.e  poisoinng  of 
the  Prince  of  Augustenburg,  he  was  obliged  to  Hy  to 
Russia,  where  he  lived  during  the  remainder  of  his 
life  in  high  honour.  The  title  of  Count  was 
conferred  on  him,  he  was  made  chancellor  of  (he 
university  of  Abo,  i)resident  of  the  board  of  Finnish 
All'airs,  and  member  ol'tiie  Russian  senate.  He  died 
at  TzarskcB  Selo  ou  the  19th  August  1814. 

ARM  I  DA,  one  of  the  most  prominent  female 
characters  in  Tasso's  Jerusalem  JJelivered.  As  the 
poet  tells  us,  when  the  Crusaders  arrived  at  the 
lioly  city,  Satan  held  a  Council  to  devise  some 
means  of  disturbing  the  plans  of  the  Christian 
wari'iors,  and  A.,  a  very  beautiful  soi'ceress,  wqs 
employed  to  seduce  Riiuddo  and  other  Crusaders. 
Rinahlo  was  conducted  by  A.  to  a  remote  island, 
where,  in  her  splendid  palace,  smrounded  by  deliglit- 
fid  gardens  and  pleasure-grounds,  he  utterly  forgot 
his  vows  and  the  great  object  to  which  lie  had 
devoted  his  life.  To  liberate  liim  from  his  voluptuous 
bondage,  two  messengers  from  the  Christian  army  — 
Carlo  and  I'baldo — came  to  the  island,  bringing  a 
talisman  so  ]iowerful  that  the  witchery  of  A.  was 
destroyed.  Rinaldo  escaped,  but  was  followed  by 
the  sorceress,  who,  in  battle,  incited  several  warriors 
to  attack  the  hero,  and  at  last  herself  rushed  ii;to 
the  fight.  She  was  defeated  by  Rinaldo,  who  then 
confessed  his  love  to  her,  persuaded  her  to  become 
a  Christian,  and  vowed  to  be  her  faithful  knight. 
The  story  of  A.  has  been  made  the  subject  of  an  opera 
both  by  Gluck  and  Rossini. 

ARMIES,  armed  forces  under  regular  military 
organisation,  employed  for  purposes  of  national 
oilence  or  defence.  An  army  may  comprise  the 
whole  military  men  employed  l)y  the  state,  or  only 
a  portion  under  a  iiarticular  commander.  When  an 
armed  force  is  under  no  constituted  authority,  and 
imperfect  in  its  organisation  and  discipline,  it  cannot 
be  said  to  be  worthy  of  the  name  of  an  army,  and 
may  be  little  better  than  a  horde  of  banditti.  Of 
this  nature  are  the  Jillibuxferinr/  expeditions  (see 
FiLLiiiusTEKs)  in  which  certain  portions  of  the 
citizens  of  the  United  States  frequently  engage. 
Through  long  ages  of  experience,  the  princijiles  of 
military  organisation,  and  the  laws  to  which  A. 
are  specially  amenable,  have  gradually  reached  a 
high  degree  of  perfection.  The  primitive  wars  among 
barbarous  people  are  always  stealthy,  depending  on 
the  forest  and  the  wilderness  for  their  tactics,  and 
considered  successful  if  an  enemy  can  be  attacked 
unawares,  despoiled,  and  carried  into  slavery.  After 
a  time,  war  advances  to  the  position  of  an  art,  and 
is  conducted  by  men  who  have  received  a  certain 
training.  An  army  becomes  an  instrument  not  only 
for  vanquishing  enemies,  but  for  seizing  countries. 
Even  then  the  highest  position  of  an  army  is  not 
reached;  for  the  defence  of  a  country  requires  more 
military  skill,  perhaps,  and  a  better  organisation  of 
troops,  than  an  attack. 

In  the  several  historical  articles  in  this  Encifclo- 
padia  relating  to  the  chief  nations  of  ancient  and 
modern  times,  the  wars  in  which  these  nations 
engaged  are  succinctly  noticed  as  elements  in  the 
life  of  each  nation;  but  it  seems  desiralde,  in  the 
present  place,  as  a  means  of  rendering  intelligible 
certain  minor  details  scattered  through  the  work, 
to  give  a  brief  description  of  the  chief  points  in  which 
the  A.  of  different  states  or  countries  have  differed 
in  constitution. 


ARMIES. 


ARMIES,    An'cikxt — Ef/i/ptiajis. — The    most    ex- 1 
traordiiiaiy  conqueror  among  the  Egyptians,  Sesos-  [ 
tvis  or  Rhamscii,  lived  sixteen  centuries  before  the  i 
Christian    era ;    and    although    the  evidence  for  his  j 
deeds  of  valour  is  very  questionable,  there  is  reason  ' 
to    believe    that    the    organisation  of  his  A.  can  be 
pretty  accurately    traced.       His  father,  Anienophis, 
laid  the  foundation  for  the  military  glory  of  Sesostris. 
When  the  latter  was  born,  Anienophis  caused  ail  the 
male  children  who  were  boi-n  on  the  same  day  as  his 
son,  to  be  set  apart  as  a  special  body,  to  be  reared  for 
a    nulitary    life ;    they  were  taught   everything  that 
could  strengthen  their  bodies,  increase  their  courage, 
and  develop  their  skill  as  combatants  and  leaders; 
and   were   to   consider    themselves    bound    as    the 
chosen    dependents   or   companions   of    the   young 
prince.    In  due  time  Sesostris  became  king  of  Egypt ; 
and  tiien  he  formed  a  sort  of  militia,  distributed  as 
military  colonists,  each  soldier  having  a  portion  of 
land    to    maintain    himself  and    bis    family.     'When 
this  militia  had    been  drilled    to  military  efficiency, 
Sesostris  headed  them  as  an  army  for  military  con- 
quest in  Asia,  and    placed   the  chosen   band  above 
mentioned  as  officers  over  the  different  sections  of 
the  army. 

Persians. — In  the  great  days  of  the  Persian 
empire,  the  flower  of  the  army  consisted  of  cavalry, 
who  were  distinguished  for  their  bravery  and  im.pe- 
tuosity  of  attack.  The  infantry  were  little  better 
than  an  armed  mob.  The  war-chariots,  too,  though 
c-.ikulated  to  strike  terror  when  dashing  into  hostile 
ranks,  were  available  only  on  level  ground.  As  to 
the  numbers  of  men  composing  the  great  Persian 
A.,  the  statements  are  too  wild  to  be  trustwort'ny. 
Allowing  for  all  exaggeration,  however,  it  is  cer- 
tain that  the  Persian  A.  were  very  large.  When 
Darius  was  opposed  to  Alexander  the  Great,  his  army 
was  set  down  at  various  numbers — from  7511,000  to 
l,()00,nOO  men.  The  king  was  in  the  centre,  sur- 
rounded by  his  courtiers  and  body-guard  ;  the  Per- 
sians and  Susians  were  on  the  left ;  the  Syrians  and 
Assyrians  on  the  right.  The  foot-soldiers,  forming 
the  bulk  of  the  army,  and  armed  with  pikes,  axes, 
and  maces,  were  formed  in  deep  squares  or  masses; 
the  horsemen  were  in  the  intervals  between  the 
squares,  and  on  the  right  and  left  flanks;  and  the 
chariots  and  elephants  in  front. 

Lacedccmoniaris. — The  Greeks  introduced  many 
important  changes  in  A.,  both  in  the  organization 
and  in  the  manoeuvres.  Every  man,  in  the  earlier 
ages  of  the  country  at  least,  was  more  or  less  a 
soldier,  inured  to  a  hard  life,  taught  to  bear  arms, 
and  expected  to  fight  when  called  upon.  The  lead- 
iag  men  in  each  state  paid  attention  to  organisation 
and  tactics  in  a  way  never  before  seen.  It  was  not 
standing  armies,  but  a  sort  of  national  militia,  that 
gained  Marathon,  Platfea,  and  Mycale.  So  far  as 
concerned  the  arrangement  of  A.,  the  Lacedffi- 
inonians  invented  the  phalanx  (q.  v  ),  a  particular 
mode  of  grouping  foot-soldiers.  This  phalanx  con- 
sisted of  eight  ranks,  one  behind  another;  the  front 
and  rear  ranks  being  composed  of  picked  men, 
and  the  intermediate  ranks  of  less  tried  soldiers. 
The  number  of  men  in  each  rank  depended  on  the 
available  resources  of  the  commander.  These  men 
were  mostly  armed  with  spears,  short  swords,  and 
shields. 

Athenians. — The  Athenians  made  a  greater  number 
of  distinctions  than  the  Lacedaemonians  in  the  differ- 
ent kinds  of  troops  forming  their  A.  They  had 
heavy  infantry,  constituting  the  men  for  the  phalanx, 
and  armed  with  spears,  daggers,  corslets,  and  shields  ; 
light  infantry,  employed  in  skirmishes  and  in  cover- 
ing the  phalanx,  and  armed  with  light  javelins  and 
shields ;  a  sort  of  irregular  infantry,  who,  with 
javelins,  bows  and  arrows,  and  slings,  harassed  the 


enemy  in  march,  and  performed  other  services 
analogous  in  some  degree  to  those  of  sharpshooters 
in  a  modern  army.  It  is  recorded  that  Miltiadcs,  the 
Athenian  hero  at  Marathon,  invented  the  '  doulile- 
quick  march,'  to  increase  the  momentum  of  a  phalanx 
when  rushing  on  the  enemy. 

Macedonians. — Philip  of  Macedon,  the  father  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  having  the  sagacity  to  see 
that  he  could  not  van(iuish  his  neighbours  so  long  as 
he  adopted  the  same  formation  and  tactics  as  them- 
selves, set  about  inventing  something  new.  He 
resolved  to  have  a  standing  army  instead  of  a 
militia ;  to  have  at  command  a  set  of  men  whose 
trade  was  fighting,  instead  of  citizens  who  were 
traders  and  soldiers  by  turn.  As  a  further  change, 
he  made  the  phalanx  deeper  and  more  massive  than 
it  had  been  among  the  Lacedaemonians.  He  brought 
into  use  the  Macedonian  pike,  a  formidable  weapon 
2t  feet  in  length.  With  a  phalanx  sixteen  ranks  in 
depth,  four  rows  of  men  could  present  the  points  of 
their  long  pikes  protruding  in  front  of  the  front-rank, 
forming  a  bristling  array  of  steel  terrible  to  encounter. 
Besides  these  heavy  infantry,  there  were  light  troops 
marshalled  into  smaller  bodies  for  more  active  nia- 
nceuvres.  Philip  organised  three  kinds  of  cavalry — 
heavy,  armed  with  pikes,  and  defended  by  cuiras- 
ses of  iron-mail ;  light,  armed  with  lances ;  and 
irregular. 

Thcbans. — This  nation  introduced  the  army-for- 
mation of  columns,  much  deeper  than  broad,  or 
having  more  men  in  file  than  in  rank.  A  new 
kind  of  tactics  was  introduced  in  accordance  with 
this  formation ;  the  movement  being  intended  to 
pierce  the  enemy's  line  at  some  one  point,  and 
throw  them  into  confusion. 

Romans. — These  able  warriors  initiated  changes 
in  army  matters,  which  had  a  wide-spread  influence 
on  the  nations  of  the  civihsed  world.  About  the 
period  200  B.C.,  every  Roman,  from  the  age  of  17  to 
46,  was  liable  to  be  called  upon  to  serve  as  a  soldier; 
the  younger  men  were  preferred ;  but  all  were  avail- 
able up  to  the  middle-time  of  life.  They  went 
tlirough  a  very  severe  drilling  and  discipline,  to  fit 
them  "alike  for  marching,  fighting,  camping,  working, 
carrying,  and  other  active  duties.  Every  year  the 
Senate  decreed  the  formation  of  leyions.,  or  army 
corps,  deputing  this  duty  to  the  consul  or  praetor. 
Magistrates  sent  up  the  names  of  eligible  men, 
and  tribunes  selected  a  certain  number  from  this 
list.  See  Legion.  The  Roman  legion,  in  its 
best  days,  had  many  excellent  military  qualities — 
great  facility  of  movement ;  a  power  of  preserving 
order  of  battle  unimpaired ;  a  quick  rallying-power 
when  forced  to  give  way  ;  a  readiness  to  adapt  itself 
to  varying  circumstances  on  the  field  of  battle ;  a 
formidable  impetuosity  in  attack  ;  and  a  power  of 
fighting  the  enemy  even  while  retreating.  The  heavy 
infantry  were  armed  with  javelins,  having  darts, 
pikes,  and  swords;  the  lighter  troops  with  bows  and 
arrows,  slings,  and  light  javelins ;  while  the  defen- 
sive armour  comprised  shields,  cuirasses,  helmets, 
and  greaves. 

Those  ancient  nations  which  had  no  distinctive 
features  in  their  A.,  need  not  be  noticed  here. 

ARMIES,  Medieval.  The  downfall  of  the 
Roman  Empire  marked  the  dividing-point  between 
ancient  and  medieval  times  in  military  matters,  as 
well  as  in  other  things  that  concern  the  existence  of 
nations.  The  barbarians  and  semi-barbarkns  who 
attacked  on  all  sides  the  once  mighty  but  now 
degenerate  Empire,  gradually  gained  possession  of 
the  vast  regions  which  had  composed  it.  The  mode 
in  which  these  conquests  were  made  gave  rise  to  the 
Feiulal  System  (q.  v.).  What  all  had  aided  to  acquire 
by  conquest,  all  demanded  to  share  in  proportions 
more  or  less  equal.    Hence  arose  a  division  of  the 

413 


ARMIES. 


conquered  territory ;  lands  were  held  from  the  chief 
by  feudal  tenure,  almost  in  independent  sovereifrnty. 
When  European  kiiifidonis  were  gradually  formed 
out  of  the  wrecks  of  the  Empire,  the  military  arrange- 
ments ])ut  on  a  peculiar  form.  The  king  could  not 
maintain  a  standing  army,  for  his  barons  or  feudal 
chieftains  were  jealous  of  allowing  him  too  much 
power.  He  could  only  strengthen  himself  by  obt  lin- 
ing their  aid  on  certain  terms,  or  by  alluwing  them 
to  weaken  themselves  in  intestine  broils,  to  which 
they  had  always  much  proneness.  Each  baron  had  a 
small  army  composed  of  Iiis  own  mihtia  or  retainers, 
available  for  battle  at  short  notice.  The  contests  of 
these  small  armies,  sometimes  combined  and  some- 
times isolated,  make  up  the  greater  part  of  the  wars 
of  the  middle  ages.  Of  military  tactics  or  strategy, 
there  was  very  little  ;  the  campaigns  were  desultory 
and  indecisive;  and  the  battles  were  gained  more 
by  individual  valour  than  by  any  well-concerted 
plan. 

One  great  exception  to  this  military  feudality  was 
furnished  by  the  Crusades  (q.  v.).  So  far  as  concerns 
A.,  however,  in  their  organisation  and  discipline, 
these  expeditions  effected  but  little.  The  military 
forces  which  went  to  the  Holy  Land  were  little 
better  than  armed  molis,  upheld  by  fanaticism,  but 
not  at  all  by  science  or  discipline.  Numbers  and  in- 
dividual bravery  were  left  to  do  the  work,  combina- 
tion and  forethought  being  disregarded. 

A  much  greater  motive-power  for  change,  during 
the  middle  ages,  was  the  invention  of  gunpowder. 
When  men  could  fight  at  a  greater  distance  than  be- 
fore, and  on  a  system  which  brought  mechanism  to 
the  aid  of  valour,  everything  connected  with  the  mili- 
tary art  underwent  a  revolution.  Historically,  how- 
ever, this  great  change  was  not  very  apparent  until 
after  the  period  usually  denominated  the  middle  ages. 
The  art  of  making  good  cannon  and  hand-guns  grew 
lip  gradually,  like  other  arts  ;  and  A.  long  continued 
to  depend  principally  on  the  older  weapons — 
spears,  darts,  arrows,  axes,  maces,  swords,  and 
daggers. 

During  the  greater  part  of  the  14th  and  15th 
centuries,  the  chief  A.  were  those  maintained  by  the 
Spaniards  and  the  Moors  on  one  European  battle- 
groimd,  by  the  English  and  the  French  on  another, 
and  by  the  several  Italian  republics  on  a  third.  In 
those  A.,  the  cavalry  were  regarded  as  the  chief 
arm.  The  knights  and  their  horses  alike  were 
frequently  covered  with  plate  or  chain  armour:  and 
the  offensive  weapons  were  lances,  sw"ords,  daggers, 
and  battle-axes.  A  kind  of  hght  cavalry  was  some- 
times formed  of  archers  on  smaller  horses.  As  to 
army-formation,  there  was  still  little  that  could 
deserve  the  name ;  there  was  no  particular  order  of 
battle  ;  each  knight  sought  how  he  could  best  dis- 
tinguish himself  by  personal  valour ;  and  to  each  was 
usually  attached  an  esquire,  abetting  him  as  a  second 
during  the  contest.  Sometimes  it  even  happened 
that  the  fate  of  a  battle  was  allowed  to  depend  on  a 
combat  between  two  knights.  No  attempt  was  made, 
until  towards  the  close  of  the  15th  c,  to  embody  a 
system  of  tactics  and  manoeuvres  for  cavalry ;  and 
even  that  attempt  was  of  the  most  primitive  kind. 
Nor  was  it  far  otherwise  with  the  foot-soldiers ;  they 
were  gradually  becoming  acquainted  with  the  use  of 
firearms ;  but,  midway  as  it  were  between  two  sys- 
tems, they  observed  neither  completely  ;  and  the  A. 
in  which  they  served  presented  very  little  definite 
organisation. 

ARMIES,  Modern.  The  formation  of  standing 
A.  may  be  said  to  have  introduced  the  modern  mili- 
tary system.  When  the  remarkable  exploit  of  Jeanne 
d'Arc  (Joan  of  Arc)  had  enabled  Charles  VII.  to 
check  the  victorious  progress  of  the  English  in 
France,  he  set  about  remodelling  his  army.  By 
414 


gradual  changes,  and  amid  great  difficulty,  he  con- 
verted his  ill-governed  forces  into  a  disciplined  stand- 
ing army.  During  the  reign  of  liis  son,  Cliarlcs  VIII. 
(1483 — 1498),  the  eonseciuences  of  this  change  made 
their  appearance.  Charles  conducted  a  well-appointed 
army  into  Italy  (1494),  in  support  of  some  preten- 
sions which  he  had  to  the  thione  of  Naples. 

The  change  made  by  Charles  VII.  was  not  simply 
that  of  suljstituting  a  comijaci  standing  army  for  an 
ill-organised  medley  of  feudal  troops  and  of  merce- 
naries; feudalism  itself  gave  way  under  the  influ- 
ence of  this  combined  with  other  reforming  agencies. 
So  far  as  concerned  tlie  actual  formation  and  discip- 
line of  the  standing  A.  above  noticed,  a  few  changes 
were  from  time  to  time  introduced:  pistols  and  car- 
bines Were  given  to  the  cavalry  ;  cuirasses  were  worn 
by  the  heavy  troopers;  and  new  evolutions  were  in- 
troduced. During  the  Thirty  Years'  War  (If.lS — 
1G48),  Gustavus  Adolphus  and  Wallenstein  adopted 
opposite  modes  of  dealing  with  masses  of  infantry  : 
the  former  spread  them  out  to  a  great  width,  and 
only  six  ranks  in  depth  ;  whereas  the  latter  adopted 
a  narrower  front,  with  a  depth  of  twenty  to  thirty 
ranks.  Frederick  the  Great,  in  the  next  century,  in- 
troduced a  most  complicated  system  of  tactics  and 
drilling ;  insomuch  that  when  he  could  manoeuvre, 
he  nearly  always  won  his  battles ;  but  when  the  re- 
sult depended  on  bold  and  unexpected  onslaughts, 
he  was  more  frequently  a  loser  than  a  winner.  The 
great  military  leader  in  the  early  part  of  the  present 
century,  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  made  a  larger  use  than 
any  previous  European  general  of  the  method  of 
moving  masses  of  troops  with  great  celerity,  beating 
the  enemy  in  detail  before  they  could  combine  in  one 
spot. 

It  is  desirable  to  present,  in  the  most  condensed 
form,  a  few  statistics  of  the  actual  A.  of  Europe ; 
leaving  to  future  articles,  under  the  names  of  the 
several  countries,  cities,  and  battle-fields,  all  details 
concerning  special  A.  and  military  encounters.  We 
shall  select  for  this  purpose  the  year  1869. 

France. — The  military  forces  of  France  consist  at 
present  of  three  divisions,  the  active  ariny^  the  army 
of  reserve,  and  the  '  National  Garde  Mobile.'  The 
duration  of  service  is  fi.xed  at  5  years  in  the  active 
army,  at  the  expiration  of  which  term  the  soldier 
must  enter  the  reserve  for  four  years  longer.  If  the 
recruit  has  not  served  5  years  in  the  active  army,  he 
must  remain  4  years  in  the  reserve  and  5  years  in  the 
national  guard.  As  a  rule,  every  Frenchman  aged  21 
is  obliged  to  serve  in  the  army,  or  in  the  guard,  which 
is  an  army  of  defence.  The  regular  army  consists  of 
124  regiments  of  infantry,  with  2.52,652  men  ;  66  regi- 
ments and  one  scjuadron  of  cavalry,  with  62,798  men 
and  48,143  horses ;  and  29  regiments  of  artillery, 
with  39,882  men,  1362  guns,  and  16,646  horses,  tlie 
total  numl)er  on  the  peace  footing  being  404,192  men 
and  86,368  horses,  and  on  the  war  footing,  757,727 
men  and  143,238  horses.  The  effective  force  of  the 
regular  army  at  the  beginning  of  1869  was  334,280 
men  and  85,700  horses.  The  army  of  reserve  num- 
bered 198,546,  and  the  National  Gai-de  Mobile,  381,728 
at  the  beginning  of  1869. 

Prussia. — The  Prussian  army  may  be  said  to  have 
had  its  birth  in  the  time  of  Freilerick  the  Great ;  it 
at  one  time  comprised  200,000  of  the  best  troops  in 
Europe.  At  the  ))resent  day  it  bears  a  ratio  to  the 
whole  population  scarcely  equalled  by  that  of  an}' 
other  country  in  Europe.  Fivery  Prussian  subject  is 
enrolled  as  a  soldier  as  soon  as  he  has  completed  his 
20th  year,  and  is  obliged  to  be  in  service  tluring 
seven  years.  At  the  end  of  this  term  he  enters 
the  'Landwehr,'  or  militia,  for  nine  years,  and  may 
be  incorporated  into  the  regular  army  in  time  of 
war.  Leaving  the  '  Landwehr,'  he  is  finally  enrolled, 
till  the  age    of  fifty,   in    the  '  Lantlstiu-in,'   which   is 


ARMIES. 


only  called  upon  for  service  when  the  frontiers  are 
invaded. 

Setting  aside  a  few  excc]>tinns,  the  whole  male 
population  of  Prussia  may  l)c  said  to  l>e  trained  to 
arms.  Accordin<^  to  otHcial  returns  at  the  end  of 
Ajiril,  18(59,  the  Prussian  army  comprised  299,704 
rank  and  file,  73,.370  horses,  and  12,924  otHcers.  Of 
this  nunil)er  the  infantry  of  the  line  comi)rised  188,94.3 
men  and  6G97  ofHcers  ;  riflemen  or  '  Ja^er,'  8480  men 
and  352  officers;  infantry  of  the  '  Landwehr,'  3.512 
men  and  413  officers  ;  cavalry,  .52,786  men  and  1898 
officers;  artillery,  31,854  men  and  1672  officers  ;  en- 
gineers, 6489  men  and  234  officers;  military  train, 
administrative,  and  other  troops,  7G40  men  and  1640 
officers.  This  is  the  strength  of  the  i)eace  footing. 
On  the  war  footing  the  numbers  can  be  raised  to 
700,000  men. 

Austria. — By  the  terms  of  compromise  between 
Austria  and  Hungary,  the  military  forces  were  divided, 
in  1869,  into  the  standing  army,  the  Landwehr  or 
militia,  and  the  Landsturm.  The  regiments  of  the 
standing  army  are  under  the  control  of  the  minister 
of  war  of  the  empire,  and  the  Landwehr  is  controlled 
by  the  Austrian  and  Hungarian  ilinisters  of  Landes- 
vertheigung  (home  defence).  The  king-emperor  is  the 
supreme  chief  of  the  military  and  naval  forces  of  the 
empire.  The  standing  army  is  formed  by  conscription, 
every  man  being  liable  on  reaching  liis  20th  year. 
The  term  of  service  is  10  years,  3  of  which  must  be 
spent  in  active  service  and  7  in  the  army  of  reserve. 
In  the  Landwehr,  the  term  of  service  is  12  years.  In 
April,  1869,  Austria  possessed  a  standing  army  of 
246,695  on  the  i>eace  footing,  and  822,472  on  the  war 
footing.  Of  these,  the  Infantry  were  comprised  in 
80  regiments,  1  regiment  of  Kaiser-jnger,  of  Tyrol, 
and  33  battalions  of  Peld-jager,  with  141,691  men  in 
pe.ace,  and  544,223  in  time  of  wax-.  The  Cavalry 
numbered  14  regiments  of  dragoons,  14  of  hussars, 
and  13  of  lancers,  with  35,547  men  in  peace  and 
.58,835  in  time  of  war.  The  Artillery,  12  regiments 
of  field  and  12  battalions  of  fortress,  with  25,658  men 
in  peace  and  62,741  in  time  of  war.  Engineer  and 
Field  train,  10,571  men  in  time  of  peace,  and  increased 
to  45,528  when  on  a  war  footing;  and  tinally,  15 
frontier  regiments  of  infantry,  numbering  in  peace 
10,799,  in  war  54,667,  and  a  miscellaneous  force  in 
the  connnissariat,  sanitary,  arsenals,  and  police  de- 
partments of  21,329  men  in  peace,  and  of  38,368  in 
time  of  war.  The  general  staff  is  comjiosed  of  3  tield 
marshals,  16  generals  of  cavahy  and  ordnance,  71 
lieutenant  field  marshals,  and  111  majors  general. 

Germany,  North. — The  cami)aign  army  of  the  Con- 
federation of  the  North,  which  includes  that  of  Prus- 
sia, numbers,  in  time  of  peace,  287,597  men,  and  in 
time  of  war,  511,826.  It  is  composed  of  13  corps 
d'armee,  or  27  divisions,  forming  54  brigades  of  in- 
fantry, 28  of  cavalry,  and  13  of  artillery.  The  sev- 
ei'al  states  furnish  their  respective  contingents  to  the 
army  of  the  Confederation,  which  consists  of  Infantry, 
9  I'egiments  of  the  guard,  in  27  battalions,  with  17,035 
men  in  peace,  and  27,451  in  time  of  war;  109  regi- 
ments of  the  line,  with  173,665  men,  and  in  time  of 
war  increased  to  326,121  men;  Itijlnnen  or  Jayer, 
9612,  and  in  war,  18,108;  total  infantry,  200,312  on 
a  peace  footing,  and  371,680  on  the  war  footing.  Cav- 
alry of  the  guard,  8  regiments  of  5707  ;  of  the  line, 
68  regiments  with  48,416  ;  total  cavalry,  54,123.  ^1?-- 
tillery,  13^  regiments,  containing  201  batteries  of  804 
cannon,  manned  in  time  of  peace  by  23,546  men,  in- 
creased to  214  batteries  of  1272  cannon  and  41,439 
men  on  the  war  footing.  Pioneer  and  Train  com- 
prises 26f  battalions,  nundjcring  in  peace  9618  men, 
and  in  time  of  war  54,570  men.  Besides  the  above, 
there  are  in  the  depots  180,672  men,  and  in  garrisons 
211  battalions  of  3714  men,  which  can  be  increased 
by  the  Landwehr,  in  time  of  war,  to  219,502  ;  also, 


12,696  officers  and  6135  men  in  the  schools,  invalided, 
etc.,  making  a  grand  total  in  time  of  peace  of  319,476, 
and  977,262  when  ]n-epared  for  war. 

Iius.ua. — Tlie  land  forces  of  Russia  are  formed  of 
regular  troops,  and  the  feudal  militia,  or  irregular 
troops,  from  the  Cossacks  and  similar  races.  The 
regular  army  is  recruited  partly  by  conscription  from 
the  peasants  and  artisans,  and  partly  by  voluntary 
enlistment.  Every  individual  of  the  classes  named, 
with  few  e.xceptions,  is  lialde  to  compulsory  service 
on  reaching  a  ])roj)cr  age,  which  is  fi.xed  at  22  years 
for  the  guartl  and  25  years  for  other  troops.  The 
nominal  strength  of  the  regular  army  on  the  peace 
footing  is,  infantry,  364,422  ;  cavalry,  38,306  ;  artil- 
lery, 41,731;  engin'eers,  13,413;  total,  458,875.  When 
on  tlie  war  footing,  infantry,  694,51 1  ;  cavalry,  49,1 83 ; 
artillery,  48,773;  engineers,  16,203;  total,"  808,670. 
The  first  army  of  reserve  nundjcrs,  of  troops  of  the 
line  and  garrison,  in  time  of  peace,  100,285  men,  and 
in  time  of  war  this  may  be  increased  to  127,925.  A 
second  army  of  reserve  is  comjiosed  of  254,036  men  in 
peace,  and  of  199,380  in  war  ;  making  a  grand  total 
of  812,096  in  peace,  and  1,135,975  on  the  war  footing. 
The  Cossacks  are  the  most  important  of  the  irregular 
troops,  and  every  head,  of  which  there  are  875,000,  is 
boimd  to  render  niilitai-y  service  when  rc(piircd,  but 
126,000  only  are  actually  in  the  emploj'  of  the  govern- 
ment. 

Denmark. — The  Danish  army  comprises  20  battal- 
ions of  infantry  of  the  line,  with  10  depot  battalions 
and  10  of  reserve,  5  regiments  of  cavalry,  each  with 
2  squadrons  active  and  2  depot,  and  2  regiments  of 
artillery  and  12  batteries.  The  total  strength  of  the 
army,  exclusive  of  the  reserve,  is  36,782  rank  and  file, 
with  1068  officers,  on  the  peace  footing,  and  47,925 
rank  and  file,  with  1328  officers  on  the  war  footing. 
Conscription  for  the  army  commences  at  the  age  of  22 
years,  and  continues  for  8  years. 

Sweden  and  Norway. — The  Swedes  are  fond  of 
military  display ;  the\'  hate  conscriiition,  but  will 
cheerfully  enlist.  The  army  is  classified  into  a  na- 
tional military  of  33,405  men ;  conscription  troops, 
aged  between  20  and  25  years  (19,000  being  dr.afted 
annually),  95,295 ;  enlisted  troops,  7692,  and  the 
militia  of  Gothland,  7921  ;  a  total,  not  counting  vol- 
unteers (40,848  in  1869),  of  144,313.  In  Norway, 
not  more  than  12,000  men  can  be  under  arms  in  time 
of  ))eace,  nor  more  than  18,000  in  time  of  war,  without 
the  consent  of  the  Storthing.  The  king  may  keep  a 
guard  of  Norwegian  volunteers,  and  may  transfer 
3000  men  annually  from  Sweden  to  Norway,  and  vice 
versa,  for  military  exercise  ;  otherwise  no  Norwegian 
soldier  can  be  permitted  to  enter  the  sister  kingdom. 

Belginm  and  Holland. — According  to  the  law  of 
1868,  the  strength  of  the  army  is  to  be  100,000  men 
on  the  war  footing,  and  40,000  in  time  of  peace.  Of 
the  rank  and  file,  74,000  are  infantry,  7903  cavalry, 
with  6572  horses,  16,867  artillery  and  engineers,  with 
152  guns  and  4050  horses.  Besides  the  standing 
army  there  is  a  civic  militia — Garde  Nationale — or- 
ganized in  1848  and  1853  to  maintain  liberty  and 
order  in  time  of  peace,  which  numbers  125,000  men 
without  and  400,01  fO  with  the  reserve. 

The  Dutch  army,  partly  formed  by  conscription  and 
partly  by  enlistment,  was  composed,  at  the  beginning 
of  1869," of  59,078  rank  and  tile  and  1984  officers.  Of 
these,  38,280  were  in  8  regiments  of  the  line,  and 
4221  formed  one  regiment  of  guards  ;  4310  were  in  4 
regiments  of  hussars ;  6297  in  3  regiments  of  heavy 
fortress  artillery,  and  3156  formed  1  regiment  of  field 
artillery. 

Italy. — The  standing  army  in  1869  was  composed 
of  199,557  men  under  arms  on  the  peace  footing,  and 
244,952  men  on  iliimited  furlough,  making  a  total  on 
the  war  footing  of  445,509  men.  This  was  com- 
manded by  14,797  officers,  not  included  in  the  above 

415 


ARMILLARY  SPHERE— ARMINIUS. 


returns.  Uf  the  above,  on  the  peace  footing,  118,850 
were  infantry  of  the  line,  14,927  bersagliari,  16,165 
cavalry,  17,202  artillery,  ami  19,628  carabinieri.  llie 
time  of  service  in  the  standing  army  is  10  years. 
Every  native  of  the  kingflom  is  lial)le  to  conscription, 
and  to  be  enrolled  either  in  the  staiuling  army  or 
army  of  reserve. 

Turkey. — The  military  force  of  T.  is  composed  of 
36  regiments  of  infantry  of  100,800  men  ;  24  of  cav- 
alry of  17,280  ;  6  of  field  artillery  of  7800  ;  4  of  artil- 
lery in  fortress  of  5200;  2  of  e!igincers  of  1600; 
and  8  of  detached  corps,  in  Candia, 'lYijjoli,  and  Tunis, 
of  16,000;  numbering  in  all  80  regiments  of  148,680 
men  on  the  peace  footing.  On  the  war  footing  the 
above  regiments  are  increased  to  a  grand  total  of 
459,360  men. 

The  army  of  Spain  in  1868  was  composed  of  151,- 
668  men  and  oflicers.  That  of  Portugal,  in  1869, 
numbered  18,185.  That  of  the  Pajjal  States,  in  the 
beginning  of  1869,  was  made  up  of  9588  men,  Ital- 
ians, Belgians,  Swiss,  and  Irish.  The  army  of  Greece, 
in  1869,  was  stated  to  be  composed  of  14,716  men 
and  othcers,  and  that  of  Switzerland,  in  April,  1869, 
was  made  up  of  the  federal  army  of  85,138,  the  army 
of  reserve,  50,559,  and  the  Landwehr  of  64,323,  mak- 
ing a  total  of  200,020,  to  which  must  be  added  the 
Landsturm,  for  home  defence  only,  of  150,000. 

United  States. — The  A.  of  the  U.  States  at  the 
beginning  of  1861  consisted  of  about  16,000  regular 
troops,  mostly  stationed  on  the  Western  border.  In 
April  1861,  a  call  was  made  by  the  President  for  75,000 
volunteers,  and  in  May  75,000  more  were  required.  By 
subsequent  jiroclamations  and  acts  of  Congress  the  A. 
\vasinci-eased,and  the  whole  number  enrolled  amount- 
ed to  2,653,062  ;  and  on  May  1,  1865,  1,034,065  men 
were  in  the  national  service.  During  the  sunmier  and 
autumn  of  1865,  the  A.  was  disbanded  at  the  rate  of 
300,000  per  month,  and  at  the  close  of  1868  num- 
bered about  40,000  regular  troops. 

A  separate  and  fuller  treatment  of  the  army  of 
Great  Britain  is  reserved  for  Buitish  Armv. 
All  the  various  matters  relating  to  the  formation, 
organisation,  discipline,  arms,  equipments,  duties, 
and  tactics  of  A.,  will  be  found  succinctly  treated 
under  appropriate  headings. 

ARMI'LLARY  SPHERE  {armilla,  a  ring),  an 
instrument  intended  to  give  a  just  conception  of 
the  constitution  of  the  heavens,  and  of  the  motions  of 
the  heavenly  laodies,  as  seen  by  an  observer  on  the 
earth.  It  consists  of  a  number  of  rings  fixed  together 
so  as  to  represent  the  principal  circles  of  the  celestial 
sphere,  and  these  are  movable  round  the  polar  a.xis 
within  a  meridian  and  horizon,  as  in  the  ordinary 
celestial  globe.  It  was  by  means  of  such  rings  fur- 
nished with  sights  that  Hipparchus,  Ptolemy,  and 
other  ancient  astronomers,  made  many  of  their  obser- 
vations, and  we  find  even  Tycho  Brahe  making  most 
of  his  planetary  observations  with  the  help  of  such 
an  instrument.  The  A.  S.  is,  however,  now  only  used 
as  an  aid  to  instruction  in  astronomy,  and  in  this 
respect  is  generally  supplanted  by  the  celestial  globe. 
The  object  aimed  at  in  the  A.  S.  will  be  better 
understood  by  reference  to  the  celestial  globe  repre- 
sented in  the  diagram.  Supposing  the  observer  on 
the  earth  to  be  in  the  centre  of  the  sphere,  the  earth 
on  which  he  stands  shuts  out  from  his  view  the 
lower  half  of  the  heavens,  or  the  part  lying  below  the 
horizon  HH.  The  hemisphere  above  him  may  be 
regarded  as  divided  into  two  equal  portions,  an 
eastern  and  a  western,  by  the  meridian  MM,  which 
passes  through  the  pole  P,  and  the  zenith  Z,  of  which 
the  eastern  half  is  shewn  in  the  figure.  The  north 
pole  is  supposed  to  be  elevated  above  the  horizon, 
and  its  elevation  is  measured  by  the  arc  NP,  or  the 
height  above  the  north  point;  and  the  heavens 
eppenr  to  rotate  round  an  axis  PQ,  of  which  Pis  one 
416 


extremity ;  the  south  pole,  Q,  the  other  extremity, 
being  below  the  hoiizon.  The  meridian  MM,  and 
the  horizon  HH,  are  the  only  circles  which  main- 
tain a  fixed   position  with   regard  to  the    observer. 


Of  the  other  leading  celestial  circles,  the  equator  or 
etpiinoctial  LL,  extending  from  the  east  to  the  west 
point  of  the  horizon,  the  tropics  of  Cancer  and 
Capricorn,  respectively  BIJ  and  CC,  and  the  arctic 
circle  AA,  although  rotating  with  the  stars,  maintain 
the  same  position  with  regard  to  the  horizon ;  while 
the  ecliptic,  KK,  is  constantly  changing  its  inclination 
and  position  towards  it.  Circles  which  extend  from 
j)ole  to  pole,  cutting  the  equator  at  right-angles,  are 
called  circles  of  declination.  The  circle  which  passea 
through  the  vernal  eciuinox  T  (see  Ariks),  is  denomi- 
nated the  equinoctial  colure ;  and  that  passing  through 
the  summer  solstice  0  (see  Solstice),  the  solstitial 
colure.  The  circles  just  named,  together  with  the 
Antarctic  Circle,  are  represented  by  corresponding 
rings  in  the  A.  S.  If  S  be  a  star,  the  lollowing  are  the 
names  given  to  the  arcs  which  determine  its  position 
with  regard  to  these  circles  :  fV,  Right  ascension; 
SV,  Declination  ;  SP,  Polar  distance  ;  SZ,  Zenith 
distance;  XS,  Altitude;  (XN  -|-  180°),  Azimuth, 
reckoned  from  the  south  pole  westward. 

ARMI'NIUS,  jACOurs,  the  founder  of  Armini- 
anism,  was  born  at  Oudewater  (Old  Water)  in  1560. 
His  real  name  in  Dutch  was  James  Harmensen  ;  but 
in  accordance  with  the  prevailing  custom  amongst 
scholars  in  those  days,  he  Latinised  it.  His  father 
was  a  cutler,  and  died  when  A.  was  a  child.  After 
a  preliminary  education  at  Utrecht,  he  commenced 
(in  1575)  a  course  of  study  at  the  newly  founded 
university  of  Leyden,  where  he  remained  for  six 
years,  and  where  he  seems  to  have  acquired  a  high 
reputation,  for  the  Amsterdam  merchants  undertook 
to  bear  the  expense  of  his  further  studies  for  the 
ministry,  on  condition  that  he  would  not  preach 
out  of  their  city  unless  permitted  to  do  so.  In 
1582,  he  went  to  Geneva,  and  received  the  instruc- 
tions of  Theodore  Beza,  the  most  rigid  of  Calvinists. 
Here  he  made  himself  odious  by  the  boldness  with 
which  he  defended  the  logic  of  Peter  Ramus,  in 
opposition  to  that  of  the  Aristotelians  of  Geneva, 
and  in  consequence  had  to  retire  to  Basle,  whither 
his  fame  must  have  preceded  him,  for  he  was  offered 
by  the   faculty  of  Divinity  in   that   university   the 


ARMINIUS. 


degree  of  doctor  gratis,  which,  however,  he  did  not 
venture  to  .accept,  on  account  of  his  youth.  At 
Basle  he  studied  under  Gyrnaius.  He  subsequently 
(1580)  travelled  into  Italy.  On  his  return  to 
Amsterdam  (1.588),  he  was  appointed  minister. 
Shortly  after  this,  he  was  commissioned  to  defend 
the  doctrine  of  Beza,  regarding  ])redcstination, 
against  the  changes  which  the  ministers  of  Delft  had 
proposed  to  make  on  it.  A.  carefully  examined  both 
sides  of  the  question,  but  the  result  of  the  study  was, 
that  he  himself  began  to  doubt,  and  at  last  came  to 
adopt  the  opinions  he  had  been  commissioned  to 
confute.  Some  time  after  this  change  of  view,  he  came,. 
in  the  course  of  his  expositions,  u\)on  the  Epistle  to 
the  Romans,  the  most  explicitly  doctrinal  in  tlic  New 
Testament,  and  the  8th  and  'Jtli  chapters  uf  which 
I'.avc  always  been  considered  the  strongholds  of 
Calvinism.  His  treatment  of  this  epistle  excited 
much  dissatisfaction,  and  involved  him  in  sharp 
disputes  with  his  orthodox  brethren.  Still  his  views 
■were,  as  yet,  either  ambiguously  or  vaguely  expressed, 
or,  at  least,  had  not  attained  to  that  clear  consistency 
they  subsequently  acquired,  for  in  IGOl  he  was  made 
professor  of  theology  in  the  university  of  Leyden. 

The  greatest  enemy  of  A.  was  Francis  Gomar, 
his  colleague  in  the  university  of  Leyden.  In  the 
course  of  the  year  1G(14,  the  latter  attacked  his  doc- 
trines, and  from  that  hour  to  the  end  of  his  life,  A. 
was  engaged  in  a  scries  of  bitter  disputes  with 
Ills  opponents.  The  odium  theologicum  was  never 
exhibited  in  more  unmingled  purity.  Arminius 
asserted,  in  substance,  that  God  bestows  forgiveness 
and  eternal  life  on  all  who  repent  of  their  sins  and 
believe  in  Christ  ;  he  wills  that  all  men  should 
attain  salvation,  and  only  because  he  has  from 
eternity  foreseen  the  belief  or  unbelief  of  individuals, 
has  he  from  eternity  determined  the  fate  of  each. 
On  the  other  hand,  Gomar  and  his  party,  appeal- 
ing to  the  Bclgic  Confession  and  the  Heidelberg 
Catechism,  maintained,  that  God  had,  by  an  eternal 
decree,  predestinated  what  persons  shall,  as  being 
elected  to  salvation,  be  theretbre  awakened  to 
repentance  and  faith,  and  by  grace  made  to  persevere 
therein  ;  and  what  persons  shall,  as  being  rejected 
(reprobati),  be  left  to  sin,  to  unbelief,  and  to  perdition. 
See  Predestination,  Perskverance. 

While  these  fierce  disputes  were  continuing.  A., 
who  was  not  destitute  of  either  friends  or  iniiuence, 
was  created  rector  magni.Jicux  of  the  university,  but 
resigned  the  honour  on  the  8th  of  February  16(i6, 
having  held  the  office  only  for  one  year.  AH  the 
pulpits  in  Holland  now  fulminated  against  him. 
At  length,  in  1608,  A.  himself  a])plied  to  the  states 
of  Holland  to  convoke  a  synod  for  the  purpose  of 
settling  the  controversy ;  but,  worn  out  with  care 
and  disease,  he  died,  on  the  19th  of  October  1C()9, 
before  it  was  held,  leaving  seven  sons  and  two  daugh- 
ters by  his  wife,  Elizabeth  Reael,  daughter  of  Laurent 
Eeael,  a  judge  and  senator  of  Amsterdam. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  A.  himself  was  much 
less  Arminian  than  his  followers.  He  had  not 
matured  his  opinions  sufficiently  to  elaborate  a  com- 
plete system  of  anti-Calvinistic  doctrine,  though  it  is 
perfectly  certain  that  the  conclusions  at  which  his 
disciples  arrived — as  stated  in  the  famous  '  Five 
Articles' — are  the  logical  and  legitimate  results  of 
his  teaching.  He  always  complained,  however,  that 
his  opinions  were  misrepresented  ;  but  this  is  invari- 
ably the  fate  of  controversialists,  and  the  penalty  of 
controversy.  A.  was  an  extremely  good  man,  as 
even  his  enemies  allow ;  his  abilities  were  also  of  a 
high  order  ;  his  thinking  is  clear,  bold,  and  vigorous  ; 
his  style  remarkably  methodical,  and  his  scholarship 
respectable,  if  not  profound. 

After    the    death    of    A.,    his    followers    gained 
strength,  and   boldly  asserted  theii*  views,  but  still 
27 


remained  in  a  minority.  In  1010,  they  presented 
to  the  assembled  states  of  the  province  of  Holland 
a  '  Remonstrance  ' — from  which  they  were  styled 
'  Remonstrants  ' — which  contained  the  following  pro- 
positions: 1.  That  God  had  indeed  made  an  eternal 
decree,  but  only  on  the  conditional  terms  that  all 
who  believe  in  Christ  shall  be  saved,  while  all  who 
refuse  to  believe  must  perish  ;  so  that  predestination 
is  only  conditional.  2.  That  Christ  died  for  all  men, 
but  that  none  except  believers  are  really  saved  by 
his  death.  The  intention,  in  other  words,  is  univer- 
sal, but  the  efficacy  may  be  restricted  by  unbelief. 
3.  That  no  man  is  of  himself  able  to  exercise  a 
saving  faith,  but  must  be  born  again  of  God  in 
Christ  through  the  Holy  Spirit.  4.  That  without  the 
grace  of  God,  man  can  neither  think,  will,  nor  do  any- 
thing good ;  yet  that  grace  does  not  act  in  men  in  an 
irresistible  way.  5.  That  believers  are  able,  by  the 
aid  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  victoriously  to  resist  sin;  but 
that  the  question  of  the  possibility  of  a  fall  from 
grace  must  be  determined  by  a  further  examination 
of  the  Scriptures  on  this  point. 

This  last,  point,  left  as  an  open  question,  was 
decided  by  the  Remonstrants  in  the  affirmative 
soon  afterwards  (IGll).  Whereupon  the  Gomarists 
(Calvinists)  put  forth  a  strong  '  Counter-remon- 
strance,' asserting  plainly  absolute  predestination 
and  reprobation.  After  several  fruitless  discussions, 
the  states  of  Holland,  in  January  1614,  acting  under 
the  advice  of  Oldenbarneveld,  a  senator,  and  the 
learned  Hugo  Grotius,  issued  an  edict  of  full  toler- 
ation for  both  parties,  prohibiting  at  the  same  time 
the  continuance  of  the  controversy.  The  Counter- 
remonstrants  (or  Calvinists)  refused  to  submit  to  this 
edict,  and  the  strife  soon  became  so  furious,  that  in 
1617,  or  soon  afterwards,  the  Arminians  found  it 
necessary  to  guard  themselves  from  personal  violence 
by  appointing  a  safeguard  of  militia-men  (  Waard- 
geUkrs).  The  controversy  now  merged  in  the  strife 
of  party  politics.  The  ambitions  Maurice  of  Orange 
took  advantage  of  the  passions  of  the  majority  to 
crush  his  opponents  of  the  republican  party,  whose 
leaders  were  adherents  of  the  Arminian  doctrines. 
Several  Arminians  were  put  to  death — among  them 
the  aged  senator  Oldenbarneveld,  May  13,  1619 — 
while  Grotius  and  others  were  imprisoned.  In 
these  circumstances,  the  synod  of  Port  was  held 
(1618 — 1619),  attended  by  selected  representatives 
from  the  Netherlands,  England,  Scotland,  the 
Palatinate,  Switzerland,  Nassau,  East  Friesland, 
and  Bremen.  From  this  convocation  (January  14, 
1619),  the  thirteen  Arminian  pastors,  with  the 
learned  and  eloquent  Simon  Episcopus  at  their  head, 
were  excluded.  The  doctrines  of  the  Counter-remon- 
strants were  embodied  in  ninety-three  canons  ;  the 
Bclgic  Confession  and  the  Heidelberg  Catechism 
were  confirmed  as  authorities  for  the  reformed 
churches  of  the  Netherlands;  and  three  hundred 
Arminians  (chiefly  preachers)  were  expelled  from 
office.  In  consequence  of  this  decision,  the  defeated 
jiarty  sought  shelter  in  France,  Holstein,  England, 
&c.  Afterwards,  under  Frederick  Henry,, tlie  stadt- 
holder  after  Prince  Maurice  (163(i),  they  were  again 
tolerated  in  Holland,  and  in  1634  Episcopus  opened 
his  theological  college  in  Amsterdam. 

Since  that  time,  the  Remonstrants  (or  Arminians) 
in  Holland  have  inclined  more  and  more  towards 
freedom  of  thought  on  religious  questions  and  inde- 
pendence in  church  government.  The  rejection  of 
all  creeds  and  confessions;  the  free  interpretation 
of  the  Scriptures;  a  preference  of  moral  to  doctrinal 
teaching;  Arian  views  respecting  the  Trinity;  the 
virtual  rejection  of  the  doctrines  of  original  sin  and 
imputed  righteousness,  and  the  view  of  the  sacraments 
as  merely  edifying  forms  or  ceremonies:  all  these 
and  other  points  of  belief  display  the  same  tendency 

417 


ARMISTICE— ARMOUR. 


which  is  found  in  their  church  polity.  Their 
aiuuml  conference  on  ecclesiastical  afi'airs  is  com- 
posed of  ministers  and  lay-deputies,  and  takes  place 
in  June,  alternately  at  Amsterdam  and  Rotterdam. 
The  number  of  Retnonstrants  is  now  only  about 
5000,  and  is  still  decreasing.  In  1809,  they  had  34 
congregations  with  40  preachers  in  Holland;  but  in 
1S29,  only  20  congregations  with  21  preachers.  The 
largest  society  of  A.  is  in  Rotterdam,  and  numbers 
only  tiOO  members. 

Although  the  Armiiiians  are  thus  dwindling  away 
as  a  distinct  body,  their  tenets  respecting  predestin- 
ation have  been  adopted  with  greater  or  less  modi- 
lication  by  several  other  Christian  denominations 
(see  Methodists,  Weslevan  ;  Baptists,  (Ieneiial)  ; 
as  well  as  by  multitudes  of  the  individual  members 
of  those  churches  whose  ibrmularies  are  Calvinistic 
(see  Calvinism).  They  are  also  very  prevalent  in  the 
Church  of  Rome. 

A'RMISTICE,  a  suspension  of  hostilities  between 
two  armies,  or  two  nations  at  van,  by  mutual  agree- 
ment. It  sometimes  takes  place  when  both  are 
exhausted,  and  at  other  times  when  an  endeavour  to 
form  a  treaty  of  peace  is  being  made.  A  particular 
example  will  best  illustrate  the  nature  of  an  A.  On 
the  2.0th  of  February  ISoti,  the  representatives  of 
England,  France,  Austria,  Prussia,  Sardinia,  Turkey, 
and  Russia,  met  in  congress  at  Paris,  to  consider  the 
terms  of  a  treaty  of  peace  which  should  terminate 
the  war  at  that  time  going  on  between  five  of  the 
above-named  powers.  The  British  nation  was  very 
unwilling  to  suspend  hostilities  during  the  sitting  of 
the  congress — partly  on  account  of  the  numerous 
failures  of  diplomacy  in  the  preceding  year,  and 
partly  because  Russia  was  suspected  of  only  wishing 
to  gain  time.  It  was  agreed,  however,  at  the  first 
sitting,  in  conformity  with  the  laws  of  Tuitions  and 
the  usages  of  war,  that  an  A.  should  be  declared 
to  be  announced  by  telegraphic  message  to  the  com- 
manders in  the  Crimea,  and  to  last  until  the  31st  of 
March.  During  that  period  of  about  one  calendar 
month,  the  hostile  armies  were  to  remain  strictly  at 
peace,  but  the  fleets  of  the  allies  were  to  continue 
their  blockade  of  Russian  ports.  The  information 
reached  the  generals  late  on  the  28th  of  February. 
On  the  morning  of  the  29th,  a  white  flag  was  hoisted 
in  the  Russian  camp  outside  Sebastopol ;  several 
Russian  officers  assemliled  around  it;  and  a  glitter- 
ing cavalcade  of  British,  French,  and  Sardinian  officers 
proceeded  thither.  The  accredited  officers  compared 
notes,  found  the  terms  of  the  A.  clear,  agreed  on  a 
boundary-line  between  the  hitherto  hostile  forces, 
and  formally  gave  pledges  for  a  cessation  of  fighting. 
The  courtesy  of  civilized  nations  at  once  succeeded 
to  the  horrors  of  war  ;  the  Russian  commander 
gave  a  magnificent  entertainment  to  the  allied  com- 
manders, and  was  entertained  in  turn  ;  the  soldiers 
'fraternised,'  by  little  gifts  of  tobacco,  and  ludicrous 
attempts  at  conversation,  across  a  small  stream  which 
ibnned  part  of  the  boundary  line ;  and  a  few  British 
officers  were  permitted  to  make  excursions  into  the 
interior  of  the  Crimea.  The  A.  ended  on  March  31, 
not  by  a  renewal  of  hostilities,  but  by  the  siguing  of 
a  treaty  of  peace. 

A'RMORER.  The  old  meaning  of  this  word 
Inis  nearly  j)assed  away  with  the  system  to  which  it 
belonged.  The  armour-smiths,  or  makers  of  armour, 
were  among  the  most  skilful  workers  in  metal  during 
the  feudal  times ;  but  their  trade  afterwards  fell 
away.  In  the  year  1690,  the  workmen-armorers  of 
London,  in  a  petition  to  parliament,  complained  that 
their  trade  was  well-nigh  ruined. 

Armorers,  in  a  somewhat  different  sense  of  the 
word,  belong  to  the  British  army  and  navy  at 
the  present  time.  There  are  armorers  to  every 
418 


regiment,  not  to  make  armour,  but  to  repair  arms. 
There  is  one  to  each  troop  of  cavalry,  and  one  to 
each  company  of  infantry.  Tiie  A.  is  paid  one 
penny  per  month  for  taking  to  pieces  and  cleaning 
the  lock  of  each  soldier's  musket.  There  is  also  a 
regular  tariff'  of  prices  for  every  minute  detail  of 
repair  in  the  stock,  lock,  or  barrel  of  muskets,  ])istols, 
carbines,  and  rifles,  and  in  bayonets  and  ramrods. 
A  School  for  training  'A. -sergeants'  has  recently 
been  established  in  London,  to  supply  one  such 
artificer  to  each  battalion,  who  shall  have  a  certain 
degree  of  control  over  the  ten  or  twelve  company- 
armorers  in  the  battalion. 

On  shipboard,  the  A.  is  a  warrant-officer,  who 
has  charge  of  all  the  nniskets,  pistols,  cutlasses, 
boarding-pikes,  kc,  which  he  is  expected  to  keep 
clean  and  in  ready  order.  He  is  assisted  by  a 
subordinate  called  the  '  A.'s  mate ; '  and  both  are 
skilled  in  the  general  routine  of  smith's  work. 

ARMO'RICA,  the  counti  y  of  the  Armorici,  i.  e., 
'  the  dwellers  on  the  sea  '  (Celt,  ar,  on  or  near  ;  and 
moc,  sea),  the  name  by  which  the  people  occujjying 
the  coast  of  Gaul  between  the  Seine  and  the  Loire 
were  known  to  Cajsar.  At  a  later  period,  the  name 
A.  w;)s  confined  to  the  country  afterwards  styled 
Britannia  Minor,  or  Bretagne  (q.  v.). 

A'RMORY  may  mean  a  storehouse  for  arms ; 
but  the  name  is  also  often  applied  to  a  collection  of 
ancient  armour  and  weapons — such  ag  those  in  the 
Tower  of  London,  in  Sir  Samuel  Mey rick's  mansion 
at  Goodrich  Court  on  the  Wye,  and  in  Warwick 
Castle. 

A'RMOUR  is  a  general  name  for  the  apparatus 
for  personal  dvfcncc,  as  contradistinguished  from 
arms  or  weapons  of  offence.  Little  of  it  is  worn  by 
soldiers  at  the  present  day,  seeing  that  hand-to- 
hand  conflicts,  in  which  it  is  especially  serviceable, 
are  rather  exceptional  in  modern  warfire.  It  was 
befoi'c  the  invention  of  gunpowder  that  A. — often 
called  in  England  by  the  name  of  harness — was 
especially  used. 

All  the  ancient  nations  who  occupy  a  place  in 
history,  were  accustomed  to  adopt  one  or  other  of 
tlio  defensive  clothing  or  implements  which  collect- 
ively come  under  the  denomination  of  A.  Lcather- 
A.  was  sometimes  worn;  but  brass,  iron,  and  other 
metals  were  preferred.  Some  of  tlie  more  luxurious 
leaders  had  much  silver  and  gold  in  their  A.  In  the 
Bible,  shields,  helmets,  breastplates,  and  greaves, 
are  mentioned  among  the  articles  of  A.  borne  or 
worn  by  the  Israelites  and  tlieir  opponents.  The 
classical  writers — Homer,  Xenophon,  Herodotus, 
Livy,  Tacitus,  Yarro,  kc.  — supply  abundant  evi- 
dence of  the  use  of  A.  among  the  nations  concerning 
whom  they  wrote. 

It  is  believed  that  the  early  Britons  bore  little  or 
no  other  A.  than  .'shields.  The  Anglo-Saxons  were 
more  fully  provided.  At  different  times  before  the 
Norman  Conquest,  they  appear  to  liave  had  four- 
cornered  helmets;  loricaj  made  of  leather;  scale- 
A. ;  leathern  helmets;  wooden  shields  covered  with 
leather;  sheep-skin  shields;  conical  caps  or  helmets 
of  metal ;  pectorals  or  neck-guards;  breast-guards 
of  undressed  hide ;  flat-ringed  A.  ;  byrnes  or 
tunics  of  overlapping  pieces  of  leather ;  close- 
fitting  cuirasses  of  leather,  and  sometimes  of  strong 
linen  ;  leg-guards  of  twisted  Avoollen  cloth  ;  shields 
of  various  sizes,  from  half  a  yard  to  a  yard  and 
a  half  in  length  ;  and  cas(iues  having  more  or  less 
resemblance  to  the  ancient  helmets.  When  the 
Danes  were  in  Britain,  they  had  at  first  no  other 
A.  than  leathern  neck-piece.s,  which  descended  some 
way  over  the  shoulders  and  chest;  and  greaves  or 
shin-pieces  for  the  legs.  In  the  time  of  Canute  or 
Knute,  however,  they  adopted  a  kind  of  A.  which 


ARMS— ARirSTROXG. 


Sr  Samuel  Mcyrick  supposes  tlicm  to  liave  borrowed 
from  the  Norsemen  or  Norwegians.  It  cominisod  a 
tunic,  with  a  liood  and  long  sleeves;  pantaloons 
wliieh  covered  feet  as  well  as  legs;  and  sugar-loaf 
shaped  helmets  or  skull-cajis,  with  attached  pieces 
which  hid  nearly  the  whole  face  except  the  eves. 
All  these  were  ])robahly  made  of  leather;  but  most 
of  the  surfaces  were  strengthened  by  inacles  or 
niaseles,  a  perforated  net-work  of  steel. 

AVith  William  the  Conqueror  came  in  the  kinds  of 
A.  which  were  at  that  time  prevalent  among  the 
1  nights  and  soldiers  of  the  coniincnt  of  Europe,  and 
■which  became  afterwards  more  or  less  coniljiiicd  with 
t'.ie  A.  previously  known  in  England.  William  himself 
occasionally  wore  a  hauberk  of  ring-A.  This  kind 
of  A.  was  much  worn  during  his  reign,  the  rings 
being  usually  attached  to  a  foundation  of  leather. 
One  curious  variety  of  ring-A.,  called  the  hanbergeon, 
had  the  tunic  and  breeches  all  in  one  piece.  The 
helmets  were  generally  conical,  with  a  nasal  or  nose 
guard  descending  irom  the  front.  A  distinct  ring-A., 
called  hose,  was  often  worn  on  the  legs.  The 
shield  was  generally  kite-shaped,  unlike  the  oval 
shield  carried  by  the  Anglo-Saxons.  Gradual 
changes  in  these  various  jiortions  of  A.  were 
made  between  the  reigns  of  William  Rufns  and 
John.  Under  Henry  III.,  we  find  stitched  and 
padded  hauberks  and  cliausscs,  called  '  ouvrages 
t'e  ponrpointerie; '  suits  of  ring-A.;  greaves  or 
shin-pieces  of  steel;  poleyns  or  knee-guards; 
vambraces  or  arm-guards  ;  jacks,  jaques,  or  jackets, 
made  of  leather,  and  worn  over  the  ring-A. ;  inter- 
laced ring-A.,  of  oriental  invention,  not  requir- 
ing to  be  stitched  to  any  garment  or  foundation  ; 
helmets,  visors,  and  skull-caps  of  various  forms;  and 
cl.anfrons,  or  A.  for  the  head  and  face  of  horses. 
During  Edward  III.'s  reign,  iron  plate-A.  was  much 
used  by  troopers,  in  the  various  forms  of  helmet, 
b'reast-plate,  gauntlet,  and  greaves.  In  the  14th  c, 
chain-mail  fell  into  disuse,  and  was  succeeded  by 
plate-A.;  this  last-named  kind  became  more  and 
more  complicated,  and  reached  its  greatest  pitch  of 
I  laboration  in  the  reign  of  Richard  III.  During  the 
times  of  Henry  VII.  and  VIII.,  the  A.  was  some- 
limes  fluted,  often  elaborately  engraved,  and  even 
diunasccned  or  inlaid  with  gold.  Under  James  I., 
the  knightly  ideas  of  the  feudal  times  gave  way, 
nnd  the  use  of  A.  declined;  a  knight  armed  cap-h- 
plb  was  a  rarity.     Charles  I.  tried  to  revive  its  use, 


Suit  of  Armour, 
j-resontc'd  by  the  Emperor  Maximilian  to  llonry  Till. 

but  he  had  few  followers;  and  the  days  of  Cromwell 
may  be  regarded  as  the  last  in  which  A.  was  worn 
to  any  considerable  extent  by  the  regular  soldiers. 
Ilehnets  and  cuirasses  are  still  worn  by  the  three 
regiments  of  Household  Cavalry  (Life-guards  and 
Uorse-guards),  but  more  for  show  than  for  service. 


The  chief  pieces  of  A.  will  bo  found  briefly 
described  and  illustrated  under  the  proper  headings. 
AR.MS,  or  weapons  of  oilence,  may  be  divided 
into  two  great  classes — those  that  act  br  means 
of  gunpowder,  and  those  that  do  not.  Of  arms  that 
act  otherwise  than  by  explosion,  the  greater  part 
have  been  in  use  from  tlie  earliest  times;  they 
include  the  bow  and  arrow,  sling,  pike,  spear, 
lance,  dart,  javelin,  dagger,  axe,  mace,  spiked  or 
knotted  club,  scythe  lor  chariots,  dirk,  bayonet, 
sword,  cutlass,  &c.,  together  with  such  artillerv 
as  the  ballista,  catapulta,  and  battering-ram.  Wea- 
pons depending  on  the  use  of  gunf)owder  are  of  two 
kinds — those  that  can  be  held  in  the  hand,  and  those 
that  are  too  heavy  to  be  portable.  In  the  first  cla.ss, 
we  find  the  names  of  the  hand-cannon,  hand-gun, 
arquebus,  haquebut,  demi-haque,  matchlock,  wheel- 
lock,  firelock,  currier,  snaphaunce,  caliver,  csclo- 
petto,  petronel, dragon,  hand-mortar,  dag,  tricker-lock, 
carbine,  fusil,  ibwlingpiece,  blunderbuss,  pistol, 
musket  or  musquet,  musketoon,  rifle,  &c.  In  the 
second  class,  more  usually  included  under  the  name 
of  artillery,  we  find  the  springel,  war-wolf,  bombard, 
cart-of-war,  culvcrin,  demi-culvcrin,  serpentine, 
falcon,  saker,  cannon,  howitzer,  petard,  carronadc, 
mortar,  rifled  cannon,  war-rockets,  &c.  The  more 
important  of  these  are  briefly  noticed  under  the 
proper  headings. 

The  Adjutant-general  of  the  British  army  watches 
the  state  of  the  A.  in  all  the  regiments  and  at  all 
the  stations,  receives  reports  on  their  condition, 
supphes  all  deficiencies,  and  insures  readiness  for 
immediate  service.  Each  regiment  makes  a  report 
to  him  on  these  subjects  yearly.  If  the  commanding 
officer  of  a  regiment  ascertains  that  a  new  supplv 
of  A.  is  needed  lor  the  men  under  him,  or  a  supplv 
of  anything  in  relation  to  the  A.,  he  notifies  the 
fact  to  the  army  agent  for  the  regiment,  who  acts  iu 
many  ways  as  a  sort  of  factor  or  middleman.  See 
Ar.KNT,  Army.  The  agent  applies  to  the  War- 
office.  The  Secretary  of  State  for  War,  if  satisfied 
that  the  demand  is  proper,  writes  an  order  for  the 
supply  ;  this  order  is  sent  to  the  Adjutant-general, 
who  acts  as  the  second  in  influence  under  the 
Commander-in-chief;  and  then  the  store-keepers  or 
ordnance  oSicers  receive  orders  to  furnish  the  supply. 

ARMS,  ARMO'RIAL  BEARINGS,  or  EN- 
SIGNS, are  the  names  given  to  such  devices  as  when 
painted  on  a  shield  form  a  coat.  These  terms  iu 
popular  speech  include  all  the  accompaniments  of  a 
shield — viz.,  the  crest,  helmet,  and  where  such  exist, 
the  supporters,  &c.  See  these  terms.  See  also 
Heualdky. 

ARMS,  AsstrMPTivK.     See  Heraldry. 

ARMS,  Bells  of,  or  tents,  mostly  of  a  conical 
shape,  for  containing  the  small-arms  for  each  com- 
pany in  a  regiment  of  infantry.  The  tent  is  frequently 
painted  with  the  colour  of  the  facings  of  the  regi- 
mental uniforms. 

ARMS,  Messenger  at.  See  Messenger- at- 
Arms. 

ARMS,  Serjeant  at.     See  Serjeant-at-Arms. 

AR.MS,  Stand  of.  A  stand  of  A.  is  the  complete 
set  necessary  for  the  equipment  of  one  soldier, 
whether  horse  or  foot. 

A'RMSTRONG,  John,  physician  and  poet,  was 
born  about  1709  at  Castletown,  a  pastoral  parish  in 
Roxburghshire,  of  which  his  father  was  minister. 
He  studied  medicine  at  the  university  of  Edinbursrh, 
where  he  took  the  degree  of  M.D.,  February  4,  173'J. 
Soon  after,  he  commenced  practice  in  London,  and 
became  known  by  the  publication  of  several  fugitive 
pieces  and  medical  essays.  In  1737  he  published  a 
very  objectionalde  poem.  The  Economy  of  Love,  which 
injured    his    reputation    for    a    time.'     His    principal 

419 


ARMSTRONG. 


work,  The  Art  of  Prescrrhig  Health,  a  didactic 
poem  in  blank  verse.,  extending  through  four  books, 
appeared  in  174L  In  1746  he  was  appointed  physi- 
cian to  the  hospital  for  sick  and  lame  soldiers.  In 
1751  he  published  a  volume  on  Benevolenre ;  in 
1753,  a  poetical  epistle  on  Taste;  and  in  1758,  a 
volume  of  prose  essays  of  no  great  merit.  In  17 GO 
he  was  appointed  physician  to  the  forces  in  Germany. 
In  1761  appeared  from  his  pen  Day,  a  Poem.  On 
the  peace  in  1763,  he  returned  to  London,  and 
resumed  practice.  In  1771  he  made  a  continental 
tour  Avith  Fuseli,  the  painter,  an  account  of  which  he 
l)ub]ished,  with  the  title  of  A  Short  Jiavihlc  tlironcih 
some  Parts  of  France  and  Italy,  by  Lancelot  Temple, 
Esq.  His  last  work  was  a  volume  of  medical  e.ssay.s. 
He  contributed  to  Thomson's  Castle  of  Indolence  the 
four  stanzas  at  the  end  of  the  first  part,  descriptive 
of  the  diseases  resulting  from  sloth.  Died  7th  Sep- 
tember 1779.  A.  was  the  friend  of  Thomson,  Mallet, 
Aaron  Hillj  Dr.  Young,  Wilkes,  and  the  principal 
wits  and  literary  men  of  the  period.  lie  seems  to 
have  been  a  reserved,  indolent,  and  splenetic  man, 
'  who  quite  detested  talk  ; '  kind-liearti'd  withal,  and 
of  frugal  habits,  having  left  £30I10,  saved  out  of  a 
small  and  precarious  income.  His  fame  rests  entirely 
on  Tlie  Art  of  Preserviny  Health,  his  other  works 
being  now  only  known  by  name. 

A'RMSTROXG,  Jons,  an  eminent  physician  and 
medical  writer,  was  born  8th  May  1784,  at  Ayres 
Quay,  near  Bishop- Wearmouth,  where  his  father  was 
the  superintendent  of  some  glassworks.  He  studied 
medicine  at  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  and  in 
June  1808  took  the  degree  of  M.D.  He  commenced 
practice  at  Bishop-Wcarmouth,  and  in  1811  was 
chosen  physician  to  the  infirmary  at  Sunderland. 
In  1816  he  published  a  work  on  Typhus,  which 
greatly  extended  his  reputation.  His  researches 
concerning  the  causes  and  phenomena  of  febrile  dis- 
eases having  made  his  name  well  known  in  the 
metropolis,  he  was  induced,  in  February  1818,  to 
remove  to  London,  where  his  practice  became  exten- 
sive, and  he  was  elected  physician  to  the  Fever 
Hospital.  In  1821,  in  concert  with  Mr.  Edward 
Grainger,  he  established  a  medical  school  in  Webb 
Street,  Borough,  where  he  lectured  on  the  practice 
of  physic.  He  also  delivered  a  course  of  lectures 
on  Materia  Medica.  In  1826  he  joined  Dr.  Boot 
and  Mr.  E.  Bennett  in  establishing  a  new  school  of 
medicine  in  Dean  Street,  Soho,  but  shoi-tly  after 
lelinquished  his  connection  with  it.  He  died  of  con- 
sumption, 12th  December  1829,  aged  45.  Exclusively 
devoted  to  the  duties  of  his  profession.  Dr.  A.  was 
very  successful  in  the  elucidation  of  medical  science. 
His  works  are  numerous,  and  ho  contributed  various 
papers   to    the    medical    journals.  His    lectures, 

inserted  in  the  Lancet  in  1825,  were  published  in  a 
separate  form  after  his  death,  with  the  following 
title.  Lectures  on  the  Morbid  Anatomy,  Nature,  and 
Treatment  of  Acu'e  and  Cli.ronic  Diseases,  by  the  late 
John  Armstrong,  31. D.  Edited  by  Josej^h  Rix — one 
of  his  pupils.     (London,  1834,  Bvo.) 

ARMSTRONG,  Sir  William  George,  noted  for 
various  mechanical  inventions,  and  particularly  that 
of  a  gun  of  extraordinary  power  and  precision,  was 
born  in  1810  at  Newcastle,  where  his  father  was  an 
eminent  corn-merchant,  and  in  1851  filled  the  office 
of  mayor.  A.  was  educated  at  the  school  of  Bishop- 
Auckland;  but  his  peculiar  mental  powers  were 
chiefly  cultivated  by  the  opportunities  which  his 
father's  taste  gave  him  at  home,  of  acquainting 
himself  with  chemistry,  electricity,  and  mechanics. 
Though  the  natural  bent  of  his  mind  was  to  some 
piofession  in  which  these  sciences  would  have  been 
available,  he  readily  yielded  to  his  father's  wishes, 
and  was  articled  to  Mr.  Armourer  Donkin,  an 
420 


eminent  solicitor  in  Newcastle,  who,  at  the  expira- 
tion of  his  time,  adopted  him  as  a  partner.  A  high 
sense  of  duty  enabled  A.  to  give  his  excellent  general 
powers  of  mind  to  business;  but  he  devoted  much  of 
his  leisure  to  his  favourite  pursuits,  and  his  inventive 
faculty  was  constantly  active.  About  1838,  observing 
one  day  a  little  stream  descending  along  a  height  near 
Newcastle,  and  driving  but  a  single  mill,  he  tliought 
to  how  much  more  purpose  it  might  be  applied 
hydraulically,  and  thus  was  led  into  a  course  of 
experimenting,  which  resulted  in  his  producing  a 
much  improved  hydraulic  engine,  of  which  a  descrip- 
tion was  given  in  the  Mechanics'  Mnyazine  for 
April  18,  1840.  Following  up  this  invention  with  a 
view  to  practical  applications,  he  gave  to  the  world, 
in  1845,  a  hydraulic  crane,  which  has  proved  to  be  of 
eminent  utility  in  raising  weights  at  harbours  and  in 
warehouses.  The  discovery  of  electricity  in  steam  by 
a  workman  at  a  fixed  engine  on  the  Cramlington 
Railway  in  1840,  had  meanwhile  led  A.  into  a  new 
path,  and  in  1842  he  brought  to  perfection  an  appa- 
ratus for  producing  electricity  from  steam,  which 
was  soon  after  introduced  into  the  Polytechnic  In- 
stitution in  London.  The  evolution  of  the  electricity 
depending  in  reality  on  the  friction  sustained  by 
the  small  quantity  of  water  which  accompanies  the 
steam  in  its  discharge,  the  great  merit  of  A.'s  inven- 
tion in  this  case  lay  in  the  form  he  gave  the  orifice 
through  which  the  steam  passed.  A  friend,  writing 
of  A.  at  this  time,  remarked  that  he  ought  to  have 
been  an  engineer,  so  great  evidently  were  his  talents 
for  mechanical  science.  '  Plain,  sim()]e,  and  unassum- 
ing, no  one  at  first  sight  co\dd  form  any  idea  of  tlie 
depth  of  thought  and  vast  amount  of  scientific 
knowledge  which  he  possesses,  and  which  are  accom- 
panied by  a  straightforwardness  and  consistency 
truly  admirable.'  A  change  of  profession  was  in 
such  a  case  inevitable,  and  few  were  surprised  when, 
soon  after  being  elected  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Society  in  1846,  A.,  in  conjunction  with  some 
friends,  commenced  the  Elswick  Engine-works. 
This  establishment  is  upon  a  large  scale,  hitherto 
chiefly  employed  in  j)roducing  hydraulic  cranes, 
engines,  accumulators,  and  bridges,  for  use  in  Great 
Britain,  the  continent,  and  India,  but  now  embracing 
also  works  for  the  production  of  ordnance  for  the 
service  of  the  government. 

In  1854,  while  war  was  raging  in  the  Crimea,  the 
War-office  was  solicited  by  many  inventors  to  make 
trial  of  new  forms  of  cannon  and  projectiles.  Mr. 
Armstrong,  one  of  the  number,  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  the  authorities,  and  was  employed  to  make 
explosive  apparatus  for  blowing  up  the  ships  sunk 
at  Sebastopol.  This  led  him  soon  afterwards  to 
consider  improvements  in  ordnance,  and  he  devised 
a  form  of  breech-loading  cannon,  combining  many 
peculiarities  in  structure  and  action.  He  received 
encouragement  to  make  a  few  field-pieces  on  his 
new  method.  He  made  lengthened  experiments  on 
the  strength  of  iron  and  steel,  on  the  relative  merits 
of  cast  and  wrought  iron,  on  the  best  number  of 
grooves  in  rifling,  on  the  best  pitch  or  twist  for  hose 
grooves,  on  the  most  convenient  modes  of  loading  at 
the  breech  of  the  gun,  on  the  mechanism  for  lessen- 
ing the  recoil,  on  the  best  form  and  structure  of 
shot  and  shells,  and  on  the  fuses  best  suited  for 
igniting  the  shells  during  their  flight. 

Most  of  the  early  experiments  were  made  with 
guns  throwing  6-lb.  and  18-lb.  shot  and  shells,  and 
subsequently  32-lb.  shells,  and  this  larger  gun  may 
be  taken  as  a  type  of  the  whole.  It  is  built  up 
with  small  pieces  of  the  very  best  wrought-iron,  to 
avoid  flaws  or  faults,  and  to  insure  strength,  light- 
ness, and  durability.  It  is  made  in  3-feet  lengths. 
Bars  of  wrought-iron,  2  inches  wide,  are  heated 
to  whiteness,  twisted  spirally  round  a  steel  bar  or 


ARMY— ARMY  ADMINISTRATIOX. 


core,  and  welded  ;  other  bars  are  twisted  over  these 
in  a  similar  way,  but  with  an  oi)i)Osite  turn  of  the 
spiral ;  a  tliii-d,  and  pcihaps  a  fourtli  coating  follow, 
accoriiing  to  the  thickness  and  strength  needed. 
Another  heating  to  whiteness  precedes  a  thorough 
welding  of  all  the  layers  of  bars  by  a  steani-harnuier. 
The  eiuls  of  two  of  these  3-feet  pieces  are  then  nicely 
trimmed  and  adjusted,  placed  in  contact,  and  bound 
together  by  the  enormous  pressure  of  a  wrought-iron 
ring  shrunk  on  while  at  a  white  heat.  By  varying 
the  number  and  length  of  llu-se  sections,  a  gun  of 
any  length  is  made.  The  internal  core  is  then 
removed,  and  the  bore  of  the  gun  is  rifled  by  ex- 
quisite machinery.  The  rifle-grooves  are  so  small 
and  close  as  to  be  upwards  of  40  in  number;  their 
pitch  or  twist  is  such  as  to  make  a  complete  circuit 
in  a  gun  10  feet  long.  The  breech  of  the  gun  is 
wholly  distinct,  and  constructed  in  a  different  way  ; 
it  can  be  drawn  backward  by  unscrewing,  and  has  a 
hole  through  its  centre  for  introducing  the  shot  or 
shell  and  the  charge.  At  first,  the  inventor  adopted 
a  steel  interior  for  his  gun  ;  but  now  he  relies  wholly 
on  the  toughest  wrought-iron.  The  projectile  em- 
ployed with  this  gun  may  be  solid  shot,  shell,  case- 
shot,  or  canister-shot;  but  the  shell  is  that  to  which 
most  interest  is  attached.  It  is  about  three  diame- 
ters in  length ;  and  thus  a  S'2-Ib.  shot  or  shell  can 
be  fired  from  a  gun  of  much  smaller  calibre  than  if 
it  were  spherical.  The  shell  is  built  up  of  about  fiO 
separate  pieces  of  cast-iron,  very  accurately  fitted, 
and  enveloped  in  an  iron  sheath.  Outside  of  it  are 
two  bands  of  lead,  soft  enough  to  be  forced  into 
the  rifled  grooves  of  the  gun,  and  thus  to  acquire 
the  rotatory  movement  liy  which  the  sti-aightness  of 
flight  is  so  much  insured. 

The  actual  results  obtained  by  a  gun  such  as  is 
above  described  are  almost  incredible.  An  ordinary 
long  32-pounder  weighs  57  cwt.  ;  Armstrong's  32- 
pounder  weighs  26  cwt.  The  former  requires  10  lb. 
of  powder  as  a  charge  ;  for  the  latter  5  lb.  will  suffice. 
The  former  will  send  a  shot  or  shell  3000  yards;  the 
range  of  the  latter  exceeds  9000  yards,  or  5^^  miles. 
One  particular  A.  gun  has  been  fired  3.500  times 
without  exhibiting  any  flaw  or  failing — a  feat  never 
before  even  approached  in  gunnery.  At  4000  yards' 
distance,  a  target  9  feet  square  can  be  hit  90  times 
out  of  100.  At  1000  yards'  distance,  the  A.  gun 
will  hit  evefy  time  an  oljject  so  small  as  to  be  missed 
56  times  out  of  57  by  an  ordinary  32  pounder,  fired 
by  the  same  gunner  in  the  two  cases.  The  fuses  at- 
tached to  the  shells  are  so  exquisitely  adjusted 
that  the  shell  can  be  made  to  burst  either  directly 
on  leaving  the  gun,  or  half  way  on  its  path,  or  when 
it  strikes  an  object ;  in  the  last-named  case,  even  a 
sack  of  shavings  will  afibrd  the  necessary  concussion  ; 
and  yet,  so  close  is  the  structure,  that  an  uncharged 
shell  has  been  fired  completely  through  9  I'eet  of 
solid  oak  without  the  pieces  separating.  For  naval 
use,  the  small  diameter  of  the  gun  will  allow  small 
port-holes  to  be  used,  and  thus  lessen  the  danger  to 
which  the  seamen-gunners  are  exposed.  The  gun- 
carriages,  for  ship  or  garrison  use,  have  a  sloping 
slide  on  which  the  gun  runs  np  to  lessen  the  recoil, 
ami  down  which  it  runs  again  by  its  own  gravity 
after  firing.  The  shells  to  be  directed  against  a  ship 
are  so  ibrmed,  and  provided  with  fuses  of  such  a 
kind,  as  to  explode  exactly  when  striking  the  hull, 
and  when  the  rent  made  will  be  most  mischievous. 

Although  the  wonderful  effects  of  the  A.  gun 
relate  chiefly  to  the  32  pounder,  the  principal  ex- 
perimental researches  were  made  with  one  mucii 
smaller,  but  not  less  worthy  of  admiration.  It  had  a 
bore  of  oidy  If  inch,  and  was  light  enough  to  be 
lifted  about  (without  its  carriage)  by  two  or  three 
men.  It  had  eight  spiral  grooves,  making  one  turn 
in  12  feet.     When  fired  at  a  timber  butt  measuring 


7  feet  by  5,  at  1500  yards'  distance,  this  little  gun 
propelled  shot  which  hit  the  butt  nearly  every  time, 
the  average  deviation  from  the  centre  of  the  butt 
being  little  more  than  1  foot  laterally;  whereas  an 
oidinary  bra.ss  0  pounder,  which  aflbrds  the  nearest 
parallel  as  to  weight,  is  perfectly  useless  at  1500 
yaids,  and  nearly  so  at  1000.  At  one  particular 
elevation,  the  Armstrong  shot,  barely  2  inches  in 
diameter,  took  the  amazing  flight  of  3000  yards.  The 
32-pounder  gun  introduced  many  improvements  on 
tiiis  little  0  pounder;  and  the  inventor  established 
the  bases  for  further  improvements  in  still  larger 
specimens — up  to  lOO  pounders,  if  needed. 

When  Mr  Armstrong  liad  spent  much  of  his  time 
and  thoughts  during  four  years  on  this  subject,  the 
government,  supported  by  the  strongly  expressed 
opinions  of  artillery  officers  of  all  raid<s,  proposed  to 
secure  the  result  of  these  experiments  for  the  nation. 
Mr  Armstrong  offered  to  the  government,  without 
any  stipulation,  not  oidy  all  his  past  inventions,  but 
also  all  such  as  he  might  hereafter  discover.  This 
led  to  arrangements  which  the  ministers  in  parlia- 
ment characterised  as  liberal  and  patriotic  on  his 
part ;  and  the  terms  thus  suggested  by  Mr  Arm- 
strong were  accepted.  An  office  was  created  for 
him,  that  of  Chief-engineer  of  Rifled  Ordnance,  for 
seven  years  provisionally  ;  and  a  certain  amount  of 
salary  was  determined  on,  in  consideration  at  once 
of  his  past  inventions  and  of  his  future  services. 
Working  arrangements  have  been  organized  at  New- 
caslIe-on-Tyne  and  Woolwich,  which  will  render 
possible  the  production  of  many  hundred  guns  per 
annum.  Sir  W.  G.  Armstrong  (the  lionour  of  knight- 
hood having  been  conferred  on  the  inventor  by  the 
Queen)  has  pointed  out  reasons  why  foreign  govern- 
ments must  necessarily  bo,  for  a  lengthened  period, 
unable  to  surmount  the  extreme  mechanical  diffi- 
culties of  the  manufacture  of  these  guns. 

ARMY,  Referring  to  Armies  (Anxient,  Medi- 
eval, and  Modern)  and  to  British  Army  for  brief 
historical  notices  of  national  military  forces,  and 
leaving  to  other  portions  of  this  work  all  details 
concerning  the  formation  and  tactics  of  such  forces, 
it  may  be  well  to  mention  here  certain  distinctions 
in  the  application  of  tlie  name  A.  A  Covering  A.  is 
encamped  or  in  cantonments,  for  the  protection  of 
the  diflerent  passes  or  roads  which  lead  to  the  town 
or  other  place  to  be  protected.  A  Siege  A.  is 
ranged  around  or  in  front  of  a  fortified  place,  to 
capture  it  by  a  regular  process  of  besieging.  A 
Blockading  A.,  either  independent  of  or  auxiliary 
to  a  siege  A.,  is  intended  to  prevent  all  ingress 
and  egress  at  the  streets  or  gates  of  a  besieged  place. 
An  A.  of  Obfiervation  takes  up  an  advanced  posi- 
tion, and  by  celerity  of  movement  keeps  a  close 
watch  on  all  the  nianreuvres  of  the  enemy.  An 
A.  of  Jiecoiui.aissance  hsis  a.  more  special  duty  at  a 
particular  time  and  place,  to  ascertain  the  strength 
and  position  of  the  enemy's  forces.  A  Flying  A. 
comprises  a  strong  body  of  horse  and  foot,  moving 
quickly  from  place  to  place,  to  alarm  the  enemy, 
and  to  protect  garrisons.  Any  one  of  these  may  be 
forced  into  an  engagement  in  the  field;  but  ikey 
are  all  more  or  less  subsidiary  to  the  Main  A.,  by 
which  the  greater  operations  in  the  field  arc  usually 
conducted. 

ARMY  ADMINISTRATIOX.  The  whole  of  the 
operations  connected  with  the  raising,  clothing, 
paying,  nuiintaining,  and  controlling  of  the  British 
army,  are  included  in  the  term  A.  A.  They  are  dis- 
tinct matters  from  military  command  and  discipline. 
The  Sovereign  has  the  supreme  command  of  the 
British  army;  but  the  Secretary  of  State  for  War  is 
her  responsible  representative  in  all  that  concerns 
administration — the    Commander-in-chief  being  her 

421 


AIIMY  AGENT— ARMY  WORKS  CORPS. 


representative  iu  inalters  relating  to  military  organ- 
isation and  discipline.  Tlie  Secretary  is  the  organ 
through  whom  the  "wislies  of  the  Sovereign  are  re- 
couclled  with  the  wishes  iind  intentions  of  pinHament. 
Until  the  war  with  Rnssia  iu  1854,  the  administra- 
tive departments  were  much  scattered ;  their  del'ec- 
tive  organisation  led  in  gieat .  part  to  the  miseries 
suffered  by  the  British  troops  in  the  Crimea ;  but 
now  they  are  all  consolidated  under  the  Secretary  of 
State  for  War.     See  War  Depaktment. 

ARMY  AGENT.     See  Agent,  Army. 

ARMY  ESTIMATES.  In  the  spring  of  every 
year,  the  British  government  having  i'ormcd  a  plan 
concerning  the  extent  and  appliances  of  the  mili- 
taiy  force  for  that  year,  the  War-offioo  sends  to 
the  Treasury  a  series  of  accounts  setting  forth  the 
probable  cost  of  everything  required.  Thcf^e  ac- 
counts are  called  the  A.  E.  If  they  arc  approved 
by  tlie  Treasury,  tlio  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer 
adverts  to  these,  along  with  other  estimates,  iti  his 
annual  'financial  statement,'  made  to  the  House  of 
Commons  in  its  capacity  as  guardian  of  the  public 
purse.  In  preparing  the  A.  E.  the  Secretary  of 
State  for  AYar  applies  to  the  heads  of  all  the  depart- 
ments under  him  for  detailed  accounts  of  their  prot)- 
able  requirements.  Another  functionary  then  in- 
corporates and  adjusts  these  into  a  whole  ;  they  arc 
submitted  to  the  Treasury  ;  and,  if  approved,  are 
presented  to  the  House  as  the  A.  E.  Should  the 
(.'ommons  grant  the  money,  the  Accountant-general 
of  the  War-olTice  jnakes  the  requisite  drafts  or  de- 
mands from  time  to  lime;  and  the  Treasury  authorises 
the  Paymaster-general  of  tlie  Forces  to  honour  these 
drafts.  The  money  itself  is  in  the  Bank  of  England  ; 
this  establishment  receives  a  certain  annual  sum 
from  the  government  for  mai;aging  such  financial 
matters. 

The  A.  E.  are  drawn  up  in  conformity  with  a 
model  which  differs  little  from  year  to  year.  There 
are  certain  great  headings,  cnch  comprising  manv 
minor  divisions:  viz.,  Land  Forces  ami  Militia 
(numbers,  pay,  allowances,  and  mi.scellaneous 
charges) ;  Civil  Establishments  (administration, 
manufacturing  establishments,  civil  departments); 
Supplies  (clothing,  provisions,  forage,  warlike  stores) ; 
Works  and  Buildings  (barracks,  ibrtifications,  &e.); 
Educational  Esfahlishments  (schools,  chaplains,  libra- 
ries, &c.);  Non-effective  Services  (half-pay,  retiring 
allowances,  pensions,  &c.).  These  are  not  exactly 
the  technical  names  of  the  several  headings ;  but 
they  will  be  more  intelligible  to  general  readers. 
The  various  items  are  more  or  less  sifted  by  the 
House  of  Commons;  and  any  one  or  more  of  them 
can  be  refused  altogether,  or  granted  in  diminislicd 
ainoMnt.  The  A.  E.  for  1869-70,  -which  may  be  cited 
here  as  an  illustrative  examiile,  refer  to  the  period 
from  April  1,  1869,  to  March  .31,  1870.  Tlie  total 
namher  of  British  troops  provided  for  in  these  esti- 
mates is  191,43.3;  but  as  63,707  are  charged  to  the 
East  Indian  treasury,  as  being  required  for  India  ser- 
vice, the  House  of  Commons  was  asked  only  to  pro- 
tide  for  the  remaining  127,726.  The  horses  are 
24,069,  of  which  1 1,32 1'  are  for  India  service.  With- 
out going  into  any  details,  we  will  simply  give  the 
amounts  nnder  five  great  headin.c:s : 

.  £5,313,800 
2,571,900 
1,537,200 
2,624,700 
2,182,800 


IMilitary  pay  and  allowances, 
Commissariat,  hospitals,  &c. 
Militia  reserve  and  voluntary  corps, 
Stores,  works,  surveys,  &c. 
Pensions,  retired  pay,  &c. 


£14,230,400 


For  total  effective  service  for  1869-70,     £12,047,600 
For  total  non-eflfective  service  for  "    "  2,182,800 

£14,230,400 
422 


ARMY  LIST  is  the  name  of  a  publication  issued 
by  authority  of  the  War-office.  It  contains  tiic 
names  of  all  commissioned  oflicers  in  the  Biitisli 
army,  arranged  according  to  the  dates  of  their  coti'- 
missions.  Then  come  the  oflicers  of  the  East  India 
Company's  service — or,  now,  tiiat  portion  of  the 
Queen's  army  which  belongs  exclusively  to  India. 
Next  the  names  of  all  oflicers  who  hold  military 
honouis  or  staff  appointments.  The  bulk  of  the 
work,  however,  is  taken  up  with  an  enumeration  of 
all  the  regiments  in  the  Queen's  army,  and  all  the 
officers  in  each  regiment  in  the  Queen's  army, 
and  all  the  oflicers  iu  each  legiment,  arranged 
according  to  the  numerical  rank  of  the  regiments. 
To  this  are  added  li.-ts  of  the  officers  of  the  Rifh; 
Brigade,  Colonial  Corps,  Royal  Artillerj-,  Royal 
Engineers,  Royal  Marines,  Commissariat,  and  Aimy 
Medical  Department;  and  of  officers  retired  on  full- 
])ay  and  on  half-pay.  The  A.  L.  for  1869  contiiins 
the  names  of  little  more  than  6,500  commissioned 
oflicers.  Another  work  of  similar  but  non-ollicial 
character.  Hart's  A.  L.,  by  a  more  condensed  ar- 
rangement of  type,  gives  all  the  inlbrmation  con- 
tained in  the  oflicial  list,  and  much  in  addition. 

ARMY  SCHOOLS.  The  colhges,  academics,  and 
schools  relating  to  military  matters  in  this  country 
may  be  grouped  into  two  classe.' — those  intended  to 
increase  the  military  cffici(  ncy  of  the  officers  and 
men;  and  those  which  bear  relation  to  the  ordinary 
School-tuition  of  soldiers  of  the  ranks  and  their 
childien.  The  principal  of  those  in  the  first  group 
are  the  Royal  Military  I'ollege  at  Sandhurst,  the 
Royal  Miiitaiy  Academy  at  Woolwich,  the  School  of 
Instruction  at  Chathau),  the  Department  of  Artillery 
Studies  at  AVoolwich,  the  School  of  Artillery  at  Shoi  - 
bury,  the  School  of  Musketry  at  Ilythe,  and  the 
Royal  Artillery  Institution  at  Woolwich.  The  chief 
among  the  second  group  are  the  Royiil  Military  Asy- 
lum (better  known  as  the  Duke  of  York's  School), 
the  Regimental  Schools,  and  the  Garrison  Schools. 
Chelsea  College  or  Hospital  is  an  asylum  for  veterans, 
not  a  school  of  instruction.  Jlost  of  these  ednca< 
tional  establishments  will  be  found  most  briefly  de- 
scribed in  this  work,  either  nnder  the  names  of  the 
place  where  they  exist,  or  of  the  arm  of  the  ser, 
vice  to  which  thcv  lielong. 

ARMY  WORKS  CORPS.  When  the  British 
generals  engaged  in  the  Crimean  Avar,  in  the  later 
months  of  1854,  knew  that  the  siege-army  would 
need  to  winter  outside  Sebastopol,  grave  difficulties 
were  presented  to  their  notice.  The  distance  from 
the  landing-place  at  Balakluva  to  the  front  of  the 
siege-camp  was  not  less  than  eight  miles;  and  the 
only  road  was  a  mud-track,  almost  impassable  in 
wet  weather.  How  to  get  the  heavy  guns,  the  shot 
and  shell,  the  provisions,  and  the  general  stores,  up 
to  the  front,  was  a  question  not  easy  of  solution.  The 
British  soldiers  were  too  few  even  for  the  ordinary 
military  duties,  and  yet  they  were  called  upon  for 
services  of  an  extra  and  arduous  n.ature.  Wheii 
these  facts  became  known  in  England,  a  suggestion 
was  made  that  an  '  Army  Works  Corps'  should  be 
formed,  to  consist  of  strong  and  efficient  railway 
excavators,  Cornish  miners,  and  well-sinkers  ;  that 
these  should  have  with  them  all  the  tools  and  appli- 
ances for  making  roads  and  digging  wells  ;  and  that 
they  should  be  accompanied  by  travelling  work- 
shops and  skilled  artisans,  to  effect  th:it  which  inight 
require  more  skill  than  physical  labo'.n-.  The  imme- 
diate necessities  of  Lord  Raglan,  in  regard  to  bring- 
ing up  supplies,  wore  met  by  the  construction  of  a 
railway  from  Balaklava  to  the  heights  outside 
Sebastopol,  by  special  contract  w'th  Messrs.  Peto 
and  Brassey ;  but  the  largo  amount  of  bodily 
labour  contiinially  needed  for  vni-ious  services,  led 
to  the  formation  of  the  A.  W.  C.     The  raisii:g  and 


AKXAULD. 


organisation  of  this  force  were  intrusted  to  Sir  Joseph 
Paxton.  As  soon  as  lie  had  obtainod  loot)  efficient 
men,  he  sent  them  out;  and  their  vahie  was  so  soon 
lelt  by  Lord  Haghm,  that  otlicr  detachnicnts  gra- 
dually followed,  until  the  corps  com  prised  35o0  men 
in  the  latter  months  of  1855.  The  men  were  paid 
well,  and  they  worked  well ;  and  as  tlieir  engage- 
ment related  only  to  the  special  duties  connected 
with  the  siege  camp,  the  country  was  not  saddled 
with  any  burden  after  the  need  for  these  services 
had  ceased.  They  did  not  rerpiire  to  be  drilled  for 
their  duties,  like  sappers;  and  they  were  ready  for 
work  at  once,  as  artisans  or  labourers.  There  were 
some  cases  of  disagreement  between  the  men  and 
their  employers,  after  the  whole  of  the  British  had 
returned  from  the  Crimea,  in  a  matter  of  wages  due  ; 
but  this  was  a  question  of  detail,  and  did  not  affect 
the  usefulness  of  the  coi-ps.  The  experience  gained 
has  been  valual)lc,  as  showing  in  what  way,  imder 
special  circumstances,  ordinary  workmen  and  la- 
bourers nuiy  be  employed  as  assistants  to  a  military 
force. 

ARNAULD,  AsGELiQCE,  a  daughter  of  Robert 
Arnauld  d'Andilly,  was  born  on  the  28th  Kovember 
1024.  From  her  eailiest  years,  she  exhibited  an 
extraordinary  force  and  resoluteness  of  character, 
and  excited  much  anxious  speculation  concerning 
lier  futiu'e  career  among  her  relatives.  "When  not 
quite  twenty  years  of  age,  she  became  a  nun  at 
Port-Royal  des  Champs,  where  she  had  been  edu- 
cated by  her  aunt,  Marie  Jaqiieliue  Angeli([ue 
Arnauld,  sister  of  the  great  Arnauld.  Xine  years 
after,  she  was  made  subprioress ;  and  on  removing 
some  years  later  to  Port-Royal  de  Paris,  she  held 
the  same  office.  During  the  persecution  of  the  Port- 
Royalists,  A.  A.,  by  her  piety  and  courage,  sustained 
the  spirit  of  the  sisterhood.  The  whole  family, 
male  and  female,  were  determined  Jansenists,  and 
none  niore  so  than  Mother  Angclique  de  Saint 
Jean  (her  conventual  name).  She  had  much  to 
endure,  but  she  met  misfortunes  with  earnest  intre- 
pidity. A  royal  order  was  issued  to  break  up  the 
nunnery.  The  police  arrested  the  inmates,  who 
were  dispersed  in  various  convents  througliout 
Prance,  and  constant  eflbrts  were  made  by  the 
Jesuits  to  induce  them  to  sign  the  'Formulary  of 
Alexander  VII.'  A.  A.  was  alone  exempted  from 
listening  to  their  arguments  and  solicitations,  her 
'  obstinacy '  being  supposed  invincible.  At  length, 
by  command  of  the  Archbishop  of  Paris,  the  nuns 
were  restor('d  to  Port-Royal  des  Champs  ;  but  for 
some  years  they  were  subjected  to  a  strict  surveil- 
lance by  soldiers,  who  watched  all  their  movements, 
and  allowed  them  no  intercourse  with  persons  out  of 
the  convent.  In  1069,  however,  was  issued  the  edict 
of  Clement  IX.  for  the  peace  of  the  church,  which 
was  a  kind  of  compromise  on  this  vexed  question  of 
Jansenism  and  Jesuitism.  The  nuns  received  back 
the  privileges  of  which  they  had  been  stripped,  and 
constituted  their  society  anew.  A.  A.  was  again 
elected  prioress.  In  1078,  she  was  made  abbess. 
The  next  year,  her  protectress,  the  Duchesse  de 
Longueville,  died,  and  the  persecution  recommenced, 
by  tlie  prohibition  to  receive  any  more  novices.  Still 
Angeliciue  did  not  despair.  She  consoled  the  nuns, 
and  exerted  all  her  influence  with  persons  in  power, 
but  with  little  effect.  At  lust  she  sank  under  a 
complication  of  griefs,  and  expired  on  the  29th  of 
January  1084,  leaving  bciiind  her  as  bright  and 
beautiful  a  memory  as  any  of  her  comitrywomen. 
She  was  learned  without  being  pedantic,  pious  with- 
out bigotry,  and  gentle  toothers  in  pi'Oportion  as  she 
"Avas  severe  to  herself.  A.  A.  wrote  several  works, 
the  most  valuable  of  which  is  JlCmoircs  pour  scrrir 
a  la  ]'ie  de  la  Mere  Marie  ArifiHique  Arnauld  de 
Sainle  Madeleine,  Rcforniatrice  de  Poi't-lloyal. 


ARNAULD,  Antoine,  the  greatist  advocate  of 
his  time  in  France,  was  born  at  Paris  in  1500.  He 
was  descended  from  an  ancient  family  of  Anvergnc, 
whicli  had  distinguished  itself  both  in  ci\il  and 
military  aflairs.  A.  was  not  less  remarkable  for  his 
eloquence  than  for  his  probity.  His  zealous  defence 
of  the  university  of  Paris  against  the  Jesuits  in 
1504  won  for  him  a  wide  celebrity.  It  was  re- 
printed in  1717.  He  published  another  work 
against  the  Society  of  Jesus,  and  several  tractates  of 
an  earnest  political  character.  The  Jesuits  accused 
him  of  being  a  Huguenot,  but  the  accusation  was 
unfounded,  for  he  had  no  personal  predilection  in 
favour  of  Protestantism  as  a  distinct  religious  sys- 
tem. He  had  several  children,  who  formed  the 
nucleus  of  the  Jansenists  and  Port-Royalists.  He 
died  29th  December  1019. 

ARNAULD,  Antoine,  known  as  'the  great  A., 
the  twentieth  and  youngest  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Paris,  February  0,  1012.  Although  originally 
intended  for  the  bur,  he  could  not  conceal  his  dislike 
of  the  legal  profession,  and  was  in  consequence 
dedicated  by  his  mother  to  the  service  of  the 
church.  Entering  the  Sorbonne,  he  became  a  pupil 
of  Lescot,  the  confessor  of  Cardinal  Richelieu,  and 
afterwards  Bishop  of  Chartres.  Lescot  initiated 
him  into  the  scholastic  theology  ;  but  his  attention 
having  been  drawn  to  tlie  writings  of  Augustine,  he 
soon  conceived  an  admiration  ibr  that  profoundest 
of  the  early  Christian  thinkers,  which  he  ever  after 
retained.  It  was  Augustine,  he  himself  admitted, 
who  first  showed  him  the  great  difference  between 
the  two  states — that  of  a  nature  whole  and  sound, 
and  that  of  a  nature  corrupted  by  sin.  In  1041, 
tlie  Sorbonne  wished  to  receive  him  into  their 
society,  on  account  of  his  extraordinary  piety  and 
talents ;  but  Cardinal  Richelieu  opposed  this.  I;i 
the  following  year  he  was  ordained  a  priest,  and  i  i 
1043  he  published  a  work  entitled  De  la  Fri-quente 
Communion,  which  was  received  in  the  most  favour- 
able manner  by  all  except  the  Jesuits,  who  had  taken 
alarm  at  the  virtues  of  A.,  aiul  were  already  attempt- 
ing to  defame  one  whom  they  instinctively  felt  to  be 
a  reproach  to  their  order.  As  a  consequence  of  this 
publication,  ho  was  now  admitted  '  of  the  Society  '  of 
the  Sorbonne.  A.  not  only  replied  to  the  aspersions 
of  the  Jesuits  in  his  Avertissement,  but  also  sent 
forth  a  wo!  k  which  was  the  prelude  to  a  long  and 
fierce  contest  with  his  adversaries,  Theolorjie  Morale 
des  Jimi.tcs  (Moral  Tiieology  of  the  Jesuits).  But 
the  hatred  of  the  latter  was  not  confined  to  literary 
libels  ;  they  advised  the  chancellor  of  the  Sorbonne 
to  carry  the  dispute  to  Rome,  whither  A.  would 
be  obliged  to  follow  and  defend  himself.  In  this 
scheme,  however,  they  were  defeated. 

A.  now  buried  himself  in  seclusion  for  twenty-one 
years,  during  which  period,  however,  his  pen  was 
almost  continuously  active.  In  1044  appeared  his 
Tradition  de  PFffUse  mr  la  Penitence  (Opinion  of 
the  Church  on  the  Doctrine  of  Penitence).  It 
was  a  reply  to  the  attacks  which  the  Jesuits  had 
made  against  his  Frequent  Communion.  A.  was 
still  entangled  in  the  disputes  which  arose  out  of 
this  treatise,  when  he  became  involved  in  another 
controversy  that  coloured  the  whole  of  his  subse- 
quent career,  and  may  be  said  to  have  won  for  him 
his  position  in  history.  This  was  the  great  Jansenitt 
controversy.  In  1040  had  appeared  a  posthumous 
work  of  Janscnius,  Bishop  of  Yprcs,  entitled  Avgus- 
tinus;  sen  Dovtrina  Sancti  Auyu^tini  de  Humanff 
Nnturce  Sanctitnfe,  ^p-itudine,  Medicinu,  adrasus 
Pclarjianos  et  Masmicnsex.  It  laid  down  with  a 
rigour  equal  to  that  of  Calvin  the  doctrines  of  pre- 
destination, the  corruption  of  human  nature,  and 
the  depravity  of  the  will.  It  was  specially  intended 
as   a   counteractive  against   the  lax  principles  and 

423 


ARxVAULD— ARNDT. 


morality  of  the  Jesuits,  many  of  whom,  and  espe- 
cially their  great  champion,  Molina,  entertauied 
extreme  Pelagian  views  of  the  freedom  of  the 
human  will,  which  they  had  cunningly  interwoven 
into  their  'scarlet-colored'  v,'ob  of  etiiics.  The 
work,  in  the  meantime,  was  condemned  by  Pope 
Urban  VIII.,  on  the  1st  of  August  1041.  A.,  who 
quickly  apprehended  its  vital  importance  in  the 
existing  stale  of  things,  boldly  ventured  to  defend 
it  against  the  censures  of  tlie  papal  bull.  He  pub- 
lished several  pamphlets,  closing  with  a  first  and 
second  Apologie  de  Jan.senius.  It  is  to  the  honour 
of  the  religion  of  A.,  however,  that  it  was  not  always 
controversial.  Whenever  a  moment  of  arniisfioe  was 
permitted  him,  he  occupied  it  in  writing  such  works 
as  Mceurs  de  VEglise  Catholique,  La  Correctiov,  La 
Grdce,  La  Verite  do  la  lielic/ioii,  De  la  Foi,  de 
r Esperance,  et  de  la  Charlie,  and  the  Manuel  de  Saint 
Aurjustine.  He  also  varied  those  occupations  by 
translating  into  Latin  his  Frequent  Comimcnion,  and 
by  the  composition  of  iiis  Novoi  Objcctlones  co7itra 
Itenat.  Descartis  Meditationes,  and  several  smaller 
tractates.  In  addition  to  his  literary  labours,  he 
undertook  the  direction  of  the  nuns  of  Port  Royal  des 
Champs,  a  convent  of  which  his  sister,  Marie  Jatiueline 
Angelique  Arnauld,  was  abbess.  In  his  retreat  he 
was  surrounded  by  many  friends,  thirsting  like 
himself  for  the  quiet  jileasures  of  study,  some  of 
whom  have  left  their  mark  in  the  world,  such  as 
Pascal,  Nicole,  &c.  Here  they  wrote  in  common 
numerous  excellent  works.  A.  executed  parts  of  the 
Oramvialre  Generale  Raisoniue,  ElbncntH  de  Gcome- 
trie,  and  EArt  de  Penser.  In  lOf 'J  the  Jansenist  con- 
troversy broke  out  more  fiercely  than  ever.  The  Au- 
gustimcs  of  the  Bishop  of  Ypres  was  again  attacked 
and  condemned  by  the  Sorbonne  and  the  pope.  A. 
replied  in  his  Considcrat/onx.  In  1(550  appeared 
what  he  conceived  to  be  his  best  work,  E Apologie 
pour  les  Saints  Peres.  For  the  next  half  dozen  years 
he  was  engaged  in  constant  and  painful  disjiutes  ;  yet, 
in  spite  of  the  polemical  character  of  his  life,  the  im- 
pression of  his  piety  and  earnestness  was  deepened 
in  the  mind  of  the  nation ;  and  on  reading  some  of 
his  compositions,  even  Alexander  VII.  is  reported  to 
have  praised  the  autlior,  and  to  have  exhorted  him 
for  the  future  to  despise  the  libels  of  his  adversaries. 
During  the  strife  lie  published  La  Concorde  dts 
Evangiles  and  E  Office  du  Saint- Sacrcvient.  In 
1655-56,  for  prudential  reasons,  he  left  his  retreat 
at  Port-Royal ;  about  the  same  time  he  was  expelled 
from  the  Sorbonne  and  the  factdty  of  theology. 

In  1056,  the  war  with  the  Jesuits  wtjs  renewed — 
not,  however,  by  A.  in  person.  An  unknown  knight 
with  closed  visor  had  ridden  into  the  lists — tiie  great 
Pascal.  Under  the  nom  de  plume  of  Louis  de  Mon- 
talto,  he  discharged  his  scorpion  wit  against  the  Jesuits 
for  about  a  year  and  a  half  in  the  Provincial  Letters. 
A.  furnished  him  with  materials;  but,  in  105S,  he 
took  the  field  in  proprid  persond,  by  publishing  his 
Cinq  Ecrits  en  faveur  des  Cures  de  Paris  contre  les 
Casuistes  reldches.  In  1062  appeared  La  Kouvelle 
Heresie  (of  the  Jesuits);  in  1009  the  first  volume  of 
his  Morale  Pratirjue  (of  the  Jesuits),  the  last  of  which 
was  not  published  until  the  year  of  his  death. 

A.,  who  was  a  sincere  Catholic  after  his  fashion, 
next  had  a  theological  controversy,  properly  so  called, 
with  the  reformed  minister  Claude,  the  consequence 
of  which  was  his  volume,  Du  Rcnversement  de  la 
Morale  de  J.  C.  par  la  Doctrine  des  Calvinistes 
touchant  la  Justification  {l&'l'l).  In  1675  he  returned 
to  the  subject  in  his  Impiite  de  la  Morale  des  Calvin- 
istes. Some  years  previous  to  this,  A.  had  enjoyed 
the  peace  of  Clement  IX.,  which  put  a  stop  for  "the 
time  to  the  Jansenist  controversy.  He  had  been 
presented  to  the  pupal  nuncio  and  to  the  Grand 
Monarque,  both  of  whom  fluttered  him  highly ;  but 
424 


the  Jesuits,  who  could  not  breathe  freely  in  his  pres- 
ence, used  their  utmost  eflbrts  to  prejudice  Louis 
against  him,  and  at  last  the  king  issued  an  order  for 
his  aii-est.  A.  hid  himself  for  some  time,  but  finally 
withdrew  into  Belgium.  lie  felt  his  exile  keenly, 
though  honoured  by  many  learned  and  influential 
persons,  and  could  not  rest  in  one  city,  but  wan- 
dered from  place  to  place,  ever  displaying  the  same 
astoinshing  vigour  of  mind  and  the  same  polemical 
tendency.  It  is  strange  that  this  man,  who  was 
celebrated  amongst  his  fi'iends  for  equanimity  and 
gentleness  of  heart,  should  have  been  so  bitter  in  his 
controversies,  even  with  his  friends,  for  he  wrote  not 
against  his  enemies  only,  but  against  Pascal,  Domat, 
Nicole,  his  protector,  Pope  Innocent  XL,  and  his  old 
friend  Pere  Malebranche.  So  earnest  was  he  for 
the  truth — which  earnestness  had  no  doubt  been 
greatly  intensified  by  persecution  and  controversy  — 
that  he  could  never  thoroughly  realize  the  idea,  that 
there  miglit  be  truth  on  the  other  side  also.  lie 
died  at  Brussels,  8th  August,  lODl.  His  works, 
which  amomit  to  upwards  of  100  volumes,  were  pub- 
lished at  Paris,  1775-1783. 

ARN.VULD,  RonEP.T  d'Andilly,  the  eldest  son 
of  Antoine  Arnauld,  the  advocate,  and  brother  of 
the  great  Arnauld,  was  born  at  Paris  in  1588.  He 
was  a  i)crson  of  considerable  consequence  at  the 
French  court,  where  his  influence  was  ever  exerted 
beneficially.  Balzac  spoke  very  highly  of  him.  At 
the  age  of  fifty-five,  he  quitted  the  bustle  of  the 
world  for  the  solitude  of  Port-Royal  des  Champs, 
where  he  devoted  himself  to  religious  history  and 
l)iography.  His  ciiief  works  are  tran.<lations,  such 
as  those  of  the  Confessions  of  St.  Augustine,  and  of 
the  Historg  of  the  Jews,  by  Josephus.  The  latter 
work  is  esteemed  more  elegant  than  accurate,  how- 
ever. In  1008,  appeared  the  translation  of  the 
Lives  of  the  Holg  Fathers  of  the  Dcnert,  and  of 
several  Saints;  and  in  107n,  that  of  the  works 
of  St  Theresa.  He  was  likewise  the  author  of  some 
pieces  of  religious  verse.  He  died  27th  September 
107-1. 

ARXD,  a  German  Protestant  clergyman,  born  at 
Ballenstadt,  in  the  duchy  of  Anhalt,  in  1555,  became 
Lutheran  pastor  at  Quedlinburgh,  Brunswick,  and 
elsewhere,  and  died  at  Celle,  in  Hanover,  in  1621. 
As  a  man,  he  was  remarkable  for  his  piety  and  active 
benevolence ;  but  he  is  chiefly  known  for  a  work 
entitled  True  Chrixtia)iitg  (Wahres  Christenthum), 
which  was  translated  into  most  European  languages, 
and  is  yet  popular  in  Germany.  Its  oliject  is  '  edifi- 
cation'— the  promotion  of  practical  religion;  and  it 
is  written  with  great  warmth  and  unction,  and  in  a 
strain  of  piety  bordering  on  mysticism.  It  has  been 
called  the  Protestant  i  Kempis,  and  its  author  the 
Fenelon  of  the  Protestant  Church.  There  is  an 
English  translation  by  W.  Jaques  (Lond.  1815,  2 
vols.). 

ARNDT,  Ernst  Moritz,  professor  in  the  univer- 
sity of  Bonn,  and  for  the  lust  half  century  one  of 
the  leading  political  writers  of  Germany,  was  born 
in  the  island  of  Riigen  in  1709.  He  gave  up  the 
clerical  profession,  for  which  he  was  first  intended, 
and  after  travelling  over  great  part  of  Europe, 
became,  in  1806,  Professor  of  History  in  Greifswalde. 
Here,  among  other  writings,  ho  published  his  Historg 
of  Serfdoin  in  Pomerania,  for  which  he  was  for- 
mally denounced  and  accused  by  several  nobles.  In 
his  Spirit  of  the  Times  (Altenb.  18(l7),  he  attacked 
Napoleon  with  such  boldness,  that,  after  the  battle 
of  Jena,  he  had  to  take  refuge  in  Stockholm. 
Returning  under  a  feigned  name,  he  resumed  his 
functions  at  Greifswalde  in  1810  ;  but  war  becoming 
imminent,  he  resigned  the  following  year,  and 
became  an  active  co-operator  with  the  minister,  Von 


ARNE— ARXICA. 


Stein,  and  other  p;itiiots,  in  throwing  off  tlie  ioroign 
yoke.  His  numerous  fugitive  writings,  lull  ot 
energy  and  fire,  contributed  not  a  httlo  to  rouse  iiiul 
Kustiiili  the  spirit  of  liernianv  for  the  war  of  libera- 
tion. His  best  poems  belong  to  this  period,  and 
several  of  them  have  become  national  songs.  (A 
new  selection,  Leip.  1850.)  His  song,  W/iat  is  the 
GermarCs  FatlierUmd?  is  sung  wherever  (ierman  is 
spoiicn.  In  1818  he  was  made  proi'essor  of  modern 
history  in  the  new  uiiiyersity  of  Bonn,  but  became 
involved  in  1819  in  the  prosecutions  for  what  were 
caUed  '  demagogic  movements,'  and  was  suspended. 
Though  acquitted  on  trial,  he  was  made  to  retire, 
letaiinng  his  salary.  After  twenty  years'  suspen- 
sion, he  was  restored  in  1840.  His  writings  arc 
numerous :  we  inav  mention  his  Bcschreihunr)  itnd 
Gesch:vh!e  dcr  Sc/inttland,  Insehi,  ifcc.  (Leip.  182G); 
a  collection  of  his  fugitive  Sihriften  an  undfur  seine 
Hebe  DcuUcheii  (o  vol's.  Leip.  1845);  and  Ennncrungen 
aim  dem  amsern  Lebcii  {M  ed.  Leip.  1842).  He  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  German  national  assembly 
in  1848,  but  seceded  from  it  along  with  the  whole 
Gagern  (q.  v.)  party  in  1849.  He  powerfully  snp- 
)  orted  the  p:irty  who  advocated  a  constitutional 
hereditary  monarch,  and  took  a  prominent  p:irt  in 
the  ap[iointment  of  the  Archduke  John  as  regent, 
and  in  the  fiuitlcss  deputation  to  Berlin  to  offer  the 
cmpu-c  to  the  King  of  Prussia.  After  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  Franld'ort  Assembly,  A.  continued  to  ad- 
vocate the  views  of  the  German  national  party,  to 
which  he  always  belonged.     He  died  Jan.  30,  1860._ 

ARNE,  Thomas  Augustink,  Doctor  in  Music, 
one  of  the  best  and  most  genial  of  English  com- 
posers, was  born  in  London,  1710,  and  received 
his  early  education  at  Eton.  His  father,  who 
was  an  upholsterer,  intended  to  educate  him  for 
the  bar ;  but  the  love  of  music  was  too  strong 
to  be  restrained.  Young  A.  became  skilful  as  a 
violin-player,  forming  his  style  chiefly  on  the 
model  of  Corelli ;  and  his  zeal  in  the  study  of 
music  induced  his  sister  (afterwards  celebi'ated  as 
Mrs.  Gibber)  to  cultivate  her  excellent  voice.  He 
wrote  for  her  a  part  in  his  first  opera,  liommond, 
which  was  first  performed  with  great  success  in 
1733.  Next  followed  his  comic  operetta,  Tom 
Thumb,  or  tlie  Opera  of  Operas  ;  and  afterwards  his 
Covius  (1738),  which  displayed  greater  cultivation  of 
Btyle.  He  married  a  singer,  Cecilia  Young  (1740) ; 
and  after  a  successful  visit  to  Ireland,  was  engaged 
as  composer  to  Drury  Lane  Theatre,  and  wrote 
many  vocal  pieces  for  the  Vauxhall  concerts.  The 
national  air,  Rule  JJritannia,  which  was  originally 
given  in  a  popular  performance,  Tlie  Maxqtte  of  Alfred, 
was  of  his  composition.  He  composed  also  two 
oratorios,  the  opera  Elh.a,  and  another,  Arta.rcr.Tes, 
in  the  Italian  style  ;  but  his  genius  was  better 
adapted  to  simple  pastoral  melody  than  to  great 
dramatic  compositions.     He  died  in  London,  1778. 

ARNEE,    or  ARNA,    the   largest   animal    of  the 
ox    kind    yet    known.       It   is   a   native    of  India, 


and  is  found  chicily  in  the  forests  at  the  base 
of  the  Himalayas  and  in  the  north-easteiii  pro- 
vince;?, never  tle.«cending  to  the  low  plains.  It 
is  usually  regarded  by  naturalists  as  a  wild  variety 
of  the  bufl'aio  ;  but  Mr  Vasey  thiidis  '  our  infor- 
mation  ou   the    subject  not    yet  sufliciently   precise 


%^«y« 


-<il!ii!^\^ 


Skull  an!  Horns  of  Arncc. 


Arnce. 
(From  an  Indian  picture.) 

to  determine  this  point.'  It  is  named  Los  Arncc, 
as  a  distinct  species,  by  some  authors.  A  pair  of 
horns  in  the  Britisli  Museum  measure  more  than 
i-ix  feet  each  along  the  outer  cur\e.  When  tie 
head  of  an  A.  is  placed  with  the  muzzle  on  the 
irround,  it  requires  the  outstretched  arms  of  a  man 
To  hold'the  points  of  the  horns.  From  the  manner 
in  which  the  A.  is  introduced  in  Indian  jiaintings,  it 
would  seem  to  have  been  sometimes  tamed. 

A'RNHEIM,  or  ARNIIEM,  the  Roman  Arenacum, 
capital  of  the  province  of  Gueldeilai\d,  in  Ilohand, 
with  a  population  of  18,000,  is  situated  on  the 
ri"ht  bank  of  the  Rhine,  which  is  here  crossed 
by  a  bridge  of  boats;  it  has  a  considerable  transit- 
trade  between  Amsterdam  and  (Jermany.  The 
environs  of  this  strongly  fortified  town  are  exceed- 
ingly picturesque.  Its  most  remarkable  biiildings 
are  the  ancient  residence  of  the  Dukes  of  Guel- 
derland,  and  the  Reformed  Dutch  Church,  which 
contains  their  moimments.  There  are  several 
paper-mills  in  the  neighbourhood.  In  1813,  A. 
was  taken  by  storm  by  tlie  Rrussians,  \uider 
General  Bulow,  and  the  way  thus  prepared  for  the 
occupation  of  Holland. 

A'RXHEM  LAND,  that  part  of  North  Australia 
which  lies  between  Anson  Bay  ou  the  west  and  the 
Gulf  of  Carpentaria  on  the  east,  stretching  inE.  lorig. 
from  about  129°  to  about  137°  ;  in  lat.  it  extends  in- 
definhely  southwards  from  about  12°  S.  It  takes  its 
naiue  from  the  ship  of  the  Dutch  navigators  who  dis- 
covered it  in  1()18. 

A'RNICA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the 
natural  order  Composita-,  sub-order  (  oriindiifcra. 
The  flowers  of  the  ray  are  female  and  ligulatc,  those 
of  tlic  disk  hermaphrodite  and  tubular.  The  recep- 
tacle is  naked  ;  the  pappus  hairy.  The  root, 
leaves,  and  flowers  of  the  Mountain  A.  (A.  viontana), 
sometimes  called  Mountain  Tol)acco,  are  much 
valued  in  medicine,  and  administered  in  variotis 
forms  as  a  stimulant  in  paralytic  all'ections,  typhoid 
fevers,  and  other  diseases.  They  are  also  applied 
with  Tnuch  benefit  to  bruizes,  to  promote  the  reabsorp- 
tion  of  extravasated  blood.  They  contain  a  pecuHar 
volatile  oil,  a  resin,  an  extractive  matter,  and  an 
alkaloid  {Arnicina).  The  root  is  perennial  and 
crooked,  the  stem  about  two  feet  high,  simple  or 
little  branched,  with  few  leaves,  bearing  on  the  sum- 
mit a  head  of  flowers  of  a  dark  golden  yellow,  ofteo 

425 


ARXIM— ARNOLD. 


two    inches    in    breadth.      Ii  flowers  from  June  to 
August,  forms  an  orniment  of  iiiountaiu  meadows 


Arnica  niontana. 

in  Germany  and  Switzerland,  and  is  found  upon  the 
continent  as  far  t-outh  as  Poitugal,  and  as  far 
north  as  Lapland,  but  is  not  a  native  of  Britain. 

A'RNIil,  Elizabkth  von,  l)etter  known  as  Bettina, 
"wife  of  Ludwig  Achim  von  Arnim  (q.  v.),  was  born  in 
1*785  at  FranUfort-on-the-Mainc.  From  her  child- 
hood excitable  and  eccentric,  an  early  and  proibund 
impression  was  made  upon  her  mind  by  the  suicide 
of  her  friend,  the  Canoness  von  (iundeiode.  Tiic 
next  great  event  of  her  life  was  her  devoted  attach- 
ment to,  and  intimacy  with  Goethe,  at  that  time  a 
man  of  nearly  sixty.  Their  correspondence,  entitled 
Goethe  s  Letters  to  a  Child,  was  published  in  1S35, 
and  translated  by  Bettina  into  English.  Her  letters 
are  poetical,  graceful,  and  fascinating,  though  often 
careless  and  extravagant,  and  abound  in  grajihic 
sketches  of  men  of  the  time.  Goethe  turned  many 
of  these  letters  into  verse.  Bettina's  later  works 
were  semi-i)olitical  in  their  character,  and  like  her 
earlier,  full  of  fantastic  beauty.  Although  a  septua- 
genarian, she  appears  to  be  still  Bettina  'the  child.' 

A'RXIM,  Kaul  Otto  Ltowig  von,  a  well-known 
writer  of  travels  and  other  works,  was  born  at 
Berlin  1779.  After  studying  at  Halle  and  Gottingen, 
he  travelled  at  different  times  over  the  most  of 
Europe,  and  was  employed  on  the  embassies  at 
Stockholm  and  London.  His  Fli'ichiige Bcmcrkungen 
eines  fl.uchfi.r/en  Reiscnden  (Passing  Remarks  by  a 
Passing  Traveller,  6  vols.,  Berl.  1837—185(1),  is 
recommended  for  its  clear  elegant  style,  as  con- 
trasted with  the  lumbering  and  involved  writing  of 
the  '  Academic  '  school.  A.  also  wrote  in  English 
Napoleon^s  (Jcndiiet  towards  Pruxsia  (Lond.  1814), 
and  published  German  National  Mclodieft,  with 
German  and  English  text  (Lond.  1816).  He  is  the 
author  of  a  play  and  several  poems. 

A'RNIVr,  LuDW'iG  AcHiM  a'on,  a  fantastic  but 
original  German  wi-iter  of  romances,  was  born  in 
426 


Berlin,  January  2fi,  1781.  After  devoting  some 
years  to  the  study  of  the  physical  sciences,  he  began 
his  career  as  an  imaginative  author  with  AriePs 
licvelafions,  a  romance  which,  though  based  on 
the  principles  of  the  new  poetic  school  which  had 
then  risen  in  Germany,  indicated,  nevertheless,  that 
the  author  could  strike  out  a  way  of  his  own.  His 
travels  through  Germaiiy  afforded  him  an  oppor- 
tunity of  catching  the  peculiarities  of  poj)ular  life  in 
its  various  provincial  manifestations.  He  was  espe- 
cially interested  in  the  old  popular  poetry,  and  stirred 
up  among  his  countrymen  a  warmer  sympathy  for  it 
by  the  iniMicaiion,  along  with  Clemens  Brentaiio,  of 
7'he  Boifx  Wiiridrrhorn  (Heidelberg,  180(;— 1808). 
In  1809  appeared  the  Winter  Garden,  a  collection  of 
novels;  in  1810,  the  romance,  entitled,  ^'he  Povertti, 
Riches,  Guilt,  and  Hepentanre  of  the  Cofinfei.i  Dolcyres  ; 
in  1811,  Halle  and  Jerusalem,  the  f-'p>rts  of  a 
Student,  and  the  Adrentitres  of  a  Pilrrr/m,  in  which 
last  his  humour  took  a  very  saucy  turn.  In  1817, 
he  published  the  Croirn  G uardlmis,  a  work  charac- 
terised by  its  originality,  richness  of  fancy,  and 
vivid  portraitures.  The  later  years  of  his  life  were 
spent  partly  in  Berlin  and  partly  at  his  estate  near 
Dahme,  wliere  he  died,  Jan.  21,  1831. 

A'RXO,  next  to  the  Tiber  the  most  considerable 
river  of  Central  Italy,  rises  on  Mount  Falterona,  an 
offset  of  the  Apennines,  at  an  elevation  of  4114  feel 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  25  miles  north  of 
Arezzo.  It  flows  through  the  deep  and  fertile  valley 
of  Caseulino,  in  a  south-e;ist  direction  ;  enters  the 
richly  cultivated  ])lain  of  Arezzo,  where  it  receives 
the  water  of  the  Chiaiia  ;  then  flows  in  a  north-wc^t 
and  north  course  through  the  upper  valley  of  the 
A.  (Valdarno),  one  of  the  most  delicious  parts  of 
Tuscany  ;  afterwards  it  receives  the  Sie^■e,  its  largest 
tributary,  and  turns  its  course  toward  the  west, 
flowing  past  Florer.co,  Emjioli,  and  through  tliC 
town  of  Pisa.  The  whole  length  of  its  course  is 
about  140  miles.  In  old  times,  the  embouchure  of 
the  A.  was  at  Pisa ;  now  it  is  about  four  or  five 
miles  distant,  in  lat.  43°  41'  N.,  and  long.  10°  15'  E. 
It  is  navigable  for  barges  as  far  up  as  Florence,  but 
in  the  summer  season  even  this  frequently  l)ecomcs 
impossible.  The  Italian  poets  speak  of  'the  golden 
A.;'  but,  in  truth,  its  waters  ha^  e  mostly  the 
unpleasant  colour  of  milk  and  coffee  mixed  together. 
The  A.  is  noted  for  the  rajnd  and  destructive 
character  of  its  inundatior.s.  The  most  memorable 
are  those  of  September  1537,  when  the  whole  of 
the  Valdarno  was  laid  urider  water,  which  rose  to 
the  height  of  8  feet  in  some  parts  of  Florence  ;  and 
of  174(t,  the  latter  being  caused  by  the  long  con- 
tinuance of  the  sirocco,  which  completely  melted  the 
snows  on  the  Apennines.  * 

A'RNOLD,  or  ARXALD,  of  Bhescia,  was  a 
native  of  that  town,  and  was  distinguished  by 
the  success  with  which  he  contended  against  the 
corruptions  of  the  clergy  in  the  early  part  of 
the  r2th  c.  He  was  educated  in  France  under 
Abelard,  and  adopted  the  monastic  Hie.  By  his 
preaching,  the  people  of  his  native  place  were  ex- 
asperated against  their  bishop,  and  the  fermentation 
and  insurrectionary  spirit  spread  over  a  great 
part  of  the  country,  when  he  Avas  cited  before  the 
second  Lateran  Council,  and  banished  from  Italy. 
He  r.  tired  to  France,  liut  experienced  the  bitter  hos- 
tility of  St.  Bernard,  who  denounced  him  as  a  violent 
enemy  to  the  church.  He  thereupon  took  refuge  in 
Zuricii,  where  lie  settled  for  several  years.  Mean- 
while liis  doctrines  exerted  a  powerful  influence  in 
Rome,  which  ended  in  a  general  insurrection  against 
the  government,  whereupon  A.  repaired  thither,  and 
endeavoured  to  lead  and  direct  the  movement.  He 
exhorted  the  people  to  organise  a  government  similar 


ARNOLD. 


TO  the  ancient  Konian  republic,  with  its  consuls, 
tribunes,  and  equestrian  order.  But  they,  provoked 
by  the  treachery  and  oppo-iiion  of  the  papal  paity, 
and  disunited  anion.s  themselves,  pave  way  lo  the 
"■rossest  e.\cesscs.  The  city,  indeed,  continued  for 
ten  years  in  a  state  of  asiitation  and  disorder.  Lucius 
IL  was  killed  by  the  populace  in  an  insurrection  in 
1145,  and  Eugen'ius  III.,  to  escape  a  similar  fate,  fled 
into  France.  Those  violent  struggles  were  subdued 
by  Pope  Hadrian  IV.,  who,  feeling  the  weakness  of 
his  temporal  authority,  turned  to  the  spiritual,  and 
lesoited  to  the  extreme  measure  of  laying  the  city 
under  excommunication,  wiien  A.,  whose  party  he- 
came  discouraged,  and  fell  to  pieces,  took  refuge  with 
certain  influential  friends  in  Campania.  On  the 
arrival  of  tlie  emperor,  Frederick  I.,  for  his  corona- 
tion, in  1155,  A.  was  arrested,  l)rought  to  Rome, 
tried,  hanged,  his  body  burned,  and  the  ashes 
thrown  into  the  Tiber. 

A'RNOLP,  JoHANN,  a  miller  of  Nowmark,  who 
lived  in  the  time  of  Frederick  II.  of  Prussia,  and 
nave  rise  to  a  remarkable  legal  process.  He  com- 
plained to  the  king  that  his  landlord,  by  making 
a  pond,  had  taken  away  water  from  the  mill ;  that 
he  (A.)  had  therefore  refused  to  pay  rent  for  the  mill, 
of  which  he  held  a  lease ;  but  had  been  condemned 
to  pay  bv  the  unanimous  decisions  of  two  legal 
courts.  The  king  took  up  the  case,  and  regarding  it 
as  an  oppression  of  the  poor,  reversed  the  decisions 
of  the  courts,  dismissed  his  high-chr.ncellor,  impri- 
soned several  other  officers  of  justice,  and  gave 
orders  that  restitution  should  be  nuade  to  the  miller. 
Soon  afterwards,  the  king  died,  and  tmder  Frederick 
William  II.  the  case  was  more  coolly  investigated, 
when  the  result  was  that  the  condenmed  chancellor 
and  other  official  persons  were  exonerated  from  all 
blame  in  the  matter,  and  the  miller  was  recompensed 
by  the  state  for  loss  of  time  and  money. 

A'RXOLD,  Matthew,  a  living  English  poet,  the 
eldest  son  of  the  late  Dr.  Arnold  of  Rugby,  was  born 
on  the  24th  December  1822,  and  educated  at 
AVinchestcf  and  Rugby.  In  1840  he  was  elected 
scliolar  of  Balliol  College,  Oxford;  in  1844  he 
obtained  the  Newdegate  prize  for  an  English  poem ; 
in  1845  he  was  elected  a  fellow  of  Oriel  College  ;  and 
in  1846  he  became  private  secretary  to  Lord  Lans- 
downe,  which  office  he  lield  for  several  years.  In 
1851  he  espoused  Frances,  daughter  of  Mr.  Justice 
Wiihtman,  and  about  the  same  time  was  appointed 
one  of  Her  Majesty's  Inspectois  of  British  Schools. 
Two  years  ago,  he  was  elected  Convocation  Professor 
of  Poetry  at  Oxford.  Mr.  A.  has  been  before  the 
world  now  as  a  poet  for  several  years,  and  his  sticcess 
has  been  considerable.  Although  he  has  not  achieved 
jiopularity,  his  position  in  literature  is  established, 
and  as  his  works  become  better  known,  admiration 
for  them  will  increas(^  If  he  has  failed  to  obtain  the 
applause  of  the  noisy  many,  he  is  rewarded  by  the 
approval  of  the  judicious  few.  The  strain  of  his 
mind  is  calm  and  thoughtful;  his  style  is  the  rever.se 
of  florid;  deep  culture  and  a  certain  severity  of 
taste  have  subdued  every  tendency  to  a  gay  or  a 
passionate  exuberance.  As  a  poet,  he  has  little 
sympathy  with  the  present;  his  nnise  has  hitherto 
delighted  in  the  remoteness  and  repose  of  the 
ancient  world.  In  his  eloquent  and  voluminous 
prefaces,  he  advocates  the  return  of  poetical  art  to 
the  antique  forms.  Jlr.  A.  practises  his  own  creed. 
The  story  of  Sohrab  and  Rustum  is  as  old  as 
Herodotus.  Da/do;  a  later  production,  and  as  yet 
liis  most  considerable  poem,  is  a  story  of  the  Norse 
f^ods  ;  and  his  tragedy  of  Merope  is  an  attempt  to 
naturalize  in  English  literature  the  form  of  the 
Greek  drama — an  attempt  uiduced,  says  its  author, 
•  by  a  passion  for  the  great  masters,  and  an  eft'ort  to 


study  them  -without  fancLfulness.'     In  18G5  he  pub- 
lished Essays  in  Criticism. 

A'RXOLD,  Thomas,  D.D.,  head-master  of  Rugby 
School,  and  the  author  of  a  Histori/  of  Home,  was 
born  June  13,  1795,  at  West  Cowcs,  in  the  Is'.e  of 
Wight,  In  18113  he  was  sent  to  Warmin.stcr  School, 
in  Wiltshire,  but  was  removed  in  1807  to  the  public 
school  of  Winchester,  where  he  remained  till  1811, 
when  he  was  elected  a  scholar  of  Corpus  Christi 
College,  Oxford.  In  1815  he  was  elected  fellow  of 
Oriel  College,  and  he  gained  the  chancellor's  prize 
for  the  two  university  essays,  Latin  and  English,  for 
the  years  1815  and  1817.  As  a  boy,  we  are  told  he 
was  shy  and  retired;  as  a  youth,  disputatious,  and 
somewhat  bold  and  unsettled  in  his  opinions;  but 
before  he  left  Oriel,  lie  had  won  the  good  opinion  of 
a  college  which  at  that  time  boasted  of  such  names 
as  Copleston,  Davison,  Whately,  Keble,  Hawkins, 
and  Hampden.  He  took  deacon's  orders  in  1818, 
and  the  year  after  settled  at  Laleham,  near  Staines, 
where  he  occupied  himself  in  preparing  pupils  for 
the  university.  In  1820  he  married  Mary,  youngest 
daughter  of  "the  Rev.  John  Penrose,  rector  of  Fled- 
borough,  in  Nottinghamshire,  and  sister  of  one  of 
his  earliest  school  and  college  friends,  Trevenen 
Penrose.  About  ten  years  were  spent  in  this  qu!et 
and  comparatively  obscure  life ;  he  was  preparing 
himself  for  the  arduous  post  he  afterwards  occupied  ; 
he  was  maturing  his  opinions,  and  he  had  also 
already  comtnenced  his  great  literary  undertaking,  tl.e 
Histori/  of  Home.  It  was  a  period  which  he  himself 
was  accustomed  to  look  back  upon  vith  some  feel- 
ing of  regret.  His  letters  at  this  epoch  reveal  to  us 
a  tine  ambitious  spirit  bending  cheerfully  to  the  task 
of  tuition,  more  useful  than  glorious  ;  they  also  prove 
to  us  that  those  views  of  a  religious  and  pohtical 
character  which  afterwards  distinguished  him,  were 
being  matured  in  the  privacy  of  Lalehatn.  '  I  have 
long  had  in  my  mind,'  he  thus  writes  tci  a  Mr. 
Blackstone,  '  a  work  on  Christian  politics,  or  the 
application  of  the  Gospel  to  the  state  of  man  as  a 
citizen,  in  which  the  whole  question  of  a  religious 
establishment,  and  the  education  proper  for  Chris- 
tian members  of  a  Christian  commonwealth,  would 
naturally  find  a  place.  It  would  embrace  also  an 
historical  sketch  of  the  pretended  conversion  of  tlie 
kingdoms  of  the  world  to  the  kingdom  of  Christ 
in  the  4th  and  5th  centuries,  which  I  look  upon  as 
one  of  the  greatest  tours  d'adrcsse  that  Satan  ever 

played I  mean  vhat  by  inducing  kings  and 

nations  to  conform  nominally  to  Christianity,  and 
thus  to  get  into  their  hands  the  direction  of  Christian 
society,  he  has  in  a  great  measure  succeeded  in 
keeping  out  the  peculiar  principles  of  tliat^  society 
from  any  extended  sphere  of  operation,  and  insuring 
the  ascendency  of  his  own.'  He  here  expresses,  in  a 
somewhat  sportive  and  famihar  manner,  the  great 
principle  which  he  afterwards  contended  for  with  so 
much  earnestness,  that  there  should  be  a  Christian 
laitv,  a  Christian  legislature,  a  Christian  govern- 
ment ;  by  which  he  did  not  mean  a  system  of  laws 
or  government  formed  in  the  manner  of  the  Puritans, 
out  of  texts  of  Scripture,  rashly  applied,  but  imbued 
with  the  sjrirU  of  the  New  Testament  and  of  the 
teaching  of  Christ. 

It  was  at  Laleham  also  that  A.  first  became 
acquainted  with  Nicbuhr's  Jlistori/  of  Rome.  This 
was  an  era  in  his  life.  It  produced  a  revolution  in 
his  historical  views,  and  his  own  Histori/  of  Rome 
became  modelled  almost  too  faithfully  on  that  of  the 
great  German. 

From  Laleham  he  was  called  to  undertake  the 
arduous  duties  of  the  head-mastership  of  Rugby 
School.  On  these  he  entered  August  1828.  Our 
space  does  not  permit  us  to  dwell  upon  the  details 
of  that  system  of  public  education  which  he  perhaps 
^  427 


ARXOTT— ARNOTTO. 


carried  to  its  perfection.  AVo  can  only  take  notice 
of  the  hi<<li  tone,  moral  and  religious,  which  he  pre- 
served anionj;st  the  boys.  lie  had  the  tact  to  make 
himself  both  loved  and  feared.  He  guided  with  great 
dexterity  the  public  opbdon  of  the  school.  '  In  the 
higher  forms,'  says  his  biographer,  'any  attempt 
at  further  proof  of  au  assertion  was  immediately 
checked.  "  If  you  say  so,  that  is  quite  enough ; 
of  course  I  believe  your  word;"  and  there  grew 
up  in  consequence  a  general  feeling  that  it  was  a 
shame  to  tell  A.  a  lie — he  always  believes  one.'  On 
one  occasion,  when  he  had  been  compelled  to  send 
away  several  boys,  he  said  :  'It  is  7}ot  necessary  that 
this  should  be  a  school  of  300,  or  100,  or  of  50  V)oys, 
but  it  is  necessary  that  it  should  be  a  school  of 
Christian  gentlemen.' 

But  the  school  was  very  far  from  occupying  the 
whole  energies  of  A.  The  Ilixtory  of  Rome  went 
on ;  he  took  part  in  all  the  great  questions  of  the 
day,  political  and  theological.  In  politics  he  was  a 
Whig,  without  being  fettered — as  we  need  hardly 
say — by  the  tics  of  party.  In  the  theological  dis- 
cussions of  the  day,  he  was  chiefly  distinguished 
by  the  broad  views  he  had  adopted  of  the  nature 
of  a  Christian  church.  As  already  intimated,  it 
was  his  leading  idea  that  a  Christian  people  and 
a  Christian  church  ougiit  to  be  synonymous  expres- 
sions, lie  would  never  tolerate  that  use  of  the 
word  church  which  limited  it  to  the  clergy,  or 
which  implied  in  the  clergy  any  peculiar  sacreil- 
ness,  or  any  traces  of  mediatorial  function.  The 
priest  was  unknown  to  him  in  the  Christian  com- 
munity; this  placed  him  at  once  in  antagonism 
to  the  High  Church  party ;  and  even  clergymen  of 
the  Low  Church  complained  that  he  did  not  set 
sufficient  value  on  their  sacred  order.  But  all  men, 
of  whatever  party,  admitted  and  admired  the  zeal 
with  which  he  taught  that  the  lull  spirit  of  Chris- 
tianity should  permeate  the  whole  of  our  civil  or 
political  life.  If  he  seemed  to  lower  the  altitude  of 
the  clergy,  it  was  only  because  he  woidd  raise  the 
general  level  of  the  laity.  He  was  <-onvinced  that 
'the  founders  of  our  present  constitution  in  church 
and  state  did  truly  consider  them  to  be  identical, 
the  Christian  nation  of  England  to  be  the  church  of 
England ;  the  head  of  that  nation  to  be,  for  that 
very  reason,  the  head  of  the  church.'  It  may  be 
doubted  whether  this  is  quite  historically  correct ; 
but  it  certainly  presents  a  noble  theory  to  the 
imagination. 

In  domestic  life.  Dr.  A.  was  most  happy ;  here  he 
was  distinguished  by  unfailing  cheerfiducss  and 
amiability.  In  1832,  he  purchased  Fox  How,  a 
small  estate  between  Rydal  and  Ambleside,  and  it 
was  in  this  charming  retreat  that  he  enjoyed  in  the 
vacations,  amongst  the  family  circle,  his  own  unin- 
terrupted studies.  Fox  How  has  become  a  classical 
spot  to  every  tourist. 

For  a  brief  time  he  held  a  place  in  the  senate 
of  the  London  University;  he  resigned  the  seat  on 
finding  that  he  could  not  introduce  some  measures 
which  he  had  at  heart.  In  the  year  1842,  he 
received  from  Lord  Melbourne  the  offer  of  the 
Regius  Professorship  of  Modern  History  at  Oxford. 
This  appointment  he  accepted  with  peculiar  gratifi- 
cation. He  delivered  some  introductory  lectures, 
which  were  heard  with  enthusiastic  interest  ; 
and  it  was  his  intention,  on  his  retirement  from 
Rugby,  to  enter  with  zeal  upon  the  duties  of  his 
professorship.  But  this  and  all  other  literary 
enterprises  were  cut  short  by  a  sudden  and  most 
painful  death.  The  last  vacation  was  at  hand,  the 
journey  to  Fox  How  was  to  be  taken  in  a  few  days, 
when  he  was  seized  with  a  fatal  attack  of  spasm  of 
the  heart.  Few  biographies  end  more  abruptly  or 
more  mournfully ;  but  the  sufferer  met  his  death 
428 


with  perfect  fortitude  and  the  ftdl  hope  of  a  Chris- 
tian. He  died  June  12,  1S42.  His  principal  works 
are  Jive  volumes  of  sermons  ;  the  History  of  Home 
(3  vols.),  broken  otf  by  his  death  at  the  end  of  the 
second  Punic  war;  and  an  edition  of  Thucydides. 
His  miscellaneous  contributions  to  literature  are  too 
numerous  to  be  mentioned. 

A'RXOTT,  Neil,  W.D.,  was  born  in  1*788  at 
Arbroatli,  but  his  family-home  was  Dysart,  near  Mon- 
trose, Scotland.  He  was  educated  at  the  (irammar 
School  of  Aberdeen,  and  subsequently  at  Marischal 
College  in  the  same  city,  where  he  had  the  advantage 
of  studying  natural  philosophy  under  Professor 
Copland,  one  of  the  most  successful  expounders  of 
mechanical  science  then  living.  A.  made  choice  of 
medicine  as  a  profession  ;  and  after  going  thiough 
the  medical  course  at  Aberdeen,  he  went  to  London 
in  ISoO,  where  he  became  the  pujiil  of  Sir  Everard 
Home,  surgeon  of  St.  (ieorge's  Hospital.  After 
spending  some  years  in  the  naval  service  of  the 
East  India  Company,  he  settled  in  1811  as  a  medical 
jiractitioner  in  London,  where  he  has  lived  ever 
since.  In  addition  to  his  extensive  general  prac- 
tice, A.  was  appointed,  in  ISlo,  physician  to  the 
French  embassy,  and  afterwards  to  the  Spanish 
embassy.  In  1830,  Dr.  A.  was  appointed  a  member 
of  the  Senate  of  the  L'niversity  of  London,  then 
established  by  government.  He  was  afterwards 
elected  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  then  of 
the  Geological  Society.  In  1837,  he  was  named  a 
Physician  Extraordinary  to  the  Queen.  He  has 
recently  retired  from  practice. 

In  1823-24,  Dr.  A.  was  induced  to  deliver  a  course 
of  lectures  on  natural  jthilosophy  in  its  applications 
to  medicine.  The  siibtance  of  these  lectures  formed 
the  basis  of  liis  Elements  of  Physics,  or  Natural 
Philosophy  General  and  Medical,  published  in 
1G27.  Owing  to  the  professional  occupation  of  the 
author,  the  second  ])art  of  the  second  volume 
was  never  completed  ;  nevertheless,  the  w  ork  enjoyed 
immense  popularity,  and  five  editions  were  called 
for  in  six  years.  Since  1833,  the  work  has  not 
been  republished,  but  a  new  and  complete  edition 
is  understood  to  be  in  progress.  Of  numerous 
new  applications  of  phj^sical  science  to  medical 
practice,  and  to  the  alleviation  of  human  suffering 
in  general,  invented  by  Dr.  A.,  may  be  mentioned 
the  water-bed  (q.  v.).  But  it  is  in  connection  with 
improvements  in  the  warming  and  ventilating  of 
houses  that  the  name  of  Dr.  A.  is  most  extensively 
known.  In  1838,  he  published  a  treatise  on  Warm- 
ing  and  Ventilating  ;  and  in  1855,  another,  0?i  the 
Smokeless  Firejdacc,  Chimney-valccs,  &c.  The 
'  Arnott  Stove'  and  'Arnott  Ventilator,'  which,  with 
characteristic  philanthropy  and  disinterestedness. 
Dr.  A.  refrained  from  patenting,  will  be  noticed 
under  Stoves  and  Ventilators. 

ARXO'TTO,  ARNA'TTO,  AXNOTTA,  AX- 
XA'TTO,  or  ROUCOU,  also  known  on  the  continent 
of  Europe  by  the  name  of  Orleax,  is  a  red  colotiring 
matter  which  is  obtained  in  South  America  and  the 
West  Indies  from  the  reddish  pulp  surrounding  the 
seeds  of  the  Arnotto-tree  {Bixa  orcllana)  by  wash- 
ing, maceration,  fermentation,  and  subsequent  evapo- 
ration. It  appears  in  commerce  in  cakes  or  balls  of 
2 — 4  lbs.  weight,  wrapped  up  in  leaves,  externally 
brown,  internally  of  a  pale  blood-red  or  yellowish- 
reil  colour,  and  w  hich  have  a  peculiar  animal  smell 
and  an  astringent  taste.  Pure  A.  seldom  appears  in 
the  market.  It  is  obtained  by  the  mere  rubbing  oft" 
and  drying  of  the  red  pulpy  pellicle  which  covers 
the  seed ;  but  that  which  is  thus  obtained  is  very 
pure,  and  occurs  in  small  round  or  angular  lozenges. 
The  Indians  rub  this  colouring  matter  into  the  skin 
of  their  whole  body,  thus  intending  both  to  adorn 


ARN'SBEUG— ARPAD. 


themselves,  and  to  obtiiiu  protection  against  the 
hites  of  mosquitoes.  Amongst  us,  A.  is  used  in 
medicine  for  colouring  plasters,  ointments,  &c. ;  and 
to  a  considerable  extent  by  farmers   for  giving  a 


Arnotto  : 

n,  end  of  ;i  branch  with  loavos  niid  flowers  reUuced ;  ^,  capsule  ; 
c,  the  seods  ami  pulp. 

rich  colour  to  cheese.  It  is  also  used  in  dyeing, 
although  it  does  not  produce  a  durable  colour.  It 
is  employed  to  impart  an  orange  tint  to  simple 
yellows.  It  is  an  ingredient  in  some  varnishes.  It 
dissolves  in  alkalies,  producing  a  brown  solution, 
fiom  which  it  is  precipitated  yellow  by  acids.  It 
imparts  Httle  colour  to  water,  but  dissolves  in 
alcohol ;  alum  and  sugar  of  lead  throw  down  a 
brick-red  precipitate  irom  the  alcholic  solution. 
In  South  America,  A.  is  very  extensively  mixed 
with  chocolate,  not  only  for  the  sake  of  the  colour, 
but  also  for  the  improvement  of  the  flavour. — The 
genus  Bixa  belongs  to  the  natural  order  Flacour- 
TiACE^  (q.  v.),  and  is  distinguished  by  complete 
flowers  with  simple  stigma,  a  hispid  calyx  of  five 
sepals,  and  a  two-valved  capsule.  The  A.  shrub  is  a 
native  of  tropical  America,  but  has  been  introduced 
into  other  warm  countries.  It  grows  to  the  height 
of  7 — 8  feet,  and  has  heart-shaped  pointed  leaves, 
and  large  flowers  of  a  peach-blossom  colour,  which 
grow  in  loose  clusters  at  the  extremity  of  the 
branches.  The  capsules  are  oblong,  and  contain 
30 — 40  seeds  enveloped  in  red  pulp  (the  A.)-  The 
seeds  are  said  to  be  cordial,  astringent,  and  febri- 
fugal. The  roots  are  used  in  broth.  They  have  the 
properties  of  A.  in  an  inferior  degree. 

A'RNSBERG,  one  of  the  three  departments  of 
the  Prussian  province  of  Westphalia  (q.  v.),  having 
an  area  of  2900  square  miles,  and  a  pop.  (1861)  of 
703,256.  With  the  exce])tion  of  the  valley  of  the 
Lippe,  the  whole  department  belongs  to  the  high- 
lands of  the  Lower  Rhine.  Only  in  a  few  of  the 
valleys  is  there  good  arable  soil  ;  on  the  other 
hand,  there  is  a  great  deal  of  good  timber,  more 
than  a  third  of  the  whole  area  consisting  of  forests. 
But  the  principal  resources  of  the  district  are  its 
subterranean  riches,  in  coal,  iron,  lead,  silver,  &c. 
Its  abundant  water-power  has  also  led  to  the 
establishment  of  numerous  factories,  mills,  &c. 
ArxSsnERG,  the  chief  town  of  the  department,  is 
situated  on  the  Rhur,  44  miles  south-east  from 
Miinster ;  pop.  4500.  It  has  several  manufactures, 
such  as  linen,  broadcloth,  potash,  &c.  In  the 
orchard  below  the   castle   is   still   pointed   out   the 


spot  where  the  famous  Fehmgericht  (.q.v.)  of  A.  was 
held. 

A'RNSTADT,  the  chief  town  in  the  principality 
of  Schwarzburg-Sonderhausen,  is  situated  in  a 
picturesque  country  on  the  banks  of  the  Gera,_ 
twelve  miles  south  of  Erfurt,  and  has  a  population  of 
5820.  It  is  one  of  the  oldest  Thuringian  cities,  its 
exi'stence  being  traceable  as  far  back  as  704  a.d- 
Formerly  it  was  the  chief  emporium  for  the  trade 
in  fruit  and  timber  between  tiie  fertile  lowlands 
and  the  Thuringian  forest  region,  but  is  now  a 
manufacturing  town,  employing  a  very  considerable 
number  of  hands  in  weaving,  glove-making,  brewing, 
potterv,  &c.  A  rich  vein  of  rock-salt  has  been 
recently  discovered  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
town,  and  a  new  copper-mine  opened. 

AROMA,  a  term  sometimes  employed  to  desig- 
nate those  substances  the  extremely  minute  particles 
of  which  are  supposed  to  affect  the  organ  of  smell  so 
as  to  produce  particular  odours,  and  frecpiently  as 
synonvmous  with  odo)cr.  The  particles  diffused 
through  the  atmosphere,  and  afiecting  the  olfactory 
nerves — if  the  theory  of  particles  of  matter  so  diffused 
be  correct — must  indeed  be  extremely  minute,  as 
odoriferous  substances  such  as  musk,  the  smell  of 
which  is  felt  at  a  considerable  distance,  continue  to 
diffuse  their  odour,  and  according  to  this  theory, 
these  particles,  for  years,  without  sensible  diminu- 
tion of  weight.  See  Smelling.  The  term  A.  is  usual- 
ly employed  only  with  reference  to  particular  kiridsof 
odours,  iiot  easily  defined  or  distinguished  in  words. 
Thus,  we  speak  of  the  A.  of  roast-meat,  and  of  the  A. 
or  aromatic  smell  of  hyssop,  mint,  and  other  plants. 
Aromatic  smells  are  very  characteristic  of  some 
natural  orders  of  plants,  as  Lahiake  (Mint,  &c.)  and 
Compo-'iihc  (Milfoil,  &c.).  They  have  been^  very 
gtmerally  supposed  to  depend  upon  essential  oils, 
but  resins  are  often  equally  aromatic. 

AROMATIC  VINEGAR  differs  from  ordinary 
vinegar  (which  is  acetic  acid  diluted  with  water)  in 
containing  certain  essential  oils  which  impart  an 
agreeable  fragrance.  It  is  generally  prepared  by 
adding  the  oils  of  cloves,  lavender,  rosemary,  and 
Acorus  Ca'aiiius  (and  sometimes  camphor)  to  crystal- 
lisable  acetic  acid,  or  by  distilling  the  acetate  of 
copper  in  an  earthen  retort  and  receiver,  and  treat- 
ing the  liquid  which  passes  over  with  tne  fragrant 
oils  mentioned  above.  A.  V.  is  a  very  pleasant  and 
powerful  perfume  ;  it  is  very  volatile,  and  when 
snuffed  up  by  the  nostrils,  is  a  powerful  excitant, 
and  hence  is'  serviceable  in  fainting,  languor,  head- 
ache, and  nervous  debility.  A.  T.  is  _  generally 
placed  on  a  sponge  in  a  smelling-bottle  or  in  a  vinai- 
qrette;  it  can  also  be  purchased  as  a  liquid  in  phials; 
and  a  drop  or  two  allowed  to  evaporate  into  a 
sick-room,  overpowers,  but  does  not  destroy  any 
unpleasant  odour.  The  liquid  must,  however,  be 
cautiously  dealt  with,  as  it  is  a  very  corrosive 
substance. 

AROXIA.     See  C'RAXiEGi-s. 


AROO'STOOK,  a  river  which,  rising  in  the  north 
of  Maine,  falls  into  the  St  John  in  New  Brunswick, 
after  aVourse  of  about  120  miles.  It  possesses  a 
historical  interest  from  its  connection  with  the  long- 
agitated  question  of  the  north-east  boundary  between 
British  America  and  the  United  States. 

ARPAD,  the  national  hero  of  Hungary,  was  the 
son  of  Amos,  the  leader  under  whom  the  Magyars 
first  gained  a  footing  in  Hungary.  He  was  chosen 
duke  on  his  father's  death  in  889,  and  by  a  course 
of  incessant  and  mostly  successful  warfare  with  the 
Bulgarians,  Wallachians,  Moravians,  &c.,  extended 
the  first  conquests  of  the  Magyars  on  all  sides.  He 
also  made  more  than  one  successful  incursion  into 

429 


ARPEGGIO— ARRACK. 


Italy  about  900,  and  returned  laden  with  liooty.  He 
died  in  907,  leaving'  his  son  in  possession  ol"  the  su- 
preme command.  The  A.  dynasty  became  e.xtinct  in 
the  male  line  with  Andreas  III.  in  1301.  A.  yet  lives 
in  the  popular  songs  of  the  country,  and  his  history, 
even  in  the  oldest  chronicles,  is  mixed  up  with  a  deal 
of  legendary  matter. 

ARPE'GGIO,  in  Music,  a  chord  of  which  the 
notes  are  given,  not  contenipoianeonsly,  but  in  suc- 
cession. From  any  one  chord,  several  forms  of  A. 
n  ay  be  produced.  Bass-chords  thus  treated  form  an 
Atherti  Basx,  so  named  from  Donienico  Albert!  (1730 
— 1740),  a  popular  singer  and  player,  who  often 
played  the  bass  in  this  style. 

ARPENT  was  the  old  French  land-measure,  corres- 
ponding to  our  acre.  The  name  is  i'lom  the  ancient 
tJallic  aripennu,  which  was  identified  by  Columella 
with  the  Roman  actu^,  or  half  Juf/criuii.  Almost 
every  parish  had  an  A.  of  its  own.  The  comparative 
value  of  the  three  most  in  use  will  be  seen  in  the 
following  table :  \ 

French  Hectares. 

Acre,  English,  imperial  or  statute,    0.40400 

Arpent,  of  Paris,       .         .  .         0.32400 

"         d'ordomiance,  .         .     0.484o0 

"         common,     .         .         .  0.40000 

ARPT'NO,  the  Arpinuni  of  the  ancients,  a  town  of 
the  kingdom  of  Naple.s,  the  birthplace  of  Cicero  and 
Caius  Marius,  is  situated  in  the  province  of  Terra  di 
Lavoro,  0-5  miles  north  by  east  of  Naples.  It  stands 
on  the  lower  ridge  of  a  lofty  hill,  some  6  miles  to  the 
left  of  the  river  Garigliano,  the  ancient  Liris.  The 
old  town,  in  early  Roman  times,  was  built  on  the  top 
of  a  steep  rock,  forming  part  of  the  territory  of  the 
Volscians.  Many  remains  of  the  ancient  structures 
are  still  to  be  seen,  especially  a  cyclopean  wall, 
which  runs  along  the  northern  brow  of  the  hill  occupied 
by  the  present  town,  and  extending  to  the  an- 
cient citadel.  About  the  year  188  n.c,  the  citi- 
zens received  the  freedom  of  the  city  of  Rome, 
with  all  its  privileges,  and  Arpinuin,  during  the 
later  years  of  the  republic,  was  a  flourishing  nmni 
tipal  town. 

The  population  of  A.  is  12,648.  Manufactures  of 
woollen  cloth,  parchment,  paper,  and  leather  are 
carried  on.  The  town  has  a  charming  appearance 
from  the  highly  picturesque  character  of  the 
surrounding  woods  and  mountains.  Iron,  white 
marble,  variegated  red  marble,  and  marble  of  a 
yellowish  colour,  are  got  in  mines  and  quarries  in 
the  neighbourhood. 

A'RQUA,  a  village  in  the  delegation  of  Padua, 
Venice,  12  miles  south-west  of  Padua,  in  the  heart 
of  the  Euganean  Hills.  Pop.  1200.  Petrarch's  furni- 
ture is  still  preserved  in  the  house  in  which  he  died 
here  (July  18,  1374),  and  his  monument  of  red  mar- 
ble is  to  be  seen  in  the  churchyard. 

A'RQUEBUS,  or  HARQUEBUS,  was  the  first 
form  of  hand-gun  which  could  fairly  be  compared 
with  the  modern  musket.  Those  of  earlier  date 
were  fired  by  applying  a  match  by  hand  to  the 
touch-hole ;  but  about  the  time  of  the  battle  of 
Morat,  in  1476,  guns  were  used  having  a  contriv- 
ance suggested  by  the  trigger  of  the  arbalest 
or  cross-bow,  by  which  the  burning  match  could 
be  applied  with  more  quickness  and  certainty. 
Such  a  gun  was  the  A.  Many  of  the  yeomen  of 
the  guard  were  armed  with  this  weapon,  on  the 
first  formation  of  that  corps  in  1485.  The  A. 
being  fired  from  the  chest,  with  the  butt  in  a 
right  line  with  the  barrel,  it  was  difficult  to  bring 
the  eye  down  low  enough  to  take  good  aim  ;  but 
the  Germans  soon  introduced  an  improvement  by 
giving  a  hooked  form  to  the  but,  which  elevated 
430 


the  barrel;  and  the  A.  then  obtained    the   name  of 
the  haqiicbut.     Soildcrs  armed  with  these  two  kinds 


Arquebusier. 

of  weapon  were  designated  arcjuibuaicrs  and  haque- 
huiterx — the  ibriner  were  common  in  the  English 
armv  in  the  time  of  Richard  III.,  the  latter  in  that 
of  lienry  VIII. 

ARRACA'CHA  {Arracacha  enndenta),  a  plant  of 
the  natural  order  Umhelliefrw,  a  native  of  the 
elevated  tablelands  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Santa 
Fe  de  Bogota  and  Caraccas, 
and  of  regions  of  similar  cli- 
mate in  other  parts  of  tropical 
America.  It  is  much  ctdti- 
vated  in  its  native  country  for 
its  roots,  which  are  used  as  an 
esculent.  The  root  divides 
into  a  number  of  parts,  which 
resemble  cows'  horns  or  large 
carrots.  When  boiled,  they 
are  firm  and  tender,  with  a 
flavour  not  so  strong  as  that 
of  a  parsnip.  The  plant  is  very 
like  hendock,  and  has  a  similar 
heavy  smell.  Huml)oldt,  in- 
deed, referred  it  to  the  genus 
Conium  (Hendock),  but  it  has 
since  been  made  the  type  of  a 
new  genus.  The  flowers  are 
in  compound  umliels,  and  are  of  a  dull  purple  colour. 
The  A.  was  at  one  time  very  strongly  recommended 
as  a  substitute  for  potatoes  ;  it  was  introduced  into 
Britain  through  the  exertions  of  the  Horticultural 
Society,  and  its  cultivation  perseveringly  attempted  ; 
but  it  has  been  found  unsuitable  to  the  climate 
of  Britain  and  of  other  parts  of  Europe,  where  it 
has  been  tried,  perishing  on  the  approach  of  the 
frosts  of  winter  without  having  perfected  its  roots. 
The  dry  weather  of  summer  is  also  unfavourable  to 
it.  The  climate  of  the  south  of  Ireland  resembles 
that  of  its  native  regions  more  than  any  other  in  the 
British  Islands.  It  seems  to  require  a  very  regular 
temperature  and  constant  moisture.  There  are 
probably  some  parts  of  the  British  colonies  in  which 
the  A.  would  be  found  a  very  valuable  plant.  In 
deep  loose  soil?,  it  yields  a  great  produce.  It  is 
generally  propagated,  like  skirrct,  by  offshoots  from 
the  crown  of  the  root.  By  rasping  the  root  and 
washing,  a  starch,  similar  to  arrow-root,  is  obtained. 
— There  is  another  species  of  the  same  genus, 
A.  mosrkata,  a  native  of  the  same  regions,  the  root 
of  which  is  uneatable. 

ARRA'CK,    RACK,    or    RAKI.    is    an    alcoholic 
liquor  or   spirit,  largely   prepared,  and   extensively 


Arracach. 


ARRAGONITE— ARRAIGNMENT. 


partaJveu  of,  in   India   and   other  parts   of  tlie   Eiist, 
includins    the    Indian    Archipelago,    the    Mohiccas, 
and    the    Rnilippines ;    in    Africa ;    in    Chili,    South 
America,  and   in    the    irilands   of  the    Racilie    Ocean. 
Tlie    term    A.  is  often    used   in   eastern    countries  to 
designate  any  ardent  spirit,  but   there  are  two   prin- 
cipal  varieties — viz.,   that  prepared  from  palm-trees, 
and   that    procured  from  rice,   which   is  also  named 
rice-spirit.      Many   species   of    palm-trees   yield   the 
juice   which    constitutes    the   raw   material    for   the 
manufacture  of  A.     This  sap   or  juice  may  be  drawn 
from    the    tree   by  making  an   incision   near  the  top, 
when  tlie  sweet  sap  exudes,  and  is  collected ;  or  by 
taking   the  partially  developed  spathe  of  the  palm- 
tree  (the  part  from  which  the  flower  and  fruit  are 
produced),   tying    it    tightly  near    its    attachment    to 
the  tree,  and"  then  cutting  off  the  end  of  the  spathe, 
and  collecting  the  sweet  juice  which  flows  away  from 
the   wound.      In   either   case,    a  milky-looking   sub- 
stance is  obtained,  which  tastes,  when  fresh  drawn, 
like   the   milk   of  the  cocoa-nut;    but  which,   when 
allowed  to  stand  for  a  short  time,  passes  into  a  state 
of  fermentation  ;  the  liquid  becomes  alcoholic  and  acid, 
and  in   a  few  days   an  intoxicating  liquor  is  left  in 
the   fermenting  vessel,   called  prtJin    wine    or  todd>i, 
which  on  distillation  yields  A.     The  amount  of  milky 
sap  and  A.  thus  yielded  by  a  single  palm-tree  ranges 
from  2  or  3  pints  to    loi)  pints  in  the  24  hours.     A. 
is  likewise  prepared  from  rice,  which  is  first  treated 
with    water,   allowed   to   germinate   or  sprout   to   a 
slight   extent,    then    heated    and    dried,   and    lastly 
placed  in  vessels  with  water,  where  it  ferments  as  in 
ordinary  beer-brewing   (q.   v.).     Though  A.   is  little 
known  in  Britain,  it  is  so  extensively  employed  in 
other  countries,  that  it  appears  probable   that  it  is 
partaken  of  by  more  human  beings  than  those  who 
taste  the  produce  of  the  vine  (wine  and  brandy),  or 
the  barley  (beer  and  whisky).    In  the  desert  Sahara  of 
Africa,  tlie  soil  is  enlivened  here  and  there  by  fertile 
oases,    where   clusters   of    date   palm-trees  stud   the 
eiu-th  ;  and  these  not  only  supply  food  to  the  inhabi- 
tants, but  in  the  flowering  season  the   A.  also,  which 
is  greedily  partaken  of  by  the  Arab  Mohammedans, 
and  is  to  be  found  in  every  domicile.     On  the  west 
coast  of  Africa,  the  oil-palm  is  likewise  resorted  to 
for  its  juice   to  make   A.  ;  whilst  in   India,  the  date 
and  fan  palms  are  principally  placed  under  contribu- 
tion.    In  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  the  cocoa- 
nut  palm  is  resorted  to ;    and  in  Java,   very  large 
quantities  of  ardent  spirit,  or  A.,  are  prepared  from 
rice.     In   Ceylon  and   Siam,  the   A.  is  manufactured 
from  the  cocoa-nut  palm  and  from  rice.     The  Chinese, 
who  prepare  and  partake  of  A.  in  considerable  quan- 
tity, get  the  credit  of  manufacturing  the  best  kind 
of  distilled  A.,  known  as  the  A.   of  Batavia.     The 
latter  owes  its  excellence  to  the  manner  in  which  the 
somewhat  disagreeable  flavour  characteristic  of  ordi- 
nary A.  is  a  little  more  than  neutralised  by  the  ad- 
dition of  cinnamon  and  anise-seed,  and  subsequently 
by  very  careful  distillation.     The  inhabitants  of  Mada- 
gascar attempt   to  overcome  the  unwelcome  flavour 
by  the  addition  of  the  leaves  of  a  species  of  trefoil ; 
and  the  Asiatics  generally  add  the  bark  of  a  kind  of 
thorny    acacia,    called    Paitay.      Whilst   the    greater 
quantity  of  A.  is  consumed  where  it  is  manufactured, 
a  smaller  amount  is   exported.      Ceylon  despatches 
from  its  shores   700,000   gallons  every  year,  of  wliich 
England  receives  al)out  30,000  gallons.    In  Britain,  A. 
is  seldom  used  by  itself,  but  is  occasionally  employed 
to  impart  an  agreeable   flavour  to  puvch.     An  imita- 
tion A.  is  prepared  by  dissolving  benzoic  acid  in  rum, 
in  the  proportion  of  20  grains  of  the  former  to   2 
pounds  of  tlie  latter. 

A'RRAGONITE,  a  mineral  essentially  consisting 
of  carbonate  of  lime,  and  so  agreeing  in  chemical 
composition  with  calcareous  spar  (q.v.),  but  differing 


from  it  in  the  form  of  its  crystals,  of  which  the  prim- 
ary form  is  a  rhombic  prism  with  angles  of  110'  16' 
and  C;r  44,  the  secondary  ibrnis  being  generaUy 
prismatic  and  j)yraniidal.  The  etfects  of  heat  on 
them  siiews  another  difference,  A.  being  reduced  to 
powder  by  a  heat  in  which  calcareous  spar  remains 
unchanged.  Such  differences  between  minerals  of 
the  same  chemical  composition  appeared  very  impro- 
bable, and  when  Stromeyer,  in  1813,  detected  the 
presence  of  a  little  carbonate  of  strontia  in  A.,  they 
were  immediately  ascribed  to  this  as  their  cause  ;  but 
it  has  since  been  shewn  not  only  that  the  quantity 
of  strontia  is  very  small,  variable,  and  therefoie  to 
be  regarded  as  accidental,  but  also  that  the  differ- 
ences between  the  two  minerals  may  be  accounted 
for  by  diii'erence  of  temperature  when  crystallisation 
wa.s  taking  place.  A.  appears  to  be  the  product  of 
a  crystalHsation  taking  place  at  a  higher  temperature 
than  that  in  which  calcareous  spar  is  produced  ;  and 
accordingly  it  is  frequent  in  volcanic  districts  and 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  hot  springs,  as  at  Carls- 
bad. It  is  frequently  found  in  trap-rocks,  as  in  Scot- 
land. It  derives  its  name  from  the  province  of 
Aragon  in  Spain.  It  sometimes  occurs  stalactitic.  Its 
crystals  are  sometimes  prisms  shortened  into  tables, 
sometimes  they  are  lengthened  into  needles.  Twin 
crystals  {inades)  are  very  common.  Satin  Spnr  is  a 
variety  of  it,  in  which  the  crystals  are  of  a  fine  fibrous 
silky  apjiearance,  and  combined  together  into  a  com- 
pact mass.  Flosfcrri  (i.  e.,  flower  of  iron)  is  a  name 
given  to  a  coralloidal  variety  wliich  sometimes  occurs 
in  iron  mines. 

A'RRAH,  a  town  in  the  district  of  Shahabad  and 
the  presidency  of  Bengal,  in  lat.  25°  31'  N.,  and  long. 
84°  43'  E.  It  is  situated  in  a  fertile  country,  and 
contains  2'775  houses,  with  a  population  of  at  least 
15,000.  It  is  on  the  route  between  Dinapoor  and 
Ghazeepore,  25  miles  W.  of  the  former,  and  75  E.  of 
the  latter.  During  the  mutiny  of  1857,  A.  became 
in  variety  and  intensity  of  interest  second  only  to 
Cawnpore,  Delhi,  and  Lucknow,  connected  as  it  was 
with  a  heroic  defence,  a  heavy  disaster,  and  a  bril- 
liant victory.  The  defence  was  that  of  an  isolated 
house,  for  eight  days,  against  3000  sepoys  with  2 
field-pieces,  the  garrison  consisting  of  less  than  20 
whites,  all  civilians,  and  50  Sikhs,  whose  fidelity 
perhaps  was  doubtful  till  proved  by  trial.  The  dis- 
aster was  the  nocturnal  surprise  in  the  jungle  of  a 
detachment  almost  entirely  European,  sent  to  the 
relief  of  the  beleaguered  dwelling — the  loss  having 
been  290  out  of  415.  The  victory  was  won  by  a  force 
of  172  men,  12  of  them  mounted  volunteers  and  3 
guns,  over  a  host  numbering  nearly  20  to  1.  In  fact, 
A.  happily,  with  the  exception  of  the  cold-blooded 
massacre  of  women  and  children,  presented,  in  minia- 
ture, nearly  all  of  the  phases  of  the  most  formidable  and 
eventful  insurrection  on  record.  For  a  detailed  ac- 
count of  these  events,  see  Chambers's  History  of  the 
Indian  Revolt. 

ARRAIGN'MENT,  in  the  practice  of  the  crimi- 
nal law  in  England,  means  calling  a  prisoner  by  his 
name  to  the  bar  of  the  court  to  answer  the  matter 
charged  upon  him  in  the  indictment.  And  having 
the  presumption  of  innocence  in  his  favour,  it  is  the 
law,  and  so  laid  down  in  the  most  ancient  books, 
that,  though  charged  upon  an  indictment,  of  the 
highest  nature,  he  is  entitled  to  stand  at  the  bar  in 
the  form  and  in  the  garb  of  a  free  man,  witliout  irons 
or  any  manner  of  shackles  or  bonds,  unless  there  be 
evident  danger  of  his  escape,  or  of  violence  at  his 
hands.  When  ai'raigned  on  the  charge  of  treason 
or  felony,  the  prisoner  is  called  upon  by  name 
to  hold  uji  his  hand,  by  which  he  is  held  to  confess  his 
identity  with  the  person  charged.  This  form,  how- 
ever, is  not  an  essential  part  of  the  proceedings  at 

431 


ARRAX. 


the  trial,  and  it  is  sufficient  for  the  prisoner,  when 
arraifrned,  to  conl'css  his  indentity  by  verbal  admis- 
sion or  otherwise.  When  thus  duly  ariaigned,  the 
indictment  is  distinctly  read  over  to  the  accused  in 
the  English  tongue,  and  he  then  either  confesses  the 
fact — that  is,  admits  his  guilt — or  he  puts  hiniself 
upon  his  trial  by  a  plea  of  Not  guilfy.  Formerly, 
one  of  the  incidents  of  the  A.  was  tlie  prisoner 
stnnding  viufe,  as  it  was  called — that  is,  refraining 
from,  or  refusing,  a  direct  answer  to  the  indictment; 
in  which  case  the  court  proceeded  to  ln(iuire  whether 
the  silence  was  of  malice  on  the  part  of  the  prisoner, 
or  was  produced  liy  tlie  ^  isitation  of  God,  and  to 
deal  with  him  accordingly.  But  by  the  7  and  8 
Geo.  IV.  c.  28,  s.  2,  it  is  enacted  that  where  a  pris- 
oner shall  stand  mute  of  malice,  it  shall  be  lawful 
for  the  court  to  order  the  proper  officer  to  enter  a 
plea  of  '  Not  guilty,'  on  which  the  trial  shall  proceed, 
as  if  the  plea  had  been  actually  pleaded  by  the 
piisoner  himself.  Where  tlicre  is  reason  to  doubt, 
however,  that  the  prisoner  standing  mute  is  sane  or 
not,  a  jury  consisting  of  any  twelve  persons  who 
may  happen  to  l^e  present  is  forthwith  charged  to 
inquire  whether  he  has  intellect  enough  to  plead  and 
to  understand  the  course  of  the  proceedings.  If 
they  find  the  affirmative,  the  plea  of  '  Not  guilty '  is 
entered,  and  the  trial  goes  on  ;  but  if  the  negative, 
the  insane  person  will  be  ordered  by  the  court  to  be 
kept  in  strict  custody  during  her  Majesty's  pleasure, 
according  to  the  30  and  40  (ieo.  III.  c.  94,  s.  2. 

By  19  and  20  Vict.  c.  16,  facilities  are  provided 
for  the  trials  of  prisoners  in  the  Central  Criminal 
Court,  although  the  offence  may  have  been  com- 
mitted out  of  the  jurisdiction  of  that  tribunal,  and 
it  directs  the  A.  to  take  place  in  the  ordinary  form. 

In  the  Scotch  criminal  law,  tlic  expression  C'n/livfj 
the  Diet  corresponds  to  A.  Tlie  i)risoncr  is  called 
upon  by  name  by  the  presiding  judge  to  attend  to 
the  indictment  against  him,  which  is  read  aloud  by 
the  clerk,  and  tlie  prisoner  is  then  required  to  plead, 
which  he  does  as  in  England,  by  a  plea  of  '  Guilty ' 
or  of  '  Not  guilty ; '  in  the  event  of  whi.ch  latter,  the 
trial  proceeds — the  prisoner,  either  by  himself  or  his 
counsel,  having  always  the  last  word  before  the 
court  and  before  the  jury.  In  this  respect,  it  is 
otherwise  in  England. 

According  to  Sir  Matthew  Hale,  the  term  A. 
is  derived  from  arraisotier,  ad  rationem  ponere, 
to  call  to  account  or  an.swer,  which  in  ancient  French 
law  would  be,  od-resoncr,  or,  abbreviated  a-rexner. 
See  Trial,  Indictment,  Information',  Prosecu- 
tion, Plea,  Verdict,  Not  Proven. 

A'RRAN,  an  island  in  the  mouth  of  the  Firth  of 
Clyde,  Scotland,  about  5  miles  south-west  of  Bute, 
13  west  of  Ayrshire,  and  4  east  of  Cantire,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  Kilbrennan  Sound.  It  is 
of  an  oval  form,  about  20  miles  long  and  12  broad; 
area,  lfi5  square  miles,  about  15,000  acres  or  a 
seventh  part  being  cultivated.  Pop.  6000.  The  gene- 
ral aspect  of  A.  is  mountainous  and  heathy,  and  in  the 
north,  the  jagged  peaks  are  singularly  grand.  Around 
the  coast  is  a  low  belt  of  ground,  with  lofty  cliffs  on 
the  south  and  south-west  shore,  from  which  the 
country  rises  abruptly.  The  highest  point  is  Goatfell 
(an  English  corruption  for  Goath-Bhein,  '  Wind 
Mountain'),  an  obtuse  pyramid,  2865  feet  high,  and 
a  prominent  feature  in  the  island.  From  its  sides 
slope  the  romantic  glens  of  Rosa  and  Sannox,  and 
at  its  base  to  the  south-east  opens  Brodick  Bay, 
at  the  head  of  which  lay,  until  lately,  Brodick 
village.  The  houses  which  composed  it  have  now 
been  removed,  and  a  new  village  has  sprung  up  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  bay,  called  Invercloy,  where 
there  is  a  spacious  hotel.  To  the  south  of  this, 
round  a  bluff  headland,  is  Lamlash  Bay,  the  chief 
harbour  of  A.,  and  the  best  on  the  Firth  of  Clyde, 
432 


sheltered  by  Holy  Island,  once  the  scat  of  a  nionas' 
tery.  A  picturesque  mass  of  columnar  basalt,  900 
or  1000  feet  high,  succeeds.  Further  south  lies 
Whiting  Bay,  near  which  are  two  cascades  lOO  and 
oO  feet  high  respectively.  At  the  south-east  point 
of  A.  is  Kildoan  Ca.stle,  opposite  which  is  the 
small  isle  of  Piadda,  crowned  by  a  light-house. 
Large  caverns  occur  in  the  cliffs  of  the  south  and 
soutli-west  coasts.  In  one  of  these,  the  '  King's 
Cave,'  in  the  basaltic  promontory  of  Druimodune, 
Robert  the  Bruce  hid  himself  for  some  time.  Shiskan 
Vela,  opening  into  Bruimodune  Bay,  is  the  most 
fertile  part  of  A.  Loch  Ranza,  a  bay  in  the  north  end 
of  A.,  runs  a  mile  inland,  and  is  a  heiring-fi.shing 
rendezvous.  There  is  daily  communication  with  A. 
by  means  of  steam-boats  from  the  Cl}dc,  the  ports 
touched  at  being  Brodick  and  Lamlash. 

The  geology  of  A.  is  almost  unique,  and  displays  a 
greater  succe.^.sion  of  strata  than  any  other  part 
of  the  British  Isles  of  equal  extent.  The  south- 
cast  half  of  A.  consists  of  Devonian  sandstone, 
extending  from  the  east  coast  4  or  5  miles  inland, 
and  running  south-west  from  Brodick  beyond  the 
centre  of  the  island  ;  and  of  trap  rocks  and  carbo- 
niferous strata,  which  occupy  the  middle  and  western 
portions.  The  north-west  half  consists  of  a  central 
granite  nucleus,  including  Goatfell,  bordered  on  the 
west  by  a  tract  of  mica-slate,  and  on  the  north,  east, 
and  south  liy  lower  Silurian  rocks,  which,  iigain,  have 
a  run  of  Devonian  sandstone  on  the  east  and  south. 
Lias  and  oolite  lie  on  the  mica-slate.  There  are 
only  rivulets  in  A.,  and  one  of  them  tumljles  over 
a  precipice  300  feet  high.  Some  level  parts  in  the 
south  half  of  A.  are  fertile.  The  chief  crops  are 
oats  and  potatoes,  (\ittle,  sheep,  fi.sh,  and  oats 
are  exported.  The  greater  part  of  A.  belongs  to  the 
Duke  of  Hamilton,  whose  seat  is  Brodick  Castle. 
A.  forms  part  of  the  county  of  Bute,  and  contains 
two  parishes.  Many  antiquities  occur,  such  as 
cairns,  unhewn  obelisks,  monumental  stones,  and 
Druidical  circles.  Several  stone  coffins  were  found 
in  a  cairn  200  feet  in  circumference.  Loch  Ranna 
Castle,  now  in  ruins,  was  formerly  a  residence  of  the 
Scottish  kings. 

A'RRAN,  SorTii  Isles  of.  These  are  three 
small  islands  lying  north-west  and  south-east  across 
the  entrance  to  Galway  Bay,  about  4  miles  off  the 
west  coast  of  Ireland,  and  27  west  of  Galway  city. 
They  form  the  barony  of  A.,  and  give  the  title  of 
Earl  to  the  Gore  family.  Total  area,  11,287  acr«s. 
The  principal  or  west  island,  Inishniore,  is  7  mi'es 
long  and  2  broad  ;  Inishmain,  or  '  Middle  Isle,'  comes 
next ;  and  then  Inishere  to  the  south-east.  Po])u'a- 
tion  3300,  of  which  number  2300  inhabited  Inirh- 
more.  The  islands  consist  of  the  carl)oniferous  lime- 
stone of  the  bed  of  Galway  Bay.  From  this  bay  they 
gradually  rise  to  the  height  of  100  to  200  feet  on  the 
w-est  side,  ending  in  cHfls  facing  the  Atlantic.  Most 
of  the  land  is  cultivated,  but  in  a  very  primitive  wav. 
The  chief  crops  are  rye,  oats,  and  potatoes.  Most 
of  the  inhal)itants  engage  in  fishing;  and  the  c'OJ'wc/t 
or  wicker-work  skifi'  is  still  to  be  seen  here.  Like 
other  isles  on  the  west  coast  of  Ireland,  they  are  sub- 
ject to  famines  from  parching  rainless  west  winds 
in  August,  destroying  the  potato-crop.  Anciently, 
these  islands  formed  an  important  ecclesiastical  seat, 
containing  at  one  time  20  churches  and  monasteries. 
Inishniore  was  the  centre  of  these,  still  known  as 
Aran-na-naomh,  or  '  Arran  of  the  Saints.'  Many 
pilgrims  still  visit  the  old  shrines  and  relics  scattered 
through  the  islands.  St.  Kenanach  Church,  built  in 
the  7th  c,  still  exi.sts,  all  but  its  stone  roof,  as  well 
as  the  stone  oratories  and  little  bee-hive  .«tone  huts 
of  the  monks  of  the  6th  and  7th  centuries.  The 
military  antiquities  are  not  less  remarkable,  consist- 
ing of  nine  circular  cyclopcan  fortresses  of  unhewn 


ARRAXGIX(5— ARREST. 


nncemented  stones  (portions  of  the  walls  still  being 
20  feet  liijrh),  sui)po=ed  to  have  been  built  in  tlie  1st 
c.  by  the  Fir-Bolg  or  Delgoe.  The  largest  of  these, 
Dim-Aciigiis,  on  a  cliff"  in  Inishmore,  '220  feet  higli,  is 
one  of  the  most  magnificent  barbaric  monuments  in 
Europe. 

ARRAXrilXG,  a  term  in  Music  which  means 
the  adapting  of  a  piece  of  music  so  as  to  be  performed 
on  an  instrument  or  instruments  different  from  those 
for  which  it  was  originally  composed,  as  when  orches- 
tral or  vocal  compositions  arc  set  for  the  pianoforte, 
or  the  reverse.  An  arrangement  is  often  a  mere 
lifeless  transposition  of  the  original,  the  only  guiding 
princii)Ic  being  the  mechanical  possibility  of  pei- 
formance.  Of  this  kind  are  most  of  the  pianoforte 
arrangements  of  the  orchestral  works  of  Mozart, 
Beethoven,  kc. — partly  from  the  arranger  working 
merely  for  lure,  and  partly  from  a  mistaken  reverence 
for,  and  fear  of  altering,  the  original.  It  is  different 
when  an  arr.mger,  who  thoroughly  comprehends  the 
spirit  of  the  original,  takes  advantage  of  the  peculiar 
means  of  expression  afforded  by  the  new  form  of 
presentation,  to  reproduce  as  much  as  possible  the 
original  effects.  In  this  last  respect,  the  arrange- 
ments of  Franz  Liszt  have  excelled  all  others, 
although  in  some  cases  he  may  have  overstepped 
the  boundary  of  propriety.  See  Pot-Poukiu  and 
Fantasia. 

ARRAS  (the  ancient  Kemetacum),  a  fortified 
town  and  capital  of  the  department  of  Pns-de- 
Calais,  as  it  was  formerly  of  the  province  of  Artois, 
in  France.  It  is  situated  on  the  banks  of  the 
Scarpa,  partly  on  an  eminence,  and  partly  on  a 
plain,  and  consists  of  four  divisions — the  city,  upper 
town,  lower  town,  and  citadel.  It  is  a  principal 
stat'on  on  the  French  Northern  Railway,  distant 
I'rom  Paris  bv  tills  route  134  miles,  and  from  Brus- 
fels,  97.  Tiie  pop.  (1850),  21,984.  The  houses 
are  of  hewn  stone,  and  in  the  lower  town  they  are 
handsomely  Ijuilt  and  uniform;  the  streets  straight 
and  wide,  set  off  with  several  fine  squares,  and  many 
beautiful  public  buildings.  Among  the  principal 
edifices  are  the  Cathedral  of  Notre  Dame,  the  resi- 
dence of  the  prefect,  the  town-hall,  the  theatre,  and 
the  public  library. 

A.  raidvs  as  a  fortified  town  of  the  third  class,  its 
fortifications  being  the  first  that  were  constructed 
by  the  celebrated  Vauban,  according  to  his  own 
system.  It  has  been  the  seat  of  a  bishop  since  390 
A.  D.,  and  two  ecclesiastical  councils  have  been  held 
here — one  in  10'25,  the  other  in  1490. 

The  corn-market  of  A.  is  the  most  important  in 
the  north  of  France.  Its  principal  manufactures  arc 
iron-ware,  woollen  and  cotton  goods,  hosiery,  lace, 
pottery,  and  leather.  Its  trade,  which  is  consider- 
able, is  in  corn  and  flour,  oil,  wine  and  braud-y,  with 
the  industrial  products  of  the  city. 

It  appears  from  the  writings  of  Jerome  that  A. 
was  remarkable  for  its  woollen  manufactures  in  his 
time;  and  afterwards,  during  the  middle  ages,  it  was 
famed  for  its  tapestry;  indeed,  the  name  of  the 
town  was  transferred  to  this  article  of  manufacture, 
and  arraa  was  the  name  given  in  England  to  tlie 
richly  figured  hangings  that  adorned  the  halls  of  the 
kings  and  the  barons. 

In  1482,  A.  with  Artois  was  ceded  by  the  states  of 
the  Netherlands  to  Louis  XI.  of  France  ;  but  the 
inhabitants  having  revolted,  the  king  laid  siege  to  the 
town,  stormed  it,  and  slew  or  expelled  the  people, 
whom  he  rtplaced  by  others  brought  from  all  i)arts 
of  his  dominions,  ordering  the  city  to  be  thcnceibr- 
ward  called  Franchisee,  to  obliterate  the  very  name 
(f  A.  Soon  afterwards  (1493)  it  was  ceded  to 
Ma.\imilian  of  Austria,  and  was  possessed  by  the 
Spanish  branch  of  the  House  of  Hapsburg  till  1640, 


when  Louis  XIII.  of  France  took  it  after  a  long  siege. 
By  the  treaty  of  the  Pyrenees,  it  was  finally  ceded  to 
France.  A.  suft'ereci  much  in  the  time  of  the  first 
French  revolution,  especially  in  the  year  1793. 
Robespierre,  the  Terrorist,  was  a  native  of  the  town. 

ARRA'YER,  a  title  given  to  certain  military 
officers  in  England  in  the  early  part  of  the  15th  c. 
There  were  two  of  them  in  each  county,  sometimes 
called  Commissaries  of  Musters.  Tiieir  duties  were 
set  forth  in  an  ordinance  of  Henry  V.,  from  the 
terms  of  which  it  appears  that  the  arrayers  were 
army  inspectors,  or,  rather,  militia  inspectors,  and 
in  some  sense  precursors  to  the  modern  lords-lieu- 
tenant of  counties. 

ARRE'ST  is  a  legal  term  used  both  in  criminal 
and  civil  process.  Criminal  A.  has  already  been 
sufficiently  considered  under  the  word  Apprehend 
(q.  v.) ;  and  in  civil  procedure  it  maybe  simply 
defined  to  be  the  execution  of  a  judicial  or  preroga- 
tive order,  by  which  the  liberty  of  tiie  person  may 
lie  restrained,  and  obedience  to  tlie  law  compelled. 
In  the  practice  of  the  Court  of  Chancery,  a  defendant 
may  be  arrested  for  his  contempt  in  not  putting  in 
his  answer  to  a  bill  filed  against  him  ;  and  suitors 
generally  who  disregard  the  rules  of  that  tribunal 
are  lialjle  to  feel  its  power  in  this  respect.  But  in  its 
ordinary  legal  acceptation,  A.  is  used  to  signify  the 
enforcement  of  the  judgment  or  order  of  a  court  of 
law,  in  order  to  satisfy  justice.  In  the  execution  of 
such  judgment,  the  party  against  whom  it  has  been 
given  may  be  arrested  by  means  of  a  writ  of  capias 
ad  natiKfaciendum,  as  it  is  called,  the  purpose  of 
which  is  to  imprison  the  body  of  tlie  debtor  till  he 
pays  the  debt  or  damages  and  costs.  It  is  directed 
to  the  sheriff',  commanding  him  to  take  the  body  of 
the  debtor,  and  have  him  at  Westminster  immediately 
after  execution  thereof,  to  make  the  plaintiff*  satis- 
faction for  his  demand.  This  writ  might,  until 
lately,  issue  for  a  judgment  debt  of  any  amount ; 
but  by  the  7  and  8  Vict.  c.  9G,  s.  57,  it  is  provided 
that  it  shall  not  issue  in  the  case  of  a  debt  not 
exceeding  £20,  exclusive  of  costs:  subject,  however, 
to  this  proviso,  that  w  here  such  debt  should  appear 
to  the  judge  trying  the  cause  (being  a  judge  of  the 
superior  courts,  or  a  barrister  or  attorney)  to  have 
been  incurred  under  false  pretences,  or  with  a  frau- 
dulent intent,  or  without  a  reasonable  assurance  of 
being  able  to  pay  or  discharge  the  same,  it  shall  be 
lawful  for  such  judge  to  order  the  defendant  to  be 
taken  and  detained  in  execution  upon  such  judg- 
ment, as  if  the  act  had  not  passed.  And  it  has  been 
since  provided  by  8  and  9  Vict.  c.  127,  and  10  and 
11  Vict.  c.  102,  s.  2,  that  judgment  debtors  to 
the  extent  above  mentioned  may  be  summoned 
before  the  Insolvent  Court  in  London,  or  the  county 
court  for  the  district  in  the  country  (as  the  case  may 
require),  and  thereupon  be  ordered  to  pay  the  debt 
by  instalments  or  otherwise  ;  and  further,  that  in 
case  of  their  non-compliance  with  such  order,  or  of 
its  appearing  to  the  court  that  they  have  been  guilty 
of  fraud  in  contracting  the  debt,  or  of  having  con- 
tracted it  without  reasonable  prospect  of  being  able 
to  pay  the  same,  they  may  be  committed  to  prison  for 
forty  days,  and  the  imprisonment  under  such  com- 
mittal shall  not  operate  in  satisfaction  or  discharge 
of  the  debt. 

A  defendant  may  also  be  arrested  under  a  writ  of 
capias  ad  respoiidcndion,  which  issues  as  follows — 
where  a  plaintiff'  swears  by  affidavit  that  he  has  a 
cause  of  action  ag.iinst  a  defendant  to  the  amount 
of  £20  or  uj)wards,  or  has  sustained  damage  to  that 
amount,  and  that  there  is  reason  for  believing  that 
the  defendant  is  about  to  quit  the  country,  an  order 
is  made  by  a  judge — and  such  order  may  be  made  at 
any  time  between  the  commencement  of  the  action 

433 


AKREST  OF  JUDGMENT— ARREST M EXT  OF  WAGES. 


and  filial  judgment — when  the  writ  ia  question  issues, 
direeting  the  sheriff  to  arrest  tlie  defendant,  wlio 
remains  ia  custody  until  he  has  given  satisfaction  ia 
respect  of  tiie  plaintiff's  demand.  The  practice  witli 
refcrcace  to  this  writ  is  regulated  by  the  1  and  2 
Vict.  c.  110.  Formerly,  a  defendant  might  bo 
arrested  on  what  is  called  mesne  process,  that  is, 
process  issuing  at  the  commencement  and  during 
the  progress  of  a  suit ;  but  by  the  act  just  referred  to. 
such  A.  is  abolished,  exceptuig  as  above  explained. 

Under  such  and  similar  authority,  A.  may  be  made 
of  the  person.  There  are  classes,  however,  who 
are  exempted  by  privilege  from  A. — thus,  am- 
bassadors and  other  diplomatic  representatives  of 
foreiga  courts  ;  all  members  of  the  peerage,  Scotch 
and  Irish  as  well  as  English ;  all  members  of 
parliament ;  all  persons  coanectcd  with  a  cause 
before  a  court  of  justice,  and  attending  in  the 
course  of  it,  such  as  witnesses,  attorneys,  and  bar- 
risters— although  in  regard  to  the  latter  (barristers), 
it  may  be  more  correctly  stated  that  they  are 
entitled  to  the  privilege  only  when  attending  the 
superior  courts ;  and  Mr.  Archibold,  in  his  Practice 
of  the  Common  Law,  refers  to  a  case  where  a  bar- 
rister was  discharged  who  was  arrested  on  circuit. 
The  Queen  may  also,  by  her  writ  of  protection,  pri- 
vilege any  person  in  her  service  from  A.  during  a 
year  and  day,  a  prerogative,  however,  which  is 
seldom,  and,  at  tlic  present  day,  scarcely  ever 
exercised.  In  regard  to  parliamentary  exemptioa 
from  liability  to  civil  process,  however,  the  privilege 
does  not  preclude  the  process  from  issuiag,  it 
only  protects  the  person  of  the  member  himself; 
for  by  10  Geo.  III.  c.  50,  it  is  enacted  that  any 
action  or  suit  may  at  any  time  l)e  brought  against 
any  member  of  cither  House,  or  against  their  servants, 
or  any  other  person  entitled  to  privilege  of  parlia- 
ment; and  that  none  such,  nor  any  j)rocess  or  pro- 
ceediag  thereupon,  shall  at  any  time  be  impeached, 
stayed,  or  delayed,  by  pretence  of  any  such  privilege, 
except  that  the  person  of  a  member  of  the  House  of 
Commons  shall  not  thereby  be  subjected  to  any 
arrest  or  imprisonment.  It  is  likewise  provided  by 
the  Bankrupt  Consolidation  Act,  1849  (12  and  iJi 
Vict.  c.  lOlJ),  that  if  a  trader,  being  a  member  of  par- 
liament, who  was  sued  for  a  debt  of  such  amount  as 
shall  bo  sufficient  to  support  a  petition  in  bank- 
ruptcy, shall  not  pay  or  otherwise  satisfy  the  debt 
within  one  calendar  month,  he  shall  be  deemed  to 
have  committed  an  act  of  bankruptcy,  and  may  be 
dealt  with  as  a  bankrupt,  though  not  to  the  extent 
of  niaking  him  lial)le  to  A. 

In  the  Scotch  law,  the  word  A.  is  not  a  technical 
term  for  process  against  the  person.  But  see 
Arrestment,     and     Arrestment      for      founding 

JURISUICTION. 

ARREST  OF  JUDGMENT,  in  the  practice  of 
the  English  common  law  courts,  was  an  expedient 
after  verdict  on  the  part  of  an  imsuccessful  defendant, 
who  endeavoured  to  get  the  judgment  arrested  or 
withheld,  on  the  ground  that  there  was  some  error 
whicli  vitiated  the  proceedings;  and  if  this  objection 
succeeded,  it  was  fatal,  no  amcadment  being  allowed 
after  trial.  But  as  this  rule  was  found  to  be  pro- 
ductive of  great  inconvenience,  expense,  and  often 
injustice,  it  has  been  considerably  modified  by  the 
Common  Law  Procedure  Act  of  18.'52  (the  15  and  16 
Vict.  c.  7t)),  under  which,  omitted  facts  or  other 
matter  may,  by  leave  of  the  court,  be  suggested,  by 
which  the  error  may  be  corrected.     See  Judgment. 

ARRE'STMENT,  in  the  Scotch  law,  is  the  legal 
process  or  diligence,  as  it  is  called,  by  means  of 
which  a  debtor,  where  the  debt  is  of  a  personal 
nature,  is  prohibited  from  making  payment  or 
deliverv  to  his  creditor  until  another  debt  or  claim 
434 


due  to  the  person  making  use  of  the  arrestment  by 
such  creditor  is  secured  or  paid.  Thus,  if  A  owes 
.£1(»0  to  B,  but  B,  again,  is  indebted  to  C,  arrestment 
may  be  used  by  C  in  the  hands  of  A  ;  tlie  cllect  of 
which  is  to  prevent  A  paying  to  B  until  C's  claim 
has  been  satisfied.  A,  the  party  in  whoso  hands 
the  arrestment  is  laid,  is  called  the  arrestee  ;  C,  the 
user  of  the  arrestment,  is  called  the  arrester;  and 
B,  the  arrester's  debtor,  is  called  the  common 
debtor.  The  arrestment,  however,  has  not  the 
effect  of  transferring  the  debt  or  subject  arrested. 
For  that  purjiose,  a  particular  form  of  action,  called 
an  action  of  fortficominr/,  is  necessary,  decree  in 
which  operates  as  a  complete  transfer  to  the 
arrester.  This  process  may  l)e  sued  out  either  by 
authority  of  the  Court  of  Session  or  by  that  of  an 
inferior  judge.  The  procedure  is  now  regulated  by 
the  1  and  2  Vict.  c.  lit,  ss.  from  Ki  to  22  inclusive. 

The  corresponding  English  term  is  Attachment 
(q.  v.). 

ARRESTMENT  FOR  FOUNDING  JURISDIC- 
TION. This  is  a  form  of  proceeding  in  the  prac- 
tice of  the  Scotch  law,  and  it  is  of  an  extremely 
important  nature,  for,  by  means  of  it,  a  foreigner,  or 
one  beyond  the  jurisdiction  of  the  courts  of  Scot- 
land, and  who  happens  to  have  any  property  in  that 
country,  may  bo  sued  in  the  Scotch  tribunals.  It  is 
a  personal  remedy,  and  the  mode  of  procedure  is 
thus:  The  summons  (or  declaration,  as  it  \\ould 
be  called  in  England),  which  is  executed  by  leaving 
a  copy  in  the  jiropcr  office  in  Edinburgh,  contains 
in  express  terms  a  warrant  to  arrest  ad  fundandam 
juriadictioriem ;  and  when  served  on  the  party 
liaving  possession  of  the  foreigner's  property,  such 
warrant  has  the  efioct  of  attaching  it,  so  as  to  give 
the  court  jurisdiction  over  the  foreigner  himself. 
This  manner  of  founding  jurisdiction  is  said  to  have 
been  borrowed  by  the  Scotch  from  the  lawyers  of 
the  Netherlands,  and  it  can  be  traced  back  in  the 
practice  of  the  Scotch  courts  for  upwards  of  a 
century.  In  a  recent  case,  however,  brought  by 
appeal  to  the  House  of  Lords  from  Scotland,  an 
attempt  was  made  to  shew,  that  for  this  mode  of 
A.  there  was  no  sufficient  authority  in  the  law  of 
that  country,  and  it  was  repre.--ented  to  tlie  House 
as  a  barliarous  contrivance  of  comiiaratively  recent 
introduction.  But  their  lordships  had  no  hesitation 
in  affirming  the  judgment  of  the  Court  of  Session 
in  favour  of  their  jurisdiction  so  obtained.  See 
Jurisdiction. 

ARRESTMENT  OF  WAGES  is  supposed  to  ex- 
ercise a  baneful  influence  on  some  of  the  working- 
classes  ia  Scotlancl,  by  putting  them  in  the  power  of 
greedy  and  oppressive  dealers,  who,  in  the  know- 
ledge of  the  power  they  thus  possess,  are  too  ready  to 
give  credit  to  working-people,  and  thus  encourage 
them  ia  extravagance.  It  was  the  object  of  so 
much  complaint  in  Glasgow,  that  a  government 
inquiry  was  instituted  into  its  operation  ia  18o3. 
That  inquiry  developed  a  sad  amount  of  extrava- 
gance aad  folly,  but  did  not  afford  a  hope  that  any 
mere  alteration  ia  the  machinery  of  the  law  would 
remedy  a  deep-rooted  social  evil.  Its  most  alarming 
features  were  found  ia  the  female  manufacturing 
population,  the  younger  of  whom  especially,  led  by 
avidity  for  fine  clothes,  were  the  vietiais  of  a  power- 
ful organisation  of  dealers,  on  what  is  called  the 
club-ticket  system,  the  peculiarity  of  which  is,  that 
the  price  of  the  article  purchased  is  paid  in  instal- 
ments, according  to  the  payment  of  wages.  It  was 
part  of  the  system,  whenever  any  defalcation  occurred, 
to  arrest  the  wages,  and  thus  legal  expenses  were 
added  to  the  cost  of  an  article  which,  to  keep  up  the 
expensive  orgaaisation  of  the  system,  would  be 
originally  sold  at  an  excessive  price. 


ARRHENATHERUM— ARROW-ROOT. 


A'RRHENATIIE'RUM,     a     genus     of      Grasses, 
illicd  to  llolcus    (see    Soft-grass)  and  Avena  (see 


AiThciiathoium  : 
o,   panicle,  reilueed;   h. 


Oat),  and  distinguislied  by 
a  lax  panicle,  2-Ho\vered 
spikelots  with  two  glumes, 
the  lower  floret  having 
stamens  only,  and  a  long 
twisted  awn  above  the 
base  ;  the  upper  floret  per- 
fect, with  a  short  straight 
bristle  below  tiic  point. — 
The  name  A.  is  from  the 
Greek  arrhen,  male,  and 
ather,  an  awn.  A.  ave- 
naceum  {Avcna  elatior  of 
Linna3us,  also  known  as 
Holcus  avenaccua)  is  a  com- 
mon grass  in  Britain.  It 
is  sometimes  called  Oat- 
like Gkass,  from  the  re- 
semblance to  the  coarser 
kinds  of  oats  in  the  general 
appearance  of  the  panicle. 
In  France,  it  is  very  much 
cultivated  for  fodder,  and 
is  often  called  Fkf.nch 
Rye-Grass.  It  has,  how- 
ever, no  affinity  to  the  true 
Rye-grass  (Lolium).  It  is 
a  tall  perennial  grass,  2 — 3 
feet  high,  becomes  luxu- 
riant early  iu  the  season, 
and  continues  long  pro- 
ductive. It  is,  however,  a 
i-ather  coarse  grass,  and  has 
a    somewhat    bitter    saline 


and  lower  part  nf  culm,  re-  , 

duccd;  c,  a  single  spikelet,  able    to    cattle    as    many 
natural  size.  Other  grasses,  and  is  there- 

fore generally  regarded  by 
British  agriculturists  as  unworthy  of  cultivation  on 
the  best  soils;  but  it  is  found  suitable  for  some 
comparatively  arid  situations,  and  to  form  a  coarse 
herbage  under  trees  in  plantations. — A  variety  or 
distinct  species,  difl:ering  from  it  in  having  a  knotted 
or  bulbous  base  to  the  stem,  instead  of  a  sin>ple  fibrous 
root,  is  called  by  some  botanists  A.  buhoxum.  It  is 
also  common  in  Britain,  but  is  a  very  inferior  grass, 
and  owing  to  the  character  of  its  roots,  difficult  of 
extirpation  from  lands  in  which  it  appears  as  a  weed. 

ARRIA'NDS,  Flavius,  a  native  of  Nicomedia,  in 
Bithynia,  born  about  100  a.d.  He  became  a  disciple 
of  Epictetus,  the  stoic  philosopher,  and,  under  his 
instructions,  a  warm  advocate  of  tliat  system.  On 
bringing  before  the  jiublic  the  earliest  products  of  his 
pen,  the  learned  men  of  Athens  were  highly  pleased 
with  them,  and  honoured  him  witli  the  freedom  of 
their  city.  A.  had  chosen  Xcnophon  as  his  model  of 
composition,  and  hence  the  Athenians  called  him 
the  young  Xenophon.  In  124  a.d.  he  was  intro- 
duced to  the  Emperor  Hadrian  in  Greece,  who  con- 
ferred on  him  the  freedom  of  the  eternal  city.  He 
was  appointed  prefect  of  Cappadocia  in  the  year 
136.  Under  Antoninus  Pius,  the  successor  of 
Hadrian,  he  was  promoted  to  the  consulship.     But 


some  four  years  afterwards,  he  appears  to  have 
retired  fiom  public  life,  and  devoted  himself  to 
literature  in  his  native  place.  As  the  pupil  and 
friend  of  Epictetus,  he  edited  the  Manual  of  Ethics 
[Enchciridiov)  left  by  his  master,  and  wrote  tiie 
Lechiren  of  Epictetus^  in  eight  books,  of  which  only 
four  have  been  preserved — to  be  had  in  Sehweig- 
liiiuser's  Pliiloxophue  Ejncletca;  Moniiincnta,  vol.  iii. 
(Paris,  1827).  He  w-rotc  also  7'hc  Conversations  of 
Epictcfits,  a  work  which  has  been  lost,  except  a  few 
fragments.  The  most  important  work  by  A.  is  the 
Anabasis  of  Alexander,  or  Jlistori/  of  the  Campaigns 
of  Alexander  the  Great,  which  lias  come  down  to  us 
entire,  all  but  a  gap  in  the  12th  chapter  of  the  7th 
book.  This  book  is  our  chief  authority  on  the 
subject  of  which  it  treats,  and  is  a  work  of  great 
value.  In  close  connection  with  it,  A.  wrote  h\?,Indian 
Histori/,  giving  an  account  of  the  people  of  India. 
Other '  writings  by  A.,  his  letter  to  Hadrian  on 
A  Voi/ar/e  round  the  Coasts  of  the  Euxinc  Sea,  and 
another,  A  ]"oi/ac/e  round  the  Coasts  of  the  Red  Sea, 
are  valuable  with  regard  to  ancient  geography. 
There  is  still  another  work  by  our  author — a  Trea- 
tise on  the  Chase  {Ki/nerfeticos) — in  which,  as  well  as 
in  the  Anabasis,  he  has  imitated  Xenophon. 

A.  was  one  of  the  best  writers  of  his  day.  His 
works  bear  the  marks  of  care,  honesty,  and  correct- 
ness ;  and  they  were  numerous,  though  several  have 
not  been  handed  down  to  our  time.  All  that  we  arc 
possessed  of  appear  to  have  had  translations  into 
Latin.  There  is  a  good  French  translation  of  the 
Anabasis  by  Chaussard,  with  commentary,  3  vols. 
(1802),  and  also  a  good  one  of  the  Lectures  of  Epic- 
tetus bv  Thurot  (1838).  The  best  critical  edition  of 
A.  is  that  by  Midler  (Paris,  18-16). 

ARRO'BA,  a  weight  commonly  used  in  Spain, 
Portugal,  Brazil,  and  in  the  principal  Spanish  and 
Portuguese  colonies.  In  the  first  of  these  countries, 
it  is  equivalent  to  the  English  quarter  of  a  cwt.,  or 
28  lbs. ;  it  is  nearly  the  same  in  Portugal,  &c.  In 
Spain,  the  A.  is  also  a  measure  for  wine,  brandy, 
&c.,  and  contains  four  of  our  quarts. 

ARROXDISSEMENT  (from  the  French  arrondir, 
to  make  round),  the  subdivision  of  a  French  Denart- 
mejit  (q.  V.) 

ARROW.  See  Bow  and  Arrow. 
ARROWHEAD  (Sac/ittaria),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Alismacccc,  distinguished  liy  uni- 
sexual flowers,  having  three  herbaceous  sepals  and 
three  coloured  petals,  numerous  stamens,  and  numer- 
ous carpels,  which  are  compressed,  one-seeded,  and 
on  a  globose  receptacle.  They  are  aquatic  plants, 
natives  of  very  diflerent  climates,  from  the  tropics  to 
the  cold  regions  of  the  world.— The  Common  A. 
(iS".  s'igittifolia)  is  a  beautiful  aquatic,  a  native 
of  England,  with  arrow-shaped  leaves  which  rise 
above  the  surface  of  the  water.  It  is  one  of  those 
plants  which  have  enjoyed  an  undeserved  reputation 
as  cures  for  hydrophobia.  The  corms  (or  solid  bidbs), 
dried  and  powdered,  have  sometimes  been  used  for 
food,  but  have  an  acrid  unpleasant  taste. — The 
Chinese  A.  {S.  Sinensis)  is  a  native  of  China,  and 
has  long  been  cultivated  in  that  country  and  Japan 
for  its  eatable  corms,  which,  in  a  fresh  state,  are 
somewhat  acrid,  but  abound  in  starch.  It  has 
arrow-shaped  acute  leaves,  and  a  branched  polygonal 
scape  (leafless  stem).  It  is  grown  in  ditches  and 
ponds.  It  is  one  of  the  plants  sometimes  cidtivated 
in  tanks  In  the  hot-houses  of  Britain. 

ARROW-HEADED  CHARACTERS,  See  Cunei- 
form Inscriptions. 

ARROW-HEADS.     See  Flint  Arrow-heaps. 
A'RROW-ROOT  is  a  variety  of  starch  extracted 
from  the  roots  of  certain  plants  growing  in  tropical 

435 


ARROW-ROOT. 


countries.  It  is  a  fine  starchy  farina,  niucli  valued 
as  a  dclicaov,  and  as  an  easily  diget-tible  food  for 
children  and  invalids.  It  is  obtained  fioni  the 
tuberous  roots — or  more  correctly,  the  root-stocks 
{rhizomes) — of  different  species  of  the  ^enus,  Maranta, 
belonging  to  the  natural  order  J/nrantacece,  and 
characterised  by  solitary  ovules,  a  fleshy  style  curved 
downwards,  branching  stems,  and  white  flowers. 
The  species  chiefly  yielding  it  is  M.  arnndi/uicca,  a 
native  of  tropical  America,  cultivated  in  the  West 
India  Islands,  and  growing  about  two  feet  high, 
with  ovato-lanceolate  somewhat  hairy  leaves,  clusters 
of  small  flowers  on  2-flowered  stalks,  and  globular 
fruit  about  the  size  of  currants.  The  roots  (or 
rhizomes)  contain  a  lai'ge  proportion  of  farina.  They 
are  often  more  than  a  foot  long,  of  the  thickness  of  a 
finger,  jointed,  and  almost  white,  covered  with  pretty 
large  paper-like  scales.  They  sometimes  curve  so 
that  the  points  rise  out  of  the  earth,  and  form  new 
plants.  They  are  dug  up  when  a  year  old,  washed, 
carefully  peeled,  and  reduced  to  a  milky  pulp. 
Mills  lor  this  purpose  have  been  introduced  ;  but  in 
Jamaica  the  roots  are  usually  leduced  by  beating  in 
deep  wooden  mortars ;  in  Bermuda,  l)y  means  of  a 
wheel-rasp.  The  pulp  is  then  mixed  with  much 
water,  cleared  of  fibres,  by  means  of  a  sieve  of  coarse 
cloth  or  hair,  and  the  starch  is  allowed  to  .settle 
to  the  bottom.  The  water  dissolves,  and  so  removes 
the  greater  part  of  the  albumen  and  salts,  the  starch 


Arrow-root  (3f.  arundinacea). 
a,  tubers ;  b,  leaf  and  flowers  ;  c,  stamen  and  style. 

quickly  settling  down  as  an  insoluble  powder.  Suc- 
cessive washings  are  employed  for  further  purifica- 
tiou.  The  A.  is  finally  dried  in  the  sun  or  in 
drying-houses,  great  care  being  taken,  by  means  of 
gauze,  to  exclude  dust  and  insects.  The  careful 
peeling  of  the  roots  is  of  great  importance,  as  the 
skin  contains  a  resinous  matter,  which  imparts  a 
disagreeable  flavour  to  A.  with  which  it  is  allowed 
to  mix.  Great  ca<-e  is  taken  to  preserve  the  A.  from 
impurities;  and  the  knives  used  in  peeling  the  roots 
and  the  shovels  used  in  lifting  the  A.,  are  made  of 
German  silver.  The  West  Indian  A.,  most  esteemed 
in  the  market,  is  grown  in  Bennuda ;  the  next,  and 
almost  equal  to  it,  in  Jamaica.  The  East  Indian 
A.  is  not  in  general  so  highlv  valued,  perhaps 
436 


because    substitutes    for    the    genuii;e    A.  more    fre- 
quently receive  that  name.  The  Murania  arundinacea 
is  now,  however,  cultivated  to  some  extent   both   in 
the    East  Indies   and    in    Africa.     M.  Jndica,  which 
was  supposed  to  be  distinct  from  M.  arundinacea,  is 
now  regarded  as  a  mere  variety  of  it,  with  perfectly 
smooth  leaves.     It  is    culti\ated    both  in    the    East 
Indies    and    in  Jamaica.     A.  is   obtained   al,-o  from 
M.  A/loui/ia  and  J/,  nobilis  in   the  West  Indies,  and 
from  M.  rainosissiitia  in  the  East. 

The  amount    of  fecula   or   starch  present  in  the 
roots  of  the  Maranta  varies  according  to   age,  and 
runs  from  8  per  cent.,  in  those  of  the  young  plant, 
to  20  per  cent,  when   full   grown.     The   latter  stage 
is   reached  when  the  plant  is  K)  to    12  months  old; 
and  the  roots  then  present  the  following  composition 
in  loo  parts : 

Starch,  fecula,  or  arrow-root,     .         .         .26 
Woody  fibre,  .....  6 

Albumen,     .         .         .         .         .         .      .      1^ 

Gummy  extract,  volatile  oil,  and  salts,  1 

Water, 65^ 

A.  is  exported  in  tin  cases,  barrels,  or  boxes, 
carefully  closed  up.  It  is  a  light,  opaque,  white, 
powder,  which,  when  rubbed  between  the  fingers, 
produces  a  slight  crackling  noise,  like  that  heard 
when  newly  fallen  snow  is  being  made  into  a  snow- 
ball. Through  the  microscope,  the  particles  are 
seen  to  be  convex,  more  or  less  elliptical,  sometimes 
obscurely  triangular,  and  not  very  dillerent  in  size. 
The  dry  farina  is  quite  inodorous,  but  when  dis- 
solved in  boiling  water,  it  has  a  slight  peculiar 
smell,  and  swells  up  into  a  very  perfect  jelly. 
Potatoe-starch,  with  which  it  is  often  adulterated, 
may  be  distinguished  by  the  greater  size  of  its 
particles,  their  coarser  and  more  distinct  rings,  and 
their  more  glistening  ajjpearance.  Refined  sago-flour 
is  used  for  adulteration,  many  of  the  particles  of 
which  have  a  truncated  extremity,  and  their  surface 
is  irregidar  or  tuberculated.  A.  is  also  sometimes 
adulterated  with  rice-starch  and  with  the  common 
starch  of  wheat-flower. 

Not  less  than  400,000  lbs.  of  A.  arc  annually 
imi)orted  into  the  British  isles.  As  an  article  of 
diet,  it  is  often  ])repared  for  invalids  and  children 
by  merely  dissolving  it  in  boiling-water  and  flavour- 
ing with  £ugar,  lemon-juice,  wine,  &c.  It  is  also  often 
prepared  with  milk,  made  into  puddings,  &c.  When 
most  simply  prepared,  it  forms  a  light  meal,  which, 
however,  is  not  very  nutritious.     See  Nutkition. 

A  farina  somewhat  similar  to  A.,  and  partly 
known  by  the  distinct  name  of  I'ous-lea-mois,  is 
obtained  from  some  species  of  the  allied  genus 
Cauna  (q.  v.).  But  East  Indian  A.  is  in  part 
obtained  from  the  tubers  of  Curcuma  angustifolia. 
Other  species  of  Curcuma  (see  Turmeric),  as  C. 
Zerumbet,  C.  leucorhiza,  and  C.  rubescens,  also  yield 
a  similar  farina  ;  the  same  tubers  which,  when  young, 
yield  a  beautiful  and  pure  starch,  yielding  turmeric 
when  old.  In  Travancore,  this  starch  is  a  principal 
part  of  the  food  of  the  inhabitants.  The  young 
tubers  of  the  Galangal  (q.v.),  {Alpinia  Galariga,) 
another  plant  of  the  same  luxtural  order  {Scitaminece), 
are  another  source  of  this  farina. — A  farina  some- 
what resembling  A.,  and  often  sold  under  that  name, 
is  obtained  from  different  species  of  the  natural 
order  Cycadacece,  as  from  the  dwarf  fleshy  trunks 
of  Zatnia  ienius,  Z.  furfuracca,  and  Z.  putnila  in  the 
West  Indies,  and  from  the  large  seeds  of  Dion  edule 
in  the  lowlands  of  Mexico. — The  starch  of  the 
Cassava,  Manihot  or  Manioc  (see  Manioc),  is  some- 
times imported  into  Europe  under  the  name  of 
Brazilian  A.  Potato-starch,  carefully  prepared, 
is  sometimes  sold  as  English  A. ;  and  the  farina 
obtained  from    the    roots  of   the    Arum   maculatum 


ARROYO  MOUNX)S— ARSENIC. 


(sec  Arum),  as  Portland  A.  Otaheite  A.  is  the  starch 
of  Taccn  (i|.  v.)  pinna/ifi'da. — All  these,  as  well  as 
Oswcf^o  and  Chicago  corn-tlour — the  starch  of  maize 
or  Indian  corn — are  so  nearly  allied  to  true  A.  as  not 
to  be  eertaiidy  distiiifjuislialile  liy  clieiiiieal  tests  ; 
but  the  forms  of  the  granules  tlill'er,  so  that  they  can 
be  distinguished  by  the  microscope. 

The  name  A.  is  commonly  said  to  Iiave  had  its 
origin  from  the  use  of  the  fresh  roots  by  the  South 
American  Indians  as  an  application  to  wounds  to 
counteract  the  effects  of  poisoned  arrows  ;  and  the 
expressed  juice  has  been  recently  recommended 
as  an  antidote  to  poisons,  and  a  cure  for  the  stings 
and  bites  of  venomous  insects  and  reptiles.  But  it 
is  not  improbable  that  the  name  is  really  anotlier 
form  of  Jca,  the  Indian  name. 

AHKO'YO  MOLl'NOS,  a  village  in  Estremadura, 
Spain,  noted  as  the  scene  of  General  Girard's 
complete  discomfiture  by  Lord  Hill  on  the  28th  Octo- 
ber 1811.  General  Girard  had  ijcen  sent  out  by  Soult 
on  a  plundering  foray  with  5i)(M)  men,  when  he  was 
surprised  early  in  the  morning  by  Lord  Hill,  who 
had  sle])t  a  league  off  at  Alcucscar  ;  the  natives  of 
which  had  the  good  sense  not  to  betray  the  presence 
of  their  deliverers.  With  a  couple  of  regiments,  the 
"Tlst  and  9'2d,  the  English  general  dashed  through  the 
rain  upon  the  enemy,  who  fled  in  all  directions, 
leaving  behind  everything,  arms,  packs,  &c.  1300 
prisoners  were  taken  ;  the  whole  artillery,  colours, 
baggage,  itc.  French  historians  (Thiers,  &c.),  how- 
ever, maintain  that  the  battle  was  '  undecided,'  and 
that  their  countrymen  only  retreated  in  good  order, 
under  the  pressure  of  much  larger  forces. 

ARRU'  ISLANDS,  a  group  lying  al)out  80  miles 
to  the  south  of  the  west  part  of  New  Guinea,  extend- 
ing in  S.  lat.  from  5°  20'  to  0^  55',  and  in  E.  long,  from 
134°  10'  to  134°  45'.  The  largest  of  the  cluster  is 
To  miles  long  and  20  broad.  The  inhabitants, 
many  of  them  said  to  be  Christians,  are  a  mixed 
race  of  Malays  and  Melanesians  or  oriental  negroes. 
British  goods,  to  the  annual  value  of  £30,00(),  are 
imported  into  Dobbo,  a  mart  on  the  island  of 
Warud,  mostly  by  Dutch  and  Chinese  merchants — 
the  returns  being  chiefly  peails,  mother-of-pearl,  and 
trepang,  which  abound  on  a  coral-rect  to  tlic  cast. 
In  position  and  formation,  these  islands  appear  to 
be  ratlier  Australian  than  East  Indian. 

ARSA'CES,  a  name  conmion  to  several  Parthian 
and  Armenian  kings.  The  accounts  concerning 
them  which  have  been  transmitted  to  us  by  the 
ancient  historians  are  exceedingly  vague,  confused, 
and  contradictory  ;  and  modern  criticism  has  found 
itself  unable  to  reconcile  or  simplify  the  conflicting 
Statements.  Tlic  two  most  important  members  of 
the  dynasty  of  the  Scythian  Arsacidaj  were  A.  I.  and 

A.  vi. 

Arsacks  I.,  the  founder  of  the  Parthian  monarchy, 
flourished  in  the  3d  c.  B.C.,  under  tlie  reign  of 
Antiochus-Theos.  An  atrocious  insult  offered  to 
Ins  brother  Tiridates  by  Pherecles  or  Agathocles, 
Macedonian  satrap  of  tlie  country,  is  said  to  have 
fired  his  spirit,  and  driven  him  to  rebel.  The  Mace- 
donians were  expelled,  25G  r.  c.  Antiochus,  embroiled 
in  a  war  with  Egy]>;,  could  not  immediately  find 
time  to  attempt  the  recovery  of  this  portion  of 
his  dominions.  Selcucus,  the  son  of  Antiochus, 
made  two  unsuccessful  expeditions  against  the  insur- 
gent chief,  in  the  last  of  which  he  was  taken 
prisoner.  A.  I.  now  acquired  regal  power,  built  a 
city  called  Dara,  on  the  mountain  Zapaortenon, 
developed  .  the  internal  resources  of  his  new  king- 
dom, and  endeavoured  to  organise  it;  and,  after  the 
conquest  of  several  countries,  died  at  a  great  age. 
Such,  at  least,  is  the  account  given  by  Posidonius, 
&c. ;  but  Arrian  states  that  A.  died  after  a  reign  of 


two  years,  and  that  his  brother  Tirrdates  succeeded 
him,  under  the  name  of  A.  II.,  and  ruled  for  thirty- 
seven  years,  whence  we  may  conclude  that  many  of 
the  acts  attributed  to  the  founder  of  the  Parthian 
kingdom  were  the  woik  of  his  successor. 

Ars.vcks  VI.,  or  Mithuiuatks  I.,  flourished  about 
the  middle  of  the  2d  c.  b.c.  He  enlarged  the 
territories  of  the  Parthians  by  the  conquest  of 
Bactria  ;  and  is  even  su[)posed  to  have  penetrated 
into  India,  and  subdued  the  nations  between  the 
Ilydaspes  and  Indus.  In  the  year  138  n.c,  he 
defeated  and  took  prisoner  Demetrius  Nicator,  king 
of  Syria,  whom,  however,  he  treated  generously, 
bestowing  on  him  his  daughter  in  mari-iage.  He 
was  a  just  and  merciful  prince,  and  an  enemy  to 
luxury. 

A'RSENAL  is  the  name  given  to  a  great  military 
or  naval  repository,  where  the  munitions  of  war  are 
to  some  extent  manufactured,  but  more  particularly 
stored  until  required  for  use.  Every  royal  dock- 
yard, every  magazine,  every  armoury,  is  to  some 
extent  an  A.  ;  and  therefore  the  meaning  of  the 
word  is  not  quite  definite.  In  France,  the  chief 
arsenals  are  at  Cherbourg,  Brest,  and  Toulon.  In 
England,  although  Deptibrd  is  a  consideral)le  store- 
house for  naval  clothing  and  provisions,  and  Weedon 
and  the  Tower  great  rei)Ositories  for  militaiy 
stores,  the  only  establishment  vast  enough  to 
deserve  the  name  of  A.  is  at  Woolwich.  This  is 
truly  a  remarkable  and  important  place.  In  the 
spring  of  1859,  when  war  was  raging  in  Italy 
between  the  French  and  Saidinians  on  one  side, 
and  the  Austrians  on  the  other,  and  when  an  un- 
easy feeling  pervaded  our  own  country,  there  were 
for  a  short  time  more  than  10,000  men  employed 
in  Woolwich  A.  There  were  at  that  time  nearly 
12,000  pieces  of  iron  ordnance  in  store,  of  which 
7<iOO  were  of  modern  make  and  of  heavy  calibre. 
This  store  was  supplementary  to  that  which  is 
always  kept  at  the  dockyards  of  Woolwich, 
(.^hatham,  Sheerness,  Portsmouth,  Plymouth,  and 
Pembroke.  There  were  resouices  at  the  A.  for 
bringing  forward,  fitting,  and  issuing  these  reserve 
guns  at  the  rate  of  200  per  week,  or  double  this 
number  on  an  emergency  ;  and  many  hundreds  were 
within  a  brief  period  shipped  thence,  to  strengthen 
our  forts  in  the  Mediterranean,  in  the  colonies,  and 
around  the  coasts.  All  tiie  shot  and  shell  used  down 
to  the  period  of  the  Crimean  war,  were  ordered  of 
private  makers  ;  but  the  charge  was  so  enormous 
during  the  early  nionths  of  that  war,'  that  the 
government  resolved  to  try  the  manufacture  at 
Woolwich  ;  this  was  done,  with  a  very  numifest 
saving  of  expense.  It  has  been  calculated  that  the 
A.,  when  at  full  work,  could  jiroduce  large  shot  and 
shell  with  six  times  the  rapidity  with  which  those 
missiles  were  used  by  the  British  outside  Sebastopol 
during  the  eleven  months'  siege.  These  observations 
no  not  apply  to  rifles  or  nmskcts ;  none  of  these 
weapons  are  made  at  Woolwich.  There  have  been 
times,  however,  during  the  year  1859,  when  nearly  a 
hundred  million  rifle-bullets  were  in  store  at  the  A. 
The  Armstrong  guns  (described  under  that  head- 
ing) were  made  during  the  year  1861,  and  subse- 
quently at  the  A.,  9,  12,  and  18  pounders,  in  sufficient 
number  to  supply  all  our  field-artillery  batteries : 
siege-guns  and  ships'  guns,  of  this  construction, 
are  left  for  future  consideration.  It  is  calculated 
that  thei'C  are  15,t>()0  great  guns  on  board  the 
ships  of  the  Queen's  navy,  besides  a  number  vary- 
ing from  15,000  to  20,000  at  Woolwich  and  in  the 
dockyards. 

A'RSENIC  is  the  name  applied  in  popular 
language  to  a  well-known  poisonous  substance, 
Arsenious   Acid   (q.  v.),  but,    strictly  speaking,  the 

437 


ARSENICAL  MINERALS— ARSENIOUS  ACID. 


term  is  resi  ricted  to  a  metallic  body  wliicli  in  part 
enters  into  the  composition  of  tlic  jioison.  The  metal 
A.  is  rarely  found  free  in  nature,  but  in  a  state  of  com- 
bination it  occurs  hu-ge!y  (see  Arsenical  Minkrals). 
The  metal  is  generally  prepared  i'rom  arsenious  acid 
(AsOs)  by  mixing  it  with  its  own  weight  of  char- 
coal, placing  the  mixture  in  a  Avell-covered  crucible, 
and  subjecting  the  whole  to  heat,  when  the  metal 
set  free  by  the  charcoal  rises,  and  condenses  in  the 
upper  part  or  cover  of  the  crucible.  Metallic  A.  is 
very  brittle,  can  easily  be  reduced  to  powder  by 
hammering,  or  even  pounding  in  a  mortar;  and 
when  a  freshly  cut  surface  is  examined,  it  presents 
a  brilliant  dark  steel-gray  lustre,  which,  however, 
readily  tarnishes  on  exposure  to  the  air.  The  metal, 
as  such,  is  not  considered  poisonous,  but  when  intro- 
duced  into    the    animal  system,  it  is  there  faintly 


Native  Arsenic. 

acted  upon  by  the  juices,  and  in  part  dissolved,  at 
the  same  time,  exhibiting  poisonous  properties. 
When  heated  in  the  open  air,  it  burns  with  a  i)eculiar 
bluish  flame,  and  emits  a  characteristic  alliaceous 
odour.  The  only  use  to  which  the  metal  A.  is 
applied  in  the  arts  is  in  the  manufacture  of  leaden 
shot  of  the  various  sizes,  wdien  its  presence  in  small 
ciuantity  in  the  lead  renders  the  latter  much  more 
brittle  than  it  ordinarily  is.  Of  all  the  compounds 
of  A.  the  most  itnportant  is  the  one  already  alluded 
to — namely,  Arsenious  Acid,  which  is  an  oxide  of 
A.  With  sulphur,  A.  forms  two  important  com- 
pounds :  Rca'gar  (AsS...),  a  red,  transparent,  and 
brittle  substance,  which  is  eni])loyc(l  in  the  manu- 
facture of  the  signal-light  called  W I dtc  Indian  Fire  ; 
and  Orpimrnt  (AsSs)  or  Kings  Yellow,  a  cheap 
pigment  of  a  yellow  colour.  With  hydrogen,  A.  forms 
arseniuretted  hydrogen  (AsHs),  a  very  poisonous 
gas,  and  one  Avhich  has  been  fatal  to  several 
chemists. 

ARSE'NICAL  MINERALS  occur  chiefly  in 
primitive  rocks,  and  frequently  associated  wiih  other 
metalliferous  minerals. — Native  Arsenic,  although 
nowhere  very  abundant,  is  not  unfrequently  found 
in  mines  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  America,  generally 
along  with  sulphur  and  metallic  sulphurets.  In 
Britain,  it  occurs  at  Tyndrum  in  Perthshire.  It  has 
usually  a  fine  granular  character.  It  is  very  seldom, 
if  ever,  quite  pure,  usually  containing  a  little  anti- 
mony and  iron,  and  not  unfrequently  a  very  little 
silver  or  gold. — A  very  similar,  and  still  rarer  mine- 
ral, found  in  similar  situations,  is  known  as  Arsenic- 
antimoni/,  and  consists  of  about  two  parts  of  metal- 
lic arsenic,  and  one  of  metallic  antimony. — Arsenic- 
silver,  or  Arsenical  Silver,  is  another  very  rare  mine- 
ral, consisting  chiefly  of  arsenic  and  iron,  but  con- 
taining also  about  13  per  cent,  of  silver  and  a  little 
antimony. — Arscnic-rilance,  found  at  Marienberg  in 
Saxony,  and  containing  about  3  percent,  of  bismuth, 
has  the  remarkable  property  of  taking  fire  at  the 
438 


flame  of  a  candle. — Arsenioits  Acid  occurs  native  in 
a  few  localities  in  Germany  and  France,  and  as  a 
mineral  species,  has  received  the  name  of  Arscrnte, 
which  perhaps  too  closely  resembles  the  chemical 
desigiKition  of  its  salts. — Arsenic  ylcit/,  another  com- 
pound of  arsenic  and  oxygen  (AsOj),  containing  more 
oxygen  than  arsenious  acid,  although  it  does  not 
itself  occur  native,  is  not  uni're(|uent  in  the  form  of 
compounds  wth  copper  and  lead  (Arseniates  of  cop- 
per and  lead),  which  enter  into  the  com])osition  of  a 
number  of  minerals,  none  of  them  so  abundant  as  to 
be  of  any  imi)ortance. — Among  A.  M.  are  also  to  be 
ranked  the  compounds  of  arsenic  with  sulphur,  par- 
ticularly Orpimcnt  (q.y.),  Realrfar  (q.  v.),  and  JJimor- 
phiiie,  a  rarer  mineral  than  the  other  tw  o,  and  tlicre- 
fore  less  important. — But  the  most  important  of  all 
A.  M.,  l)ecause  of  their  use  as  ores  of  arsenic,  for  the 
preparation  of  white  arsenic,  or  arsenious  acid,  are 
those  in  which  arsenic  is  combined  with  nickel  and 
cobalt.  One  of  these  is  Arsenical  Pi/rites,  or  J.euco- 
pyrite,  found  in  various  mines  of  the  continent  of 
Europe,  and  containing  arsenic,  iron,  sulphur,  nickel, 
and  cobalt,  in  somewliat  various  proportions — the 
arsenic,  however,  always  the  principal  constituent. 
It  generally  occurs  massive. — Mispickel,  which  fre- 
quently occuis  in  rhombic  crystals,  but  often  also 
massive,  differs  from  it  in  containing  a  considerable 
quantity  of  silver,  so  that  it  is  used  both  as  an  ore  of 
arsenic  and  of  silver.  It  is  found  in  many  of  the 
tin-mines  of  Cornwall,  and  is  prett}'  frequent  in 
different  parts  of  the  world. — Nk-ke^ine  consists  of 
nickel  and  arsenic,  and  is  used  as  an  ore  of  nickel, 
and  also  for  the  jireparation  of  white  arsenic. —  Cohal- 
tine  and  Snuillinc — the  former  consisting  of  cobalt, 
sulphur,  and  arsenic;  the  latter,  of  cobalt  and 
arsenic — are  used  for  the  i)reparation  of  blue  colours 
for  porcelain  and  stoneware.  Both  are  found  in 
Cornwall ;  they  occur  also  in  some  of  the  mines  of 
the  continent  of  Em-ope,  and  in  other  parts  of  the 
world. — The  jircsence  of  arsenic  in  a  mineral  may 
commonly  be  detected  by  the  alliaceous  odour  which 
it  emits  before  the  blow-pipe. 

ARSE'NIOUS  ACID  is  the  arsenical  compound 
most  familiarly  known.  It  is  obtained  principally 
during  the  roasting  ol*  the  arsenical  nickel  ores  in 
Germany  in  I'urnaces  communicating  with  flues. 
When  the  arsenic  of  the  ore  burns,  it  passes  into  the 
condition  of  A.  A.  (AsOa),  and  rising  as  vapour  into 
the  somewhat  cool  flue,  is  there  deposited  as  a 
grayish  powder,  known  by  the  name  of  Smelting- 
Iiouse  Smoke,  Flowers  of  Arsenic,  Poison-Jloiir,  or 
Hough  A.  A.  In  this  condition,  the  A.  A.  is  con- 
taminated with  some  impurities,  from  which  it  may 
be  sepaiated  by  introducing  the  gray  powder  into  . 
an  egg-shaped  vessel,  and  applying  heat  at  the  lower 
end,  when  the  A.  A.  rises  in  vapour,  and  condenses 
in  the  cool  end  as  a  transparent  glassy  or  vitreous 
substance.  Ordinary  A.  A.  of  the  shops  (which  is 
what  is  populaily  known  as  arsenic)  is  a  white 
crystalline  powder,  which  feels  decidedly  gritty, 
like  fine  sand,  when  placed  between  the  teeth, 
and  has  no  well-marked  taste.  It  is  very  heavy, 
so  much  so  as  at  once  to  be  noticeable  when  a 
paper  or  bottle  containing  it  is  lifted  by  the  hand. 
It  is  soluble  in  water  to  the  extent  of  1  part  of 
A.  A.  in  about  100  parts  of  cold  water,  and  1  part 
of  A.  A.  in  about  10  parts  of  boiling  water.  As 
ordinarily  sold  in  quantities  under  10  lbs.  in  weight, 
the  A.  A  is  required  by  law  to  be  coloured  with 
;.jV  of  its  weight  of  indigo,  or  -^-^  of  its  weight  of 
soot  ;  the  object  of  the  admixture  being  to  render 
any  liq\iid  to  which  the  A.  A.  might  be  added,  with 
a  murderous  intent,  of  a  black  or  bluish-black  hue, 
and  thus  indicate  the  presence  of  something  unusual. 
In  packages  of  Id  lbs.  and  upwards,  A..\.  is  allowed 
to  be  sold  in  the  pure  white  crystalUne  form  without 


ARSENICUS  ACID. 


coloration.  When  placed  in  a  spoon,  or  other 
vessel,  and  lieated,  the  A.  A.  volatilises,  and  con- 
denses in  crystals  on  any  cool  vessel  held  above. 
By  this  means,  it  can  be  distinijuislied  i'roni  ordinaiy 
flour,  which,  when  heated,  would  char,  and  leave  a 
coal  behind ;  and  from  chalk,  stucco,  baking-soda, 
tooth-powder,  and  other  white  substances,  which, 
when  heated,  remain  in  the  vessel  as  a  non-volatile 
white  residue.  Again,  when  A.  A.  is  i)laeed  on  a 
I'cd-hot  cinder,  and  the  escaping  vapours  cautiously 
brought  under  the  nostrils,  the  strong  alliaceous 
odour  characteristic  of  arsenic  is  given  oft".  The 
mode  in  which  A.  A.  comports  itself,  when  thrown 
upon  water,  is  likewise  peculiar.  Instead  of  at  once 
descending  through  the  water  like  sand,  the  A.  A., 
notwithstanding  its  great  density  (sp.  gr.  3-YO),  par- 
tially floats  on  the  surface,  as  wheat-flour  does ;  and 
that  portion  which  sinks  into  the  water,  rolls  itself 
into  little  round  pellets,  which  are  wetted  only  on 
the  outside,  and  contain  much  dry  A.  A.  within. 
The  solution  of  A.  A.  in  water  is  recognised  by  three 
tests : 

1.  Ilydrosulpliuric  acid  and  hydrochloric  acid 
produce  a  i/i'llow  prccipifaf.e  of  sulphuret  of  arsenic 
(AsSs,)  soluble  in  annnonia. 

2.  Ammonio-sulphate  of  copper,  an  apple-green 
precipitate  of  arsenite  of  copper  (2CnO,As03). 

3.  Amnionio-nitrate  of  silver,  a  yellow  precipitate 
of  arsenite  of  silver  (2AgO,As03). 

In  many  cases,  A.  A.  is  used  as  a  means  of  destroy- 
ing animal  life,  but,  happily,  the  process  for  the 
detection  of  the  poisen  is  organic  mixtures  and  in 
the  animal  tissues  are  so  unerring  and  trustworthy, 
that  it  is  hardly  within  the  range  of  possibility 
that  an  animal  can  be  destroyed  by  the  administra- 
tion of  A.  A.  without  very  decided  evidence  of  the 
existence  of  the  poison  being  obtained  on  examina- 
tion of  the  various  jjarts  of  the  animal  structure ; 
indeed,  it  may  be  safely  said  that  there  is  no  limit 
to  the  detection  of  the  poison,  as  even  after  the 
animal  structure  has  been  so  far  decomposed  that 
little  remains,  yet  still  the  poison,  from  its  inde- 
structibility, survives,  and  will  indicate  itself  clearly, 
on  the  application  of  the  several  tests. 

For  the  isolation  and  recognition  of  A.  A.  in 
organic  mixtures,  such  as  the  contents  of  a  stomach, 
three  processes  may  be  followed.  The  method 
generally  pursued,  and  that  upon  which  the  greatest 
dependence  is  placed,  is  called  Reinsch's  process, 
from  the  name  of  its  discoverer.  The  manner  of  its 
application  is  to  treat  the  organic  mixture  with 
water  sufficient  to  render  it  thin,  then  add  hydro- 
chloric acid  to  the  extent  of  one-eighth  of  the 
volume  of  the  liquid ;  apply  heat,  and  when  the 
whole  has  been  raised  to  near  the  boiling-point, 
introduce  clean,  newly  burnished  pieces  of  copper  in 
the  form  of  wire,  gauze,  or  foil.  If  A.  A.  be  present 
in  the  mixture,  a  steel  grey  coating  of  metallic 
arsenic  will  form  on  the  surface  of  the  copper.  This 
apparent  tarnishing  of  the  copper  may  take  place 
when  no  A.  A.  is  in  the  mixture,  and  may  be  pro- 
duced by  salts  of  mercury,  antimony,  &c.,  .as  well  as 
by  sulphur  compounds,  and  even  occasionally  by 
fiitty  matters.  To  distinguish  l)etween  the  coating 
foruied  by  A.  A.  and  that  produced  by  other  sub- 
stances, the  copper  is  taken  out  of  the  mixture, 
washed  with  water,  to  remove  acid ;  immersed  in 
ether,  to  dissolve  off  any  adherent  fatty  matter ; 
dried  between  folds  of  blotting-paper ;  introduced 
into  the  lower  end  of  a  dry  glass  test-tulje,  and  there 
cautiously  heated.  The  metallic  arsenic  (As)  is 
driven  off  by  the  heat  from  the  surface  of  the 
copper,  rises  in  vapour  into  the  upper  portions  of 
the  test-tube ;  there  meets  the  oxygen  of  the  air, 
with  which  it  eomljines,  forming  A.  A.  (AsO-),  an(i 
thereafter    deposits    itself   on    the    inner  surface  of 


the  cool  part  of  the  tube  in  little  glistening  crystals- 
On  allowing  the  tube  to  cool,  adding  water  thereto, 
and  applying  heat,  the  water  dissolves  the  crystals 
of  A.  A.,  yielding  a  solution,  to  sei)arate  portions  of 
which  the  licpiid  tests  mentioned  above  mav  be 
successfully  a])plied.  This  process  may  likewise 
be  employed  in  the  detection  of  A.  A.  in  animal 
tis.sue,  as  in  the  liver,  spleen,  kidneys,  &c.,  by  fii-st 
dividing  the  animal  matter  into  small  pieces,  and 
thei'eafter  treating  with  water,  hydrochloric  acid, 
and  copper.  The  precautions  which  require  to  be 
exercised  in  trying  this  process  are,  that  the 
hydrochloric  acid  and  copper  are  themselves  free 
from  A.  A.  Hydrochloric  acid  has  long  Ijeen  kno«Ti 
to  be  liable  to  contain  at  times  a  very  sensible 
proportion  of  the  poison,  and  it  is  therefore  neces- 
sary, before  using  the  acid  in  any  experiment,  to 
make  a  preliminary  trial  with  dilute  hydrochloric 
acid,  into  which,  when  heated,  a  iiiece  of  copi)i  r  is 
immersed  ;  and  if  no  tarnishing  occurs  after  a  quar- 
ter of  an  hour's  trial,  the  acid  may  be  declared  free 
from  contamination  with  arsenical  compounds.  The 
liability  of  copjjer  to  contain  ar.senic  has  only  very 
recently  (August  1859)  assumed  importance  in  con- 
nection with  a  trial  for  murder  by  slow  poisoning 
with  arsenic,  which  took  place  in  Britain.  In  this 
case,  a  considerable  amount  of  copjier  was  dissolved 
during  the  testing,  and  supplied  the  iK)isou  in  quan- 
ity  enough  to  produce  a  faint  coating  on  a  piece  of 
copper  which  was  subsequently  introduced  into  the 
liquid.  The  result  was  that  A.  A.  was  at  first 
declared  to  bo  present  in  the  material  under  exami- 
nation ;  but  further  experiments  demonstrated  that 
the  copper  itself  had  afforded  the  arsenic.  To  free 
copper  from  any  arsenic  which  it  may  contain 
originally,  it  is  only  necessary  to  heat  the  copper 
over  a  gas  or  spirit-lamp  flame,  when  the  ar.senic 
volatilises,  and  leaves  the  copper  uncontaminated 
therewith. 

The  other  two  processes  for  the  detection  of 
A.  A.  in  organic  mixtures  are  — 1.  That  recom- 
mended by  Marsh,  in  which  the  material  is  treated 
with   dilute    sulphuric    acid    and    metallic    zinc    in 


1.  Marsh's  process. 


2.  Berzclius's  process. 


a  gas-generating  apparatus,  when  the  arsenic  com- 
bining with  hydrogen,  forms  anseniuretted  hydro- 
gen (AsIIa),  from  which,  in  the  act  of  escap- 
ing, the  metallic  arsenic,  and  subsequently  A.  A., 
can  be  obtained ;  and  2.  That  known  as  Ber- 
zclius's process,  in  wliicli  dry  arsenit'al  compounds 
are  mixed  with  a  reihu'ing  flux,  and  heated  in  a  con- 
stricted tube,  when  the  metal  arsenic  is  j^roduced, 
which  in  its  turn  is  converted  into  A.  A.  by  heating 
in  a  wide  test-tube.  The  process  of  Marsh  and 
Berzelius  are  not  so  generally  followed  as  that  of 
Reinsch;    but    in    each    and    all    it    is    absolutely 

439 


ARSIKOE— ARSON-. 


necessary  in  order  to  avoid  the  possibility  of  mistake, 
(1)  that  metalic  arsenic  be  obtained  Ironi  the  organic 
mixture  ;  (2)  that  the  metaHc  arsenic  be  converted 
into  A.  A.  ;  and  (3)  that  this  A.  A.,  treated  with 
water,  should  yield  a  solution  whieh  will  give  the.  three 
liquid  tests  mentioned  previously. 

A.  A.  forms  compounds  (salts)  with  alkalies  and 
other  bases  which  are  called  Arsenites.  Some  of  these 
are  employed  in  commerce  and  medicine.  A.  A., 
boiled  with  a  solution  of  potash  or  carbonate  of 
potash,  forms  an  arscnite  of  potash,  used  in  medicine, 
and  known  as  Fowler's  Solution.  The  more  largely 
used  sheep-dipping  mixtures  are  composed  of  A.  A., 
soda,  sulphur,  and  soap,  which,  when  used,  are  dis- 
solved in  a  large  quantity  of  water,  and  thus  con- 
stitute essentially  dilute  solutions  of  arscnite  of  soda. 
A  compound  of  A.  A.  and  the  oxide  of  copper, 
called  the  arscnite  of  copper,  or  Schcele's  Green,  is 
a  pigment  largely  used  by  painters  as  a  pretty  and 
cheap  green  paint.  The  same  substance  is  exten- 
sively employed  in  the  manufacture  of  common  green 
paper-hangings  for  the  walls  of  rooms ;  and  recent 
inquiries  would  lead  to  the  belief  that  rooms  covered 
with  paper  coated  with  this  green  arscnite  of  copper, 
are  detrimental  to  the  health  of  human  beings  resid- 
ing therein,  from  the  readiness  with  whieh  minute 
particles  of  the  poisonous  pigment  are  detached 
from  the  walls  by  the  slightest  frietion,  are  diffused 
through  the  room,  and  ultimately  pass  into  the  animal 
system.  Another  green  pigment  is  named  Schwcin- 
furth  Green,  and  contains  A.  A.,  oxide  of  copper,  and 
apctic  acid,  and  is  a  double  arscnite  and  acetate  of 
copper. 

Arsenic  (Arseniocs  Acid),  Properties  of,  as  a 
Drug. — A.  has  long  been  used  as  a  medicine. 
When  taken  into  the  stomach,  it  is  soon  absorbed 
into  the  blood,  and  circulates  with  that  fluid,  exhi- 
biting great  power  over  certain  diseases,  especially 
skin  diseases,  as  psoriasis,  lepra,  eczema,  (q.  v.),  &c. 
It  is  also  classed  among  the  tonic  minerals,  and  given 
for  nervous  disorders,  especially  those  that  are 
periodic.  Of  late  it  has  been  much  recommended 
for  rheumatism  ;  and  Dr  Bcgbie,  of  Edinlnirgh,  con- 
siders that  among  the  remedies  for  chorea  (St  Vitus' 
dance)  it  holds  the  foremost  place.  In  ague,  also, 
and  remittent  fever,  as  well  as  in  other  disorders 
originating  from  the  same  source,  A.  and  quinine  are 
our  chief  remedies.  They  are  considered  to  act  as 
alteratives  of  the  blood.  The  usual  method  of  ad- 
ministering A.  is  in  small  doses  (from  three  to  five 
drops)  of  the  liquor  arsenicalis,  largely  diluted  with 
water,  twice  or  thrice  in  the  day.  Arsenic  is  some- 
times given  combined  with  iodine  and  mercury  (Dono- 
van's solution). 

When  given  in  the  doses  above  mentioned,  for 
eight  or  ten  days,  symptoms  of  poisoning  begin  to 
appear ;  the  skin  becomes  hot,  the  pulse  quick,  the 
eyelids  hot  and  itchy ;  the  tongue  has  a  silvery 
appearance ;  the  throat  is  dry  and  sore,  the  gunjs 
swollen  and  tender  ;  and  if  the  treatment  is  persisted 
in,  salivation  ensues,  and  then  come  nausea,  vomit- 
ing, diarrhoea,  nervous  depression,  and  faintness 
(Begbie).  The  quantity  necessary  to  destroy  life,  of 
course,  varies.  Dr  Christison  records  the  case  of  a 
man  who  died  in  six  days,  after  taking  thirty  grains 
of  the  powdered  white  A. ;  but  a  much  smaller  dose 
will  prove  fatal ;  a  girl  was  killed  with  two  grains 
and  a  half  of  A.  contained  in  two  ounces  of  fly- 
water.  According  to  Dr  Swaine  Taylor,  a  medical 
witness  is  justified  in  stating,  that  under  circum- 
stances favourable  for  its  operation  the  fiital  dose  for 
an  adult  is  from  two  to  three  prains.  Death  from  a 
poisonous  dose  of  A.  may  occur  in  a  few  hours,  or 
after  the  lapse  of  days.  A  woman,  aged  56,  used  a 
solution  of  A.  in  water  to  cure  the  itch  ;  she  expe- 
rienced severe  sufferings,  and  died  after  two  years,  j 
440 


having  had  symptoms  of  arsenical  poisoning  all  that 
time. 

A.  has  been  used  frequently  as  a  slow  poison,  the 
symptoms  being  attriliuted  to  inflammation  of  the 
bowels  from  natural  causes.  Fortunately,  in  most 
cases  its  detection  is  easy.  Orfila  found  A.  in  the 
soil  of  cemetaries,  a  fact  which  has  created  some 
discussion  among  toxicologists.  A.  is  used  by  anato- 
mists as  an  antiseptic,  but  is  dangerous,  as  it  is  apt 
to  get  into  cuts  on  the  hands,  and  under  the  finger 
nails,  and  cause  disagreeable  synq)toms.  It  is  stated 
that  in  some  countries,  especially  in  Styria,  A.  is 
taken  by  the  young  female  peasants  to  increase  their 
personal  attractions ;  a  statement  which  probably 
amounts  to  this,  that  experience  of  its  tonic  and 
other  qualities  induce  some  individuals  to  pre.-^cribe  for 
themselves  a  medicine  which  ought  only  to  l)e  admin- 
istered by  a  skilful  and  cautious  hand.  That  A.  can 
be  taken  habitually  for  any  lengh  of  time,  would  seem 
a  physiological  imi)ossibility ;  and  yet  such  state- 
ments are  made  on  what  appears  to  be  unquestion- 
able authority.  See  Chandlers'  Jnvrnal,  Vol.  V. 
p.  90,  and  VI.,  p.  46  ;  also  Johnston's.  Chemistry  of 
Connno7i  Life. 

No  eff"ective  chemical  antidote  for  A.  has  yet  been 
discovered.  In  case  of  an  overdose,  or  of  intentional 
poisoning,  the  following  treatment  is  recommended  : 
Evacuate  the  stomach  by  the  stomach-punq),  using  lime- 
water  ;  administer  large  draughts  of  tepid  sugar  and 
water,  chalk  and  water,  or  lime-water ;  avoid  the  use 
of  alkalies,  but  administer  charcoal  and  hydrated  ses- 
quioxide  of  iron  ;  Ijleed  freely  ;  take  a  tejjid  bath,  and 
use  narcotics.  If  the  fatal  symptoms  lie  averted,  let 
the  patient  for  a  long  time  sui>sist  wholly  on  farina- 
ceous food,  milk,  and  demulcents. 

ARSI'NOE,  the  daughter  of  Ptolemy  I.,  king  of 
Egypt,  and  of  Berenice,  was  born  about  316  p.c, 
and  married  in  her  sixteenth  year  to  the  aged  Lysim- 
achus,  king  of  Thrace,  whose  eldest  son,  Agatho- 
cles,  had  already  wedded  Lysandra,  the  half-sister 
of  A.  Desirous  of  securing  the  throne  for  her  own 
children,  A.  prevailed  on  her  lm.'ibiin<l  to  put  Agatho- 
cles  to  death  ;  the  con.sequencos  of  which  crime,  how- 
ever, were  fiital  to  the  Thracian  monarch ;  for 
Lysandra,  having  fled  with  her  children  to  Seleucus 
in  Asia,  managed  to  induce  him  to  declare  war 
against  her  unnatural  father-in-law.  Lysimachus  was 
slain,  and  Seleucus  seized  the  kingdom.  A.  now 
sought  refuge  in  Macedonia,  which,  however,  was  also 
taken  possession  of  by  Seleucus  ;  br.t  on  the  assassi- 
nation of  the  latter,  after  a  few  months,  by  I'tolemy, 
Ceraunus,  the  hali'-lirother  of  A.,  she  received  a 
hypocritical  offer  of  marriage  from  Ptolemy,  who 
wanted  to  destroy  her  two  sons,  lest  they  should  prove 
formidable  rivals  to  his  ambition.  She  consented 
to  the  union,  and  opened  the  gates  of  the  town  in 
which  she  had  taken  refuge,  but  her  children  were 
butchered  before  her  eyes.  She  then  fled  to  Egypt 
(279  B.C.),  where  -she  married  her  own  brother, 
Ptolemy  II.  Philadelphus.  These  unnatural  unions 
subsequently  became  common  among  the  Greek  kings 
of  Egypt,  it  does  not  appear  that  A.  h.ad  any  children 
by  her  brother,  though  she  was  regarded  by  him  with 
the  deepest  affection.  He  named  several  cities,  and 
also  an  entire  district,  by  her  name.  After  her  death, 
he  ordered  Dinocharcs,  the  architect,  to  build  a 
temple  to  her  memory,  and  roof  the  edifice  with  load- 
stones, so  that  her  iron  statue  might  seem  to  float  in 
the  air. 

A'RSIS  AXD  THESIS  (Gr.  raising  up,  and  laying 
down),  a  term  in  music  applied  to  the  rising  and  fiill- 
ing  of  the  hand  in  beating  time.  It  is  also  applied 
to  the  elevation  and  depression  of  the  voice  in  speak- 
ing. 

A'ESON,  or,  as  it  is  called  in  Scotland,  wilful  fire 


ARSON— ART. 


raisiiiff,  is,  in  the  laws  of  all  civilized  eountries,  a 
capital  crime  of  the  deepest  atrocity  ;  for  it  involves 
in  its  eonsecpienccs  not  only  destruction  of  property, 
but  also  the  destruction  of,  or  at  least  an  indifierencc 
to,  the  life  or  lives  of  others,  which  can  only  ho 
imputed  to  the  most  wicked  and  malignant  spirit. 
In  the  criminal  law  of  England,  it  is  a  felony,  and  has 
been  described  as  the  malicious  and  wilful  burning 
of  the  house  or  ])uilding  of  another  num.  It  is 
essential  to  the  oirencc  that  the  house  or  building 
burned  should  be  that  of  another ;  for  although  it 
is  a  misdemeanour  to  destroy  one's  own  house  by 
fire,  especially  in  a  town,  or  where  other  buildings 
arc  contiguous,  which  are  thereby  put  in  danger, 
such  an  oirence  does  not  amount  to  a  felony,  strictly 
so  called.  To  constitute  such  felony,  there  must  be 
an  actual  burning ;  for  no  intent,  however  clear, 
■would  suffice  at  common  law  to  support  a  charge  of 
A.  This  crime  is  the  subject  of  two  recent  statutes 
(the  1  Vict.  c.  89,  and  the  7  and  8  Vict.  c.  G'2),  the 
provisions  of  which  considerably  modify  and  enlarge 
the  doctrines  of  the  common  law  on  the  subject. 
The  first  of  these  acts  (amending  two  others,  the 
1  and  8  Geo.  IV.  e.  SO,  and  the  9  Geo.  IV.  c.  50) 
enacts  that  whoever  shall  unlawfully  and  maliciously 
set  fire  to  any  dwelling-house,  any  person  being 
therein,  shall  be  guilty  of  felony,  and  shall  suffer 
death.  Also  that  whoever  shall  unlawfully  and 
maliciously  set  fire  to  any  church  or  chapel;  or  to 
any  chapel  for  the  religious  worship  of  persons 
dissenting  fiom  the  United  Church  of  England  and 
Ireland ;  or  to  any  house,  stable,  coach-house,  out- 
house, warehouse,  office,  shop,  mill,  malthousc, 
hop-oast,  barn,  or  granary  ;  or  to  any  erection  used  in 
carrying  on  any  trade  or  manufacture,  or  any  branch 
thereof,  whether  in  possession  of  the  oflcnder  or  any 
other  person — with  intent,  in  any  of  these  cases,  to 
injure  or  defraud  any  person,  shall  be  guilty  of 
felony ;  and  he  is  liable  to  penal  servitude  for  life, 
or  not  less  than  fifteen  years,  or  to  imprisonment  not 
exceeding  three  years.  Doubts  having  been  con- 
ceived upon  this  act,  whether  its  provisions  extended 
to  the  setting  fire  to  a  hovel  or  shed  not  appendant 
to  any  house,  it  was  afterwards  provided,  by  7  and  8 
Vict.  c.  62,  that  wdioever  should  nnlawi'ully  and 
maliciously  set  fire  to  any  hovel,  shed,  or  fold ;  or  to 
any  fiirm-building ;  or  any  building  or  erection  used 
in  farming  land — whether  the  same,  or  any  of  them 
respectively,  shall  then  be  in  the  possession  of  the 
offender,  or  the  possession  of  any  other  person — with 
intent  thereby  to  defraud  any  person,  shall  be  guilty 
of  felony,  and  he  is  liable  to  a  like  punishment. 
Moreover,  that  whoever  shall  unlawfully  and  mali- 
ciously set  fire  to  any  hay,  straw,  wood,  or  other  vege- 
table produce,  being  in  any  farndiouse  or  farm-build- 
ing ;  or  to  any  implement  of  husbandry,  being  in  any 
farmhouse  or  farm-building  ;  with  intent  to  set  fire 
to  such  farm-house  or  farm-building,  and  to  injure 
or  defraud  any  person — shall  be  liable  to  the  same 
punishment  as  for  setting  fire  to  the  farmhouse  or 
farm-building  itself;  and  every  male  so  offending, 
under  eighteen,  shall  be  also  liable,  at  the  discretion 
of  the  court,  in  addition  to  any  other  sentence,  to 
be  whipped.  Again,  unlawfully  and  maliciously,  by 
any  overt  act,  to  attempt  to  set  fire  to  any  building, 
stack,  or  steer,  or  vegetable  produce,  of  such  kind 
and  with  such  intent  that  if  the  ofl'cnce  were  com- 
plete, the  offender  would  be  guilty  of  felony,  and 
liable  to  penal  servitude  for  life  (though  such  build- 
ing, stack,  steer,  or  vegetable  produce  be  not  actually 
set  on  fire),  is  deemed  felony;  and  is  ])unishable  with 
penal  servitude  for  fifteen  years  ;  or  imprisonment 
for  two  years,  with  the  same  addition  in  respect  to 
whipping,  if  the  offender  be  a  male  under  eighteen. 
And  lastly,  if  any  person  shall  maliciously  set 
fire  to  any  station  or  other  building  belonging  to 


any  railway,  dock,  canal,  or  otlun-  navigation,  he  is 
guilty  of  felony  ;  and  he  is  liable  to  penal  servitude 
lor  lil'e,  or  any  term  not  less  than  three  years ;  or  to 
be  imprisoned,  with  or  without  hard  labor,  for  any 
term  not  exceeding  three  years ;  and  if  any  person 
maliciously  set  fire  to  any  goods  or  chattch,  being 
in  any  building,  the  setting  lire  to  which  is  made 
felony  by  act  of  ])ailiainent,  he  is  guilty  of  felony; 
and  he  is  liable  to  penal  servitude  lor  any  term  not 
exceeding  ten  years,  nor  less  than  tiiree  years,  or  to 
be  imitrisoncd,  with  or  without  hard  labour,  for  any 
term  not  exceeding  three  years. 

Servants  convicted  of  negligently  setting  fire  to 
houses  and  buildings,  shall,  by  14  Geo.  III.  c.  78,  s. 
84,  forfeit  ,£1()U,  to  be  distributed  among  the  sufferers, 
by  the  churchwardens,  in  such  proportions  as  to  such 
churclnvaidens  shall  seem  just ;'  and  in  case  of 
defaidt,  shall  be  committed  to  bail  or  to  the  house  of 
correction  for  eighteen  months,  to  be  kept  to  hard 
lal)Oiu-. 

It  has  been  laid  down  in  Scotland,  that  if  the  fire 
has  been  wilfully  kindled,  it  nuitters  not  how  cir- 
cuitous may  have  been  the  mode  of  operation 
selected,  although  the  injury  intended  to  have  been 
done  was  not  the  actual  burning  of  the  house,  but 
some  inferior  mischief.  And  it  is  the  law  of  both 
countries,  that  if  the  proprietor  of  a  house  set  fire  to 
it  while  in  possession  of  a  tenant  holding  under  a 
lease,  the  crime  of  A.  is  completed  ;  and  in  Scotland, 
the  same  has  been  ruled  where  the  house  was  occu- 
pied liy  a  party  having  a  life-interest  in  it. 

By  the  29  Geo.  III.  e.  46,  an  act  which  applies  to 
Scotland  as  well  as  England,  it  is  enacted,  that  if 
any  person  shall  maliciously  and  unlawfully  set  fire 
to,  or  in  any  wise  destroy,  any  ship  or  vessel,  - 
whether  the  same  be  complete  or  in  an  unfiinshed 
state,  or  shall  maliciously  and  unlawfully  set  fire  to, 
east  away,  or  in  anywise  destroy  any  ship  or  vessel, 
with  intent  thereby  to  prejudice  any  owner  or  part 
owner  of  such  ship  or  A'essel,  or  of  any  goods  on 
board  the  same,  or  any  person  that  liatli  under- 
written, or  shall  underwrite  any  policy  of  insurance 
upon  sucli  ship  or  vessel,  or  on  the  freight  thereof, 
or  upon  any  goods  on  board  the  same;  every  such 
offender  shall  suffer  death  as  a  felon.* 

Both  in  England  and  Scotland,  it  is  a  considerable 
aggravation  of  the  offence  where  the  burning  is  to 
defraud  insurers. 

ART.  The  word  A.  is  here  meant  as  designating 
what  is  more  specifically  termed  Fine  A.,  being 
opposed  to  the  useful  arts,  or  the  industrial  operations 
for  supjilying  the  common  necessities  of  life.  I'aint- 
ing  and  Poetry  are  fine  arts;  Agriculture,  Naviga- 
tion, and  Medicine  are  useful  arts. 

The  great  end  of  A.  is  to  give  pleasure,  but  the 
kind  of  pleasure  is  peculiar  and  circumscribed. 
There  are  many  of  our  enjoyments  that  no  artist 
would  ever  think  of  attempting  to  provide.  The 
gratifications  of  eating  and  driid^ing,  of  exercise  and 
repose,  warmth  and  coolness,  form  a  diss  in  contrast 
with  the  pleasures  of  music,  sculpture,  or  the  drama. 
It  is  a  matter  of  some  nicety  to  draw  the  line 
between  these  two  regions  of  our  pleasurable  suscep- 
tibility ;  indeed,  it  is  not  clear  that  a  precise  line 
can  be  drawn.  Certain  peculiarities  can  be  assigned 
as  disqualifying  circumstances,  such  that  any  mode 
of  pleasure  labouring  under  them  is  debaircd  from 
entering  into  A. ;  but  after  we  have  allowed  for 
these,  there  will  remain  a  disputed  border-land,  on 
which  no  general  criterion  will  hold. 

The  various  indulgences  called  sensual,  are    the 

*  It  is  curious,  as  pointcnl  out  by  Sir  Archibald  Alison  in 
his  worlc  on  tlio  Criminal  Law  of  Scotland  (voi.  i.  p.  441),  that 
the  subsequent  act,  7  and  8  Vict.  c.  .^0,  whicli  rc-(7iacis  the  pro- 
visions of  the  above  statute,  is  only  applicable  to  England. 

441 


ART. 


best  examples  of  contrast  to  the  pleasures  of  A.  In 
the  first  place,  as  our  frame  is  constituted,  these 
bodil))  functions,  while  incidentally  ministering  to 
our  jilcasvire,  are  in  the  main  subservient  to  main- 
taining oar  existence,  and  being  in  the  first  instance 
guided  lor  that  special  end,  they  do  not  necessarily 
rank  among  our  gratifications  as  such ;  in  the 
second  place,  they  are  connected  with  the  production 
of  what  is  repulsive  and  loathsome,  which  mars  their 
purity  as  sources  of  pleasure;  and  in  the  third 
place,  they  are  essentially  confined  in  their  influence 
to  the  single  individual;  for  the  sociability  of  the 
table  is  an  element  s\iperadded.  Now,  a  mode  of 
pleasure  subject  to  one  or  more  of  these  three  condi- 
tions may  belong  in  an  eminent  degree  to  the  list  of 
utihties,  and  constitute  an  end  of  industry,  but  docs 
not  come  under  the  class  we  are  now  considering. 
Wealth  is  disqualified  by  the  third  condition, 
inasmuch  as,  while  in  the  shape  of  money,  it  is  con- 
fined to  some  single  proprietor.  The  same  may  be 
said  of  the  pleasures  of  Power  and  Dignity.  Even 
Aifection  is  too  exclusive  to  come  under  tlie  artistic 
head.  Anything  so  restricted  in  its  sphere  of 
action  as  to  constitute  individual  property,  and 
give  occasion  to  envy  and  jealousy,  is  not  a  pleasure 
aimed  at  by  the  producer  of  Fine  A. ;  for  there  do 
exist  objects  that  can  give  us  delight  as  their  primary 
end,  that  have  no  disagreeable  or  revolting  accom- 
paniments, and  whose  enjoyment  is  not  restricted  to 
a  single  mind  ;  all  wliich  considerations  obviously 
elevate  the  rank  of  such  objects  in  the  scale  of  our 
enjoyments.  The  landscape,  the  glowing  sunset,  the 
song  of  the  lark,  the  flowers  of  the  field  and  the 
garden,  yield  unalloyed  pleasure,  and  create  no  mono- 
.poly.  The  painter,  scul])tor,  and  musician  aim  at 
corresponding  effects. 

The  eye  and  the  ear  arc  the  chief  avenues  of 
artistic  delight ;  the  other  senses  are  more  or  less  in 
the  monopolist  interest.  Moreover,  one  important 
feature  in  the  somewhat  capricious  attribute  termed 
rejine)ncnt,  attaches  more  particularly  to  the  objects 
of  these  two  senses ;  namely,  the  power  of  i)rotracted 
enjoyment  without  fatigue.  A  coarse  eflect  is  one 
that  is  intense  and  pungent,  but  too  exhatisting  to  l)e 
kept  up  ;  such  is  a  noisy  clash  of  loud  instruments 
in  a  musical  performance,  or  a  tale  of  overdone  mar- 
vels. To  remove  all  the  fixliguing  accom[)animcnts, 
and  thereby  tone  down  the  exciting  influence,  while 
retaining  as  much  as  possible  the  really  pleasurable 
part,  is  to  refine  upon  the  effect,  and  produce  a 
higher  work  of  art.  Now,  in  the  sensations  of  taste 
and  smell  generally,  the  stimulus  is  apt  to  be  of 
short  duration ;  the  pleasure  is  said  to  pall  soon. 
Yet  there  are  degrees  in  the  case ;  some  of  the 
choicer  odours  can  affect  us  for  hours  together  with  a 
gentle  and  pleasing  sensation.  But  it  is  the  ear,  and 
perhaps  still  more  the  eye,  that  can  remain  open  to 
agreeable  stinmlation  for  the  greatest  length  of 
time  ;  and  taking  this  fact  along  with  the  uncon- 
suming  nature  of  their  objects,  we  see  good  reasons 
for  the  artist  striving  so  earnestly  towards  the  grati- 
fication of  those  two  senses. 

The  sensual  elements  can  be  brought  into  A.  by 
being  contemplated  in  the  idea,  in  place  of  being 
enjoyed  in  the  reality.  A  painter  or  poet  may 
depict  a  feast  to  our  minds,  and  impart  a  pleasure 
that  diPfers  essentially  from  the  delights  of  eating 
and  drinking.  The  imagined  repast  has  nothing  to 
do  with  our  bodily  necessities ;  the  disagreeable 
accompaniments  can  be  kept  out  of  view  ;  and  any 
number  of  persons  may  share  in  the  effect.  So  with 
the  elements  of  wealth,  power,  dignity,  and  affection, 
which  in  their  actuality  want  the  liberal  character 
of  the  true  artistic  delight ;  if  we  can  only  derive 
pleasure  from  the  spectacle  of  them  in  the  hands  of 
the  select  number  of  their  possessors,  they  become 
442 


to  US  an  enjoyment  that  can  be  shared  by  the  general 
umltitude,  like  the  blue  sky,  or  the  towering  ])eak. 
It  is  the  fact  that  mankind  find  a  charm  in  coiitem- 
])lating  the  wealthy,  the  powerful,  the  elevatcnl,  the 
illustrious,  the  beloved;  and  accordingly  such  ele- 
ments arc  freely  adopted  into  artistic  compositions. 

If  all  the  sensual  gratifications  could  become  artis- 
tic by  being  contemplated  in  idea,  or  merely  thought 
of,  as  in  the  above  case  of  imagining  a  rich,  feast,  we 
should  have  the  means  of  distinctly  circuuiscriljing 
the  select  region  of  the  beautiful  or  artistic,  and  of 
resolving  a  difficult  problem.  It  would  be  admissible 
for  the  jioet  or  painter  to  suggest  any  of  liiose 
inferior  pleasures  to  the  mind  by  descriptive  touches, 
and  he  would  thereby  elevate  them  into  the  region 
of  art.  But  we  find  that  every  mode  of  sensual  grati- 
fication is  not  open  to  this  ideal  representation.  Even 
as  regards  eating  and  driidiing,  exception  is  taken 
against  the  too  free  allusion  to  those  pleasures ; 
while  the  sensuality  of  love  is  hardly  to  be  sug- 
gested through  the  most  distant  allusion.  We  may 
revel  in  tales  of  mere  tender  emotion — of  parental 
love  and  of  ])ure  affection — but  those  other  subjects 
arc  kept  at  the  utmost  distance ;  and  we  should  be 
said  to  be  revelling  in  sensuality,  if  we  were  merely 
to  indulge  in  the  imagination  of  those  species  of  de- 
light. There  is  no  help,  therefore,  but  to  consider 
that  there  arc  convcntiunal  and  arbitrary  limitations 
of  the  sphere  of  the  artist,  rendering  it  (piitc  impos- 
sible to  draw  any  clear  and  universal  boundary -line 
between  the  beautiful  and  the  agreeable  generally. 

Sublimity,  Beauty,  Grace,  Harmony,  Melody, 
Pathos,  Ideality,  Picturescpiencss,  Proportion,  Older, 
Fitness,  Keeping,  and  the  Ludicrous — though  they 
do  not  all  relate  to  the  so-called  biaiUiful,  are  all 
involved  in  the  circle  of  pleasures  now  before  us ; 
and  it  is  cpiite  obvious  that  no  one  fact  can  run 
through  this  variety  of  designations.  There  must  be 
a  great  multitude  of  agents  operating  to  produce 
these  different  impressions,  which  are  related  to  one 
another  only  by  attaching  in  conmion  to  the  Eesthetic 
class  of  compositions.  Doubtless,  several  of  these 
names  may  be  employed  to  mean  the  same  thing, 
being,  in  fact,  partially  synonymous  terms  ;  as  Beauty 
and  Grace — Proportion,  Fitness,  and  K(>eping;  but 
hardly  any  two  terms  are  synonymous  throughout, 
and  there  are  distinct  conceptions  implied  in  Sublim- 
ity, Beauty,  Picturesqueness,  Fitness,  and  the  Lu- 
dicrous. 

Among  the  elementary  sensations  and  emotions  of 
the  human  mind  that  are  of  a  i>leasurable  kind,  a 
certain  number  may  enter  at  once  into  the  composi- 
tion of  A.;  such  are  the  pleasures  of  soun  1  and 
sight,  the  emotion  of  surprise,  and  plot-interest. 
Others  may  enter  by  ideal  presentation ;  as  the 
gratifications  of  the  remaining  senses,  and  the 
emotions  of  fear,  tendei-ness,  irascibility,  power. 
The  feelings  more  specific  to  A.  are  those  produced 
by  Harmony  under  its  various  aspects.  When  sweet 
sounds  are  harmoniously  combined,  we  have  the 
musical  art ;  the  painter  has  a  similar  aim  in  refer- 
ence to  colours  and  forms  ;  and  so  through  all  the 
Fine  Arts,  this  quality  is  found  recurring  as  the 
crowning  work  of  the  artistic  hand.  Nothing  is  so 
indisputably  included  within  the  circle  of  the  ajsthet- 
ical  or  beautiful  as  finely  struck  harmonies,  melo- 
dies, or  concords.  Whatever  else  may  be  included 
in  a  composition,  it  is  the  admission  of  these  that 
gives  the  specific  charm,  although  it  would  be  a  mis- 
take to  dispense  with  other  elements  of  interest 
common  to  art  and  to  every-day  life.  Story  is 
essential  to  Romance  and  Poetry  ;  sweetness  in  the 
separate  sounds  is  requisite  for  good  Music ;  and 
colour  in  itself  imparts  aesthetic  pleasure  apart  from 
harmonious  union. 

The  agreeable  effect  designated  by  Fitness  takes 


ART. 


rank  with  the  artistic  pleasures  ;  we  may  call  it  the 
aesthetic  of  the  useful.  When  a  •work  is  not  only 
done  cffccmally,  but  done  with  the  appearance  of 
case,  or  the  total  absence  of  restraint,  diiliculty,  and 
pain,  we  experience  a  delight  quite  ditferent  from 
the  satisfaction  {^rowing  out  of  the  end  attained. 
JIuch  of  the  pleasure  of  architectural  support  is 
referrible  to  this  source. 

Among  the  susceptibilities  touched  by  artistic 
arrangements  may  be  noticed  the  sense  of  Unity  in 
multitude,  arising  when  a  great  number  of  things 
are  brought  under  a  comprchensiA-e  design,  as  when 
a  row  of  pillars  is  crowned  by  a  pediment.  The  use 
of  simple  figures — the  triangle,  circle,  square,  &c. — 
for  enclosing  and  arranging  a  host  of  individuals,  has 
the  tendency  to  make  an  easily  apprebendod  whole 
out  of  a  numerous  host  of  particulars.  In  all  large 
Avorks  abounding  in  detail,  we  crave  for  some  such 
comprehensive  plan,  whereby  we  may  retain  the  total, 
while  surveying  the  parts.  A  building,  an  oratorio, 
a  poem,  a  history,  a  dissertation,  a  speech,  should 
have  a  disccrnilile  principle  of  order  throughout; 
the  discernment  of  which  gives  an  artistic  pleasure, 
even  in  works  of  pure  utility. 

The  craving  for  Variety  and  Xovelty  is  a  powerful 
impulse  of  the  human  mind,  and  makes  itself  especi- 
ally apparent  in  the  appreciation  of  works  of  A. 
The  greatest  works  cease  to  please  after  a  time,  and 
temporary  fashion  may  occasionally  lord  it  over  the 
perennial  in  taste. 

In  looking  at  the  Fine  Arts  individually,  wo  may 
divide  them  into  two  classes,  by  drawing  a  distinc- 
tion of  some  importance  as  regards  the  question  of 
an  artistic  standard.  The  one  class  contains  the 
effusive  arts,  or  those  which  consist  of  mere  out- 
bursts of  the  inward  spontaneity,  regulated  by  the 
effect  of  the  display  on  the  sense  of  the  beholder  or 
listener.  Music  is  a  good  example.  The  sponta- 
neous effusions  of  the  human  voice,  and  those 
prompted  by  the  various  emotions,  are  corrected 
and  tuned  by  the  ear  into  melody  and  harmony,  and 
after  this  process  has  been  often  repeated,  pleasing 
airs  and  compositions  are  the  result.  It  is  the  same 
with  the  Dance,  considered  as  a  fine  art.  In  like 
manner,  dramatic  gesture  and  display,  and  the  graces 
of  elocution  and  fine  address,  are  the  natural 
promptings  rendered  pleasing  by  being  changed  and 
modified  for  that  express  end.  The  first  movements 
are  mere  random,  but  the  delicate  sensibility  of  the 
beholder  causes  some  to  be  suppressed,  and  others 
brought  out,  until  a  really  pleasing  combination  is 
attained.  Contrasted  with  the  purely  effusive,  are 
the  so-called  imitative  arts,  or  those  that  involve 
the  representation  of  some  of  the  appearances  of  the 
outer  world.  Such  are  Painting,  Sculpture,  and 
Poetry.  In  these,  the  artist,  while  still  aiming  at 
pleasing  effects,  istrannnelled  with  a  new  condition — 
namely,  a  certain  amount  of  fidelity  to  his  original. 
In  the  others,  there  are  no  originals.  The  musician 
imitates  nothing,  and  is  bound  by  the  sole  condition 
of  gratifying  the  car ;  but  a  painter  chooses  his 
subject  fiom  nature,  and  altliough  he  must  contrite 
to  yield  the  pleasures  of  colour,  outline,  and  group- 
ing, he  must  do  so  with  a  certain  respect  to  the 
object  copied.  The  poet,  in  dejiicting  the  life  of 
men,  comes  under  the  rule  of  fidelity  to  this  extent, 
that  an  obvious  misrepresentation  is  apt  to  give  a 
painful  shock,  and  mar  the  jileasure  that  would 
otherwise  be  derived  from  the  poetry  itself.  It  is 
not  so  much  that  truth  is  a  part  of  the  artistic 
pleasure,  as  that  lalseliood  is  a  stmnbling-block  in 
the  way ;  for  even  the  imitative  arts  are  only  so  in 
part.  There  is  no  imitation  in  the  metre  and 
cadence  of  a  song,  and  yet  these  often  constitute  the 
main  charm.  So  a  certain  licence  of  fantastic 
effuKsiou  is  aliowed  to  poets,  subject  to  no  rules  but 


the  giving  of  pleasure.  Tlie  creation  of  imaginary 
worlds,  when  avowed,  is  not  oljjected  to;  and  the 
criterion  of  fidelity  to  the  actual  is  accordingly  laid 
aside  for  the  time.  The  various  arts  of  Decoration 
and  Design  are  for  the  most  part  effusive,  although 
occasionally  imitative.  Architecture  is  not  in  any 
way  imitative  ;  the  coincidence  between  the  (Jothic 
roof  and  the  intermingling  foliage  of  a  double  row  of 
trees,  is  a  mere  accident. 

These  observations  are  necessary  in  order  to 
qualify  the  current  maxim,  that  Nature  is  •  the 
artist's  standard,  and  Truth  liis  chief  end ;  condi- 
tions that,  in  their  strictness,  apply  only  to  science. 
It  is  the  scientific  man  that  should  never  deviate 
from  nature,  and  should  care  for  truth  above  every 
other  consideration.  The  artist's  standard  \&ficling, 
his  end  is  refined  pleasure;  he  may  go  to  nature, 
but  it  is  to  select  what  chimes  in  with  his  feelings 
of  artistic  effect,  and  pass  by  the  rest.  He  is  not 
bound  to  adhere  to  nature  even  in  her  choicest 
dis[)lays ;  his  own  taste  being  the  touchstone,  he 
alters  the  originals  at  his  will.  The  student  of 
science,  on  the  other  hand,  must  embrace  every  fact 
with  open  arms.  If  a  nauseous  fungus  or  loath- 
some rat  meet  the  eye  of  a  naturalist,  ho  is  bound 
to  record  it  as  faithfully  and  minutely  as  he  would 
dilate  on  the  violet  or  the  nightingale.  When  a 
painter  adopts  the  human  figure  as  a  ba^is  for 
setting  forth  harmonies  of  coloiu-,  beauties,  and  form, 
and  picturesqueness  of  grouping,  he  ought  not  to.  jar 
our  sense  of  consistency  by  a  Avidc  departure  from 
the  usual  proportions  of  humanity.  Still,  we  do  not 
look  for  anatomical  exactness ;  we  know  that  the 
studies  of  an  artist  do  not  imply  the  knowledge  of 
a  professor  of  anatomy  ;  but  .we  expect  the  main 
features  of  the  reality  to  be  adhered  to.  In  like 
maimer,  a  poet  is  not  great  because  lie  exhibits 
human  nature  with  literal  fidelity ;'  to  do  that, 
makes  the  reputation  of  a  historian  or  mental 
philosopher.  The  poet  works  by  his  metres,  his 
cadences,'  his  touching  similes,  his  graceful  narra- 
tive, and  his  exaltation  of  reality  into  the  region 
of  ideality;  and  if  in  all  this  he  avoids  serious 
mistakes  and  gross  exaggeration,  he  succeeds  in  his 
real  vocation. 

The  attempt  to  reconcile  the  artistic  with  the  true 
— art  with  nature — has  given  birth  to  a  peculiar 
school,  in  whose  productions  a  restraint  is  put  upon 
the  flights  of  pure  imagination,  and  which  claims  the 
merit  of  informing  the  mind  as  to  the  realities  of  the 
world,  while  gratifying  the  various  emotions  of 
taste.  Instead  of  the  tales  of  Fairyland,  the  Arabian 
Nights,  and  the  Komanees  of  Chivalry,  we  have  the 
modern  novelist,  with  his  pictures  of  living  men  and 
manners.  In  painting,  we  have  natural  scenery, 
buildings,  men,  and  animals  represented  with  scru- 
pulous exactness.  The  sculptor  and  the  painter 
exercise  the  vocation  of  producing  portraits  that 
shall  hand  down  to  future  ages  the  precise  linea- 
ments of  the  men  and  women  of  their  generation  ; 
hence,  the  .study  of  nature  has  become  an  element  in 
artistic  education  ;  and  the  artist  often  speaks  as  if 
the  exhil)ition  of  truth  were  his  leading  )mrpose. 
It  is  probably  this  endeavour  to  subject  the  imagina- 
tion more  strictly  to  the  conditions  of  truth  and 
reality,  that  has  caused  the  singular  inversion 
whereby  the  definition  of  science  is  made  the 
definition  of  art. 

lint  while  fidelity,  in  the  imitative  class  of  arts, 
is  to  be  looked  u])Oii,  in  the  first  instance,  as  avoiding 
a  stumbling-block  rather  than  con.stituting  a  charm, 
there  are  still  certain  ways  wherein  we  derive  from 
it  a  sort  of  pleasure  that  may  be  called  sesthetic. 
We  feel  drawn  by  fellow-feeling  towards  one  who 
has  attended  to  the  same  objects  as  ourselves,  or 
who  has  seized  and  put  into  vivid  prominence  w  hat 

443 


ART. 


we  liave  felt,  witliout  ever  having  expressed.  The 
coincidence  of  mind  with  mind  is  always  productive 
of  the  agteeable  effect  of  nmtual  sympathy,  and,  in 
some  circumstances,  there  is  an  additional  effect  of 
pleasing  surprise.  Thus,  when  an  artist  not  merely 
produces  in  his  picture  those  features  of  the  original 
that  strike  cveiy  one,  hut  includes  all  the  minuter 
objects  that  escape  the  notice  of  the  generality,  we 
sympathise  with  his  attention,  we  admire  his  powers 
of  observation,  and  become,  as  it  were,  his  pupils,  in 
extending  our  study  and  knowledge  of  nature  and 
life.  We  feel  a  pungent  surprise  at  discovering,  for  the 
first  time,  what  has  been  long  before  our  eyes  ;  and 
so  the  minute  scliool  of  artists  labour  at  this  species 
of  efiects.  Moreover,  we  are  brought  forward  as 
judges  of  the  execution  of  a  distinct  purpose;  we 
have  to  see  whether  he  that  is  bent  on  imitation  does 
his  work  well  or  ill ;  and  if  our  verdict  is  favourable, 
our  admiration  is  excited  accordingly.  There  is,  too, 
a  certain  exciting  effect  in  the  reproduction  of  some 
appearance  in  a  foreign  material,  as  when  a  plain 
surface  is  made  to  yield  the  impression  of  solid 
effect,  and  canvas  or  stone  imitates  living  humaiiitv. 
Finally,  the  sentiment  of  reality  and  trutii,  as 
opposed  to  fiction  or  falsehood,  appealing  to  oiu- 
practical  urgencies,  disposes  us  to  assign  a  value  to 
every  work  in  which  truth  is  strongly  aimed  at,  and 
to  derive  an  additional  satisfaction  when  fi<lelity  of 
rendei-ing  is  induced  upon  tlie  charms  peculiar  to  A. 
Thus  imitation — which,  ])foperly  speaking,  is  a  mere 
accident  attaching  to  Sculpture,  Painting,  and  I'octrv, 
and  has  no  place  in  Music  or  Architecture — may 
become  the  centre  of  a  small  group  of  agreeable  or 
acceptable  effects.  Tiiese  effects  arc  the  more  prized, 
that  we  have  been  surfeited  with  the  purely  aesthetic 
ideals.  We  turn  refreshed  from  the  middle-age 
romance  to  the  graphic  novel  of  our  own  time. 

Besides  being  a  source  of  pleasure,  art  is  frequently 
spoken  of  as  having  an  elevating  and  refining  influ- 
ence on  the  mind  and  character;  for  which  reason 
it  is  considered  a  proper  object  of  public  encourage- 
ment in  civilised  communities.  This  circumstance 
is  owing  to  the  higher  nature  of  artistic  pleasure  as 
above  described,  the  taste  for  which  helps  to  rescue 
mankind  from  the  exclusive  dominion  of  sensual  and 
selfish  enjoyments.  At  the  same  time,  we  nmst 
admit  that  the  devotion  to  art  may  be  itself  exces- 
sive, and  have  the  effect  of  withdrawing  men  too 
much  from  the  urgency  of  practical  life,  rendering 
them  a  prey  to  political  despotism,  as  well  as 
indiflcrcnt  to  moi-al  principle.  Instances  are  not 
wanting  to  justify  this  remark. 

See  Dugald  Stewart's  P/iilo.iopJncal  Exsaifs^  Part 
II.,  and  Bain  on  the  Einofions  and  the  Wi/l,  p.  247. 

ART,  IIiSTOiiY  OF.  The  history  of  the  origin 
and  development,  growth  and  decline  of  beautiful 
artistic  forms,  constitutes  a  portion  of  the  history 
of  civilisation.  As  regards  each  particular  people, 
the  history  of  their  efforts  to  conceive  and  express 
absolute  perfection,  or  what  is  commonly  called  ideal 
beauty,  in  form  and  colour  is,  with  the  single  excep- 
tion of  the  history  of  their  speculative  opinions,  the 
most  reliable  test  of  the  stage  of  progress  which  they 
have  attained.  Nor  is  it  as  an  indication  of  their  j 
command  over  physical  nature,  of  the  abundance  of 
their  external  re.-^ources,  or  even  of  their  intellectual 
activity  alone,  that  the  history  of  the  art  of  a  people 
is  thus  important.  It  determines  their  moral,  and 
even,  in  a  certain  sense,  their  religious  position,  for 
the  inseparable  connection  between  the  beautiful 
and  the  good  is  in  no  way  more  clearly  manifested 
than  in  the  fact,  that  the  first  inroads  of  demoralisa- 
tion and  social  disorder  are  invariably  indicated  bv 
a  diminution  in  the  strength  and  purity  of  artistic 
forms.  It  has  been  usual  to  include  under  the  term 
historv  of  art  merely  the  history  of  the  arts  of  form, 
444 


including  architecture,  but  excluding,  of  course, 
poetry  and  music,  though  these  latter,  again,  arc 
generally  included  when  we  speak  of  the  fine  arts. 
See  Art. 

The  classical  nations  of  antiquity  were  not  insen- 
sible to  the  importance  of  tracing  the  development 
of  that  rich  aitistical  life  which  they  had  originated, 
and  we  accordingly  find  the  germs  of  artistic  history 
in  I'liny,  Quinlilian,  Pausanias,  and  others.  In  the 
middle  ages,  every  trace  of  a  general  historical  treat- 
ment of  art  disappears,  though  casual  remarks  and 
incidental  notices  on  the  subject  of  artists  and  the 
arts  are  abundant,  particularly  in  such  works  as  the 
IJhrr  Pniitijhalis  of  Abbot  Anastasius  (q.  v.),  who  \i 
connnoidy  known  as  'the  Librarian,'  in  consequence 
of  his  having  filled  that  office  at  the  Vatican  in  the 
9th  c.  But  a  history  of  art,  in  the  sense  which  we 
have  here  assigned  to  the  term,  made  its  appearance 
in  the  world  for  the  first  time  on  the  revival  of 
letters,  in  the  1.5th  and  iGth  centuries ;  when  the  artis- 
tic treasures  of  the  heathen  world,  which  had  come 
>ipon  maidvind  as  novelties,  fell  to  be  contrasted 
with  that  peculiar  type  which  art  had  assumed  under 
Christian  influences  during  the  middle  ages,  on  the 
one  hand  (see  ]}yzantine  Art),  and  on  the  other 
with  that  rich  harvest  of  fresh  invention  which 
ripened  during  the  long  lives  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci 
(q.  V.)  and  Michael  Angelo  (q.  v.),  in  the  period  of 
which  Ra|)liaers  (q.  v.)  short  career  maybe  regarded 
as  the  noon-day.  Whilst  Vassari  (c(.  v.)  traced  the 
great  epochs  of  Italian  art,  from  a  biogi  aphical  point 
of  view  oidy  it  is  true,  in  liis  celebrated  work  ;  the 
students  of  classical  literature  collected  such  expres- 
sions of  opinion  on  artistic  subjects  as  the  writings 
of  the  ancients  contained,  and  Palladio,  Ligorio, 
Vignola,  and  others,  measured  ancient  buildings  and 
their  constituent  members.  In  this  way  a  vast  mass 
of  information  on  artistic  sul)ject3  was  lirought 
together.  But  though  the  materials  which  might 
have  served  for  a  history  of  art  were  thus  supplied, 
it  was  a  long  time  afterwards  before  anything  like 
proper  historical  treatment  arose;  and  the  know- 
ledge of  ancient  art  which  had  been  gained,  was 
applied  to  their  respective  purposes  by  artists  on  the 
oiu^  hand,  and  philologists  on  the  other.  As  i-egarded 
modern  art,  the  biographical  method  of  Vassari  was 
adhered  to,  and  to  this  circumstance  we  are  indebted 
for  the  innumerable  artistic  anecdotes  which  have 
been  preserved.  The  remarkable  variations  in  style 
which  exhibited  themselves  between  the  ICth  and 
IStli  centuries,  gave  rise  to  a  species  of  historical  treat- 
ment which  had  for  its  object  the  discovery  of  the  com- 
mon features  by  which  the  artists  of  the  respective 
periods  were  distinguished.  But  the  history  of  style, 
strictly  speaking,  begins  with  Winckelmann  (q.  v.), 
who  was  the  first  to  divide  ancient  ait  into  eixjchs, 
and  to  trace  its  connection  with  the  general  history 
of  human  progress.  It  was  from  this  period  that  the 
history  of  art  came  to  be  regarded  as  a  branch  of  the 
history  of  civilisation.  Even  where  the  biographical 
method  continued  to  be  followed,  it  was  heucefoi-th 
with  this  difference,  that  the  division  into  schools 
took  the  place  of  mere  chronological  arrangement. 
The  strongly  classical  tendency  which  exhibited 
itself  towards  the  end  of  the  last  century,  and  the 
romantic  reaction  and  consequent  admiration  for 
the  middle  age  which  succeeded,  though  both  must 
be  regarded  as  one-sided  influences,  had  an  unques- 
tionable effect  in  calling  attention  to  what  was 
really  great  in  the  artistic  productions  of  these 
respective  periods ;  and  during  the  present  century, 
the  history  of  art  has  gradually  assumed  a  more  im- 
portant place  as  a  department  of  general  history.  It 
was  only  in  very  recent  times,  however,  that  a  com- 
plete artistic  history  appeared  in  Kugler's  llandbook 
of  the  History   of  Art,   which   has    been    partially 


AIIT  EXHIBITIONS    ART  UNIONS. 


translated  into  Enplii^h,  and  edited  by  Sir  Cliarles  East- 
lake.  In  ilie  ()rij.nnal  work,  wliieli  is  very  excellent,  the 
iiuniensu  mass  of  material  vliieli  the  suhjeet  otlered 
has  been  arranged  into  periods,  and  treated  in  sueh  a 
manner  as  to  present  a  sketeh  which  is  eomjdetc  in 
itself,  whilst  at  the  same  time  its  connection  with 
and  depcndance  on  general  history,  social,  jiolitital, 
and  philosophical,  are  carefully  indicated  thioughout. 
Alongside  of  Kugler's  history,  that  of  Schnaase  falls 
to  be  mentioned  — a  work  less  directed  towards 
completeness  of  narration  than  to  a  philosophical 
and  historical  aecomit  of  the  origin  of  the  various 
styles,  and  their  connection  with  each  other.  Kiu- 
kel's  history  of  Christian  art  has  unhappily  remained 
incomplete'.  Waagen's  works  on  art  and  artists  in 
England,  France,  and  the  other  countries  t)y  which 
Germany  is  surrounded,  are  the  best  artistic  hand- 
books for  the  traveller.  Those  which  have  reference 
to  England  have  been  translated.  There  are  many 
other  historical  works  of  importance  on  special 
departments  and  separate  schools  of  art,  monographs 
and  the  like,  but,  with  the  exception  of  Stirling's 
Annah  of  the  Artists  of  Spain,  and  Velasquez  unci 
his  Works,  very  few  belong  to  our  own  literature. 

ART    EXHIBITIONS.      Public    displays    of    the 
works  of   living  artists,  with  the    view    of  affording 
gratification    and    instruction   to   the    community    on 
the  one  hand,  and   on  the   other,  of  procuring  pur- 
chasers  for   the   works   exhibited,  have   taken   place 
in  most  of  the  principal  towns  of  Europe,  for  more 
than   a  century   and   a   half.     Though   now  ibr   the 
most  part  eoniiccted  with  Art  Unions  (q.  v.),  A.  E. 
are  thus  in  reality  much  older  institutions.     Still,  as 
the  offspring  of  "a  necessity  which    did   not  exist  in 
earlier  times,  they  are  essentially  modern.     So  long 
as    artists    were    chiefly    patronised    either    by   the 
church,  by  their  respective  governments,  or  by  indi- 
viduals of  sovereign  rank,  their  works  were    placed 
either  in  churches,  in  public  buildings,  or  in  palaces, 
and   were  thus  continually  exhibited   to  the   public ; 
but  when  private  patronage  came  to  be  their  chief 
support,  and  their  works,  if  sold  at  all,  were  certain 
to   be   buried   in   private   houses,    the   necessity   for 
making   arrangements   by  which   they  could   be  dis- 
played to  the  public  either  before  they  were  disposed 
of, "or  afterwards  with  the  consent  of  their   owners, 
became   apparent.     We   have   mentioned   under   Art 
Unions   that,    till    aided  ))y   these  latter   institutions, 
A.  E.  for  the  most  part  did  not  succeed  in  ctTccting 
the  objects  which  their  promoters  had  in  view.     The 
earliest  collective    art   exhibition    was   probably   that 
of  the  members   of  the  Academy  of  the  Fine  Arts, 
at    Rome;    anything   of    the    kind    which   had    pre- 
viously   existed    being    confined    to    the    works   of 
a   particular    artist    and    his    pupils,    enriched    per- 
haps    bv     a    few    contributions    from    his    friends. 
Something    of    this    earlier    character    probably   at- 
tached to   these   Roman   exhibitions ;   and   the   first 
art  exhibition,  in  the  sense  in  which  we  now  imder- 
stand   it,  seems   to   have   been   that   of  the   French 
Academv  in  1673.     From  1745,  down  to  the  period 
of  the   Revolution,    this    exhibition,    which    from    its 
commencement  had  been  confined  to  the  works  of 
members    of    the    Academy,    took    place    biennially. 
During  the  Revolution  it  was  thrown   open  tt)  foreign 
artists,  and  in   1796  it  was  again  made  annual.     An 
exhibition  was   attempted  in   England  in    1760,   but 
it  was  not   till    1796   that   the   regular    exhibitions 
of    the    Royal    Academy    commenced.     They    have 
since   gone   on,  not   only   without   interruption,   but 
with    increasing    energy!       The    nunil)er    of    works 
exhibited    in    1760    was   only    130,    the    number    of 
exhibiters   being    69;    in   that    of    1859    there    were 
works  exhibited  by  918  artists.     The  annual  revenue 
which   the    Academy   derives   from   the   fee   of  one 
shilling  paid  by  each  visitor  has  also  been  steadily 


increasing;  in  1855  it  amounted  to  about  £8000. 
The  exhibition  of  the  Scottish  Academy,  which  is 
the  second  in  importance  in  this  country,  has 
existed  since  1826  To  the  first  exhibition,  178 
works  were  sent  by  27  contributors  ;  the  exhibition  of 
1859  con.-^isted  of  745  works,  which  were  contributed 
bv  291  artists.  The  annual  revenue  of  the  Scottish  Aca- 
demy derived  from  this  source  exceeds  £2000.  ^  The 
only  other  exhiliition  of  the  same  class  in  the  United 
Kiiigdom  is  that  of  Dublin,  which  is  supported  by 
an  annual  grant  from  Government — the  exhibitions 
of  London  and  Edinburgh  being  merely  furnished 
with  rooms  erected  at  government  expense.  Several 
private  societies  in  London,  however,  have  exhibitions 
for  siniilar  objects,  and  conducted  on  similar  princi- 
ples. Of  these  we  may  mention  the  British  Institution, 
the  Society  of  British  Artists,  the  National  Ir.stitu- 
tion,  the  Societv  of  Painters  in  Water-colours,  and  its 
rival,  the  New  "Society  of  Painters  in  Water-colours. 
There  are  also  exhibitions  in  several  of  the  large  pro- 
vincial towns,  such  as  Matichester,  Liverpool,  (Glas- 
gow, &c.  On  the  continent,  wherever  an  academy 
of  art  exists,  there  isnowan  exhiVdtion,  which  takes 
place  for  the  most  part  annually,  but  sometimes 
biennially.  In  New  York  there  is  a'  permanent 
exhibition  ofTire  works  of  Diisseldorf  artists;  and 
from  thence  they  are  frequently  carried  for  exhibi- 
tion to  the  provincial  towns  of  the  Union. 

The  London  Exhibition  of  1851,  commonly  known 
as  the  Great  Eahibilion,  was  not  only  on  a  larger 
scale^  but  introduced  new  features  into  these  displays. 
Though  confined  to  industrial  objects  and  works  of 
plastic  art,  it  gave  an  impulse  to  A.  E.  strictly  so 
called,  which  shewed  itself  almost  simultaneously 
in  the  great  international  artistic  exhibition  of 
Brussels ;  and  even  those  exhibitions  which  have 
been  formed  more  closely  on  its  model — those  of 
Dublin  in  1853,  and  of  New  York  in  the  same  year 
— have  not  included  the  fine  arts  in  any  of  their 
forms.     See  Exhibitions. 

ART  UNIONS.  These  institutions,  which  have 
for  their  object  the  promotion  of  a  livelier  interest 
in,  and  more  liberal  patronage  of,  the  fine  arts  on 
the  part  of  the  general  ptd:)lie,  have  gone  far  in 
modern  times  to  supply  the  place  of  that  encourage- 
ment which,  at  an  earlier  period,  they  received  from 
princes  and  prelates. 

The   origin    of    A.    U.,    though    claimed    by    the 
Germans,  'seems   really   to    belong  to    the    French, 
and   to   be    traceable   to    the    stirring   days    of  the 
first    Napoleon.      From    France    they    passed    over 
into   Belgium,    where  they   at   once   took   root,    and 
established   themselves   even    in    the    less    important 
towns,  ten   years  before   they  were   introduced   into 
(jcrmany.     the    Art    Union    of  Malines   dates    from 
1812,    which    is    eleven   years    anterior    to   that  of 
Munich.     But  it  was  in  Germany  that  the  importance 
of  the  results  Avhich  A.    U.  were  capable   of  produ- 
cing first  became  apparent,  and  it  was  from  Germany 
that  they  were  carried  into  England.     The  Art  Union 
{KiDistverciii)  of  Alunieh  was  established  in  1823,  and 
became  the  model  of  most  of  those  which  afterwards 
arose.     The  example  of  Munich  was  si)ccdily  followed 
(at  the  suggestion,  we  Vielieve,  of  no  less  distinguished 
a    personage    than    Alexander    von    Humboldt)    by 
Berlin,  and   shortly  thereafter  by  Dresden,   Leipsic, 
Bre.slau,  Halberstadt,  &c. ;  and  in  less  than  ten  years 
there  were  few  of  the  larger  towns   of  Germany  in 
which   A.    LT.  were  not  to  be  found.     But  the  most 
important  of  all  the  A.  U.  of  Germany,  is  that  which 
was  established  at  Diisseldorf  in  1829,  for  the  Rhine 
provinces   and    Westphalia.     The    Diisseldorf    Asso- 
ciation has  aimed  at  higher  objects  than  A.  U.  have 
usually  had  in  view,  either  in  Germany  or  in  England, 
and  has  been  instrumental  in    promoting  the  execu- 
tion  of  monumental   works   of  art   of    the    highest 

445        • 


ART  UNIONS. 


class.  In  the  space  of  twenty  years  from  its  insti- 
tucion  (1849),  it  had  expended  on  works  of  art  what 
in  Germany  was  regarded  as  the  enormous  sum  of 
268,000  thalers,  equivalent  to  about  .£40,200  ster- 
ling ;  and  Iiad  been  the  means  of  placing  24  altar- 
pieces  in  churches,  eleven  paintings  on  a  large  scale 
in  public  l)uildings,  of  which  the  frescoes  in  the 
council  chambers  at  Elberfeld  and  at  Aix-la-Chapclle 
may  be  mentioned  as  examples.  The  Association 
of  Diisseldorf  also  publishes  an  artistic  periodical 
(Correspomlenzblatt).  Other  associations  have  imi- 
tated, not  without  success,  the  Association  of  Diis- 
seldorf in  directing  their  attention  to  the  promotion 
of  great  works.  The  Bohemian  Associ.'ition  at 
Prague  has  been  peculiarly  meritorious  in  this 
respect ;  and  those  of  Berlin  and  of  Cologne  deserve 
the  highest  commendation  for  the  zeal  with  which 
the  first  promoted  the  erection  of  Kis.s's  magnifi- 
cent group  of  the  Amazon  on  the  steps  of  the 
Museum  at  Berlin,  and  the  second  urged  on  the 
completion  of  what  already,  in  its  half-finished 
condition,  is  the  greatest  architectural  monument  of 
Northern  Europe — the  cathedral  of  Cologne.  The 
establishment  of  permanent  galleries  of  art  in  the 
cities  to  which  they  respectively  belong,  is  also 
regarded  in  (Jermany  as  one  of  the  Hgher  objects  of 
A.  U. ;  and  in  this  they  have  been  recently  followed 
in  this  country,  as,  for  example,  in  Edinburgh.  In 
Jlunich  there  is  already  a  very  nol)le  collection  of 
modern  works  of  art,  which  have  been  brought 
together  in  this  manner;  and  another  of  the  same 
description  is  in  course  of  formation  in  lierlin.  A.s- 
sociatiou  galleries  also  exist  in  Dresden,  Leipsic, 
Breslau,  Stettin,  &c.  Groups  of  a.*sociations  liave 
also  been  formed  in  Germany  for  the  promotion  and 
encouragement  of  extensive  works.  The  western 
group,  or  cycle,  as  it  is  called,  includes  Hanover, 
Hall)erstadt,  JIagdeburg,  Halle,  Gotha,  Brunswick, 
and  Cassel ;  the  eastern,  Danzig,  Kiinrgsburg,  Stettin, 
&c.  This  arrangement,  by  which  the  influence  of 
these  a.ssociations  on  the  highest  class  of  art  must  be 
vastly  augmented,  seems  worthy  of  imitation  in  this 
country. 

Scotland,  as  is  not  unusual  where  the  suggestion 
comes  from  a  continental  source,  preceded  England 
in  the  establishment  of  A.  U.  ;  the  first  that  was 
formed  in  Britain  being  that  of  Edinburgh  in  1834. 
The  cau.se  of  its  introduction  was  not  so  much  the 
hope  of  bettering  the  condition,  as  the  necessity  of 
preventing  the  utter  extinction  of  everything  beyond 
mere  imitative  art.  Portrait-painting  continued  to 
furnisii  the  means  of  living  to  those  who  practised 
it  with  success  ;  and  those  who  represented  familiar 
occupations  or  popular  customs,  obtained  a  more 
limited  encouragement ;  but  it  was  found  that  pre- 
cisely iis  the  artist  rose  in  the  scale  of  artistic  endea- 
vour, and  tended  in  the  direction  of  ideal  art,  the 
sympathy  and  interest  of  his  countrymen,  and  con- 
sequently his  own  remuneration,  declined.  The 
Royal  Academy  of  London,  and  the  academies  which 
had  been  formed  after  the  same  model  in  Edinburgh 
and  in  Dublin,  notwithstanding  the  annual  exhil)i- 
tions  which  they  have  instituted,  had  entirely  failed 
to  remove  this  evil.  Private  purchasers  were  not 
to  be  found ;  and  in  Edinburgh  it  was  calculated 
that  never  mo^  than  £.300,  and  sometimes  as  little 
as  £35,  were  expended  in  the  purchase  of  pictures 
exhibited  by  the  Academy,  and  even  these  insignifi- 
cant sums  were  usually  paid  for  pictures  of  the  very 
lowest  class.  Elsewhere,  matters  were  even  worse. 
Mr.  Cash,  a  witness  examined  before  the  select  com- 
mittee of  the  House  of  Commons  on  A.  U.  in  1845, 
stated  that  previous  to  the  establishment  of  the  art 
unioji  in  Dublin,  '  in  four  years,  during  the  exhibition 
of  the  works  of  the  Royal  Hibernian  Academy,  30.s-. 
only  were  expended  on  the  patronage  of  art.' 
446 


'  Thirty  shillings  annually  .  '  asked  the  chairman. 
'  No,' replied  the  witness;  'thirty  .shillings  was  the 
entire  sum  expended  in  the  four  years.'  The  success 
of  the  Scottish  Association  was  inmiediate ;  am'  to 
its  founders  the  public  arc  in  no  small  degree 
indebted  for  the  rapid  progress  which  art  luus  made 
in  this  country  during  the  last  twenty  years.  '  A 
large  aimual  fund,'  says  the  secretary,  in  his  state- 
ment to  the  above-mentioned  committee,  '  exclusively 
devoted  to  the  purchase  of  ))aintings  and  scul]>ture, 
and  to  the  dissemination  of  engravings,  was  speedily 
realised,  which  in  the  course  of  nine  years  amounted 
to  not  less  than  £36,900.  During  the  same  period, 
771  jiaintings,  40  pieces  of  sculpture,  and  about 
3(i,(MMi  impressions  from  engraveil  plates,  were  dis- 
tributed among  the  nieml)crs  of  the  Association.' 
Since  this  period,  the  annual  funds  of  the  Edinburgh 
Association  have  continued  steadily  to  increase ;  and 
its  promoters,  as  the  result  of  their  disinterested  la- 
bours, have  had  the  satisfaction  to  see  a  school  of  art 
spring  up  around  them  which  is  j)robably  second  to 
those  of  Munich  and  Diisseldorf  alone.  Our  limits 
preclude  us  from  entering  into  the  history  of  the  other 
.societies  in  Britain  which  have  been  f<irmed  after  the 
model  of  the  parent  institution  of  Edinburgh  ;  but  some 
conception  of  the  success  which  has  attended  them 
may  be  gathered  from  the  fact,  that  in  1850  it  was 
calculated  that  they  had  expended  not  less  than  the 
enormous  sum  of  a  million  sterling  on  the  encourage- 
ment of  art.  In  addition  to  this  direct  expenditure, 
what  is  a  very  remarkable,  and  was  to  most  persons 
probably  an  unexpected  result,  was,  that  the  patron- 
age of  private  individuals,  in  place  of  diminLshing, 
greatly  increased,  both  in  Eilinburgh  and  London, 
during  the  period  in  question.  Before  concluding 
our  sketch  of  the  rise  of  these  very  remarkable  insti- 
tutions, it  is  proper  to  mention  the  art  union  of  New 
York,  estalilished  in  1838,  which  now  su[)ports  two 
galleries  with  works  of  art  in  that  city,  and  the 
members  of  which  have  had  the  wisdom  to  estaljlish 
an  intimate  relation  and  lively  interchange  of  works 
between  their  own  institution  and  that  of  Diissel- 
dorf. 

As  regards  the  constitution  of  A.  U.,  the  follow- 
ing arrangements  may  be  stated  to  be  common  to 
them  all.  Each  member,  in  return  for  an  annual 
contribution  (in  Britain,  usually  a  guinea),  receives 
an  acknowledgment,  which  acts  as  his  ticket 
in  the  lottery  by  which  the  works  of  art,  pur- 
chased ■with  the  sum  thus  contributed,  are  distri- 
buted amongst  the  members.  Generally,  a  fixed 
I)roportion  of  the  contributions  is  retained  and 
devoted  to  the  preparation  of  an  engraving,  which  is 
presented  to  tho.se  who  have  drawn  blanks  in  the 
lottery.  The  engraving  is  usually  executed  by  a 
local  engraver,  after  a  work  of  the  local  school  in- 
tended to  be  patronised.  The  association  further 
makes  provision  for  an  exhibition,  either  permanent, 
as  at  Munich,  or  annual,  as  in  London  and  Edin- 
burgh, consisting  mainly  of  the  works  of  local  artists, 
though  most  associations  now  admit  those  of  stran- 
gers. A  diversity  of  practice  has  existed  as  to  the 
mode  of  distributing  the  funds  of  the  unions,  and 
much  controversy  has  taken  place  between  their 
respective  partisans.  The  first,  common  on  the  con- 
tinent, and  adopted  in  Edinburgh,  consists  in  put- 
ting the  whole  sum  collected  for  each  year  into  the 
hands  of  a  committee  of  gentlemen,  who  are  chosen 
for  their  supposed  aesthetic  acquirements  and  impar- 
tiality, and  requesting  them  to  select  the  pictures  and 
other  works  of  art  aiterwards  to  be  distributed  to  the 
subscribers  by  lot ;  the  second  is  the  London  jilan  of 
distributing  the  money  itself  by  lot,  and  then  per- 
mitting, or  rather  compelling,  the  prize-holders  to 
expend  it  on  the  pictures  exhibited,  the  selection  of 
the  pictures,  however,  being  left  to  their  own  taste 


ARTA— ARTEMISIA. 


and  judgment.  If  the  object  of  these  institutions  be 
to  cultivate  an  artistic  taste  hhfher  than  that  which 
exists  in  the  general  coniniunity  for  the  time  being, 
the  advantages  of  the  first  over  the  second  of  these 
modes  of  distril)ution  seem  scarcely  to  adiidt  of  ques- 
tion. The  subject  was  eagerly  canvassed  before  the 
select  committee  to  wdiose  labours  w^e  have  ali-eadv 
referred,  and  their  report  was  to  the  effect  tliat  the 
constitution  of  the  Edinburgli  Association  was  pre- 
ferable to  that  of  the  London  Union.  The  principle 
of  the  A.  U.,  under  some  modifications,  but  retaining 
the  distribution  of  prizes  by  lot,  has  been  extended 
to  the  patronage  of  art  manufactures,  but  not 
hitherto  with  the  success  \vhich  has  attended  it 
when  limited  to  the  fine  arts,  strictly  so  called.  See 
ExiniiiTioNs. 

A'RTA,  the  ancient  Amhracia,  a  town  of  Albania, 
in  hit.  39°  8'  N.,  and  long.  i(f  50'  E.,  seven  miles 
fi'om  the  northern  coast  of  the  gulf  to  which  it 
gives  name,  and  thirty-nine  miles  south  from 
Janina.'  It  stands  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Arta, 
the  ancient  Antct/iu.^,  whence  the  modern  name.  It 
is  the  see  of  a  bishoj),  and  is  governed  by  a  bey.  It 
has  a  considerable  trade,  and  some  manufactures, 
chiefly  of  cloths  and  leather  ;  the  floccata,  or  '  shaggy 
capote,'  alluded  to  in  Byron's  earlier  poems,  7s 
greatly  esteemed;  but  tiie  town  has  never  recovered 
from  the  disasters  of  1828,  when  it  was  stormed  by 
the  Greek  patriots  under  Marco  Botzaris.  Portions 
of  the  old  walls,  which  were  of  great  strength, 
and  the  foundations  of  the  Acropolis,  are  the  only 
relics  of  Hellenic  times.  Remains  of  the  lower 
empire  exist  in  a  convent  founded  84.5  a.d.  by  the 
Empress  Theodosia. 

The  ancient  city  of  Ambracia,  founded  by  a  Corin- 
thian colony  about  G35  B.C.,  was  at  one  time  a 
flourishing  independent  state,  with  a  considerable 
territory.  It  was  ruined  in  the  struggle  with  the 
Amphilochians,  and  subsequently  became  subject 
to  Philip  of  Macedon.  Pyrrhus  made  it  the  capital 
of  Epirus,  after  which  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
jEtolians,  and  lastly  of  the  Romans. 

A'RTA,  Gulf  of,  an  arm  of  the  Ionian  Sea,  25 
miles  long  and  10  wide,  forming  part  of  the  bound- 
ary between  Turkey  and  Greece.  Under  its  ancient 
name  of  the  Ambraciot  Gulf  {Shnis  Ambracius),  it 
separated  Epirus  and  Acaruania.  At  its  entrance' on 
the  south  is  the  promontory  of  La  Punta,  the  ancient 
Actium  (q.  v.). 

ARTABA'ZUS,  the  name  of  several  distinguished 
Persians  in  the  times  of  the  Achiemenidffi.  When 
Xerxes  advanced  against  Greece,  A.  led  the  Par- 
thians  and  Chorasmi.  At  a  later  period  he  warned 
Mardonius,  but  in  vain,  against  engaging  in  battle 
at  Platsea;  and  on  the  first  indications  of  defeat,  he 
withdrew  his  own  division,  amounting  to  40,000  men 
from  the  field,  and  succeeded,  thougli  with  great 
difficulty,  in  forcing  his  way  througli  the  wilds  of 
Thessaly,  Macedonia,  and  Thrace  to  Bvzantium, 
where  he  crossed  to  Asia.  Subscquentlv,"  he  acted 
as  negotiator  between  the  Spartan  Pausanias  and 
Xerxes.— Another  A.  was  general  under  the  Persian 
kmg,  Artaxerxes  Mnemon,  and  revolted  against 
Artaxerxes  Ochus  in  356  n.c.  For  this  oflence  he 
appears  to  have  been  forgiven ;  and  subsequently 
we  find  him  accompanying  King  Darius  after  the 
battle  of  Arbela.  Alexander  rewarded  his  fidelity 
by  appointing  him  satrap  of  Bactria. 

ARTANTIIE.     See  Matico. 

ARTAXERXES,  the  name  of  -several  Persian 
kings.  A.  I.,  surnamed  Loncjimajiux,  the  second 
son  of  Xerxes,  escaped  from  the  conspiracy  of 
Artaban  and  others,  and  ascended  the  throne  in  465 
B.C.  Ilis  long  reign,  extending  to  425,  was  marked 
by  a  dechnc  of  power.— A.  11.,  surnamed  Mnemon, 


succeeded  his  father,  Darius  II.,  iu  405  b.c  After 
gaining  the  victory  over  his  brother  Cyrus,  he 
became  involved  in  war  with  Sparta,  which  ended 
with  the  Antalcidean  Treaty  of  Peace.  He  died  in 
361. — A.  III.,  surnamed  Oi/ins,  was  the  son  and 
succes.sor  of  the  fbrnuT,  and  reigned  in  the  true 
style  of  oriental  despotism  until  338  b.c.  One  of 
his  most  daring  exploits  took  place  in  Egypt,  where 
he  caused  the  divine  bull  Apis  to  be  slaughtered  and 
cooked  as  ordinary  beef.  A.  IIL  was  poisoned  in 
338  by  his  eunuch  Bagoas.  It  is  said  that  his  flesh 
was  eaten  by  cats,  and  that  hilts  for  .scimitars  were 
made  of  his  bones. — The  founder  of  the  new  Persian 
dynasty  of  the  Sassanidte  (which  ruled  from  a.d.  226 
to  651)  was  named  A. 

ARTEDI,  Petkr,  a  celebrated  naturalist,  was 
born  on  the  22d  of  February  1705,  at  Anund,  in  the 
province  of  Angermannland,  Sweden.  He  was  at 
first  designed  for  the  church,  and  entered  the 
university  of  Upsala,  intending  to  pursue  the  usual 
course  of  philosophy  and  theology ;  but  he  soon 
abandoned  all  thought  of  the  ministry,  and  betook 
himself  to  medicine.  In  1728,  Linnajus  went  to 
Upsala,  to  study  the  same  science,  and  a  close 
intimacy  sprung  up  between  the  young  men.  They 
worked  together,  and  to  a  certain  extent,  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  a  division  of  labour.  Physiology,  chemistry, 
and  mineralogy  they  pursued  in  common ;  but 
to  this  A.  added  ichthyology,  and  Linnajus  orni- 
thology and  entomology.  In  1734,  A.  sailed  for 
England,  and  Linnajus  went  to  Lapland,  each  having 
made  the  other  his  heir  and  executor  of  all  his 
scientific  documents.  While  in  London,  A.  wrote 
the  preface  to  his  Ichfhijologia.  Next  year  he  went 
to  Leyden  in  Holland,  where  he  found  Linnaeus  just 
arrived  from  the  north.  Each  shewed  the  other  the 
results  of  his  labours.  A.'s  useful  career  was 
abruptly  ended,  on  the  21st  of  September  1735,  by 
his  falling  into  one  of  the  canals  near  Amsterdam. 

A.'s  only  complete  work  is  the  Philosophla  Ichthij- 
oloyi.ca.  The  Synonj/mologica  is  described  as  a  work 
of  extraordinary  labour,' but  somewhat  confused 
Liumeus  faithfully  performed  his  duty  as  his 
friend's  executor.  He  arranged,  corrected,  and 
completed  his  manuscripts,  and  published  the  whole, 
together  with  a  life  of  the  author,  in  1738.  Accord- 
ing to  Cuvier,  the  great  work  of  A.  is  the  first  named, 
which  gave  a  truly  scientific  character  to  the  study 
of  fishes.  The  only  error  of  any  magnitude  which 
occurs  in  it  is  including  the  Cctaccfe  among  fishes. 
A.  was  also  a  distinguished  botanist.  He  was 
the  first  to  indicate,  as  a  special  characteristic,  the 
presence  or  absence  of  involucra  in  the  umbelliferous 
plants,  whose  species  are  so  difficult  to  distinguish 
from  each  other.  Linmeus  has  called  a  geniis  of 
these,  in  memory  of  his  friend,  Artcdia. 

I  ARTEMISIA  queen  of  Caria  (352—350  b.c), 
was  the  wife  of  Mausolus,  and  is  celebrated  for 
the  magnificicnt  mausoleum  which  she  caused  to 
be  erected  to  her  husband's  memory.  See  Mau- 
soleum.—Another  A.,  queen  of  "llalicarnas.sus, 
accompanied  Xerxes  in  his  expedition  against 
Greece,  and  distinguished  her.self  at  the  battle  of 
Salamis  (480  B.C.) ;  she  ended  her  life,  in  consequence 
of  an  unfortunate  attachment,  by  leaping  from  a 
rock. 

ARTEMI'SIA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Cmnposifce,  sub-order  Cori/mbifWa;  in  which  the 
flowers  of  the  disk  are  hermaphrodite,  those  of  the 
ray  in  one  row,  the  bracts  forming  a  roundish 
imbricated  head,  the  receptacle  naked  or  hairv,  the 
achronia  obovate,  and  destitute  of  pappus.  "  The 
heads  of  flowers  are  numerous  and  small ;  the  leaves 
generally  much  divided.  There  are  many  species, 
herbaceous  plants  and  shrubs,  natives  chiefly  of  the 

447 


ARTEMISIA— ARTERY. 


more  temperate  regions  of  the  eastern  hemispliere. 
They  have  generally  an  aromatic  smell,  more  or  less 
agreeable,  and  a  warm,  sometimes  ratlier  acrid  and 
bitterish  taste. — To  this  genus  belongs  Woumwoo»(v1. 
Absint/iiuin),  the  Apsinthion  of  the  ancient  Greeks, 
to  whom  its  medicinal  j)roperties  were  well  known. 
It  is  a  native  of  Britain,  the  continent  of  Europe, 
and  the  northern  parts  of  Asia,  growing  in  waste 
places,  by  waysides,  &c.  It  is  a  perennial,  2 — 4:  feet 
liigli ;  its  leaves  bipiimatifid  and  clothed  with  a 
silky  down,  and  its  small  hemispherical  diooping 
heads  of  flowers  are  of  a  dingy  yellow  colour,  and 
are  produced  in  axillary  panicles.  It  is  aromatic 
and  bitter,  containing  a  bitter  j)rincii)le  and  an 
essential  oil,  both  of  great  strength,  upon  nccount 
of  which  it  is  used  in  medicine  in  various  forms  (oil, 
extract,  tincture,  &c.),  as  a  stomachic  and  anthel- 
mintic or  vermifuge.  It  was  formerly  in  much  use 
as  a  febrifui^e.  It  is  a  plant  very  frequently  to  be 
found  in  cottagers'  gardens,  occupying  an  important 
place  in  their  domestic  pharmacopa-ia.  It  is  an 
essential  ingredient  in  a  number  of  compound 
medicines.  Its  roots,  and  those  of  some  other  siiecies 
of  this  genus,  have  been  recommended  in  epilepsy. — 
Sea  WoiiMwoon  [A.  maritima,  including  a  variety 
which  has  been  called  A.  Gallica),  a  native  of  salt- 
marshes  in  Britain  and  other  parts  of  Europe, 
possesses  similar  properties,  and  is  occasionally 
used  for  the  same  purposes ;  as  also  Roman  Worm- 
wood {A.  Fonticd),  a  native  of  the  middle  and  south 
of  Europe,  but  not  of  Britain — Tartarian  AVorm- 
Avoon  {A.  Santonica),  a  native  of  Tatary,  Persia,  and 
other  parts  of  the  East ;  and  Indian  Wormwood 
C..4.  Indica),  a  native  of  the  Himalaya,  abounding  at 


VVormwood  {Artemisia  Absinthium). 

elevations  of  2000 — 0000  feet.  Indian  wormwood 
grows  to  the  height  of  12  feet.  It  is  considered  in 
India  a  powcrtul  deobstruent  and  antispasmodic. 
Trek  Wormwood  {A.  arborescens),  a  native  of  the 
south  of  Europe  and  the  Levant,  is  also  larger  and 
more  shrubby  than  the  common  wormwood,  which, 
in  characters  and  qualities,  it  much  resembles. — The 
dried  flower-buds  of  a  number  of  species  of  A.  are 
sold  under  the  names  of  Wormseed  and  of  Semen 
Contra,  Semen  Cince,  Semencine,  &c.,  and  have  long 
448 


I  been  in  much  repute  as  an  anthelmintic.  A- 
Santoiiica,  and  A.  Sieheri  ("or  A.  Contra),  a  r)afive  of 
Palestine,  arc  believed  to  yield  much  of  the  worm- 
seed  which  is  brought  from  the  Levant,  also 
A.  Jiulaka,  a  native  of  the  East  and  of  Barbary, 
which  is  regarded  as  the  priuci[)al  source  of  the 
Barbary  wormseed.  The  flower-buds  of  ^1.  f/lomer- 
ata,  A.  Lerchiana,  and  A.  paucijtora,  natives  of  the 
banks  of  the  Volgn,  are  also  said  to  form  part  of  the 
wormseed  of  the  shops  ;  and  those  of  A.  VnJdiana  arc 
collected  in  the  north-east  of  Persia,  and  form  the 
Semen  Cincc  Levaidicuia  or  Semen  Ciiur  in  rirninn. 
The  flower-buds  of  A.  earufescens,  a  Alcditcrianean 
plant,  which  is  said  to  have  been  found  on  the  sea- 
coast  of  England,  form  the  anthelmintic  called 
Semen  Seriphii  or  Barbotine.  Those  of  ..1.  camphnrata, 
another  native  of  the  south  of  Europe,  are  used  in 
the  same  way.  Even  those  of  A.  Abxintliium  and 
A.  vu/f/aris  are  used  under  the  name  of  wormseed. 
— The  plants  from  which  the  bitter  aromatic  liquor 
called  Extrait,  Eon,  or  Crime  </'  ahxinthe  is  prepared, 
are  small  low-growing  species  of  A.  A.  mutiilina, 
A.  glacialls,  A.  rupestris,  A.  spirafa,  &c.),  found  on 
the  Alps,  and  known  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  Alps 
by  the  name  of  Genipi.  This  li(|ueur,  generally 
diluted  with  water,  is  sometimes  used  by  persons  so 
devoted  to  the  pleasures  of  the  table  that  they 
cannot  wait  for  the  natural  return  of  appetite,  and  also 
by  those  who  really  suffer  IVom  weakness  of  diges- 
tion. It  is  a  usefid  and  agreeable  stomachic,  and  is 
very  popular  in  France. — Mit.wort  {A.  vn'f/aris),  a 
common  native  of  Britain  and  of  the  continent  of 
Europe,  often  I'ound  about  ruins  and  in  waste  places, 
grows  to  the  height  of  3 — 4  feet,  with  pinnatifid 
leaves  and  somewhat  raccmed  small  flowers,  which 
have  each  five  florets  of  the  ray.  It  emits,  when 
rubbed,  an  agreeable  smell,  and  has  a  bitter  taste. 
In  Germany,  the  young  shoots  and  leaves  are  used 
in  cookery  for  seasoning.  It  is  used  also  for  the 
same  medicinal  purposes  as  wormwood,  but  is 
weaker.  Its  leaves,  and  those  of  some  of  the  other 
species,  are  used  as  fomentations  for  cleansing  and 
healing  wounds. — Southernwood  {A.  Abrotanum) 
is  a  shrubby  plant  w'ith  long  straight  stems,  3 — i 
feet  high,  the  low'er  leaves  bipinnate,  upper  leaves 
piimate,  their  segments  hair-like.  It  is  a  native 
of  the  south  of  Europe  and  middle  parts  of  Asia, 
and  has  long  been  a  favourite  plant  in  cottage- 
gardens  in  Britain.  It  has  an  aromatic  and  pleasant 
odour.  The  leaves  are  used  to  drive  away  moths 
from  linen;  and  in  some  p.irts  of  the  continent 
of  Europe,  as  an  ingredient  in  the  manufacture  of 
beer.  The  smell  of  this  plant  appears  to  be  pecu- 
liarly disagreeable  to  bees,  which  retreat  from  it ; 
and  a  little  branch  of  southernwood  is  sometimes 
efficaciously  used  when  they  arc  swarming,  to  pro« 
mote  their  ascent  into  the  new  hive  placed  over 
them. — (^Artemisia  ludoviciana)  or  Sage  of  the  West- 
ern plains,  is  almost  universally  spread  over  the  arid 
interior  of  the  central  basin  of  N.  America  on  the 
Upper  Missouri,  Columbia,  Snake  and  Humboldt 
rivers,  whei'e  it  is  often  a  great  annoyance  to  travel- 
lers. It  a]>pears  at  the  meridian  of  98"  W.,  and  oc- 
cupies the  northern  half  of  the  plains  above  35",  while 
the  CactacciT;  prevail  south  of  this  line.  Its  jiresence 
is  indicative  of  barrenness  and  deficiency  of  grass, 
and  an  alkaline  soil  the  result  of  an  arid  climate. 
— Moxa  (q.  v.)  is  prepared  by  the  Chinese  from  the 
leaves  of  A.  Moxa  and  other  species,  the  whole 
surface  of  w^hose  leaves  is  covered  with  a  thick  down. 
— A.  acetica,  a  Persian  species,  is  said  to  have  a  strong 
odour  of  vinegar. 

A'RTERY  (Lat.  aer  and  tero),  named  from  the  old 
idea  that  these  tubes  were  air-carriers.  Arteries  are 
the  vessels  through  which  the  blood  passes  from  the 
left  side  of  the  heart  to  the  tissuts.     The  structure 


ARTERY— ARTESIAN  WELLS. 


of  an  arterial  tube  is  very  complex,  and  a  section  of 
it  may  be  roughly  subdivided  into  three  layers,  called 
the  coats  of  the  artery  :   an  external,  which  is  clastic 


Subdivisions  of  Arterial  Wall. 
1.  Epithelial,      )  i„tPrniI  ^-  ^I"scular,  ) 

5.  Fibrous,  ig^j^^^^i_ 

6.  Areolar,  j 


middle. 


and  distensible ;  a  middle,  which  is  muscular,  con- 
tractile, and  brittle  ;  an  internal,  also  brittle,  smooth, 
iind  transparent,  being  lined  with  epithelium  on  the 
side  washed  by  the  blood.  The  tube  is  also  enveloped 
in  cellular  tissue,  termed  the  sAc«//*  of  the  A.  When 
an  A.  is  wounded  by  a  sharp  instrument,  the  effect 
varies  with  the  direction  of  the  cut.  Thus,  if  longi- 
tudinal, the  edges  may  not  separate,  and  the  wound 
may  heal  without  much  bleeding ;  if  oblique  or 
transverse,  the  edges  gape,  and  a  nearly  circular 
orifice  allows  of  a  profuse  hemorrhage.  If  the  A.  be 
completely  divided,  its  walls  do  not  collapse,  like  those 
of  a  vein,  but  pass  through  certain  changes  provided 
by  nature  to  prevent  fatal  bleeding.  The  cut  orifice 
contracts,  and  also  retracts  into  its  cellular  sheath  ; 
this  checks  the  flow  of  blood,  a  clot  of  which  shortly 
forms  on  the  outer  side;  then  another  forms  inside 
the  vessel ;  and  together  they  stem  the  flow,  till  the 
cut  edges  of  the  A.  have  time  to  throw  out  lymph 
(see  Adhesion),  and  heal  as  wounds  of  other  tissues. 
Wlien  an  A.  is  compressed  by  a  ligature,  the  brittle 
inner  and  middle  coats  crack,  curl  inwards,  and  heal. 
See  Bleeding. 

The  arteries  of  the  human  body  are  all  offsets, 
more  or  less  direct,  of  the  aorta.  As  each  main 
trunk  passes  into  a  portion  of  the  body,  it  divides 
into  two  principal  divisions  :  one,  which  breaks  up 
into  branches  for  the  supply  of  the  tissues  in  the 
vicinity — the  A.  oi  supply  ;  and  another,  which  passes 
almost  branchless  to  supply  the  parts  beyond — the 
A.  of  transmission.  These,  however,  anastomose 
(q.  v.)  freely,  so  that  the  distant  tissues  arc  not 
solely  dependent  for  their  supply  on  only  one 
arterial  trunk.  Thus,  the  femoral  A.  divides  in  the 
groin  into  the  profunda,  or  deep  femoral,  to  supply 
tlie  thigh,  and  the  superficial  femoral,  to  supply  the 
leg  below  the  knee.  Again,  the  common  carotid 
divides  into  external  carotid,  to  supply  the  neck  and 
head,  and  the  internal  carotid,  to  supply  the  brain. 
Although  arteries  have  generally  the  same  distribu- 
tion or  arrangement  of  branches,  they  occasionally 
vary,  and  thereby  are  apt  to  puzzle  a  superficial 
anatomist.  Mr.  Thomas  Nunn  of  London,  an  excel- 
lent human  anatomist,  has  lately  shewn  that  these 
anomalies  in  arterial  distribution  are  all  governed 
by  the  law  of  arterial  distribution  just  mentioned,  a 
fact  which  not  only  simplifies  the  study  of  arterial 
anatomy,  but  assists  the  operative  surgeon  out  of 
perplexing  positions.  The  principal  arteries  will  be 
considered  under  their  distinctive  names.  The  best 
29 


authority  on   arteries   is   the   splendid   work   of  R. 
Quaiu. 

ARTE'SIAN   WELLS  are   perpendicular  borings 
into  the   ground,  through  which    water  rises,  from 
various    depths,  according    to    circumstances,  above 
the  surface  of  the  soil.     The  possibility  of  obtaining 
water  in  this  way  in  a  particular  district  depends  on 
its  geological  structure.     All  rocks  contain  more  or 
less  water.     Arenaceous  rocks  receive  water  mecha- 
nically,  and    according    to    their    compactness    and 
pmity,  part  with  a  larger  or  smaller  proportion  of  it. 
A  cubic  yard  of  pure  sea-sand  can  contain,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  quantity  of  dry  sand  which  occupies  that 
space,  about  one-third  of  its  bulk  of  water.    It  would 
part  with  nearly  the  whole  of  this  into  a  well  sunk 
in  it,  and  regularly  pumped  from.      Chalk  and  other 
rocks,  composed  of  fine  particles,  closely  compacted 
together,  contain  as  large  a  proportion  of  water  ;  but 
from  the  power  of  capillary  attraction,  little  or  none 
of  this   water  would   be   drained   into  a  well  sunk 
in    such   rock.      From    the  existence,  however,   of 
numerous  crevices  in  chalk  through  which  the  water 
freely  flows,  and   from   the   general   presence   of  a 
larger  quantity  of  water  than   the    porous   rock    is 
aljle  to  retain,  wells  sunk  in  chalk  often  yield  water. 
There   is   yet   a    third   class   of    rocks,  which   are 
perfectly   impervious    to    water:    such    are    clays, 
which   are    absolutely  retentive,    neither    allowing 
water  to  be  obtained  from  them  nor  to  pass  through 
them.     When   such   rocks   occur   in   basins   (q.  v.) 
in  alternating  layers,  and  in  such  order  that  pervious 
beds   are   inserted   between   impervious  ones,  it   is 
evident  that  if  a  perforation  is  made  through  the 
retentive    barrier-bed    in    the    lower   portion  of  the 
basin,   the    water    contained    in    the    water-logged 
strata  will  rise  through  the  bore  to  a  height  depend- 
ing  upon  the   pressure  of  water  which  has  accumu- 
lated in  the  confined  sloping  space  between  the  two 
impervious    beds.     The   explanation   will   be   more 
evident  by  a  reference  to  the  acconipanying  figure, 
which  may  be  considered  as  a  diagrammetic   section 
of  the   London  basin.     There  is  here  a  number  of 
porous  beds,  6,  6,  composing  the  cretaceous  measures, 
resting   on   the    impervious   gault,    «a,    and   these, 


Section  of  the  Loudon  Liasin. 

again,  are  covered  by  the  equallyimpervious  series 
of  tne  London  clay,  cc,  which  form  the  strata  on 
the  surface,  and  extend  to  ■  a  considerable  depth. 
The  edges  of  the  chalk-beds  are  largely  exposed 
in  the  higher  grounds  around  London  ;  the  water 
falhng  on°the  whole  area  of  these  exposed  edges, 
sinks  into  the  more  or  less  porous  cretaceous  beds, 
and  would,  in  course  of  time,  by  continued  acces- 
sions, fill  up  the  basin,  were  it  not  prevented  by  the 
clay  above.  By  driving  a  bore,  </,  through  this 
superior  bed,  the  inferior  water-logged  strata-  are 
reached,  and  the  subterranean  water  rises  to-  the 
surfiice,  and  flows  continuously,  by  means  of  hydro- 
static pressure. 

Manv  such  wells  exist  in  London  and  its  vicinity, 
those  which  form  the  ornamental  fountains  in 
Trafalgar  Siquare  descend  into  the  upper  chalk 
to  a  depth  of  393  feet.  The  most  famous  artesian 
well  perhaps  is  that  of  Grenello,  in  the  outskirts  of 
Paris,  where  the..- water  is  brought  from  the   gauit 

449' 


ARTEVELDE— ARTHUR. 


at  a  depth  of  17lt8  feet.  It  yields  51G^  gallons 
of  water  in  a  minute,  which  is  raised  with  such 
a  force  as  to  be  propelled  32  feet  above  the  surface. 
The  pressure  required  to  effect  this  has  been 
calculated  to  exceed  .50  atmospheres  at  the  bottom 
of  the  bore.  The  water  has  a  constant  temperature 
of  81°-7  F. 

It  is  believed  that  the  Chinese  have  been  long 
acquainted  with  artesian  wells.  They  have  been  in 
use  for  centuries  in  Austria,  especially  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Vienna,  where  they  are  very  abundant. 
No  knowledge  existed  as  to  their  source,  and  conse- 
quently the  boring  for  them  was  engaged  in  and 
conducted  in  a  rude  and  empirical  manner.  An 
excavation  was  made,  till  a  bed  of  clay  was  reached  ; 
on  this  a  perforated  mill-stone  was  laid,  and  through 
the  hole  the  clay  was  bored  until  water  rose.  As 
soon  as  geology  took  the  position  of  a  science, 
and  the  theory  of  A.  W.  was  propounded,  the 
engineer  was  able,  after  the  geological  survey  of 
a  district,  to  discover  whether  a  supply  of  water 
could  there  be  obtained  in  this  way.  Already, 
districts  formerly  dry  and  arid  have  received  a 
plentiful  supply  of  water  by  means  of  such  wells, 
and  many  more  applications  have  yet  to  be  made :  it 
seems  likely  that  erelong  Africa's  deserts  may  thus 
be  converted  into  fertile  plains.  In  an  official 
report  of  the  Algerian  government  for  1856 — 1857, 
it  is  stated  that  Artesian  borings  have  been  executed 
in  the  Sahara  of  the  province  of  Constantine  with 
remarkable  success.  The  first  attempt,  after  a 
few  weeks'  labour,  produced  a  constant  stream, 
forming  a  perfect  river,  and  yielding  4010  quarts 
of  water  per  minute,  at  a  temperature  of  78°  F. 
Several  other  wells  have  been  sunk  with  equal 
success.  The  result  is  likely  to  be  beneficial  not 
only  to  the  country  materially,  but  also  to  the 
character  and  ha1)its  of  its  nonuidic  Arab  inhabi- 
tants. Several  tribes  have  already  settled  down 
around  these  wells,  and  forming  thus  the  centres  of 
settlements,  have  constructed  villiiges,  planted  date- 
palms,  and  entirely  renounced  their  previous  wander- 
ing existence. 

A.  W.  have  supplied  a  portion  of  the  data  upon 
which  the  internal  temperature  of  the  earth  has 
been  calculated.  They  have  their  origin  below  that 
zone  which  is  affected  by  the  changing  superficial 
temperature  of  the  seasons,  and  consequently  the 
water  is  of  a  constant  temperature.  Thus  the 
Crenelle  artesian  well  has  a  temperature  of  81°'7  F., 
while  the  mean  temperature  of  the  air  in  the 
cellar  of  the  Paris  Observatory  is  only  53°.  MM. 
Arago  and  Walferdin  observc(i  the  temperature  as 
the  work  proceeded,  and  found  that  there  was  a 
gradual  and  regular  increase  downwards.  The  latter 
gentleman  has  recently  made  a  series  of  very  accu- 
rate and  careful  observations  on  the  temperature  of 
two  borings  at  Creuzot,  within  a  mile  of  each  other, 
commencing  at  a  height  of  1030  feet  above  the 
sea,  and  going  down  to  a  depth,  the  one  of  2(178 
feet,  the  other  about  1900  feet.  The  results,  after 
every  possible  caution  had  been  taken  to  insure 
correctness,  gave  a  rise  of  1°  F.  for  every  55  feet 
down  to  a  depth  of  1800  feet,  beyond  which  the 
rise  was  more  rapid,  being  1°  for  every  44  feet  of 
descent. 

ARTEVELDE,  Jacob,  a  brewer  of  Ghent,  cele- 
brated as  a  popular  leader  in  the  14th  c.  In  the 
•war  between  England  and  France,  he  gave  his  aid 
to  the  former,  while  the  counts  of  Flanders  sup- 
ported the  latter.  A.,  after  gaining  great  advantan:es 
over  the  party  of  the  nobles,  went  too  far  when  he 
proposed  that  the  son  of  Edward  III.  of  England 
should  be  elected  Count  of  Flanders.  For  this  the 
Flemings  were  not  prepared,  and,  in  consequence, 
A.  was  killed  in  a  popular  insurrection,  August  19, 
450 


1345.  His  son  Philip,  in  1381,  was  leader  of  the 
people  of  Ghent  in  their  civil  war  against  Bruges, 
and  gained  a  victory  over  Count  Louis.  The  latter 
was  afterwards  assisted  by  Cliarles  VI.  of  France, 
and  Philip  A.  was  defeated  and  slain  in  the  battle  of 
Rosbeke,  1382.  The  history  of  A.  has  been  several 
times  treated  dramatically.  In  England,  Henry  Tay- 
lor, a  living  writer  of  eminence,  has  produced  a  beau- 
tiful '  closet-play,'  entitled  Philip  Van  Artcvelde. 

A'RTHUR,  King  of  the  tribe  of  ancient  Britons 
called  Silures,  lived  in  the  beginning  of  the  Hth  c. 
He  rallied  round  him  the  remains  of  the  British 
tribes,  now  driven  into  the  west  of  England,  and 
bravely  defended  the  liberty  and  faith  of  his  people 
against  the  encroaching  and  conquering  pagan  Anglo- 
Saxons,  under  Ccrdic.  Lancashire  and  the  north- 
west seems  to  have  been  the  scene  of  the  first  part 
of  his  career;  afterwards  it  lay  in  the  south,  where 
he  fought  the  battles  of  Llongborth,  supposed  to  be 
Portsmouth,  and  Badon,  identified  by  some  with  Bath. 
In  a  battle  with  his  own  nephew,  Modrcd,  who  had 
revolted,  fought  on  the  Camlan,  in  Cornwall,  in  542, 
A.  was  mortally  wounded,  and  being  conveyed  to 
(ilastonl)ury,  died,  and  was  buried  there  (in  insula 
Avalonia).  Tradition  preserved  the  memory  of  the 
place  of  his  interment ;  and  Giraldus  Cambrensis 
relates  that  he  was  present  when  the  tomb  was 
opened  by  command  of  Henry  II.,  and  the  bones 
and  sword  of  the  monarch  found.  Thus  much  may, 
perhaps,  be  received  as  history. 

But  this  last  struggle  of  the  Celtic  peoples  before 
they  were  nationally  extinguished,  became  the 
groundwork  of  a  multitude  of  heroic  legends,  which 
spread  from  Wales  and  Bretagne  (Armorica)  over 
the  whole  Romanic  and  Teutonic  worlds,  and  for 
centuries  furnished  favourite  themes  for  the  poets  of 
the  middle  ages.  In  the  lays  of  the  Welsh  bards, 
supposed  to  be  as  early  as  the  Gth  and  7th  cen- 
turies (although  no  manuscript  is  extant  of  older 
date  than  the  12th  c),  the  national  hero  A.  and  his 
brave  companions  are  celebrated.  It  is  in  the 
chronicles  of  the  9th  c.  (Nennius)  that  the  legend- 
ary additions  begin  to  develop  themselves,  and  the 
magician  Alerlin  comes  into  association  with  A. 
According  to  the  romances,  A.'s  father,  L'ther,  con- 
ceiving a  passion  for  Igerna,  wife  of  Gorlois,  Duke 
of  Cornwall,  was  changed  by  Merlin  into  the  like- 
ness of  Gorlois,  and  A.  was  the  result.  After  his 
father's  death,  A.  became  paramount  leader  of  the 
British,  vaniiuislied  the  Saxons  in  a  number  of 
battles,  and  made  victorious  expeditions  to  Scotland, 
Ireland,  Denmark,  Norway,  and  even  to  France, 
where  he  defeated  a  great  Roman  army.  During  his 
absence,  his  nephew,  Modred,  revolted,  and  seduced 
Ginevra  or  Guinevere,  Prince  A.'s  wife.  A.  return- 
ing, fell  in  a  battle  with  his  nephew;  but  according 
to  popular  belief,  he  is  not  dead;  his  soul  went  into 
a  raven,  and  he  will  yet  reappear.  His  habitual 
residence  was  at  Caerleon,  on  the  Usk,  in  Wales, 
where,  with  his  beautifid  wife  Guinevere,  he  lived  in 
splendid  state,  surrounded  by  hundreds  of  knights 
and  beautiful  ladies,  who  served  as  patterns  of 
valour,  breeding,  and  grace  to  all  the  world.  Twelve 
knights,  the  bravest  of.  the  throng,  formed  the  centre 
of  this  retinue,  and  sat  W'ith  the  king  at  a  round 
table— the  '  Knights  of  the  Round  Table.'  From  the 
court  of  King  A.  there  also  went  knights  to  all 
countries  in  search  of  adventures — to  protect  women, 
chastise  oppressors,  liberate  the  enchanted,  enchain 
giants  and  malicious  dwarfs,  was  their  knightly 
mission.  The  description  of  these  adventures,  the 
scene  of  many  of  which  is  laid  in  what  is  still  called 
the  Brezilian  forest  in  Bretagne,  forms  the  subject 
of  the  innumerable  romances  about  A.  and  his 
knights  that  abounded  in  all  the  languages  of  the 
West.     A   Welsh   collection    of    stories    called   the 


ARTHUR'S  SEAT— ARTICLE. 


Ilahluogioti,    supposed   to  be    of  the  1-Uh    c,  and 
lately  translated    into    Enr;lish    by    Lady    Charlotte 
Guest,    gives    an    idea    of    the    Artliuiian    legends 
that    circulated    in    the    native    land    of    the    hero. 
In    Fiance,    whither    the     subject     first    found    its 
way,  the  '  knights  of  the  round  table  '  became  the 
ideal  of  that  splendid  and  courtly  chivalry,  which 
there   reached   its   acme   in  the  12th  c.     Early   in 
that   century,    the   chivalric   romances    of   France 
became  known  in  Germany,  and  there    the    rather 
lifeless   and    ■wearisome     matter    of    the    Arthurian 
legends  assumed  a  more  animated  and  artistic  form 
in  the  Parr.lval  of  AVolfram  of  Eschenbach,  Tristan 
and  Jsolt  of  Gottfried  of  Strasburg,  Erec  and  Iwein 
of  Ilartmann,  and  Wi//a!ois   of  Wirnt.     The    most 
renowned  of  the  heroes  of  the  Arthurian  school  are 
Peredur  (Parzival  or  Perceval),  Tristan  or  Tristram, 
Iwein,  Erec,    Gawein,  Wigalois,  Wigamur,  Gauriel, 
and  Lancelot.  From  France,  the  Arthurian  romances 
spread  also  to  Spain,  Provence,  Italy,  and  the  Nether- 
lands, and  were  also  retransplanted   into  Enclaiul. 
It  was  only  towards  the  end  of  the  middle  ages  that 
these  legends  made  their  way  through  Germany  to  the 
Norse  and  Slavonic  peoples.     As  early  as  the  middle 
of  the  12th  c,  Geoifrey  of  Monmouth  (q.  v.) — pro- 
fessing to  translate  from  a  history  of  Britain  written 
in    the  British  tongue,  and    found    in  Arnioiica  or 
Brittany,  but  more  probably  himself  weaving  into  a 
kind  of  connected  history  the  popular  tales  current 
in  Wales,  of  which  he  was  a  native,  and  in  Armo- 
rica — had  written  the  story  of  King  Arthur  in  Latin 
prose,  but  without  many  of  the  embellishments  it 
subsequently  received  from  the  Romancers.     One  of 
the  publications  that  issued  from  the  press  of  Caxtoii 
(1485),  was    a   collection  of  stories  by  Sir  Thomas 
Malory,  either    compiled   by  him    in   English,  from 
various  of  the  later  French  romances  (such  as  T7ie 
Prophecies  of  Merlin  ;  The  Quest  of  the  St.  Graal ; 
The   Romanre   of  Sir  Lancelot   of  the   Lake;    The 
History  of  Sir  Tristram,  &c.),  or  translated  directly 
from  an  already  existing  French    compendium.     A 
reprint  of  Caxton's  JCync/e  Arthur,  with    an    intro- 
duction and  Notes,  by  Robert  Southev,  was  issued 
in    1817    (The   Byrfh,    Life,    and   Acies    of   Kyng 
Arthur  ;  of  his  Noble  Kriyghtes  of  the  Round  Table, 
&c.,  2  vols.  4to).     The  name  of  King  A.  was  given 
during  the  middle  ages  to  many  places  and  monu- 
ments supposed  to  have  been  in  some  way  associated 
with   his   exploits,    such    as   '  Arthur's    Seat '   near 
Edinburgh,   '  Arthur's    Oven '    on    the    Carron    near 
Falkirk,  &c.     What  was  called  the  sepulclire  of  his 
queen  was  shewn  at  Meigle,  in  Strathmore,  in  the 
16th  c.     The  interest  of  the  legends  about  King  A. 
and  his  knights  has  recently  been  revived    by  the 
publication  of  Tennyson's  Idylls  of  the  King  (1859). 
See  Turner's  History  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  Appendix ; 
Warton's  History  of  English  Poetry  ;  Ritson's   King 
Arthur;  De  la  Villemarque,    C'ontes  Populaires  des 
Anciens  Bretons  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1842);  Griisse,  Die 
Grosse  Sagenkreise  des  Mittelalters  (Leip.  1842). 

ARTHUR'S  SEAT,  a  hill  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  Edinburgh,  which  rises  to  the  height  of 
822  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  ascent  is 
easy,  and  the  prospect  from  the  top  unrivalled. 

A.  S.  is  supposed  to  derive  its  name  from  the  British 
king  of  that  name.  When  the  hill  received  this  ap- 
pellation is  not  known ;  but  as  early  as  the  close  of 
the  15th  c,  Kennedy,  the  Scotch  poet,  mentions 
'  Arthur  Sate  or  ony  hieker  hill.' 

The  hill  is  formed  of  a  mass  of  trap  of  various 
species,  upheaved  through  the  carboniferous  strata 
of  Central  Scotland,  and  presenting  on  the  west 
and  south  sides,  at  the  height  of  570  feet,  a  perpen- 
dicular range  of  precipices,  called  Salisbury  Crags, 
60  to  80  feet  high.  The  trap  is  in  tabular  masses, 
aid   has    elevated   and  hardened  the  carboniferous 


sandstone,  shale,  and  limestone  beds,  which  dip  east, 
and  crop  out  on  the  west,  besides  being  broken 
through  and  overflowed  by  the  trap-rocks.  In  the 
centre  of  the  hill,  the  trap  often  encloses  fragments 
of  sandstone,  and  divides  it  by  veiii.s.  The  central 
and  upper  part  of  the  hill,  and  the  remarkable 
columns  called  '  Samson's  Ribs,'  consist  of  basalt. 
To  determine  the  density  of  the  earth,, a  series  of 
observations  was  made  in  1855  by  Lieutenant-Colonel 
James  of  the  Ordnance  Survey,  on  the  attraction  of 
A.  S.,  or  the  amount  of  deviation  from  the  vertical 
caused  by  its  mass  on  the  plumb-line.  Calculation 
made  the  mean  density  of  the  whole  earth  5-31  (J 
(water  being  1),  or  about  twice  the  mean  specific 
gravity  of  the  rocks  forming  the  hill,  which  experi- 
ment gave  as  2'710. 

A'RTICHOKE  {Cynara  Scolymus),  a  thistle-like 
perennial  plant,  now  growing  wild  in  the  south  of 
Euroi)e,  but  probably  a  native  of  Asia.  The  genus 
Cynara  belongs  to  the  natural  order  Compositce,  sub- 
order Cynarorephalcp,  and  is  distinguished  by  the 
bracts  of  the  involucre  being  fleshy  at  the  base,  and 
emarginate,  with  a  hard  point,  and  the  receptacle 
fringed.    C.  Scolymus  has  the  radical  leaves  3 — 1  feet 


Artichoke. 
(Head  of  flowers.) 

long,  somewhat  spiny,  some  of  them  pinnatifid,  some 
undivided.  The  stem  is  two  or  three  feet  high, 
branched,  with  large  heads  of  violet-coloured  (some- 
times white)  thistle-like  flowers  at  the  summits 
of  the  branches.  The  involucre  is  tumid,  and 
consists  of  fleshy,  roundish-ovate,  crenatc,  acu- 
minate, imbricated  scales.  The  seeds  are  elongated 
and  quadrangular,  with  smooth  and  firmly  attached 
pappus.  The  plant  has  been  long  cultivated  for  the 
sake  of  the  delicate  succulent  >Y(<'/>/afZf.s' of  the  heads 
of  flowers,  taken  before  the  flowers  expand,  which 
are  boiled  and  eaten,  or,  on  the  continent  of  Europe, 
eaten  raw  with  salt  and  pepper.  The  part  used  is 
the  same  which  is  called  the  cheese  in  thistles  by 
children,  and  is  sometimes  eaten  by  them.  The  tender 
cei.trd  leaf-stalk  is  also  occasionally  used  in  the 
same  way  as  that  of  the  Cardoon.  Several  varieties 
are  in  cultivation,  differing  in  the  more  or  less 
spiny  leaves,  and  the  more  or  less  globose  form  of 
the  head.  Artichokes  are  generally  propagated  by 
rooted  slips  or  suckers  in  spring.  These  are  planted 
in  rows  about  four  feet  asunder,  and  two  feet  apart 
in  the  row.  The  A.  bed  continues  productive  for 
several  year.*.  Seaweed  is  an  excellent  manure. — 
The  Cardoon  (q.  v.)  belongs  to  the  same  genus. — 
The  Jerusalem  A.  (q.  v.)  is  a  totaKy  different 
plant. 

ARTICLE   (Lat.    articulus,    a  joint)  signifies   in 

451 


articl::— AHTicr-Es  of  war. 


genend  a  part  of  a  systematic  whole.  Tlm.s,  we 
speak  of  tlie  sevrrul  articles  of  a  confession  ;  the 
articles  of  war;  a  leading  iirticle,  &c. 

The  use  of  A.  a3  a  grammatical  term  arose  as 
follows.  In  such  a  sentence  as,  '  He  found  that  (or 
thf)  man  that  he  was  looking  for,'  the  (ireeks  con- 
sidered the  defining  particles  as  connecting  the  two 
parts  of  the  sentence,  and  called  them  joints  (Gr. 
arthra,  Lat.  articnli) ;  the  name  was  subsequently 
confined  to  the  first  of  the  two,  the  other  being  called 
the  relative. 

In  English,  there  are  two  articles — the  definite  the, 
and  the  indefinite  a  or  an  ;  and  other  modern 
languages  have  corresponding  words.  IJut  articles 
are  not  essential  to  language.  The  Latin  had  no 
articles,  and  the  Greek,  as  well  as  the  older  Germanic 
languages,  the  Moeso-Gothic  and  old  Norse,  c.  g., 
had  only  the  definite  A.  '  In  no  language,'  says 
Dr  Latham,  '  in  its  oldest  stage,  is  there  ever  a  word 
giving,  in  its  priinary  sense,  the  idea  of  an  or  of  the. 
As  tongues  become  modern,  sonic  word  with  a 
similar  sense  is  used  to  express  the  relation.  In 
the  course  of  time,  a  change  of  form  takes  jilace,  cor- 
responding to  the  change  of  meaning.' 

The  definite  articles  originate  uniformly  in  demon- 
strative pionouns.  Enir.  the  is  only  a  weakened  IVirni 
of  //;«/( Anglo-Saxon  thwt).  The  same  is  the  case  with 
Ger.  drr ;  and  Fr.  Ic,  Ital.  il  and  /o,  and  Sp.  cl, 
are  all  from  the  Lat.  ille,  '  that.'  In  like  manner,  a)i 
or  a  is  from  the  old  form  of  one  (ane) ;  Ger.  cin  is 
both  one  and  a  ;  nnd  so  arc  Fr.  un,  Ital.  and  Sp.  uno, 
both  fiom  Lat.  unn.s^one. 

In  the  Scandinavian  tongues,  the  article  is  attached 
to  the  end  of  the  word  ;  the  Danish,  for  example, 
writes  koncj-en,  the  king ;  hus-ef,  the  house. 

A'RTICLES  OF  WAR  are  regulations  made  for 
the  government  of  the  nnlitary  and  naval  forces  of 
the  country.  They  are  of  three  classes — 1.  Those 
relating  to  the  army,  including  therein  the  forces  in 
India,  according  to  the  provisions  of  the  21  and 
22  Vict.  c.  106;  2.  Those  relating  to  the  marine 
forces ;  and  3.  Those  relating  to  the  navy. 

1.  A.  of  W.  for  the  Ann;/. — These  are  regu- 
lations or  ordinances  issued  under  the  authority  of 
the  annual  Mutiny  Act  (q.  v.),  and  which  Articles 
that  act  provides  shall  be  judicially  taken  notice  of 
by  all  judges  and  in  all  courts  whatsoever;  and 
copies  of  the  same  printed  by  the  Queen's  printer 
shall,  as  soon  as  may  be  after  the  same  shall  have 
Ijeen  made  and  established  by  Her  Majesty,  be  trans- 
mitted by  Her  Majesty's  Secretary-at-war  to  the 
judges  of  Her  Majesty's  superior  cotirts  at  West- 
minster, Dublin,  and  Edinburgh  respectively,  and 
also  to  the  governors  of  Her  Majesty's  dominions 
abroad ;  provided  that  no  person  within  the  United 
Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  or  within 
the  British  Isles,  shall  by  such  A.  ofW.be  subject 
to  be  kept  in  penal  servitude,  or  to  suffer  any 
punishment  extending  to  life  or  Kmb,  except  for 
crimes  which  the  act  expressly  declares  shall  be 
so  punishable.  And  for  the  enforcement  of  such 
A.  of  W.,  a  power  is  given  to  the  crown  to  erect,  or 
grant  authority  to  convene,  courts-martial  with  the 
jurisdiction  to  try  and  punish  offences  according  to 
the  Articles  themselves  and  the  provisions  of  the 
Mutiny  Act.  In  order,  however,  to  limit  as  fir  as 
possible  the  power  conceded  to  the  crown  in  this 
matter,  it  is  enacted  that  nothing  therein  contained 
shall  be  construed  to  exempt  any  officer  or  soldier 
from  being  proceeded  against  by  the  ordinary  course 
of  law  ;  and  that  where  he  is  accused  of  any  ofience 
against  a  subject  of  the  realm  punishable  by  the 
known  laws  of  the  land,  he  shall  he  delivered  over 
to  the  civil  magistrate.  The  military  offences  against 
which  the.se  A.  of  W.  are  directed,  relate  to  the 
soldier's  duties  and  obligations  ;  to  crimes  and 
452 


offences  and  their  punishments  ;  to  courts-martial  » 
and  to  military  rank.  The  military  crimes  and 
offences  referred  to  are  those  against  divine  worship, 
mutiny,  and  insuboidination,  desertion  and  absence 
without  leave,  offencik-i  in  the  field,  camp,  garrison, 
or  quarters ;  drunkenness,  disgraceful  conduct,  false 
returns,  billets  and  carriages,  and  miscellaneous 
offences.  By  the  3d  of  these  Articles  it  is  ordered 
that  every  recruit  shall,  within  ninety-si.x  hours 
after  recruiting,  have  the  4<itli*  and  4(;ih  of  the 
Articles  read  to  him,  and  shall,  within  ninety-six 
hours,  f)ut  not  sooner  than  twenty-four  hours,  make 
the  following  oath  before  some  qualified  authority  : 
'  /  do  make  oath.  That  I  will  be  faithful  and  hear 
tnie  allegiatice  to  her  Ma  jest  i/,  her  heirs  and  siirvessors, 
and  that  I  will,  as  in  duty  bound,  honestly  and  fait  h- 
fnlly  defend  her  Majesty,  her  hcirn  and  successors, 
in  person,  crown  and  dignity,  ayainst  all  enemies, 
and  will  observe  and  obey  all  orders  of  her  Majesty, 
her  heirs  and  successors,  and  of  the  generals  and 
officers  set  over  me.  So  help  me  God.  The  160th 
article  also  deserves  notice.  It  is  to  the  effect, 
that  whenever  any  military  forces  shall  have 
enil)arked  on  board  ships  of  war  or  transports,  the 
officers  and  soldiers  of  such  forces  shall,  from  the 
time  of  endiarkation  on  board  ship,  strictly  conform 
themselves  to  the  laws  and  regulations  established 
for  the  government  and  discipline  of  the  ship  ;  and 
shall  consider  themselves,  for  these  necessary  pur- 
poses, under  the  command  of  the  senior  officer  of  the 
particular  ship,  as  well  as  under  the  superior  officer 
of  the  fleet  (if  any),  to  which  such  ship  belongs.  See 
A.  of  W.  for  the  Marine  Forces. 

2.  A.  <f  W.  for  the  Marine  Forces  arc  the  regulations 
made  under  the  authority  of  another  annual  Mutiny 
Act,  which  relates  exclusively  to  the  royal  marine 
forces;  but,  ludike  the  A.  of  W.  for  the  army,  they 
do  not  issue  directly  from  the  crown,  but  are  made 
by  the  Lord  High  Admiral  of  the  navy,  or  by  the 
conmiissioners  for  executing  that  office,  and  they  are 
expressly  authorised  so  to  be  made  by  the  first  sec- 
tion of  the  last-mentioned  Mutiny  Act.  With  this 
exception  they  are  in  themselves  very  much  the 
same  as  the  A.  of  W.  for  the  army.  They  relate 
exclusively,  however,  to  the  nvarine  forces  vhile  on 
shore,  and  this  specialty  is  very  anxiotisly  expressed 
in  the  preamble  of  the  act,  which  proceeds  on  the 
recital  that  '  the  said  forces  may  frequently  be  quar- 
tered, or  be  on  shore,  or  sent  to  do  duty,  or  be  on 
board  transport-ships,  or  merchant-ships,  or  vessels, 
or  they  may  be  under  other  circumstances  in  which 
they  will  not  l)e  subject  to  the  laws  relating  to  the 
government  of  her  Majesty's  forces  by  sea.'  Of 
course,  while  on  board,  and  doing  duty  in  any  of 
Her  Majesty's  ships  or  vessels  in  commission,  the 
marines,  like  the  other  naval  forces,  are  subject  to 
the  A.  of  W.  made  for  the  government  of  the  navy. 

3.  A.  of  W.  for  the  Kavy. — In  regard  to  such 
articles  or  regulations,  the  navy  is  dift'erently  situ- 
ated. L'nlike  the  army  or  the  marine  forces  on 
shore,  the  navy  is  not  controlled  or  governed  by  any 
annual  Mutiny  Act,  but  the  A.  of  W.  relating  to  it 
are  contained  in,  and  expressly  enacted  by,  an  old 
act  of  parliament,  the  22  Geo.  II.  c.  33,  which,  with 
some  slight  alterations,  still  supplies  the  law  of  the 
sea-service.  The  first  naval  A.  of  W.  authorised 
by  parliament  were  those  contained  in  the  13  Chas. 
II.  c.  0,  whicii  was  said  to  have  been  drawn  up  by 
Admiral  Montague,  afterwards  Earl  of  Sandwich, 
with  the  approbation  of  Lord  Chancellor  Clarendon 
and  other  distinguished  members  of  the  privy  council. 

*  This  is  cviflently  -i  niistnke,  fi)r  the  40th  article  relates  to 
the  miscondiirt  of  coinmissioned  ch<iplains.  It  would  .ippeiir 
to  be  more  reason.able  that  the  articles  to  be  read  to  the  re- 
cruit should  be  those  relating  to  mutiny  .ind  insubordination, 
being  from  the  41st  to  the  46th  inclusive. 


ARTICLES,  THE  SIX— ARTICLES,  THE  THIRTY-XIXE. 


Lut  that  statute  and  its  subsoqiu'nt  supplement- 
ary acts  were  all  repealed  by  tlie  22  Geo.  II.  e.  ;^3. 
See  Mr.  Prondergast's  Law  of  tiic  Xavij,  1852,  Part 
I.,  p.  15. 

ARTICLES,  THE  SIX,  often  mentioned  in  tlie 
ecclesiastical  history  of  England  in  the  10th  c.,  were 
articles  imposed  by  act  of  parliament  in  15:59,  when 
Henry  VIII.  being  displeased  with  some  of  the 
bishops  most  favourable  to  the  Reformation,  their 
opponents  for  a  time  regained  the  ascendency. 
These  A.  asserted  the  doctrine  of  traiisubstantiation, 
declared  communion  in  both  kinds  not  to  be  noees- 
sary,  condemned  the  marriage  of  priests,  enjoined 
the  continued  observance  of  vows  of  chastity,  and 
sanctioned  jjrivate  masses  and  auricular  cotifession. 
The  act  imposing  them  was  popularly  called  '  the 
eix-stringed  whii).'  Severe  penalties  were  appointed 
for  writing  or  speaking  against  them,  and  for 
abstaining  from  confession  or  the  sacrament  at  the 
accustomed  times,  for  priests  failing  to  put  away 
their  wives,  and  for  persons  w'riting  or  speaking 
against  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation.  Arch- 
bishop Oranmer  vainly  opposed  the  act  in  the  House 
of  Lords:  the  king  was  resolute  to  have  it  passed. 
Its  severity  was  mitigated  by  a  subsequent  act  of  his 
reign  (1544),  and  although  it  continued  substantially 
unrepealed,  it  was  transgressed  with  impunity  even 
by  ecclesiastical  dignitaries, 

A'RTICLES,  THE  THIRTY-XIXE,  of  the 
Church  of  England,  are  the  articles  of  religion 
which  were  agreed  upon  by  the  archbishoi)S  and 
bishops  of  both  provinces  and  the  whole  clergy 
in  the  convocation  held  at  London  in  the  4th 
year  of  Elizabeth,  1562,  under  Archbishop  Parker. 
To  have  a  clear  view  of  the  history  of  these  im- 
portant articles,  we  must  go  back  to  the  promul- 
gation of  the  original  ones,  forty-two  in  number, 
in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  The  council  appointed 
by  the  will  of  Henry  YIII.  to  conduct  the  govern- 
ment during  the  king's  minority,  was  for  tlie  most 
part  favourably  disposed  towards  the  Reformed 
opinions,  and  the  management  of  church  affairs 
devolved  almost  entirely  upon  Archbishop  Oran- 
mer. In  the  year  1549,  an  act  of  parliament  was 
passed,  empowering  the  king  to  appoint  a  commis- 
sion of  32  persons,  to  make  ecclesiastical  laws. 
Under  this  act,  a  commission  of  8  bishops,  8  divines, 
8  civilians,  and  8  lawyers  (amongst  whom  were 
Cranmer,  Ridley,  Hooper,  Coverdale,  Scory,  Peter 
Martyr,  Justice  Hales,  &c.)  was  appointed  in  1551, 
and  one  of  its  first  acts  was  to  draw  up  a  code  of 
articles  of  faith.  These  were  forty-two  in  number, 
and  were  set  forth  by  the  king's  authority  in  1553. 
Strype  and  Burnet  make  it  appear  that  these  forty- 
two  ai'ticles  were  agreed  upon  in  the  convocation 
that  was  sitting  in  1552,  but  this  was  not  the  case. 
Fuller,  speaking  in  his  <[uaint  way  of  this  convoca- 
tion, declares  that  it  had  '  no  commission  from  the 
king  to  meddle  with  church  business,  and,'  he 
adds,  'every  convocation  in  itself  is  born  deaf  and 
dumb,  so  that  it  can  neither  hear  nor  speak  con- 
cerning complaints  in  religion  till  first  Epltphatha, 
"  Be  thou  opened,"  be  ]ironounced  unto  it  by 
royal  authority.  However,'  he  continues,  'this 
barren  convocation  is  entitled  the  parent  of  those 
forty-two  articles  which  are  printed  with  this  title, 
Articuli  de  qicihus  in  Synodo  Loiidbicnxi  1552  a.  p. 
inter  Episcopos  et  alios  convenerat.^  To  these  articles 
was  prefixed  the  Catechism,  and  there  is  no  doubt 
of  Cranmer  having  had  the  principal  hand  in  their 
composition ;  ibr  lie  owned  before  Queen  Mary's 
comndssion  that  they  were  his  doing.  But  immedi- 
ately after  their  publication,  Edward  died,  and  one 
of  the  first  acts  of  the  convocation  summoned 
with  the  parliament  in  the  first  year  of  Queen 
Mary,  was  to  declare  that  these  forty-two  articles 


had  not  been  set  i'orth  by  the  agreement  of  that 
House,  and  that  they  did  not  agree  thereto.  In  155K, 
Elizabeth  succeeded  her  sister.  In  1559,  Parker  wa3 
installed  in  the  see  of  Canterbury,  and  immediately 
the  other  vacant  vsecs  were  filled  up.  And  now  came 
a  fresh  opportunity  of  drawing  up  some  articles  of 
faith  which  might  serve  as  a  test  of  orthodoxy  in  the 
Reformed  Church.  Parker  applied  himself  to  this 
work,  and  for  the  purjjose,  revised  the  forty-two 
articles  of  King  Edward,  rejecting  four  of  them 
entirely,  and  introducing  four  new  ones,  viz.,  the  5th, 
Pith,  29th,  and  3t)th  as  they  now  stand,  and  alter- 
ing more  or  less  seventeen  others.  This  draft  Parker 
laid  before  the  convocation  which  met  in  1562,  where 
further  alterations  were  made;  and  the  39th,  40th, 
and  42(1  of  King  Edward's,  which  treated  of  the 
resurrection,  the  intermediate  state,  and  the  doctrine 
of  the  final  salvation  of  all  men,  were  finally  rejected. 
The  41st  of  King  Edward's,  which  condemned  the 
Millenarians,  was  one  of  the  four  which  Parker 
omitted.  Thus  the  articles  were  reduced  to  thirty- 
nine.  They  were  drawn  up  and  ratified  in  Latin, 
but  when  they  were  printed,  as  was  done  both  in 
Latin  and  English,  the  29th  was  omitted,  and  so 
the  number  was  further  reduced  to  thirty-eight. 
From  these  thirty-eight  there  was  a  further  omis- 
sion, viz.,  of  the  first  half  of  the  20th  article,  which 
declares  that  '  the  church  hath  power  to  decree 
rites  and  ceremonies,  and  hath  authority  in  contro- 
versies of  faith.'  As  all  the  records  of  convoca- 
tion perished  in  the  great  fire  of  1()G6,  it  is  very 
difficult  to  ascertain  how  these  omissions  arose. 
However,  in  1571,  the  articles  once  more  iinder- 
went  revision.  Archbishop  Parker  and  Bishop 
Jewel  made  a  few  trifling  alterations,  and  the  29th 
being  restored,  the  convocation  which  was  then 
sitting  ratified  them  both  in  Latin  and  English,  and 
an  act  of  parliament  was  passed  in  that  year  com- 
pelling the  clergy  to  subscribe  'such  of  them  as  only 
concern  the  confession  of  the  true  Christian  faith, 
and  the  doctrine  .of  the  Sacraments.'  There  still, 
however,  remained  some  difficulty  as  to  which  was 
the  authorised  copy,  some  of  the  copies  being  printed 
with,  and  others  without,  the  disputed  clause  of  the 
20th  ;  but  this  was  finally  settled  by  the  canons 
passed  in  the  convocation  of  1(>04,  which  left  the 
thirty-nine  articles  as  they  now  stand.  '  His  Ma- 
jesty's Declaration,'  which  precedes  them,  and  directs 
that  they  shall  be  interpreted  '  in  their  literal  and 
grammatical  sense,'  was  prefixed  by  Charles  I.  in 
ltJ28. 

It  may  be  interesting  to  know  from  what  other 
sources  the  thirty-nine  articles  are  derived.  Some 
of  them,  as  the  1st,  2d,  25th,  and  31st,  agree  not 
only  in  their  doctrine,  but  in  most  of  their  wording, 
with  the  Confession  of  Augsbmg.  The  9th  and  IGth 
are  clearly  due  to  the  same  source.  Some  of  them, 
as  the  19th,  20th,  25th,  and  34th,  resemble,  both  in 
doctrine  and  verbally,  certain  articles  drawn  up  by  a 
commission  a|)pointcd  by  Henry  ^'1II.,  and  annotat- 
ed by  the  king's  own  hand.  The  11th  article,  on 
justification,  is  ascribed  to  Cranmer,  but  the  latter 
part  of  it  only  existed  in  the  articles  of  1552.  The 
iVth,  on  predestination,  may  be  traced  to  the  writ- 
ings of  Luther  and  Melancthon. 

The  thirty-nine  articles  have  been  described  as 
'  containing  a  whole  body  of  divinity.'  This  can 
hardly  be  maintained.  They  contain,  however,  what 
the  Church  of  England  holds  to  be  a  fair  scriptural 
account  of  the  leading  doctrines  of  Christianity, 
together  with  a  condemnation  of  what  she  eonsider.s 
to  be  the  principal  errors  of  the  Clnirch  of  Rome, 
and  of  certain  Protestant  sects.  As  far  as  they  go 
(and  there  are  many  things  unnoticed  by  them)  they 
are  a  legal  definition  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Church 
of  England  and  Ireland ;  though  it  is  to  the  Book 

453 


ARTICULATA— ARTILLERY. 


f^f  Common  Praijcr  that  members  of  that  communion 
look  for  the  genuine  expression  of  her  faith.  They 
were  adopted  by  the  convocation  of  the  Irish  Church 
in  1035,  and  by  the  Scotch  Ejiiscopal  Church  at  the 
close  of  the  18th  century.  Corpus  Christi  College. 
Cambridge,  conrains  the  only  copies  of  the  A.  in 
manuscript  or  print  that  are  of  any  authority. 
Amongst  them  are  tlie  Latin  manuscript  of  the  A.  of 
1562,  and  the  English  manuscript  of  the  A.  of  1571, 
each  with  the  signatures  of  the  archbishops  and 
bishops  who  subscribed  them.  Siee  An  Account  of 
the  Thirtji-nine  A.,  by  Dr.  Lamb. 

I'or    other  '  Articles,'  see   Lamdetii,    rERTii,  and 
Kmalkald. 

ARTICULATA      or       ARTI'CULATED       AXI- 

MALS,  one  of  the  great  primary  divisions  cf  the 
Animal  Kingdom,  according  to  the  system  of  Cuvier, 
who  in  this  is  followed  by  recent  naturalists  generally. 
The  term  indicates  not  the  possession  of  articulated 
members,  but  the  articulated  structure  of  the  whole 
body.  The  A.  are  composed  of  segments  articulated 
or  jointed  together  in  a  line,  each  segment  being 
formed  of  one  or  more  rings,  which  in  some  apjiear 
externally  as  mere  transverse  folds  in  a  soft  sldn, 
but  are  often  covered  with  a  hard  substance  similar 
in  chemical  composition  to  the  bones  of  vertebrated 
animals.  To  this  the  muscles  arc  attached,  and  it 
has  sometimes  received  the  name  of  an  external 
skeleton — a  name  perhaps  suggestive  of  closer  and 
more  numerous  analogies  to  the  bony  framework 
of  the  vertebrated  animals  than  actually  exist.  In 
some  of  the  A.  the  rings  are  almost  equally  deve- 
loped ;  in  others,  the  ditt'erencc  is  very  great.  They 
are  divided  into  those  which  have,  and  those  which 
have  not  articulated  members  ;  the  first  subdivision 
including  Insects,  Arachnida,  Crustacea,  and  Myri- 
apoda;  the  latter,  Annelida  and  Entozoa  Some 
naturalists  raidv  Cirrhopoda  (Harnacles,  Acorn-shells, 
&c.)  among  the  A.,  and  regard  them  as  intermediate 
between  these  two  subdivisions  ;  others  follow  Cuvier 
in  placing  them  among  the  MoHusca.  The  Rotifera 
(or  wheel  animalcules)  are  also  placed  by  some  in  the 
second  subdivision  of  the  A.,  but  their  right  to  be  so 
placed  is  by  no  means  w  ell  established.  It  is  in  the 
first  subdivision  only  that  the  rings  are  very  dis- 
tinctly grouped  in  what  are  called  segments  of  the 
animal;  and  even  in  the  Myriapoda  (Centipedes, 
Juli,  &c.)  they  often  seem  little  eUe  than  mere 
repetitions  of  each  other ;  whilst  in  some  of  the 
Crustacea,  as  the  Crabs,  the  trunk  becoming  encased 
in  a  hard  envelope,  the  segments  become  immovably 
united,  so  that  they  no  longer  appear  as  distinct.  A 
few  only  of  the  lowest  A.,  however,  are  destitute 
of  a  distinct  head,  in  which  are  placed  the  eyes 
and  other  organs  of  special  senses,  with  regard  to 
which  there  is  considerable  difference  in  the  different 
classes.  In  it  also  they  usually  have  jaws  for 
seizing  their  food  and  cutting  or  tearing  it  to  pieces. 
Their  jaws  do  not  open  vertically,  as  in  vertebrate 
animals,  but  laterally ;  and  there  are  frequently 
several  pairs  of  them.  Some,  however,  have  the 
mouth  adapted  merely  for  suction.  The  alimentary 
tube  often  proceeds  in  a  straight  line  from  one 
extremity  of  the  body  to  the  other ;  and  when  it  is 
convoluted,  its  convolutions  are  usually  few.  There 
is  no  proper  heart ;  but  instead  of  it,  we  find  a 
dorsal  vessel,  a  tube  carried  along  the  central  line  of 
the  body  near  the  back  or  upper  side,  and  divided 
in  a  manner  corresponding  with  the  division  of  the 
body  into  rings  and  segments;  a  general  con- 
nection being  thus  maintained,  whilst  each  segment 
or  each  ring  has  to  a  certain  extent  a  system 
of  circulation  for  itself.  Respiration  is  eflectcd 
either  by  gills  {branchice),  which  is  the  case 
in  those  A.  that  live  in  water,  or  by  air-tubes 
{trachea')  and  sacs;  and  the  aeration  of  the  blood 
454 


taking  place  not  merely  in  one  or  two,  but  in  many 
of  the  rings,  great  muscular  power  and  activity 
are  maintained  without  a  ver^'  active  circulation. 
The  muscular  power  is,  indeed,  greater  in  proportion 
lo  the  size  in  the  A.  than  in  any  other  animals. 
The  blood  is  usually  white  ;  in  some  of  the  Annelida 
alone  it  is  red;  but  this  colour  (see  Anxklida)  does 
not  indicate  any  approach  to  the  higher  classes  of 
animals,  although  even  Cuvier  appears  to  have 
regarded  it  as  a  reason  for  assiginng  to  the  Annelida 
the  first  place  among  the  A.  The  nervous  system 
exhibits  a  great  similarity  throughout  the  whole  of  the 
A.,  and  corresponds  in  its  general  plan  with  their 
system  of  circulation.  It  consists  of  a  series  of  small 
nervous  masses  or  r/«;/^Zirt,  arranged  in  a  chain  along 
the  central  line  of  the  body  on  the  under  side  of 
the  animal.  A  ganglion  in  the  head  is  often  termed 
the  brain,  and  from  it  proceed  the  optic  herves  and 
other  nerves  of  the  special  senses ;  but  it  by  no 
means  perfectly  corresponds  to  the  brain  in  ver- 
tebrate aniuuils.  There  is  usually  a  ganglion  for 
each  ring.  The  ganglia  themselves  arc  double  or 
composed  of  two  halves, 
more  or  less  distinctly 
separated  ;  the  connecting 
cord  also  is  double.  In 
those  A.  which  have  arti- 
culated limbs,  the  ganglia 
are  largest  in  the  jjarts 
of  the  trunk  with  which 
the  limbs  are  connected, 
whilst  they  almost  disap-' 
pear  from  the  more  unim- 
))ortant  rings ;  in  the 
Crabs,  and  some  other  tail- 
less or  very  short-tailed 
Oustacea,  they  are  con- 
densed into  two  masses. 

The  remains  of  the  A.  in 
the  fossiliferous  rocks  are 
numerous,  although  often 
so  fragmentary  and  imper- 
fect that  the  determination  of  genus  and  species  ia 
impossible,  and  their  complex  organisation  cannot  be 
thoroughly  investigated.  It  is  evident,  however, 
that  many  of  them  differed  much  from  any  animals 
now  known  to  exist,  and  changes  can  be  observed 
from  one  geologic  period  to  another;  the  great 
Crustacean  family  of  the  Trilobites(q.  v.),  for  example, 
being  found  oidy  in  the  palaeozoic  rocks.  Markings, 
which  are  regarded  as  the  tracks  and  burrows  of 
marine  worms,  appear  among  the  earliest  traces  of 
animal  life. 

ARTI'CULATE  SOUNDS.     See  Lettees. 

ARTI'LLERY.  The  various  meanings  given  to 
this  word  render  it  desirable  that  the  reader  should 
know  under  what  headings  in  the  Encyclopcedia  to 
look  for  information  on  the  subject.  Sometimes  A. 
means  large  cannon  or  ordnance  of  every  kind; 
sometimes  it  includes  the  shot  and  shell  as  well  as 
the  cannon;  sometimes  it  applies  to  the  soldiers, 
officers,  and  men,  who  manage  the  large  cannon  in 
military  battles  and  sieges ;  sometimes  it  designates 
the  soldiers  as  well  as  the  cannon,  the  personnel  as 
well  as  the  niaftriel.  In  the  present  work,  the  large 
pieces  of  ordnance,  as  a  class,  are  described  under 
Cannon  ;  while  the  specialties  of  each  kind  will  be 
found  briefly  noticed  under  such  headings  as  Car- 
RONADE,  Howitzer,  Gun,  Mortar,  Shell-gun,  &e. ; 
and  in  some  cases  under  the  names  of  the  inventors, 
as  Armstrong  Gun,  Lancaster  Gun,  &c.  By  this 
arrangement,  we  shall  be  enabled  to  confine  the 
word  A.  to  such  articles  as  relate  more  especially  to 
the  personnel  of  the  servic'.' — the  skilled  soldiers 
who   have  to  deal  with  large  pieces  of  ordnance  in 


Kervous  System  of  an 
Insect. 


ARTILLERY  COMPANY— ARTILLERY  CORPS. 


land-warfare.  It  may,  however,  be  well  here  to  explani 
that  the  term  Equipment  of  A.  is  applied  to  a  eoiii- 
binatioii  of  men,  materiel,  and  horses,  suitable  for 
coast-deleiices,  sieges,  or  the  arming  of  fortified 
posts.  There  are  several  kinds  of  etiuipments  of 
light  A.,  under  the  names  of  horse,  field,  rocket, 
mountain,  and  reserve  ;  and  others  of  ]ieavy  A.,  for 
the  attack  and  defence  of  coasts  and  fortified  places. 
These  various  equipments  are  generally  divided  into 
smaller  collections  called  batteries  (q.  v.),  for  more 
easy  control  and  maiuHuvring.  Brief  explanations 
will  be  found  under  nearly  all  the  names  here 
indicated. 

ARTILLERY  COMPANY,  Honourable,  is 
the  oldest  existing  volunteer  corps  in  Britain. 
Four  military  bodies — the  A.  C,  the  Sergeants-at- 
A  rms,  the  Yeomen  of  the  Guard,  and  the  Gentlemen 
Pensioners^  were  established  as  far  back  as  the  time 
of  the  Tudors  ;  they  all  still  exist,  but  under  greatly 
altered  circumstances.  In  1537,  Henry  VIII.  gi-antcd 
a  patent  to  three  persons,  api)Ointing  them  '  Over- 
seers of  the  Science  of  Artillery,'  for  long-bows, 
cross-bows,  and  hand-guns.  They  were  to  constitute 
a  guild  or  fraternity  for  this  purpose,  with  power 
to  ap()oint  assistants  and  successors,  to  purchase 
lands,  and  to  use  a  common  seal ;  and  their  formal 
official  name  became  '  The  Masters,  Rulers,  and 
Commonalty  of  the  Fraternity  or  Guild  of  Artillery 
of  Long-bows,  Cross-bows,  and  Handguns.'  The 
freemen  of  the  guild  or  Company  were  empowered  to 
keep  arms,  and  to  exercise  themselves  in  shooting. 
In  1605  a  patent  was  granted  by  James  I.,  intended 
chiefly  to  effect  the  preservation  of  the  shooting  and 
practising  grounds  around  London,  for  the  A.  C.  In 
1()8;]  a  commission  was  appointed  by  Charles  I.,  still 
further  to  insure  this  object.  In  1638  the  corpora- 
tion of  the  city  of  London  presented  to  the  Company 
the  plot  of  ground  ever  since  called  the  Artillery 
Ground,  near  Moorfields,  as  a  field  for  military 
exercise.  Royal  princes  frequently  enrolled  them- 
selves as  members  of  the  Company,  usually  as 
'captain-general.'  In  1719,  George  I.  issued  an 
order  that  all  the  commission  and  staff  officers  of 
the  City  Train-bands  (a  metropolitan  nulitia)  should 
become  members  of  the  A.  C,  and  exercise  with  the 
other  members  at  all  convenient  times.  The  word 
'artillery'  had  heretofore  been  considered  as  apply- 
ing to  bows  and  arrows  as  well  as  to  firearms ;  but 
the  members  of  the  Company,  like  other  marksmen, 
had  almost  abandoned  archery,  without,  however, 
making  any  change  in  their  designation.  In  a 
summons  to  the  Company  to  meet  for  exercise  on  a 
particular  day  in  1682,  it  is  said:  'Those  gentlemen 
that  on  that  day  handle  muskets  are  desired  to  take 
care  that  their  arms  are  clean  and  well  fixed,  and 
that  they  bring  with  them  fine  dry  powder,  and  even 
match.'  The  Company,  like  many  other  city  guilds, 
has  nearly  outlived  its  original  purpose.  In  1780, 
when  the  'Lord  (ieorge  Gordon  riots'  afflicted  the 
metropolis,  tlie  members  of  the  A.  C.  eftcctually 
protected  the  Bank  of  England ;  in  1848,  when 
Chartist  riots  were  appreliended,  the  Company  was 
on  the  alert  to  render  good  service  if  needed ;  and 
in  the  spring  of  1859,  when  an  uneasy  feeling  pre- 
vailed in  England  concerning  the  designs  of  France, 
the  members  polished  their  arms  and  looked  forward 
to  eventualities ;  but  the  Company  has  never  been 
engaged  in  actual  warfare  with  an  enemy. 

The  A.  G.  consists  of  members  elected  by  ballot, 
who  pay  one  guinea  annual  subscription,  and  supply 
themselves  with  dress,  arms,  and  accoutrements. 
These  payments,  together  with  the  rental  received 
from  a  small  amount  of  real  property,  constitute 
the  fund  out  of  which  the  expenses  are  defrayed. 
The  members  learn  rifle-shoo-ting  as  well  as  artil- 
lery  practice ;    there  are  certain   days  of  meeting 


at  Moorfields ;  and  every  summer  there  are 
certain  days  of  drill  and  practice  at  Seaford. 
The  Prince  Consort  was  formerly  their  colonel  or 
captain-general.  The  corps  comprises  six  infantry 
companies,  a  grenadier  company,  a  light-infantry 
company,  a  rifle  company,  and  an  artillery  conqjany. 
Until  1849,  the  members  elected  their  own  officers; 
but  since  that  year  the  crown  has  appointed  them. 
Tiie  lieutenant-colonel  appoints  the  non-commis- 
sioned officers. 

ARTILLERY  CORPS.  Referring  to  Cannoji 
for  a  history  of  large  pieces  of  ordnance,  we  here 
treat  of  the  organisation  of  the  artillery  service. 

The  larger  weapons,  before  the  invention  of  gun- 
powder, were  sometimes  called  engines  ofivar,  some- 
times artillery,  and  were  worked  by  strong  and 
rough  soldiers,  who  needed  no  particular  apprentice- 
ship to  that  art.  When,  however,  large  balls  of 
iron  came  to  be  propelled  by  the  irresistible  force 
of  gunpowder,  a  great  revolution  gradually  took 
place,  though  garrison-guns  and  siege-guns  were  im- 
proved more  rapidly  than  field-guns.  Nevertheless, 
field-guns  changed  the  whole  aspect  of  military 
tactics;  for  it  became  necessary  that  an  army 
should  form  in  order  of  battle  at  a  much  greater 
distance  from  the  onemy  than  in  olden  times.  And 
when  the  cannon  were  made  more  rapidly  movable, 
so  did  tactics  vary.  Gradually,  a  body  of  men  were 
set  apart  to  study  the  force  and  action  of  gun- 
powder, the  flight  and  range  of  projectiles,  the 
weight  and  strength  of  cannon,  and  the  manoeuvring 
of  heavy  masses.  The  French  were  the  first  to 
make  these  researches;  after  them,  the  English; 
and  still  later,  the  Germans.  During  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,  an  important  step  was  taken  in  Ger- 
many— that  of  including  the  artillerymen,  who  were 
till  then  a  sort  of  guild,  as  a  component  in  the  regular 
army.  Gustavus  Adolphus  in  Sweden,  Frederick 
II.  in  Prussia,  and  Napoleon  I.  in  France,  all 
attached  a  very  high  degree  of  importance  to  the 
artillery  as  an  arm  of  the  service.  After  the  great 
wars  in  the  begiiming  of  the  present  century, 
nearly  all  the  states  of  Europe  formally  recog- 
nised the  artillery  as  the  third  great  branch  of  mili- 
tary service  (next  after  the  infantry  and  cavalry)  ; 
indeed,  some  of  them,  including  Russia  and  Sardinia, 
have  shewn  a  tendency  to  elevate  it  to  the  first 
rank. 

A.  C,  or  artillerymen,  are  divided  into  land- 
artillery  and  marine-artillery.  The  land-arlillery  is 
divided  into  field,  coast,  garrison,  and  siege  artil- 
lery. The  field-artillery  is  subdivided  into  horse 
and  foot.  There  are  also  the  special  apjiellation 
of  reserve,  light,  and  heavy  artillery.  In  most 
European  states,  the  artillerymen  are  divided  into 
regiments,  battalions,  brigades,  and  companies;  but 
in  Britain  the  whole  form  one  enormous  regiment, 
which  is  expanded  or  contracted  according  to  the 
exigencies  of  the  service.  See  Artillkkv,  Royal 
Regiment  of.  When  military  men  speak  of  the 
field-artillery,  they  usually  include  cannon,  carriages, 
horses,  ammunition,  and  stores  of  every  description, 
as  well  as  the  artillerymen.  The  distinction  between 
heavy  and  light  artillery  depends  on  the  size  of  the 
camion,  and  the  weight  of  the  shot  and  shell  pro- 
polled  from  them.  For  obvious  reasons  the  construc- 
tion of  very  large  field-guns  is  avoided.  Military  men 
are  not  quite  agreed  as  to  the  precise  figures  ;  but 
there  is  a  general  concurrence  in  opinion  that  a  well 
appointed  field-force  should  have  two  or  three  artil- 
lery guns  to  every  1000  infantry,  and  five  or  six  horse- 
artillery  guns  to  every  1000  cavalry.  The  proportion 
is  necessarily  affected  by  the  kind  of  country  and  the 
amount  of  available  transport.  During  the  Penin- 
sular war,  Wellington  had  seldom  more  than  1 
gun  to  every  lOUO  soldiers;  when  he  entered  France, 

455 


ARTILLERYMAN— ARTILLERY  SCHOOLS. 


he  had  3  to  the  1U(j0.  Napoleon  i)relerred  2  per 
lUOO,  •with  a  larger  supply  of  aniiiiuiiition  than  had 
before  been  deemed  necessary  ;  and  many  foreign 
governments  followed  his  example.  Experienced 
oflicers  in  the  British  artillery  have  laid  it  down  as 
a  useful  rule  that  an  army  of  G<>,U(»(>  )ncn,  comprising 
.50,000  infantry,  7500  cavalry,  and  'i.jOO  artillery, 
should  have  lOO  pieces  of  ordnance — viz.,  30  for 
horse-artillery,  5-4  for  foot-artillery,  and  IG  in 
reserve. 

ARTI'LLERYMAN.  See  Autilleuy  Corps; 
Aktilleuy,  Royal  Regiment  of. 

ARTI'LLERY,  Park  of,  is  a  collective  name 
given  to  the  whole  of  the  guns,  carriages,  amnumi- 
tion,  and  other  appurtenances  essential  to  the  work- 
ing of  siege  or  field  A.  Besides  reserve  guns  and 
carriages,  there  belong  to  it  the  ammunition  wagons, 
as  well  lor  the  infantry  and  cavalry  as  for  the  A., 
the  implements  and  materials  necessary  fer  repairing 
and  completing  equipments,  harness-stores,  field- 
forges,  laboratories,  and  (in  some;  armies)  transj)ort 
and  provision  wagons.  The  perso/uirl  of  a  park  of  A. 
consists  of  A.  officers,  non-commissioned  officers,  and 
artillerymen;  besides  a  large  numl)cr  of  smiths, 
wheelwrights,  saddlers,  armourers,  drivers,  and  other 
mechanics  and  labourers.  Sometimes  the  term  is 
applied  to  the  place  selected,  as  well  as  to  the  vast 
military  stores  collected  tiiere.  During  a  siege,  the 
park  of  A.  is  stationed  out  of  reach  of  the  enemy's 
lire,  but  in  communication  with  the  besiegers' 
trenches.  If  possible,  its  locality  is  chosen  close  to 
some  good  line  of  communication,  either  road  or  river. 
All  pioneering  or  entrenching  tools,  and  all  handi- 
craft implements,  are  arranged  in  rows  nearest  to 
the  field  of  action,  with  requisite  spaces  for  the  con- 
venience of  the  storekeepers  and  Avorknien.  Behind 
these  are  the  materials  for  erecting  batteries,  making 
fascines  and  gabions,  and  filling  sand-l)ags.  Furthest 
removed  from  the  enemy  are  the  laboratories,  in 
and  near  which  shot  and  shell  and  other  kinds  of 
ammunition  are  stored.  A  large  park  of  A.  is 
usually  divided  into  park-columns,  for  the  sake  of 
better  supervision.  Under  some  circumstances,  the 
engineering  park  is  distinct  from  the  park  of  A., 
especially  where  these  two  arms  of  the  service 
are  so  mutually  independent  as  in  the  British 
army. 

ARTIXLERY,  ROYAL  REGIMENT  OF,  is 
the  collective  name  for  the  whole  of  the  A.  belonging 
to  the  British  army.  Under  Autilleuy  Coups,  the 
origin  of  similar  bodies  on  the  continent  of  Europe  is 
briefly  noted.  There  was  no  regular  regiment  or 
corps  of  A.  soldiers  in  the  English  army  till  the 
time  of  Queen  Anne,  when  the  present  Royal  Regi- 
ment was  formed.  Since  that  period,  from  some 
anomaly  which  is  not  easily  explained,  all  the  addi- 
tions have  been  made  to  the  same  regiment,  instead 
of  forming  new  regiments,  to  be  combined  into  a 
division  or  corps.  The  regiment  is  now  almost  an 
army  in  itself;  and  to  increase  the  anomaly,  it  com- 
prises horse  as  well  as  foot.  The  foot"-A.,  with 
medium  guns,  attend  infantry  in  the  battle-field;  and 
with  heavier  guns,  besiege  and  defend  fortified  places  ; 
while  the  horse-A.,  with  lighter  guns,  accompany  the 
cavalry.  The  mounted  artillerymen  were  organised 
into  a  body  long  after  those  who  manoeuvre  on  foot. 
Though  both  corps  form  one  regiment,  they  have 
distinct  designations — the  J^ot/al  ^.,  and  the  I^oj/al 
Horse-A.  Besides  these  two  corps,  the  regiment  is 
considered  to  include  the  Rocket- A.,  the  Master 
Gunners,  and  the  Invalid  Gunners. 

The  regiment  has  varied  from  18,000  to  28,000 
strong  (including  those  placed  upon  the  East  India 
establishnient)  during  the  last  few  years  ;  the  foot 
being  divided  into  battalions  and  companies,  and  the 


horse  into  troops.  A  battalion  usually  compiisoa 
8  companies.  At  a  time  when  the  number  was  18,000, 
the  regiment  comprised  119  companies  and  troops, 
averaging  somewhat  over  150  men  each.  At  other 
times,  the  companies  have  varied  from  l.SO  to  200 
men  each.  Tiie  comijanies  and  battalions  of  foot- 
A.  are  desigiuited  by  ordinal  numbers,  such  as 
'  Cth  company,  12th  battalion  ; '  the  troops  of  l-.orso- 
A.  arc  designated  by  letters,  such  as  'D  troop.' 
There  are  nominall}-,  5  officers  for  each  companv 
and  troop;  but  some  of  these  are  usually  absent  on 
staff  or  brigade  duties.  In  battles  and  sieges,  a 
brigade  of  this  A.  usually  consists  of  either  two 
or  three  companies,  attached  to  a  division  of  tie 
regular  army.  Each  company,  with  its  (juota  of 
gtnis  and  stores  of  all  kinds,  constitutes  a  field- 
bat  tcrtj ;  and  each  troop  with  its  quota,  constitutes 
a  /lorse-batteri/.  It  has  been  proposed  to  abandon 
the  terms  conipani/  and  troop  altogether,  as  being 
properly  ap[)Iicable  only  to  infantry  and  cavalry, 
and  to  use  only  the  term  batteri/;  but  this  change 
has  not  yet  taken  place.  Among  the  officers  of 
the  Royal  A.,  there  arc  no  majors,  ensigns,  or 
cornets  ;  equivnlent  services  are  rendered  by  officers 
otherwise  designated.  The  men  are  chiefly  classified 
as  gunners  and  drivers. 

The  army  estimates  for  1869 — 70  will  afford 
pretty  correct  information  concerning  the  present 
state  of  the  Roval  A. 


ROYAL  FOOT-AETILLERY. 

Commissioned  officers,    . 

Non-commissioned  officers, 

llank  and  file,         .... 

ROYAL  HORSE-ARTILLERY. 

Commissioned  officers,    . 
Non-commissioned  officers, 
Rank  and  file,         .... 
Total, 


76.5 

1,720 

14,338 


91 

163 

1,968 

19,045 


Of  this  number,  12,880  are  placed  at  the  disposal 
of  the  East  Indies,  to  be  paid  for  out  of  Indian 
revenues.  There  were  also  voted  2208  horses  for 
the  foot- A.,  an<l  1418  for  the  horse. 

The  internal  organisation  of  the  Royal  A.,  and 
the  relation  between  the  men  and  the  guns  which 
they  serve,  will  be  described  under  Battery  ;  while 
the  specialties  of  the  several  kinds  of  service  will 
be   found    briefly    noticed   under   Eiklo-artillery, 

HORSE-AETILLKUY,  SlKOE-ARTILLERY. 

ARTI'LLERY,  SCHOOLS  OF.  The  first  school 
for  A.  Instruction  was  established  by  the  Venetians 
in  the  l)egiiiniiig  of  the  Kith  c.  Soon  afterwards, 
(Charles  V.  established  similar  schools  at  Burgos  and 
in  Sicily.  The  French  founded  a  school  of  practical 
A.  in  1075  ;  and  in  1079,  they  added  to  it  a  theoretical 
school  at  Douai.  At  present,  France  has  no  fewer 
than  nine  such  establishments.  Saxony  had  an 
A.  school  in  17G0 ;  but  the  other  German  states 
were  more  tardy  iu  this  work.  In  Prussia,  the 
artillery  and  engineer  schools  are  combined  ;  but  in 
most  of  the  Euro[)ean  states,  a  separation  between 
these  two  arms  of  the  science  is  made.  In  most 
schools  of  A.,  the  officers'  studies  comprise  mathe- 
matics, as  much  of  physics  and  chemistry  as  is 
necessary  to  the  duties  of  the  artillerist,  field 
and  permanent  fortification,  garrison-warfare,  field- 
tactics,  military  history  and  topography,  military 
surveying  and  sketel'.ing,  drawing  from  the  model, 
&c.  The  practical  exercises  include  the  serving  and 
firing  of  guns  and  mortars,  the  laying  out  and 
constructing  of  field-batteries,  and  the  operations  of 
the  laboratory  and  A.  workshop. 

The   head-quarters   for  A.  instruction  in  England 


ARTOCARPACE.E— ARUil. 


are  at  Woolwich.  A  lioml  Military  Academif  was  | 
established  there  in  1741,  to  impart  professional  j 
instruction  to  the  arlillerists  and  engineers  belonging  | 
to  the  roval  army.  The  East  India  Company  sent  j 
their  A.  cadets  to  this  Academy  from  the  year  1798 
to  1810;  but  afterwards,  they  maintained  a  separate  , 
establishment  at  Addiscombe.  At  the  i>icsent  day, 
the  students  in  the  Academy  are  recruited  by  fan- 
open  competition.  They  enter  between  the  ages  of 
seventeen  and  twenty  ;  and  they  remain  two  years,  or 
such  longer  time  as  "may  fit  them  to  pass  an  exami- 
nation lor  the  Royal  A.  or  Engineers.  The  sons  of 
military  officers  are  admitted  on  lower  terms  than 
those  of  other  persons.  The  financial  control  is  under 
the  Secretary  of  State  for  War  ;  but  the  Connnander- 
In-chicf  regulates  the  discipline  and  internal  arrange- 
ments. There  are  about  40  professors,  lecturers, 
masters,  and  instructors  of  various  kinds.  Besides 
this  Royal  Military  Academy,  there  is  at  Woolwich 
a  Bepartment  of  A.  Studies,  for  the  instruction  of 
junior  officers  of  A.,  and  for  facilitating  their  visits 
to  the  fortifications  and  public  works  of  foreign 
countries.  There  is  also  a  Select  Committee,  whose 
duties  are  not  so  nnich  educational  as  experimental ; 
it  is  a  small  establishment  for  examining  and  report- 
ing on  the  numerous  inventions  relating  to  artillery, 
brought  before  the  War-office.*  The  establishment 
at  Shoeburi/  Xe>!s,  subordinate  to  the  head-(iuarters  of 
the  A.  at  Woolwich,  is  intended  to  experiment  upon 
ordnance,  gunpowder,  and  projectiles,  and  to  exercise 
young  A.  officers  in  some  of  their  duties. 

ART0CARPA'CEJ5,  a  natural  order  of  Dicotyle- 
donous plants,  of  which  the  Bread-fruit  {Artocarpus 
incisa)  is  the  type ;  verv  nearly  allied  to  that  of  Mora- 
cece  (Mulberries,  Figs,"  &c.),  "and,  like^  it,  by  many 
botanists  regarded  as  a  sub-order  of  Urticaeece  (Net- 
tles, &c.).  The  botanical  distinction  between  Arto- 
carpaceffi  and  Moraceas  lies  chiefly  in  the  straight 
embryo  and  large  cotyledons  of  the  former.  The  fruit 
is  often  a  soroxis  (a  single  succulent  fruit  formed  of 
the  aggregated  germens  of  a  whole  spike  of  flowers), 
as  in  The  case  of  the  Bread-fruit  (q.  v.).     There  are 


Bread-fruit.  {A.  i/icisa). 

upwards  of  fifty  known  species,  natives  exclusively  of 
the  tropics,  the  milky  juice  of  some  yields  Caoit- 
cnoDO  (((.  v.) ;  and  that  of  a  few  species  is  so  bland 
as  to  be  used  as  a  substitute  for  milk  (see  Cow- 
tree).       The     juice    of     others    is,    however,    very 

*  This  committee  has  recently  (in  the  .cummer  of  IS-oO") 
been  rcmodellfd,  or  rather  superseded  by  a  new  organization. 


poisonous,  as  that  of  Antiaris  toxicaria,  the  Antjar 
poison,  one  of  the  poisons  called  Upas  by  the 
Javanese.  The  seeds  are  always  wholesome  ;  and 
those  of  the  Muxa/n/a  of  the  Gold  Coast  of  Africa, 
and  oi  Broximuiii  alicastruin  in  the  West  Indies,  are 
eaten  as  nuts.  Tiie  fibrous  bark  of  the  Bread-fruit; 
Tree  is  made  into  cloth  in  the  South  Sea  Islands, 
and  that  of  other  species  oi  Artoear/jiis  is  capable  of 
being  used  in  the  same  way.  The  bark  of  Antiaris 
or  Lepurandra  saecidora  is  used  in  Western  India 
for  making  sacks,  which  are  formed  by  cutting  a 
branch  of  the  dinien.<ions  of  the  sack  wanted,  and 
simply  turning  back  and  drawing  oil"  the  bark  after 
it  has  been  soaked  and  beaten,  the  wood  being 
sawn  off  so  as  to  leave  a  little  jiortion  to  form 
the  bottom  of  the  sack.  The  fibrous  bark  of 
Cecropia  peltata,  or  Trumpetwood,  is  used  for  cord- 
age in  tropical  America.  The  stem  and  branches 
are  very  hollow,  and  are  used  for  wind-insti'uments. 
The  wood  of  some  species  is  valuable,  as  that  of  the 
Brosiiiium  or  Firatinera  Guianetisis,  the  Snake  wood 
of  Demcrara. 

ARTOIS  was  formerly  a  province  of  France, 
bounded  by  Flanders  and  Ficardy,  and  almost 
corresponding  with  the  modern  department  of  Fas- 
de-Calais  (q.  v.).  The  capital  of  A.  was  Arras.  Louis 
IX.,  in  1239,  made  A.  a  county,  and  gave  it  to  his 
brother  Robert,  who  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Robert  II.,  surnamed  Posthumous,  who  died  in 
1302.  Afterwards  it  passed  into  tlie  hands  of  Flan- 
ders and  Burgundy,  but  was  ceded  to  France  by 
treaties  in  1659  and"  1678.  Charles  X.,  in  his  early 
life,  and  also  after  his  abdication,  was  known  by 
the  title  of  Count  d'Artois. 

ARTS,  Degrees  in.  The  term  'Arts,'  or  'Liberal 
Arts,'  as  technically  applied  to  certain  studies,  came 
into  use  during  the  middle  ages,  and  on  the  estab- 
lishment of  universities,  the  term  'Faculty  of  Arts' 
denoted  those  who  devoted  themselves  to  Science 
and  Philosophy  as  distinguished  from  the  fiiculty  of 
Theology,  and  afterwards  of  Medicine  and  Law. 
The  number  of  '  Arts'  embraced  in  the  full  medieval 
course  of  learning  was  seven :  Grammar,  Logic, 
Rhetoric  (constituting  the  Trivimn),  Music,  Arith- 
metic, Geometry,  and  Rhetoric  (the  Quadririum). 
The  terms  Master  and  Doctor  were  originally  applied 
synonymously  to  any  person  engaged  in  teaching. 
In  process  of  time,  the  one  was  restricted  to  the 
liberal  arts,  the  other  to  Divinity,  Law,  and  Medi- 
cine. When  regulations  were  established  to  prevent 
unqualified  persons  from  teaching,  and  an  initiatory 
stage  of  discipline  was  prescribed,  these  terms  be- 
came significant  of  a  certain  rank,  and  of  the  pos- 
session of  certain  powers,  and  were  called  r/radiis, 
'steps'  or  'degrees.'  The  passing  of  the  initiatory 
stase,  said  to  have  been  first  instituted  by  Gregory 
1X^(1227 — 11),  conferred  the  title  of  bac/ielor  (q.y.), 
iind  an  additional  course  of  discipline  and  examina- 
tion was  necessary  to  obtaining  that  of  master. 
The  title  of  Master  of  Arts  originally  implied  the 
risht,  and  even  the  duty  of  publicly  teaching  some 
ot'tlie  branches  included  in  the  faculty  of  Arts;  a 
custom  which  is  still  retained,  to  some  extent,  in  the 
German  universities,  but  has  fallen  into  disuse  in 
Britain  and  France,  where  the  title  is  nearly  hono- 
rary. The  sul)jtect  will  be  more  fully  considered 
under  the  general  head  of  Degrees. 

A'RUM,  a  genus  of  Monocotyledonous  plnnts, 
belonging  to  the  natural  order  Araee<e  or  Aroidece. 
This  order  consists  of  herbaceous  plants,  some  of 
which  are  stemless,  and  shrubbery  plants,  some  of 
which  are  aborescent,  and  some  climb  by  aerial  roots, 
clin"-ing  to  the  trees  of  tropical  forests.  The  leaves 
are  sheathing  at  the  base,  convolute  in  bud,  usually 
with  branching   veins.     The    flowers    arc  male  and 

457 


ARUX— ARUXDEL. 


female,  naked,  arranged  upon  a  spadix,  which  is 
generally  enclosed  in  a  spathe  (q.  v.);  the  male 
flowers  at  the  upper  part  of  the  spadix,  and  the 
female  flowers  at  its  base.  The  stamens  are  dehuite 
or  indefinite  in  number;  the  anthers  sessile,  or 
nearly  so,  and  turned  outwards.  The  ovary  is  free, 
generally  one-celled,  many-seeded  ;  the  stigma  ses- 
sile. The  fruit  is  succulent,  the  seeds  pulpy,  the 
embryo  in  the  axis  of  fleshy  or  mealy  albumen, 
with  a  lateral  cleft  in  which  the  plumule  lies;  the 
albumen,  however,  is  wanting  in  some  plants  of  the 
order. — As  thus  defined,  this  order  contains  almost 
200  known  species,  natives  chiefly  of  tropical  coun- 
tries, but  some  of  the  herbaceous  kinds  belong  to 
colder  climates. — The  limits  of  the  order  are,  how- 
ever sometimes  extended,  so  that  it  includes  as  sub- 
orders Tijphacew,  Pistiacece,  &c. — The  genus  A.  has 
a  convolute  spathc ;  the  spadix  naked  at  the  point. 
In  some  species,  a  stench  like  that  of  carrion  is  pro- 
duced during  flowering,  as  well  as  a  remarkable  licat. 
Flowers,  in  general,  are  slightly  warmer  than  the  air 
around  them,  the  heat  being  ])rodnced  by  the  union 
of  oxygen  with  some  starch-like  ingredient  in  the 
sap  of  the  petals,  or  other  jiarts  of  the  flower;  for 
flowers,  instead  of  absorbing  carbonic  acid  gas  and 
giving  off  oxygen  in  the  sunshine,  like  the  leaves  of 
plants,  absorb  oxygen  and  give  off  carbonic  acid, 
like  the  lungs  of  animals.  But  flowers,  in  general, 
are  only  one  degree,  or  one  degree  and  a  half,  wanner 
than  the  air,  whereas  the  flowers  of  some  of  the 
Arums  and  nearly  allicil  plants  are  sensibly  warm 
to  the  touch,  and  that  of  A.  cordlfolium  baa   been 


Arum  maculatum. 

a,  leaves  and  root ;  b,  sjiatlie,  with  base  of  spadix  exposed ; 

f,  fruit. 

found  to  have  a  heat  of  121°  F.,  while  that  of  the 
air  was  oidy  66"  F. — The  only  British  species  is 
A.  maculatum.  Cuckow-pint  or  Wake-kobix,  which 
is  abundant  in  England  and  in  most  parts  of  Europe, 
growing  chiefly  in  moist  shady  woods  and  under 
hedges.  It  has  a  tuberous  perennial  root;  its  leaves 
are  all  radical,  on  long  stalks,  strongly  arrow-shaped, 
often  spotted  ;  the  spathe  grecni.sh  yellow,  enclosing 
a  rather  short  violet  or  brownish  red  spadix.  It 
produces  scarlet  berries,  1 — 'i  seeded,  about  the  size 
of  peas  clustered  upon  the  spadix.  The  root  has  a 
burning  acrid  taste,  w  hich,  however,  it  loses  in  drying 
or  boiling.  In  .a  fresh  state,  it  is  a  drastic  purgative, 
458 


too  violent  for  medicinal  use ;  and,  indeed,  it,  as 
well  as  the  leaves,  is  an  active  poison  ;  yet  a  nourish- 
ing farina  is  prepared  from  it,  after  the  acrid. juice 
has  been  removed.  This  farina  is  a  pure  starchj  and 
is  known  in  England  by  the  name  of  Portland  Sago 
or  Portland  Ariow-root.  It  was  fbrmeily  pre|)ared 
to  a  considerable  extent  in  the  isle  of  Portland,  where 
also  the  tubers  (conns)  themselves  are  eaten  by  the 
comitry-people.  A  cosmetic,  called  Cypress  Powder, 
is  made  from  them  in  France,  and  they  are  used  in 
Switzerland  as  a  substitute  for  soap."  They  con- 
tain, indeed,  a  cpiantity  of  Saponinc,  to  which  their 
acridity  is  supposed  to  be  owing.  They  lose  great 
part  of  their  acridity  in  drying,  and  were  formerly 
used  in  medicine  as  a  stinnilant  in  impaired  digestion, 
a  diuretic  in  dropsies,  and  an  expectorant  in  chest 
complaints.  The  plant  is  extensively  cultivated  in 
India  for  food. — A.  hidicum  is  also  much  cultivated 
in  Bengal  for  its  escident  stems  and  snuill  jiendulous 
tubers. — Acridity  in  the  juice,  and  the  presence  of 
an  amylaceous  substaiu'c  of  very  nutritious  quality, 
from  which  tlie  acrid  juice  is  easily  separated,  are 
characteristics  of  many  jilants  of  this  order,  particu- 
larly species  of  Caladiuia  and  Colocania,  nnich  used 
for  food  in  warm  countries,  under  the  names  Cocco 
(q.  v.),  EonoKS,  &c. — Amorphopallus  campanulatiis 
{A.  campanulatmii),  called  Ol  by  the  Bengalese,  is 
very  much  cultivated  in  some  parts  of  India  for  its 
roots  (flat  underground  corms),  which  form  a  very 
important  article  of  foo<l ;  yet  in  a  fresh  state  it  is 
so  acrid  that  it  is  employed  as  an  external  stimulant, 
and  is  also  used  as  an  enimenagogue.  Other  species 
of  Amorphopallun  arc  still  more  powerrully  stimu- 
lant.— Two  large  species  of  Arisaina,  another  genus 
very  closely  allied  to  A.,  were  fotmd  by  Dr.  Hooker 
to  afford  food  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  Sikkim 
Himalaya  at  an  elevation  of  upwards  of  l(>,nOO 
feet.  Their  tuV)eious  roots  are  bruised  by  means 
of  wooden  pestles,  and  thrown  into  small  pits  with 
water,  until  the  commencement  of  acetous  fermenta- 
tion, when  the  acridity  is  mostly  dissii)ated ;  but  the 
process  is  so  imperfect  that  cases  of  injury  from  the 
poisonous  juice  are  frequent.  The  tubers  of  Ariscema 
triph)jU>(m{A.  iripht/llum  of  Linna'us),  a  native  of  the 
United  States,  and  there  known  as  Dragon-root  and 
Indian  Turnip,  yield  a  pure  wliitc  starch  like  that  of 
A.  maculatum.  Tiieir  medicinal  uses  arc  also  similar ; 
they  are  employed  as  a  stimulant  of  the  secretions. — 
The  Dragon-plant,  A.  Dracuncnlua,  a  native  of  the 
south  of  Europe,  is  not  uncommon  in  gardens  ia 
Britain,  although  it  has  a  carrion-like  smell,  and  its 
emanations  are  apt  to  produce  head;iche  and  other 
disagreeable  effects.  It  has  a  singular  appearance — 
straight  stalks,  three  feet  high,  curiously  spotted  like 
the  belly  of  a  snake. — The  peculiar  acridity  of  the 
Aracece  is  most  remarkably  displayed  in  the  Dumb 
Cank  (q.  v.). 

A'RUX,  a  river  rising  in  St.  Leonard's  Forest, 
in  the  middle  of  North  Sussex,  and  after  a  course 
of  35  miles,  falling  into  the  English  Channel.  A 
canal  unites  it  with  the  Wey,  a  feeder  of  the 
Thames. 

ARUNDEL,  a  small  town  5  miles  inland  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Aruu,  in  a  tertiary  and.  chalk  dis- 
trict, on  the  south  side  of  the  Soutli  Downs,  in  the 
S.  W.  of  Sussex.  It  consists  mainly  of  a  very  steep 
street  rising  from  the  right  bank  of  the  Arun  to  the 
summit  of  a  hill  crowned  by  a  castle.  The  Arun  is 
navigable  for  vessels  of  150  tons  up  to  the  town. 
Bark  and  timber  are  the  chief  exports.  Pop.  in 
1S61,  2498.  It  returns  one  member  to  parliament. 
It  is  governed  by  a  mayor,  four  aldermen,  and  twelve 
councillors.  The  castle,  from  its  site,  is  a  striking 
object,  and  was  built  soon  after  the  Norman  con- 
quest.    It  is  an  oblong,  including  5^  acres  within  its 


ARUXDLL  MAKBLES— AKYAX  RACE. 


^vulls.  It  \\;is  laid  in  ruins  diiriiip^  the  civil  wars  of 
Charles  I.,  but  lieiiij^  the  baronial  residence  of  the 
Dukes  of  Norfolk,  the  late  duke  restored  it  to  its 
fornier  Gothic  mapnificeuce.  The  keep,  eontainiuj:^ 
the  dungeon,  is  a  circular  Norman  tower  of  imposing 
strength,  the  walls  being  8  or  10  feet  thick. 

A'RUNDEL  MARBLES,  part  of  a  collection  of 
ancient  sculj)tnres,  formed  about  the  beginning  of 
the  17th  c.  by  Thomas  Howard,  Earl  of  Arundel, 
and  presented  in  1007  to  the  university  of  Oxford,  by 
his  grandson,  Henry  Howard,  afterwards  Duke  oi 
Norfolk.  The  principal  jiortion  of  it  is  the  '  Parian 
Chronicle,'  consisting  of  the  frngments  of  an  inscrip- 
tion in  marble,  supposed  to  have  been  executed  in 
the  island  of  Paros,  about  203  B.C.  In  its  perfect 
state,  this  inscription  contained  a  chronological  table 
of  the  principal  events  in  Grecian  history  fri)m  the 
time  of  Cecrops  (1582  B.C.)  to  the  archonship  of 
Diognetus  (204:  B.C.).  The  chronicle  of  the  last 
ninety  years  is  lost,  and  the  extant  portion  of  tlie 
inscription  is  much  corroded  and  defaced.  This 
curious  and  interesting  monument,  the  authenticity 
of  which  has  been  questioned  and  vindicated  with 
almost  equal  ingenuity  and  learning,  was  pur- 
chased for  the  Earl  of  Arundel,  along  with  many 
other  relics  of  antiquity,  at  Smyrna,  by  Mr.  (after- 
wards Sir  ^Villiam)  Petty.  The  inscription,  and  all 
the  other  principal  sculptures  in  the  Oxford  Collec- 
tion, are  to  be  found  fully  illustrated  in  the  relative 
publications  of  Selden,  Prideaux,  Maittaire,  and 
Chandler,  under  the  various  titles  of  Marmora 
ArundcUiana  and  M.  Oxoniensia. 

The  nobleman  whose  name  is  associated  with  these 
ancient  marbles  is  worthy  of  remembrance,  indepen- 
dently of  his  general  merits,  as  the  first  of  his  order 
in  England  who  liberally  encouraged  tlie  fine  arts,  and 
communicated  the  influence  of  his  own  taste  and 
enthusiasm  in  their  cultivation  to  a  wide  circle  of 
imitators  and  successors.  Among  the  scholars  and 
artists  on  wliom  his  liberal  patronage  was  specially 
bestowed,  were  Francis  Junius  the  younger  (his  libra- 
rian), and  Oughtred  the  mathematician,  Wenceslaus 
Hollar  the  engraver,  whom  he  bi ought  over  to  Eng- 
land, Vandyck  and  Inigo  Jones,  and  the  sculptors 
Stone,  Le  Soeur,  andFanelli.  His  collection  of  works  of 
art,  ibr  the  supply  of  which,  from  the  treasures  of 
antiquity,  he  engaged  the  services  of  two  distin- 
guished men  of  letters,  Evelyn  and  Petty,  rivalled 
the  galleries  of  princes.  After  his  death,  it  was 
unfortunately  dispersed,  and  many  of  its  choicest 
treasures  were  ibr  ever  lost  sight  of.  His  collection 
of  sculpture  alone,  when  entire,  numbered  37  statues, 
128  busts,  and  250  inscribed  marbles,  besides  altars, 
sarcophagi,  fragments,  and  gems. 

A'RUNDEL,  Thomas,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
in  the  reigns  of  Richard  II.,  Henry  IV.,  and  Henry 
v.,  born  in  1353,  was  the  second  son  of  Robert  Fitz- 
Alan,  Earl  of  Arundel  and  Warren.  He  was  first 
Archdeacon  of  Taunton,  and  at  the  early  age  of 
twenty-one,  he  was,  by  the  pope's  appointment,  con- 
BBcrated  Bishop  of  Ely.  In  1388,  he  was,  by  the 
same  authority,  transferred  to  the  archiepiscopal  see 
of  York.  He  was  also  ibr  some  years  Lord  High 
Chancellor  of  England.  Having  been  banished  the 
kingdom  ibr  taking  a  leading  part  in  the  first  attemi>t 
which  was  made  to  deliver  the  nation  from  the 
oppression  of  Richard  II.,  he  was  honourably  received 
at  Rome,  and  by  Pope  Bonilace  IX.  nominated  Arch- 
bishop of  St.  Andrews,  with  a  promi.se  of  future  pre- 
ferment in  England.  In  1390  he  was  enthroned, 
with  great  pomp,  as  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  He 
was  a  bitter  persecutor  of  tiie  Lollards  and  followers 
of  Wickliffc,  and  a  chief  instrument  in  procuring  the 
horrible  act  for  the  burning  of  heretics  {I)e  Herelico 
Coinburendo),  passed  hi  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.     He 


even  cairied  his  bigotry  so  far  as  to  solicit  from  the 
pope  a  bull  for  digging  up  Wicklifle's  bones,  which, 
however,  was  wi.sely  refused  him.  He  also  procured 
a  synodal  constitution,  which  forbade  the  transla- 
tion of  the  Scriptures  into  the  vulgar  tongue. 
Ajnongst  others  whom  he  caused  to  be  convicted  of 
heresy,  and  setitenced  to  the  flames,  was  Lord 
Cobliam,  one  of  the  principal  patrons  of  the  new 
sect,  at  the  commencement  of  the  reign  of  Henry  V. 
Soon  after,  A.  was  seized  with  an  inflanmiation  in 
the  throat,  which  proved  fatal.  He  died  20th 
February  1413. 

ARU'NDO.     See  Reed. 

ARVrcOLA.     See  Vole. 

A'RYAN  RACE,  A'RYAN  LANGUAGES.  The 
name  Aryan  (less  properly,  Arian)  Race  or  Aryan 
Family  of  Nations  is  now  generally  used  to  designate 
that  ethnological  division  of  mankind  otherwise 
called  Indo-European  or  Indo-Germanic.  It  consists 
of  two  branches,  geographically  separated,  an  eastern 
and  a  western.  The  western  branch  comprehends 
the  inhabitants  of  Europe,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Turks,  the  Magyars  of  Hungary,  and  the  Finns  of 
Lapland  (see  Europe) ;  the  eastern  comprehends 
the  inhabitants  of  Armenia,  of  Persia,  of  Afghanistan, 
and  of  Northern  Hindustan  (see  Hindustan).  The 
evidence  on  which  a  family  relation  has  been  estab- 
lished among  these  nations  is  that  of  language. 
Between  Sanscrit  (the  mother  of  the  modern  Hindu 
dialects  of  Hindustan),  Zend  (tlie  language  of  the 
ancient  Persians),  Greek  (which  is  yet  the  language 
of  Greece),  Latin  (the  language  of  the  Romans,  and 
the  mother  of  the  modern  Romanic  languages,  i.e., 
Italian,  French,  Spanish,  Portuguese,.  Wallacliian), 
Celtic  (once  the  language  of  great  part  of  Europe, 
now  confined  to  Wales  and  some  parts  of  Ireland 
and  Scotland),  Gothic  (which  may  be  taken  as  the 
ancient  type  of  the  Teutonic  or  Germanic  languages 
— including  English — and  of  the  Scandinavian),  and 
Slavonic  (spoken  in  a  variety  of  dialects  all  over 
European  Russia  and  a  great  part  of  Austria),  the 
researches  of  philology  have  within  the  present 
century  established  such  affinities  as  can  be  accounted 
for  only  by  supposing  that  the  nations  speaking 
them  had  a  common  origin.  No  one  of  these  nations, 
whether  existing  or  historical,  can  claim  to  be  the 
parent  nation  of  which  the  others  are  colonies.  The 
relation  among  the  languages  mentioned  is  that  of 
sisters — daughters  of  one  mother,  which  peiished, 
as  it  were,  in  giving  them  birth.  No  monuments  of 
this  mother-language  have  been  preserved,  nor  have 
we  any  history  or  even  tradition  of  the  nation  that 
spoke  it.  That  such  a  people  existed  and  spoke 
such  a  tongue  is  an  inference  of  comparative  philo- 
logy, the  process  of  reasoning  being  analogous  to 
that  followed  in  the  kindred  science  of  geology.  The 
geologist,  interpreting  the  ins^criptions  written  by 
the  finger  of  nature  herself  upon  the  rock-tablets  of 
the  eaith's  strata,  carries  ns  back  myriads  of  ages 
before  man  appeared  on  the  scene  at  all,  and  enables 
us  to  be  present,  as  it  were,  at  creation  itself,  and 
see  one  formation  laid  above  another,  and  one  plant 
or  animal  succeed  another.  Now  languages  are  to 
the  ethnologist  what  strata  are  in  geology  ;  dead 
languages  have  been  well  called  his  fossils  and 
petrifactions.  By  skilful  interpretation  of  their 
indications,  aided  by  the  light  of  all  other  available 
m.onunieiits,  he  is  able  to  spell  out,  with  more  or 
less  probability,  the  ethnical  records  of  the  past,  and 
thus  obtain  a  glimpse  here  and  there  into  the  gray 
cloud  that  rests  over  the  dawn  of  the  ages. 

When  these  linguistic  monuments  are  consulted 
as  to  the  primitive  seat  of  the  Aryan  nations,  they 
point,  as  almost  all  ethnologists  are  agreed,  to 
Central    Asia,    somewhere    probably    east    of    the 

459 


AS— ASA. 


Caspian,  and  North  of  ihc  Hindu  Kush  and  Paropii- 
niisan  Mountains.  There,  at  a  peiiod  loni^  anterior 
to  all  European  history — while  Europe  •was  peiliaps 
only  a  jnnj::le,  or,  if  inhabited  at  all,  inhabited  by 
tribes  akin  to  the  Finns,  or  ))erlinps  to  the  American 
Indians — dwelt  that  mother-nation  of  which  we 
have  spoken.  From  this  centre,  in  obedience  to 
a  law  of  movement  which  has  continued  to  act 
through  all  history,  successive  migrations  took  place 
towards  the  north-west.  The  first  swarm  formed 
the  Colts,  who  seem  at  one  time  to  have  occupied 
a  {^reat  part  of  Europe ;  at  a  considerably  later 
epoch  came  the  ancestors  of  the  Italians,  the 
Greeks,  and  the  Teutonic  peoples.  All  these  would 
seem  to  have  made  their  way  to  their  new  settle- 
ments through  I'crsia  and  Asia  Minor,  crossing  into 
Europe  by  the  Hellespont,  and  partly,  perhaps, 
between  the  Caspian  and  the  Black  Sea.  The 
stream  that  formed  the  Slavonic  nations  is  thought 
to  have  taken  the  route  by  the  north  of  the  Caspian. 
At  a  period  subse(iucnt  to  the  last  north-western 
migration,  the  rcninant  of  the  primitive  stock  woidd 
seem  to  have  broken  up;  part  poured  southwards 
through  the  passes  of  the  Iliiuahiya  and  Hindu  Ku.sli 
into  the  Punjab,  and  became  the  dominant  race  in 
the  valley  of  the  Ganges;  while  the  rest  settled  in 
Persia,  and  became  the  Medesand  Persians  of  history. 

It  is  from  these  castt^n  members  that  the  wliole 
family  takes  its  name.  In  the  most  ancient  Sanscrit 
writings  (the  Veda),  the  Ilindns  style  themselves 
Aryans  ;  and  the  name  is  preserved  in  the  classic 
Arii,  a  tribe  of  ancient  Persia,  Aria,  the  modern 
Herat,  and  Ariana,  the  name  of  a  district  compre- 
hending the  greater  part  of  ancicTit  Persia,  and 
extended  by  some  so  as  to  embrace  Bactriana. 
Ariana,  or  Airyana,  is  evidently  an  old  Persian 
word,  preserved  in  the  modern  native  name  of 
Persia,  Airan  or  Iran.  Av/n,  in  Sanscrit,  sigidfies 
'excellent,'  'honourable,'  being  allied  probably  to 
the  Greek  a;7(stos1,  the  best.  Others  connect  it 
with  the  root  «r  (Lat.  ararf,  to  plough),  as  if  to 
distinguish  a  people  who  were  tillers  (earerx)  of 
the  earth  from  the  punly  uomadic  Turanians  or 
Turks. 

The  several  meinbers  of  this  ethnological  group 
will  receive  special  notice  each  in  its  place.  As 
to  the  hypothetical  mother-nation — the  primitive 
Aryan  stock  before  separation,  it  might  seem  impos- 
sible to  affirm  anything  beyond  its  mere  existence 
and  locality.  But  the  ethnologist  does  not  con- 
tent himself  with  this.  In  an  admirable  essay  on 
Comparative  Mi/tholoffi/  (Oxford  Essays,  1856),  Pro- 
fessor Max  Midler  has  drawn  a  picture  of  the 
Aryan  family  while  yet  one  and  undivided,  in  wdiich 
the  state  of  thought,  language,  religion,  and  civilisa- 
tion is  exhibited  in  a  midtitude  of  details.  Where 
the  same  name  for  an  object  or  notion  is  found  used 
by  the  widely  spread  members  of  the  fannly,  it  is 
justly  inferred  that  that  object  or  notion  must  have 
been  familiar  to  them  while  yet  resident  together 
in  the  paternal  home.  It  is  in  this  way  established, 
that  among  the  primitive  Aryans  not  only  were 
the  natural  and  primary  family  relations  of  father, 
mother,  son,  daughter,  hallowed,  but  even  the  more 
conventional  affinities  of  father-in-law,  mother-in-law, 
sister-in-law  ;  that  to  the  organised  family  life  there 
was  superadded  a  state  organisation  with  rulers  or 
kings;  that  the  ox  and  the  cow  constituted  the  chief 
riches  and  means  of  subsistence;  and  that  houses 
and  towns  were  built. 

One  general  observation  made  by  Midler  is  so 
interesting  that  we  take  the  liberty  of  quoting  it 
entire.  '  It  should  be  observed,'  he  says,  '  that  most 
of  the  terms  connected  with  chase  and  warfare  ditler 
in  each  of  the  Aryan  dialects,  while  words  con- 
nected with  more  peaceful  occupations  belong 
4GU 


generally  to  tlie  common  heir-loom  of  the  Aryan 
language.  The  proper  appreciation  of  this  fact  in  its 
general  beating  will  shew  how  a  siiinlar  remark 
made  by  Niebuhr,  with  regard  to  Greek  and  Latin, 
re(|uiresa  very  diiferent  explanation  from  that  which 
that  great  scholar,  from  his  more  restricted  [)oint  of 
view,  was  able  to  give  it.  It  will  shew  that  all  the 
Aryan  nations  had  led  a  long  life  of  peace  before 
they  .separated,  and  that  their  language  acquired 
individuality  and  nationality  as  each  colony  started 
in  Search  of  new  homes — new  generations  forming 
new  terms  connected  with  the  warlike  and  adven- 
turous life  of  their  onward  migrations.  Hence  it  is 
that  not  oidy  (Jreek  and  Latin,  but  all  Aryan  lan- 
guages ha\e  their  ]jeaceful  w ords  in  common  ;  and 
hence  it  is  that  they  all  differ  so  strangely  in  their 
warlike  expressions.  Thus  the  domestic  animals  are 
generally  known  by  the  same  name  in  England  and 
in  India,  while  the  wild  beasts  have  different  names, 
even  in  Greek  and  Latin.' 

In  this  maiidy  pastoral  life,  the  more  important  of 
the  ])rimiiivc  arts  were  known  and  exercised:  tields 
wci'e  tilled;  grain  was  raised  and  groiuid  into  meal; 
food  was  cooked  and  baked  ;  cloth  was  woven  and 
sewed  into  garments;  and  the  use  of  the  metals, 
even  of  iron,  was  known.  The  numbers  as  far  as 
a  hundred  had  been  named,  the  decimal  i)rinciple 
being  followed.  The  name  for  a  thousand  had  not 
come  into  recjuisition  until  after  the  dispersion,  for  it 
differs  in  the  diiferent  Aryan  totigues. 

Finally,  it  was  among  the  yet  tmdivided  Aryan."5, 
while  abstract  language  did  not  yet  exist,  while  every 
word  was  a  metaphor,  and  the  setting  of  the  sun,  for 
examjile,  could  otdy  be  expressed  by  his  growing  old 
and  dying,  that  those  stories  of  gods,  heroes,  and 
monsters  originated,  which,  with  more  or  less  of 
variety,  but  still  with  a  family-likeness,  formed  the 
pagan  mythology  of  every  mcndjer  of  the  group. 

AS  was  the  designation  both  of  a  Roman  weight 
(called  also  lihra)  corresponding  very  nearly  to  an 
English  jioHvd  [([.  v.),  and  also  of  a  coin  made  of  the 
mixed  metal  acs,  or  bronze.  The  As  (coin)  originally 
no  doubt  weighed  a  (Roman)  pound  ;  but  it  was 
gradually  reduced  to  ^V  of  a  pound,  and  even  lower. 
It  is  thus  difficult  to  assign  any  fixed  value  to  the 
As.    About  270  B.C.,  the  denarius  (=  8-J^d.)  contained 


10  ases  ;  so  that  the  value  of  the  As  was  then  a 
little  more  than  3  farthings ;  when  1(3  ases  went  to 
the  denarius,  the  value  was  about  a  halfpenny.  It 
was  by  the  sestertius  (q.  v.)  that  money  was  reckoned 
at  Rome.  The  oldest  form  of  As  usually  bore  the 
figure  of  an  ox,  a  sheep,  or  other  domestic  animal 
(pecus) ;  from  which  it  is  usually  suppo.sed  that  the 
Latin  word  for  money,  pecunia,  is  derived. 

A'SA,  son  of  Abijah,  and  grandson  of  Rehoboam, 
was  the  third  king  of  Judah.  At  the  beginidng  of 
his  reign,  he  was  very  young,  and  his  character  appa- 
rently undeveloped,  for  he  allowed  his  grandmother, 
Maachah,  to  encourage  idolatry  ;  but  on  assmning  the 
reins  of  government,  one  of  his  earliest  acts  was  to 
remove  her  from  all  authority  '  because  she  had  made 
an  idol  in  a  grove'  (1  Kings,  XT.  13  ;  2  Chron.  xv.  ic). 
His  zealous  efforts  to  extirpate  the  vices  and  impieties 


ASA  DT'LCIS— ASARABACCA. 


of  the  people  were  on  the  whole  suci-essful.  lie  took 
away  the  Sodomites  out  of  the  land,  and  the  altars 
of  the  strange  gods,  broke  the  images,  and  cut  down 
the  groves.  For  the  next  ten  yeiirs,  ho  devoted  him- 
self to  strengthening  the  defences  of  lii.s  kingdom, 
and  oriranised  a  magnificent  army  of  more  than  half 
a  million,  which  seems  to  have  been  looked  upon  as 
a  menace  by  other  monarchs,  for  one  of  these,  Zcrah 
the  Cushite,  took  the  initiative,  and  penetrating 
tlirough  Arabia  Pctraa^  invaded  Judah,  but  was 
defeat"ed  with  immense  slaughter.  Before  the  battle 
commenced,  Asa  had  invoked  the  aiil  of  Jehovah  ; 
and  some  time  after  the  victory,  he  and  all  his  people 
entered  into  a  solemn  covenant  '  to  seek  the  Lord 
God  of  their  fathers  with  all  their  heart  and  with 
all  their  soul'  (2  Chron.  xv.  12).  Teaec  lasted  for 
twenty  years  in  the  kingdom,  but  in  the  35th  year 
of  Asa's  reign,  war  again  broke  out  between  him 
and  Eaasha,  king  of  Israel.  He  sought  and  obtained 
the  aid  of  tlie  Syrian  monarch,  Benhadad,  but  at 
the  expense  of  'the  treasures  of  the  house  of  the 
Lord  ; '  and  although  successful  against  his  adversary, 
he  was  indignantly  upbraided  and  threatened  by 
the  prophet  Ilanani  for  not  relying  on  Jehovah 
alone.  Asa,  tiuslied  with  success,  threw  theprophet 
into  prison,  and,  it  would  appear,  'in  his  rage' 
oppressed  some  of  the  people  at  the  same  time— per- 
haps those  only  who  sided  with  Ilanani,  for  we  know 
that  at  his  death  the  nation  honoured  him  with  a 
splendid  funeral;  and  the  sacred  historian  pays  the 
highest  tribute  to  his  memory,  declaring  that  '  Asa's 
heart  was  perfect  with  the  Lord  all  his  days.'  He 
reigned  from  9.55  to  914  B.C. 


A'SA  DULCIS  (i.  e.,  Sweet  Asa),  a  drug  in  high 
repute  among  the  ancients  as  an  antispasrnodic, 
deobstruent,  and  diuretic ;  also  for  supposed  virtues 
of  the  most  extraordinary  kind,  such  as  neutralising 
the  effects  of  poison,  curing  envenomed  wounds, 
restoring  sight  to  the  blind,  youth  to  the  age,  &c. 
I:s  value  was  estimated  by  its  weight  in  gold.  The 
princes  of  Cyrene  caused  a  figure  of  the  plant  pro- 
ducing it  tobc  struck  on  the  reverse  of  their  coins, 
and  it  was  sometimes  called  La^er  Cjirenaicwn.  The 
plant  is  of  the  genus  Thapsia  (of  the  natural  order 
Uinbelliffrce),  either  T.  Garganica,  or  a  nearly  allied  j 
species,  2\  *SV7/>/irMMi— perhaps  the  drug  was  pro- 
duced by  both.  They  are  natives  of  the  south  o{ 
Europe  and  of  Barbary,  and  appear  to  be  very  active 
purgatives. 

ASAFCETIDA,  or  ASSAF(ETIDA  (i.e.,  Fetid  Asa 
or  Assa),  is  a  gum-resin,  which  has  been  supposed  to 
be  identical  with  the  exuded  juice  of  the  Silphion 
of  Dioscorides,  so  highly  esteemed  among  the  Greek 
physicians ;  but  which,  perhaps,  was  ratiier  the  Ana 
dulcis.  Its  name  is  derived  from  the  Fersian  word 
assa,  which  means  a  staff.  This  drug  is  brought 
from  Persia  and  Afghanistan,  and  is  proctn-ed  by 
drying  the  milky  juice  which  flows  from  the  root 
of  the  plant  Ferula  {Xarthcx)  A.,  which  has  been 
referred  to  the  genus  Ferula  by  Linnajus,  and  to 
Narthex  by  Dr.  Falconer.  The  root  of  the  A.  plant 
is  long,  and  generally  undivided;  white  inside,  but 
having  a  black  covering;  and  contains  in  its  interior 
a  quantity  of  juice  of  an  overpowering  odour,  which 
much  resembles  that  of  garlic.  Ferula  or  Xarthex 
A.  has  its  radical  leaves  tripartite,  their  segments 
bipinnatifid,  and  nearly  two  feet  in  length.  The 
gum-resin  is  said  by  some  to  be  obtained  also  from 
Ferula  Pcrsica,  a  plant  which  has  the  root-leaves 
very  much  divided,  and  all  either  tripinnato  or 
quadripinnate.  The  name  ferula,  like  the  Persian 
as.sa,  refers  to  the  appearance  of  the  stem  of  the 
plant.  Ferula  Fersica  has  long  been  propagated 
successfully  in  Britain,  and  even  brings  its  seeds 
to  perfection. 


A.  is  prepared  in  the  dry  southern  provinces  of 
Persia,  but  chiefly  in  Khorassan  and  Atghanistan, 
and  also  to  the  "north  of  the  Hindu  Kush  range 
of  mountains.  About  April,  the  root-leaves  are 
taken  awav,  and  the  root  itself  is  more  or  less 
exposed  by  removal  of  the  soil  from  about  it. 
After  a  lapse  of  six  weeks,  a  slice  is  cut  hori- 
zontally from  its  sumnnt,  and  a  thick  white 
juice  exudes,  the  smell  of  which  even  exceeds 
in  strength  that  of  the  drug  when  dry.  _  The 
dru"  is  sometimes  met  with  in  the  market  in  the 
form  of  tears,  Ijut  more  frequently  in  lumps,  which 
are  made  up  of  irregularly  shaped  tears,  agglutinated 
together  by  a  softer  substance.  A.  is  extensively 
used  in  medicine,  and  possesses  stinndant  and  anti- 
spasmodic properties.  Wlien  taken  internally,  it 
undergoes  absorption,  and  may  be  detected  in  almost 
every  "secretion  of  the  l)ody,  as  the  saliva,  breath, 
and  "urine.  According  to  t"he  analysis  of  Pelletier, 
A.  is  composed  of  the  following  substances  :  resin, 
Go  parts;  volatile  oil,  JVli ;  gum,  19-44;  bassorin, 
1 1  -0(5  ;  various  salts,  "SO.  In  many  parts  of  the  East, 
this  drug  is  used  as  a  condiment,  in  which  respect 
it  seems  to  take  the  place  of  the  garlic  of  some 
European  nations. 

A'SAPIT,  St.,  a  cathedral  city,  on  a  small  hill 
between  the  rivers  Clwvd  and  Elwy,  in  the  north- 
west of  Flintshire,  Wale's.  The  cathedral  is  a  cruci- 
form building,  178  by  68  feet,  and  was  built  in  1284 
on  the  site  of  a  wooden  structure  founded  before  596. 
It  has  been  enlarged  and  repaired  since  last  century, 
and  has  a  tower  93  feet  high.  It  is  one  of  the 
smallest  of  British  cathedrals,  and  stands  on  the  top 
of  the  hill  on  which  the  city  is  built.  Kentigern,  or 
St.  Mungo,  Bishop  of  Glasgow,  and  his  disciple,  St. 
A.,  are  said  to  have  founded  the  see  of  St.  A.  in  the 
6th  c.  The  bishop,  who  has  a  revenue  of  £4200,  is 
patron  of  121  of  the  1-^8  benefices  in  the  diocese. 
Pop.  in  1861,  3592.  St.  A.,  with  the  Flint  district  of 
burghs,  returns  one  member  to  parliament. 
A'SAPHUS.     See  Tpjlobite. 


ASARABA'CCA  (A'sarum  Europreum),  a  plant 
of  the  natural  order  Arisfolochiaccee  (see  Ari.sto- 
lochia),  a  native  of  Europe,  growing  in  woods; 
rare,  and  perhaps  not  truly  indigenous,  in  Britain. 
The  whole  plant  has  acrid  properties ;  the  roots  and 
leaves  are  aromatic,  purgative,  and  emetic.  The 
use  of  A.,  however,  as   an    emetic  has  been  much 


Asarabacca  {Axaru7?i  Euro^ya^um). 
h,  tlot:ichcil  anther ;  c,  style. 

superseded  by  that  of  ipecacuanha,  which  is  milder 
and  safer.  The  powdered  r6ots  and  leaves  enter 
into  the  composition  of  cephalic  snuffs,  which  cause 

461 


ASBEK— ASCARIS. 


sneezing,  and  are  employed  as  a  counter-irritant  in 
cases  of  headache,  ophthahnia,  toothache,  &c.  The 
plant  contains  a  volatile  oil,  and  a  crystalline  sub- 
stance called  Asarine,  to  which  it  seems  to  owe  its 
active  properties.  The  genus  Asarmn  is  distin- 
guished by  twelve  horned  stamens,  distinct  from 
each  other  and  from  the  style,  and  by  a  bell-shaped 
three-lobed  perianth.  A.  Europaitm  has  a  very 
short  stem  with  two  shining  kidney-shaped  leaves 
on  long  stalks,  from  the  axil  of  which  springs  a 
single  drooping  greenish-brown  flower. — A  nearly 
allied  species,  A.  Canadcnxe,  a  native  of  Canada,  is 
stimulant  and  diaphoretic,  and  is  used  under  the 
name  of  Canada  Snakkroot,  instead  of  Arixto- 
lochia  Serpentaria.  It  is  also  called  Wild  Gingkr, 
and  used  as  a  spice,  being  of  a  warm  aromatic 
quality,  and  not  acrid,  like  its  European  congener. 

AS'BEN,  or  A'lR,  a  country  of  Central  Africa, 
situated  in  15" — 20°  N.  lat.,  and  C°— 11°  E.  long. 
Pop.  estimated  at  64,000.  Its  territory  comprises  a 
large  amount  of  desert,  as  well  as  considerable  tracts 
of  mountain  land.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  of 
Berber  extraction,  and  generally  profess  the  rchgion 
of  Mohammed.  They  are  of  a  degraded  character,  and 
given  to  marauding.  The  climate  is  rather  healthy, 
and  generally  hot  and  dry.  The  rainy  season  is  from 
August  till  October.  The  soil  in  many  i)laces  is 
fertile,  producing  the  doom  palm,  dates,  and  senna. 
Dr.  Barth,  the  traveller,  says  of  the  aspect  of  the 
country:  'Rocky  ground,  ovei'toppod  by  higher 
mountain  masses  or  by  detached  peaks,  and  hollows 
overgrown  with  rich  vegetation,  and  preserving  for  a 
longer  or  a  shorter  time  the  regular  form  of  valleys, 
succeed  each  other  by  turns,  and  constitute  the  pre- 
dominant feature  of  the  country  of  Asben.'  The 
capital  is  Agades  (q.  v.). 

ASBE'STUS,  a  mineral  very  closely  allied  to 
tremolite,  actinolite,  and  hornblende,  and  which, 
along  with  tremolite  and  actinolite,  is  often  ranked 
among  the  varieties  of  hornblende.  It  consists 
chiefly  of  silica,  magnesia,  lime,  and  oxide  of  iron, 
and  is  of  a  fine  fibrous  character,  the  fibres  some- 
times combined  together  in  a  compact  mass,  some- 
times easily  separable,  elastic  and  flexible.  It  is 
generally  of  a  whitish  or  greenish  colour.  The 
variety  called  Rock-cork  very  much  resembles  cork, 
is  soft  and  easily  cut,  and  so  light  as  to  swim  in  water. 
Rock-leather  and  Rock-v;ood  are  varieties  somewhat 
similar  to  rock-cork,  but  not  so  light.  The  finest 
fibrous  variety  with  easily  separable  fibres  is  called 
Amianthus  (from  a  Greek  word  signifying  uvpol- 
lutible,  as  A.  is  from  a  Greek  word  signifying  inde- 
structible), because  cloth  made  of  it  was  cleansed  by 
passing  it  through  fire.  This  cloth  was  used  by  the 
ancients  to  enwrap  dead  bodies  placed  on  the 
funeral  pile,  so  as  to  preserve  the  ashes  of  the  body 
unmixed.  Amianthus  has  sometimes  been  used  for 
the  wicks  of  lamps,  and  is  often  employed  to  fill 
vinaigrettes,  being  moistened  from  time  to  time 
■with  a  few  drops  of  aromatic  vinegar.  The  finest 
amianthus  is  found  in  the  Tarentaise  in  Savoy.  It 
is  particularly  abundant  in  Corsica.  It  is  found  also 
in  Cornwall,  at  Portsoy  in  Scotland,  and  in  several 
of  the  Shetland  Islands.  None  of  the  varieties  of 
A.  are  very  common,  but  they  are  not  unfrcquent  in 
serpentine  and  allied  rocks  in  different  parts  of  the 
world.  Minerals  which  resemble  A.  in  their  fibrous 
character  are  sometimes  called  ashestous  or  axbenti- 
form,  and  some  of  them  are  believed  to  be  varieties 
of  augite  rather  than  of  hornblende. 

A'SCALON,  or  A'SIIKELON,  a  ruined  city  of 
Palestine,  situated  on  the  shore  of  the  Mediterranean, 
36  miles  W.S.W.  of  Jerusalem,  and  12  N.  by  W.  of 
Gaza.  It  was  in  ancient  times  a  fortified  city,  and 
the  principal  town  of  one  of  the  five  lordships  of  the 
462 


Philistines.  Its  name  often  occurs  iu  the  history  of 
the  people  of  Israel  in  the  Old  Testament,  vherc  it 
is  represented  as  ialling  nt  an  early  period  into  the 
hands  of  the  tribe  of  Judah.  Herod  the  Great 
embellished  it  with  baths,  palaces,  and  fountains; 
but  in  the  subsequent  wars  with  the  Romans,  it 
suffered  much  damage.  There  was  a  celebrated 
temple  of  Derketo,  the  Venus  of  the  Syrians,  at 
A.,  which  is  recorded  to  have  been  plundered  by 
the  Scythians,  630  n.o.  After  continuing  long 
under  the  dominion  of  the  Roman  empire,  the  city 
came  into  the  possession  of  the  Saraceiw  in  the 
7th  c.  In  1099  a  great  battle  was  fought  on  tho 
plains  of  A.,  between  the  Crusaders  and  Saracens, 
when  the  Christians  gained  a  decisive  victory. 
The  city,  however,  a  number  of  years  after,  was 
recaptured  by  the  Moslems,  and  held  by  them  as 
a  strongly  fortified  place  until  11.^3,  when  it  was 
taken  by  the  Crusaders  under  Baldwin  III.  In  1187 
it  was  retaken  by  the  Saracens,  but  afterwards 
(1192)  fell  into  the  hands  of  Richard  C(eur  de  Lion. 
Subscfiuently,  being  more  than  once  dismantled  and 
repaired  during  the  wars  between  Richard  and 
Saladin,  it  was  reduced  to  desolation  by  Sultau 
Bibars  in  1270. 

The  ruins  of  this  ancient  city  occupy  an  extensive 
semicircular  eminence,  slojiing  gently  to  the  east, 
but  abrupt  and  steep  towards  the  sea.  Part  of  the 
walls  are  still  standing,  with  the  remains  of  Gothic 
churches,  a  palace,  and  several  edifices  of  more 
ancient  date,  which  attract  the  notice  of  the  traveller 
and  the  anticjuary. 

A'SCARIS,  a  genus  of  Enfozoa,  or  intestinal 
worms,  of  the  order  Kcinatoidcn  of  Zeder,  Cuvier, 
&c.,  and  of  the  division  ^terelniiiitha  of  Owen. 
The  ascarides  have  a  body  approaching  to  cylindri- 
cal, but  thickest  in  the  middle.  They  inhabit  the 
intestines  of  animals.  The  si)ecies  are  numerous. 
One  of  the  best  known  is  A.  luinbricoides,  often 
called  the  common  round  worm,  which  occurs  in  the 
intestines  of  man  and  in  some  of  the  lower  animals, 
as  the  hog,  ox,  horse,  &c.,  and  which  often  occasion.? 
severe  disease,  and  sometimes  death,  particularly 
when  it  ascends  from  the  intestines  to  tlie  stomach. 
Its  presence  even  in  its  most  ordinary  situation  iu 
the  small  intestines,  is  attended  with  unfavourable 
eflects  upon  the  general  health ;  and  the  greater  the 
number  present — which,  however,  is  not  usually 
large — tho  greater,  of  course,  is  the  injury  ;  although 
when  they  remain  in  the  intestines,  worms  of  this 
species  are  less  injurious  and  less  annoying  than 
other,  and  even  much  smaller  intestinal  worms.  In 
subjects  otherwise  diseased,  they  occasionally  find 
their  way  out  of  the  intestines  into  tlie  closed  serous 
cavities  of  the  body,  and  even  pass  through  ulcerated 
parts  of  the  external  integument;  but  the  mouth 
is  formed  only  for  suction,  and  is  provided  with  no 


Ascaris  luinbricoides  (male). 

Onc-tliiril  of  tlic  true  linear  ditncnsions;  a  is  the  head  of  the 
worui. 

means  of  boring  through  the  healthy  intestine.  An 
immense  number  of  remedies  (anthelmintics  or  ver- 
mifuges) have  been  proposed  and  used  in  order  to 
expel  this  parasite,  some  of  which  are  very  effectual. 
They  do  not  in  general  kill  the  worms,  but  act  by 
making  their  dwelling-place  disagreeable  to  them 
(see  Vermifuge).  It  is,  however,  remarked  by 
Kiichenineister,  in  his  work  on  Parasites,  that  the 


ASCARIS— ASCENSIOX. 


treatiiiont  of  cases  of  this  description  is  as  yet  purely 
empirical,  because,  altliough  there  must  be  a  condi- 
tion of  the  intestinal  canal  which  favours  the  thriv- 
ing of  worms,  we  are  by  no  means  certain  what  it  is. 
The    A.    lumhrkoidcs    is    ordinarily,    iu    size    and 


The  mouth  of  Ascaris  lumbricoidcs,  magnified. 

Shewing  the  fleshy  tubercles  spread  out.  with  eockscomb-like 
musoles  interior  to  them,  and  the  entrance  to  the  intestinal 
canal. 

appearance,  pretty  much  like  the  Common  Earthworm 
[Lumbrlncs  terrcsiris),  from  which  resemblance  it  has 
received  its  specific  name,  although  the  resemblance 
is  rather  in  general  form  than  in  more  essential 
characteristics.  It  has  been  seen  fifteen  inches  in 
length.  Its  mouth  consists  of  three  fleshy  tubercles, 
•which  can  be  spread  out  upon  the  intestine  to  form 
a  broad  circular  sucker,  and  within  which  there  is 
a  small  tube  capable  of  being  protruded.  The  ali- 
mentary canal  consists  of  a  muscular  gullet  and 
stomach,  and  a  thin-walled  intestme.  Between  the 
muscular  layers  of  the  body  is  produced  a  pale 
reddish  oily  matter,  with  a  strong  and  very  peculiar 
odour,  which  is  gradually  communicated  to  spirit  in 
whici)  tlie  worm  is  preserved.  The  males  are  smaller 
than  the  females,  and  much  more  rare.  The  females 
produce  eggs  in  great  numbers ;  but  it  is  uncertain 
if  ever  they  are  developed  within  the  intestine  in 
which  the  parent  worm  resides.  They  are  certainly 
capable  of  being  developed  elsewhere,  and  probably 
the  young  enter  the  intestines  of  the  animals  of 
which  they  are  eventually  to  be  the  parasites,  after 
having  spent  a  certain  stage  of  their  existence  in 
very  different  circumstances  :  the  worm  in  a  very 
young  state  having  never  been  found  in  the  intestines 
of  man  or  of  quadruped.?,  the  situation  of  its  perfect 
development.  The  inhabitants  of  damp  valleys  are 
believed  to  suffer  more  than  others  from  the  A. 
lumbricoide'i.  It  is  said  also  to  be  particularly 
frequent  iu  persons  who  are  much  accustomed  to 
eat  raw  leaves  and  roots ;  and  it  has  been  supposed 
that  the  young  may  exist,  perhaps  in  an  encysted 
state,  in  the  bodies  of  insects  or  other  very  small 
animals  wiiich  are  accidentally  eaten  along  wi'h 
such  food,  as  the  young  tapeworm  finds  its  way  into 
the  human  intestines  from  its  residence  as  a  creature 
of  very  different  size  and  form  in  the  flesh  of  the 
sheep  or  the  pig.  The  once  prevalent  idea  of  the 
equivocal  generation  of  these  worms  is  now  com- 
pletely abandoned. 

A.  vernucularia  is  another  species  usually  referred 
to  this  genus,  and  is  the  only  other  species  trouble- 
some to  mankind.  It  is  known  as  the  Thread-worm 
or  Maw-worm,  and  is  very  common  both  in  children 
and  adults.  It  infests  chiefly  the  lower  part  of  the 
intestines,  and  particularly  the  rectum,  great  numbers 
being  often  present  together,  and  occasioning  intoler- 
able itching,  irritation,  and  loss  of  sleep,  although 
there  is  not  in  general  much  serious  injury  to  health. 
The  same  anthelmintics  employed  against  other 
intestinal  worms  are  found  efficacious  also  in  the 
expulsion  of  ibis;  and  clysters  are  oiten  employed 
with  great  success.  The  thread-worm  is  white,  "not 
more  than  half  an  inch  in  length,  the  male  much 


less.     Some  recent  authors  of  high  reputation  have 
separated  this  species  from  A.,  and  call  it   Oxyuris 


Ascaris  vermicularis  (male). 

Magnified  twenty-live  diaineteis; 
u,  the  uioulh. 


Ascaris  vermicularis 
(female  i. 
Magnified  eight  diameters. 


vermictdtiriit,  but  the  term  Axcarides  is  often 
employed  in  medical  works  with  exclusive  reference 
to  it ;  and  indeed  this  name,  derived  from  the  Greek 
askarizo,  to  jump  or  move  briskly,  probably  owes  its 
origin  to  the  liveliness  of  motion  which  this  species 
exhibits.  It  has  been  recently  discovered  that  its 
nervous  system  is  very  highly  developed,  consisting 
of  many  ganglia,  with  connecting  and  ramifying 
cords. 

ASCE'NSION",  one  of  the  comparatively  few- 
single  islands  on  the  globe,  being  about  S(iO  miles  to 
the  north-west  of  St  Ilelena,  and  almost  as  fiir  to  the 
south  south-west  of  St  Matthew.  It  is  said  to  have 
received  its  name  from  the  circumstance  of  its  having 
been  discovered  by  the  Portugese  on  Ascension-day, 
It  is  nearly  iu  the  middle  of  the  South  Atlantic,  the  lat. 
ofitsfortbeing7°5o'55"  S.,  and  its  long.  14"' '25'  .^''W. 
A.  is  8  miles  long  by  6  broad;  its  area  being  about 
35  square  miles.  Though  it  was  discovered  as  early 
as  1501,  yet  it  remained  uninha))ited  till  1815,  when, 
in  connection  with  Napoleon  Bonaparte's  detention 
in  St  Ilelena,  the  English  took  possession  of  it. 
Even  now  the  population,  about  400,  is  chiefly  mili- 
tary. Like  St  Ilelena,  it  is  of  volcanic  origin,  and 
generally  mountainous — one  peak  rising  to  a  height 
of  2870  feet.  Owing  to  the  extreme  dryness  of  the 
climate,  which,  however,  is  healthy,  the  suface  is 
nearly  destitute  of  verdure.  Among  indigenous 
productions  are  the  tomato,  castor-oil  plant,  and 
pepper ;  and  various  European  vegetables  are  suc- 
cessfully cultivated.  The  chief  exports  of  A.  are 
turtle  and  birds'  eggs — 10,0u0  dozens  of  the  latter 
having  occasionally  been  collected  in  one  week. 

ASCE'NSION,  Right  (Lat.  ascensio,  a  rising; 
Ger.  geradc  auf.stelf/unff),  the  name  given  in  astronomy 
to  one  of  the  arcs  which  determine  the  position 
relatively  to  the  equator  of  a  heavenly  body  on  the 
celestial  sphere,  the  other  being  the  declination.  See 
Au-MiLLAUY  Sphere.      It  is  the  arc  of  the  equator 

463 


ASCEXSIOX-DAY— ASCETICISM. 


intercepted  between  the  first  point  of  Aries  (q.  v.), 
and  the  point  at  which  the  circle  of  declination 
passing  through  the  star  cuts  the  equator.  Measmcd 
always  from  west  to  east,  right  A.  on  the  heavens  cor- 
responds to  longitude  on  the  earth.  The  right  A.  of  a 
heavenly  body  is  ascertained  by  means  of  the  transit 
instrument  and  clock.  The  transit  instrument  deter- 
mines its  meridian  passage,  and  the  transit  clock 
gives  the  time  at  which  this  takes  place.  When  the 
first  point  of  Aries  is  in  the  meridian,  the  clock 
stands  at  0  hours,  0  minutes,  0  seconds,  and  it  is  so 
arranged  as  to  indicate  24  sidereal  hours,  the  time 
that  elapses  between  two  successive  passages  of  that 
point.  The  reading  of  the  clock,  therefore,  at  the 
passage  of  any  heavenly  body  gives  its  right  A.  in  time, 
and  this,  when  multiplied  by  I.t,  gives  the  same  in 
degrees,  minutes,  and  seconds.  The  light  A.  is  usually 
given,  however,  in  time.  The  old  term,  ohliijuc  A., 
was  given  to  the  right  A.  of  the  point  of  the  eqnator 
that  rose  simultaneously  w  ith  the  heavenly  body ; 
and  the  difference  of  the  oblique  and  right  A.  was 
called  the  'ascensional  difference.' 

ASCEXSION-DAY,  or  HOLY  THURSDAY, 
one  of  the  great  rehgious  festivals  of  the  Episco- 
pal, and  also  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  It 
is  held  on  the  fortieth  day  after  Eastor,  and  is 
intended  to  commemorate  the  ascension  of  Christ 
into  heaven.  It  is  one  of  the  six  days  occur- 
ring in  the  year  for  which  the  Church  of  England 
appoints  special  psalms,  and  the  same  church  also 
particularly  recommends  it  as  a  fitting  day  for 
the  receiving  of  the  communion.  Ascension-d;iy 
has  been  observed  from  the  earliest  times  of 
the  Christian  Church.  St.  Augustine  believes  it  to 
have  been  instituted  either  by  the  apostles  them- 
selves, or  the  primitive  bishops  succeeding  them. 
Connected  with  the  religious  observances  of  this 
day  were  certain  civic  ones,  which  in  some  parts  of 
England  and  Scotland  are  continued  to  this  day — 
viz.,  beating  the  bounds,  or  riduni  tlie  'tnarchcx.  though 
their  religious  connection  is  apparently  forgotten. 
See  Rogation  Days  and  PERAMiiULATioxs. 


ASCETICISM.       Among     the     Greeks,     asJcexh 
denoted  the  exercise  and  discipline  practised  by  the 
athletes  or  wrestlers,  who  had  to  harden  their  bodies 
by  exertion  and  to  avoid  all  sensual  and  effeminating 
indulgences.     In  the   schools   of  the    philosophers, 
especially    of  the    Stoics,  the   same  word   signified 
the  practice  of  mastering  the  desires  and  passions, 
or  of  severe  virtue.     In  these  senses  it  passed  into 
the  language  of  the  early  Christians.     The  language 
of  St  Paul  in  comparing  the  Christians  to  wrestlers 
who  had  to  contend  with   Satan,  the  world,  and   the 
flesh,    contributed    to    this.      But   the    philosophy 
of  the  time  had  more  to  do  with  it,  which  held  the 
freeing  of  mind  from  matter  to  be  the  means  of  union 
with  God ;  or,  at  least,  that  the   refraining  from  all 
luxurious  pleasure  was  the  way  to  restore  the  soul 
to  its  original  purity.     To  understand  the  vast  influ- 
ence that  ascetic  ideas  have  exercised  on  the  Christian 
religion,  we  must  look  beyond   the  bounds  of  its 
history.     Their  root  lies  in  the  oriental  r.otion,  that 
the  Absolute  or  All  is  the  only  real  existence ;  and 
that  individual  phenomena,  especially  matter  in  all 
its  shapes,  are  really  nothing,  and  are  to  be  despised 
and  avoided,  as  involving  the  principle  of  separation 
from  the  Absolute.     The  East,  accordingly,  is  the 
native   soil   of    A.      The   glowing    imagination   of 
tlie  oriental  carries  the  practice  of  it  to  a  monstrous 
extravagance,    as    is    seen    in    the    frightful    self- 
torturos    of  the    yogis    and    fakirs,  the   suicides    in 
the  sacred  Ganges  and  under  the  wheels  of  Jugger- 
nauth,  and  the  practices  now  or  recently  prevalent 
of    offering    children    in    sacrifice,    and    of    burn- 
ing widows ;    most  of   which,   however,  have  been 
464 


iiuniMiu'ly  sup])rc-;sod  by  the  etViuis  of  the  British 
governnient.  Buddhism,  whicli  nuiy  be  considered 
as  a  kind  of  puritan  revival  or  reformation — 
the  methodism  of  the  Indian  religion — carried 
the  principle  beyond  its  previous  bounds.  In 
its  contemning  the  world;  in  its  inculcating  a  life 
of  solitude  and  beggary,  mortification  of  the  body, 
and  abstinence  fioni  all  uncleanness  and  from  all 
exciting  diiuks,  the  object  was  to  keep  as  distant  and 
detached  as  possible  fi  om  this  '  Vale  of  Sorrow'  (see 
Buddhism  and  Xirvana).  The  sober  Chinese,  and 
the  more  moral  and  rational  Persians,  never  carried 
asceticism  to  these  extravagances  ;  and  the  earnest 
Egyptians  sought  to  confine  it  to  monogamy  of  the 
priests,  abstaining  from  the  flesh  of  swine  and  from 
beans,  rigid  ))urity,  circumcision,  moderate  flagella- 
tion, and  frequent  contemplation  of  death  (which 
there  were  arrangements  for  biinging  to  remem- 
brance, even  in  the  midst  of  festivities).  These 
are  certainly  milder  forms  of  A.,  but  the  principle 
is  the  same. 

It  is  in  the  light  of  this  fore-history  that  we  must 
consider  Judaic  and  Christian  asceticism.  In  the 
oriental  mind,  especially  in  Egypt,  circumcision, 
avoiding  of  all  uncleanness,  and  fasting,  were  signs  of 
humiliation  before  God;  and  in  the  Mosaic  ritual  they 
were  conditions  of  the  favor  of  the  holy  Jehovah. 
Voluntary  vows,  abstaining  even  from  lawful  food, 
wine,  &c.,  were  held  to  have  a  special  purifying, 
consecrating  efficacy,  particularly  for  prophets  and 
men  of  special  callings.  But  s-elf-castigation  con- 
tinued for  long  foreign  to  the  sobriety  of  Judaism, 
and  even  herniitism  came  into  established  practice 
only  shortly  before  Christ,  in  Palestine  among  the 
Essenes  (q.  v.),  in  Egypt  among  the  Therapeutae 
(q.  V.) ;  though  doubtless  Jewish  A.  had  become 
more  stern  and  gloomy  since  the  exile  in  Babylon. 

A.  was  far  less  congenial  to  the  reflective  nations 
of  the  West,  above  all  to  the  cheerful  Greeks.  A 
(ireek  felt  himself  entitled  to  enjoyment  as  well  as 
his  gods ;  hence  Greek  religious  festivals  were  per- 
vaded by  cheerfulness.  The  only  exception  appears 
to  be  the  Eleusinian  mysteries,  which  never  took 
hold  of  the  people  generally,  ami  the  passing  pheno- 
menon of  the  Pythagorean  fraternity.  The  attack 
ninde  by  the  Socratic  school  upon  the  body  as  the 
prison  of  the  soul — a  view  reminding  one  of  the  East 
— and  the  extravagant  contempt  for  the  elegances, 
and  even  decencies  of  life,  pi  ofessed  by  the  later 
Stoics  and  Cynics,  were  no  genuine  fruits  of  the 
popular  Greek  mind ;  and  wo  must  also  ascribe  to 
the  infusion  of  oriental  philosophy  the  ascetic  ten- 
dencies of  Xeoplatoiiism,  in  holding  abstinence  from 
flesh  and  from  marriage  as  thief  conditions  of 
absorption  into  the  divinity. 

It  was  into  the  midst  of  these  ideas  that  Chris- 
tianity was  introduced.  The  Jewish  converts  brought 
with  them  their  convictions  about  fasting.  Easting 
and  Nazarilic  observances  were  thought  sanctifying 
preparatives  for  great  undertakings;  and  the  incul- 
cation of  abstinence  from  marriage,  on  the  ground  of 
the  expected  speedy  re-appearance  of  Christ,  falls  in 
with  the  s;inie  notion,  namely,  that  the  flesh,  that  is, 
the  sensuous  part  of  our  nature,  is  the  seat  of  sin, 
and  must  therefore,  before  all  things,  be  rigorously 
chained.  The  old  oriental  traditions  of  A. ;  the 
spirituality  of  Christianity,  pointing  away  from  earth 
to  heaven ;  opposition  to  the  cornqition  of  the 
heathen  world  ;  the  distinction  made  between  belief 
and  knowledge,  as  a  higher  and  lower  stage  of  intel- 
ligence, leading  to  a  corresponding  distinction  of  a 
higher  and  lower  stage  of  virtue:  all  combined  to 
make  the  Christians  of  the  first  two  centuries  hold 
aloof  from  the  world  and  its  wisdom,  and  favour 
abstinence  from  marriage,  more  especially  on  the 
part  of  the  clergy.    This  ascetic  spirit  began  as  early 


ASCnAFFEXBURG— ASCHAM. 


as  the  comincucenieiit  of  tlie  2d  c.  to  court  trial  in 
the  pt'i'lloiis  practice  of  men  and  women  living 
togetlier  nnder  vows  of  continence.  We  find 
Cyprian  dissnadinj^  fioni  llie  danjrerou.s  experiment, 
and  oven  the  avithority  of  the  cluirch  interposed  to 
the  same  effect.  But  duiing  the  first  three  centuries 
no  irrevocable  vows  yet  bound  tlic  devotees  to  a  life- 
lon;i  A.     Fasting  was  also  comparatively  rare. 

But  the  tendency  to  outward  manifestations  now 
began  to  grow  stronger.  The  inward  and  sjiiritual 
life  of  the  Christians  had  gri'atly  declined;  and  if 
the  previous  bloody  persecutions  luid  driven  indi- 
viduals from  human  society  into  the  deserts,  tlie 
growing  secularisation  of  the  church,  after  Chris- 
tianity became  the  state  religion,  had  the  same 
effect  to  a  still  greater  degree.  All  this  paved  the 
way  for  the  chief  manifestation  of  A. — namely,  mon- 
asticism  (q.  v.);  and  the  church  found  herself  com- 
pelled by  the  overwhelming  tide  of  opinion  within 
and  without  to  recognise  this  form  of  A.,  and  to 
take  it  under  her  protection  and  care.  From  the 
African  Church,  represented  by  Tertnllian  and 
Augustine,  a  spirit  of  gloomy  and  crushing  super- 
naturalism  spread  deeper  and  deeper  over  the  West- 
ern Clinrch  generally,  intensifying  the  ascetic  tenden- 
cies, and  leading  to  still  more  marked  separation  from 
a  despised  woild.  There  were  not  wanting  healthier 
minds — as  Jovianus,  Yigilantius,  and  othi  rs — to 
raise  their  voices  against  fasting,  monkery,  and  the 
outward  works  of  A.  generally  ;  but  such  protests 
were  vain,  and  became  ever  rarer. 

From  the  11th  c,  the  Cathari,  Waldenses,  and 
other  sects,  though  ascetics  themselves  in  a  way, 
yet  assailed  the  external  A.  of  the  church  ;  the 
classic  Petrarch  fought  on  the  same  side  ;  and  so 
did  Wiekliffe,  Huss,  and  Jerome  of  Prague,  in  their 
premature  struggles  at  reformation.  After  a  pre- 
liminary skirmish  by  Erasmus,  the  struggle  was 
decided  in  the  reformation  of  the  16th  c.  The 
fundamental  principle  of  that  movement,  that  salva- 
tion is  secured  by  justification  through  faith,  and 
not  through  dead  works,  struck  at  the  root  of 
monkery  and  mortification  in  general.  But  the 
victory  has  not  been  so  complete  as  is  often  assumed. 
The  ascetic  spirit  often  shows  itself  still  alive  under 
various  disguises  even  in  Protestantism.  The 
Mennonites  inculcated  a  rigid  A.  ;  and  with  the 
Shakers  of  America,  celibacy  is  practised  as  a  virtue. 
The  essence  of  A.  is  to  hold  self-denial  and  suffering 
to  be  meritorious  in  the  sight  of  God,  in  and  for 
itself,  without  regarding  whether  it  promotes  in  any 
way  the  good  of  others  or  the  improvement  of  the 
individual's  own  character.  In  this  light,  many 
traits  presented  by  Puritanism,  Methodism,  and 
Quakerism  appear  ascetic.  It  is  not  impossible  that 
vegetarianism,  total  a))stinonce,  and  other  recent 
austerities,  though  advocated  on  other  grounds, 
recommend  themselves  to  the  feelings  of  many 
from  their  falling  in  with  this  deep-seated  pro- 
pensity to  A. ;  which  seems  a  relic  of  that  dread  of 
the  malignity  of  the  invisible  and  sui)ernatural  powers 
which  haunts  the  hunuin  mind  in  an  unenlightened 
and  savage  state. 

Even  in  the  Romish  Church,  ascetic  practices  have 
been  modified  in  recent  times;  fastings  are  less 
rigorous,  and  the  self-sacrifice  of  conventual  life  is 
more  directed  to  beneficial  ends.  Mohammedanism 
has  undergone  the  same  change.  In  the  Greek 
Church,  monasticism  had  always  a  milder  form. 

ASCHA'FFENBURC,  the  chief  town  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Maine,  in  the  Bavarian  principality  of 
the  same  name  (lat.  50°  1'  N.,  long.  y°  7'  E).  It  is 
built  upon  an  etninence,  and  has  both  a  healthy  and 
attractive  situation  ;  but  the  streets  are  narrow, 
irregular,  ar.d  slope  steeply  towards  the  river.  The 
castle  of  Johanuisburg,  built  between  L605 — 1014, 
30 


by  Johann  Schweikhardt,  Elector  of  Mentz,  and  the 
favourite  hunting  residence  of  many  of  his  suc- 
cessors, forms  a  (|uadiangle,  with  towers  at  each 
corner,  and  overlooks  the  whole  town.  Besides  the 
collegiate  church,  the  military  barracks,  and  the 
town-hospital,  A.  possesses  a  Roman  villa,  built  bv 
the  late  King  Louis,  in  imitation  of  the  Castor  and 
Pollux  edifice  discovered  at  Pompeii.  It  is  celebrated 
for  its  manufacture  of  coloured  papers,  besides  carry- 
ing on  a  consi(leral)le  trade  in  wood,  building-stone, 
tobacco,  wine,  &c.  Pop.  10,676,  principally  Catholics. 
A.,  existed  as  early  as  the  invasion  of  (icrmany  bv 
the  Romans,  who  built  a  castle  here.  In  ',)74,  Otto 
I.,  Duke  of  Swabia  and  Bavaria,  founded  the  colle- 
giate church,  which  greatly  increased  the  prosper- 
ity of  the  place.  After  Otto's  death,  it  came  into 
the  possession  of  the  archbishops  of  Mentz,  and  re- 
mained with  them  until  the  dissolution  of  the  Ger- 
manic empire.  In  1814,  along  with  the  principality 
of  which  it  is  the  capital,  it  was  ceded  to  Bavaria  by 
Austria. 

ASCIIAM,  RoGKR,  a  distinguished  English  writer 
and  classical  scholar,  was  born  in  Inla  at  Kirby 
Wiske,  in  Yorkshire.  He  received  his  early  educa- 
tion in  the  familv  of  Sir  Anthony  Wingfield,  and  in 
ir<:',{)  entered  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  where  he 
took  his  degree  of  M.A.  in  1536.  The  study  of  the 
classics,  especially  Greek,  had  recently  been'  revived 
at  Cambridge,  and  the  natural  bent  of  A.  impelled 
him  with  ardour  to  these  studies.  His  reputation 
as  a  classical  scholar  soon  brought  him  numerous 
pupils ;  and  there  being  at  that  time  no  Greek  chair, 
he  was  appointed  l)y  the  university  to  read  lectures 
in  the  public  schools.  He  at  first  opprscd  the  then 
new  method  of  pronunciation  which  is  still  used  in 
Eiigland;  but  afterwards  adopted  and  defended  it. 
His  leisure  hours  were  devoted  to  music,  pennutnship, 
in  which  he  excelled,  and  archery.  lu  defence  of 
the  latter  art,  he  wrote,  in  1544,  a  treati.sc  entitled 
To.rop/ii/us,  the  pure  English  style  of  which,  inde- 
pendently of  its  other  merits,  ranks  it  among  the 
classical  pieces  of  English  literature.  Fortius  treatise, 
which  was  dedicated  to  Henry  YIIT.,  he  was 
rewarded  with  an  annual  pension  of  £10,  equivalent 
to  about  £100  of  our  present  money.  About  the 
same  time,  he  was  appointed  university  orator.  In 
1548,  on  the  death  of  his  former  pupil,  Grindal,  he 
was  called  to  supply  his  place  as  master  of  languages 
to  the  Lady  Elizabeth.  In  this  office  he  gave  the 
highest  satisfaction  ;  but  at  the  end  of  two  years 
abruptly  resigned  it,  on  account  of  some  oflcnce  he 
had  taken  at  some  persons  in  the  princess's  house- 
hold. That  he  did  not  lose  favour  at  coiu't,  however, 
is  manifest,  from  his  having  soon  after  been  appointed 
secretary  to  Sir  Richard  Morysine,  ambassador  to  the 
court  of  Charles  Y.  He  spent  three  years  in  Ger- 
many, and  published  an  account  of  his  observations 
in  that  country.  He  also  made  a  short  tour  in  Italv. 
Duiing  his  absence,  he  had  been  appointed  Latin 
secretary  to  Eilward  YI.  On  his  return,  after  the 
death  of  the  king,  the  interest  of  Gardiner,  Bishop 
of  AVinchester,  secured  his  appoititment  to  the  same 
office  under  Mary  ;  his  pension  also  was  doubled. 
His  prudence  and  moderation  preserved  him  from 
offending  by  his  Protestantism.  After  the  death  ot 
Mary,  Elizabeth  retained  him  at  court  in  the  double 
capacity  of  secretary  and  tutor,  vliih  he  discharged 
till  his  death,  in  1568.  His  piineii)al  work,  Tfie 
Schoo/vianfer,  a  treatise  on  classical  education,  was 
published  in  1571  by  his  widow.  His  Latin  letters 
and  poems  have  been  frequently  reprinted.  The 
best  edition  of  the  former  is  that  of  Elstob  (Oxford, 
1703).  To  an  edition  of  his  English  works,  by  the 
Rev.  J.  Rennet  (1767),  is  prefixed  a  life  bv  Dr. 
Johnson. — Asciiam,  a  case  for  the  reception  of  the 
bow,  arrows,  strings,  and  other  accoutrements  of  the 

465 


ASCHERSLEBEX— ASCIDIA. 


archer,  derives   its   name   from   the  author   of  the 
Toxophllus. 

ASCHERSLE'BEX,  a  town  in  the  circle  or  dis- 
trict of  the  same  name,  in  the  Prussian  piovincc  of 
Majideburg,  lat.  51"  46'  N.,  long.,  11"  27'  E.  It  is 
situated  on  the  river  Eino,  is  7  miles  distant  from 
^lagdeburg,  and  has  a  population  of  11,500.  The 
inhabitants  are  chiefly  occupied  in  agriculture  and 
gardening,  but  its  trade  is  not  very  important.  It 
has,  however,  considerable  manufactures  of  woollens, 
linens,  earthenware,  &c.  In  tlie  vicinity  are  the 
ruins  of  the  old  burgh  of  Ascania,  the  original  seat 
of  the  House  of  Anhalt. 

ASCl'DIA,  a  Linmsan  genus  of  marine  mollusca. 
now  much  restricted  as  a  genus,  but  the  type  of  a 
family  called  Ascid/adce.  The  name  Ascidians  is  also 
commonly  employed  to  designate  all  those  tiiidcatcd 
mollusca  wliich  form  the  order  ,Saccobraiichiaia  of 
Owen,  or  in  which  respiration  is  carried  on  by 
means  of  gill-sacs  (Jtraiichial  sacn) ;  and  these  are 
divided  into  Compound  and  Solitary  Ascidians  {Ar/- 
gregata  and  Solitaria).  The  ascidians,  along  with 
the  other  Timicata,  are  acephalous,  or  destitute  of  a 
head,  and  are  enclosed,  not  in  a  shell,  but  in  an 
elastic  tunic  with  two  orifices,  composed  of  a  sub- 
stance apparently  identical  with  the  cellulose  of 
plants,  consisting  only  of  carbon  and  hydrogen. 
Within  the  external  tunic  is  a  muscular  nienibrane, 
regarded  as  corresponding  to  the  mantle  of  other 
mollusca,  and  the  openings  of  which  agree  with 
those  of  the  tunic.  The  greater  part  of  the  cavity 
of  the  mantle  forms  a  branchial  sac,  the  lining  of 
which,  folded  in  various  w-ays,  constitutes  the  gills 
(hranchia) ;  and  into  it  currents  of  sea-water  are 
continually  brought  by  the  respiratory  movements, 
passing  out  through  the  vent  or  anal  orifice. 
Multitudinous  vilia  in  the  mouth  and  branchial  sac, 
cause  by  their  action  this  continual  flow  of  water. 
The  motion  of  the  cilia  is  apparently  (luitc  involun- 
tary. By  this  flow  of  water,  the  particles  of  food 
requisite  for  the  aninud  are  brought  in,  so  that  the 
aeration  of  the  blood  and  the  supply  of  the  stomach 
are  carried  on  together  and  by  the  same  means.  The 
a?sophagus  or  gullet  opens  from  the  branchial  sac, 
■which  is  indped  regarded  as  probably  an  expansion 
of  the  upper  part  of  it — a  dilated  pharynx.  Under 
the  branchial  sac  is  the  stomach  ;  and  the  alimentary 
canal,  which-  is  more  or  less  tortuous,  finally  returns 
upon  itself,  so  that  the  two  orifices  are  not  far 
separate.  The  liver  consists  of  follicles  produced 
into  tubes,  and  communicating 
with  the  stomach  by  a  single 
opening.  There  is  a  heart  and 
a  circulation  of  blood,  with  the 
remarkable  peculiarity  of  alter- 
nations in  its  course,  the  cir- 
culation every  now  and  then 
))ausing  and  being  reversed. 
The  transparency  of  many  of 
the  ascidians  permits  these  and 
other  internal  movements  to 
be  easily  observed.  The  ner- 
f — (l  vous  system  is  very  simpl  % 
consisting  of  a  single  ganglion, 
situated  between  the  mouth 
and  the  anal  orifice,  and  which 
Nervous  System  of  pends  out  filaments  to  both  of 
Ascidia.  tiiem,  and  other  branches  over 

fl,  mouth;  ^  vent;    f,  the  surface  of  the  mantle.    The 
eaiifrlion;  ff,  the  niiuitle  ,i      •  ii       c  ±       ^ 

(tlie     external     tunic  .'"antle  is  capable  of  contract- 
being  removed).  ing  suddenly  to  eject  a  jet  of 
water,  and  along    with  it  any 
body  the  presence  of  which  is  disagreeable.     It  also 
contracts  and  ejects  water,  if  the  animal  is  touched, 
and  this  appears  to  be  the  only  means  of  defence 
466 


which  these  creatures  possess.     There  is  no  trace  of 
eyes  or  of  other  organs  of  special  sense. 

The  ascidians  are  ibund  in  all  seas,  anil  often 
constitute  an  im[)ortant  {)art  of  the  food  of  fishes. 
Some  of  them  are  occasionally  used  as  human  food, 
as  CynUua  miiTocosiiiux  on  the  shores  of  the  Medi- 
terranean. Many  of  them  are  very  small,  but  some 
attain  a  size  of  five  or  six  inches  in  diameter,  and 
when  touched,  (ject  water  to  a  considerable  height, 
the  largest  of  them  to  about  three  feet.  They  are  all 
fixed  by  the  base,  in  their  mature  state,  to  some  solid 
substance,  as  a  rock  or  seaweed :  sometimes  by  the 


Section  of  Social  Ascidian. 
a,  mouth ;  b,  vent;  c,  stumiicli ;  </.  intestinal  canal ; 
e,  coiuuion  tubular  stem. 

intervention  of  a  stalk  or  peduncle.  In  some 
kinds  (Social  Ascidians),  the  peduncles  of  a  niunber 
of  individuals  are  coiinected  by  a  tui)ular  stem,  and 
to  some  extent  they  have  a  common  circulation  of 
blood,  although  each  has  its  own  heart,  respiratory 
apparatus,  and  digestive  system  ;  and  if  a  ligature 
is  drawn  around  the  iieduncle  of  one  so  as  to  cut 
it  off  from  the  common  circulation,  circidation  takes 
place  in  it  as  in  a  solitary  ascidian.  In  other  kinds 
(more  strictly  called  Compound  Ascidians — which 
designation,  however,  is  by  some  authors  applied 
to  those  just  described,  whilst  these  are  called 
Aggregate  Ascidinns),  the  tunics  of  many  are  miited 
into  a  mass,  and  they  form  systems  like  zoophytes. 
The  compound  system  sometimes  bears  a  general 
resemblance  to  an  actinia.  Very  frequently  it  forms 
a  slimy  crust  upon  algaj,  shells,  &c.,  or  projects  in 
globular  or  conical  nuisses,  'more  Uke  a  lump  of 
inanimate  matter  than  a  being  endowed  with  vitality  ' 
— a  curious  and  interesting  internal  organization, 
veiled  l)y  the  coarsest  exterior.'  The  individuals  are 
sometimes  connected  by  a  gelatinous  flesh,  which 
consists  of  cellulose,  and  there  is  sometimes  a  calca- 
reous deposition  in  this  connecting  substance  as  in 
the  compound  polypes.  The  individuals  in  these 
systems  have  always  sprung  by  gemmation  from 
one,  and  both  the  solitary  and  compound  ascidians 
propagate  by  eggs.  The  young  have  the  power  of 
active  locomotion,  resemble  tad- 
poles in  form,  and  swim  by  means  ^''■^-- 
of  a  vibratile  tail,  which  disap-  ^'  ' 
pears  when  they  settle,  being 
usually  detached  by  contraction 
at  the  base.  The  sexes  are  sup- 
posed to  be  distinct  only  in  some 
of  the  ascidians.  The  ovaries  are 
usually  large,  and  the  ova  are 
carried  away  by  the  stream  which  -A-Scidian  (young), 
passes  through  the  animal.  It  is  in  the  solitary 
ascidians  that  the  highest  organization  is  to  be 
observed,  and  in  which  alone  a  distinction  of  sexes 
appears.  In  them,  a  muscular  ring  surrounds  the 
mouth,  and  can  be  closed  to  exclude  what  is  unfit 
to  enter.  Within  this  aperture  there  is  also  a 
fringe  of  tentacula,  short  and  simple,  or  longer 
and  minutely  divided.  In  the  compound  ascidians, 
gemmation  docs  not  begin  till  the  single  animal 
has    been    fully   developed ;   thereafter,   bud    after 


ASCLEPIADACE.E— ASCLEPIADES. 


bud  is  produced,  according  to  the  plan  upon  which 
the  compound  system  is  constructed,  and  '  the  pro- 
creative  force  of  tlie  geiiu-mass  finally  exhausts 
itself  in  the  formation  of  male  and  female  organs,  in 
wliich  that  foiccis  again  mysteriously  renewed  under 
its  two  forms  of  the  spermatozoon  and  the  germinal 
vesicle,  by  the  combination  of  whicli  the  reproduc- 
tive cycle  again  begins  its  course.' 

The  name  Ascidian  Zoophytes  (Zoophi/ta  Asci- 
dioiJa)  has  been  used  to  designate  those  zoophytes 
or  polypes  which  form  the  class  Pohizoa  of  Thoinj)- 
son,  Brozoa  of  Ehrenberg,  and  which  in  certain 
features  of  their  organisation  resemble  the  A., 
although  in  other  respects  they  widely  differ  from 
them.  The  Alc>ionidiuni  and  Alcjioiwlla^  already 
noticed  in  the  article  Alci/onimn,  belong  to  this  class. 
See  Polype  and  Zoophyte. 

ASCLEPIADA'CE.E,  or  ASCLEPIA'DE.E,  a 
natural  order  of  dicotyledonous  or  exogenous  j)lants, 
mostly  shrubs,  often  with  twining  stems,  almost 
always  with  milky  juice.  The  leaves  are  entire,  and 
have  cilia  between  their  stalks  in  place  of  stipules. 
The  flowers  are  peculiar  in  their  structure,  although 
symmetrical  and  regular.  The  calyx  is  divided 
into  five  segments,  the  corolla  into  five  lobes ; 
there  are  five  stamens,  and  the  stigma  has  five. 
The  filaments  are  usually  united  so  as  to  form  a 
tube,  w'hich  is  generally  furnished  with  a  coronet  of 
peculiar  hood-shapod  appendages;  the  anthers  are 
two-celled,  the  pollen  grains  cohering  in  wax-like 
masses,  which  fall  out  of  the  anther  cells,  and 
become  attached  to  glands  at  the  angles  of  the 
stigma ;  there  are  two  ovaries  and  two  styles  very 
dose  together,  and  often  very  short,  with  one 
dilated  stigma  common  to  both.  The  fruit  consists 
of  two  follicles,  or,  by  abortion,  of  one  only,  having 
numerous  imbricated  seeds  with  thin  albumen,  the 
ends  of  the  seeds  terminating  in  long  down.  There 
are    nearly   one    thousand    known    species,    chiefly 


Vincetoxicum  ofTicinalo. 
a,  root  ;  /j,  fruit  ;  c,  :i  t^Liiglo  seed. 

natives  of  warm  climates.  Some  of  them  arc  culti- 
vated in  garden  and  hothouses,  upon  account  of 
their  curious  or  beautiful  flowers,  among  the  most 
familiar  of  which  are  some  of  the  species  oi'  A nclcpias 
(q.  v.)   or   Swallow-wort ;  perhaps  none  of  them   is 


more  highly  or  deservedly  esteemed  than  Stephanotls 
foribnmlfi,  the  fragrance  of  which  equals  its  beauty, 
and  which,  since  its  intro'uction  into  British  hot- 
houses, has  been  sought  for  the  bridal-garlands  of 
the  highest  aristocracy.  No  hothouse  climber  is 
better  known  than  Iloyd  carnosa,  at  each  flower  of 
which  a  drop  of  honey  is  always  found  to  hang. 
A  number  of  species  are  medicinal,  as  Indian  Sar- 
saparilla(q.  v.),  (//([e//ii(/esw)MS  iTidicus);  Mudar  (q.  v.) 
( Cidotropis  gipnntea),  so  highly  prized  in  the  East 
Indies;  Sarcontcmuia  glmicwn,  the  Ipecacuanha  of 
Venezuela  ;  Tiilophora  asthniatica  and  Secainone. 
enieiica,  the  roots  of  which  are  used  as  emetics,  and 
in  smaller  doses  as  cathartics,  and  the  former  of 
which  is  reckoned  aniong  the  most  valuable  medi- 
cinal plants  of  India;  C'l/titvichiim  arutum,  which 
yields  a  purgative  called  Montpclier  Scammony,  and 
Vincetoxicum  officinale,  which  possesses  similar  pro- 
perties. Argel  (q.  v.),  much  used  for  adulterating 
senna,  belongs  to  this  order. — The  down  of  the  seeds 
is  sometimes  employed  as  a  substitute  for  silk  or 
cotton  (see  Asclkpias)  ;  and  the  stems  of  not  a  few 
species  afford  useful  fibres,  as  those  of  the  Asclepian 
Si/riaca  (see  Asclkpias),  the  Mudar  (q.  v.)  and  other 
species  of  Cnlotropia,  natives  of  India  and  Persia, 
Hopa  viridiffora.  Holoxtemma  Rhefdiamun,  d'c.  The 
Mudar  or  Yercum  fibre  is  very  highly  extolled  by 
Dr.  Royle  {Fibrous  Plants  of  India).  The  bark  of 
Marsdcnia  tenacissima,  a  small  climbing-plant,  yields 
a  fibre  called  Jefee,  of  which  the  Rajmahal  moun- 
taineers make  bowstrings,  remarkable  for  their 
great  elasticity,  -which  they  are  supposed  in  some 
measure  to  owe  to  the  presence  of  caoutchouc.  The 
fibre  of  M.  Jxoylri  is  used  in  Nepal.  Orthanthera 
viininen,  which  grows  at  the  base  of  the  Himalayas, 
and  has  long  leafless  wandlike  stems  of  ten  feet  in 
height,  yields  a  fibre  of  remarkal)le  length  and 
tenacity,  and  which  is  supposed  to  be  jjoculiarly 
suited  for  rope-making.  The  fibres  of  Lcptadenia 
Jacqucynojitiana  and  Peripdoca  aphriHum  are  used 
in  Siude  for  making  the  ropes  and  bands  used  in 
wells,  as  water  does  not  rot  them. — The  milky  juice 
of  most  species  of  A.  is  acrid,  but  in  some  it  is  bland, 
and  they  are  used  for  food,  as  is  the  milk  itself  of 
the  Kiriaghuna  or  Cow-plant  of  Ceylon  {Gtptnieina 
lactiferinn).  A  few  species,  as  Marsdenia  tinctoria, 
a  native  of  Silhet,  yield  indigo  of  excellent  quality. 
The  flowers  of  the  genus  Stap>elia  have  a  strong 
smell  of  carrion,  and  flies  sometimes  lay  their  eggs 
upon  them,  as  it  were  by  mistake. — Xo  sj)ecies  of 
A.  is  a  native  of  Britain. — The  order  is  generally 
regarded  as  nearly  allied  to  Apocynacea;. 

ASCLEPI'ADES,  a  Greek  physician,  born  at 
Prusa,  in  Bithynia,  who  flourished  during  the  early 
part  of  Cicero's  life.  lie  has  been  confounded  with 
several  other  persons  of  the  same  name,  and,  in  con- 
sequence, our  accounts  concerning  him  are  both 
confused  and  contradictory.  He  seems  to  have 
wandered  about  considerably  before  he  finally  settled 
at  Rome,  as  we  read  of  his  being  at  Alexandria, 
Parium  on  the  Propontis,  and  Athens.  It  is  not 
known  either  when  he  was  born  or  when  he  died. 
A.  was  opposed  to  the  principles  of  Hippocrates  in 
medicine.  Pliny,  who  professes  very  little  respect 
for  him,  reduces  his  medicinal  remedies  to  five  : 
abstinence  from  flesh,  abstinence  fi'om  wine  under 
certain  circumstances,  friction,  walking,  and  'gesta- 
tion '  or  carriage  exercise,  by  which  he  proposed  to 
open  the  pores,  and  let  the  corpuscles  which  caused 
disease  escape  in  perspiration  ;  lor  his  leading  doctrine 
was,  that  all  disease  rose  from  an  inharmonious  dis- 
tribution of  the  small,  formless  corpuscles  of  which 
the  body  was  composed.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
very  popidar  with  the  Romans  on  account  of  his 
pleasant  and  simple  cures.  His  maxim  was,  that  a 
physician  ought  to  cure  surclv,  swiftly,  and  agreeably 

467 


ASCLEPIAS— ASGILL. 


— a  thing  which,  unfortunately,  is  not  always  possible. 
A.  i.s  al.>o  allfged  to  have  been  the  first  who  distin- 
guished between  acute  and  chronic  diseases,  but  his 
knowledge  of  anaioniy  was  apparently  very  slight. 
The  fragments  of  his  which  remain  have  been 
gathered  together,  corrected,  and  published  by 
(jiumpert,  under  tiie  title  Asdcpiudis  JJUhjui  Frarj- 
»«e«to  (Weimar,  1798). 

ASCLEPIAS,  or  SWALLOW-WORT,  a  genus  of 
plants,  the  type  of  the  natural  order  AHclepiadncew. 
The  corolla  is  wheel-shaped  and  rellexed  ;  the  coronet 
fleshy,  and  each  of  its  hooded  types  has  a  horn.  Tl.c 
species  are  generally  upright — seldom  climbing  and 
twining — herbaceous  plants  with  opposite,  wliorled, 
or  alternate  leaves.  They  are  mostly  American. 
The  flowers  are  disposed  in  simple  umbels  between 
the  leaf-stalks. — A.  Sijriaca,  Syri.in  or  Virginian 
Swallow-wort,  sometimes  called  Virginian  Silk, 
appears  to  be  a  native  of  North  America,  and  not  of 
Syria,  as  was  supposed.  It  is  frequently  cultivated 
in  flower-gardens.  It  has  an  uiibranched  stt-m  4 — 7 
feet  high  ;  thick,  ovate  leaves,  covered  with  a  grayish 
down  on  the  under  side  ;  and  large,  stalked,  Tiodding 
umbels  of  many  dull  red  flowers,  which  diffuse  a 
strong  and  sweetish  odour.  The  whole  plant  is  full 
of  an  acrid  \vhite  milk,  which  contains  caoutchouc. 
The  young  shoots  aie  eaten  in  Nortii  America  like 
asparagus,  as  those  of  A.  sfipitnren  arc  in  Araliia. 
A  brown  well-tasted  sugar  is  prepared  in  Canada 
from  the  flowers  ;  and  the  silk-like  down  of  the  seeds 
has  been  used  for  the  manufacture  of  textile  fabrics, 
either  alone,  or  along  with  wool  or  silk,  but  is  more 
frequently  employed  for  the  preparation  of  wadding, 
and  for  stuffing  mattresses  and  pillows.  The  plant 
appears,  however,  to  be  chiefly  valuable  for  the  fibre 
of  its  stalks,  which  is  used  for  the  nninnfacture  of 
thread,  cloth,  ropes,  nets,  &c.,  in  many  jiarts  of 
North  America,  and  upon  account  of  which  it  has 
been  recommended  for  general  cultivation  in  Europe. 
The  fibre  is  said  to  be  of  very  superior  quality.  The 
plant  rapidly  extends  by  its  creeping  roots,  and 
readily  becomes  a  weed,  where  it  has  been  intro- 
duced.— The  roots  of  several  other  North  American 
species  are  used  as  diaphoretics  and  exjiectorants,  as 
A.  incarnatn,  A.  tuberosa,  kc.  The  latter  is  a  very 
ornamental  garden-flower,  and  is  called  Butterfly 
Weed  and  Pleurisy  Root  in  the  United  States,  where 
it  is  frequent  on  stony  and  sandy  grounds.  A. 
Curasxni'ica  is  called  Wild  Ipecacuanha  in  the  West 
Indies,  and  a  decoction  of  it  is  used  by  the  negroes 
as  an  emetic  and  purgative. 

A'SCOLI  (anciently,  Af^cuhcm  Piceniim),  an  old 
episcopal  city  of  Italy,  the  capital  of  a  delegation  in 
the  States  of  the  Church,  lat.  42^  40'  N.,  long.  13° 
37'  E.  It  is  built  on  a  hill,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Tronto,  which  forms  the  boundary  between  the 
Roman  and  Neapolitan  territories.  Pop.  11,000. 
From  the  Adriatic,  it  is  distant  16  miles  west; 
from  Ancona,  63  south.  Its  harbour  (Porto 
d'Ascoli)  has  some  coasting-trade,  and  is  defended 
by  two  forts.  The  town  is  beautifidly  situated, 
commanding  a  fine  view  of  the  fertile  valley  through 
which  the  river  flows,  and  of  the  ruggeil  Apennines, 
which  here  rise  to  an  elevation  of  7'21'2  feet. 

In  ancient  times,  it  was  inhabited  by  the  Piccni, 
the  descendants  of  a  colony  of  Sabines,  who  main- 
tained their  independence  against  the  Ronuins  until 
208  B.C.  Nearly  two  centuries  after,  they  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  Social  War;  and  on  the  taking 
of  their  town  by  Pompeius  Str;ibo,  were  sul)jected 
to  the  severest  punishments.  The  town  was  finally 
annexed  to  the  Papal  States  bv  Pope  Clement  V.  in 
1426. 

ASELLI,    ASELLIO,    or   ASELLIUS,   Caspar,    a 
celebrated  Italian    physician,  was    born  at  Cremona 
468 


about  the  year  15S1.  He  served  at  first  as  a  mili- 
tary surgeon,  but  afterwards  became  professor  of 
anatomy  and  surgerv  at  Padua.  In  1(122,  whih"  at 
Milan,  where  he  was  in  the  habit  of  spending  a 
great  portion  of  his  time,  he  discovered  the  lacteal 
vessels.  Before  A.'s  time,  anatomists  had  supposed 
that  tlie  chyle  was  carried  from  the  intestines  into  the 
liver  by  the  mesenteric  veins.  Happening  one  day 
to  dissect  a  living  dog,  he  noticed  for  the  first  time 
the  jnultitude  of  little  vessels,  which  .sucked  up  the 
nutritive  portion  of  the  food.  At  first,  he  took 
them  for  nerves,  and  did  not  pay  particular  atten- 
tion to  them  ;  but  on  pricking  one  wiih  the  point 
of  his  scalpel,  a  white  liiiuid  spurted  out,  and  the 
discovery  flashed  on  him  in  a  moment.  He  seems, 
however,  never  to  have  understood  or  described 
them  with  com[)lete  accuracy.  He  died  at  the  age 
of  4'),  leaving  a  treatise  on  the  subject  of  his 
discovery,  Avhich  was  published  a  year  after  his 
death.  It  is  entitled  J)e  LaHibua,  sire  Lncteix  Venif^, 
Quarto  VasoriD/i  Mei^araicorum  Gcnere,  Novo  hirento, 
JJisKfrtatin,  and  has  several  times  been  reprinted. 

It  is  curious  to  reflect  that  such  men  as  (Jaspard 
HolTman  and  Harvey  zealously  combated  theoi)inion3 
of  A.  It  was  nearly  half  a  ci'ntury  before  profes- 
sional men  admitted  that  a  great  discovery  had 
been  made  in  anatomy.     Sec  Lactkals. 

ASE'LLUS,  in  Ichthyology,  a  generic  name  now 
disused,  l)Ut  by  which  the  cod  and  other  Gadida 
were  formerly  sometimes  disignated.  It  is  retained 
in  the  pharmacopeias,  in  the  name  of  Cod-liver  Oil, 
Oleum  jccoris  aselli. — The  same  generic  name  is  now 
employed,  in  a  different  department  of  natural 
history,  to  denote  a  genus  of  small  Isopod  Crusta- 
ceans, one  of  which,  A.  afjunticux,  is  common  in 
stagnant  ponds  in  Britain,  and  is  sometimes  called 
the  Water  Hog-lou.se.  This  genus  is  the  type  of  a 
family  Asellidie. 

A'SES.  The  singular  of  this  name  in  Old  Norse  is 
Ax,  pi.  Aesir ;  in  Gothic,  A)tx ;  in  Saxon,  Os  (En). 
The  A.  are  a  race  of  gods  in  Northern  or  Scandina- 
vian Mythology  (q.  v.),  though  not  the  oldest,  yet  the 
morst  powerful,  like  the  Jupiter  dynasty  among  the 
(Jreeks.  They  are  usually  considered  as  numbering 
twelve  gods,  and  as  many  goddesses.  The  gods  are — 
Odin,  Thor,  Baldur,  Niord,  Freyr,  Tyr,  Bragi,  IJeim- 
dul,  Widar,  Wall,  Uller,  and  Forseti ;  the  best  known 
of  the  goddesses — Frigga,  Freyja,  Idunna,  Eira,  and 
Saga.  The  worship  of  the  A.,  or  the  Odin  religion, 
was  rooted  not  only  among  the  nations  of  Scandi- 
navia, but  among  the  Germanic  races  generally,  at 
least  in  its  outlines.  Besides  other  traces,  proofs 
of  its  prevalence  are  to  be  found  in  a  multitude  of 
(iothic,  Saxon,  and  Old  High  German  proper  names, 
many  of  which  continue  still  in  use,  though  their  con- 
nection with  German  paganism  passes  un perceived: 
Oswald,  Esmond,  Oswin,  Anselm,  Ansgar,  &c. 

ASGILL,  Joiix,  an  eccentric  English  litterateur, 
born  about  the  middle  of  the  17th  c.  He  studied 
for  the  bar,  and  at  intervals  during  the  whole  of 
his  checkered  life  transacted  legal  business  in  some 
form  or  other;  but  having  early  displayed  a  predilec- 
tion for  writing  political  pamphlets,  he  soon  became 
involved,  in  spite  of  his  cleverness,  in  serious  pecu- 
niary difficulties.  Fortunately  for  him,  parliament 
had  just  passed  an  act  (1699)  for  the  resumption  of 
forfeited  estates  in  Ireland,  and  commissioners  were 
appointed  to  settle  claims.  A  bright  vision  flitted 
across  the  mind  of  the  much-harassed  man.  He 
sailed  for  the  sister  isle,  and  found  the  whole  coun- 
try wrangling  in  lawsuits.  His  talents,  and  the 
favour  of  the  commissioners,  secured  to  him  a 
lucrative  practice ;  and  he  even  acquired  sufficient 
influence  to  obtain  a  seat  in  the  Irish  parliament. 
Some   time,  however,  before   taking   possession   of 


ASGILL— ASH. 


liis  »vnt,  A.  had  published  a  most  extraordinary 
pampldet,  entitled  An  Arr/vmcnt  prorhir/  ttiat, 
accordhiff  to  the  Covenant  of  Eternal  Life  repealed 
in  the  Scriptures,  Man  mnji  be  translated  hence 
into  that  internal  Life  without  paxxinr/  thr<nifih 
Deaths  although  the  Ilvniane  Nature  of  Christ 
himxelf  could  not  thus  be  translated  till  he  had 
passed  throuf/h  L)e<iih  (170(>).  Much  to  A.'s 
6urf)rise,  the  public  tlcw  into  a  riif;e  against  this 
alisuid  production  ;  tlie  Irish  parliament  voted  it  a 
blasphemous  liV)el,  and  the  astonished  author  was 
expelled  from  tiie  House  after  four  days.  In  170,'i, 
A.  returned  to  En^^land,  and  entered  the  English 
parliament  as  member  for  Bramber,  in  Sussex.  But 
the  fame  of  his  unlucky  pnni[thlet  haunted  him 
perpetually,  and  at  last  proved  a  Nemesis  ;  for  the 
English  House,  resolving  to  be  not  less  virtuous  than 
the  Irish  one,  took  up  the  treatise,  condemned  it  to  be 
burnt  l)y  the  common  hangman,  as  profane  and 
blasphemotis,  and  expelled  A.  on  the  18th  December 
1*707.  After  this  his  circumstances  raf)i(lly  grew 
worse,  tintil  at  last  he  found  something  like  peace 
in  the  King's  Bench  and  the  Fleet,  between  which 
two  places  his  excursions  were  confined  for  the  term 
of  his  natural  life.  Here  he  continued  to  practise 
professionally,  and — for  he  never  succeeded  in  over- 
coming this  weakness — to  indite  innumerable  pam- 
phlets on  political  and  theological  topics.  He  died 
in  November  1738. 

ASH  (P'ra'xinus),  a  genus  of  trees  belonging  to 
the  natural  order  Olcacece,  and  distinguished  bv  very 
imperfect  flowers,  in  which  the  calyx  is  obsolete, 
and  the  corolla  either  wanting  or  3— -4-partite  ;   the 


Common  Ash. 

fruit  is  a  samara,  a  seed-vessel  foliaceous  at  the 
extremity.  The  leaves  are  deciduous,  and  are 
pinnate  with  a  terminal  leaflet.  There  are  about 
flfty  species,  mostly  natives  of  Europe  and  of  North 
America.— The  Common  Ash  {F.  excelsior)  grows 
wild  in  the  middle  and  south  of  Europe  and  north 
of  Asia.  It  is  an  undoubted  native  of  Britain.  The 
flowers  are  quite  naked;  the  leaves  have  five  or  six 
pairs  of  leaflets.  The  flowers  appear  before  the 
leaves  in  spring,  and  the  tree  is  not  covered  with 
leaves  until  the  season  is  far  advanced,  losing  them 
again  early  in  autumn.  It  is,  however,  a  most  beau- 
tiful and  umbrageon.s  tree,  highly  ornamental  in 
parks;  but  in  parks  or  hedgerows  it  is  extremely 
injurious  to  the  grass  or  crops  immediatelv  around 
it.  It  rises  to  the  height  of  100 — 1.50  feet,  gener- 
ally with  a  smooth  stem.  The  wood  is'  white, 
tough,  and  hard,  much  valued  by  whcel-wrio-htsi 
cart-wrights,  coach-makers,  joiners,  and  turners.  It 
is  also  excellent  for  fuel.  Sometimes  it  becomes 
irregidar  in  (he  disposition  of  the  fibres,  and  finelv 
reined,  and  is  then  prized  by  caliinet-makers.  The 
wood  of  the  young  trees  is  almost  as  valuable  as 
that  01  the  old.     Indeed,  the  value  of  the  timber  is 


greatest    in    trees    of  which    the   growth    has    beea 
rapid,  as  it  exhibits  the  characteristic  toughness  in 


Common  Ash. 

the  highest  degree.  The  A.  prefers  a  loamy  soil, 
but  grows  in  almost  any,  and  succeeds  in  situa- 
tions too  elevated  or  too  exposed  for  most  other 
trees.  It  has  of  late  been  extensively  planted 
in  elevated  situations  in  some  parts  of  the  north  of 
Scotland,  anti  tiiere,  in  the  more  sheltered  glens,  it 
grows  to  a  large  size.  Cultivation  has  produced  and 
perpetuated  a  number  of  varieties,  of  which  the 
most  remarkable  are  the  Weeping  A.,  with  boughs 
bent  almost  straight  down  to  the  ground;  the 
Curled-leaved  A.,  with  dark-green  wrinkled  or  curled 
leaves;  and  the  L'ntirc-leaved  A.,  a  very  curious 
variety,  with  many  or  all  of  the  leaves  simple  (not 
pinnated),  which  has  been  erroneously  regarded  by 


Common  Ash. 

",  a  branch  with  leaves  ,'  b,  flowers  ;  c,  fruit  (on  a  considerably 
larger  scale  than  the  leaves  auil  flowers). 

some  botanists  as  a  distinct  species,  and  named  F. 
simnlicifolia,  F.  heferophi/lla,  kc. — The  Small-leavkd 
A.  (F.  parvifolia)A\\A  the  Lkntisk  A.  {F.  lent ixci folia) 
are  both  natives  of  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean, 
and  are  very  graceful  and  ornamental  trees. — The 
Amkricana  A.,or  White  a.  (7^.  Americana),  is  readily 
distinguished  from  the  Connnon  A.  by  its  lighter 
bark  and  paler  gr.-^en  leaves.  The  flowers  have  a 
calyx,  and  the  leaflets  arc  .shortly  stalked  and  entire 

4C9 


ASHANTI— ASIIBURTON. 


(thos^e  of  tlio  Common  A.  being  sessile  and  serrated). 
It  is  abundant  in  New  Biunsvvick  and  Canada,  but 
becomes  rare  to  the  south  of  New  Jersey.  Tiic 
trunlc  often  rises  more  than  forty  feet  undivided. 
The  wood  is  used  for  the  same  jiurposes  as  that  of 
the  Cotnnion  A. — The  Rkd  A.,  or  Black  A.  {F. 
pubc.sccnx),  is  very  similar,  but  of  smaller  size,  and 
lias  a  deep  brown  bark.  It  is  most  abundant  in 
Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  and  Virginia,  especially  in 
swampy  ground. —  The  Black  A.,  or  Water  A.  of 
the  New  England  States,  New  Brunswick,  &c.  {F. 
sainhucifolia)y  is  a  large  tree  with  buds  of  a  deep  blue 
colour. — The  Bluk  A.  of  Ohio,  Kentucky,  Tennessee, 
kc.  {F.  qundrangidata)^  is  also  a  large  tree.  The 
branches  are  quadrangular,  the  young  shoots  having 
on  the  angles  four  membranes  which  extend  their 
whole  length. — The  Gkef.n  A.  {F.  juglandifolia), 
readily  recognised  by  the  brilliant  green  of  its  young 
shoots,  is  chiefly  found  in  the  middle  states ;  and 
the  Carolina  A.  (/'.  Carolininna),  remarkable  for 
the  great  size  of  its  leaflets,  chiefly  in  the  southern 
states.  Besides  these,  North  America  produces  a 
considerable  number  of  other  species  or  varieties. 
The  wood  of  all  of  tliem  is  used  for  somewhat  similar 
purposes  to  that  of  the  Common  A. — In  the  south  of 
Europe  grows  the  Manna  A.,  or  Flowering  A.  {F. 
.Orrmx,  called  Ortius  Europcea  by  some  botanists), 
whose  flowers  have  a  4-partite  calyx,  and  four  small 
yellowish-white  petals.  The  tree  has  much  resem- 
blance to  the  Common  A.  From  it  the  substance 
called  Manna  (q.  v.)  is  obtained  by  means  of  trans- 
verse incisions  in  the  bark  ;  but  in  very  favourable 
situations,  it  flows  spontaneously  during  the  greatest 
heat  of  summer.  Manna  is  chiefly  collected  in 
Calabria  and  Sicily.  A  nearly  allied  species,  F. 
rotundifoUa,  a  native  of  Greece  and  the  Ionian 
Islands,  yields  it  also  in  perhaps  equal  quantity. 
The  Common  A.  is  said  sometimes  to  produce  the 
same  exudation  in  the  same  w^arin  climates. 

The  Mountain  A.  is  the  Rowan  Trkk  ((].  v.),  and 
belongs  to  a  different  natural  order.  Its  resemblance 
to  the  A.  is  chiefly  in  its  leaves. 

The  A.  has  a  peculiar  importance  in  Scandinavian 
mythology.  The  first  man  and  wom.in  formed  were 
Ask  and  Embla  (Ash  and  Elm).  The  couit  of  the 
gods  is  represented  in  the  Edda  as  held  under  an  A., 
called  Yggdrasil  (q.  v.).  Connected,  perliaps,  with 
these  traditions  is  the  superstitious  belief  in  A. 
twigs  as  a  charm  against  witchcraft  and  magic. 

ASHANTI',  or  ASHANTEE',  a  negro  kingdom  in 
Western  Africa,  on  the  north  of  the  Gold  Coast,  and 
near  the  British  settlement  of  Cape  Coast  Castle,  in 
lat.  G" — 8°  N.,  and  long.  0° — 3°  W.  A.  is  the  most 
powerful  state  of  Upper  (luinea.  It  is  mountainous, 
well  watered,  and  healthy,  except  m  the  lower  alluvial 
districts.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Yolta  and 
the  Assinie.  The  population  is  estimated  at  about 
a  million.  The  land  is  extremely  fertile ;  covered, 
indeed,  with  wild  luxuriant  forms  of  vegetation,  and 
producing  maize,  millet,  rice,  yams,  tobacco,  sugar, 
cocoa,  the  pine-apple,  and  other  fine  fruits,  with 
gums,  dye-woods,  and  timber.  The  ]irincipal  exports 
are  gold-dust  and  palm-oil,  together  with  slaves. 
The  natives  are  remarkable  for  their  skill  in  certain 
articles  of  manufacture;  their  cottons  are  beautiful, 
as  also  their  earthenware  and  sword-blades.  The 
capital  is  Coomassie  (q.  v.). 

The  kingdom  of  A.  was  founded  between  1730 
and  1740  by  a  barbarian  conqueror,  who  established 
a  kind  of  feudal  sovereignty  over  the  adjoining 
states.  In  their  course  of  conquest  over  the  Fantees, 
the  Ashantees  became  involved  in  war  with  the 
British  (1807 — 1826),  and  were  finally  driven  from 
the  sea-coast,  and  confined  within  their  inland  terri- 
tory. Missionaries  who  have  resided  in  A.  describe 
the  people  as  exceedingly  sanguinary  in  their 
470 


disposition  and  in  their  religious  ceremonies,  but 
courageous,  and  characterised  by  a  higher  degree 
of  intelligence  than  the  tribes  which  surround  them. 
Human  sacrifices  arc  said  to  be  very  common.  To 
celebrate  the  funeral  of  a  great  personage,  numbers 
of  slaves  are  massacred.  On  the  death  of  a  royal 
person,  these  sacrifices  were  formerly  great;  but 
through  the  influence  of  the  authorities  at  Cape 
Coast  Castle,  and  that  of  the  missionaries,  they  are 
happily  on  the  decline.  A  mi^sion  to  A.  has  been 
maintained  by  the  Wesleyan  Missionary  Society 
since  18-11,  and  with  encouraging  prospects  of  suc- 
cess. 

A'SHBOFRNE,  a  small  town  in  a  rich  district 
near  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Dove,  in  the  west  of 
Derbyshire.  It  lies  on  a  steep  south  slope,  with  high 
hills  on  the  north.  It  lias  a  cruciform  church,  as 
old  as  the  13th  c,  with  triplet  lancet  windows, 
which  was  restored  in  184.5  at  the  cost  of  £5000. 
Fop.  in  1861,  3501,  chiefly  engaged  in  the  cotton, 
lace,  and  iron  manufacture,  and  in  the  cheese  and 
malt  trade.  At  A.,  in  1044,  the  parliamentary  troops 
defeated  those  of  Charles  I. 

A'SIIBURTON,  Lord,  (Alexanf.f.r  Baring), 
born  in  1774,  a  younger  son  of  Sir  Francis  Baring, 
Bart.,  was,  in  early  life,  lor  many  years  commer- 
cially engaged  in  the  United  States  and  the 
Canadas,  in  the  service  of  the  great  London  mer- 
cantile house  founded  by  his  father.  On  the 
death  of  the  latter,  in  1810,  he  became  the  head 
of  the  firm  of  Baring  Brothers  k  Co.,  and  in  1812 
was  elected  M.P.  lor  Taunton.  He  represented 
that  place,  Callington,  and  Thetford,  on  the  liberal 
interest,  till  1831,  and  in  1832  was  returned  for 
North  Essex  as  a  moderate  Conservative.  In  the 
short  administration  of  Sir  Robert  Peel  (1834—183.5), 
he  was  president  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  and  Master  of 
the  Mint,  and  was  created  Baron  A.  by  patent  in  April 
1835.  This  title  had  been  coi;l'erred,  in  April  1782. 
on  the  celebrated  lawyer,  John  Dunning,  who  had 
married  Alexander  Baring's  aunt,  and  it  became 
extinct  on  the  death  of  his  cousin,  the  second  Lord 
A.,  in  1823.  In  1842,  Lord  A.'s  knowledge  of  busi- 
ness, and  thorough  acquaintance  willi  American 
institutions,  customs,  and  modes  of  thought,  caused 
him  to  be  appointed  special  ambassador  to  the 
United  States,  to  settle  the  norih-west  boundary 
question,  and  other  disputes,  that  then  threatened  to 
involve  the  two  countries  in  war.  In  August  of  the 
same  year,  he  concluded  the  famous  treaty  of  Wash- 
ington, commonly  called  the  A.  Treaty,  by  which  the 
frontier  line  between  the  state  of  Maine  and  Canada 
was  definitively  agreed  to.  By  this  treaty,  seven- 
twelfths  of  the  disputed  ground,  and  the  British 
settlement  of  Madawaska,  were  given  to  the  United 
States,  and  only  five-twelfths  of  the  ground  to 
Britain ;  but  it  seemed  a  better  military  frontier  to 
England,  and  included  heights  commanding  the  St. 
Lawrence,  which  the  award  of  the  king  of  Holland, 
who  had  been  chosen  arbiter,  lud  assigned  to  the 
Americans.  By  tlie  8th  and  9th  articles,  provisions 
are  made  for  putting  an  end  to  the  African  slave- 
trade ;  and  the  Kith  article  provides  for  the  mutual 
extradition  of  suspected  criminals.  Lord  A.  opposed 
free-trade,  but  strongly  supported  the  penny  postage 
system  when  first  proposed  by  Rowland  Hill  in 
1837.  He  formed  a  valuable  collection  of  old 
paintings.  His  death  took  place  May  13,  1848. — 
His  eldest  son,  William  Bingham  Baring,  second  Lord 
A.  of  this  creation,  born  in  17i)P,  and  educated  at 
Oriel  College,  Oxford,  entered  parliament  in  1836, 
as  member  for  Taunton,  and  in  September  1S41  was 
appointed  Secretary  to  the  Board  of  Control.  In 
February  1845  he  became  Paymaster-general  of  the 
Forces,  and  Treasurer  of  the  Navy.     In  1S55  he  was 


ASHBURTOX— ASHMUN. 


made  Commander  of  the  Legion  of  Honour,  'for  ser- 
vices rontlercd  to  conimorcc.' 

A'SHBURTOX,  a  small  town,  two  to  three  miles 
east  of  the  river  Dart,  in  the  south  of  Devonshire.  It 
mainly  consists  of  two  paved  streets  crossing  each 
other."  It  has  a  chin-ch  in  the  perpendicular  style, 
with  a  tower  94  feet  high.  Pop.  in  ISGI,  3772,  but 
decreasing ;  employed  in  the  mines,  slate-(|uarries, 
and  serge  manufacture.  The  town  returns  one  mem- 
ber to  parliament. 

A'SHBY-DE-LA-ZOU'Cn,  a  small  town  near 
the  source  of  the  Mease,  a  tributary  of  the  Trent,  i.i 
the  north-west  of  Leicestershire.  Pop.  in  ISGl,  0337, 
cliiefiy  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  stockings, 
hats,  and  firebricks,  and  in  iron-smelting  works  and 
collieries.  A  canal  So  miles  long,  without  a  lock, 
connects  the  town  Avith  Coventry  in  Warwickshire. 
Geologically,  the  district  is  carboniferous  ;  and  near 
the  town,  in  the  coal-field,  there  are  saline  springs, 
containing  common  salt  in  greater  proportion  than 
the  sea,  and  also  bromine.  The  ruins  of  A.  Castle, 
once  a  vast  and  lofty  pile,  stand  on  a  lieight  on  the 
.south  side  of  the  town.  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  was 
once  confined  in  this  castle.  St.  Helen's  Clun-ch,  an 
ancient  structure  with  a  tower,  is  the  bm-ying-place  of 
the  Hastings  family,  as  well  as  of  Selina,  Countess  of 
Huntingdon,  the  founder  of  the  sect  called  the 
Countess  of  Huntingdon's  Connection. 

A'SHDOD.     See  Azotus. 

ASHES,  the  remains  of  animal  and  vegetable 
bodies  after  burning.  It  is  not  strictly  correct  to 
speak  of  the  ashes  of  a  mineral.  Wlien  lead,  for 
instance,  is  exposed  to  heat,  it  turns  to  dross,  which 
has  the  appearance  of  A.,  but  is  merely  the  lead 
combined  with  oxygen.  In  the  same  way,  volcanic 
A.,  as  they  are  called,  are  only  a  finer  kind  of 
pundce-stone,  the  solidified  scum  of  molten  lava. 
The  ashes  of  organic  substances  destroyed  by  fire 
consist  of  the  fi.xed  salts  contained  in  these  sub- 
stances. In  land-plants,  the  most  important  are 
salts  of  potash,  along  with  silica  and  lime ;  in  sea- 
plants,  soda  takes  the  place  of  potash.  By  lixiviation 
of  the  A.,  the  potash  or  soda  is  dissolved  and  sepa- 
rated from  the  insoluble  mass,  and  is  then  purified 
by  crystallisation.  The  A.  of  sea-plants  contain 
also  more  or  less  iodine.  Peat  and  turf  ashes  con- 
tain, besides  alkalies,  more  or  less  clay  and  sand  ;  the 
same  is  true  of  pit-coal,  which  sometimes  contains 
iron. 

At  one  time,  the  A.  or  inorganic  ingredients  of 
plants  were  considered  miessential  to  their  existence. 
But  the  progress  of  vegetable  chendstry  has  taught 
that  a  certain  proportion  of  saline  food  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  the  development  of  plants.  The 
analysis  of  the  A.  of  the  different  kinds  of  vegetable 
substances  has  since  become  of  great  interest. 

The  A.  of  animal  bodies  do  not  differ  greatly 
from  those  of  vegetables.  Bone-A.  consist  essen- 
tially of  lime  united  with  phosphoric  acid.  This 
bone-earth  is  very  valuable  as  manure  for  grain.  In 
well-wooded  countries,  A.  from  burnt  wood  form  an 
article  of  considerable  trade.  They  are  much  used 
in  tiie  arts,  as  soap-boiling,  bleaching,  dyeing,  glass- 
making,  iS:c.  Wood-.\.  are  also  used  in  washing  and 
other  domestic  processes,  as  a  cheap  pre[)aration  of 
po'ash  ((1.  v.). 

The  covering  of  the  head  with  A.  has  long  been  a 
common  sign  of  mourning  among  eastern  nations, 
indicative  of  the  very  deepest  distress.  Instances 
of  this  are  mentioned  in  Scriptin-e.  Penitents  in 
the  earlv  Christian  Church  signified  their  sorrow 
and  Inuniliation  in  like  manner,  by  standing  at  the 
door  of  the   chm'ch  in  '  sackcloth  and  ashes.'     See 

AsiI-WlCPNESDAY. 

ASHFORD,    a   small   town    on   the  west    of  the 


confluence  of  the  two  upper  branches  of  the  river 
Stour,  near  the  ndddle  of  Kent.  Pop.  in  1851,  4092, 
wiiich  has  largely  increased  from  its  having  become 
the  jimction  station  of  three  great  lines  of  railway. 
Damask  is  manufactured  here. 

ASHLAR,  or  ASHLER,  building-stone  squared 
and  hewn,  as  distinguished  from  rubble,  or  rough 
stones  which  are  used  as  tliey  come  from  the  quarry 
without  being  dressed.  A.  is  laid  in  regular  courscd 
in  building,  and  is  of  various  kinds,  according 
to    the    St  vie    of   working  that    side    of    the    stone 


Ashlar. 

which  is  to  form  the  facing  of  the  wall.  Thus,  there 
are  tooled  A. — the  marks  of  the  tooling  being  either 
random  or  in  grooves;  polixhcd  A.,  in  which  the  face 
of  the  stone  is  rubbed  smooth  ;  and  rustic  A.,  in 
which  only  the  joints  are  accurately  hewn,  the  face 
of  the  stone  being  loft  projecting  irregularly.  Quar- 
ricrs  apply  the  term  A.  to  squared  stones  before 
being  hewn.  In  old  documents,  the  term  appears 
under  a  variety  of  forms,  such  as  achlere,  ashelar, 
aslure,  and  estlar. 

ASHLEY,  Lord.     See  Shaftesburt. 

ASHMOLE,  Elias,  a  celebrated  antiquary,  was 
born  at  Lichfield  on  the  23d  May,  1617.  In  1633, 
when  only  sixteen  years  of  age,  he  commenced  the 
study  of  law,  and  five  years  after,  he  was  admitted 
to  practice  as  a  solicitor  in  Chancery.  During  the 
civil  wars,  he  embraced  the  side  of  the  Royalists, 
and  was  appointed  captain  in  Lord  Ashley's  regiment, 
and  comptroller  of  the  Ordnance ;  but  at  the  same 
time  exhibited  his  loveof  study  by  joining  Brazenose 
College,  Oxford,  where  he  sedulously  applied  himself 
to  mathematics,  natural  philosophy,  astionomy,  and 
astrology.  In  1646,  he  became  acquainted  with 
.several  famous  astrologers;  amongst  others,  William 
Lilly,  whose  conversation  had  a  great  charm  for 
him;  and  in  1650,  he  published  a  work  of  Dr.  Dee's, 
to  which  he  subjoined  a  treatise  of  his  own.  Continu- 
ing with  singidar  perseverance  his  researcli£s  in  this 
dim  region  of  superstitious  philosophy,  ^le  was 
enabled,  in  the  course  of  two  or  three  years,  to  issue 
his  Theatrum  Chiiiniann  Brltaiuiicmn,  which  procured 
for  him  a  high"  reputation,  and  the  friendship  ci en 
of  men  like  John  Selden.  In  1658,  ap])eared  his 
\Va}/  to  Bliss,  a  work  on  the  philosopher's  stone — 
the  last  he  pu))lished  in  coimeetion  with  astrology. 
At  the  restoration  of  King  Charles  various  honours 
and  emoluments  were  conferred  upon  him.  In  1682, 
he  presented  to  the  university  of  Oxford  a  very  fine 
collection  of  rarities,  which  properly,  however,  be- 
longed to  certain  jiersons  of  the  name  of  Tradescant. 
In  this  transaction  he  exhibited  a  rather  mean  ambi- 
tion to  exclude  the  rightful  owners  of  the  cabinet  of 
curiosities  from  participating  in  the  honour  of  the 
gift,  and  posterity  has  unfortunately  gratified  his 
wish  by  calhng  it  the  Ashmolean  Museum.  He 
died  May  18.  1692,  leaving  behind  him  a  large 
quantity  of  manuscript,  a  considerable  portion  of 
which  has  since  been  pubhshed. 

ASHMUN,  JKiitni,  an  American  philanthropist, 
was  born  at  Champlain,  in  the  state  of  Xew  York, 
in  1794.  He  was  educated  with  a  view  to  the 
Christian  miuistrv  ;    but  eventuallv  became   editor, 

471 


ASIITAKOTH— ASIA. 


in  Washingioii,  of  a  monthly  niafraziiic  called  llic 
Repertory.  In  this  periodiial  he  advocated  the 
views  of  the  African  Colonisation  Society  for  iound- 
ing  a  colony  of  liberated  negroes  on  (he  west  coast 
of  Africa.  In  1821  he  published  a  life  of  the  Rev. 
iSauiuel  Bacon,  who  had  fallen  a  victim  to  an  luisuc- 
ces.sful  attempt  to  realise  these  view.s  in  the  j)revi()us 
}ear.  Learning  tlie  difficulties  whii'h  surrounded  a 
second  attempt  at  planting  a  settlement  in  Africa, 
A.  resolved  to  devote  himself  to  the  good  work. 
Ecceiving  an  appointment  as  one  of  tlie  agents  of 
the  African  Colonisation  Society,  he  conducted  a 
body  of  liberated  negroes  from  Baltimore,  and 
hinded  at  Cape  Mesurado,  the  seat  of  tlie  infant 
colony,  in  tlie  autumn  of  1822.  Dr.  Ayres  and  the 
other  agents  of  the  Society  having  meanwhile 
abandoned  the  settlement  from  severe  illness,  Jie 
assumed  the  superintendence  of  affairs  as  the  sole 
representative  of  that  body.  Here,  for  more  than 
six  years,  lie  devoted  his  powers  and  his  life  to  the 
establishing,  on  a  fair  and  solid  basis,  this  colony,  so 
full  of  hope  for  the  American  negro.  He  showed 
gieit  coin-age  and  tact  in  opposing  the  united  forces 
of  the  natives  at  the  outset  of  his  managcnieiit,  and 
no  less  ability  in  after  negotiations  witli  the  chief--, 
by  which  tlie  colony  acquired  very  consideralile 
accessions  to  its  territory.  His  healtli  at  length 
becoming  sadly  impaired,  he  bade  adieu  to  the 
settlement,  then  recently  called  Liberia,  in  March 
1828,  and  landed  at  Xcwbaven,  Connecticut,  in  a 
state  of  great  exhaustion.  After  a  brief  revival,  he 
relapsed,  and  died  on  the  28ih  August  1828,  in  liis 
thirty-tifth  year.  His  remains  were  honoured  with 
a  public  funeral.  A  memoir  of  his  life,  by  K.  11. 
Gurley,  appeared  at  Washington  in  18">.5. 

A'SHTAROTH.     See  Astartk. 

A'SHTOX-IX-MAKERFIELD,  a  sninll  town  in  a 
carboniferous  district,  in  the  middle  of  South  Lanca- 
shire. Pop.  in  1861,  6.566,  chiefly  engaged  in  col- 
lieries, and  in  the  cotton  manufacture. 

A'SHTON-UNDER-LIXE,  a  town  in  tlie  south- 
east of  Lancashire.  Pop.  in  1861,  66,8J1.  It  returns 
one  member  to  parliament.  It  is  a  great  seat  of 
the  cotton  manufacture.  The  population  is  also 
employed  in  bleaching,  dyeing,  and  calico-printing, 
in  collieries,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  machines, 
bricks,  &e.  To  the  west  of  the  town  is  a  large  moss 
or  shaking  bog,  containing  fir-trees  full  of  turpentine, 
and  black  oak,  with  a  loamy  bottom  at  the  depth  of 
10  feet. 

ASH-WEDXESDAY,  the  first  day  of  Lent  (q.  v.), 
F.o  called  from  the  Roman  Catholic  ceremony  of  strew- 
ing ashes  on  the  head  as  a  sign  of  penitence.  This 
custom,  probably  introduced  by  Gregory  the  Great 
(590 — 604),  was  sanctioned  by  Pope  Celestin  III. 
iu  1191,  and  afterwards  generally  prevailed.  Before 
mass,  the  ashes  were  consecrated  on  the  altar, 
spiinkled  with  holy  water,  and  signed  three  times 
with  the  cross,  while  the  priest  recited  the  words, 
Memento  quod  cinis  cs,  ct  in  cinerem  rcverteris ! 
('  Remember  that  thou  art  dust,  and  must  return  to 
dust ! ')  Xext,  they  were  strewed  on  the  heads 
of  the  officiating  priests,  the  clergy,  and  the  assem- 
bled people.  The  ashes  were  said  to  be  those  of  the 
palms  consecrated  on  the  preceding  Palm  Sunday 
(q.  V.) — The  Protestant  Church  in  Germany  does 
not  celebrate  A.  In  the  Church  of  England,  it  is 
observed  by  the  stricter  members,  but  without 
anything  of  the  ceremony  from  which  it  derives  its 
name;  and  the  connnmation^a.  SGv\cii  of  denuncia- 
tions against  impenitent  offenders — is  appointed  to 
be  read  in  the  service  for  this  day. 

ASIA,  the  largest  division  of  land  on  the  globe, 
generally  regarded  as  the  birth-place  of  the  human 
race,  and  the  most  ancient  seat  of  civilisation.  Its 
472 


superficial  area,  including  islands,  has  been  estimated 
at  from  IG  to  20,0(10,00(1  scpiare  miles,  and  its  popu- 
lation at  650,000,00(1.  This  enormous  mass  of  con- 
tinent lies  almost  entirely  in  the  northern  division  of 
the  eastern  hemisphere,  while  its  world  of  islands 
extends  across  the  equator  on  the  south-east.  On 
three  sides  it  is  surrounded  by  the  ocean ;  but  on 
the  west,  is  partially  connected  with  Africa  and 
Europe.  The  continental  mass  is  more  than  four 
times  as  large  as  Europe.  Some  idea  may  be  formed 
of  its  vast  extent  by  the  calculation  that,  though  it 
contains  more  than  half  of  the  whole  ]iopuhuion  of 
the  globe,  the  number  of  its  inhabitants  is  so  small 
compared  with  its  area,  that  Europe  may  be  said  to 
be  three  times  more  densely  populated.  The  coast- 
line is  about  ."3,000  miles  iu  length  ;  and  on  the 
south  and  east,  is  diversified  liy  seas,  bays,  and  gulls, 
affording  advantages  to  navigation  and  commerce 
far  superior  to  those  of  Africa,  but  inferior  to  tho.-e 
possessed  by  Europe  and  America.  On  the  west 
side,  the  Dardanelles  and  the  Sea  of  Marmora  may 
be  regarded  as  but  a  slight  interruption  of  the  great 
table-lands  of  Europe  and  A.,  which  form  the  conti- 
nent of  the  old  woiid. 

Jlorizoiital  Covjxmiration. — A.  is  bounded  X.,  by 
the  Arctic  Ocean;  E.,  by  the  Pacific  Ocean  ;  S.,  by 
the  Indian  <.)ceaii ;  and  on  the  W.,  by  Europe,  the 
Black  Sea,  Archi|ielago,  Mediterranean,  and  the 
Reil  Sea.  On  the  extreme  not  th-east,  the  peninsular 
land  of  Kamstchatka  is  separated  from  Xortli  America 
only  by  the  narrow  Behring's  Strait.  On  the  south- 
east, a  bridge  of  numerous  islands — Sumatra,  Java, 
Borneo,  Papua,  &c. — extends  towards  Australia. 
The  body  of  the  continent  may  be  regarded  as  a 
trapezium,  of  which  the  offsets,  consisting  of  .several 
large  peninsulas,  bear  some  resemblance  to  those 
of  Europe  ;  though  in  A.  everything  is  on  a  more 
gigantic  scale.  Thus,  one  of  these  offsets,  the  penin- 
sula of  Aialjia,  is  four  times  as  large  as  France. 
On  the  west  extends  the  peninsula  of  A.  Minor, 
or  Anatolia,  divided  from  Europe  by  the  Strait  of 
Constantinople,  the  Sea  of  Marmora,  and  the 
Dardanelles,  with  the  Black  Sea  on  the  north,  and 
the  Levant  on  the  south.  On  the  south  of  A.,  the 
peninsular  configuration  may  be  divided  into  three 
principal  masses,  corresponding  to  the  southern 
coast  of  Europe:  Arabia  may  be  considered  as  a 
counterpart  to  Spain  ;  Italy,  with  its  neighbour- 
island,  Sicily,  is  represented  by  Ilindiistaii  and 
Ceylon ;  and,  as  in  Europe,  the  broken  Grecian 
peninsula  is  connected  with  A.  by  a  bridge  of 
numerous  islands  extending  on  the  south-east,  so, 
in  A.,  the  Eastern  Peninsula  (or  India  beyond 
the  Ganges),  l\in.g  between  the  B:iy  of  Bengal  and 
the  Chinese  Sea,  is  connected  with  Australia  on 
the  south-east  by  the  vast  Eastern  Archipelago. 
This  world  of  islands  is  divided  into  the  several 
groups  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  Borneo,  Celebes, 
Molucca  Islands,  Sumatra  and  Java,  Timor  and 
the  numerous  adjoining  isles.  The  east  coast  of 
A.  is  characterised  by  the  deep  indentations  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean  iu  the  Chinese  Sea.  Yellow  Sea,  and 
Seas  of  Japan,  Okhotsk,  and  Kamstchatka ;  all 
fringed  with  numerous  islands,  and  separated  by  the 
peninsula  of  Corea,  the  island  of  Saghalien,  and  the 
peninsula  of  Kamstchatka.  On  the  north,  the  Sibe- 
rian coasts  are  also  deeply  indented ;  but  rather  by 
the  embouchures  of  large  rivers  than  by  arms  of  the 
sea.  The  whole  length  of  continental  A.,  from  the 
Dardiinelles  to  the  Japan  Islands,  is  6000  miles;  its 
breadth,  from  Malacca  to  the  north-east  cape  of 
Siberia,  is  5300  miles  ;  with  its  islands  it  extends 
from  lo°  S.  lilt,  to  78"  X.,  and  from  26°  E.  long,  to 
190°  E.  or  170"  W.  Such  an  extent  of  surface 
must  include  all  varieties  of  soil,  climate,  aud 
production. 


?SOKTH 


S^  CC.    PHILA2-' 


ASIA. 


Vcrtiritl   Coitjii/nratimi. — Equally    praiid    aro    the 
features  of  tills  continent  when  rej^aide J  vertieully  : 
it  has  the  most  extensive  lowlands,  tiic  most  immense 
table-lands,  the  highest  ehains  of  mountains,  and  the 
most  elevated  summits  in  the  world  ;  tracts  doomed 
to  everlasting  snow  or  scorching  sterility,  salul)rious 
valleys  of  continual  verdure,  and  noisome  jungles  of 
the  rankest  growth.     The  table-lands  of  A.-ia  occupy 
two-iifths   of    the    whole    continent.      The    eastern 
extremity  is  2<>nO  miles  broad;  the  western,  less  than 
1000.     The  whole  mass  nuiy  be  regarded  as  consist- 
V  Ing   of    two    parts,    separated,    or,    to    speak    more 
properly,   perhaps,    connected    by    the    lofty,  snow- 
covereil  moinitain-isthmus  of  the  Ilindu  Kush.  Those 
great    divisions    are    styled    res[)('ctivcly :     1.    The 
Eastern  Plateau,  including  the   Table-laiid  of  Tibet 
and  the  Desert  of  Gobi ;   2.  The  Western  Plateau, 
or  Table-land  of  Iran.      The    former,  a  vast    four- 
sided  mass,  consideral)ly  larger  than  the  whole  area 
of  Europe,  extend.s  2800  miles  from  the  mountain 
chain,   Ilindu  Kush,  to  the  Tonquin  Gulf  in  China. 
On  the  south,  the  plateau  is  divided  from  the  plains 
of  Hindustan    by  the    Himalaya   Mountains,  which 
have  a  mean  height  of  18,000  feet,  while  several  of 
their  summits  rise  fiom  25,000  to  29,000  feet  above 
the  level   of  the   sea.     Even   the   passes  over  this 
enormous  range  of  mountains  are  almost  as  high  as 
the  sunnnit  of  Mont  Blanc.     Here  Dhwalagiri,  long 
supposed  to  be  the  Mont  Blanc  of  the  Himalayas, 
and  with  precisely  the  same  signification,  viz.,  '  white 
mountain,'  rising  to  27,fiOo  feet,  leaves  all  the  i)eaks 
of  the  Andes  far  below;  while  Kinehinjunga  reaches 
to  28,178  feet,  and  Deodunga,  now  ))elieved  to  be 
the  loftiest  summit  in  the  world,  attains  the  height 
of  29,002  feet.     Cultivation  is  found  at  10,000  ieet 
above  the  sea;  while  flocks  graze  some  4000  feet 
higher.     In  Chinese-Tataiy  and  Tibet,  the  ground  is 
cuhivated  at  a  height  only  2000  feet  lower  than  the 
eunnnii  of  Mont  Blanc.     On  the  east,  the  table-laud 
of  Tibet  is  bounded  l)y  the  Chinese  mountain-ranges 
Yun-liug  and  Khing-khan,  which,  towards  the  south, 
are  conuected  with  wild  Chinese  alpine  regions  of 
which  little  is  known  ;  while,  towards  the  north,  they 
extend  into  another  mountainous  region,  where  the 
eastern    chain    of    Shangpe-shan    opposes    to    the 
Pacific  Ocean  a  wall  of   rock  3000  feet   high.     On 
the  north,  the  chain  of  the  Altai  Jlountains,   3000 
miles  long,  aiul  divided  into  several  groups,  forms 
the    boundary  between    the  great    plateau    and  the 
plain  of  Siberia,  which  is  larger  than  the  whole  area 
of  Europe. 

The  Western  Plateau,  or  Table-land  of  Iran,  rises 
generally  ai)out  5000  feet  above  the  sea ;  but  in  some 
parts  to  7*100  feet;  descending  again,  however,  in  the 
central  and  southern  parts,  where  it  spreads  out  into 
Handy  and  gravelly  plains,  to  2000  and  1200  feet.  It 
Las  been  divided  into  three  sections  :  the  Plateau  of 
Iran  proper;  the  Median-Armenian  Alpine  region; 
and  the  Anatolian  Table-land.  The  Jrst  division, 
or  the  Plateau  of  Iran,  has  a  mean  altitude  of  abou' 
SOOO  feet.  Salt  plains,  with  gravel  and  sand,  form 
Jjrge  portions  of  the  surface,  and  mountain-walls  on 
all  sides  hem  it  in.  On  the  northern  edge  ascend  the 
Persian  mountains  ;  on  the  east,  the  steep  and  lofty 
parallel  chains  of  the  Indo-Persian  boundary  moun- 
tains ;  and  on  the  south,  the  plateau,  for  1000  miles 
along  the  Persian  Gulf  and  Arabian  Sea,  is  bounded 
by  the  wild  terraced  regions  of  Beloochistan  and 
Parsistan.  The  second  division,  or  the  Median- 
Armenian  Alpine  region,  includes  the  mountainous 
regions  of  Armenia,  Kurdistan,  and  Azerbijan. 
Here  the  table-land  is  compressed  to  about  half  its 
general  width.  From  this  plateau,  of  which  a  part 
is  mentioned  in  Scripture  as  '  the  mountains  of 
Ararat,'  rises  the  volcanic  cone  commonly  stvled 
Mount  Ararat,  to  the  height  of  17,212  feet  above 


the  sea-level.  Anatolia,  the  (fiird  and  most  westerly 
division  of  the  table-land,  is  bounded  along  the 
shores  of  the  Black  Sea  by  mountains  rising  to 
OOiiO  or  70o0  feet,  and  ])artly  covered  with  forests; 
on  the  south-west,  the  Tam-iis  chain  of  mountains, 
begiiniing  in  the  islands  of  Rhodes,  Cos,  &e.,  extends 
in  several  ramifications  through  a  part  of  Asia 
Minor,  rnns  in  a  single  range  along  the  coast  of 
Karamania,  and  in  thi-  east  has  an  occasional  height 
of  12,0oo  and  in,ooo  feet. 

The  We-tern  Plateau  thus  divided  into  three 
sections,  is  full  of  diversities  of  soil  and  scenery. 
A  great  part  of  the  table-land  of  Iran  (or  Persia)  is 
extremely  barren  and  arid,  which  serves  to  ex[daiii 
the  enthusiastic  terms  in  which  the  Persian  poets 
liave  spoken  of  the  beautiful  valleys  found  here  and 
there  among  the  mountains.  The  coasts  of  the 
Persian  Gulf  are  sandy  wastes.  Between  Irak  and 
Khora.^san,  a  desert  of  clay,  covered  with  salt  and 
nitre,  varied  only  by  patches  of  verdure  here  and 
there,  occupies  27,{)tiO  square  miles,  and  joins  the 
wide  sandy  desert  of  Kerman.  A  great  part  of 
Beloochistan  is  an  arid  plain,  covered  with  red 
sand. 

Besides  these  central  masses,  there  are  several 
detached  mountain  chains  and  jilateaus.  The 
Ural  Mountains,  fornung  the  land-boundary  be- 
tween Europe  and  Asia,  and  separated  from  the 
Altai  chain  by  salt  lakes,  marshes,  and  deserts, 
is  divided  into  three  sections:  the  Northern, 
Central,  and  Southern  Ural.  The  second  of  these 
divisions  is  rich  in  minerals  —  gold,  jilatina, 
magnetic  iron,  and  copper.  On  the  isthnuis  lieiween 
the  Black  Sea  and  the  Caspian,  the  alpine  ridges 
of  the  Caucasus  reach  a  heiglit  of  from  Io,0ou  to 
11,000  feet,  while  individual  peaks  tower  up  to  the 
gigantic  height  of  17,000  or  18,000  feet,  as,  for 
instance,  the  still  faintly  volcanic  peak  of  Ellerus, 
the  exact  elevation  of  which  is  18,40;5  feet,  and 
Mount  Kasbeck,  1(;.523  feet.  The  high  lands  of 
Syria  rise  gradually  from  the  neighbouiing  deserts 
to  the  heigiit  of  10,000  feet  in  Libanus  and  Anti- 
libanus,  and  slope  steeply  in  terraces  doivn  to  the 
narrow  coast-lands  of  Phtenicia  and  Palestine.  The 
plateau  of  the  Deccan,  in  India,  rises  to  an  aver- 
age height  of  from  1500  to  2ooO  feet,  and  is  divided 
on  the  west  from  the  narrow  coast-Unel  of  Malabar 
by  the  Western  Ghauts,  47(!0  feet ;  on  the  east,  from 
the  broad  level  coast  of  Coromandel,  by  the  Eastern 
Ghauts.  On  the  north,  it  is  divided  from  the  low- 
plains  of  Hindustan  by  the  Yindhj-a  and  Malwah 
mountain-chains;  and,  on  the  south,  the  (ihauts 
unite  at  the  soi:rces  of  the  Cavery,  and  for?u  the 
Neilgherry  (or  Blue  Mountains,  8700  feet  high),  the 
loftiest  in  the  peniusidar  portion  of  Hindustan. 
These  slope  steej)ly  down  to  a  low  narrow  plain, 
then  rise  again  to  a  considerable  height  in  the 
Aligherry  range,  sink  into  the  sea  at  Cape  Comorin, 
and  reappear  in  the  group  of  Adam's  Peak  in 
Ceylon.  The  Malayan  Moimtains,  or  chains  of 
the  Eastern  Peninsula,  may  be  regarded  as  offsets 
of  the  Siue-shan,  and  extend  to  the  extreme  south 
poll."  of  A.,  reappearing  with  volcanic  peaks  in  the 
Sunda  Islands. 

The  six  great  Lowlaiuh  of  A.  are,  1st,  the  Siberian 
lowland  in  the  north,  which  is  by  far  the  largest.  It 
stretches  from  the  northern  declivities  of  the  AltaT 
and  Ural  Mountains  to  the  shores  of  the  Arctic  Sea, 
and  is,  for  the  most  part,  cold,  gloomy,  and  barren. 
2d,  The  Burhariau  lowlaiul,  or  the  wild  sterile  waste 
between  the  Caspian  Sea  and  Lake  Aral,  much  of  it 
beneath  the  level  of  the  sea.  It  is  composed  to  a 
large  extent  of  gravelly  soil.  Sd,  The  Si/riaii  mtd 
Arabian  lowland,  the  south  of  which  is  hot  and  arid, 
with  almost  no  oases ;  but  the  north  is  watered  by 
the    Tigris    and    Euphrates.     4th,  The    lowlands    of 

473 


ASIA. 


Hindustan,  comprising  the  great  Indiun   desert,  400  i 
miles  broad,  togetlier  with  tlie  vast  and  fcMtile  plains  | 
of  Bengal,  generally  called  the  Valley  of  the  Ganges,  , 
hiid  ranking,  perhaps,  next  to  China  as  a   region  of 
fertility.    5th,  The  Lido-Chiyiene  lowlands,  comprising 
the  long  levels  of  the  Burman  empire,  through  which 
flows  the  Irrawaddy,  and  the  rich  regions  of  Cam- 1 
bodia  and  Siam.     6th,  The    Chiiicac  lowlands,  com-  j 
mencing  in  the  east  at  Pekin,  and  extending  as  far 
south  as  the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  containing   210,000 
square  miles,  or  an  area  seven  times  the  size  of  Lom- 
bardy.    'It  is  watered  by  a  copious  river  system  and 
numerous  canals,  and   may  be   regarded  as  a   vast 
garden,  exceeding  in  productiveness  all  other  parts 
of  the  world. 

JI;/droffraphij. — The  hydrography  of  A.  displays 
as  striking  a  Variety  as  the  structure  of  its  Lxnd. 
The  alpine  regions  "send  down  in  some  directions 
torrents  of  water,  which  form  livers  almost  rivalling 
in  mMgnificence  those  of  America,  and  wiiich  flow 
for  hundreds  of  miles  through  i)lains  of  unsurpassed 
fertility.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  wide  stretch- 
ing tracts,  like  the  deserts  of  Africa,  destitute  of 
•water,  and  doomed  to  eternal  sterility.  Only  one 
considerable  sheet  of  water.  Lake  Ilamoon  (q.  v.), 
refreshes  the  high  table-land  of  Iran.  The  low  steppe 
of  Turan  contains  the  Caspian  Sea  (q.  v.),  the  largest 
of  all  lakes,  and  Lake  Aral  (q.  v.).  In  the  valley 
of  Cashmere  lies  Lake  Ular,  40  miles  in  circum- 
ference, and  the  only  considerable  sheet  of  water 
in  the  Himalaya  chain.  At  the  northern  base  oi 
this  mountain-chain.  Lake  Palte  is  remarl.able  for  its 
annular  form.  In  Tibet  and  the  Altai  Mountains, 
lakes  are  very  numerous. 

One  of  the  most  striking  characteristics  of  Asian 
river-systems  is   found  in   its   double  rivers,  or  two 
streams  rising  in  the  same  region,  flowing  in  almost  j 
parallel  directions,  and  either  uniting,  or  nearly  so, 
belbre  entering  the   sea.     Among   these  twin  rivers  j 
may  be  mentioned — the  Sihon  and  (iiiion,   flowing 
.into    Lake    Aral;    the    Euphrates    and    Tigris,    in  | 
Western  A.,  surrounding  the  plain   o*'  .Mesopotamia, 
uniting    at    Koona,   and   together  flowing    into    the  | 
Persian  Gulf;    the   Ganges   and   Braliuiaputra ;  and  j 
the  Yang-tze-kiang  and  Hoang-ho,  in  China,  rising] 
near   each    other,    then    widely    se])arated    in    their ' 
courses,  but  again  a]iproaching  each  other,  and  both  | 
falling  into  the  Yellow  Sea,  only  100  miles  apart.  ^ 

The  six  great  river-systems  of  A.,  comprising 
rivers  which  will  be  found  fidly  noticed  under  their 
respective  names,  are — the  Mesopotamian,  that  of 
North-west  India,  that  of  North-east  India  and  Tibet, 
the  Indo-Chinese,  the  Ciiinese,  and  the  Siberian.  The 
first  comprises  the  two  famous  streams,  the  Tigris  and 
Euphrates.  The  second  comprises  the  Indus  with  its 
tributaries.  The  t/iird  system  comprises  the  Brah- 
maputra and  Ganges.  ThefourtlisysU-m  comprises 
the  rivers  of  the  Indo-Chinese  piMiinsula ;  the  chief 
of  which  are  the  Irrawaddy,  the  Martaban  or  Saluen, 
the  Me-nam,  and  the  Me-king  or  Cambodia.  The 
Jifth  system  is  the  Chinese.  It  comprises  four  great 
streams,  all  of  which  flow  in  an  eastern  or  north- 
eastern direction  into  the  Pacific:  the  Hong-kiang, 
or  Canton  River ;  the  Yang-tze-kiang  (or  Son  of  the 
Sea);  the  Hoang-ho,  or  Yellow  Kiver;  and  the 
Amur.  The  sixth  system  couqirises  the  large  rivers 
of  Siberia,  the  principal  of  which  are  the  Obi,  the 
Yenisei,  and  the  Lena.  They  all  have  their  sources 
in  the  Altaian  Mountains ;  flow  north,  or  nearly  so ; 
and  for  800  or  900  miles  before  their  embouchure, 
traverse  a  dreary,  flat,  monotonous  waste,  until 
their  sluggish  waters  creep  into  the  Frozen  Sea. 

Geology. — The  geological  structure  of  Asia  is  so 

complex,  the   different  lormations  are  so  broken  up 

and  scattered,  that  a  general   description  would  be 

unintelligible.     We  must  refer  to  separate  notices, 

474 


where  the  geological  structure  and  phenomena  of 
circumscribed  districts  will  be  given  in  detail,  and 
the  reader  will,  in  this  way,  be  enal)led  to  form  a 
correct  impression  of  the  geology  of  Asia  as  a  whole. 
See  Himalaya,  Hindu.stan,  China,  Siberia,  &c. 

Natural  Historij. — The  vast  extent  of  A.,  and  its 
great  diversities  of  climate,  naturally  lead  us  to 
expect  in  it  a  great  variety  of  natural  productions, 
both  animal  and  vegetalfle.  This  expectation  is 
heightened  when  we  consider  how  completely  this 
vast  continent  is  divided  into  separate  portions  by 
mountain  ranges  of  great  altitude,  and  how  exten-  ^ 
sive  the  mountainous  tracts  themselves  are,  as  well 
as  the  great  extent  of  the  elevated  plateaus  or  table- 
lands, and  when  we  add  to  these  considerations  that 
of  the  peculiar  character  of  wide  regions — wastes  of 
sand — level  steppes — and  extensive  districts  of  which 
the  soil  is  strongly  impregnated  with  salt.  Accord- 
ingly, we  flnd,  both  in  the  flora  and  fauna  of  Asia,  all 
the  variety  which  such  considerations  might  lead  U3 
to  expect. 

The  most  northerly  part  of  the  continent,  however, 
differs   comparatively  little  in  its  productions  from 
the  corres[)onding  parts  of  Europe  and  America.     It 
exhibits  the  same  arctic  flora,  with  differences  compa- 
ratively inconsider;d)le.     Pines,  birches,  and  willow.s 
form,  as   in  the  other  continents,  the  last  forests  of 
the  north ;  but  upon   account  of  the  more  severe 
climate,  they  do  not  reach  a  limit  so  northerly  as  in 
Europe,   and   pai-ticularly    in    the   west   of  Europe. 
Some  of  the  common  plants  of  Europe  are  abundant 
as  far  east  as  Kamstchatka  :   the  Crowberry  {Empe- 
trum  ni(iruin),  so  plentiful  in  the  moors  of  Scotland, 
is  still  more  pleniiful  throughout  Siberia ;  the  same 
Vaccinia  (Bilberries,  kv.)  and  RuM  (Brambles,  &c.) 
abound  in  the  Kamstchatkan   forests  as  in  those  of 
Scandinavia.      There  are,  however,  interesting  dif- 
ferences.    Heaths  are  comparatively  rare  in  Asia,  its 
flora  agreeing  in  this  respect  with  that  of  America, 
rather  than  with  that  of  Europe.     The  larch,  wiiich 
in  Europe   occiirs  only  on  the  central  motmtains, 
extends   far  northwaid  at   the  mouth  of  the  t>bi  to 
the  utmost  limits  of  ai  l)orescent  vegetation  ;  probal)ly 
a  mere  variety  of  the  same  species,  although  it  has 
been  described  as  distinct.     In  Kamstchatka,  a  dif- 
1  ferent  kind  of  birch  replaces  the  common   birch  of 
'  Europe  as  a  forest  tree,  and  the  Siberian  stone  pine 
i  is  dittcrent  from  that  of  the  south  of  Eiuope.    Siberia 
in  its  loss  frigid  regions  produces  a  luxuriant  vegeta- 
I  tion,  of  wiiich  herbaceous  plants  of  unusually  large 
1  size  for  a  cold  or  temperate  climate  are   a  charac- 
teristic feature ;  as  species  of  Rhuliarb,   Angelica^ 
'  and    Cow-parsnip   (ffcracleiim),  some   of   which   are 
j  now  well  known  in  Britain.     It  is  indeed  from  the 
1  central  and  eastern  temperate  parts  of  Asia  that  the 
j  cultivated  species  of  rhubarb  are  derived,  and   from 
!  the   same   region   the   rhubarb   root,  so  valuable   in 
medicine,  is  brought.     In  the  abundance  of  Grossu- 
j  Inriacece   (Currants),    the    wanner    parts   of  Siberia 
'  resemble    North    America,    although    most   of    the 
I  species  are  different. 

I  To  the  south  of  the  Altaian  Mountains,  the  flora 
of  Asia  corresponds  in  part  with  that  of  the  great 
eastern  plain  of  Europe;  but  it  exhibits  also  pecu- 
liarities wiiich  may  in  some  measure  be  ascribed  to 
the  saline  character  of  large  districts,  the  stony  or 
sandy  desolation  of  others,  and  the  elevation  of  the 
great  central  plateau.  The  flora  of  Asia  Minor  and 
of  Syria  has  a  general  resemblance  to  that  of  the 
south  of  Europe,  although  exhibiting  also  features 
which  belong  rather  to  that  of  India  or  of  Africa. 
Shrubby  Labiatw  are  particularly  characteristic  of 
this  region,  from  which  not  a  few  of  them  have 
found  their  way  into  the  gardens  of  Europe  and  of 
other  parts  of  the  world,  upon  account  of  their 
fragrance,  their  medicinal  qualities,  or  their  use  for 


ASIA. 


the  gratcfiil  seasoning  of  food. — Tho  ti  opical  flora  of 
Arabia  ahoinuls  in  trocs  Avliicli  yield  fragivuit  buisMnis 
and  resins,  partieularly  of  the  natural  order  Aiiu/ri- 
dace'X.  Indeed,  botii  the  warmer  tenipei-ale  and  the 
tropical  regions  of  Asia  excel  other  jiarts  of  the  world 
in  the  number  and  variety  of  the  odoriferous  drugs 
which  they  produce,  with  odors  of  the  most  various 
characters,  from  myrrli  and  fraidiincense  to  asafojtida. 
Arabia  has  long  been  noted  for  the  jiroduction  of 
coilee,  which  is  now  also  pretty  extensividy  eultivnted 
in  other  warm  parts  of  A.  The  date-|ialm  is  as 
characteristic  of  Arabia  as  it  is  of  Egypt.  Acacias 
and  )nimosas  also  abound. — The  flora  of  Persia  in 
part  resembles  that  of  Arabia,  although  it  is  less 
tropical,  and  the  altitude  of  its  mountains  gives  to  it 
in  some  jilaces  an  extremely  different  character. — The 
abundance  of  Sciiaininccc  is  regarded  as  particularly 
characteristic  of  India  ;  and  plants  of  this  order  yield 
ginger,  galangal,  cardamoms,  turmeric,  and  other 
articles  of  commerce,  amongst  which  not  the  least 
important  is  a  kind  of  arrow-root.  Its  Ler/tmiino.iie 
are  also  very  numerous,  both  herbaceous  and  shrubby, 
or  arborescent,  many  of  them  exliibiting  great  beauty 
of  foliage  and  splendour  of  flowei's;  some  producing 
useful  kinds  of  pulse  ;  others  timber,  gum,  medicines, 
&c.  The  niimljer  of  valuable  medicinal  plants  which 
belong  to  the  Indian  flora  is  very  great,  as  is  also 
that  of  dyewoods ;  and  it  abounds  in  fine  fruits,  of 
irhich  the  mango  and  mangosteen  may  be  particu- 
larly noticed.  Cucurhitaccce  (Gourds)  are  very  nume- 
rous; as  are  also  trees  of  the  genus  Ficus  (Fig), 
some  of  which  produce  caoutchouc,  and  amongst 
which  are  the  sacred  pecpul  and  the  banian-tree, 
so  remarkable  for  the  roots  wjiich  descend  from  its 
branches  to  become  new  stems,  and,  for  the  extent 
of  ground  which  it  canopies.  Palms  are  numerous 
in  the  tropical  parts  of  A.,  and  particularly  in  its 
south-eastern  regions,  but  less  numerous  than  in  the 
tropical  parts  of  South  America.  The  coi'oa-nut  is 
one  of  the  most  convmon  palms  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
sea.  Some  of  the  Asiatic  palms  arc  valuable  for 
the  sago  which  they  yield.  The  natural  order 
Dipfcracece  is  one  of  those  that  are  pectdiar  to  India 
and  South-eastern  A.,  and  includes  some  of  the 
noblest  timl)er-trees;  but  the  Indian  teak,  so 
valuable  for  ship-building,  is  of  the  ordcv  Ver/icnacflce. 
The  flora  of  the  Eastern  Peninsula,  Siam,  Cocliin- 
China,  and  the  south-eastern  part  of  A.  generally, 
differs  considerably  from  that  of  India,  and  exhibits, 
if  possible,  a  richer  variety.  The  change  fiom  the 
Indian  flora  is  still  greater  in  the  islands,  and  a 
fesemblance  to  that  of  Polynesia  and  of  Australia 
begins  to  appear.  The  bread-fruit  takes  the  place 
of  its  congener,  the  jack  of  India.  These  regions 
produce  nutmegs,  cloves,  and  other  spices.  The 
Laurarcw  are  abundant,  yi(>l(ling  ciimamon,  cassia, 
and  camphor.  Gutta-percha  has  recently  been 
added  to  the  number  of  the  most  valuable  exports. 
China  and  Japan  have  many  plants  jjeculiar  to 
themselves,  and  are  remarkable  for  the  prevalence 
cf  the  Ter7istrceiniacea\  the  natural  order  to  which 
the  tea-plant  and  the  camellia  belong.  It  is 
scarcely  necessary  to  mention  how  extensively  tea 
is  cultivated  in  China,  and  how  important  it  is 
in  the  commerce  of  the  world.  The  diversity  of 
climate,  however,  both  in  China  and  J;ipan,  is  so 
considerable,  as  to  imply  no  small  diversity  of 
productions.  In  like  manner,  the  Himalaya  Moun- 
tains possess  a  flora  very  diH'erent  ironi  that  of 
the  Indian  plains,  and  which  in  some  of  its 
most  characteristic  features,  particnlaily  in  the 
prevalence  of  large  rhododendrons  and  magnolias, 
l»as  been  iound  remarkably  to  agree  with  the  flora 
of  tlie  southern  parts  of  the  United  States ;  whilst 
at  still  greater  altitudes  there  is  a  strong  resem- 
blance to  that  of  more   northern  regions,  or  of  the 


i  European  Alps;  forests  of  pines  appear,  and  along 
with  them  the  deodar,  a  cedar  sc.ircely,  if  at  all 
dilVercnt  from  the  cedar  of  Lebanon.  The  moun- 
tains of  Java  also  produce  oaks  and  other  trees  re- 
sembling those  of  the  temperate  zone,  all  hough  tho 
species  are  peculiar.  But  many  parts  of  A.  have  ad 
yet  been  very  imperfectly  explored. 

Many  of  the  cultivated  plants  of  Europe  are 
known  to  be  natives  of  A.,  and  others  are  supposed 
to  be  so.  As  the  cradle  of  the  human  lace,  and  the 
scene  of  the  earliest  civilisation,  it  is  natural  to 
suppose  that  it  sui)i)lied  the  first  fruits  and  other 
vegetable  productions  which  man  sought  to  imfjrove 
by  cultivation  ;  and  of  some  which,  as  the  apple 
and  the  cherry,  arc  prol)ably  natives  of  Eiiiope, 
it  seems  probable  that  the  first  improved  varieties 
were  introducinl  from  A.  We  do  not  know  with 
certainty  of  what  part  of  the  earth  some  of  the 
principal  cereal  ])laiits  or  grains  are  natives — as 
wheat,  barley,  oats,  and  I'ye ;  but  there  seems  great 
probaljility  in  the  supposition  that  they  are  of 
Asiatic  origin.  Rice  certaiidy  is.  It  has  been 
cultivated  from  time  immemorial  in  some  of  the 
warm  parts  of  A. ;  and  its  introduction  into  other 
quarters  of  the  world  is  comparatively  recent. 
Maize — introduced  from  America — is  now  to  be 
reckoned  among  the  most  important  cultiviited 
plants  of  A.,  and  its  cultivation  is  rapidly  extending, 
as  is  that  of  the  potato.  Wheat,  oats,  barley,  rye, 
beans,  pease,  and  buckwheat,  are  the  principal  crops 
of  regions  similar  in  climate  to  those  in  which  they 
are  cultivated  \i\  Europe.  Barley  and  buckwheat 
are  cultivated  in  the  liinudayas  at  the  extraordinary 
elevation  of  almost  12, 1,0.)  leet,  and  crops  of  barley 
are  to  be  seen  even  at  15,000  feet  above  the  sea^ 
Millet  of  different  kinds,  durra,  and  other  grains  of 
inferioi'  importance,  are  cv^tivated  to  some  extent' 
in  India  and  other  warm  regions ;  also  different 
kinds  of  pulse.  The  banana  and  ])l;intaiu  arc  of  the 
same  importance  as  in  other  tropical  countries; 
and  tlie  yam  and  cocco  or  eddoes  contribute 
largely  to  the  sn]jply  of  human  food.  The  sugar- 
cane is  cultivated  in  the  warm  parts  of  A.,  but 
not  with  so  much  spirit  or  success  as  in  America, 
although  it  is  a  native  of  the  East  and  not  of 
the  West  Indies.  Pepper  is  one  of  the  native 
productions  of  the  East  Indies,  and  is  exten.sively 
cultivated.  Tobacco,  whether  or  not  any  species 
of  it  is  indigenous  to  A.,  is  now  produced  in 
large  quantities-  Indigo  is  exteiisively  cultivated 
in  India,  and  the  opium  poppy  too  extensively. 
Different  species  of  cotton  are  natives  of  India, 
and  have  long  been  cultivated  there  and  in  China. 
Hemp  is  cultivated  in  India,  not  for  its  fibres,  but 
to  afford  the  means  of  intoxication ;  and  flax 
chiefly  for  the  oil  of  its  seeds;  but  both  hemp 
and  flax  are  extensively  culti\ated  for  their  fibres 
in  other  parts  of  A. ;  and  India  and  the  other  tropical 
regions  produce  many  plants  valuable  for  their 
fibres,  among  which  are  sfx'cies  of  Musa,  Con/iorus 
(yielding  the  jute  of  commerce),  and  (Irti.cn  (nettle). 
Among  the  crops  of  India  is  sesumum,  valued  for 
the  oil  of  its  seeds. 

It  seems  probable  that  we  are  indebted  to  the 
w^armer  temperate  parts  of  A.  not  oidy  for  the 
orange,  the  lemon,  and  all  the  other  species  of 
the  genus  Citrux,  but  also  for  the  olive,  the  i)each, 
and  nectarine,  the  apricot,  the  fig,  the  mulberry, 
and  the  vine,  with  many  other  of  the  fruits  now 
tnost  generally  esteemed  and  cultivated.  China  and 
Japan  being  tho  seats  of  an  ancient  civilisation, 
many  useful  plants  have  long  been  cultivated  there, 
which  have  scarcely  yet  found  their  way  into  other 
parts  of  the  world.  Floriculture  has  been  practised 
there  with  great  assiduity  from  a  remote  anticjuity  ; 
and  varieties  of  Hydrangea,  Camellia,  Tree  Paeony, 

475 


ASIA. 


Chrysanthemum,  &c.,  have,  from  time  immemorial, 
been  scarcely  if  at  all  less  numerous  than  those 
of  the  tulip  and  hyacinth  in  Holland. 

The  zoology  of  A.  is  not  less  interesting  than  its 
botan}'.  Amongst  domestic  animals,  the  most 
imjDortant  are  the  ox  and  buffalo,  the  shcop,  the 
goat,  the  horse,  the  ass,  the  camel,  and  the  cle[)hant. 
A  number  of  species  of  ox  and  buffalo  are  natives 
of  A.,  from  more  than  one  of  which  the  domesti- 
cated races  appear  to  have  derived  their  origin. 
Very  distinct  from  all  the  others  is  the  yak  (q.  v.) 
of  Tibet,  a  creature  which  is  of  great  use  to  the 
inhabitants  of  the  elevated  regions  of  the  Himalayas, 
and  is  to  them  almost  what  the  reindeer  is  to 
the  Laplander.  The  sheep  and  goat  are  natives 
of  the  mountainous  parts  of  Central  A.  The  horse 
and  the  ass  seem  to  belong  to  the  same  regions ; 
and  all  of  these  have  been  domesticated  from  the 
earliest  times.  The  camel  is  of  incalctdal)Ie  value 
as  a  beast  of  burden  in  the  regions  of  heat  and 
drought,  and  as  affording  the  moans  of  traversing 
the  great  deserts.  It  is  used  principally  in  the  south- 
west of  A.  and  in  India.  The  elephant  is  a  native 
of  the  tropical  parts  of  A.,  but  is  of  a  different 
species  from  that  of  Africa.  The  reindeer  constitutes 
the  chief  wealth  of  some  of  the  tribes  of  the 
north.  Dogs  are  also  used  by  some  of  the  Siberian 
tribes  for  drawing  their  sledges.  Different  races 
of  dogs  are  domesticated  in  different  parts  of  A., 
and  a  small  kind  is  fattened  for  its  flesh  in  China  ; 
but  in  the  Mohammedan  parts  of  A.,  the  dog  is 
reckoned  an  unclean  animal,  and  is  known  chiefly 
as  a  prowler  about  towns  and  villages,  and  a  devourer 
of  offal 

The  tropical  parts  of  A.  abound  in  monkeys, 
of  which  the  species  are  very  numerous.  Among 
them  are  some  with  long,  and  some  with  short  tails, 
but  none  with  jjreheiisile  tails,  like  the  sapajous 
of  America.  Many  are  altogether  tailless,  and 
among  these  is  the  orang-outang,  found  in  the 
south-eastern  islands.  A  much  larger  ape,  called 
the  pongo,  has  been  said  to  exist  in  Borneo,  but  it 
is  still  a  doubtful  species.  The  same  warm  regions 
abound  in  bats,  many  of  which  are  of  large  size,  and 
feed  upon  fruits,  not  upon  insects.  The  flying 
lemur  or  cohigo  is  another  remarkable  animal  of  the 
Indian  Archipelago. — Bears  are  found  in  all  parts 
of  A.— the  white  bear  in  the  extreme  north,  and 
other  formidable  species  in  the  more  temperate  parts ; 
whilst  the  tropical  regions  produce  bears  which 
are  by  no  means  ferocious,  and  feed  chiefly  on 
insects,  fruits,  and  honey.  Badgers  are  also  found 
in  A.,  and  quadrupeds  of  several  other  plantigrade 
genera,  allied  to  the  bear,  but  of  comparatively  small 
size  and  inoffensive  habits,  as  the  beautiful  Panda 
(^Ailurus)  of  the  north  of  India,  and  the  Binturongs 
(Iciidcs)  of  Malacca  and  the  neighl)ouring  archi- 
pelago.— Animals  of  the  Weasel  family  (Muxfc/idic') 
are  numerous,  among  which  the  Teledu  {Mi/d((ns 
meliccps)  of  Java  rivals  the  skimks  of  America 
in  the  horrible  stench  with  which  it  surrounds 
itself  for  defence.  More  important  are  the  sable 
and  the  sea  otter,  pursued  in  the  northern  regions 
upon  account  of  their  furs. — Of  the  Dog  foniily, 
or  Canidcp.,  A.  has  not  only  wild  dogs,  but  also 
wolves,  foxes,  hysenas,  and  jackals ;  the  two  former 
abounding  chiefly  in  the  colder,  the  two  latter  in 
the  warmer  regions.  The  arctic  fox  inhabits  the 
most  northerly  shores  and  islands.  The  warmer 
parts  of  A.  produce  a  number  of  species  of  the  allied 
family  of  the  Viverridcc,  among  which  are  tlie 
mangouste  or  Indian  ichneumon — famous,  like  the 
Egyptian  ichneumon,  for  the  destruction  of  serpents 
— and  the  civet,  from  which  is  obtained  a  celebrated 
perfame. — Of  feline  animals,  the  most  dreadful  are 
the  lion  and  tiger ;  the  latter  of  which  is  peculiar  to 
47G 


I  A.,    abounding  in    the    warm    regions   of  the    f-otith 
and    east,    never    extending     westwar<l   beyond  the 
mountains    and   deserts  which  separate   India    from 
Persia;  but,  on   the   contrary,  advancing  far  to  tlie 
north  beyond  the  limits  to   which  the  li'Ui  advances, 
and  even   to  the   confines  of  Siberia.     The  leo()ard, 
the  ounce,  and  many  other  cats,  some  of  them  large 
and    dangerous,  arc    found    in    A.,  especially  in  the 
warmer  parts  of  it.     Among  them  may  !)e  mentioned 
the  chetah  or  Inuiting-leopard,  tamed   for  the  chase 
in    India. — A  few    small     marsupial    (or    [louclied) 
(|uadrupeds  (Pholanqcrf!)  are  found  in  the  Molucca.*, 
and    form  one  of  the    liidvs    by    which    the    natural 
hi.-tory  of  A.  is  connected  with   that  of  Australia. — 
The  (r'Urcx  or  Rodcntia^  on  the  contrary,  are  iiumerous 
in    all   parts  of  A.,  and   many  species   arc   peculiar 
to  it.     Squirrels,    marmots,    rats,    mice,    hares,   &e., 
are  common  in  all  except  the  most  northerly  regions. 
The  brown  rat,  now  so  common    in  Eurofie,  is  said 
to  have    emigrated    from   Persi;).  so  recently  as  the 
beginning  of    the    18tli    c.       Lemmings   aiiomid    in 
Sibei-ia    and    the    Tatarian    deserts,   of  which     the 
jerboa  is  also  an  inhabitant.  Porcupines  arc  frequent 
in  the  wanner  pai'ts  of  A.,  and  the  beaver   is  found 
in   the   north. — Of  Edentate   quadrupeds,   the  Pan- 
golins   (.\fania)    alone    are    Asiatic,     ami  these  are 
confined  to  the  tropical  regions. — Of  Par/ii/dermata, 
there  are,    besides    the    elephant,    the    horse,    &e., 
idready   tnentioned,    several  species    of    rhinoceros, 
wild   boars,  the  babyroussa  and  a  species  of  tapir; 
all,  except   the    wild    boar,    natives  of  the    warmest 
climates.     One  of  the  most  interesting  facts,  how- 
ever,   connected    with   the   natural  history  of  A.,  is 
theabunilance  of  remains  of  the  mammoth,  or  fossil 
elephant,  in    the    cohh  st    )iarls  of  Siberia,   its  tusks 
still    aflbrding  a  considerable    supply  of  ivory. — Ot 
ruminating    animals,  besides  tliose    of    the   ox-kind, 
already  mentioned,   and  the   sheep  and  goat,   there 
are  deer,  antelopes,  and  musks  or  musk-deer.     The 
reindeer  and   elk   are   natives   of  Siberia ;    further 
south,  the  species  of  deer  are  much  more  numerous, 
and    the    same    coimtries    produce    many  species  of 
antelope.     The  musks  are  found  in  the  central  and 
southern    parts    of   the    continent ;  one   of   them,  a 
native  of  the  highest  mountains,  yielding  the  much- 
prized  perfume   from  which  it  dirives  its  name. — A. 
possesses  vultures,  eagles,  and  other  Falcmikhp,  owls, 
ravens,    and  other  birds  of  the  crow  kind,  herons, 
storks,  cranes,  &e.     Swans,  geese,  ducks  of  various 
species,    and    many    other    Anatidcp,    frequent    its 
waters,  some  of  them  abounding  even  in  the  coldest 
regions.       Albatro.^ses   are    very    numerous    on    the 
Kamstchatkan    shores  ;  flamingoes    on  those  of  the 
more    sotithern    countries.       Pigeons    abound,    and 
among  them  is  the  turtle-dove.     The  gouras  of  the 
Indian  Archipelago  are  birds  of  the  pigeon  family,  of 
which  one  species   is  almost    as    large  as  a  turkey. 
There    are   many   kinds   of  thrush,    flnch,  warbler, 
bunting,    sparrow,    and    other   birds    identical    with 
or  allied    to  those  of  Europe,  among  which  is  the 
nightingale,  often  mentioned    by   the  Persian   poets, 
and    many  also,  particularlj'  in  the  warmer  regions, 
which  are  peculiar  and  characteristic.     Of  these  may 
be  mentioned  the  splendid  birds  of  paradise  of  the 
south-eastern  islands,  peacocks,  pheasants,  &c.     The 
gallinaceous  birds  of  Asia  are  numerous,  and  from 
this  continent  were  probably  derived  the  domestic 
poultry  of  other  parts  of  the  earth.       The  abund- 
ance of  the  parrot  tribe  constitutes  a  point  of  resem- 
blance  between  the  tropical  parts  of  Asia  and  other 
tropical  countries,  but  lories  are  peculiar  to  the  East 
Indies.     The  ostrich  iidiabits  the  deserts  of  Arabia  as 
well  as  of  Africa.      The  cassowary  is  found  in  the 
south-eastern  islands.     The  edible  swallows'  nests  of 
the  East  Indian  coasts  have  long  been  celebrated. — 
Lizards  and  other  saurian  reptiles  are  very  abundant 


ASIA. 


in  the  warmer  parts  of  Asia  ;  and  great  crocodiles 
and  pavials  infest  the  rivers  of  the  East  Indies. 
Boas,  pythons,  and  other  great  serpents,  are  found 
in  the  tropical  regions,  which  produce  also  many 
venomous  serpents.  The  cobra  da  capello  is  one  of 
the  most  dreaded.  But  the  temperate  parts  of  Asia 
have  also  venomous  serpents,  scarcely  less  dangerous. 
Some  of  the  East  India  tortoises  are  remarkahie  for 
their  great  magnitude,  and  turtles  are  found  in  the 
seas. — Both  the  salt  and  fresh  waters  of  Asia 
produce  many  kinds  of  fish.  The  Salmonidce  of  the 
rivers  of  Siberia  supply  an  important  part  of  the 
food  of  its  inhabitants.  The  goldfish,  now  so  well 
known  in  Britain,  is  a  native  of  China.  Some  of  the 
fish  of  the  tropical  parts  of  Asia  have  attracted 
attention  from  the  peculiaiity  of  their  form  or  habits. 
Insect  life  is  exceedingly  abundant  in  the  warm 
parts  of  Asia,  as  in  all  other  warm  countries.  Bees 
are  numerous,  and  honey  is  produced  in  great  quan- 
tities. Of  other  insects,  it  seems  only  necessary  here 
to  mention  the  silk-worm,  which  was  introduced 
from  Asia  into  Europe  ;  and  the  locust,  which  some- 
times devastates  great  tracts  of  the  Asiatic  countries 
bordering  on  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Black  Sea, 
and  occasionally  extends  its  ravages  into  regions 
further  west.  Of  molluscous  animals,  the  pearl- 
oyster  deserves  particular  notice,  upon  account  of 
the  important  pearl-fisheries  which  exist  in  diflerent 
places. 

Ethnography. — The  whole  population,  consisting  of 
750,000,000  people,  may  be  divided  into  the  Mongo- 
lian, Aryan,  and  Semitic  groups.  The  Jimt  of  these 
includes  all  the  peoples  and  tribes  in  the  east,  north, 
and  south-east  of  Asia ;  the  second,  (see  Aryan 
Race)  embraces  the  inhabitants  of  Northern  India, 
Afghanistan,  Persia,  and  part  of  Asiatic  Tartary;  the 
(Itird  includes  the  Syrian,  Hebrew,  and  Arabian 
races  (see  Ethnology). 

A  further  subdivision  and  classification  may  be 
made  as  follows:  1.  The  East-Asia?i  (jroup,  mclud- 
ing  the  peoples  of  Tibet,  China,  japan,  Corea, 
and  the  Indo-Chinese  peninsula ;  all  alike  in  the 
use  of  monosyllabic  languages.  This  last  people, 
however,  nmst  be  subdivided  into  Western  and 
Eastern,  the  former  comprising  the  inhabitants  of 
the  Barman  empire,  Pegu,  Laos,  and  Siam,  having 
affinities  with  the  Hindus;  and  the  latter,  com- 
prising the  inhabitants  of  Toiiquin,  Cochin-China, 
and  Cambodia,  have  affinities  with  the  Mongolians 
of  Tibet  and  China.  2.  The  7\itar  group,  includ- 
ing the  Turkomans,  Mongols,  and  Ta'ngusians,  who 
are  spread  over  the  whole  table-land  of  Central 
Asia  and  the  neighbouring  lands  in  the  north.  The 
Turkoman  family  is  divided  into  three  sections — 
the  first  including  the  east  Turkomans,  inhabiting 
Tashkend,  Khiva,  Balkh,  and  Usbekistan  ;  the 
second  including  the  so-called  Tatars  of  the  Urals 
and  the  neighbourhood  of  Astrakhan  and  Kazan; 
the  third  including  the  Turks  or  Osmanli.  With 
the  exception  of  a  few  small  tribes  in  Siberia, 
all  the  Turkish  varieties  are  Mohammedans,  use 
the  Arabic  alphabet,  and  employ  numerous  Arabic 
words  in  their  dialects.  3.  The  Siberian  group, 
including  the  Samoiedes,  people  of  Kamtschatka, 
&c.,  speaking  languages  which  have  only  recently 
been  studied  by  philologists.  4.  The  Mnlay-Pol'g- 
nesian  group,  mixed  with  Australasian  negritos,  are 
spread  over  all  the  islands  of  Polynesia  and  the 
Indian  Archipelago.  The  Malayan  people  of  Java, 
Sumatra,  Celebes,  the  peninsula  of  Malacca,  the 
Sunda  Islands,  Moluccas,  and  Pliilippincs,  have 
an  incipient  literature,  which  lias  been  formed 
under  Moslem  and  (since  the  16th  c.)  under  Euro- 
pean influence.  The  South  Sea  islanders  are  clearly 
di\idcd  into  two  races  by  physical  form,  colour, 
and  language.     One  race  is  allied  to  the  Australasian 


negrito,  and  the  other  to  the  Malayan.  In  most 
of  the  islands,  there  is  a  partial  iuteniiixture  of 
the  two  races,  but  generally  the  distinction  is 
obvious.  It  is  probable  that  all  the  copper-coloured 
Polynesians  belong  to  the  same  family  with  the 
people  of  the  Indian  Archipelago.  5.  the  Beccan 
group,  including  all  the  people  employing  the  Taniul, 
Carnatic,  Telugu,  and  Singalese  languages,  all  having 
a  certain  measure  of  civilisation  and  a  literature. 
6.  The  Ivdo-Gcrmanic  or  Arijan  group,  marked  and 
subdivided  by  the  three  languages,  Sanscrit,  Persian, 
and  Armenian.  About  thirty  distinct  nations,  each 
having  a  peculiar  dialect  and  literature,  belong  to 
the  first  subdivision  ;  the  second  includes  the  peoples 
of  Beloochistan,  Afghanistan,  Persia,  and  Kurdistan  ; 
the  third,  the  Armenians.  All  these  families  have 
literatures  partly  written  in  dead  languages — the 
Sanscrit,  Pali,  Zend,  and  old  Armenian.  7.  The 
heterogeneous  tribes  inhabiting  the  Caucasus,  whose 
affinities  are  not  j-et  S'ttled.  8.  The  Seinific  group, 
including  all  the  peoples  whose  languages  are  related 
to  the  Hebrew  and  Aiabic. 

Jicligions. ^The  same  Asian  charactei'istic  of 
variety  and  wide  contrast  is  found  in  the  creeds  as 
in  tlie  countries  and  tribes  of  ])eople  :  the  Brahmin- 
ical  religion  of  India ;  the  doctrines  of  Buddha, 
Confucius,  and  of  Lao-tse  in  China;  the  worship  of 
the  Grand  Lama  in  Tibet;  the  creed  of  Islam  in 
several  varieties  in  Arabia,  Persia,  and  India;  the 
rude  heathenism  of  the  north  ;  the  various  sects  of 
native  Christians  in  Armenia,  Syria,  Kurdistan,  and 
India ;  the  Greek  Church  in  Siberia  ;  these  and 
other  forms  of  fiith  or  religious  prot'(\ssion  display 
diversiiies  and  contrasts  nearly  as  striking  as  those 
of  Asian  geography.  Christianity,  now  the  religion 
of  Europe  and  America,  owes  its  origin  to  Asia. 
For  an  account  of  the  existing  religious  systems  of 
Asia,  see  ariicles  Mohammedanism,  Hinduis.m, 
BunoHisM,  Lamaism,  &c. 

Civillmtion. — The  number  of  people  civilised — in 
the  Asiatic  sense  of  the  word — is  far  greater  than 
that  of  wild  and  nomadic  lioides;  but  culture  here, 
when  arrived  at  a  certain  point,  assumes  a  station- 
ary character,  widely  difl'ering  from  the  restless  intel- 
lectual activity  and  industrial  progress  of  Europe. 
The  laws  of  states,  families,  industry,  commerce, 
art,  and  science  are,  in  India  and  China,  so  many 
branches  of  one  fixed  and  permanent  religious 
system,  which  has  maintained  its  sway  through 
many  centuries,  and  would  long  remain  unchanged, 
if  left  midisturbcd  by  Em-openu  influence.  The 
Arabs,  Persians,  and  Turks,  collectively  known  as 
the  Easterns,  are  distinct  in  civilisation  from  the 
Hindus  and  Chinese.  The  institution  of  slavery 
among  the  former,  of  caate  among  the  Hindus, 
and  the  civil  and  political  equality  of  China,  are 
distinguishing  marks.  The  Turk  is  a  monotheist 
and  fatalist;  the  Hindu  is  cither  a  mystical  pan- 
theist or  polytheist,  acknowledging  a  multitude  of 
gods;  the  Chinese  is  rather  a  utilitarian  moralist. 

Industry. — The  industry  and  commerce  of  the 
Asiatic  continent  bear  no  adequate  proportion  to  its 
capabilities — such  as  thej-  are,  they  will  be  described 
under  the  different  countries. 

Political  Aspect. — The  political  institutions  of  A. 
present  to  us  some  striking  contrasts.  While  the 
barbarous  hordes  in  the  north  live  almost  without  the 
idea  of  government,  and  scarcely  know  that  the 
Russian  czar  claims  them  as  his  subjects  ;  and  the 
nomadic  tribes,  under  their  khans  or  sheiks,  have  a 
sort  of  patriarchal  government,  subordinate  to  higher 
]iowers;  the  most  extreme  forms  of  monarchy  and 
despotism  have  existed  among  the  more  cultivated 
nations.  The  government  of  Cliina  is  an  absolute 
monarchy  in  form,  but,  in  fact,  is  strictly  limited  by 
the  force  of  tradition.     The  emperor  is  apparently 

477 


ASIA  MINOR— ASMANXSIIAUSEN-. 


unlimited  in  authority  ;  but  it  is  an  essential  duty  of 
an  emperor  to  rule  exactly  according  to  the  precepts 
handed  down  by  his  ancestors.  Reverence  for 
ancestors  and  their  institutions  is,  therefore,  the 
sole  presiding  and  conservative  principle  which  has 
so  long  preserved  the  great  Chinese  empire  from 
political  changes.  A.,  now  so  passive,  anciently  took 
an  active  part  in  the  great  movements  of  the  world's 
history  ;  contended  against  Egypt  and  Greece,  and 
afterwards  contributed  to  the  greatness  and  glory 
of  the  Macedonian  and  Roman  empires.  From 
the  north  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  came  the  vast 
hordes  of  the  IIuiis  who  spread  themselves  abroad 
over  Europe.  The  armies  of  Genghis  Khan  and 
Tamerlane  overran  the  Slavonian  plains,  while  the 
Arab  califs,  with  their  fanatical  troops,  established 
t'.ieir  religion  and  government  in  three  quarters  of 
the  world.  Under  the  Osmanli  fell  the  eastern 
Roman  empire,  and  still  the  Turk  maintains  a 
I'.olitical  position  in  Europe,  but  one  now  becoming 
very  feeble  and  insecure.  In  proportion  as  Europe 
has  advanced,  A.  has  declined  in  political  power,  so 
a.T  to  countenance  the  theory  of  a  gradual  movement 
of  the  spirit  of  civilisation  and  progress  from  the 
eastern  to  the  western  world.  It  would  appear  that 
all  great  future  changes  in  the  destinies  of  Asiatic 
nations  must  proceed  from  European  influence. 
The  Portuguese,  Spaniards,  Dutch,  and  French 
have  acquired  possessions  in  India,  but  all  are 
now  insignificant  when  compared  with  the  vast  ter- 
ritory under  British  government.  The  following 
table',  from  the  latest  authorities  for  1869-70,  gives 
the  existing  political  divisions,  with  their  extent  and 
po])ulation,  as  nearly  as  the  data  will  pcrnut : 


state. 

Square 
Miles. 

Population. 

-A^rabiii, 

1,026,0-tO 

4,000,000 

China    Proper,   itjchiiiiiip;   tlie 

Island.s  of  Formosa,  Ilainar., 

Loo  Clioo,       .... 

1,400,000 

450,000,000 

Chinese  Empire,  assumed  De- 

pendencies of  Tiliet,  Mongo- 

lia, Mantchuiia,  Korea, 

3,300,000 

27,500,000 

Japan,          .... 

149,333 

35,000,000 

Farther  India,  or  India  beyond 

the  Ganges: 

Anara  or  Cocliiii-China,  with 

Toiiquin  and  part  of  Cam- 

bodia,          .... 

19S,043 

9.000,000 

Burniah,      .... 

190,.517 

4,000,000 

t^iam 

303,024 

6,298,990 

Kast  Indian  Islands, 

799.3.-19 

27,164.728 

Afghanistan  and  Herat, 

2.5S,n.30 

4,000,000 

Beloochistan,      . 

160,830 

2,000.000 

Turkestan : 

Bokhara,         ...      "1 
Khokau,      ...           1 

2,500,000 

3,000,000 

Maymene,      .        .        .       1- 

640,516 

100.000 

Tnrconiauia, 

770,000 

Khiva,    ....      J 

1,500,000 

Persia  or  Iran, 

562,344 

5,000,000 

BRITISH  POSSESSIONS  IN  ASIA. 

Hindustan  : 

In  1869. 

Under  Gov.  gen.  in  Council, 

48,314 

6,277,107 

"        Lieut,  gov.  of  Bengal, 

246,785 

.37,505,599 

do.   ofN.W.Prov. 

84,982 

30,016,137 

"             do.   of  Punjaub, 

100,441 

17,593,946 

"       Chief  com.  of  Oude,    . 

22,456 

6,502,884 

"            do.  of  Central  Prov. 

79,600 

9,104,511 

"       Gov.  of  Madras, 

141,746 

26.089,052 

"          "     of  Bombay, 

142,042 

13,039,106 

Native  States  in  1S67, 

In  l'(^nsal 

117.151 

4,152,923 

"  N.  W.  Provinces, 

8.458 

2.294.400 

"  Punjaub, 

103,442 

7,154,538 

"  Central  India,  . 

185,610 

14,622,587 

"  Madras, 

116,125 

12,880,228 

"  Bombay,    .         ,         .         . 

66,004 

6,804,523 

Ceylon  in  1866, 

24,704 

2,088,000 

Aden,              .... 

20 

50,000 

BRITISH  POSSESSIONS  IN  ASIA. 

Further  India  : 

British  liurmah  (in  1869),     . 
Straits  Settlements,  Peuang, 

Singapore  (in  1866), 
Malacca,        .        "        .        . 

China  .*'°.a  .• 

Labuan 

llong  Kong, 


FRENCH  POSSESSIONS  IN  INDIA. 

Cochiu-China, 

Chandernagor,   . 

Karikal,  .        .        .        . 

Jlahe 

Poudicherry, 

Portuguese  Asia: 

Paujini,  Damaun,T)iu, 
Settlements   in   the   Islands 

Solor,  Timor,  Midora, 
Macao  (^Chiua),  . 

Russian  A  sia : 

Siberia, 

Caucasia 

Turkestan,  •        . 


Ottoman  Asia: 
AsiaMinor  or  Natolia(lS44), 
Syria,  Mesopotamia  and  Kur- 
distan,        .        •        .        • 


90,070 


Population. 


2,329,312 


1.0S4 
1,000 

282,831 
58,000 

45 

3,828 
46,098 

21,728 

979.116 

29.(M)0 

15,iKl0 

4,000 

44,000 

? 

34,000 

7 

? 
35,000 

5,400,000 
67,000 

4,625.699 
4,157,917 
J 

210,000 

10,700,0(JO 

450,870 

4,4.50,000 

4-8 


A'SIA  MI'NOR,  the  ancient  name  of  what  13 
now  called  Anatolia  (q.  v.).  Here,  in  Ionia,  was  the 
early  seat  of  Grecian  eivilLsation,  and  here  were  the 
countries  of  Phrygia,  Lycia,  Caria,  Paphlagonia, 
Bithynia,  Eydia,  Pamphylia,  Isauria,  Ciiicia,  Galatia, 
Cappadocia,  &c.,  with  Tioy,  I^phesus,  Smyrna,  and 
many  other  great  and  famous  cities.  Here,  from 
the  obscure  era  of  Seiniramis  (about  2u00  years  n.c), 
to  the  time  of  Osman  (about  IIJUU  a.d.),  the  gieate-st 
conquerors  of  the  world  contended  for  suj)remacy  ; 
and  here  took  place  the  wars  of  the  Medcs  and 
Persians  with  the  Scythians ;  of  the  Greeks  with 
the  Persians  ;  of  the  Romans  with  Alithridates  and 
the  Parthians;  of  the  Arabs,  Seijuks,  IMorigols,  and 
Osmans  with  the  weak  Byzantine  empire.  It  was 
here  that  Alexander  the  Great  and  the  Romans 
successively  contended  for  the  mastery  of  the  civi- 
lised world.  But,  notwithstanding  all  these  wars,  the 
country  still  continued  to  enjoy  some  measure  of 
prosperity  till  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  tiie  Turks, 
under  whose  military  despotism  its  ancient  civilisation 
has  been  sadly  brought  to  ruin. 

ASKEW,  or  ASCOUGH,  Anne,  one  of  the  suf- 
ferers for  Protestant  opinions  at  the  dawn  of  tlie 
Reformation  in  England.  Having  embraced  the 
views  of  the  reformers,  she  was  turned  out  of  doors 
by  her  husband,  a  gentleman  of  Lincolnshire,  and  a 
zealous  Roman  Catholic.  On  this  she  went  up  to 
London  to  sue  for  a  separation  ;  but  was  eventually 
arrested  on  a  charge  of  heresy,  and  was  examined 
by  the  Bishop  of  London  and  others  on  the  doctrine 
of  transubstantiation,  the  truth  of  which  she  denied. 
After  further  examination,  and  torture  by  the  rack, 
she  was  burned  at  the  stake,  in  Smithfield,  July  16, 
1546. 

ASMANXSHAU'SEN,  a  village  in  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  Riidesheim,  Nassau,  is  famed  for  tlie  wine 
which  is  produced  on  the  slate-mountains  in  its 
vicinity.  Of  this  there  are  two  kinds,  red  and 
white,  the  former  of  which  is  greatly  preferred.  It 
has  a  rich  red  colour,  like  Burgundy,  possesses  a 
rare  aromatic  flavour,  and  is  noted  for  its  uncommon 


ASMODECS— ASPxVRAGUS. 


strcnfTfh  and  fire.  But  it  rotains  its  excellent 
qualities  only  about  throe  or  four  years  ;  after 
which,  year  by  year,  it  becomes  weaker,  and  loses 
its  colour.  The  choicest  sort,  which  is  preferred  by 
connoisseurs  to  all  the  other  red  wines  of  the  Rhine, 
and  even  to  Burgundy  itself,  is  cultivated  in  the 
ducal  vineyards  at  Wiesbaden. 

ASMODE'US  (properly,  Asciimepai,  '  the  de- 
strover '),  an  evil  genius  or  demon  mentioned  in  the 
later  Jewish  writings.  A.  was  described  as  the 
author  of  many  evils.  In  the  Book  of  Tohit  (q.  v.), 
he  is  represented  as  slaying  the  seven  husbands  of 
Sara,  and  hence,  in  modern  times,  has  been  jocularly 
spoken  of  as  the  destroying  demon  of  matrimonial 
happiness.  In  the  Talmud,  A.  is  described  as  the 
prince  of  demons,  and  is  said  to  have  driven  Solomon 
from  his  kingdom. 

ASMON.E'AXS.     See  Maccabees. 

ASP  {aspis\  a  venomous  serpent,  the  name  of 
which  has  come  down  from  ancient  times  ;  the 
vague  descriptions  of  ancient  authors,  however, 
causing  uncertainty  as  to  the  species.  It  is  very 
generally  supposed  to  be  the  JVaJa  Ilajc,  the  El  H.ge 
or  Ilaje  Nasher  of  the  Arabs,  which  is  very  conuiiou 
in  Egypt,  Cyprus,  &c.,  and  often  appears  in  hiero- 
glyphic and  other  sculptures  as  one  of  the  sacred 
animals  of  ancient  Egypt.  It  is  sometimes  from 
3  to  5  feet  in  length,  of  nearly  equal  thickness 
throughout,  with  a  gradually  tapering  tail ;  brown- 
ish, varied  with  dark  and  pale  spots;  the  scales  of 
the  neck,  back,  and  upper  surface  of  the  tail  slightly 
carinatcd  ;  the  tail  about  one-fourth  of  the  whole 
length  of  tlie  animal.  The  neck  is  capable  of  con- 
siderable dilatation,  through  the  distension  of  its  loose 


Kaja  Ilajo. 

skin,  although  not  so  much  as  that  of  the  nearly 
allied  cobra  da  capello  of  India  {Naja  trlpudians). 
The  dilatation  of  the  neck  takes  place  when  the 
serpent  is  irritated.  The  jugglers  of  Egypt  are 
accustomed  to  perform  tricks  with  this  serpent,  as 
those  of  India  with  the  cobra  da  capello,  causing  it 
to  dance  to  their  music  ;  after  they  have  first,  how- 
ever, carefidly  extracted  the  poison-fangs.  It  is 
very  venomous.  Several  varieties  exist  at  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  one  of  which  is  nearly  wjiite  ;  and 


one  is  called  Spuugh  Slang,  or  Spitting  Snake,  by  the 
colonists,  from  its  supposed  power  of  ejecting  its 
poison  to  a  distance  when  irritated ;  the  poison 
which  distils  from  the  fangs  in  such  circumstances 
being  probably  carried  off  by  the  forcible  expira- 
tions which  the  creature  makes — a  characteristic, 
however,  not  exclusively  belonging  to  a  particular 
variety. — Other  serpents  of  the  same  family,  Viptr- 
idce,  are  by  some  believed  to  be  the  true  asp,  parti- 
cularly Vipicra  Echis  and  V.  Cerastes.  The  former 
is  of  a  grayish  or  yellowish  brown  colour,  with  rays 
and  eye-like  spots  on  the  upper  parts  :  it  is  found 
both  in  India  and  the  north  of  Africa.  The  latter 
is  of  a  grayish  colour,  and  has  a  very  broad  heart- 
shaped  head,  a  short  obtuse  rounded  muzzle,  and 
the  superciliary  or  eyebrow  scales  remarkably  de- 
veloped, so  that  one  of  them  is  often  produced  into 
a  sort  of  spine :  it  Inhabits  the  deserts  of  Northern 
Africa. — The  name  asp  is  now  generally  given  to 
Vipcra  Aspis,  a  native  of  the  Alps,  found  also  in  the 
south-east  of  Europe  and  in  Sicily,  which  much 
resembles  the  common  viper,  but  is  more  slender,  and 
has  a  larger  head  ;  it  is  also  more  venomous. 

ASPA'RAGUS,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Lillacece,  having  an  almost  bell-shaped  six- 
partite  perianth  upon  an  articulated  stalk,  six 
stamens,  one  style,  with  three  recurved  stigmas,  and 
the  cells  of  the  berry  two-seeded.  The  species  of 
this  genus  are  herbaceous  or  shrubby  plants,  natives 
chiefly  of  the  south  of  Europe  and  of  Africa,  with 
abortively  dioecious  flowers  ;  the  stem  is  unarmed  in 
some,  in  others  thorny ;  at  its  first  sprouting  leafless, 
and  covered  with  scales  at  the  top ;  afterwards  very 
much  branched,  with  numerous  fascicidate,  gener- 
ally bristle-like  leaves.  The  most  widely  diflused 
species  is  the  common  A.,  A.  officinalis,  a 
native  of  Europe,  which  grows  on  the  banks 
of  rivers  and  on  the  sea-shore,  in  meadows 
and  bushy  places,  especially  in  sandy  soils, 
occm-ring  in  a  few  places  in  Bi'itain,  and 
is  also  in  general  cultivation  as  a  garden 
vegetable  ;  its  young  shoots,  when  they  first 
sprout  from  the  earth,  forming  a  much  esteemed 
article  of  food,  which,  however,  is  only  in  a 
slight  degree  nutritious.  These  sprouts  con- 
tain a  peculiar  crystalline  substance,  called 
Asparaginic,  and  have  a  specific  action  on  the 
urinary  organs,  so  that  their  long  continued 
use  in  very  large  quantities  is  apt  even  to 
produce  Ijloody  urine.  They  are  no  longer 
retained  in  the  pharmacopa?ia,  but  both  the 
shoots  and  the  roots  of  A.  are  still  occasion- 
ally used  as  a  diuretic  in  dropsies,  and  as 
a  lithic  to  dissolve  urinary  calculi.  For  these 
purposes,  the  root  is  preferred,  and  is  adminis- 
tered in  the  form  of  an  infusion  or  decoc- 
tion.— The  thick  and  tender  kinds  of  A.  are 
most  esteemed  for  the  table.  It  is  one  of 
those  plants  which  have  been  much  increased 
in  size,  and  considerably  altered  in  general 
appearance,  by  cultivation,  being  seldom  more 
than  a  foot  high  in  its  wild  state,  and  not 
much  thicker  than  a  goose-quill,  whereas  it 
has  been  obtained  in  gardens  more  than  half 
an  inch  in  diameter,  and  its  stems  rise  to  the 
height  of  four  or  five  feet.  It  was  a  fiivourite 
vegetable  of  the  ancient  Romans.  It  is  generally 
planted  in  rows,  at  distances  varying  from  1  foot  to 
2^  feet.  Litter  or  vegetable  mould  is  spread  over 
it  in  autumn.  It  is  allowed  to  occupy  the  same 
ground  for  many  years,  and  the  shoots  are  not, 
gathered  for  use  till  the  plants  are  four  years  old. 
Some  of  the  growers  of  A.  for  the  London  market 
have  100  acres  under  this  crop. — The  seeds  have 
been  used  as  a  substitute  for  coffee,  and  are  recom- 
mended for  that  use  upon  the  continent,  even  at  the 

479 


ASPARAGUS  STOXE— ASPEX. 


proscnt  day.  A  kind  of  spirit  has  been  made  iVoin 
the  fermented  berries.  The  voung  shoots  of  several 
other  species  arc  al.so  eaten,  as  those  of  ^1.  tenuifolius, 


Asparagus. 

a,  a  young  slmot;  7),  flowors;  c,  the  upper  ciul  of  a  stem, 
shewing  bninches,  leaves,  ami  fruit  (all  reiliieefl.) 

A.  acutifoUus,  tiiid  A.  albus,  natives  of  tlie  south  of 
Europe  ;  tlie  last  of  which  is  much  used  in  Spain 
and  Portugal  as  a  salad,  in  soups,  and  as  a  boiled 
vegetable.  On  the  other  hand,  tiic  sprouts  of  the 
Bitter  A.,  A.  scaber,  which  is  very  similar  to  the 
Common  A.,  are  uneatable  on  account  of  their  great 
bitterness. 

ASPA'RAGUS  STONE.     See  Apatitk. 

ASPA'SIA,  one  of  the  most  lemarkable  women 
of  antiquity,  was  the  daughter  of  Axiochus,  and 
born  at  Miletus.  The  circtmistance  that  in  Athens 
i'.U  foreign  women,  whatever  their  character,  were 
equally  esteemed,  or  rather  disesteemed,  and  that 
their  children,  even  when  begotten  in  wedlock,  were 
held  illegitimate,  has  originated  the  erroneous  notion 
tliat  A.  was  a  courtesan.  She  certainly  broke  through 
the  restraint  which  confined  Athenian  matrons  to 
the  seclusion  of  their  own  honies  ;  for  after  her  union 
with  Pericles,  who  had  parted  from  his  first  wife  by 
her  own  consent,  her  house  became  the  rendezvous 
of  all  the  learned  and  distinguished  people  in  Athens. 
Socrates  often  visited  her.  Her  eloquence  and  know- 
ledge of  politics  were  extraordinarily  great.  Her 
husband — though,  strictly  speaking,  the  Athenian 
law  would  have  refused  this  appellation  to  Pericles 
— was  honoured  with  the  title  of  Olympian  Jove, 
while  she  herself  was  dignified  with  the  name  of 
Jinio.  From  the  comic  writers  and  others,  she 
received  much  injustice.  It  was  Hermippus,  the 
comic  poet,  who  took  advantage  of  a  temporary 
irritation  of  the  Athenians  against  Pericles,  to 
accuse  A.  of  impiety  ;  but  the  eloquence  of  the  great 
statesman  disarmed  the  enmity  of  the  j\idges,  and 
procured  her  acquittal.  Her  influence  over  Pericles 
must  have  been  singularly  great,  although  this 
has  obviously  been  exaggerated,  and  even  carica- 
tured. The  brilliant  but  not  historically  accurate 
Aristophanes  charges  her  with  the  origin  iaoth  of  the 
Samian  and  Peloponnesian  war,  the  latter  on  account 
of  the  robbery  of  a  favourite  maid  who  belonged  to 
her.  Plutarch  vindicates  her  against  such  accusa- 
tions ;  and  Thucydides,  w  ho  details  minutely  the 
causes  of  the  Pcloponuesiau  war,  does  not  once 
480 


mention  her  name  in  connection  with  these.  After 
the  death  of  Pericles,  A.  married  Lys'ieles,  a  cattle- 
dealer  (an  important,  lucrative,  and  dignififd  pro- 
fession in  ancient  times),  who,  through  her  influence, 
soon  became  an  eminent  man  in  Athens.  Tlie  name 
of  A.  was,  after  her  death,  ajiplied  to  many  women  of 
remarkable  accomplishments  and  amiability. 

A  SPECTS,  in  astronomy,  arc  certain  positions  of 
planets  with  respect  to  one  another,  as  seen  from  the 
earth.  In  the  days  of  astrology,  there  were  five 
Aspects — Conjunction  (indicated  by  the  symbol  6  ), 
Sextile  (*),  Quartile  (  a  ),  Trine  (A),  Opposition  (  8  ). 
Two  planets  are  in  conjunction  when  they  have  the 
same  longitude  ;  the  aspect  is  sextile  when  they  are 
Oo' apart;  quartile,  when  the  distance  is  il()° ;  trine, 
when  it  is  I'io" ;  and  at  180°  they  are  opposite  to  one 
another,  or  in  opposition.  Astrology  ascribed  to 
these  A.  great  infiiu-nce  over  the  fate  of  individuals 
and  of  nations.  The  only  two  of  the  terms  now  in 
use  are  conjunction  and  opposition. 

A'SPEX,  or  TREMULOUS  POPLAR  {Po'pnlus 
tre'mula,  see  Poplar),  a  tree  which  grows  plentifully 
in  Europe  and  in  Siberia,  It  is  a  native  of  Pritain, 
and  is  iVequent  in  Scotland,  where  it  is  found  even 
at  an  elevation  of  1.GO0  feet  above  the  sea.  It  has 
received  the  specific  name  trrmula,  from  the  readi- 
ness with  which  its  leaves  are  thrown  into  a  tremu- 
lous motion  by  the  slightest  breath  of  wind — a  pro- 
perty for  which,  indeed,  the  aspen  leaf  has  become 


Aspen  {Populiis  trcmtda),  reduced. 
r(,  a  portion  of  a  branch  with  catkins;  ?',  do.,  with  loaves. 

proverbi.l.  The  leaves  arc  nearly  orblcidar,  but 
broadly  toothed,  so  as  abnost  to  exhibit  angles.  The 
footstalks  are  compressed,  which  favours  the  readi- 
ness of  motion.  It  grows  quickly,  with  a  straight 
stem,  reaching  to  a  height  of  from  (iO  to  80,  or  even 
loo  feet.  In  unfavourable  situations,  it  becomes 
dwarfish.  The  wood  is  soft,  porous,  light,  white, 
and  smooth  ;  it  docs  not  make  good  fuel,  but  is  very 
fit  for  the  turning-lathe,  and  especially  for  being 
made  into  troughs,  trays,  pails,  &c.  It  is  deemed 
excellent  for  arrows.  If  the  stem  be  peeled  and 
allowed  to  dry  before  it  be  cut  down,  the  wood 
becomes  harder,  and  is  then  capable  of  being  used 
as  timber  for  the  interior  of  houses  ;  and  on  this 
account  the  tree  is  of  great  importance  in  many  dis- 
tricts, and  the  more  so  as  it  succeeds  in  any  soil, 
although  it  prefers  one  which  is  moist  and  gravelly. 
The  bark  contains  a  great  quantity  of  a  bitter  alka- 
loid, >S'a^«^Mi.  The  charcoal  made  from  this  tree  can 
be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder. — Populuz 


ASPERGILLUil— ASPHALT. 


Aspergillum. 


tremuloides,  a  very  similar  species,  a  native  of  North 
America,  is  called  the  American  A.  It  is  regarded 
by  some  as  a  mere  variety.  Very  similar,  also,  is 
another  North  American  species,  P.  monilifera,  or 
cotton  wood  of  the  Western  states. 

ARPERGI'LLUM,  a  remarkable  genus  of  Lamcl- 
libranchiate  Couchiferous  Molkisca,  in  which  the 
shell  has  the  form  of  an  elongated 
cone,  terminathig  at  the  larger 
end  in  a  disc,  which  is  pierced 
with  numerous  small  tubular  holes, 
the  little  tubes  of  the  outer  range 
being  largest,  and  forming  a  sort 
of  ray  around  it.  The  animals  of 
this  genus  are  borers,  some  of 
them  living  in  sand,  others  bur- 
rowing in  stone,  wood,  or  thick 
shells.  A.  Javanum  is  popularly 
called  the  Watering-pot,  and  the 
same  resemblance  has  suggested 
the  name  A.  (from  the  Latin 
a'<pergo,  to  sprinkle).  The  most 
interesting  circumstance  in  the 
structure  of  the  shelly  tube  of  A. 
is  the  presence  of  two  small 
valves  incorporated  in  the  sub- 
stance of  the  tube,  to  which  they 
a,  the  disc  with  holes;  bear  a  very  small  proportion. 
b,  the  rudimentary '  They  there  form  the  stamp,  says 
valves.  Owen    '  of  its  true   affinities,  but 

subserve  as  little  any  ordinary  final  purpose  as  the 
teeth  buried  in  the  gums  of  the  foetal  whale.'  The 
affinities  are  with  mollusca  inhabiting  bivalve  shells. 
A  rudimentary  Ijivalve  shell  is  found,  in  like  manner, 
cemented  into  the  shelly  tube  of  the  fossd  Teredma, 
which  bored  the  drift-wood  of  the  London  clay. 

There  is  also  a  genus  Aspergillus  in  Botany, 
containing  manv  of  the  small  fungi  commonly  known 
by  the  name  of  Mould  (ci.  v.),  which  occur  on  decay- 
ing substances  of  various  kinds.  Some  of  the  species 
are  peculiar  to  diseased  animal  tissues. 

A'SPERX,    or    GROSS    A'SPERN,  a  village   of 
Austria    on  the  left  bank  of  the   Danube,   5   miles 
E.X.E.   of  Vienna.     Pop.   about  700.      This  village 
and  the  neighbouring  one  of  Essling  are  celebrated 
as  the  scene  of  a  sanguinary  battle  in  the  summer  of 
1809,  between  the  French  army  under  Napoleon  I. 
and  the  Austrians  under  Archduke  Charles.      After 
the  battle  of  Eckmiihl,  in  which  the  Austrians  were 
defeated,  the  Archduke  retired  to  the  left  bank  of 
the  Danube,  leaving  the  road  to  Vienna  open  to  the 
French.     On  the  12th  of  May,  1809,  the  French  array 
entered  Vienna,    when  the   Archduke    concentrated 
his  forces  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  river.    Napoleon 
threw  bridges  over  the  river,  and  on  the  21st  the 
French    armv   began   crossing  to   the    attack.     The 
Austrians  at'  first  seemed   to   give  way ;    but  when 
about  half  the  French  had  crossed  the  river,  they 
returned  to  the  charge,  and  almost  surrounded  the 
enemy  in  the  narrow   plain   between   the   two    vil- 
la°-es.     Here  ensued  the  battle  of  Aspern,  a  terrific 
conflict,   the   grand   object  of  the   contending  hosts 
being  the  possession  of  the  villages.     At  the  close 
of  the  day  it  remained  undecided;    but  next  morn- 
ing it  was  renewed  with  fury  on  either  side,  when, 
after    terrible    slaughter.    Napoleon    ordered    a  _  re- 
treat,  and   his  shattered   ranks  retired  to  the  little 
island  of  Lobau,  in  the  middle  of  the  river,  whence 
thev  afterwards  slowly  withdrew  to  the  right  bank. 
The  loss  on  the  side  of  the  Austrians  was  given  at 
4000  killed,  and  16,000  wounded ;  that  of  the  French 
at  double  that  amount.      Marshal  Lannes,  the  most 
daring  among  the  French  generals,  was  among  the 
slain.°  Both  the  villages  were  reduced  to  heaps  of 
ruins. 
31 


aSPE'RULA.  See  Woodruff. 
ASPHALT,  or  ASPHA'LTUM,  is  the  name  given 
to  a  bituminous  substance  of  a  solid  consistence. 
See  BiTUMES.  It  probably  owes  its  origin  to  vege- 
talile  matter  which  has  been  subjected  to  a  slow 
process  of  decomposition  or  decay,  resulting  in  the 
production  of  a  bituminous  coal,  from  which,  by 
volcanic  agency,  the  A.  has  been  distilled  and 
diffused  over  the  neighbouring  district.  The  largest 
natural  deposit  of  A.  is  in  the  island  of  Trinidad, 
where  the  plain  known  as  the  Pitch  Lake  is 
found.  See  Trinidad.  The  A.  from  Trinidad  is 
largely  used  for  ships'  bottoms,  and  is  reputed  to 
kilf  the  teredo  or  l^orer,  which  proves  itself  so  very 
destructive  to  the  wood  of  ships  in  tropical  regions. 
A.  is  also  found  on  the  shores  of  the  Dead  Sea  in 
large  quantity,  and  is  known  to  the  Arabs  by 
the  name  of"  Hajar  Moma,  or  Moses's  Stone.  It 
likewise  occurs  in  South  America  at  Coxitambo  near 
Cuenca,  in  Alsace,  and  other  parts  of  the  European 
continent,  in  East  Lothian  and  Fifeshire  (Scotland), 
in  Shropshire,  &c. 

During  the  manufacture  of  coal-gas,  much  tarry 
matter  is  evolved  from  the  retort,  and  is  received  in 
the  coolers  and  condensers.     If  this  tar  be  subjected 
to    partial    distillation,   naphtha   and  _  other   volatile 
matters  escape,  and  an  artificial  A.  is  left  behind, 
which  possesses  the  principal  properties,  and  can  be 
employed   for  the    majority   of    purposes    to   which 
native"  A.  is  applied.     The  various  kinds  of  A.  have 
a  pitchy  odour,  are  of  a  black,  or  dark-brown  colour, 
but  do  not  soil  the  fingers ;  are  insoluble  in  water, 
sparingly  soluble  in  alcohol;  but  are  in  great  part 
dissolved  by  ether,  oil  of  turpentine,  and  naphtha. 
Petroleum  (q.  v.),  or  Rock  Oil,  is  a  native  liquid  bitu- 
men, which  largely  exudes  from  crevices  in  rocks  in 
many  districts,   and    is    essentially  A.    dissolved    in 
naphtha.  The  specific  gravity  of  A.  is  very  near  that 
of  water,  ranging  from  1000  to  1100.     When  set  fire 
to,  it  burns  readily  with  a  smoky  flame,  and  is  often 
used   in  the    smaller    gas-works  as    fuel,   by   being 
allowed  to  run  very  slowly  into  the  furnace   fires. 
A.   besides  being  employed  for  coating  the  exterior 
of 'ships'  bottoms,  is  also  used,  in  a  heated  condition, 
for  saturating  timber  which  is  intended  for  piles  in 
the   construction  of  break-waters,    river-bridges,  and 
other  situations  where  the  combined  action  of  the 
air    water,  and   minute   animals  would   soon   render 
ordinary  wood  rotten  and   useless.     Wooden  houses 
may  be  preserved  in  the  same  manner  by  a  coating 
of  A.  applied  externally ;  and  ground-flooring  placed 
in  damp  situations  is  much  the  better  of  the  spaces 
between  the  planks  being  filled  up  with  A. 

About   1840,  A.  began  to  be  generally  used  for 
foot-pavements    in    cities,    and    also    for    floors   of 
cellars  and  outhouses.     For  purposes  of  this  nature 
it   is  heated   in    portable  boilers,    into   which,  at   a 
certain  stage  of  the  preparation,  there  is  poured  a 
quantity  of  thoroughly  dried  sand,  gravel,  or  powdered 
limestone,  which  is  well   mixed   with  the   liquid   A. 
The  mixture  is  then  spread  on  the  spot  prepared  for 
it  •  and  when  cool,  forms  a  hard  kind  of  pavement. 
Of  this  method  of  forming  footways,  high  expecta- 
tions were  at  first  formed ;  but  latteriy  the  process 
of  asphalting  has  gone  out  of  use  in  England,  as  it 
is  found  not  to  be  so  durable  as  stone,  and  there- 
fore,  in   ordinary   circumstances,    more   costly.      In 
Paris,  however,  "asphalting   is    still  extensively  prac- 
tised' in   the    more    spacious    thoroughfares.       The 
better  kinds  of  A.  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
the  black  varnish,  which  is  employed  in  forming  the 
enamel  which   coats  the  variety  of    leather    known 
as    Patent   Leather.      A.    is   not   of    itself   used   in 
medicine,  but  its  natural  solution  in  naphtha,  viz., 
Petroleum,  is  a  valuable  agent  when  applied  either 
externally  or  internally.     The  synonyms  of  A.  are— 

481 


i  SPHODEL— ASPH  y  XI AXTS, 


Native  Pitch,  Mineral  Pitch,  Jeivs'  Pitch,  Dead  Sea 
Bitumen,  Compact  Bitumen,  2\inidad  Bitumen,  and 
Maltha. 

A'SPHODEL  (Aspho' dolus),  a  genus  of  plants 
which  has  by  many  botanists  been  made  the  type 
of  a  natural  order  Aspliodelece,  now,  however,  gener- 
ally regarded  as  forming  part  of  the  order  Liliacea. 
The  Asjyhodelece  are  either  fibrous-rooted  or  bulbous- 
rooted.  Among  the  latter,  are  onions,  hyacinths, 
squills,  star  of  Bethlehem,  &c. ;  among  the  former, 
asparagus,  A.,  &c.      The  roots  of  the  asphodels  are 


White  Asphodel. 

fleshy  and  thick.  The  species  are  not  very  numer- 
ous, and  are  mostly  natives  of  the  countries  around 
the  Mediterranean  Sea.  The  Yellow  A.  {A.  lutcus) 
and  the  white  A.  (A.  albm)  have  long  been  known 
in  Britain  as  garden-flowers.  The  yellow  A.  has  an 
unliranched  stem  2 — 3  feet  high,  much  covered 
by  the  sheathing  bases  of  the  long  narrow  leaves. 
The  leaves  of  the  white  A.  are  all  radical,  and  its 
flowers  are  in  branched  clusters.  Both  species 
flower  about  the  time  when  spring  passes  into 
summer. 

ASPHY'XIA  (Gr.)  means  literally  a  cessation  of 
the  pulsation  from  any  cause,  but  is  usually  applied  to 
the  condition  resulting  from  the  blood  "in  the  body 
no  longer  being  brought  into  the  proper  relations  to 
the  atmospheric  air  by  re^spiration,  so  as  to  allow 
a  sufficiently  free  exchange  of  carbonic  acid  for 
oxygen.  See  Respiration.  A.,  or  suspended  respira- 
tion, may  result  from  several  causes.  No  air,  or  but 
a  scanty  supply,  may  be  admitted,  as  in  strangula- 
tion, drowning,  choking,  or  disease  in  the  windpipe  ; 
the  chest  may  be  prevented  from  expanding  either 
from  a  superincumbent  weight  or  paralysis,  as  when 
a  man  breaks  the  upper  part  of  his  neck  above  the 
482 


phrenic  nerve,  thus  paralysing  the  diaphragm ;  and 
again,  although  there  may  be  every  capacity  for 
respiration,  the  air  itself  may  be  in  fault,  and  contain 
too  little  oxygen  in  pro{)ortion  to  other  elementB,  as 
carbonic  acid  or  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  which  act 
as  poisons  when  inhaled.  A(|uatic  aiiiniaJH  may  be 
as])hyxiatcd  either  by  depriving  the  water  tliey  in- 
habit of  oxygen,  or  impregnal'iiig  it  with  the  gases 
just  mentioned. 

As  this  condition  of  A.  advances,  in  drowning  or 
otherwise,  the  small  vessels  of  the  lungs  become 
gorged  with  blood,  which  the  heart  has  no  longer 
power  to  force  freely  through  them,  the  right  side 
of  the  heart  and  pulmonary  artery  liecome  tilk'd  with 
l)lood,  while  but  little  returns  to  the  arterial  or  left  side 
of  the  heart. 

The  person  becomes  pallid,  except  in  such  vascular 
parts  as  the  lips,  cheeks,  and  finger-tips,  which 
become  blue  ;  and  soon  the  blood,  no  longer  aerated, 
produces  the  phenomena  of  poisoning  by  carbonic 
acid.  After  some  slight  convulsive  niovement.s, 
the  person  becomes  insensible,  the  pulsations  of 
the  heart  grow  gradually  feebler,  and  at  last  cease 
altogether.  In  man  this  occurs  in  from  a  minute 
and  a  half  to  five  minutes.  Some  persons,  no  doubt, 
as  the  Ceylon  divei-s,  can  by  habit  do  without  a 
fresh  supj)ly  of  air  for  a  longer  period ;  and  some 
diving  animals  have  an  arrangement  of  blood-vessela 
by  wiiicli  they  are  enabled  to  be  under  water  for 
a  long  time.  Restoration  of  a.spliyxiated  persona 
may  be  attempted  with  hopes  of  success  at  a  very 
long  period  after  apparent  death.  The  object  of  all 
methods  is  of  course  to  fill  the  lungs  with  fresh  air. 
The  most  efficient  is  that  of  the  late  Marshal  Hall : 
lay  the  person  down  at  once  with  his  head  on  his 
left  arm,  open  the  mouth,  and  draw  the  tongue  for- 
wards, then  roll  him  gently  over  towards  the  left 
till  he  is  nearly  quite  over  on  his  face,  then  on  to  hia 
back  again,  making  the  body  by  its  own  weight 
compress  the  chest,  which,  on  its  expansion  by  elasti- 
city, fills  with  air.  Repeat  this  about  15  times  in  a 
minute.  This  remedy  has  of  late  nearly  superseded 
all  others  for  the  restoration  of  still-born  infants  and 
other  asphyxiated  persons.  It  should  be  jjcrsevered 
in  for  a  long  time,  especially  in  cases  of  drowning,  as 
even  after  an  hour  it  has  been  successful. 

ASPIIY'XIAXTS.  Chemical  substances  enclosed 
in  shells  or  other  projectiles,  and  which  act  by  pro- 
ducing a  suffocating  and  poisonous  effect.  The  French 
secretly  made  experiments  with  asphyxiating  shot 
at  Brest  in  1851.  The  princij)le  of  these  niLssilea 
seems  to  have  been  to  carry  into  an  enemy's  ship 
the  means  of  generating  deadly  gases  which  would 
suffocate  the  crews  between  decks.  Scientific  artil- 
lerists dread  and  discountenance  these  novelties ; 
they  have  learned  to  regard  war  almost  as  a  mathe- 
matical science,  or,  at  any  rate,  as  an  elaborate 
application  of  such  science ;  and  they  see  nothing 
but  savage  cruelty  in  the  '  diabolical  chemistry '  of 
asphyxiants.  General  Sir  Howard  Douglas,  in  a  late 
edition  of  his  Naval  Gunnery,  says :  '  The  author 
learns,  with  great  regret,  that  some  awful  experi- 
ments have  been  made  with  fearful  success,  in  the 
royal  arsenal,  with  asphyxiant  projectiles,  combining 
in  a  frightful  degree  incendiary  with  suffocating 
eff'ects.'  Adverting  to  sick  and  wounded  men  on 
board  a  ship-of-war,  he  exclaimed :  '  What  shall  be 
said  of  that  inhuman  system  preparing  for  naval 
warfiire  in  this  age  of  enlightened  humanity,  which 
would  advisedly,  purposely,  and  deliberately  con- 
sign the  whole  of  these,  and  all  other  survivors,  to 
indiscriminate  death  or  mutilation  ?  A  ship  may  be 
sunk  in  action ;  yet  there  is  always  time  to  remove 
the  sick  and  wounded,  and  save  the  survivors ;  but 
who  shall  approach  a  ship  on  fire  to  rescue  her  crew 
from  the  sudden  and  awful  effects  of  that  merciless 


ASPIDIUM— ASS. 


and  barbarous  system,  the  object  of  which  is  to  set 
fire  to  her  at  heart,  and,  if  possible,  blow  her  up  ?' 
The  Earl  of  Dundonald,  Captain  Norton,  Mr  Mac- 
intosh, and  many  other  inventors,  have  within  the 
last  few  years  brought  asphyxiating  compositions 
before  the  notice  of  the  English  Admiralty  and  War- 
office  ;  and  the  French  are  known  to  possess  many 
such  in  store.  Some  of  these  compositions  are 
liquids  which  burn  fiercely,  and  ignite  wood  and 
canvas  readily  ;  some  are  contained  in  shells  which, 
on  bursting,  scatter  the  suffocating  and  burning  sub- 
stances all  around  ;  and  some  assume  other  forms. 
ASPI'DIUM.  See  Male  Fern. 
ASPINWALL,  a  town  in  New  Granada,  virtu- 
ally, however,  a  colony  of  the  United  States.  It  is 
situated  at  the  Atlantic  extremity  of  the  Panama 
Eailway,  in  lat.  9°  22'  N.,  and  long.  79°  55'  W.,  being 
about  eight  miles  to  the  north  of  the  old  Spanish 
port  of  Chagres,  49  miles  from  Panama,  and  equi- 
distant from  the  great  trading  capitals  of  Valparaiso 
and  San  Francisco.  From  its  commanding  position 
as  a  place  of  transit,  A.  is  one  of  the  busiest  and 
most  prosperous  towns  in  the  new  world.  It  mono- 
polises the  benefits  of  the  traffic  in  both  directions, 
to  the  almost  utter  exclusion  of  the  rapidly  decay- 
ing Panama.  Already  the  great  link  between  the 
Atlantic  and  the  west  coasts  of  America,  it  promises 
at  no  distant  day  to  connect  that  ocean  with 
Australia,  India,  China,  and  Japan. 

A'SPIRATE,  the  name  given  to  the  letter  h  in 
grammar,  as  marking,  not  an  articulate  sound,  but  a 
breathing  (Lat.  spiro,  I  breathe).  It  is  also  applied  to 
a  class  of  consonants.  There  is  felt  at  once  to  be 
a  relation,  accompanied  by  a  difference,  between  p 
and/,  t  and  tfi,  &c.  To  express  the  difference,  the 
Greeks  called  the  first  of  such  a  pair  psilon  (bare), 
the  second  dasu  (rough) ;  the  Latin  grammarians 
adopted  the  terms  lene  and  aspirate,  probably  from 
the  erroneous  notion  that  the  difference  consists  in 
the  addition  of  the  sound  of  /;.  There  being  no 
sound  and  no  character  in  Latin  corresponding  to 
the  Greek  0  (theta),  the  Romans  represented  it  by  th  ; 
and  this  misleading  expedient  is  continued  for  repre- 
senting this  aspirate  and  several  others  in  all  the 
alphabets  derived  from  the  Roman.  According  to 
some,  the  word  ought  to  be  asperate,  i.  e., '  roughened.' 
Of  the  sixteen  mutes  in  a  complete  system  (see 
Letters),  eight  are  lene,  each  having  its  correspond- 
ing aspirate. 

Le7ie —      p,  b,  t,  d,  k,    g,    s,    z. 

Aspirate — -/,  v,  th(in),  th{ine),  ch,  gh,  sh^  zh. 

In  the  corresponding 
words  of  allied  languages, 
nothing  is  more  common 
than  the  interchange  of  an 
aspirate  and  a  lene:  Ex., 
liat. pater,  F,ng.  father ;  Gr. 
thura,  Ger.  thilr,  Eng.  door ; 
Lat.  cap{\xi),  Fr.  chef,  Eng. 
chief ;  Ger.  weib,  Eng.  vnfe. 
Aspirated  letters  are  also 
frequently  interchangeable 
with  one  another :  thus,  Gr. 
thcr,  a  wild  beast,  is  in  Lat. 
fera ;  Lat.  facere,  to  do, 
becomes  in  Span,  hacer. 

ASPIRA'TOR  is  the 
name  of  an  apparatus  em- 
ployed to  draw  air  or  other 
gases  through  bottles  or 
other  vessels.  It  is  of  great 
•s=^-  vii^  use  in  the  examination  of 

.  gases     by    the    analytical 

Aspirator.  chemist.  The  simplest  form 

of  the  apparatus  is  that  represented  in  the  figure, 


where  A  is  a  large  vessel  capable  of  being  filled 
with  water,  having  a  tube  with  stop-cock  at  B,  a 
second  tube  with  stop-cock  at  C,  and  a  thermometer 
introduced  at  T>.  In  working,  the  apparatus  is  filled 
with  water ;  the  tube  C  is  attached  to  the  vessels 
through  which  the  gas  is  to  be  drawn ;  and  the 
stop-cocks  at  C  and  B  being  opened,  the  weight  of 
the  water  escaping  at  B  acts  as  suction,  and  draws 
in  the  gas  from  the  tube  C  and  the  attached  bottles 
or  other  vessels.  The  thermometer  at  D  denotes 
the  temperature  of  the  water,  and  subsequently  gas, 
contained  in  tlie  reservoir,  while  the  upright  turn 
of  the  tube  B  keeps  any  air  from  entering  the 
reservoir  by  that  route. — A  more  complicated  form 
of  A.,  but  one  which  is  much  more  convenient 
to  experiment  with,  is  that  know^i  as  Brunner's  A.; 
the  principle  of  action,  however,  is  the  same. 

ASPLE'NIUM,  a  genus  of  Ferns,  of  the  order 
or  sub-order  Foh/podi?iece.  The  species  are  numer- 
ous, and  widely  diffused  both  in  the  northern  and 
southern  hemispheres.  Many  of  them  are  of  great 
beauty ;  and  the  small  size  of  some  reconmiends 
them"  to  cultivators  of  ferns  who  find  themselves 
much  limited  as  to  space.  Some  of  the  species 
bear  the  English  name  Spleentvort,  as  A.  Tricho- 
manes,  A.  viridc,  A.  Adiantum-nigriim,  &c.,  having 
been  formerly  supposed  efficacious  in  removing 
obstructions  of  the  viscera.  From  the  same  cir- 
cumstance of  the  name  A.  (Gr.  a,  privative,  and 
spleii,  the  spleen)  is  derived.  They  have  now  fallen 
completely  into  disuse,  but  were  at  one  time  very 
much  employed,  chiefly  in  the  form  of  a  syrup  like 
Capillaire  (q.  v.),  and  were  administered  not  only  in 
cases  of  cough,  asthma,  diseases  of  the  liver,  and 
cutaneous  diseases,  but  even  in  stone  and  gravel. 
But  perhaps  none  of  them  was  so  extensively  used 
as  the  species  which  is  styled  in  old  books  Common 
Spleenwort  {A.  Ceterach),  now  the  type  of  a  distinct 
genus,  and  known  as  Ceterach  officinarum.  Some  of 
them,  as  A.  Irichomanes  and  A.  Adiantum-nigriim, 
are  frequently  called  Maidenhair.  A.  Trichomanes 
is  a  very  beautiful  little  fern,  common  on  rocks  and 
old  walls  in  Britain,  and  most  parts  of  Europe,  found 
also  in  some  parts  of  Africa,  and  in  North  America. 
A  very  common  British  species,  A.  Ruta-muraria, 
popularly  known  as  Wall-rue,  is  found  in  N.  America. 
ASS  {Equus  Asimis),  a  well-known  quadruped, 
usually  referred  by  naturalists  to  the  same  genus 
with  the  horse  (q.  v.),  but  which  it  has  recently 
been  attempted  to  make  the  type  of  a  distinct  genus 
{Asinus),  including  all  the  solid-hoofed  quadrupeds 
{Solidungula  or  Equidcc,  see  Horse)  except  the  horse 
itself.  The  distinction  is  founded  on  the  short  hair 
of  the  upper  part  of  the  tail  and  the  tuft  at  the  end 
of  it,  the  darker  stripes  with  which  the  colour  is 
marked,  and  the  absence  of  the  hard  horny  warts 
which  are  found  on  the  hinder-legs  of  the  horse, 
although  the  fore-legs  exhibit  warts  in  a  similar 
position.  The  long  ears  of  the  A.  are  one  of  the 
characteristics  of  the  species,  but  they  are  longer 
in  domestication  than  in  a  wild  state.  It  is  usually 
also  distinguished  by  a  black  cross  over  the  shoul- 
ders, formed  by  a  longitudinal  and  a  transverse 
streak,  the  general  colour  being  gray  ;  but  when  the 
general  colour  is  darker  or  lighter  than  usual,  the 
cross  is  often  less  apparent,  or  to  be  observed  with 
difficulty.     The  fiicial  line  is  arched. 

Some  uncertainty  still  exists  as  to  the  origin  of 
the  domestic  A.  ;  "a  number  of  wild  races  having 
been  described,  some  of  which  are  perhaps,  like  the 
wild  horses  of  America,  the  progeny  of  animals  that 
have  escaped  from  domestication.  The  probability, 
however,  appears  to  be  that  the  A.  is  a  native  of 
Central  Asia,  where  it  is  found  in  a  perfectly  wild 
state,  in  Tartary,  Mesopotamia,   Persia,  &c.,  on  the 

483 


ASS— ASSAI. 


banks  of  tho  Indui5,  and  even  to  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  Hindustan;  but  its  range  does  not  ex- 
tend so  far  northward  as  that  of  the  wild  horse— 
a  circumstance  which  may  perhaps  partly  account 
for  the  inferiority  of  the  domestic  A.  in  northern 
climates.  The  wild  A.  is  found  both  in  mountamous 
districts  and  in  plains;  vast  troops  roam  over  the 
great  Asiatic  deserts,  migratinfr,  according  to  the 
season,  in  summer,  as  far  northward  as  the  Ural; 
in  winter,  southward  to  the  borders  of  India.  It  is 
fond  of  bitter  and  saline  herbage,  and  of  brackish 
water.  It  was  first  accurately  descril)ed  by  Pallas, 
under  the  name  Ko^dan,  which  it  bears  on  the  high 
steppes  around  the  Caspian  Sea.  It  was,  however, 
well  known  to  the  ancients,  and  is  called  Ovnrjer 
and  Asinm  si/lpestris  by  Pliny,  who  also  mentions, 
under  the  name  Hcmionus,  another  species  {Eqims 
mviioniis),  a  native  of  the  same  regions,  now 
called  the  Kiatig,  or  the  Dziggethni.  The  latter 
name  appears  to  be  of  Turkish  origin,  and  to  sig- 
nify Mountain  A.,  but  seems  to  be  sometimes  ap- 
plied to  the  one  of  these  species  and  sometimes  to 
the  other.  This  seems  also  to  l)e  the  case  with  some 
of  their  other  eastern  names,  as  Klnir  or  Goor,  and 
is  a  source  of  no  little  confusion. — The  cross  on  the 
shoulders  is  less  observal)le  in  the  Koulan  than  it 
usually  is  in  the  domesticated  A.  It  ought  also  to 
be  mentioned  that,  in  one  remarkable  particular,  the 
domesticated  A.  agrees  with  the  Equm  Hcinlonns, 
and  ditt'ers  from  the  Koulan,  the  infra-orbital  foramen 
of  the  skull  being  situated  much  lower.  But  the 
Kiang  neighs  like  a  horse,  and  the  other  irays.  The 
harshness  of  the  voice  of  the  A.  is  ascribed  to  two 
small  peculiar  cavities  situated  at  the  bottom  of  the 
larynx. 

The  allusions  to  tho  wild  A.  in  the  Old  Testament, 
and  particularly  in  Job  xxxix.,  naturally  excite  the 
surprise  of  readers  acquainted  only  with  the  dull 
domestic  drudge,  the  emblem  of  patience  and  sto- 
lidity; but  to  this  day  they  are  beautifully  appro- 
priate to  the  wild  A.  of  '  the  wilderness,'  which  has 
the  'barren  land'  or  '  salt  places' for  its  dwelling, 
and  '  the  range  of  the  mountains'  for  its  pasture. — 
The  wild  A.  has  a  short  mane  of  dark  woolly  hair, 
and  a  stripe  of  dark  bushy  hair  runs  along  the  ridge 
of  the  back  from  the  mane  to  the  tail.  It  has  longer 
legs,  and  carries  its  head  higher,  than  the  domestic 
A.  Its  troops  have  always  a  leader.  It  is  a  high- 
spirited  animal,  very  fleet  and  very  wary,  trying  to 
the  utmost  the  powers  of  the  hunter.  It  is  a  prin- 
cipal object  of  the  chase  in  Persia,  where  its  flesh  is 
prized  as  venison  is  in  Europe,  and  it  is  accounted 
the  noblest  of  game.  Xenophon,  in  his  Anabasis, 
describes  the  wild  A.  as  swifter  of  foot  than  the 
horse,  and  its  flesh  as  like  that  of  the  red  deer,  but 
more  tender. 

The  domestic  A.  is  also,  in  Arabia,  Persia,  Syria, 
and  other  eastern  countries,  a  much  finer  animal  than 
as  it  is  usually  seen  in  Europe,  although  in  Spain 
the  favorable  influence  of  the  more  genial  climate 
upon  its  development  is  visible,  perhaps  also  of 
better  treatment,  the  A.  being  more  highly  valued. 
The  A.  is  much  used  for  riding  in  the  East.  From 
Judges  v.  10,  we  learn  that,  at  a  very  early  period, 
the  great  were  accustomed  to  ride  upon  white  asses, 
and  a  preference  is  given  to  white  asses  in  the  East 
to  this  day.  The  A.  has  been  domesticated  from  the 
earliest  times ;  but  it  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
introduced  into  Europe  till  a  comparatively  recent 
date.  In  Britain,  it  is  employed  chit'fly  by  the  poor, 
but  might  probably  with  advantage  be  inueh  more 
generally  employed  than  it  is.  Its  price  is  scarcely 
one-twentieth  of  the  price  of  the  horse,  and  it  can  be 
kept  at  one-fourth  of  the  expense,  delighting  in  the 
coarse  herbage  which  other  animals  reject,  and  satis- 
fled  with  comparatively  scanty  fare.  The  obstinacy 
484 


ascribed  to  the  A.  seems  to  be  very  generally  the  re- 
sult of  ill  treatment;  and   proverbial  as  it  has  be- 


1(1 


The  Wild  Ass. 


come  for  stupidity,  it  is  probably  quite  equal  in  in- 
telligence to  the  horse. 

There  are  two  hybrids  between  the  A.  and  the 
horse — tho  Muli;  (q.  v.),  bred  between  the  male  A. 
and  the  mare  ;  and  the  Hinxy  (q.  v.),  the  ottspring  of 
the  horse  and  the  female  A. 

The  milk  of  the  A.  contains  more  sugar  of  milk 
and  less  caseine  than  that  of  the  cow,  and  is  there- 
fore recommended  as  a  nutritious  diet  in  cases  of 
weak  digestion.  Its  usefulness  in  cases  of  consump- 
tion has  been  long  known,  and  it  was  often  pre- 
scribed as  a  kind  of  specific  when  that  disease  was 
treated  on  principles  very  different  from  those  which 
regulate  its  treatment  now,  and  when  very  nutri- 
tious food  was  not  usually  prescribed  to  consumptive 
patients. 

The  leather  called  Shagreen  (q.  v.)  is  made  by  a 
peculiar  process  from  the  skin  of  the  A.,  which  also 
affords  excellent  leather  for  shoes,  and  the  best 
material  for  drums.  The  bones  of  the  A.,  which  are 
very  solid,  were  used  by  the  ancients  for  making 
flutes. 

ASSAI,  a  beverage  very  much  used  at  Para  and 
other  places  on  the  Amazon,  and  which  is  prepared 
from  the  fruit  of  certain  species  of  palm  nearly 
allied  to  the  Cabbage  Palm  of  the  West  Indies.  See 
Areca  and  Cabbage  Palm.  The  A.  palms  are  re- 
markably slender  trees;  the  most  common  species 
(Euterpe  oleracca  of  Martins)  rising  to  the  height  of 
sixty  or  eighty  feet,  with  a  smooth  stem  only  about 


ASSAL— ASSASSINS. 


four  inches  in  diameter.     The  fruit  is  small,  in  size 
and  color  resembling  sloes,  but  is  produced  in  great 
quantity  upon  brancliea  spa- 
dlccx,  which    are  thrown  out 
horizontally      beneath      the 
crown  of  leaves.     It  consists 
of  a  hard   seed,  -with  a  very 
■  thin  covering  of  a  firm    pulp 
pv^    or  flesh.     The  tree  grows_  in 
\>Y\^  swamps  flooded  by  the  high 
tides.     Boys  chmb  the  trees 
for    the    fi'uit,  upon     -which 
■warm   water  is  poured,  and 
bv  rubbing  and  kneading,  a 
liquid  is  procured,  consisting 
simply   of   the   pulp  of   the 
fruit    and    water,    which    is 
constantly    vended     in     the 
streets  of  Para,  and  of  which 
the  inhabitants  are  extremely 
fond.  This  is  A.  It  is  a  thick, 
creamy   hquid,  of  a  purplish 
colour,    and    a    flavour    like 
that    of  a  freshly    gathered 
nut.      It   is   commonly  used 
along  with  the   bread  made 
from   Manioc   (q.  v.),  called 
farlvha,  and   either  with  or 
without    sugar.       Half    the 
population  of  Para   make   a 
daily  meal  of  A.  and  farinha ; 
and  upon  this  hundreds  are 
said  chiefly  to  subsist.— The 
stem  of  the  A.  palm  is  some- 
times   used    for    poles    and 
rafters  and  its  terminal  bud 
as   a   cabbage  or   as  a  salad    with  oil  a^d  viri^^gar ; 
but  it  is  too   much  valued  upon  account  of  its  frmt 
to   be    often   cut   down  for    these    purposes.-An- 
lei  species,  Unterpe  Catingn,  is  found  in  forests 
of  a  dry  sandy    soil   and   very  pecuhar  vegetation 
known 'as   Catinga    forests       The   leverage    made 
from   it   is   sweeter    than   the    common    kind,  but 
the  produce  of  the  tree  is  much  smaller 


Assai  Palm  (Futerpe 
oleracea.) 


ASSA'L,  an  important  salt-lake  in  the  east  of 
Africa,  2.3  'miles  south-west  of  Tajurrah,  the  ch.ef 
seaport  of  Adel,  lat.  11°  40'  N.,  long.  42  40  E.  It. 
len-th  is  8  miles ;  its  breadth,  4.  It  lies  in  a  land 
rentarkable  for  its  wild,  waste,  and  sterile  character^ 
A  is  enclosed  on  all  sides  but  the  east  by  hills  and 
is  nearly  TOO  feet  below  the  level  of  the  sea.  Abys- 
sinian caravans  resort  to  it  for  the  purpose  of  carry- 
in- off  the  salt  which  incrusts  its  shores  like  ice, 
sometimes  to  the  depth  of  half  a  foot.  t  ^^  been 
supposed  that  it  was  at  one  time  connected  with  the 
Bay  of  Tajurrah. 

ASS  V'M  a  province  at  the  north-east  extremity  of 
British  India,  stretching  in  N.  lat.  from  25  40  to  28 
ir  and  in  E  long,  from  90°  40'  to  97=1',  and  contain- 
no-'  ?10,000  inhabitants  on  an  area  of  21,80o  square 
miles.  It  forms  part  of  the  basm  of  the  Lower 
Brahmaputra,  and  is  intersected  also  by  about  sixty 
other  rivers.'  Being  thus  irrigated.as  it  were  by 
nature,  A.  abounds  in  wood,  and  is  very  fe  tile. 
Among  its  indigenous  productions  is  the  tea-plant, 
which,  under  the  management  of  a  joint- stock  com- 
pany, promises  to  be  at  once  beneficial  to  the  country 
and  profitable  to  the  shareholders.  The  other  pro- 
ducts are  rice,  mustard,  gold,  ivory,  amber,  musk, 
silver,  iron,  lead,  petroleum,  and  coal.  Irom 
Ben-al  the  principal  imports  are  woollens,  India 
fabrfcs,    salt,   opium,    glass,    earthenware,   tobacco, 

netel,  &c.  ^  » 

In  IS'^e,  at  the  close  of  the  first  Burmese  war,  A. 
was  ceded  to  the  British.     The  upper  portion  of  the 


province,    however,    was   conferred,    as   a   separate 
principuhtv,  on  the  native  rajah,  whom  the  Burmese 
had   expelled ;    and   it  was   only  in    1838,    that,  m 
consequence  of  his  inisgovernment,  the  entire  country 
was   actually   placed  under   British   administration 
Since  then,  the  province   has  exhibited  a  noticeable 
improvement,  for  which,  considering  that  the  popu- 
lation is  barely  8.3  to  the  square  mile,  there  is  stiU, 
however,  almost  unlimited  scope.     The  great  evil  is 
the    prevalence  of  earthquakes,  few  months  passmg 
without  a  shock  or  two.     The  people  however  seem 
to    think    lightly  of   them— the    only  one    that   is 
specially   remembered    as    being   of    extraordinary 
severity  having  occurred  as  far  back  as  ^Bo  / . 

A.  is  divided  into  Upper  and  Lower  which  are 
again  subdivided  into  districts.  Gowhati  is  the 
only  town  worthy  of  the  name.  c   k     •     *\. 

One  of  the  most  striking  features  ot  A.  is  tne 
abundance  of  wild  animals,  such  as  tigers,  rhino- 
ceroses, leopards,  buffaloes,  and  elephants.  Of  he 
elephants,  not  less  than  500  are  annually  caught; 
and,  when  tamed,  bands  of  them  maybe  seen,  harm- 
less as  cows,  in  the  charge  of  a  single  attendant 
The  forests  teem  with  game,  and  the  rivers  with 
fish. 

ASSAS'SIN'S,  a  military  order,   a  branch  of  the 
secret   sect    of  the   Ismaelites   (q.  y.)      The    secret 
doctrines  of   the   Ismaelites,  who  had   their   head- 
ciuartersin  Cairo,  declared  the  descendants  oUsmael, 
the  last  of  the  seven    so-called  imaums,  to  be  alone 
entitled  to  the   califate ;    and   gave   an   allegorical 
interpretation  to  the  precepts  of  Islam,  which  led  as 
their  adversaries  asserted,  to  considering  all  positive 
religions  equally  right,  and  all  actions  morally  indif- 
ferent.    The  atrocious  career  of  the  A.  was  but  a 
natural  sequence  of    such   teaching      The   founder 
of  these  last,  Hassan-ben-Sabbah-el-Honiairi  of  Per- 
sian  descent,   and    imbued    with    the    free-thinking 
tendencies  of  his  country,  had,  about  the  "udche  of 
the  nth  c,  studied  at  Nishpur,  under  the  celebrated 
Mowasek,    and    had    subsequently    obtained    from 
Ismaelite  dais,  or  rehgious   leaders,  a  partial  msight 
into  their  secret    doctrines,  and    a    partia     conse- 
cration to  the   rank  of  dai.     But  on  betaking  him- 
self to  the   central    lodge    at    Cairo,  he  quarrelled 
with    the    heads  of  the    sect,  and  was    doomed   to 
banishment.     He  succeeded,  however,  in  making  hu, 
escape  from  the  ship,  and  reaching  the  Syrian  coast, 
after    which    he    returned    to    Persia,    everywhere 
coflecting  adherents,  with  the  view  of  foundmg  upon 
the    Ismaelite  model,  a  secret  order  of    his  own,  a 
snecies  of  organized  society  which  should  be  a  terror 
Shis   most%owerful  neighbors.     In  1090,  Hassan 
conquered   the  fortress  of    Alamnt    in  the   Persian 
'  distdct  of  Rudbar;    and  continued  to  "^crease    m 
strength,  intimidating   princes  and    governois  bj  a 
series"  of  secret  murders,  and  gaining   possession  of 
several    fortified    castles,    with    their    surrounding 
territories,  both    in   the  mountain   »?"£«.  ^°"^^^«^^ 
the     Caspian,    in     Kuhistan,    and    in     the    moun- 
ins  of  Syri;  (Massiat).     The  internal   constitution 
of  the  order,  which   had  some   resemblance    o  the 
orders   of  Christian    knighthood,  was    as    follows: 
Rrst    as    supreme    and    absolute    ruler    came    the 
Sheikh-al-jebal,  the  Prince  or  Old  Man  ot  the  Moun- 
tain.    His  vicegerents  in  Jebal,  Kuhistan,  and  Syria 
were  the   three  i)«z-«Z-/l-f6ir,  or  grand-pnors  of  the 
order      Next  came  the  Dais  and  Rehks   which  last 
were 'not,  however,  initiated,  like   the  former  into 
every    stJge  of  the  secret  doctrmes,_  and    had    no 
authority  as  teachers.     To  the  uninitiated  belonged 
Lt  of  all  the  FedaviesorFedais-i.  e.,  the  devoted 
a  band   of    resolute   youths,    the    ever    ready   and 
bhndh  Ob  dient  executioners  of  the  Old  Man  of  the 
Mouniain.     Before  he  assigned  to  them   he.r  bloody 
tasks,  he  used  to  have  them  thrown  into  a  s^ate  ot 


ASSAULT— ASSAY. 


ecstacy,  by  the  intoxicating  influence  of  the  Hashish 
(the  hem-plant),  which  circumstance  led  to  the  order 
being  called  Hashishim,  or  hemp-eaters.     The  word 
was  changed  by  Europeans  into  Assassins,  and  trans- 
planted  into   the   languages  of  the  West    with  the 
signification  of  murderers.     The   Lasiks,  or  novices, 
formed    the    sixth    division  of  the    order,  and  the 
laborers    and    mechanics  the  seventh.     Upon  these, 
the  most  rigid  observance  of  the  Koran  was  enjoined ; 
while  the  initiated,  on  the  contrary,  looked  upon  all 
positive    religion    as   null.     The   catechism   of  the 
order,  placed  by  Hassan    in    the    hands  of  his    dais, 
consisted  of  seven  parts,  of  which  the  second  treated, 
among  other  things,  of  the    art   of  worming  them- 
selves into   the   confidence   of  men.     It  is  easy  to 
conceive   the    terror   which   so   unscrupulous  a  sect 
must  have   inspired.     Several   princes  secretly  paid 
tribute  to  the  Old   Man  of  the   Mountain.     Hassan, 
who  died  at   the  age  of  70  (1125  a.d.),  appointed  as 
his   successor    Kia-Busurg-Omid,  one    of    his  grand- 
priors.     Kia-Busurg-Onud  was  succeeded  in  1 1 38  by 
bis  son  Mohammed,  who  knew  how  to   maintain  his 
power  against  Nureddin  and  Jussul'-Salaheddin.     In 
116-3,  Hassan    II.  was    rash    enougli   to    extend    the 
secret  privilege  of  the  initiated — exemjition,  namely, 
from  the  positive  precepts  of  religion — to  the  people 
generally,    and  to  abolish    Islam    in    the    Assassin 
state;  which    led    to    his    falling  a  victim  to    his 
brother-in-law's  dagger.     Under  the  rule  of  his  son, 
Mohammed  II.,  who  acted  in  his    fatlier's  spirit,  the 
Syrian    Dai-al-kobir,  Sinan,  became  indeijcndcnt,  and 
entered  into  negotiations  with   the  Christian  king  of 
Jerusalem  for  coming  over,  on  certain  conditions,  to 
the   Christian   faith;    but   the   Temjilars   killed    his 
envoys,  and  rejected  his   overtures,  that   they  might 
not   lose    the   yearly  tribute  which   they  drew   from 
him.     Mohammed    was  poisoned  by  his  son,  Hassan 
III.,  who  reinstated  Islamism,  and  thence  obtained 
the   surname  of    the   New   Moslem.      Hassan    was 
succeeded  by   Mohammed  III.,  a  boy  of  nine  years 
old,  who,  by  his   effeminate  rule,  led   to   the   over- 
throw of  the  order,  and  was  eventually  murdered  by 
the  command  of  his   son,  Rokn-eddin,  the  seventh 
and  last  Old   Man  of  the   Mountain.     In  12r,i),  the 
Mongolian    prince,  Ilulagu,  burst    with    his    hordes 
upon  the  hill-forts  of  Persia  held  by  the  Assassins, 
which    amounted    to    about    a  hundred,    capturing 
and  destroying  them.     The  Syrian  branch  was  also 
put  down  about  the  end  of  the  i;Uhc.,but  remnants 
of  the  sect   still   lingered  for   some  time  longer  in 
Kuhistan.     In  13.52,  the  A.  reappeared  in  Syria,  and 
indeed  they  are  still  reported  to  exist  as  a  heretical 
.sect  both  there  and  in  Persia.     The  Persian  Ismael- 
ites    have    an    imaum,  or    superintendent,    in    the 
district    of  Kum,  and   still   inhabit    the    neighbour- 
hood of  Alamoot  under  the  name  of  Hosseinis.     The 
Syrian   Ismaelites  live  in  the    district  of  Massiat  or 
Massyad.     Their  castle  was  taken  from  them  in  18(i9 
by    the   Nossaries,   but   afterwards    restored.      See 
Hammer,  Geschichte  dcr  Assassinen  (Stutt,  und  Tiib. 
1818). 

ASSAU'LT.  In  the  sudden  and  vigorous  attack 
of  a  fortified  post,  which  is  called  an  A.,  the  troops 
are  told  off  into  'storming-parties,'  '  supports,' and 
'firing-parties.'  The  storming-parties  are  those 
who  take  the  most  terrible  duty,  being  that  of  mak- 
ing a  forcible  entry  into  the  place.  The  firing- 
parties  or  musketeers  seek  to  shield  the  storming- 
parties  as  much  as  possible  from  the  fire  of  the 
enemy ;  they  spread  themselves  out  in  extended 
order,  to  keep  down  the  fire  of  the  garrison— aiming 
at  any  soldier  who  may  shew  his  head  above  the 
parapet,  and  seeking  to  disable  the  artillervmon  bv 
firmg  into  the  embrasures.  Many  assaults  are  made 
by  surprise  ;  and  in  that  case  the  storming  and  firing 
parties  order  all  their  preliminary  movements  as 
486 


quietly  as  possible.  In  most  cases,  there  i.s  a  neces- 
sity for  the  stormers  fo  descend  into  a  dry  ditch, 
and  to  ascend  from  the  ditch  to  a  breach  or  a  gate 
in  the  fortified  wall.  To  aid  in  this  duty,  'ladder- 
parties  '  arc  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  storming- 
parties;  these  men  have  previously  been  pnictise<l 
in  carrying  scaling-ladders,  descending  and  ascend- 
ing ditches,  and  adjusting  the  ladder.s.  In  some 
celebrated  sieges,  ladders  40  feet  Jong  have  been 
used,  where  the  ditch  was  deep  and  the  wall  or  bastion 
high;  but  it  is  seldom  that  a  storming-party  could 
venture  on  so  perilous  a  work,  for  the  men 
crowded  on  such  a  ladtler  would  endanger  each 
other.  The  'supports'  arc  troops  who  keep  a  little 
in  the  rear  of  the  storming  and  firing  parties; 
it  is  their  duty  to  advance  as  soon  as  the  first 
obstacle  has  been  overcome. 

ASSAY,  or  ASSA'YIXG,  is  the  process  employed 
in  determining  the  proportion  of  pure  metal  in  a 
metallic  ore  or  in  an  alloy.  This  method  of  analysis 
is  more  generally  followed  in  the  examination  of 
compounds  of  silver  and  gold,  but  is  likewise 
resorted  to  in  the  investigation  of  ores  of  iron, 
copper,  tin,  zinc,  bismuth,  antimony,  mercury,  and 
lead.  In  manufactured  articles,  also,  such  as  silver- 
I)latc  and  gold-plate,  some  foreign  metal  (generally 
copper)  is  present,  to  impart  hardness  to  the  metal ; 
and  in  Great  Britain,  each  article  is  assayed  at  the 
Goldsmiths'  Hall,  previously  to  being  sold,  so  as  to 
determine  the  exact  richness  of  the  metal  whereof 
it  is  made.  In  the  A.  of  compounds  containing 
silver,  the   apparatus   emyloycd  is  a  cujjcl — a  small 


Cupel. 

basin-shaped  vessel  of  the  form  and  size  of  the 
figure,  made  of  bone-ash  ;  and  a  niujffc,  composed  of 
fire-clay,  about  8  inches  in  length  and  3  to  4  inches  in 
diameter,    shaped   like   a  miniature   railway-tunnel, 


EiMi 


'^'■iiii;-; 


Muflle. 

open  at  the  one  end,  A,  closed  at  the  other  end,  B,  and 
having  numerous  slits  or  air-holes,  C,  along  the  side. 
The  more  simple  A.  of  silver  consists  in  the  exami- 
nation of  argentiferous  lead  ore.  By  a  preliminary 
process,  the  sulphur  is  separated  (see  Lead)  ;  and 
weighed  fragments  of  the  mixed  lead  and  silver 
being  placed  on  cupels,  the  latter  are  introduced 
into  the  muffle,  which  has  l)ecn  previously  heated  in 
a  furnace,  where  it  still  remains.  The  fire  is  then 
increased,  and  air  being  admitted  to  tlie  nniflle,  the 
oxygen  of  the  air  unites  with  the  lead,  forming  oxide 
of  lead  (PbO),  which  in  part  volatilises  through  the 
openings  in  tlic  side  of  the  muffle,  and  in  other  part 
sinks  into  the  ])orous  bone-earth  of  which  the  cupel 
is  made.  Whilst  the  lead  is  thus  carried  away,  the 
silver  remains  behind  as  a  molton  metallit'  globule, 
and  when  the  last  traces  of  lead-fumes  leave  the 
silver  bead,  the  latter  suddenly  lightens,  and  immedi- 
ately thereafter  becomes  brilliant  and  white.  On 
being  slowly  allowed  to  cool,  the  globule  of  silver 
may  be   weighed,  and   the   amount   of   pure   metal 


ASSAY. 


thus  determined.  The  use  of  the  cupel  during  this 
process  lias  led  to  the  terra  cupellatioii  being  em- 
ployed in  piace  of  A.  When  silver  contains  copper, 
which  it  does  in  ordinary  coinage  and  silver-plate,  it 
becomes  necessary  to  mix  load  with  the  alloy  before 
attempting  to  separate  the  copper.  The  manner  in 
which  the  lead  is  generally  added  is  to  roll  the 
alloy  of  silver  and  copper  in  a  piece  of  sheet-lead  or 
lead-foil,  and  place  the  whole  package  0!i  the  cupel. 
During  the  heating  in  the  muffle,  the  lead  oxidises 
as  usual,  and  in  part  passing  into  tlie  bone-earth  of 
the  cupel,  carries  the  copper  with  it.  The  amount 
of  lead  required  to  effect  the  separation  of  copper 
from  silver  in  this  way  is  given  in  the  following 
table : 

ct»    i„.i    rci„„. Amount  nf  Copper    Qimntitv  of  Lend   Quantity  of  Lead  in 

Standard  of  S'lver      ^,i„^  ,„  g,//      Necessary  for  One       Relation  to  that 

in  One  i- art.  ^^^^^  Part  of  Alloy.  of  Copper. 

1000  0  f*^           part. 

950  50  3           parts.  60  to  1 

900  100  V               „  70  „  1 

800  200  10               „  50  „  1 

TOO  300  12               „  40  „  1 

600  400  14              „  85  „  1 

500  600  16  to  17    „  32  „  1 

400  600  16  „  17    „  27  „  1 

300  700  16  „  17    „  23  „'  1 

200  800  16  ,,  17    „  20  ,,  1 

100  900  16  „  17    „  18  „  1 

Pure  copper.       1000  16  „  17    „  16  „  1 

The  metallurgic  chemist,  while  performing  an  A., 
can  determine,  by  the  examination  of  the  stains  on 
the  cupel  after  the  process  has  been  finished,  what 
metal  may  have  accompanied,  and  been  separated 
from,  the  silver,  even  in  minute  quantity.  Thus, 
lead  alone  imparts  a  straw-yellow  or  orange  stain ; 
copper,  a  gray  or  dark-brown  tint ;  and  iron,  a 
black  stain. 

During  the  A.  of  silver  by  the  foregoing  or  drij 
method,  a  certain  loss  of  metal  generally  occurs, 
which  averages  2  parts  in  1000 ;  and  this  circum- 
stance has  induced  the  authorities  in  the  mints 
of  Great  Britain,  France,  and  other  European 
kingdoms,  as  well  as  the  United  States,  to  adopt 
a  humid  process  for  the  A.  of  silver,  which  will 
determine  the  value  of  a  silver  alloy  to  within  0*5 
(or  half  a  part)  in  1000.  The  humid  or  wet  A. 
consists  in  dissolving  the  compound  of  silver  in 
nitric  acid  of  density  r25,  and  thereafter  adding 
a  solution  of  common  salt  (chloride  of  sodium  NaCl), 
which  causes  the  precipitation  of  the  chloride  of 
silver  (AgCi)  in  white  flocculi.  The  common  salt  is 
made  of  a  definite  strength,  and  is  poured  out  of  a 
measured  or  graduated  vessel,  till  all  further  pre- 
cipitation of  the  silver  ceases,  when  the  amount 
required  of  the  solution  of  common  salt  is  read  off, 
and  by  a  simple  calculation  its  equivalent  in  pure 
silver  is  obtained. 

The  A.  of  gold  ores  is  conducted  in  a  manner 
similar  to  that  of  silver.  When  the  ore  contains 
gold,  lead,  and  copper  only,  it  suffices  to  mix  more 
lead  with  it,  and  heat  in  the  cupel  in  the  muffle 
furnace,  when  the  lead  and  copper  sink  into  the 
cupel,  and  the  gold  forms  a  globule  on  the  upper 
surface.  The  proportion  of  lead  required  is  regulated 
by  the  amount  of  copper  present  in  the  alloy. 

Proportion  of  GolQ  contained  in  One        «"«"';'>'  f  Lead  necessary  to 
Part  of  the  Alloy.  completely  remove  the  Cop- 

•^  per  by  Cupellation. 

1  part. 


1000  thousands 

1 

900 

10 

800 

16 

700 

22 

600 

24 

500 

26 

400      and  under. 

34 

When  the  gold  is  accompanied  by  silver  as  well 
as  copper,  iron,  and  lead,  it  is  necessary  in  the  first 
place  to  subject  the  alloy  to  the  A.  process  in  the 
ordinary  way,  which  gets  rid  of  the  copper,  iron, 
and  lead,  but  leaves  the  silver  still  incorporated  with 
the  gold.  The  weight  of  this  residual  bottom  gives 
the  combined  weights  of  the  silver  and  gold  present 
in  the  alloy.  Thp  method  of  separating  the  silver 
from  the  gold  is  called  parting,  and  consists  essen- 
tiall}'  in  acting  on  the  alloy  with  hot  nitric  acid, 
which  dissolves  away  the  silver,  forming  the  soluble 
nitrate  of  silver  (AgONOj),  and  leaves  the  gold 
undissolved.  When  the  silver  is  present  in  small  pro- 
portion, the  gold  assumes  a  protective  influence,  and 
keeps  the  nitric  acid  from  acting  on  the  silver;  and 
to  effect  this  separation  satisfactorily,  it  is  necessary 
that  there  should  be  about  three  parts  of  silver  to 
one  of  gold.  As  that  proportion  does  not  occur 
naturally,  or  in  any  kind  of  manufactured  gold  plate, 
it  is  recpiisite  to  incorporate  some  silver  with  it. 
This  is  generally  accomplished  by  taking  the  proper 
quantities  of  gold  and  silver,  wrapping  them  up  in  a 
piece  of  lead-foil,  and  heating  on  a  cupel.  The  lead, 
during  its  disappearance  from  the  heating  vessel, 
causes  the  most  intimate  amalgamation  of  the  silver 
and  gold,  which  are  left  on  the  cupel  as  a  metallic 
button.  The  latter,  on  being  allowed  to  cool,  is 
beaten  out  on  an  anvil  with  a  smooth  hammer,  and 
is  then  passed,  through  steel  rollers,  which  yield  a 
ribbon  of  alloy  about  the  thickness  of  an  enamelled 
address-card.  The  ribbon  of  metal  being  coiled  up, 
is  technically  called  a  cornet,  and  when  introduced 
into  the  flask  with  nitric  acid,  the  entire  solution 
of  the  silver  is  accomplished,  whilst  the  go'd  is  left 
as  a  brown-coloured  spongy  mass,  of  the  shape  and 
size  of  the  cornet.  To  give  the  metal  the  appearance 
and  compactness  of  ordinary  gold,  the  very  friable 
metallic  ribbon  is  gently  transferred  from  the  parting 
glass  to  a  crucible  by  inverting  the  former  into  the 
latter ;  and  the  liquid  which  runs  in  with  the  gold 
being  poured  off,  the  crucible  and  its  contents  are 
raised  to  a  red  heat  in  a  furnace,  when  the  gold 
recovers  its  beautiful  yellow  colour  and  metallic 
lustre,  and  at  the  same  time  becomes  soft  and 
flexible.  The  gold  is  now  pm-e,  and  in  a  fit  condi- 
tion to  be  weighed,  and  the  amount  obtained  indi- 
cates the  propottion  of  pure  gold  in  the  original 
alloy.  As  the  quantity  of  silver  which  is  required 
to  be  present  during  this  process,  in  order  that  the 
parting  by  nitric  acid  may  readily  take  place,  is 
three  parts  of  silver  to  one  of  gold,  it  is  customary 
to  call  this  department  of  a  gold  A.  quartation  or 
inquartation . 

During  the  A.  of  silver  or  of  gold,  it  is  necessary 
to  guard  against  any  sudden  increase  or  decrease  in 
temperature.  Independently  of  the  probable  loss  of 
metal  through  the  i'racture  of  the  cupels,  it  is  found 
that  when  the  final  buttons  of  pure  metal  are 
obtained  on  the  red  hot  cupel,  if  great  care  be  not 
taken  to  cool  the  whole  very  slowly,  the  bead  of  gold 
or  silver  spits,  and  little  portions  are  thrown  off. 

The  mode  of  assaying  gold  now  described  can- 
not always  be  followed  out  in  the  examination 
of  jewellery  and  other  manufactured  articles,  as, 
though  only  a  few  grains  are  required  for  the  A., 
yet  the  removal  of  such  might  entail  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  article,  and  in  such  circumstances  tl>e 
touchstone  is  resorted  to.  This  stone  was  origi- 
nally brought  from  Lydia  in  Asia  Minor,  and  con- 
sisted of  a  coarse-grained  quartz  saturated  with 
bituminous  matter,  but  black  basalt  and  other  stones 
are  now  employed  for  the  same  purpose.  The 
manner  of  using  the  stone  is  to  draw  a  streak 
upon  it  with  the  auriferous  article  ;  and  from  the 
colour  of  the  streak  the  richness  of  the  gold  can 
be   very   accurately   determined    by   the   practised 

487 


ASSAYE— ASSEMBLY. 


assavur.  The  subsequentaction  of  uitric  acid  on  the 
golden  streak  serves  still  further  as  a  means  of 
determining  the  purity  of  the  metal,  as  the  acid 
readily  dissolves  the  copper  and  silver,  and  leaves 
the  gold. 

ASSA'YE,  a  village  in  the  territory  of  the  Nizam, 
lat.  20"  18'  X.,  and  long.  15"  55'  E.  It  stands  in 
the  doab,  or  fork,  of  the  Juah  and  Kaitiia.  A. 
chiims  notice  chiefly  as  the  scene  of  the  first  great 
victory  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  then  Major- 
general  WeUesley,  won  on  the  23d  September  1803. 
The  British  troops  in  action  were  only  about  4500, 
while  the  Mahrattas  under  Scindia  and  the  rajah 
of  Berar  numbered  60,000,  of  whom  10,000  were 
commanded  by  French  officers.  98  pieces  of 
cannon,  7  standards,  all  the  baggage,  and  a  large 
part  of  the  ammunition  of  the  Mahrattas  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  conquerors,  who.se  military  supremacy 
was  soon  acknowledged  over  a  great  portion  of  India. 
In  iS51  a  medal  was  struck  in  comniemoratiou  of  the 
victory. 

ASSEERGHTJ'E,  a  fort   situated  on   an   isolated 
monnt.iin  at  the  north-east  angle  of  the  presidency 
of  Bombay,  in  lat.  21°  2G'  N.,  and  long.  70"  2C)'  E. 
Its   elevation   above  the   base   of  the  mountain  is 
estimated   at  750   feet.      Its   extreme   length   and 
breadth  are  respectively  1100  and  CoO  yards;  from 
the  irregularity,  however,  of  the  outline,  the  area  is 
computed  at  not  more  than  300,000  square  yards,  or 
somewhat  less  than  -j^Lth  of  a  square  mile.     With 
the    exception   of  two  avenues  of  ascent,  both  of 
them   difficult  and  strongly    fortified,  the   space   is  j 
everywhere  terminated  by  a  carefully  scarped  pre-  j 
cipice,  varying  in  height  from  80  to  100  feet.     This  1 
formidable  fastness  has   been  twice   taken   by  the  j 
British— first  in  1803,  and  finally  in  1819. 

ASSE'MBLY  (asxembUe),  in   the   conduct   of  an  ' 
army,  is  the  second  beating  of  the  drum  before  a 
march,  at  which  the  soldiers  strike  their  tents  if  en- 1 
camped,  roll  them  up,  and  stand  to  arms,  j 

ASSE'MBLY,    GENERAL,  in   Scotland,    Ireland,  | 
and   the  United  States,  denotes   the   highest  court  ' 
of  the  Presbyterian  Church.     It    differs   from   the  j 
Anglican    Convocation   at  once   in  its  constitution 
and  in  its  powers,  representing  as  it  does  both  the  I 
lay  and  the  clerical  elements  in   the  church,    and  I 
possessing  supreme  legislative-  and  judicial  authority 
in  all  matters  purely  ecclesiastical.     The  General  A. 
of    the   Established   Church    of    Scotland   consists ' 
of  representatives,    clerical   and   lay,  from   all   the  ; 
presbyteries  of  the  church.     The  royal  burghs  of] 
Scotland  also  return    ciders    to   the    general  A.  of! 
the  Established  Church,  and  each    of   the  Scottish  I 
universities  sends  a  representative.     The  Assembly 
meets  once  a  year  in  the  middle  of  May,  at  Edin- 
burgh, and  sits  for  ten  days.     Its  deliberations  are 
presided  over  by  a  Moderator,  whose  election  is  the 
first  step  in  the  proceedings,  after  a  sermon  by  his 
predecessor.     In  former  times,  this  office  was  some- 
times filled  by  laymen:  among  others,  in  15(j7,  by 
George  Buchanan.     In  modern  times,  the  moderator 
is  always  a  clergyman.     84  presbyteries,  composing 
10  synods,  return  members  to  the  General  A.  of  the 
Established  Church  of  Scotland.     Its  relation  to  the 
state  is  represented  by  a  royal  commissioner,  who 
exercises  no  function  in  the  A.  beyond  that  of  adding 
by  his  presence  the  sanction  of  the  civil  authority 
to  its  proceedings.     The  other  functionaries  are   a 
principal  and   a    deputy   clerk,   both    clergymen,   a 
procurator,  and  an  agent.     All   business  "not   des- 
patched during  the   session  of  the  A.   is  referred 
to  a  commission,  with  the  moderator  as  convener, 
which  meets  immediately  after  the  dissolution  of  the 
A.,  and  again  quarterly.     The  General  A.   of  the 
Free    Church   of    Scotland,   which   has   16   synods 
488 


comprising  71  presbyteries,  and  of  the  Irish  I'resby- 
terian  Church,  are  similarly  constituted,  the  princijul 
point  of  difference  being  the  absence  of  the  royal 
commissioner.  See  Presiivtkuy,  Synod,  Bauuiek, 
Act,  &c. 

ASSEMBLY,  Na'tional  (France).  The  States- 
general  (q.  v.),  convoked  by  Louis  XVI.  of  P'rance, 
and  opened  May  5,  1789,  consisted  of  the  two  privi- 
leged orders,  clergy  and  nobles,  and  of  the  tiers  6tnt 
or  commons.  The  privileged  orders  refusing  to  join 
the  third  estate  and  deliberate  in  a  common  chamber, 
the  latter,  of  its  own  authoiity,  June  17,  assumed 
the  title  of  As.teviblre  Xatiomile,  and  the  right  to  act 
in  the  name  of  France.  The  court  aitempteil  to  annul 
this  resolution  in  a  royal  sitting,  June  23 ;  but  the 
deputies  of  the  third  estate,  along  with  the  liberal 
members  of  the  other  two  orders,  liad  bound  them- 
selves by  oath  not  to  separate  until  they  had  given 
France  a  constitution,  and  had  declared  every 
attempt  at  violence  on  the  part  of  the  court,  treason. 
They  refused  to  quit  the  common  hall,  and  the  court 
yielded  and  commanded  the  nobles  and  clergy  to 
join  the  National  A.  This  was  the  i)eginning  of  the 
revolution,  and  the  A.  proceeded  with  asiounding 
rapidity  to  metamorphose  old  France.  The  aboli- 
tion of  all  privileges  on  the  4th  August  was 
followed  by  that  of  hereditary  jurisdiction,  and 
of  restraints  on  religion  and  the  jiress,  and  by  the 
declaration  of  the  Rights  of  Man  (q.  v.).  In  February 
1790,  the  monastic  orders  were  suppressed,  and  all 
remnants  of  feudalism  swept  away  ;  in  March, 
letlres  de  cachet  and  the  oppressive  .-all -tax  were 
abolished;  in  June,  all  orders  and  titles  of  nol)ility. 
In  July,  non-catholics  had  the  property  confiscated 
from  their  ancestors  restored;  Jews  were  relieved 
from  personal  taxation  ;  and  game-laws  done  away. 
A  decree  of  October  18  abolished  tlie  cruel  criminal 
penalties  of  Louis  XIV.  In  January  1791  all  cor- 
porations and  guilds  were  abolished,  and  free-trade 
introduced.  In  February,  political  rights  were  con- 
ceded to  Quakers;  in  May,  the  customs  at  city  gates 
were  abolished;  in  June,  the  torture;  the  violation 
of  the  secresy  of  letters  wa>^  also  declared  criminal. 
In  September,  all  citizens,  of  whatever  colour  or 
religion,  received  political  rights. 

The  principles  on  which  the  Assem})ly  proceeded 
were  the  sovereignty  of  the  people,  the  independence 
of  the  communes,  the  limitation  of  the  royal  power 
through  a  conditional  Veto  (((.  v.),  the  separation  of 
the  poUtical  authorities,  and  the  responsibility  of 
ministers.  Accordingly,  the  A.,  shortly  after  it  was 
constituted,  declared  that  to  it  alone,  subject  to  the 
royal  veto,  belonged  the  legislative  power.  Several 
decrees,  in  September  1789,  determined  that  the 
legislative  body  should  form  only  one  chanii)er,  and 
should  be  renewed  every  two  years ;  other  decrees 
declared  the  king  inviolable,  and  the  throne  inalien- 
able. A  decree  of  7th  November  forbade  the  deputies 
to  undertake  the  place  of  ministers ;  in  December, 
the  new  organisation  of  the  communes  was  begun. 
January  1790,  France  was  divided  into  departments; 
in  April,  trial  by  jury  was  introduced  ;  in  May,  it 
was  declared  that  the  right  of  war  and  peace  belonged 
to  the  nation  alone,  that  is,  to  the  A. 

In  regard  to  finance,  which  had  been  the  imme- 
diate cause  of  the  Assembly's  being  convoked,  the 
reforms  were  equally  thorough.  It  was  decreed  at 
the  outset  that  taxes  were  to  be  apportioned  and 
raised  without  regard  to  rank  or  person.  Then 
followed  the  approval  of  a  loan  of  80  millions  of  francs. 
A  decree  of  November  1789  ordered  the  publication 
of  the  public  accounts  ;  another  in  December  estab- 
lished a  national  bank.  In  March  1790  appeared 
the  first  law  sanctioning  the  sale  of  40o  millions 
worth  of  the  national  domains  ;  and  in  April, 
another  ordering  the  issue  of  assignats  (q.  r.j  on  the 


ASSEMBLY  OF  DIVINES— ASSER. 


national  property  ;  in  October,  these  assignats  were 
declared  to  bear  no  interest.  These  measures  were 
followed  in  the  beginning  of  1791,  by  a  series  of  laws 
regarding  coining,  taxation,  encouragement  to  indus- 
try, revenue-management,  &c.  A  committee  of  the 
A.  appointed  to  reform  church  matters,  made  a 
complete  overturn  of  the  old  ecclesiastical  system. 
After  a  declai'ation  that  Catholicism  had  ceased  to  be 
the  state  religion,  tithes  were  abolished,  and  church 
property  confiscated.  Church  ornaments  and  valu- 
ables were  appropriated  as  patriotic  gifts  to  the 
state  ;  the  civil  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops  was  taken 
away,  and  monks  and  nuns  were  freed  from  their 
vows.  The  clergy  were  put  under  a  civil  constitu- 
tion. Each  department  was  a  see,  and  the  com- 
munes ruled  and  paid  bishop  and  cures.  All  the 
clergy  were  amenable  to  the  civil  courts,  without 
appeal  to  the  pope  or  the  interference  of  any  ecclesi- 
astical authority  whatever.  Every  clergyman  had 
to  take  an  oath  accepting  this  constitution,  which 
led  to  the  emigration  of  a  number,  and  subsequently 
to  enactments  of  excessive  rigour  against  refractory 
priests  (pretres  insermcntis). 

The  A.  having  thus  laid  the  revolution  on  a 
foundation  of  3250  decrees,  and  having  sworn  to 
the  new  constitution,  and  got  it  accepted  by  the 
king,  closed  its  sittings,  September  3<>,  1791.  From 
its  having  framed  the  constitution  (which  lasted  only 
12  months),  this  assembly  is  usually  called  the 
Constituent  A.  It  made  way  for  the  Legislative 
Assembly,  which  was  to  reform  the  civil  and  criminal 
laws  in  accordance  with  the  spirit  of  the  new  consti- 
tution. A  decree  had  provided  that  no  member  of 
the  Constituent  should  be  returned  to  the  Legislative 
A.  But  the  democratic  party  received  such  pre- 
ponderance at  the  elections,  that  the  A.  forgot  its 
mission  from  the  very  first,  and  commenced  a  war 
with  the  remnants  of  the  royal  authority,  which 
ended,  August  10,  1792,  with  the  overthrow  of  the 
throne  and  the  suspension  of  the  king.  The  constitu- 
tion had  provided  for  an  appeal  to  the  nation  in  ex- 
treme cases,  and  the  Legislative  A.  now  exercised 
that  right  by  convoking  a  National  Convention  (q.  v.), 
which,  being  invested  with  the  powers  of  the  sover- 
eign, was  to  decide  on  the  fate  of  the  monarchy,  and 
remodel  the  whole  political  system. 

The  title  of  National  A.  has  been  assumed  by 
various  other  parliamentary  bodies,  originating  in 
popular  commotions,  and  aiming  at  radical  political 
changes;  as  the  French  A.  that  met  after  the  revo- 
lution of  February  1848,  and  organised  the  republic, 
and  which  was  likewise  followed,  April  1849,  by  a 
Legislative  A.  (see  France);  the  German  National 
A.  at  Frankfort  (see  Germany);  and  the  Prussian 
National  A. 

ASSEMBLY  OF  DIVI'NES,  or  WESTMIN- 
STER ASSE'MBLY,  a  celebrated  convocation 
appointed  by  the  Long  Parliament  for  settling  the 
doctrine,  liturgy,  and  government  of  the  Church  of 
England.  It  consisted  of  121  clergymen  and  30  lay- 
men— 10  of  whom  were  lords  and  20  commoners — 
together  with  4  clerical  and  2  lay  commissioners 
from  the  Church  of  Scotland.  Among  the  more 
distinguished  of  the  divines  were  L'sher,  Saunder- 
son,  Reynolds,  Brownrigg,  Ward,  Twissc,  Lightfoot, 
Gataker,  Burges,  Goodwin,  Calamy,  and  Nye ;  of 
the  laymen,  Selden,  Prideaux,  the  two  Yanes,  Rouse, 
Pym,  Whitelocke,  St.  John,  and  Maynard.  The 
Scottish  divines  were  Henderson,  Gillespie,  Ruther- 
ford, and  Baillie.  25  of  those  whose  names  were 
contained  in  the  ordinance  calling  the  Assembly, 
which  was  dated  12th  June  1643,  never  appeared 
at  the  discussions,  one  or  two  of  them  having  died 
about  the  time  of  the  first  meeting,  and  the  others 
fearing  the  displeasure  of  the  king.  To  supply 
the  place  of  these  absentees,  21  additional  members. 


called  the  superadded  divines,  were  summoned 
to  attend.  This  notable  Assembly  held  its  first 
meeting  on  the  first  of  July  1643,  and  continued 
to  sit  till  the  22d  February  1649,  during  which 
time  it  had  met  1163  times.  Its  most  impor- 
tant work  was  concluded  long  before  that  time. 
One  of  the  first  things  it  did  was  to  give  its  sanc- 
tion to  the  Solcniu  League  and  Covenant,  against 
which  Dr.  Burges  alone  stood  out  for  several  days. 
The  Presbyterians  formed  a  large  majoiity  in  the 
Assembly,  and  exercised  a  corresponding  influence 
on  its  decisions.  In  doctrine,  the  members  were 
almost  unanimous;  but  on  the  subject  of  church 
government,  opinions  extremely  opposite  were  main- 
tained with  keenness,  especially  on  the  question 
touching  the  sphere  and  limits  of  the  civil  power 
in  matters  ecclesiastical.  The  principal  fruits  of  its 
deliberations  were  the  Directory  of  PuUic  Worship, 
submitted  to  parliament  April  20,  1644;  the  Co?i- 
fcssion  of  Faith,  October  and  November  1646;  the 
Shorter  Catechism,  November  6,  1647 ;  and  the 
Larger  Catechism,  September  15,  1648.  These  seve- 
ral formulaiies,  which  contain  a  clear  and  rigid 
c  mbodiment  of  Calvinistic  theology  and  Presbyterian 
church  government,  constitute  to  this  day  the  autho- 
rised standands  of  the  Presbyterian  churches  of 
Scotland,  Ireland,  and  England.  The  Directory  of 
Public  Worship  was  ratified  by  both  Houses  of  par- 
liament, October  2,  1644,  and  the  doctiinal  part  of 
the  Confession  of  Faith  in  March  1648.  An  order 
of  the  House  of  Commons,  October  13, 1647,  ordained 
that  the  Presbyterian  form  of  church  government 
should  be  tried  for  a  year,  but  no  further  legislation 
followed.  What  has  hitherto  been  know  as  to  the 
details  of  the  proceedings  of  this  remarkable  convo- 
cation, has  been  derived  chiefly  from  the  Letters 
of  Baillie,  and  Lightfoot's  Jotirnal,  no  complete 
account  being  known  to  exist ;  but  the  minutes  of 
its  meetings,  or  great  part  of  them,  are  reported 
to  have  been  discovered  quite  recently.  See 
Hetherington's  History  of  the  Westminster  Assembly 
(1843). 

ASSE'NT,  RO'YAL,  is  the  regal  act  by  which  the 
sanction  of  the  crown  to  bills  which  have  passed 
through  both  Houses  of  parliament  is  given.  See 
Royal  Assent. 

ASSER,  John,  the  learned  and  congenial  bio- 
grapher of  Alfred,  was  a  monk  of  St.  Davids,  from 
the  Latin  name  of  which,  Menevia,  he  is  termed 
in  the  old  records  Asscrius  Menevcnsis.  About 
the  year  880,  his  reputation  for  learning  and  piety 
procured  him  an  invitation  to  the  court  of  Alfred, 
where  he  resided  at  intervals  during  the  rest  of  the 
king's  life,  assisting  him  in  his  studies,  and  enjoying 
an  alfectionate  confidence,  of  which  he  seems  to  have 
been  every  way  worthy.  The  king  promoted  him  to 
various  dignities,  and  finally  nuide  him  Bishop  of 
Slierburn.  The  Saxon  Chronicle  fixes  the  di,te  of  his 
death  to  the  year  910.  Several  works  have,  with 
more  or  less  authority,  been  attributed  to  A.  The 
only  one  undoubtedly  his,  by  which  we  can  now 
judge  of  him  as  a  man  and  a  writer,  is  his  Annates 
Rerum  Gestarum  Aelfredi  Magni.  This  simple  and 
most  interesting  narrative  was  first  published  in  1574 
by  Archbishop  Parker.  Its  trustworthiness  has 
recently  (1842)  been  questioned  by  Mr.  Thomas 
Wright,  in  the  article  'Asser'  of  his  Biographia 
Britannica  Litteraria.  This  gentleman  has  assuredly 
made  the  most  of  the  objections  to  its  reliability  that 
can  be  legitimately  urged.  Lingard  and  Dr.  Pauli 
have  replied  to  these,  and,  at  present,  the  general 
impression  of  scholars  of  Anglo-Saxon  literature  is 
that  there  is  no  good  reason  for  doubting  its  general 
accuracy  and  fidelity.  The  best  edition  is  that  of 
Wise  (Oxf.  Svo.  1722). 

489 


ASSES— ASSIGNATION. 


ASSES,  Feast  of.     See  Fools,  Feast  of. 

ASSE'SSED  TAXES.  These  are  duties  assessed 
and  charged  upon  the  people,  under  the  autliority 
of  numerous  acts  of  pariiament,  beginning  with 
the  43  Geo.  III.  c.  99.  The  duties  now  comprised 
under  this  branch  of  taxation  are  those  on  inhabited 
houses,  male-servants,  carriages,  liorses,  and  mules, 
dogs,  horse-dealers,  hair-powder,  armorial  bearings, 
and  game.  The  duty  on  inhabited  houses  was  sub- 
stituted, bv  the  14  and  15  Vict.  c.  30,  for  a  former 
tax  on  windows.  The  A.  T.  are  under  the  manage- 
ment of  the  Commissioners  of  Inland  Revenue. 
See  Taxes. 

ASSESSORS  may  be  defined  as  persons  who  are 
sometimes  associated  with  judicial  functionaries,  to 
assist  in  the  argument  and  procedure  before  them, 
and  to  advise  their  judgments.  They  are  called 
A.,  because,  according  to  the  Latin  derivation  and 
literal  meaning  of  the  word,  they  sit  side  bji  s«</cwith 
others.  They  may  be  usefully  employed  by  per- 
sons in  judicial  stations  whose  previous  education 
and  pursuits  scarcely  qualify  them  for  the  duties 
cast  upon  them.  A.  are  usually  barristers  or  advo- 
cates learned  in  the  law,  and  familiar  with  judicial 
proceedings.  By  the  .5  and  0  William  IV.  c.  70, 
commonly  called  the  Munici[)al  Corporation  Act,  it 
is,  by  section  37,  enacted  that  the  Inirgcsses  shall 
annually  elect  from  among  those  qualified  to  be  coun- 
sellors, two  auditors  and  two  A.,  the  former  to  audit 
the  accounts  of  the  burgh,  and  the  latter  to  revise 
the  burgess  list.  In  the  ecclesiastical  law  of  England, 
a  bishop,  who  is  a  spiritual  judge,  is  assisted  by  his 
chancellor,  as  the  episcopal  assessor,  and  who,  in 
fact,  holds  courts  for  the  bishop.  Rut  in  the  case  of 
a  complaint  against  a  clergyman  for  any  ecclesias- 
tical offence  under  the  Church  Discipline  Act  (the  3 
and  4  Vict.  c.  86),  the  bishop  is  directed  to  inquire 
into  the  matter,  assisted  by  three  A.,  of  whom  the 
dean  of  his  cathedral,  or  one  of  his  archdeacons,  or 
his  chancellor,  must  be  one,  and  a  Serjeant  at  law,  or 
an  advocate  who  has  practised  five  years  in  the  court 
of  the  archbishop  of  the  province,  or  a  barrister  of 
seven  years'  standing,  another. 

The  judges  of  the  common  law  courts,  and  the 
Queen's  counsel,  being  Serjeants,  are,  as  a  condition 
of  their  offices,  A.  of  the  House  of  Lords,  advising 
the  House  on  points  of  law  which  maybe  propounded 
to  them  by  their  lordships. 

A'SSETS.  This  is  one  of  those  terms  in  the  law 
of  England  which  in  itself  bears  evidence  of  a 
Norman  origin.  It  is  derived  from  the  French  word 
asutz^  or  more  exactly,  in  Xorman-French,  asxctz, 
'  enough  '  or  '  sufficient,'  signifying  the  property  of  a 
deceased  person,  which  is  suflficient  in  the  hands  of 
his  executor  and  heir  for  the  payment  of  his  debts 
and  legacies.  In  strictness,  therefore,  the  term  is  not 
applicable  to  the  property  of  a  person  who  dies 
intestate,  and  without  any  debts  to  be  paid.  In 
general  acceptation,  however,  it  is  understood  to 
mean  the  property  left  for  distribution  by  a  deceased 
person,  whether  testate  or  intestate  ;  and  in  com- 
merce, and  also  in  bankruptcy  and  insolvency,  the 
term  is  used  to  designate  the  stock  in  trade  and 
entire  property  of  all  sorts  belonging  to  a  merchant 
or  to  a  trading  association. 

A.  are  either  personal  or  real,  the  former  compre- 
hending such  goods,  chattels,  and  debts  as  devolve 
on  the  executor ;  and  the  latter  including  all  real 
estate,  whether  devised  or  descending  to  the  heir  at 
law.  In  connection  with  this  distinction,  A.  are  also 
said  to  be  A.  by  descent,  and  A.  in  hand,  the  former 
of  these  being  recoverable  from  the  heir  to  whom 
the  land  descends,  and  so  far  as  such  lands  will 
extend — A.  in  hand,  again,  signifying  such  property 
as  a  person  leaves  to  his  executors  sufficient  for  the 
490 


clearing  of  burdens  and  bequests  afl'ecting  liis  per- 
sonal estate.  A.  are  also  in  their  nature  either  hijal 
or  C(]idtablc,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  remedy 
which  may  be  used  by  creditors  against  the  executor 
or  heir.  Where  there  are  several  creditors  of  C(|ual 
degree,  the  executor  is  bound  to  pay  him  who  first 
obtains  judgment  for  his  debt;  and  he  cannot  resist 
on  the  ground  that  nothing  will  be  left  for  the  other 
creditors.  If,  after  exhausting  the  whole  A.  which  • 
have  come  to  hifi  hands,  by  the  payment  of  dfbts  in 
due  order,  he  bo  afterwards  sued  by  a  creditor 
remaining  unpaid,  he  is  eiititle<l  to  protect  liimself 
by  an  allegation  that  he  has  fully  administered,  or 
technically  by  a  plea  of  pfene  adminixtrarit ;  and 
upon  this  plea  the  creditor  is  entitled  to  judgment 
that  he  shall  be  paid  out  of  any  other  A.  that  shall 
come  to  the  defendants,  which  is  called  a  judgment 
of  A.  infu/uro. 

A.  is  not  a  technical  term  in  Scotland,  but  it  is 
nevertheless  much  used  in  the  legal  business  of  that 
country. 

ASSI'DIANS.  Sec  Chasidim. 
ASSIE'NTO,  i.  c.,  treaty,  a  word  specially  applied 
to  a  compact  between  Spain  and  some  foreign 
nation,  according  to  which  the  Spanish  government 
conferred  upon  the  latter,  under  certain  conditions, 
the  monopoly  of  the  supply  of  negroes  for  its 
American  colonies.  It  was  Charles  I.  of  Spain 
who  first  concluded  an  A.  with  the  Flemings. 
Next,  a  similar  compact  was  entered  into  with  the 
Genoese  (l.'iSo  a.d.),  the  l'ortugin>se  (lt')9f>),  and  on 
the  accession  of  riiilij)  V.  to  the  Spanish  throne  in 
1702,  with  the  French  (Juinea  Company,  which  from 
that  time  took  the  name  of  A.  Company,  upon  the 
understanding  that  for  ten  years  it  should  have  the 
exclusive  right  of  annually  importing  4S(iO  negroes 
of  both  sexes  to  the  continent  and  islands  of  Spanish 
America.  The  A.  was  next  transferred  to  England 
at  the  peace  of  L'trecht  in  17  IM,  and  made  over  by 
government  to  the  South  Sea  Company  for  30  years, 
permission  being  also  granted  to  the  company  to 
send  yearly,  during  the  term  of  contract,  a  ship, 
carrying  .5(io  torn  of  goods,  to  these  Spanish  colonies. 
The  misunderstandings  that  grew  out  of  this  last 
clause  contributed  not  a  little  to  the  war  that  broke 
out  between  the  two  nations  in  1739.  At  the  peace  of 
Aix-la-chapelle  in  1748,  the  English  company  having 
still  four  years  to  run,  their  rights  were  guaranteed 
to  them;  but  they  relin(iuished  them  at  the  Madrid 
Convention  of  n.")'*,  upon  the  payment  of  £liiO,000, 
and  the  concession  of  certain  commercial  advantages. 
ASSI'GX,  To,  in  Law,  signifies  to  transfer  or  grant 
over  to  a  third  party  a  security,  a  right  of  credit,  or 
other  right,  whether  in  possession  or  in  reversion, 
granted  by  a  party  indebted  or  under  obligation  to 
the  party  assigning.  The  words  of  assignment  are 
to  A.,  traiisftr,  and  set  over,  and  they  operate  to 
transfer  both  real  and  personal  property.  Ar/ioseen 
action  (q.  v.),  contrary  to  the  ancient  principle,  can 
now  be  assigned  in  England  indirectly  by  the  com- 
mon law,  and"  directly  according  to  the  recognised 
principles  of  the  courts  of  equity.  Besides  this 
general  application  of  the  word,  as  a  technical  term 
in  conveyancing,  both  in  England  and  Scotland,  it  is 
also  employed  in  England,  in  judicial  procedure, 
where  the  decision  of  an  inferior  court  is  brought 
under  review,  and  in  proceedings  in  bankruptcy. 
See  Assignment,  Assignation,  Assignment  of 
Error,  Bankrcptct. 

ASSIGXA'TIOX  is  a  legal  term  in  Scotch  con- 
veyancing, analogous  to  the  English  word  Assign- 
ment (q.  v.),  by  means  of  wdiich  the  holder  of  any  right, 
or  the  creditor  in  any  obligation,  or  the  proprietor 
of  any  subject  not  properly  feudal  (sec  FErnAL 
System),  transfers  his   right   or  estate   to   a  third 


ASSIGNATION— ASSIGXATS. 


party.  The  party  making  the  A.  is  called  the  cedent, 
and  the  party  in  whose  favour  the  A.  is  made  is 
called  the  assignee  or  cessionary,  and  the  act  of 
assignment  thus  made  is  irrevocable,  an  element  in 
the  deed  which  has  been  traced  to  the  practice  of 
the  French  law,  a  source  from  which  the  Scotch 
lawyers  of  the  16th  c.  borrowed  so  much — the  Court 
of  Session  itself  being  a  mere  copy  of  the  Parliament 
of  Paris.  A  direct  conveyance  of  a  debt  in  France 
was  termed  un  transport ;  the  grauter,  cedant ;  and  the 
grantee,  cessionnaire ;  and  these  terms,  derived  from 
a  Latin  origin,  were  introduced  into  the  Scotch  law  ; 
and  hence  the  names  of  the  parties  to  an  A.,  as  we 
have  stated.  Unlike  the  English  common-law  view 
of  the  assignment,  the  Scotch  A.  has  the  effect  of 
investing  the  assignee  with  the  whole  right  which 
was  in  the  cedent,  although,  according  to  the  ancient 
practice,  the  A.  gave,  not  simply  the  sum  or  subject 
assigned,  but  also  the  deed  or  written  evidence  of 
the  right  or  thing  assigned,  a  form  arising  from  the 
circumstance  of  the  instrument  having  been  regarded 
as  of  the  nature  of  a  mandate  or  power  of  attorney 
to  the  assignee  to  make  his  claim  and  to  act  as  in 
right  of  the  cedent.  In  modern  practice,  however, 
it  is  usual  to  employ  simply  the  terms  '  assign, 
convey,  and  make  over,'  which  correspond  with  the 
real  character  of  the  deed.  In  order,  however,  to 
complete  the  A.,  it  must  be  intimated  to  the  common 
debtor — that  is,  the  party  originally  indebted  to  the 
cedent — and  so  essential  is  this  intimation,  that  in 
the  case  of  competing  claims  against  the  right 
interest  or  estate  assigned,  the  A.  first  intimated 
will  be  preferred  to  one  prior  in  date,  but  posterior 
in  the  date  of  intimation.  Such  intimation  ought  to 
be  made  by  a  Notary  Public  (q.  v.),  but  other  formal 


notice  of  the  A.  is  sometimes  admitted.  But  there 
are  certain  assignations  which  require  no  intima- 
tion, such  as  the  endorsement  of  bills  of  exchange, 
adjudication  (q.  v.),  which  is  a  judicial  A.,  and 
marriage,  which  is  a  legal  A.  ;  and  the  same  is  the 
rule  with  regard  to  all  right  and  estate  assigned  under 
the  operation  of  the  bankruptcy  laws.  In  Scotch 
agricultural  leases,  assignees  are  generally  excluded 
expressly. 

But  although  A.  is  the  strict  Scotch  term  for 
assignment,  the  latter  is  in  Scotland  the  technical 
term  for  the  transference  of  certain  property,  such 
as  property  in  copyrights,  patents,  and  registered 
vessels. 

A'SSIGNATS.  After  appropriating  to  national 
purposes  the  land  belonging  to  the  church,  the  French 
National  Assembly  (see  Assembly,  National), 
instead  of  bringing  it  into  the  market  at  a  time 
of  insecurity,  when  its  value  was  depreciated, 
issued  bonds  on  the  security  of  it,  which  were  called 
assic/'iiats,  as  representing  land  assigned  to  the 
holder.  This  paper  money  consisted  chiefly  of 
notes  for  100  francs  (£4)  each,  though  many  of 
them  were  for  sums  as  low  as  ten  or  five  francs, 
and  even  lower ;  and  the  first  issue  amounted 
to  400  million  francs.  The  first  A.,  which  were 
issued  in  the  spring  of  the  year  1*780,  bore  interest; 
but  subsequent  issues  did  not.  The  facility  of 
this  plan  of  providing  government  income  led 
to  its  being  repeatedly  had  recourse  to,  as  the 
property  of  wealthy  emigrants — persons  who  aban- 
doned their  country  in  alarm — fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  rulers,  and  was  confiscated,  till  the  amount 
rose  to  the  enormous  sum  of  45,578  million  francs, 
besides  a  great  number  of  forged  A.  manufactured 


dii  z-^.Mui 
279^  ■ 


c/alnit^aU 


\L'An  zT^ t/c  la 
I    RepulLic/m. 


DomaMije5'iia;tLoiuiU/X. 
^mignat 


Fac-simile  of  Assignat. 


abroad,  and  smuggled  into  the  kingdom.  The 
value  of  the  A.  naturally  soon  began  to  decline, 
and  confidence  once  gone,  the  declension  became 
fearful.  In  June  1793,  one  franc  in  silver  was  worth 
three  francs  in  paper ;  in  August,  it  was  worth  six. 
The  State  took  the  most  extreme  measures  to  compel 
the  acceptance  of  A.  at  their  full  nominal  value. 
The  effects  of  these  were  to  cause  the  A.  to  flow 
back  into  the  public  treasury,  to  raise  the  prices  of 
all  commodities,  and  to  make  every  one  averse  to 
have   any   dealings   with  the    State.     One   of   these 


consequences  was  attempted  to  be  met  by  fixing  a 
maximum  of  prices.  But  no  one  could  compel  pro- 
ducers and  dealers  to  produce  and  sell  at  a  loss  ;  so 
that  all  business  became  disorganised.  At  last  the 
value  of  A.  came  almost  to  nothing.  Millions  of 
individuals  had  suffered  incalculable  loss,  and  only 
a  few  who  had  bought  public  lands  with  the  A.  that 
cost  them  little  or  nothing,  had  enriched  themselves 
at  the  expense  of  the  community.  In  March  1796, 
a  louis  d'or  (24  francs)  brought  7200  francs  in  A. 
After  this,  they  were  withdrawn  from  the  currency 

491 


ASSIGNEE  IX  BANKRUPTCY— ASSIST. 


in  1796,  and  redeemed,  at  ^'^th  of  their  nominal  value, 
by  mandats^  a  new  kind  of  paper  money,  which 
enabled  the  holder  at  once  to  take  possession  of 
public  lands  at  the  estimated  value,  while  A.  could 
only  be  offered  at  a  sale.  The  mandats  also  soon  fell 
to  a  seventieth  of  their  nominal  value,  and  were 
returned  to  Government  in  payment  of  taxes  or  of  land. 

At  length,  in  July  1796,  the  system  of  paper- 
credit,  so  obstinately  persisted  in  by  government 
and  so  disastrous  in  its  results  to  the  public,  came 
to  an  end.  A  law  was  passed  declaring  that  every 
one  was  entitled  to  transact  business  in  whatever 
circulating  medium  he  pleased ;  that  the  mandats 
should  be  taken  at  their  current  value;  and  that 
the  taxes  be  received  either  in  coin  or  mandats  at 
that  rate.  The  A.  were  executed  on  a  coarse  kind 
of  paper,  and,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  accompanying 
fac-simile,  the  devices  were  so  meagre  as  to  be  easily 
counterfeited. 

ASSIGNEE'     IN    BA'NKRUPTCY.      See    Bask- 

EUPTCy. 

ASSIGNMENT,  in  the  law  of  England,  is  the 
name  given  to  a  conveyance  by  whicli  the  party 
making  the  A.  transfers  or  grants  over,  for  a  sufli- 
cient  consideration,  a  right  in  expectancy,  in  rever- 
sion, or  other  right  not  in  possession,  such  as  a  bond, 
a  debt,  or  other  chose  en  action  (ij.  v.).  In  England, 
according  to  the  strict  rule  of  the  old  common  law,  no 
such  right  could  be  assigned  or  granted  over,  becau.sc 
such  a  proceeding  was  thought  to  be  an  encourage- 
ment to  litigation.  The  only  exception  to  this 
general  rule  was  in  the  case  of  the  crown,  which 
might  alwaj's  either  grant  or  receive  a  cfiosc  en  action 
by  A.  ;  and  now  the  proceeding  is  in  constant  prac- 
tice, the  courts  of  equity,  making  the  rule  itself 
give  way  to  the  expediency  of  facilitating  the  trans- 
fer of  property,  having  directly  sanctiimed  the  prac- 
tice ;  and  even  in  the  courts  of  common  law  the 
application  of  the  ancient  principle  is  evaded.  Mort- 
gages may  be  assigned  ;  indeed  the  right  to  make 
such  a  transfer  is  one  of  the  ])roperties  of  a  mortgage 
security.  A.  is  also  the  proper  mode  of  assurance  or 
conveyance  for  passing  leasehold  estates  for  years, 
and  other  chattel  property ;  and  by  the  8  anil  9 
Yict.  c.  106,  s.  3,  it  is  enacted,  that  all  assignments 
made  after  the  1st  of  October  1845,  not  being  an 
interest  which  before  the  passing  of  the  act  might 
have  been  created  without  writing,  shall  be  void 
at  law,  unless  made  by  deed.  But  a  mere  note  in 
v/riting,  if  duly  signed  by  the  parties,  will  neverthe- 
less be  supported  in  equity  as  an  agreement,  and  jiass 
an  equitable  interest  to  the  assignee.  It  also  appears 
that  a  parol  or  verbal  lease  for  a  term  not  exceeding 
three  years,  and  valid  as  such  within  the  Statute  of 
Frauds  (q.  v.),  may  be  assigned  by  a  simple  note  in 
writing,  if  impressed  with  a  proper  stamp.  Copy- 
right is  assignable ;  indeed,  by  the  5  and  6  Yict. 
c.  45,  s.  3,  copyright  is  expressly  given  to  the  author 
and  his  assigns  ;  but  it  is  not  required,  like  a  patent 
right,  to  be  in  every  ease  under  the  seal  of  the  pro- 
prietor, it  being  enacted  by  section  13  of  the  same 
act  that  an  A.  properly  entered  in  the  book  of 
registry  at  Stationers'  Hall  shall  be  as  eflectual  as  if 
made  by  deed. 

In  regard  to  the  right  of  A.  generally,  it  may  be 
laid  down  that  the  ju-operty  in  things  personal  is 
transferable  with  absolute  freedom ;  and  if  they  are 
assigned  under  a  condition  which  is  either  repugnant 
to  the  gift  itself,  or  against  the  policy  of  the  law — 
such  as  a  prohibition  to  dispose  of  the  property 
assigned — the  condition  is  void.  There  are  some 
cases,  however,  where  the  right  of  alienation  is,  in 
respect  of  the  incapacity  of  the  owner,  suspended  ; 
as  to  which  it  will  be  sufficient  to  remark  that  the 
law  with  respect  to  the  disability  of  infants,  insane 
492 


persons,  and  persons  under  durc.<s,  applies  in  general 
to  personal  as  well  as  to  real  property.  A  nmiricd 
woman,  too,  is  in  general  under  an  absolute  inca- 
pacity to  make  any  transfer  of  things  jjeisonal ;  for, 
with  "the  exception  of  her  eciuitable  interc.-t  in  pro- 
l)crty  t^cttled  in  trust  expressly  for  her  separate  use, 
the  goods  and  chattels  which  she  may  have  possessed 
at  the  time  of  marriage,  or  subsetiuently  acquired, 
lielong,  by  the  general  rule  of  law,  to  her  liusband. 
There  are  also  some  few  cases  where,  in  resi)ect 
to  the  nature  of  the  interest  itself,  its  alienation 
is  absolutely  prohiljited.  Tlius,  generally,  the  pay 
or  half-i)ay  of  a  military  or  naval  oflieer,  or  the 
.salary  of  an  officer  of  trust,  is,  on  a  itrinciple  of 
jiublic  policy,  not  assignable,  the  olyect  being  to 
secure  to  such  persons,  even  against  their  own 
improvidence,  the  possession  of  those  means  wliieh 
are  essential  to  the  mainti-nance  of  their  station  and 
the  performance  of  their  duties.  The  sale  or  transfer 
of  public  appointments  themselves  is  also,  in  general, 
contrary  to  the  jiolicy  of  the  law,  and  in  most  cases 
cxjircssly  prohibited.  See  Stephen's  Coinmeutarien, 
vol.  ii.  p.  43. 

An  A.  of  goods  and  chattels  is  frequently  made 
by  a  Bill  of  Sale  (q.  v.)  Bills  of  Exchange  (q.  v.) 
and  Promissory  Notes  (q.  v.  )  are  assigned  by  endorse- 
ment. 

The  corresponding  term  in  the  Scotch  law  is 
Asxii/nation  (([.  v.).  But  in  that  system,  A.  is  the 
legal  and  technical  word  for  the  tnmsference  of  pro- 
perty, in  c()]\vrights,  j)atents,  and  registered  vessels. 

ASSIGNMENT  OF  EHROR  is  the  technical 
statement  of  certain  grounds  on  which  the  judgment 
of  a  court  of  law  is  sought  to  be  reviewed  by  a 
higher  tribunal ;  but  by  the  Common  Law  Procedure 
Act  (15  and  16  Yict.  c.  56.,  s.  152),  it  is  now  limited 
to  the  case  where  the  defendant  in  error  intends  to 
rely  in  support  of  the  judgment  on  the  jiroceeding 
in  error  being  liarrcd  l)y  lapse  of  time,  or  liy  release 
of  error,  or  other  like  matter  of  fact.  See  Appeal 
and  Error. 

ASSI  GNS,  or  in  Scotch  law,  ASSIGNEES,  is  the 
legal  name  given  to  j)artii'S  in  whose  favour  an  assign- 
ment or  a.ssignation  (q.  v.)  is  made. 
ASSIMILATION.  See  Nctritiox. 
ASSINIBOI'A,  the  district  round  Rc<l  River 
Settlement.  It  takes  its  name  from  the  A.ssiniboine 
river,  as  the  settlement  itself  docs  from  the  river 
into  which  the  Assiniboine  flows.  See  Rkd  Rivee 
Settlement. 

ASSINIBOINE,  a  river  in  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Territory.  Near  kit.  50°  N.,  and  long.  96  W.,  it  falls 
from  the  north-west  into  the  Red  River  (q.  v.),  which 
discharges  its  waters  into  Lake  Winnipeg. 

ASSI'SI  (Assisium),  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the 
Papal  States,  in  the  delegation  of  Perugia,  is 
built  upon  a  steep  hill,  in  43  5'  N.  lat.,  and  12"  33' 
E.  long.  Pop.  about  5U00.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  wall 
flanked  with  towers,  and  overhung  by  a  lofty  citadel 
in  ruins.  It  is  the  birthplace  of  St.  Francis,  who 
here  founded  the  Convento  Sacro,  the  first  monastery 
of  the  Mendicant  order  that  bears  his  name,  a  large 
and  beautiful  structure,  and  one  of  the  earliest 
specimens  of  the  Gothic  style  of  architecture  in 
Italy.  The  church  and  the  galleries  of  the  monastery 
contain  fine  paintings  by  Cimabue,  Giotto,  and  other 
old  mastens.  Besides  the  Convento  Sacro,  there  are 
eleven  other  monasteries  in  A.  Of  these,  the  largest 
is  the  Portiuncula,  which  has  a  richly  decorated 
church,  with  a  cupola  by  Yignola.  In  the  last 
century,  this  place  was  a  great  resort  of  pilgrims, 
visiting  the  tomlt  of  the  saint,  of  whom  one  hundred 
thousand  are  said  to  have  been  assembled  here  on  one 
day. 


ASSIZE— ASSOCIATIOX  OF  IDEAS. 


A.  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  Assisium,  a 
municipal  town  of  Umbria,  and  presents  the  remains 
of  the  fonnn,  the  baths,  and  the  aqueducts  of  the 
days  of  the  Romans.  In  the  piazza,  or  square,  there 
Stands  a  beautiful  portico  of  the  ancient  temple  of 
Minerva,  consisting  of  fluted  Corinthian  columns  and 
a  pediment.  There  are  abundance  of  olive-trees,  and 
some  fine  mineral  springs  in  the  vicinity.  The  town 
has  given  title  to  a  bishop  since  240  a.  d.  It  has  man- 
ufactures of  needles  and  files. 

ASSI'ZE.  This  word,  literally  signif3'ing  a  '  sitting ' 
or  '  session,'  is  a  term  used  in  the  principal  European 
legal  systems,  and  very  much  in  the  same  sense,  or 
rather  senses  in  all,  for  it  has  more  than  one  distinctive 
meaning.  As  is  common  with  regard  to  most  of  our 
ancient  legal  technicality,  the  Latin  language,  in  the 
first  instance  (assideo),  and  then  the  French  {assis), 
appear  to  have  led  to  its  introduction  into  the  phra- 
seology of  the  law  of  England,  and,  it  may  be  added, 
also  of  Scotland,  although  in  the  latter  country  it 
has  a  more  limited  application  in  judicial  procedure 
than  in  England,  A.  being  in  Scotland  the  old  tech- 
nical expression  for  a  jury.  In  England,  this  word 
may  also  signify  a  jury,  and  it  is  sometimes  used  to 
denote  an  ordinance,  decree,  or  law.  But  in  modern 
practice,  it  is  commonly  applied  to  the  sessions  or 
sittings  of  the  judges  of  the  superior  law-courts, 
held  periodically  in  each  county,  for  the  purpose  of 
administering  civil  and  criminal  justice.  These 
courts  came  into  use  in  room  of  ancient  justices  in 
eyre,  justicla  rei  in  itinere.  They  are  now  appointed 
by  commissions  issued  to  all  the  judges  of  the  courts 
of  common  law,  and  to  other  learned  persons,  such 
as  Serjeants  and  barristers  of  suitable  rank ;  and 
such  commissions  are  accompanied  by  writs  of  «.s.vo- 
ciation,  whereby  certain  persons  (usually  the  clerk 
of  A.  and  his  subordinate  officers)  are  directed  to 
associate  themselves  with  the  justices  and  Serjeants, 
and  they  are  required  to  admit  the  said  persons  into 
their  society,  in  order  to  take  the  assizes,  &c.,  that  a 
sufficient  supply  of  commissioners  may  never  be 
wanting.  But,  to  prevent  the  delay  of  justice  by  the 
absence  of  any  of  them,  there  is  also  issued,  of  course, 
a  writ  of  Si,  non  omnes,  directing  that,  if  all  cannot  be 
present,  any  two  of  them  (a  justice  or  serjeant  being 
one)  may  proceed  to  execute  the  commission.  These 
commissioners  or  judges  of  A.  are  sent  twice  in  every 
year  on  circuits  all  round  the  kingdom,  to  try  by  a  jur_y 
of  the  respective  counties  the  truth  of  such  matters 
of  fact  as  are  then  under  dispute  in  the  courts  of 
Westminster  Hall ;  and  occasionally  a  third  circuit 
is  appointed  in  the  course  of  the  year  for  the  pur- 
pose of  jail  delivery.  The  circuits  are  eight  in 
number — such  as  the  Home,  the  Midland,  the  Nor- 
folk, the  Oxford,  the  Northern,  the  Western,  the 
North  Wales,  and  the  South  Wales  circuit ;  and  in 
going  them,  the  judges  or  commissioners  sit  by 
virtue  of  four  several  authorities :  1 .  The  commis- 
sion of  the  peace ;  2.  A  commission  of  oyer  and 
terminer ;  .3.  A  commission  of  general  jail  delivery. 
The  other  authority  is,  4.  That  of  nisi  pri.vs,  which 
is  a  consequence  of  the  ancient  commission  of  A. 
being  annexed  to  the  office  of  justices  of  A.  by  the 
statute  of  Westminster  the  second  (13  Edw.  I.  c. 
30) ;  and  it  empowers  them  to  try  all  questions  of 
fact  issuing  out  of  the  courts  at  Westminster  that 
are  then  ripe  for  trial  by  jury.  These,  by  the 
ancient  course  of  the  courts,  were  usually  appointed 
to  Ije  tried  at  Westminster  in  some  Easter  or 
Michaelmas  term,  by  a  jury  returned  from  the 
county  wherein  the  cause  of  action  arose ;  but  with 
this  proviso,  nisi  prius^  unless  before  the  day  pre- 
fixed the  judges  of  A.  should  come  into  the  county 
in  question,  which  in  modern  times  they  have 
invariably  done  in  the  vacations  preceding ;  so  that 
the    trial    has    always,   in  fact,   taken  place   before 


those  judges.  And  now,  by  the  effect  of  the  statute 
15  and  16  Vict.  c.  76  (the  Common  Law  Procedure 
Act,  1852),  the  course  of  proceeding  is  no  longer 
even  ostensibly  connected  with  a  proviso  at  nisi 
[)rius,  but  the  trial  is  allowed  to  take  place  without 
the  use  of  any  such  words  in  the  process  of  the 
court,  and  as  a  matter  of  course,  before  the  judges 
sent  under  commission  into  the  several  counties. 
The  circuit  system,  however,  does  not  extend  to 
London  and  Middlesex,  which  have  instead  courts 
of  nisi  prius,  which  are  held  before  the  chief  or  other 
judge  of  the  superior  courts  for  the  trial  of  civil 
causes,  at  what  are  called  the  London  and  West- 
minster Sittings — the  times  for  which  sittings  are 
now  regulated  bv  the  Common  Law  Procedure  Act 
of  1854  (17  and  18  Vict.  c.  125,  s.  2) ;  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Central  Criminal  Court  (by  the  4 
and  5  Will.  IV.  c.  36,  the  jurisdiction  of  which  has 
been  recently  extended  by  the  19  and  20  Vict.  c.  16), 
has  sufficiently  provided  for  the  administration  of 
criminal  justice  within  these  districts. 

The  circuit  courts  of  Justiciary  in  Scotland,  of 
which  there  are  three — the  North,  the  West,  and  the 
South — very  much  resemble  the  assizes  in  England, 
and  have,  in  criminal  matters  at  least,  very  much  the 
same  jurisdiction  ;  but  in  civil  causes  their  authority 
is  very  limited. 

In  the  sense  of  an  ordinance  or  law,  the  term  A. 
has  various  applications,  although  chiefly  in  the 
more  ancient  systems  of  jurisprudence.  Thus,  the 
'  Assizes '  of  Jerusalem  were,  as  we  are  told  in  Gibbon's 
Decline  and  Fall  (vol.  xi.  p.  93),  a  code  of  feudal  laws 
for  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  formed  in  1099  by  an 
assembly  of  the  Latin  barons  and  of  the  clergy  and 
laity  under  Godfrey  of  Bouillon.  Then  there  were 
the  '  Assizes,'  or  ordinances  regulating  the  price  of 
liread,  ale,  fuel,  and  other  common  necessaries  of 
life,  but  all  of  which  have  been  abolished.  The 
same  regulations  appear  to  have  prevailed  in  Scot- 
land in  ancient  times.  See  Jury,  Trial  by  Jury, 
Markets. 

ASSOCIATE  SYNOD,  ASSOCIATE  PRESBY- 
TERY, &c.,  designations  adopted  among  the  Sece- 
DERS  (q.  V.)  from  the  Church  of  Scotland.  There  is 
also  an  Associate  Synod  in  America,  and  an  Associate 
Reformed  Church,  both  of  which  have  sprung  from  the 
Scottish  Secession. 

ASSOCIATION.  See  Co-operation  ;  also,  Soci- 
ety, League,  Company. 

ASSOCIATION  OF  IDE'AS.  This  is  a  phrase 
of  great  importance  in  the  Philosophy  of  the  Human 
Mind,  as  expressing  the  most  pervading  fact  at  the 
foundation  of  our  intelligence.  By  giving,  therefore, 
a  somewhat  full  exposition  of  this  subject,  we  are 
able  to  explain,  at  once,  a  considerable  number  of 
the  complex  phenomena  of  mind  in  a  more  satisfac- 
tory way  than  by  treating  the  several  phenomena 
separately.  What  is  meant  by  Association  of  Ideas, 
is  fiimiliarly  illustrated  by  such  occurrences  as  the 
following  :  When  we  see  the  sky  becoming  overcast, 
we  think  of  rain  as  about  to  follow,  the  notion  of 
rain  not  having  previously  been  present  to  our  mind. 
When  we  hear  the  church  bells,  we  are  apt  to  think 
of  the  crowds  in  the  street,  or  of  some  of  the  other 
circumstances  of  public  worship.  When  we  pass  a 
house,  we  are  reminded  of  its  occupier  ;  and  meeting 
a  person  we  know,  we  may  be  carried  in  thought  to 
his  office,  and  from  that  to  other  persons  holding  the 
same  office,  and  so  on.  If  an  object  is  before  my 
eyes,  as  a  mountain,  I  am  said  to  receive  an  impres- 
sion or  sensation  of  it,  in  consequence  of  the  actual 
presence  of  the  thing ;  but  it  is  possible  for  me  to 
remember  the  mountain,  or  to  have  an  idea  of  it, 
when  far  away  from  the  reality,  in  which  case  there 
must  be  some   power  in   the   mind   itself,  different 

493 


ASSOCIATION  OF  IDEAS. 


from  the  susceptibility  to  present  objects,  a  power  of 
retaining,  reviving,  or  resuscitating  those  states  at 
first  inducted  by  contact  with  the  actual.  Besides 
the  sights,  and  sounds,  and  touches  caused  by  con- 
tact with  real  things,  we  are  greatly  occupied  with 
sights,  sounds,  and  touches  remembered,  anticipated, 
or  imagined,  which  is  to  live  in  a  world  of  ideas ;  and 
it  is  in  this  world  that  the  process  termed  Associa- 
tion has  its  sphere.  When  an  idea  is  brought  before 
the  mind  without  its  original,  as  when  I  picture  to 
my  mind  the  late  Duke  of  Wellington,  the  circum- 
stance is  owing  to  the  mention  of  his  name,  or  of 
some  incident  connected  with  him ;  and  my  remem- 
brance of  his  personal  appearance,  as  I  have  seen 
him  when  alive,  is  said  to  be  the  result  of  au  associa- 
tion existing  in  my  mind  between  two  ideas,  so  that 
the  one  is  able  to  recall  or  restore  the  other.  The 
association  between  names  and  things  comprehends 
one  of  the  most  extensive  applications  of  the  power 
in  question. 

The  circumstances  under  which  one  idea  brings 
forward  another  into  the  view  are  princijially  these 
two — viz.,  first,  previous  proxiniiti/ ;  and  second, 
likeness.  The  terms  '  Contiguity '  and  '  Similarity  ' 
are  used  in  Mental  Philosophy  to  express  them.  The 
first  is  exemplified  in  the  examples  of  association 
given  above ;  for  in  most  of  those  it  will  be  found 
that  the  conjoined  notions  have  been  frequently  in 
the  view  at  the  same  time,  in  consequence  of  which 
they  have,  as  it  were,  grown  together,  or  become 
part  of  the  same  whole.  Thus,  we  have  often  noticed 
the  darkened  sky  followed  by  a  shower ;  the  two 
facts  have  occupied  the  attention  sinniltaneously, 
and  in  virtue  of  some  power  belonging  to  our  mental 
framework,  they  have  cohered  into  an  inseparal>le 
couple  or  aggregate  in  the  mind.  This  is  proximity, 
or  contiguity.  When  one  idea  .suggests  another 
which  was  never  in  company  with  it  bel'ore,  it  is 
generally  through  the  force  of  some  likeness  between 
the  two.  I  meet  an  old  man  in  the  street  with  a 
very  peculiar  f\ice,  which  reminds  me  of  the  bust 
of  Socrates.  These  two  things  had  never  accom- 
panied one  another  in  my  mind  before,  and  therefore 
it  could  not  be  the  force  of  proximity  that  made  the 
second  to  arise  at  the  instigation  of  the  first ;  but 
there  was  a  certain  amount  of  likeness  or  similarity 
between  the  old  man's  features  and  the  features  of 
Socrates,  as  represented  to  us  in  the  bust ;  and  it  is 
a  fact  of  our  constitution,  no  less  certain  and  no  less 
important  than  the  foregoing,  that  in  cases  where 
something  now  before  the  .mind  has  a  strong  cast  of 
I'esemblance  to  something  formerly  observed  or  con- 
ceived by  us,  but  not  at  present  thought  of  in  any 
way,  the  present  is  apt  to  recall  that  past  idea,  what- 
ever it  may  be.  By  the  force  of  likeness,  the  travel- 
ler in  new  countries  is  constantly  reminded  of  the 
scenes  and  objects  familiar  to  him,  and  so  is  induced 
to  draw  comparisons  between  the  one  and  the  other. 
Identification  and  comparison  both  im[ily  that  things 
arc  brought  together  by  virtue  of  their  similarity, 
they  not  having  been  in  company  before.  The 
principle  of  proximity  operates  most  in  Memory, 
Habit,  and  Routine  ;  similarity  has  to  do  with  inven- 
tion and  originality,  and  is  essential  to  the  processes 
of  Reason  and  Imagination. 

Lmo  of  Contiguity. — The  principle  of  association 
by  proximity  is  not  confined  to  ideas.  AVe  must 
state  it  in  a  more  comprehensive  form,  in  order  to 
comprise  the  full  sphere  of  its  application  ;  for  our 
mechanical  habits  arc  formed  through  the  very  same 
power  of  our  constitution  that  enables  us  to  recall 
or  rememl)er  ideas.  The  taught  movements  of  a 
soldier  or  of  a  skilled  workman  are  connected 
together  so  firmly  that  one  succeeds  to  another 
almost  of  its  own  accord.  Everything  of  the  nature 
of  acquisition  supposes  a  plastic  property  in  the  human 
494 


system,  giving  permanent  coherence  to  acts  that  have 
been  performed  together. 

The  following  is  a  general  statement  of  the  law  un- 
der consideration  : 

Aelions,  Seimition.i,  States  of  Feeling,  and  I(knx, 
occurrim/  together,  or  in  close  Kiwression,  tend  to  grow 
togetlier,  or  colunx  in  suc/i  a  vxiu  that  when  antj  one 
of  thnn  is  afterwards  presented  to  the  mind,  the  others 
are  apt  to  i-ise. 

And  fii-st,  aa  to  association  of  Actions  or  volun- 
tary movements.  When  we  perform  a  train  of 
niovements  without  any  further  aid  of  the  will  than 
to  connnence  the  series,  there  must  l)c  a  fixed  connec- 
tion between  each  and  the  one  that  follow.s,  and 
this  connection  may  be  either  instinctive  or  acquired. 
There  arc  various  cases  of  instinctive  trains,  such 
as  the  action  of  the  heart,  lungs,  and  intestine.'',  and 
the  movements  of  deglutition.  When  a  morsel  of 
food  reaches  the  back  part  of  the  mouth,  the 
muscles  of  the  throat  .seize  hold  of  it,  and  tninsmit 
it  to  the  .stomach,  independent  of  our  will.  The 
connected  movemenLs  in  this  ca.se  are  pix>vidcd  for 
in  the  original  stimcture  of  the  nervous  and  mu.scu- 
lar  system.  In  walking,  there  is  partly  an  instinc- 
tive tendency  to  alternate  the  limbs,  and  partly  a 
confirming  ac(iuisition,  the  residt  of  practice.  But 
in  those  complicated  operations  that  human  beings 
are  taught  to  execute  in  the  various  avocations  of 
life,  the  associating  principle  is  everything.  The 
a])parently  simple  and  easy  act  of  taking  food  is  n 
conijilicated  ac(|uisition  ;  in  other  wonls,  an  exten- 
sive group  of  as.sociatcd  movements.  The  seizing  of 
the  morsel  is  followed  by  the  movement  of  the  arm 
that  carries  it  to  the  mouth ;  the  mouth  is  opened 
sinndtancously ;  after  which  follow  the  proccs.ses  of 
biting  and  chewing ;  all  of  which  take  ])lace  with  the 
certainty  of  a  machine,  and  without  cllbrt  or  attention 
directed  to  them.  These  associations  wcr(>  originally 
built  up  liy  slow  degrees.  '  As  a  general  rule  it  takes 
many  repetitions  to  cement  so  firm  a  union  between 
successive  and  simultaneous  movements  as  is  implied 
in  the  above  instance.' 

A  good  example  of  the  association  of  movements 
is  furnished  in  our  acquirement  of  spoken  language, 
as  in  committing  to  memory  words,  sayings,  and 
passages  of  books.  When  a  child  has  perfectly 
ac(iuired  the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  chain  of  a.ssociation 
is  so  firmly  knit  that  the  articulation  of  the  words 
'  Our  Father '  is  followed  irresistibly  with  those  next 
succeeding,  and  so  on  to  the  end.  The  cohesion  in  this 
case  is  between  the  vocal  movements  corresponding 
to  the  enunciation  of  the  words.  Having  gone 
many  times  through  this  one  definite  succession,  the 
stream  of  nervous  power,  in  some  way  that  we  can- 
not at  present  explain,  acquires  a  tendency  to  fall 
into  this  one  definite  track,  and  in  future  to  bring  on 
the  movements  in  the  exact  order  that  they  have  so 
frequently  followed. 

It  is  not  merely  actual  movements  that  can  be 
joined  together  in  this  way,  but  the  ideas  of  move- 
ments ;  for  a  man,  meditating  in  language,  and  not 
speaking  out  his  thoughts,  can  consolidate  his  trains  so 
as  to  remember  them  afterwards. 

When  we  proceed  to  Sensations  and  the  Ideas, 
or  subsequent  traces,  of  Sensations,  and  take  along 
with  these  the  variety  of  our  movements  with  their 
ideas,  we  find  an  unlimited  scope  for  the  associating 
principle ;  and  the  consequences  of  its  operation  spread 
far  and  wide  in  the  domains  of  our  happiness,  our 
knowledge,  and  our  active  capacity.  It  is  only  possible 
here  to  present  a  few  illustrative  examples. 

In  the  various  mechanical  acquirements,  which 
include  the  whole  of  special  handicraft  industry 
and  skill,  as  well  as  the  use  of  the  bodily  members 
in  the  more  general  actions  of  daily  life,  there  may 
be  traced  the   linkings  of  actions  with  actions,  or 


ASSOCIATION  OF  IDEAS. 


actions  with  sensations  and  ideas.  The  hehnsman 
steering  a  ship  associates  in  his  mind  each  deviation 
of  the  needle  from  the  proper  point  with  the  specific 
muscular  exertion  to  be  applied  to  the  wheel  to 
rectify  the  ship's  direction.  The  workman  fabricat- 
ing in  wood,  metal,  or  stone,  acquires  a  firm  connec- 
tion between  each  aspect  of  the  material  and  the 
muscular  power  to  be  applied  to  bring  it  one  step 
rearer  the  desired  form.  The  power  of  copying 
anything  we  see,  as  in  writing,  drawing,  moulding, 
&c.,  when  completely  mastered,  is  made  up  of  asso- 
ciations between  a  visible  appearance  and  the  train 
of  movements  calculated  to  reproduce  it.  After 
practice,  all  this  is  done,  as  it  is  called,  mechani- 
cally, or  without  those  operations  of  considering, 
willing,  and  remembering  directions,  that  are  essen- 
tial to  the  learner  in  a  new  art.  The  associations 
that  grow  up  after  a  certain  amount  of  practice,  are 
in  this  case  associations  between  movements  and 
appearances  to  the  eye,  or  sensations  of  sight.  In 
the  greater  number  of  crafts,  the  eye  is  the  guid- 
ing sense  to  the  operator,  but  not  in  all.  Some- 
times the  effect  is  vocal,  as  in  performing  music,  and 
in  making  and  tuning  musical  instruments,  in  speak- 
ing, &c.  In  other  arts,  the  touch  is  the  guiding  sense, 
and  in  some,  as  in  cookery,  the  taste  and  smell  direct 
the  operator.  Each  accomplished  workman  has  in 
his  mind  many  hundreds,  not  to  say  thousands,  of 
couples  or  aggregates  of  definite  movements  with 
other  movements  and  with  sensations,  contracted  in 
the  course  of  his  apprenticeship  to  his  calling. 

If  we  inquire  into  the  circumstances  that  favour  and 
promote  this  extensive  circle  of  acquisitions,  we  shall 
find  several  that  may  be  named  as  of  importance. 
In  the  first  place,  a  natural  activity  of  tonpcramcnt, 
or  an  abundant  flow  of  power  to  the  active  mem- 
bers, as  shewn  in  a  great  and  various  mobility  of 
the  frame,  is  a  good  basis  of  bodily  acquirements. 
When  the  force  of  the  system  runs  feeljly  towards 
the  muscular  framework,  being  perhaps  expended 
in  other  ways,  as  in  the  thinking  powers,  more  time 
is  requisite  to  attain  difficult  mechanical  arts. 
Another  important  circumstance  is  the  acutenees  or 
delicacy  of  the  sense,  involved  in  the  operation.  A 
keen  ej'e,  sensitive  to  minute  degrees  of  effect,  is 
wanted  in  all  the  various  occupations  that  turn  on 
visible  appearances ;  a  good  ear  is  indispensable  to 
music  and  the  arts  of  pi-oducing  sounds ;  and  so  c«i. 
With  a  naturally  dull  sensibility  to  flavour,  no  man 
can  easily  become  a  good  cook,  or  a  taster  of  tea  or 
wine.  The  third  consideration  is  the  natm-al  power 
of  adhesive  association  belonging  to  the  individual 
character.  Some  minds  have  originally  a  more 
powerful  adhesiveness  than  others,  either  for  things 
generally,  or  for  special  departments.  We  see  this 
when  a  number  of  boys  come  together  at  school,  and 
in  apprentices  learning  together.  Some  are  always 
found  taking  the  start  of  the  rest  in  rapidity  of 
acquirement ;  and  although  the  reason  may  be  found 
in  some  of  the  other  circumstances  now  mentioned, 
yet  observation  shows  that  when  everything  else  is 
allowed  for,  there  remains  natural  diff'erences  in  the 
rapidity  with  which  the  adhesive  bond  is  cemented ; 
some  acquiring  without  effort  what  others  take  both 
time  and  labour  to  accomplish.  The  fourth  princi- 
pal circumstance  is  the  interest  taken  in  the  work, 
or  the  degree  to  which  it  engages  the  feelings  of  the 
learner.  This  is  a  material  consideration,  account- 
ing for  the  acquisitions  made  in  matters  that  we 
have  a  strong  taste  for  without  our  having  a  pre- 
eminence in  those  other  points  that  constitute  natural 
capacity.  These  four  conditions  apply  more  or  less  to 
acquisition  generally. 

A  detailed  exemplification  of  this  great  principle 
of  our  nature  might  be  given  through  all  the  depart- 
ments  of   the    human   intellect.      The  acquirements 


of  speech,  as  already  said,  contam  a  wide  range  of 
instances.  The  adhesion  of  language  is  partly  in 
the  vocal  organs,  partly  in  the  ear,  and  partly  in  the 
eye,  when  we  come  to  written  and  printed  charac- 
ters. The  associations  of  names  with  things,  with 
actions  (as  in  ol)eying  direction  and  command), 
and  with  other  names  (in  actiuiring  foreign  lan- 
guages), are  a  gradual  growth  favoured  l)y  such  con- 
ditions as  the  above.  The  acquirements  in  Science, 
Fine  Art,  and  Business,  and  in  everything  that  con- 
stitutes skill  or  knowledge,  proceed  upon  this  plastic 
property  of  the  mind.  It  also  enlarges  the  sphere 
of  our  pleasures  and  pains.  There  are  connections 
established  in  the  mind  between  our  states  of  feeling 
and  the  things  that  have  often  accompanied  them, 
so  that  the  accompaniment  shall  have  power  to 
revive  the  feeling.  It  is  thus  that  we  contract  affec- 
tions, both  benevolent  and  malevolent,  towards  per- 
sons and  things,  our  friends,  our  home,  our  country, 
our  property,  our  pursuits. 

This  power  of  stirring  up  dependent  associations 
to  an  extent  that  may  be  almost  called  unlimited 
(although  there  are  limitations),  is  peculiar  to  the 
animal  organization.  Nothing  parallel  to  it  occurs  in 
the  minei-al  or  vegetable  world.  It  is  a  property  of 
mind  alone,  and  has  its  seat  in  the  nervous  tissue. 
We  know  that  growth  or  change  is  requisite  to  the 
progress  of  the  adhesion  ;  for  it  proceeds  most  rapidly 
in  youth,  health,  and  nutrition,  and  decays  in  old  age, 
and  during  exhaustion  and  disease.  And  even  to 
keep  our  acquisitions  from  fading  away,  it  is  requisite 
that  they  should  be  occasionally  revived.  A  language 
acquired  in  early  years  may  be  utterly  lost  by  disuse. 
•Sustained  practice  seems  particularly  necessary  in 
early  education  ;  children's  acquisitions  are  very  liable 
to  disintegrate,  if  not  kept  up  and  confirmed  by  new 
additions. 

Zaiv  of  Similarity. — This  may  be  expressed  as 
follows : 

Present  Actions,  Sensations,  Thoughts,  and  Emo- 
tions tend  to  revive  their  Like  among  previous  im- 
pressions. 

If  the  mind  worked  only  by  the  principle  of  con- 
tiguity, nothing  would  ever  occur  to  us  except  in 
some  connection  already  formed.  But  some  explana- 
tion is  necessary  as  to  the  precise  relationship  sub- 
sisting between  the  two  distinct  forces  of  mental 
resuscitation,  in  order  to  shew  at  once  their  distinct- 
ness and  their  connection.  When  the  cohesive  link 
between  any  two  contiguous  actions,  sensations,  or 
ideas,  is  confirmed  by  a  new  occurrence  or  repetition, 
it  is  perfectly  obvious  that  the  present  impression 
must  revive  the  sum-total  of  the  past  impressions,  or 
reinstate  the  whole  mental  condition  left  on  the 
occasion  immediately  preceding.  Thus,  if  I  am  dis- 
ciplining myself  in  the  act  of  drawing  a  round  figure 
with  my  hand,  any  present  effort  must  recall  the 
state  of  the  muscular  and  nervous  action,  or  the  pre- 
cise bent  acquired  at  the  end  of  the  previous  effort, 
while  that  effort  had  to  restore  the  condition  at  the 
end  of  the  one  preceding,  and  so  on.  But  this  rein- 
statement of  a  former  condition  by  a  present  act 
of  the  same  kind  is  really  and  truly  a  case  of  the 
principle  before  us,  or  of  like  recalling  like ;  and 
without  such  recall,  the  progressive  adhesion  of 
contiguous  things  would  be  impossible.  It  would 
appear,  therefore,  that  similarity  is  tacitly  assumed 
in  the  operation  of  contiguity,  and  is  indispensable 
to  the  process  by  which  our  acquisitions  are  gradually 
built  up.  Why,  then,  do  we  set  up  the  associating 
force  of  likeness,  as  something  independent  and  dis- 
tinct ?  To  answer  this  question  we  must  advert  to 
the  foct  that  in  those  cases  where  the  same  impres- 
sion is  deepened  by  every  new  repetition,  the  old  and 
the  new  are  not  merely  similar,  they  are  identical, 
and    the   resuscitation  takes   place  without   fail,  and 

495 


ASSOCIATION  OF  IDEAS. 


as  a  matter  of  course.  But  in  going  deeper  into  the 
explanation  of  tlie  human  intellect,  we  encounter 
many  classes  of  similars,  where  there  is  not  absolute 
identity,  but  the  mixing  up  of  a  certain  amount  of 
diverd'ti/  with  the  likeness  actually  existing.  The 
botanist  classing  together  all  the  plants  of  the  same 
order,  as,  for  example,  the  Hosacece,  has  to  be  struck 
with  the  occurrence  of  certain  common  characters— 
viz.,  the  properties  that  distinguish  the  order— in  the 
midst  of  great  varieties  in  all  other  respects.  It  is 
important  that  he  recognise  these  general  marks, 
whether  the  plants  be  trees  or  shrubs,  whether  they 
be  poisonous  or  wholesome,  and  under  niany  other 
diversities.  It  is  exceedingly  important  in  science, 
in  the  business  of  life,  and  even  in  the  creations  of 
fine  art,  that  the  mind  should  take  cognizance  of 
likeness  surrounded  by  unlikeness ;  which  is  the 
case  that  renders  it  necessary  to  characterise^  as 
distinct  the  associating  force  now  under  discussion. 
In  the  case  of  perfect  identity  between  a  present 
and  a  past  impression,  the  past  is  recovered,  and 
fused  with  the  present,  instantaneously  and  surely. 
So  quick  and  certain  is  the  process,  that  we  lose 
sight  of  it  .altogether;  we  are  scarcely  made  aware 
of  the  existence  of  an  associating  link  of  similarity 
under  such  circumstances.  But  when  we  pass  from 
perfect  to  imperfect  or  partial  identity,  we  are  more 
readily  led  to  perceive  the  existence  of  this  link  of 
attraction  between  similars,  for  we  find  that  the 
restoration  sometimes  does  not  take  place  ;  cases  occur 
where  we  fail  to  be  struck  with  a  similitude :  the 
spark  of  resuscitation  does  not  pass  l)etween  the  new 
impression  and  the  old  dormant  one.  Then  it  is  that 
we  recognise  differences  between  dilfcrent  minds ;  one 
man  tracing  resemblance  and  making  out  identity 
better  than  another.  Moreover,  we  can  assign  rea- 
sons connected  with  the  culture  of  the  individual, 
which  partially  explain  superiority  or  inferiority  in  j 
this  important  faculty ;  just  as  we  have  pointed  out 
the  conditions  favourable  to  the  rapid  growth  of  the 
adhesive  bond  of  proximity.  The  failure  in  rein- 
Btating  an  old  impression  by  virtue  of  a  present  one 
like  it,  is  solely  ascribable  to  the  want  of  perfect 
identity.  When  in  some  new  presentation  of  an 
object,  the  old  familiar  form  is  muffled,  oliscured, 
distorted,  disguised,  or  in  any  way  altered,  it  is  just 
a  chance  if  we  recognise  it ;  the  amount  of  likeness 
still  remaining  will  have  a  tendency  to  revive  the 
object,  while  the  points  of  difference  or  unlikeness 
will  operate  against  the  revival,  and  tend  to  restore 
things  of  their  own  kindred.  If  we  hear  a  musical 
air  that  we  are  accustomed  to,  the  new  impression 
revives  the  old  as  a  matter  of  course  ;  but  if  the  air 
is  played  with  complex  harmonies  and  accompani- 
ments which  are  strange  to  us,  it  is  possible  that 
the  effect  of  these  additions  may  be  to  chock  our 
recognition  of  the  melody ;  the  unlike  circumstances 
may  repel  the  reinstatement  of  the  old  experience 
more  strongly  than  the  remaining  likeness  attracts 
it.  If  our  hold  of  the  essential  character  of  the 
melody  is  but  feeble,  and  if  we  are  stunned  and  con- 
founded by  the  new  accompaniments,  there  is  every 
probability  that  we  shall  not  be  put  upon  the  old 
mental  track  made  by  the  same  air  ;  in  other  words, 
we  shall  not  identify  the  performance. 

A  few  examples  may  next  be  given,  to  shew  the 
workings  of  this  associating  power,  and  the  conse- 
quences thence  arising.  The  intellectual  operations 
I  nown  under  the  names  Classification,  Generalisation, 
Induction,  and  Deduction,  all  proceed  upon  the  dis- 
covery of  likeness  among  things  lying  wide  asunder 
in  space  and  time,  and  very  often  veiled  by  diversity. 
Thus,  in  order  to  include  in  one  list  all  the  species  of 
the  rose,  botanists  have  had  to  trace  the  characters 
of  the  genus  through  its  various  members,  wherever 
they  occur,  and  under  the  greatest  differences  in 
496 


every  other  respect.  It  takes  a  keen  identifying 
faculty — that  is,  a  strong  natural  tendency  for  the 
resurrection  of  like  to  meet  like — to  see  the  resem- 
blance of  some  of  these  species  to  the  rest ;  and  it 
has  hapi)ened  in  many  departments  of  knowledge 
that  a  class  has  remained  incomplete  for  a  time, 
purely  from  the  disguised  character  of  some  of  the 
individuals.  So  in  the  process  termed  viduction,  by 
which  a  general  law  is  arrived  at  by  coiiiparing 
instances  of  it  everywhere,  there  must  be  an  attrac- 
tion of  similars,  in  order  to  bring  together  in  the 
mind  the  collection  of  particulars  that  the  induction 
is  based  upon.  Thus,  Newton  assembled  in  his  view 
the  various  transparent  bodies  that  he  had  found  in 
the  course  of  his  experiments  to  refract  or  bend 
light  strongly,  his  only  intellectual  instrument  for 
doing  so  being  the  bond  of  likeness  oi)erating  as  a 
power  of  recall.  Having  looked  at  them  in  company, 
lie  saw  that  some  were  remarkable  for  their  weight 
or  specific  gravity,  and  others  for  containing  iiiHam- 
mable  ingredients ;  upon  which  he  raised  the  general 
induction,  connecting  these  two  propc  rties  with  high 
refrangibility.  Then,  (lidnc/ireh/,  he  applied  this 
generalisation  to  the  diamond,  which  refracts  light 
more  than  any  other  known  substance  ;  and  as  it  is 
not  a  heavy  material,  he  extended  the  other  infer- 
ence to  it — namely,  that  it  was  made  up  of  some 
inflammable  material,  an  inference  afterwards  con- 
firmed by  the  discovery  that  it  is  crystallised  carbon. 
Many  of  the  greatest  discoveries  in  science  have 
turned  on  the  identification  of  modes  of  action  never 
before  supposed  the  same,  as  when  Franklin  was  struck 
with  the  resemblance  between  the  atmosiiheric  thun- 
der and  lightning,  and  the  phenomena  of  common 
electricity. 

Another  wide  field  for  the  operation  of  the  same 
jiriiiciple,  is  the  region  of  iUuxtrative  compfirisons, 
whereby  two  things  widely  remote  arc  brought 
togeth.er,  in  the  view  either  to  elucidate  one  another, 
or  for  the  sake  of  ornament  and  poetic  effect.  Most 
men  of  genius  in  literature  and  poetry  have  contri- 
buted original  illustrations,  similes,  metaphors,  or 
comparisons  in  the  course  of  their  compositions. 
Shaksj)earc  carries  the  palm  in  this  faculty.  The 
writings  of  Bacon  are  rcniarkaVtly  rich  in  those  that 
.serve  the  purpose  of  exposition.  Science  is  with 
him  the  '  interpretation '  of  nature :  final  causes 
are  '  vestal  virgins  ; '  they  have  no  fruit :  fallacies 
are  '  idols.'  Edmund  Burke,  another  master  of 
illustrative  comparison,  has  termed  revolutions  the 
'  medicine '  of  the  state,  and  regular  government  its 
'  food.' 

If  we  inquire  into  the  circumstances  that  render 
one  mind  more  prolific  in  new  identifications  and 
comparisons  than  another,  apart  from  difference  of 
original  capacity,  we  must  refer  mainly  to  the  fact, 
that  the  one  has  had  the  greater  previous  familiarity 
with  the  class  of  things  thus  brought  up  by  the 
attraction  of  similarity.  A  mathematician  is  the 
most  likely  person  to  bring  up  comparisons  from 
mathematics ;  a  botanist  is  prepared  to  identify 
plants ;  a  travelled  man  provides  illustrations  from 
foreign  countries ;  a  historian,  from  history.  The 
sailor  is  notoriously  rich  in  nautical  similes  and 
illustrations.  "When  any  one  not  specially  versed  in 
a  subject  is  yet  prone  to  draw  upon  it  profusely  in 
the  way  of  comparison,  we  must  then  refer  to  great 
natural  endowment  as  the  sole  explanation.  But  our 
space  does  not  allow  us  to  dwell  further  on  the 
subject.  (For  the  full  exemplification  of  both  the 
associating  principles  and  of  the  complications  that 
they  give  birth  to,  see  Bain  on  Tlte  Bc7ises  and  the 
Intellect.) 

The  earliest  known  attempt  to  lay  down  the 
laws  whereby  thought  succeeds  to  thought,  is  that 
contained  in   Aristotle's  treatise   on    Memorv.      He 


ASSOUAN— ASSYRIA. 


enumerates  three  different  principles  of  mental 
resuscitation — viz.,  Similarity,  Contrariety,  and  Co- 
adjaeency.  He  lias  been  followed  by  most  other 
pliilosophers  as  regards  all  tlie  three  principles.  It 
is  now,  however,  clearly  seen  and  generally  admitted, 
that  contrariety  is  not  an  independent  associating 
force.  When  a  thing  suggests  its  opposite  or  con- 
trary, it  will  be  found  that  the  two  have  been  pre- 
viously together  in  the  mind,  and  have  therefore 
acquired  a  mutual  hold  by  contiguity.  Such,  for 
example,  is  black  and  white,  wet  and  dry,  health 
and  sickness,  prosperity  and  adversity,  &c.  Con- 
traries, in  fact,  have  a  natural  inseparability  ;  they 
are  of  the  class  of  relatives  like  father  and  son,  which 
imply  each  other,  necessarily,  and  have  no  meaning 
except  by  mutual  reference.  It  requires  no  new 
principle  of  our  constitution  to  account  for  sugges- 
tion in  this  particular  case.  Moreover,  when  things 
are  strongly  contrasted  with  one  another,  as  high 
position  before  a  fall,  the  mind  is  greatly  impressed 
with  the  shock  of  transition,  and  so  retains  a  lively 
recollection  of  the  sequence,  having  by  that  means 
a  greater  tendency  to  pass  from  the  one  to  the 
other.  Thus,  then,  the  eni.meration  of  Aristotle  is 
reduced  to  the  two  principles  that  we  have  now 
expounded. 

Hobbes  recognised  the  principle  of  contiguity  as 
the  foundation  of  reminiscence  ;  but  the  Aristotelian 
philosopher,  Yives,  who  wrote  in  the  14th  c,  was  the 
first  to  specify  in  minute  detail  the  various  circum- 
stances that  determine  the  adhesive  bond  of  recollec- 
tion. Hume's  enumeration  is  well  known  to  have 
comprised  the  three  principles  of  resemblance,  con- 
tiguity, and  causation,  which  he  illustrates  as 
follows:  'A  picture  naturally  leads  our  thoughts  to 
the  original,  [resemblance].  The  mention  of  one 
apartment  in  a  building  naturally  introduces  an 
inquiry  or  discourse  concerning  the  others,  [conti- 
guity]. And  if  we  think  of  a  wound,  v/e  can  scarce 
forbear  reflecting  on  the  pain  which  follows  it, 
[causation].'  Causation,  however,  is  merely  a  case 
of  contiguitv  ;  so  also  we  may  say  of  Order  in  Place, 
and  Order "  in  Time,  which  have  been  given  as 
distinct  principles. 

An  attempt  has  been  made  to  generalise  Similarity 
into  Contiguity,  but  without  success.  For  a  full  and 
critical  view  of  the  history  of  these  laws,  see  Sir  W. 
Hamilton's  edition  of  Reid. 

ASSOUA'N,  ESSUA'N',  or  ESWA'N,  the  ancient 
Syene,  a  town  of  Upper  Egypt,  on  the  east  bank  of 
the  Nile,  near  the  borders  of  Nubia,  110  miles  south 
of  Thebes,  in  lat.  24°  5'  30"  N.,  and  long.  32°  55'  E. 
There  are  few  remains  existing  of  the  ancient  city. 
Some  granite  columns  present  themselves  among  the 
ruins,  but  do  not  seem  of  an eaily  date  ;  and  part 
of  a  temple  still  remains  with  a  dilapidated  portico. 
Of  the  town-wall,  that  part  which  lies  to  the  south 
of  the  old  town  is  still  standing  ;  and  beyond  it  is 
the  cemetery  of  A.,  where  there  are  numerous  tombs, 
mostly  cenoraphs,  with  Arabic  inscriptions.  In  the 
neighbourhood  there  are  several  granite  quarries, 
some  of  them  remarkable  for  remains  of  ancient 
materials  that  had  been  cut  from  the  rock,  and 
partially  hewn,  and  for  antique  inscriptions  and 
tablets,  announcing  the  removal  of  blocks  and  the 
reign  of  the  Egyptian  monarch  by  whose  orders 
they  had  been  quarried.  The  environs  of  A.  are 
sterile  and  sandy  ;  but  the  palm  thrives,  and  the 
dates,  which  are"  excellent,  form  the  staple  of  the 
trade.  Some  traffic  is  carried  on  in  senna,  henna, 
charcoal,  wicker-baskets,  and  slaves. 

The  ancient  name  Syene  is  the  Coptic  word  souan 
or  suan,  signifying  'opening  ; '  and  the  modern  one 
is  formed  by  adding  the  Arabic  el,  '  the,'  softened 
into  es,  viz.,  JSs-sua?}.,  'the  opening.'  A.  and  its 
vicinity  are  highly  interesting  to  geologists  and 
32 


mineralogists ;  that   kind    of   granite  called  6yenit<> 
receives  its  name  from  the  town. 

ASSU'MPTION,  a  village  and  river  of  Lower 
Canada.  About  8  miles  below  the  village,  the  river 
flows  into  the  St.  Lawrence,  or  rather  into  the  Ottawa, 
nearly  opposite  to  the  lower  extremity  of  the  island 
of  Montreal. — A.,  or  Asuncion,  is  also  the  name  of 
the  capital  of  Paraguay,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
river  of  that  name.  It  has  a  population  of  8000, 
ar.d  has  a  trade  in  hides,  tobacco,  timber,  wax,  and 
Paraguay  tea.  The  city  was  founded  in  1535  by  the 
SpanTsh,  and  soon  became  a  place  of  importance, 
though  not  of  beauty,  being  ill  built,  dirty,  and 
disagreeable.  The  surrounding  country  is  rich  in 
pastures,  and  also  produces  crops  of  wheat,  maize, 
sugar,  tobacco,  honey,  wax,  &c. 

ASSU'MPTION  OF  THE  VIRGIN  MARY. 
A  festival  of  the  Romish  Church.  In  the  7th  c,  tho 
idea  originated  that  the  soul  and  body  of  the  Virgin 
had  been  carried  up  to  heaven  by  Christ  and  hi.s 
angels.  The  Roman  Catliolic  Church,  therefore,  has, 
ever  since  that  period,  kept  the  loth  of  August  in 
memory  of  Marv's  translation  into  glory;  although, 
from  the  4th  c.  until  then,  it  had  kept  tho  same  day 
in  memory  of  her  death.  Liguori,  in  his  Glori/  of 
Mary,  gives  a  very  minute  account  of  the  circum- 
stances of  her  Assumption. 

ASSU'RANCE.     See  Insurance. 
ASSURANCE,    Common,    is   described   by   Black- 
stone    as  the   legal  evidence  of  the    translation  of 
property,  whereby  every  man's    eftate  is  assured    to 
him,  and    all    controversies,   doubts,   and    difficulties 
are  either  prevented  or  removed.     For  an  account  of 
I  these  connnon  assurances  or  conveyances,  as  they  are 
I  generally  termed,  see  Dked  and  Conveyance. 

A'SSYNT,  a  mountainous,  moorish,  and  very 
rugged  district  or  parish,  25  miles  long,  and  15  broad, 
in  south-west  Sutherlandshire.  It  mostly  consists  of 
a  net-work  of  rocky  heights,  interspersed  with  a 
multitude  (200)  of  dark,  motionless  tarns  or  pools,  of 
various  sizes,  with  some  larger  lochs,  the  largest, 
Loch  Assynt,  being  10  miles  long  and  1  broad. 
The  district  'consists  of  gneiss,  Silurian  rocks,  and 
primitive  limestone.  There  are  a  dozen  mountains 
3000 — 3500  feet  high.  Some  of  the  mountains  are 
covered  with  white  bleached  stones  and  protruding 
rocks  like  patches  of  snow.  The  mountains  have 
frequently  the  form  of  artificial  pillars  and  cairns, 
and  are  "the  remains  of  an  enormous  denudation 
of  the  nearly  horizontal  strata  of  the  district. 
Suil  Yeinn  is  "a  perfect  sugar-loaf,  towering  nearly 
2000  feet  above  a  rugged  table-land  of  gneiss  hills, 
800  to  1000  feet  above  the  sea.  In  Advreck  Castle, 
on  a  promontory  on  the  cast  side  of  Loch  A.,  the 
f\imous  Marquis  of  Montrose  was  confined  in  1650. 

ASSY'RIA  (called  Athura  on  Persian  cuneiform 
inscriptions,  and  Assura  on  the  Median)  was  the 
northernmost  of  the  three  great  countries  that 
occupied  the  Mesopotamian  plain.  It  was  bounded 
on  the  N.  by  the  Niphates  Mountains  of  Armenia  ;  on 
the  S.,  by  "Susiana  and  Babylonia ;  on  the  E.  by 
Media ;  aiid  on  the  W.,  according  to  some,  by  the 
Tigris,  but  more  correctly  by  the  water-shed  of  the 
Eifphrates  for  many  Assyrian  ruins  are  found  to 
the  west  of  the  Tigris.  It  was  thus  about  280  miles 
long  from  north  to  south,  and  rather  more  than  150 
broad  from  east  to  west.  This  plain  is  diversified 
by  mountain-chains  on  the  north  and  east,  and 
watered  by  the  Tigris  and  its  affluents,  between 
two  of  whi'ch— the  Zab  rivers— lay  the  finest  part 
of  the  country,  called  Adiabene.  As  it  was  the 
boundary-land  between  the  Semitic  people  and  Iran, 
it  became  the  scene  of  important  political  events. 
Its  extr.Tordinary  fertility  enabled  it  to  support  a 
large    population'.      The  high    degree  of    prosperity 


ASSYRIA. 


and  civilisation  reached  by  its  inhabitants  in  very 
cavly  times  is  attested  not  only  by  ancient  writers, 
but  by  tlic  extensive  ruins  of  niiglity  cities,  ))y  the 
canals  and  contrivances  for  irrigation,  and  by  tiic 
many  proofs — furnished  by  recent  excavations — of 
an  acquaintance  with  the  arts  and  sciences.  The 
ruins  of  many  cities  are  grouped  around  Ninevcli ; 
while  lower  down,  the  Tigris  exhibits  an  almost 
unbroken  line  of  ruins  from  Tckrit  to  Bagdad. 
Under  the  Mohammedans,  this  fine  country  is  now 
almost  a  desert. 

Hisior;!. — Ancient  authorities  differ  widely  from 
each  other  respecting  the  rise  and  progress,  the 
extent  and  the  duration,  of  the  Assyrian  empire. 
Ctesias,  a  Greek  of  Cnidus,  court-physician  to 
Artaxerxes  Mnemon,  is  quoted  by  various  ancient 
writers  ;  and  his  information,  though  utterly  incredible 
and  fabulous,  has  been  followed  by  most  classical 
historians  and  by  the  whole  scries  of  ecclesiastical 
writers.  Many  ingenious  but  futile  attempts  have 
been  made  to  reconcile  his  history  with  the  Scrip- 
ture narrative.  Berosus,  a  priest  of  Bel  at  Bal)y- 
lon,  who  wrote  about  2G8  n.c,  and  Herodotus,  differ 
widely  from  Ctesias,  but  arc  confirmed  in  many 
important  particulars  by  the  Bible,  and  by  the  con- 
tinually increasing  evidence  derived  from  cuneiform 
inscriptions. 

In  the  Bible  narrative,  wc  are  told  that  Nineveh 
was  founded  by  Asshur  from  Babylon  (Gen.  x. 
11).  The  latter  city,  therefore,  must  have  been  the 
capital  of  a  more  ancient  emi)irc,  as  Berosus  asserts, 
and  recent  discoveries  go  far  to  prove,  though  Greek 
writers  maintain  the  reverse.  The  next  notice  we 
have  of  A.  does  not  occur  till  770  n.c,  when  Pul, 
king  of  A.,  invaded  Palestine,  but  was  bought  off 
by  Menahem,  king  of  Israel.  Tiglath-pilescr,  who 
succeeded  Pul  (7.>8  n.c),  conquered  Syria,  and  carried 
off  many  of  the  Jews  into  ca])tivity.  Next,  Salnian- 
ezer  (7oi)  n.c),  subdued  Israel,  which,  at  the  instiga- 
tion of  the  Egyptians,  had  refused  to  pay  tribute. 
The  next  is  Sennacherib  (713  n.c),  who  attacked 
Egypt,  and  threatened  Judah  under  Ilezekiah.  He 
was  slain  l)y  his  two  sons,  and  succeeded  by  his 
son  Esarhaddon,  who  was  also  master  of  Bal)ylon 
(2  Chron.  xxxiii.  11),  which,  under  Nabonassar,  had 
been  independent  of  Nineveh  since  747.  Very  little 
credit  is  to  be  attached  to  the  expedition  of 
Holofernes  recorded  in  the  book  of  Judith. 

After  this,  the  empire  appears  to  have  gradually 
decayed,  until  at  last,  in  the  reign  of  Sardanapalus 
II.,  or  Saracus,  a  league  was  formed  for  its  destruc- 
tion between  Nabopolassar,  governor  of  Babylon, 
and  Cyaxares,  king  of  Media,  which  was  strength- 
ened by  the  marriage  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  son  of  the 
former,  to  Nitocris,  daughter  of  the  latter.  The 
war  and  siege  are  said  to  have  been  interrupted 
by  an  invasion  of  the  Scythians,  which  drew  off 
Cyaxares  ;  but  at  length  Nineveh  was  taken  and 
destroyed  about  606  n.c,  or,  according  to  Eawlinson, 
625.  In  the  time  of  Darius  Hysta-spes,  A.  rebelled 
without  success  in  conjunction  with  Media.  In  the 
time  of  Herodotus,  the  capital  had  ceased  to-  exist; 
and  when  Xenophon  passed  it,  the  very  name  was 
forgot,  though  he  testifies  to  the  extent  of  the 
deserted  city,  and  asserts  the  height  of  the  ruined 
walls  to  be  150  feet.  Probably  in  this  height  is 
included  the  elevation  of  the  river-bank  and  of  the 
mound  on  which  the  wall  stood.  An  inconsiderable 
town  seems  to  have  existed  on  its  ruins  in  the  reign 
of  Claudius  ;  and  the  last  notice  we  have  of  Nineveh 
in  the  Classics  is  in  Tacitus. 

According  to  the  Greek  legends,  the  Assyrian 
empire  was  founded  by  Ninus.  To  this  monarch 
and  his  consort  Semiramis  are  ascribed  expeditions 
on  an  incredibly  magnificent  scale  against  Baetria, 
Ethiopia,  and  India.  We  are  told  that  Semiramis 
498 


led  an  army  of  3,000,000  infantry,  500,000  cavalry, 
and  100,000  chariots,  and  a  fleet  of  2000  ships,  and 
was  encountered  by  forces  moi'c  numerous  still,  and 
defeated;  that  she  returned  to  Nineveh,  where  she 
soon  afterwards  died,  and  was  reckoned  among  the 
gods,  and  was  succeeded  by  her  son  Ninyas,  an  effemi- 
nate prince.  The  succeeding  part  of  the  liistory 
as  related  by  Ctesias  is  equally  false,  though  that 
writer  managed  to  make  tlic  ancient  world  give 
credit  to  his  narrative  in  preference  to  that  of 
Herodotus.  lie  gives  a  list  of  monarehs  from  Ninus 
to  Sardanapalus,  which  is  now  considered  to  be  a 
clumsy  forgery.  According  to  him,  for  thiity  genera- 
tions after  Ninyas,  the  kings  led  a  life  of  luxury  and 
indolence  in  their  palace ;  the  last  of  them,  Sarda- 
napalus, made  a  vigorous  defence  against  Arbaces, 
the  rebel  governor  of  Media,  but  finding  it  impos- 
sible to  defend  Nineveh,  he  set  fire  to  his  palace,  and 
burnt  himself  with  all  his  treasures;  this  event  took 
place  1306  years  after  Ninus.  Now,  the  above  account 
represents  Nineveh  to  have  perished  nearly  three 
centuries  before  the  real  date,  which  was  about  605 
n.c,  and  is  utterly  incompatible  with  Sciipturc. 
Herodotus  assigns  to  the  empire  a  duration  of  520 
years,  and  Berosus  of  526.  In  order  to  reconcile 
these  conflicting  accounts,  historians  have  supposed 
that  Nineveh  was  twice  destroyed,  but  this  supposi- 
tion is  now  generally  rejected.  However,  that 
Nineveh  was  actually  destroyed  by  lire,  is  proved 
from  the  condition  of  the  slabs  and  statues  found 
in  its  ruins,  which  shew  the  action  of  intense 
heat. 

A.  became  a  Median  province,  605  n.c,  and  after- 
wards, in  conjunction  with  Babylonia,  formed  one 
of  the  satrapies  of  the  Persian  empire.  In  331  B.C., 
at  Gaugamela,  near  Arbela,  in  A.,  Alexander 
defeated  Darius  Codomannus.  In  312  n.c,  A. 
became  part  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Seleucidse,  w-hose 
capital  was  Seleucia,  on  the  Tigris.  It  was  after- 
wards subject  to  the  Parthian  kings,  whose  capital 
was  Clesiphon,  and  was  more  than  once  temporarily 
in  possession  of  the  Romans.  When  the  Persian 
monarchy  of  the  Sassanides  was  destroyed  by  the 
successors  of  Mohammed,  A.  was  subject  to  the 
califs.  Their  seat  was  Bagdad  from  762  a.  d.  till 
12.j8.  It  has  been  under  the  Turks  from  1638,  at 
which  period  it  was  wrested  from  the  Persians. 

We  shall  now  proceed  to  mention  a  few  historical 
points  that  have  been  satisfactorily  ascertained 
from  the  cuneiform  inscriptions.  For  these  we  are 
indebted  to  Rawlinson's  Herodotus. 

It  has  not  been  ascertained  when  A.  first  ijecame 
independent  of  Babylpn  (q.  v.).  The  seat  of  govern- 
ment was  first  at  Asshur  (now  Kilch-Shergat),  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Tigris,  60  miles  south  of  the  later 
capital,  Nir.ivch.  At  this  place  have  been  found  the 
bricks  and  fragments  of  vases  bearing  the  names  of 
the  earliest  known  Assyrian  kings,  for  Ninus  and 
Semiramis  are  to  be  considered  as  mere  inventions 
of  Greek  writers.  The  earliest  known  king  is 
Bel-lush,  one  of  a  series  of  four.  These  reigns 
probably  occupy  from  1273  to  1200  n.  C  Of  the 
next  series  of  six,  the  names  of  five  are  recorded  on 
the  famous  Kileh-Shergat  cylinder,  the  earliest 
purely  historical  document  as  yet  discovered  in 
Mesopotamia.  The  fifth  king  of  this  series,  Tiglath- 
pileser  I.,  records  on  this  cylinder  his  own  annals, 
and  traces  back  his  ancestors  thus  :  '  Tiglath-pileser, 
the  illustrious  prince,  whom  Asshur  and  Hercules 
have  exalted  to  the  utmost  wishes  of  his  heart,  who 
has  pursued  after  the  enemies  of  Asshur,  and  has 
subjugated  all  the  earth — the  sou  of  Asshur-rish-ili, 
the  powerful  king,  the  subduer  of  foreign  countries, 
he  who  has  reduced  all  the  lands  of  the  Magian 
world  —  the  grandson  of  Mutaggil-nebu,  whom 
Asshur  the  great  lord  aided  according  to  the  wishes 


ASSYRIA. 


of  his  heart,  and  established  in  strength  in  the 
government  of  A.— the  glorious  offspring  of  Asshur- 
dapal-il,  who  held  the  seeptre  of  dominion,  and 
ruled  over  the  people  of  Bel,  who  in  all  the  works 
of  his  hands  and  the  deeds  of  his  life  jilaeed  his 
reliance  on  the  great  gods,  and  thus  oljtained  a 
prosperous  and  long  life— the  beloved  son  of  Nin- 
pala-kura,  the  king  who  first  organised  the  country 
of  A.,'  &c. 

Tiglathi-nin,  the  last  of  the  Kileh-Shergat  series, 
■was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Asshur-dani-pul,  the  war- 
like Sardanapalus  I.  of  the  Greeks.  He  made  Calah, 
the  modern  Ni^nrud,  his  capital,  lying  4U  miles  fur- 
ther north,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tigris.  His  annals 
are  very  complete.  Among  other  conquests,  he  men- 
tions that  he  had  taken  tribute  from  Tyre,  Sidon, 
and  other  Phcenician  cities.  Ho  was  the  founder  of 
the  north-west  palace  at  Nimrud,  which,  next  to  that 
of  S^ninacherib  at  Koyunjik,  is  tiie  largest  and  most 
magnificent  of  all  the" Assyrian  editices.  The  greater 
portion  of  the  sculi)tures  now  in  the  British  Museum 
arc  from  this  building.  The  palace  of  Solomon  cover- 
ed little  more  than  one-tenth  of  the  space  occupied  by 
this  palace,  and  not  one-thirtieth  of  that  covered  by 
the  vast  building  of  Sennacherib. 

Sardanapalus  I.  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Shalman- 
ubar,  whose  deeds  are  Ijricfly  recorded  on  the  black 
obelisk  now  in  the  British  Museum,  the  full  account 
being  apparently  reserved  for  the  colossal  bulls, 
which  seem  to  have  been  the  usual  dedication  after 
a  victory.  Of  his  campaigns,  the  most  interesting  to 
us  are  those  in  which  he  defeated  Benhadad  of 
Damascus,  and  his  murderer  and  successor  Hazael. 
According  to  his  own  account,  Shalmanubar  defeated 
Hazael,  killing  1G,000  of  his  fighting-men,  and 
capturing  more  than  1100  chariots  (884  B.C.  ).  The 
obelisk  also  records  the  tribute  paid  by  Yahica,  son, 
of  K/minri,  i.  e.,  Jehu,  son  of  Omri,  king  of  Israel. 
Now  Jehu  was  son  of  Jehoshaphat,  and  had  done 
his  utmost  to  extirpate  the  family  of  Omri ;  but  prob- 
ably Jehu,  like  other  usurpers,  was  anxious  to  identify 
himself  with  the  family  which  he  had  dispossessed, 
and  of  course  the  Assyrians  accepted  the  title  he  gave 
himself 

Iva-lush,  probably  the  Pul  of  the  Scriptures,  is  re- 
corded on  a  pavement-slab  from  Nimrud  to  have  re- 
ceived tribute  from  Samaria,  Tyre,  Damascus,  IduniiEa, 
and  Palestine,  which  assertion  agrees  with  the  account 
given  (ii  Kings  xv.)  of  the  1000  talents  paid  by  Mena- 
hem.  With  this  king  ends  the  first  dynasty,  in  which 
we  have  18  raonarchs  from  Bel-lush  to  Iva-lush  (1273 
—HI  n.c). 

The  later  Assyrian  empire  begins  with  Tiglath- 
pileser  II.  (747),  and  ends  with  the  destruction  of 
Nineveh  (625).  It  is  plain  from  Scripture  that  the 
empire  was  in  a  flourishing  condition  during  the  reigns 
of  those  kings  who  came  in  contact  with  the  Hebrews, 
and  this  account  exactly  accords  with  the  momunents, 
but  contradicts  Hero<lotus.  Probably,  on  the  acces- 
sion of  Tiglath-pileser  II.,  who,  in  his  inscriptions, 
makes  no  mention  of  his  ancestors,  nor  even  of  his 
father,  and  therefore  may  be  considered  a  usurper, 
Babylon  had  revolted,  and  this  partial  re))ellion  had 
reached  Herodotus  in  an  exaggerated  form.  The 
annals  of  this  prince  exist  only  in  a  very  fragmentary 
state.  The  namo  of  his  successor,  Shalmaneser,  has 
not  yet  been  found  on  tlie  monuments.  Tlie  capture 
of  Samaria  is  usually  ascribed  to  this  prince,  but  his 
successor,  Sargon,  expressly  asserts  that  Samaria 
was  taken  by  himself  in  his  first  year.  Besides,  in 
2  Kings  xvii.  6,  the  '  king  of  A.'  is  not  necessarily 
the  same  monarch  as  the  '  king  of  A.'  in  the  preced- 
ing verse.  It  would  appear,  therefore,  that  Shal- 
maneser died,  or  was  deposed,  while  Iloshca  still  hold 
out.  Sargou's  palace  at  Kltorxahnd,  near  Nineveh, 
furnished  the  valualjle  series  of  monuments  now  in 


the  Louvre.  Sargon  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Sen- 
nacherib. He  fixed  the  seat  of  j^overnment;  at 
Nineveh,  and  employed  the  forced  labour  of  o6(I,(m)0 
men  to  repair  the  great  paku-e.  Later  in  his  reign, 
he  built  a  new  and  more  magnificent  edifice,  which 
he  decorated  with  sculptures  representing  his  various 
exploits.  This  is  the  palace  excavated  by  Layard. 
It  contained  at  least  three  .spacious  halls — one  of 
them  150  feet  by  125,  and  two  long  galleries,  one  of 
200,  the  other  of  185  feet,  besides  innumerable  cham- 
bers. The  excavated  portion  covers  above  eight 
acres.  The  annals  of  Sennacherib  extend  only  to 
his  eighth  year.  He  relates  at  length  his  successful 
attack  upon  Babylon,  his  invasion  of  Judaea,  the  sub- 
mission of  Hezekiah,  and  his  deportation  of  200,000 
Jews.  This  expedition  is  not  to  be  confounded 
with  the  second  invasion,  in  which  he  failed  ignomin- 
iouslv,  and  which  is  not  recorded  on  his  monuments. 
His  assassination  very  shortly  after  his  return  to  Nine- 
veh, after  his  second  expedition,  readily  accounts  for 
this  silence. 

Esarhaddon,  his  son  and  successor,  held  his  court 
sometimes  at  Nineveh,  sometimes  at  Babylon.  Bricks 
bearing  his  name  have  been  discovered  at  Hil/ah, 
and  a  tablet  at  Babylon  dated  in  his  reign.  This 
explains  how  Manasseh  w^as  brought  to  him  at 
Babylon,  when  he  was  led  captive  from  Jerusalem 
(2  Chron.  xxxiii.).  No  record  has  as  yet  been  dis- 
covered of  this  expedition  against  Palestine.  His 
edifices  are  not  inferior  to  those  of  his  predecessors. 
He  employed  Greek  and  Pluimician  artists,  and  to 
them  probably  we  owe  the  beautiful  bas-reliefs  that 
adorn  the  edifices  of  his  erection.  The  decline  of 
the  empire  probably  connnenccd  with  Asshur-V)ani- 
pal  II.  The  arts  of  peace  flourished,  while  the  mili- 
tary vigour  of  the  nation  declined.  The  sculptures 
of  "this  reign  are  decidedly  superior  to  the  earlier  in 
spirit,  delicacy,  and  freedom  from  conventionality. 
The  slabs  shew  that  hunting,  not  war,  was  this 
king's  favourite  pursuit.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Asshur-emit-ili,  the  last  king  of  whom  any 
records  have  yet  been  discovered.  It  is  uncertain 
whether  Nineveh  was  destroyed  under  him,  or  under 
a  successor,  the  Saracus  of  Berosus,  the  ett'eniinate 
Sardanapalus  of  the  Greeks.  The  character  usually 
given  of  this  last  king,  as  a  debauchee  throwing  off 
his  indolent  habits,  and  after  performing  prodigies 
of  valour,  perishing  by  a  glorious  death,  rather  than 
surrender,  is  derived  solely  from  Ctesias.  All  we 
know  distinctly  is,  that  Saracus  was  betrayed  by 
Nabo{)olassar,  governor  of  Babylon,  who  made  an 
alliance  with  Cyaxares  the  Mede,  and  cemented  it  by 
a  marriage  which  has.  been  alluded  to  before  ;  that 
Saracus,  despairing  of  success,  fired  his  palace  with  his 
own  hand,  and  perished  with  all  belonging  to  him  in 
the  conflagration. 

Govcrnmoit. — The  government  was  despotic,  as 
suited  the  character  of  the  people.  The  empire  was 
a  mere  congeries  of  kingdoms  l)Ound  to  the  supreme 
authority  only  by  certain  obligations  of  paying 
tribute,  giving  presents,  and  shewing  due  respect. 
Each  kingdom  retained  its  own  rulers,  laws,  and 
religion,  although  we  do  find  .some  attempts  to  rule 
by  satraps  and  collectors  of  tril)ute.  Tiglath-pileser 
also  boasts,  in  an  inscription,  of  having  punished 
and  crucified  the  Chaldannis  who  refused  to  worship 
his  gods.  In  consequence  of  this  imperfect  organi- 
sation, the  empire  was  exposed  to  frequent  revolts 
of  the  subject  nations,  when  such  opportunities 
offered  as  a  di.'^pnted  succession,  or  want  of  energy 
in  the  ruling  prince.  Then  the  labour  of  conquest 
had  to  begin  anew,  and  it  was  sought  to  diminish 
the  danger  of  the  central  power  by  inflicting  severe 
punishments  on  the  rebels.  The  history  of  the  Jews 
has  made  us  familiar  with  one  of  these  devices — viz., 
the   wholesale   deportation   of  the   inhabitants  of  the 

499 


ASSYRIA. 


offending  district.  It  mny  be  readily  believed  that 
such  an  empire,  thougli  imposing  from  the  magnifi- 
cence and  wealth  of  the  capital,  yet,  from  the  impov- 
erishment and  weakness  of  the  subject  states,  was 
continually  liable  to  fall  to  piece.s,  and  was  ill  fitted 
to  resist  "an  attack  from  without.  That  A.  did  ac- 
tually last  for  five  centuries,  was  owing  to  a  long  suc- 
cession of  warlike  princes,  and  to  the  energy  of  the 
population. 

Relujion. — The  religion  of  the  Assyrians  was 
nearly  "identical  with  that  of  the  Babylonians.  It 
was  a  gross  polytheism,  their  gods  Ijeing  thousands 
in  number,  and  each  village  having  its  own  particular 
deity.  From  thousands  of  theological  tablets  now 
in  the  British  Museum,  it  is  knowi  that  each 
divinity  had  many  names,  and  some  of  them  as 
many  as  fifty  titles  besides.  Again,  many  deities 
that  are  prominent  in  the  Babylonian  pantheon  are 
either  unknown  or  occupy  a  subordinate  position  in 
the  Assyrian.  Besides,  the  same  gods  did  not  remain 
equally  popular  throughout.  The  supreme  god  was 
Asshur,  probably  the  deified  patriarch.  His  worship 
was  confined  to  A.  He  is  generally  associated  in 
the  inscriptions  with  Nin  and  Ktrgal  (2  Kings 
xvii.  30),  who  are  represented  by  the  man-bull  and 
the  man-lion.  The  winged  globe,  so  often  seen  in 
the  sculptures,  from  which  a  figure  with  a  horned 
helmet  shoots  his  arrows,  is  supposed  to  be  the 
emblem  of  Asshur.  Next  in  rank  is  the  governing 
triad,  answering  to  the  Pluto,  Jupiter,  and  Neptune 
of  the  classical  mythology ;  the  next  group  corres-  i 
ponds  to  ^ther,  the  sun,  and  the  moon  ;  then  five 
inferior  deities,  i-epresenting  the  five  planets.  Each 
god  is  associated  with  a  goddess.  Mylitta,  or  Beltis, 
is  the  '  queen.'  The  male  and  female  powers  of  the 
sun  are  represented  in  the  Scripture  phrase,  '  Adram- 
melech  and  Anamelech,  gods  of  Sepliarvaim  ' — that 
is,  of  Sippara,  a  town  a  i'cw  miles  above  Babylon. 
Bel-mcrodach  was  originally  an  inferior  deity,  son  of 
Hea,  the  fish-god  ;  but  under  the  later  Babylonians, 
we  find  liim  monopolising  the  greater  part  of  the 
homage  which  used  previously  to  be  divided  among 
several.  Nebuchadnezzar  says  :  '  Merodaeli,  the  great 
lord,  the  senior  of  the  gods,  the  most  ancient,  has 
given  all  nations  and  people  to  my  care.'  Nisroch 
(2  Kings  xix.  37)  has  not  been  yet  ascertained.  Nebo 
(Isaiah  xlvi.)  is  one  of  the  five  planetary  gods,  and 
corresponds  to  Mercury.  The  systems  of  notation,  divi- 
sions of  time,  the  planets  and  stars,  animals  and 
metals,  divination  and  astrology,  were  all  more  or  less 
closely  connected  with  theology. 

Ethnology. — When  we  consider  that  Babylon  was 
flourishing  in  all  its  splendour  many  centuries  after 
its  rival  had  ceased  to  exist ;  that  it  was  a  city  of 
marvellous  size,  antiquity,  and  magnificence,  enriched 
not  only  by  the  amazing  fertility  of  its  territory,  but 
by  its  commerce  with  India  and  other  countries ; 
inhahited  by  a  population  remarkable  for  skill  and 
taste  in  costly  manufactures,  and  possessing  a  priestly 
caste,  renowned  as  philosophers,  astronomers,  and 
magicians — we  are  not  surprised  that  the  curiosity 
and  admiration  of  ancient  writers  were  excited,  and 
that  numerous  notices  respecting  Babylon,  are  found 
in  them.  On  the  other  hand,  the  importance  and 
dignity  of  A.  as  a  country  fell  with  its  burning 
capital ;  and  since  that  event  happened  long  before 
classical  historians  had  commenced  to  write,  we  can 
easily  account  for  finding  in  them  extremely  little 
information  respecting  the  character  of  its  population. 
The  Assyrians  have  been  assigned  by  some  ethnolo- 
gists to  the  Aryan  race,  but  it  is  now  generally 
acknowledged  that  they  were  a  branch  of  the 
Semitic  family  of  nations,  and  therefore  were  mem- 
bers of  the  same  grand  division  of  the  human  race 
as  the  Syrians,  the  Phoenicians  with  their  colonies, 
the  Jews,  and  the  nM>dern  Arabiaixs.  In  the  20th 
500 


c.  li.c,  Scmitism,  as  a  distinct,  ethnic  clement, 
appears  to  have  first  developed  itself  The  original 
races,  variously  called  Scytliic,  Turanian  or  Tatar, 
appear  to  have  once  been  spread  over  the  whole 
space  from  the  Caucasus  to  the  Indian  Ocean,  and 
from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  mouths  of  tl-.e  Ganges. 
Their  type  of  language  has  continued  to  our  time  to 
exist  in  four-fifths  of  Asia,  and  in  some  of  the 
remoter  corners  of  Europe,  as  among  the  Fin.s,  Lapps, 
Turks,  and  IIungariai:s.  In  Mesopotamia,  and  in  the 
valley  of  the  Nile,  where  natural  advantages  induced 
men  early  to  form  settled  communities,  the  rude 
and  inartificial  type  of  language  was  developed  into 
Hamitism,  and  afterwards  still  Ir.rther  improved 
into  Scmitism.  Tl:en  seems  to  1  ave  commenced  a 
series  of  migrations.  Asshur  wcr.t  forth  fjrobably 
at  this  time  from  Babylon  to  A.,  Abraham  and  his 
followers  to  Palestine,  the  Joktanian  Arabs  to 
Arabia.  From  these  seats,  Semitism  was  afterwards 
carried  to  Cyprus,  to  the  southern  seaboard  countries 
of  Asia  Minor,  to  Carthage,  Sicily,  Spain,  and  Western 
Africa. 

The  Semitic  family  occupies  a  district  of  very 
small  size  compared  with  the  space  occupied  by 
the  Turanian  and  the  Aryan  or  Indo-European. 
Semitism  has  had  remarkable  influence  over  man- 
kind in  the  development  of  religious  ideas,  and 
by  one  Semitic  people  an  enterprising  and  suc- 
cessful commerce  was  long  carried  on,  and  con- 
siderable conquests  made.  But  if  we  except  the 
rise  of  the  Arabs  in  the  Vth  c.  of  our  era,  produced 
by  religious  excitement,  we  find  that  this  race,  tliough 
possessed  of  great  passive  vitality,  has  been  unable 
to  sustain  an  aggressive  action  for  any  length  of 
time.  The  traditions  of  A.  indicate  a  v(  ry  early 
connection  between  Ethiopia,  Arabia,  and  the  cities 
on  the  Euphrates.  Mesopotamia  undoubtedly  con- 
tained a  large  proportion  of  Arabians,  and  this 
accounts  for  the  fact  that  Herodotus  styles  Senna- 
cherib king  of  the  Arabians  and  Assyrians.  The 
Chaldscans,  colonies  of  whom  were  planted  in 
Armenia  by  the  Assyrian  kings,  are  supposed  by 
some  to  have  been  a  foreign  tribe,  which  had  immi- 
grated from  the  north,  and  become  a  pjriestly  caste. 
But  the  Akkad  race,  of  which  the  Chalda^an  is  a  tribe, 
is  with  more  probability  thought  to  have  inhal)ited 
Babylonia  from  the  remotest  times,  and  liy  it  the 
earliest  civilisation  in  Mesopotomia  was  originated. 
Probably  the  art  of  picture-writing  was  possessed 
by  the  Hamitic  tribes  who  lived  in  the  valley  of  the 
Nile,  and  passed  eastward  to  the  Euphrates.  The 
Akl-nd  language  appears  to  have  been  formed  be- 
fore Semitism  attained  its  peculiar  development  and 
organisation.  Lorg  after  Semitism  liad  become  pre- 
dominant in  Mesopotamia,  the  Akkad  or  Chaldean 
alphabet  continued  to  be  the  scientific  language  in 
which  all  the  tablets  relating  to  mythology,  astro- 
nomy, or  science,  as  well  as  most  historical  and 
official  records,  were  written.  This  alphabet  was 
adopted  with  certain  modifications  by  the  Semitic 
tribes,  which  became  predominant  in  A.  The  cunei- 
form characters  were  elaborated  from  the  forms  of 
natural  objects,  and  gradually  became  phonetic  from 
being  symbolic,  and  for  convenience  of  engraving, 
assumed  the  form  of  arrow-heads,  instead  of  the 
rounded  and  flowing  forms  which  are  introduced  by 
th.e  use  of  plastic  materials.  After  the  Aryan  race 
had  spread  more  extensively  in  Western  Asia,  the 
Persian  monarchs,  when  they  wished  to  make  any 
communication  to  their  subjects  generally  intelli- 
gible, found  it  necessary  to  publish  it  in  three 
languages  belonging  to  the  principal  divisions  of 
human  speech  ;  hence  the  trilingual  inscriptions  of 
Behistun,  &c.,  which  consist  of  an  Indo-European,  a 
Tatar,  and  a  Semitic  column.  It  is  still  necessary  in 
many  places  to  employ  three  tcugues,  representatives 


ASTACUS— ASTER. 


of  the  three  families,  the  Persian,  the  Turkish,  and 
the  Arabic. 

Antiquities,  Civilisatiou,  kc. — The  excavations 
carried  on  bv  1\I.  Botta,  French  consul  at  Mosul,  and 
by  Layard  near  Mosul,  Khorsabad,  and  Koyunjik, 
have  led,  as  we  have  jiarlly  seen,  to  very  interesting 
discoveries.  The  palaces  and  buildings  that  have 
been  laid  open  are  full  of  sculptures,  all  covered 
with  inscriptions,  in  deciphering  which  considerable 
progress  has  been  made,  and  more  maybe  expected. 
Among  the  most  remarkable  monuments  now  in  the 
British  Museum  are  two  winged,  human-headed 
lions,  12  feet  high,  and  as  many  in  length;  winged 
human-headed  bulls  of  similar  dimensions  with  the 
lions;  winged  sphinxes ;  and  the  famous  obelisk  of 
black  marble,  sculptured  on  the  four  sides.  On 
this  last  are  represented  a  victory,  a  prisoner  pros- 
trate at  the  feet  of  the  king,  and  foreign  people 
offering  tribute,  and  leading  such  animals  as  the 
Bactrian    camel,    elephant,  lion,    and   rhinoceros — 


Lion-hunt. 

(From  the  North-west  Palace  at  Nitnrud.) 

animals  found  only  in  lands  far  east  of  the  Tigris. 
The  bas-reliefs  are  very  numerous,  exhibiting  especi- 
ally war  and  hunting.  The  march,  the  onset,  the 
pursuit,  the  siege,  the  passage  of  rivers,  the  submis- 
sion and  treatment  of  captives,  secretaries  noting 
the  number  of  heads  taken  in  battle,  and  the  amount 
of  spoil ;  the  chase  of  the  lion,  of  the  antelope,  of 
the  wild  ass,  and  other  animals — such  are  the 
favourite  subjects  of  the  Assyrian  sculptor.  Nor 
are  they  treated  in  the  conventional  style  of  Egypt, 
but  in  a  manner  ;\  hiih,  for  grace,  spirit,  correctness 
and  delicacy  of  execution,  excels  everything  else 
known  ia  Asiatic  art.  The  artists  sometimes  follow 
modes  of  representation  different  from  ours;  for 
instance,  a  bull  has  five  legs  given  him,  in  order 
that  from  all  points  of  view  he  may  be  seen  with 
four  ;  a  ladder  stands  edgeways  against  a  wall,  to 
show  it  is  not  a  pole.  But  a  truthful  impression  is 
alw;iys  aimed  at,  and  it  is  this  that  gives  these 
sculptures  their  value.  The  labour  bestowed  on  the 
careful  linish  of  a  i)riest's  dress,  and  in  the  tasteful 
decoration  of  an  article  of  furniture,  proves  them  to 
be  the  work  of  an  ingenious  and  painstaking  people. 
From  the  bas-reliefs  we  gain  but  little  information 
respecting  the  private  life  of  the  Assyrians.  There  are 
a  few  which  represent  the  foddering  of  cattle,  women 
riding  un  mules,  &;c. 

It  is  natural  to  ex- ect  that  Nineveh — a  wealthy 
and  luxurious  city — imported  many  of  the  products 
of  other  countries,  yet  the  manufactured  goods 
would  mainly  be  of  home  production.  The  jars, 
bronzes,  glass  bottles,  carved  ornaments  in  ivory  and 
mother-of-pearl,  engraved  gems,  bells,  earrings,  arms, 
utensils,  arc  of  excellent  workmanship.  Tlie  orna- 
ments especially  are  in  good  taste,  and  evince  no 
inconsiderable  skill  in  the  working  of  metals.  Trans- 
parent glass  was  not  unknown,  nor  the  use  of  the 
lens  as  a  magnifying  agent.  The  Assyrians  knew  the 
principle  of  the  arch,  the  use  of  the  lever  and  roller, 
and  the  construction  of  aqueducts  and  drains.    In  the 


arts  of  peace,  they  appear  to  have  been  not  inferior 
to  any  ancient  nation  ;  while  their  conquests,  and  the 
long  duration  of  their  empire,  sufKce  to  prove  thc'if 
capacity  for  war.  Even  their  ruin,  though  usually 
ascribed  to  degeneracy  in  warlike  spirit,  inav  pos- 
sibly, with  equal  jirobability,  be  attributed  to  the 
neighbourhood  of  a  [)owerful  and  jealous  rival,  aided 
by  the  arms  of  the  most  formidable  of  its  subject 
states. 

A'STACUS.     See  Crayfish  and  LonsxERS. 

ASTA'RTl^  (styled  Ashtaroth  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment), the  name  of  the  chief  female  deity  of  ihc 
Phoenicians,  Carthaginians,  and  Syrians  (Syiia  L)e;i), 
also  worshipped  by  the  Jews  in  times  when  idolatry 
prevailed.  A.  was  the  original  from  which  the  Greeks 
borrowed  their  Aphrodite  (q.  v.).  As  Baal  was  god 
of  the  sun,  A.  was  goddess  of  the  moon.  Her  chief 
temples  were  in  Tyre  and  Sidon.  According  to 
ancient  accounts,  her  worship  was  of  a  licentious 
character.  The  oldest  known  image  of  her 
— that  in  Paphos — represented  her  simply 
under  the  form  of  a  white  conical  stone.  In 
Canaan  and  Piinnicia  she  was  subsequently 
typified  under  the  form  of  a  cow,  or  some- 
times she  had  oidy  a  cow's  or  bull's  head ; 
still  later,  her  emblem  became  a  star ;  and 
finally,  she  was  conceived  of  as  the  '  queen 
of  heaven,'  sitting  on  a  lion,  her  head  sur- 
rounded with  rays,  and  in  the  one  hand  a 
thunderbolt,  in  the  other  a  sceptre. 

ASTA'RTE,  a  genus   of  Mollusea,   with 

bivalve  shells,  the  type  of  a  family  Astar- 

tidce,  very  closely  allied    to    the  VeucriJce 

or  Venus  family.     It  is  interesting  chiefly 

with    reference    to    geologic    changes    and 

the     history    of     life     and    organisation,    because 

only    a     few     species    seem     now    to    exist,    and 

these    limited    to    the    Xorth    Atlantic    and    Arctic 

Oceans,    whereas    the   fossil    species    are    extremely 

numerous,  commencing  with    the    lias   period,  and 

distributed  over   the   whole   world.     The  Astartiche 

may  be  regarded  as  having  given  place  to  the  Vene- 

ridae,  which  commenced  with  the  oolitic  period,  and 

are  among  the   most  abundant  bivalve  mollusea  of 

the  present  time. 

A-STAY',  the  position  of  an  anchor  when,  dining 
heaving,  the  cable  forms  an  acute  angle  with  the 
surface  of  the  water. 

A'STER  (Gr.  a  star,  from  the  form  of  the  flower.s), 
a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Couipositce, 
which  Lindley  has  thcrel'ore  chosen  to  call  Asteraeece- 
The  ray  and  the  disk  are  of  different  colours.  The 
genus  contains  a  great  numljer  of  species,  both  herba- 
ceous and  shrubby,  which  have  been  arranged  into  six 
or  seven  groups,  legarded  by  many  as  distinct  genera. 
One  species  oidy,  A.  TripoUum  or  Tripoliinn  vulf/nre, 
the  Sea  Starwort,  is  a  n^'tive  of  Britain.  It  is  com- 
mon in  salt  marshes.  A  number  of  perennial  species 
are  in  cultivation  as  garden-Howers,  of  which  the 
New-England  A.  {A.  Xovcc  ^ »////«)  and  the  Michael- 
mas Daisy  (^1.  I't-adescaidi),  both  natives  of  North 
America,  are  perhaps  the  most  common,  and,  with 
some  of  the  other  species,  arc  prized  as  among  the 
comparatively  few  flowers  to  be  seen  at  that  dull 
season  when  autumn  is  giving  place  to  winter.  But 
the  best  known  and  most  valued  of  all  the  asters  is 
the  China  A.  {A.  Chi)ir7isis),  a  summer  annual,  of 
wliich  many  varieties  are  in  cultivation,  and  new 
ones  are  continually  introduced.  It  was  brought 
from  China  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  18th  e.  The 
varieties  exhibit  great  diversities  of  form  and  colour. 
The  plant  delights  in  a  rich  free  soil.  In  the  northern 
parts  of  Britain,  the  seed  is  generally  sown  in  April 
in  a  hot-bed,  or  in  pots  under  a  frame,   and   the 

501 


ASTERADAD— ASTON'. 


young  asteis  are  planted  out  in  the  open  air  in  May. 
They  flower  from  July  to  the  end  of  autumn,  and 
contribute  much  to  the  liveliness  of  the  flower- 
garden. — A.  argoph)jllus,  or  Haxtonia  ar(ioph}illa,  is 
a  shrub,  a  native-  of  Van  Diemeii's  Land,  smelling 
strongly  of  musk.  The  whole  plant  has  a  whitish 
aspect.  It  grows  to  a  considerable  size,  but  suc- 
ceeds in  the  open  air  only  in  the  very  south  of 
England. 

ASTERABA'D.     See  Asttrabad. 

ASTE'RIAS    AND    ASTERI'AD^.       See     Stah- 

FISII. 

A'STERISK  (Gr.  a  little  star),  a  sign  or  symbol  (*), 
used  in  writing  and  printing  either  as  a  reference  to 
a  note  at  the  bottom  or  on  the  margin  of  the  p.ige. 
The  obelisk  (q.  v.),  or  dagger  (f),  and  many  other 
marks,  are  similarly  employed ;  but  when  there  arc 
several  references  on  the  same  page,  it  is  now  com- 
mon to  use  the  nunioriils  1,  2,  8,  &c.  The  A.  and 
other  similar  signs  may  have  any  arbitrary  meaning 
assigned  to  them  at  the  will  of  the  writer,  an  expla- 
nation being  previously  given  what  the  signification 
is  to  be.  The  Greek  granmiarians,  or  critics,  used 
the  A.  to  mark  a  passage  that  had  been  unjustly 
suspected,  but  was  to  be  held  as  genuine,  or  a 
passage  in  any  v.ay  remarkable  ;  the  obelisk,  again, 
marked  an  interpolated  or  au  objectionable  word  or 
passage. 

A.STEROrDS.     See  Pr-ANKTOins. 

ASTEROPHY'LLITES  (Gr.  antcr,  a  star,  and 
■phyllon^  a  leaf),  a  generic  name,  under  which  are 
included  many  of  the  most  abundant  fossil  plants  of 
the  coal-measures.  The  leaves  are  arranged  in  a 
stellated  manner  around  the  stems  or  brandies. 
The  A.  are  ranked  among  the  exogenous  or  dicoty- 
ledonous fossils,  but  they  are  of  doubtful  aflinity,  and 
the  exact  determination  of  their  place  in  the  system 
has  not  yet  been  accomplished. 

A'STHMA  is  a  disease  characterised  by  the 
breathing,  previously  na.tural,  becoming  difficult, 
and  accompanied  by  wheezing  and  a  distressing 
sense  of  tightness  in  the  chest.  A.  generally  appears 
at  first  after  some  iiiflaumiatory  afl'ection  of  the 
respiratory  mucous  membrane,  and  more  especially 
in  those  who  have  led  dissipated  lives.  In  others,  it 
is  clearly  hereditary,  and  frequently  affects  several 
members  of  the  same  family.  A.  may  be  habitual, 
or  may  occur  in  spasms,  generally  preceded  by  some 
premonitory  symptoms,  as  in  some  by  great  drowsi- 
ness; others,  says  Dr.  Hyde  Salter,  'know  by  extreme 
wakefulness  and  unusual  mental  activity  and 
buoyancy  of  spirits;  and  I  knew  one  case  in  which 
an  attack  of  ophthalmia  occurred.' 

The  spasms  may  occur  at  any  hour;  but  in  nine- 
teen out  of  twenty  cases  they  waken  the  patient 
from  sleep  between  three  and  four  in  the  morning. 
The  horizontal  position  facilitating  the  flow  of  blood 
to  the  right  side  of  the  heart,  and  therefore  to  the 
lungs,  the  disadvantage  at  which  the  muscles  of 
respiration  are  placed,  and  the  greater  readiness 
with  which  sources  of  irritation  act  during  sleep,  ex- 
plain this  fact. 

Persons  subject  to  A.  scarcely  dare  full  asleep  after 
any  imprudence  in  diet ;  if  they  continue  awake  till 
their  supper  is  fairly  digested,  and  the  stomach  empty, 
they  may  go  to  sleep  fearlessly,  and  have  a  good 
night's  rest.  The  asthmatic  paroxysm  is  thus 
described  by  Dr.  Salter,  the  latest  authority  on  this 
common  but  terrible  disease  :  'The  patient  goes  to 
bed  and  sleeps  two  or  three  hours,  becomes  dis- 
tressed in  his  breathing,  and  begins  to  wheeze,  so  as 
to  waken  those  in  adjoining  rooms.  He  awakes, 
changes  his  position,  falls  asleep  again  and  again, 
502 


and  the  miserable  fight  between  A.  and  sleep  niay 
go  on,  till  the  increased  suflering  does  not  allow  the 
patient  longer  to  forget  himself  for  a  moment ;  lie 
becomes  wide  awake,  sits  up  in  bed,  throws  himself 
forward,  plants  his  elbows  on  his  knees,  and  with 
fixed  head  and  elevated  shoulders,  labours  for  breath 
like  a  dying  man.' 

If  the  spasm  is  protracted,  the  oxygenation  of  his 
blood  is  imperfectly  ijcrformcd,  owing  to  the  scanty 
supply  of  air,  and  his  extremities  get  cold  and  blue, 
but  at  the  same  time  the  violent  muscular  efforts  at 
respiration  cover  him  with  sweat.  The  pulse  is 
always  small.  The  muscles  of  the  back  and  neck 
attached  to  the  ribs,  act  as  extraordinary  muscles 
of  respiration.  The  chest  enlarges  during  the 
paroxysm,  but  in  it  there  is  almost  perfect  stagnation 
of  air.  The  respiratory  tubes  allecled  are  very  small, 
and  the  parts  at  which  they  are  so  constricted  arc 
constantly  shifting. 

The  remedies  for  A.  are  numerous,  but  not  to  be 
depended  on.  They  consist  in  paying  attention  to  the 
digestive  system,  and  in  anti-spasmodics,  cither  taken 
internally  or  by  inhalation. 

A'STI  (vl.ste  Powpeia)^  a  city  of  Piedmont,  in  the 
government  of  Ale.-sandria,  lies  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Tanaro,  on  the  line  of  railway  from  Turin 
to  Genoa,  2(;i  miles  E.S.E.  of  Turin.  Pop.  2.'i,200. 
It  is  a  large  town,  with  walls  considerably  dilapidated, 
and  the  streets  generally  very  narrow  and  ii-regular. 
It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  and  has  a  court  of  justice 
and  a  royal  college.  There  is  carried  on  a  consider- 
able trade  in  silk  and  woollen  fabrics,  leather,  and 
hats,  as  well  as  in  wines  and  agricultural  jiroducc. 
A.  is  a  town  of  high  antiquity,  iiaving  been  famous 
for  its  pottery  before  its  capture  by  the  Gauls  in 
4t)0  r.c.  On  the  occasion  of  its  lacing  again  taken 
and  destroyed  in  an  irruption  of  the  Gauls,  it  was 
rebuilt  by  Pompey,  and  received  the  name  of  Asta 
Pompeia.  In  the  middle  ages,  A.  was  one  of  the 
most  powerful  republics  of  Upper  Italy.  It  was 
captured  and  burnt  by  the  Emperor  Frederick  I.  in 
11.55;  and  after  a  series  of  vicissitudes,  it  came  into 
the  possession  of  the  Yisconti  of  Kajiles,  by  whom 
it  was  ceded  to  the  French,  in  whose  hands  it 
remained  till  the  middle  of  the  IGth  c,  when  it 
came  into  the  possession  of  the  Dukes  of  Savoy,  as 
it  still  lemains. — The  province  of  Asti,  one  of  the 
six  subdivisions  of  the  government  of  A!cssandr-ia,  is 
bounded  on  the  AV.  and  I>.  by  the  province  of  Turin, 
S.  by  Alba,  S.  E.  by  Alessandria  Proper,  and  N.  E. 
by  the  province  of  Casale.  The  surface  is  hilly  and 
picturesque.  The  soil  rests  upon  limestone  abound- 
ing in  fossils,  and  is  fertile,  producing  corn,  fruit, 
and  wine.  It  is  celebrated  for  a  fine  white  wine 
resembling  champagne,  called  vino  d^ Asti.  Silk  is 
one  of  its  most  important  products,  and  the  mulberry 
is  extensively  cultivated.     Pop.  118, TOO. 

ASTON,  LuisE,  a  German  authoress  of  some 
note,  but  principally  known  for  her  zeal  in  behalf 
of  the  '  rights  of  women.'  She  was  born  in  the 
vicinity  of  Halberstadt,  and  at  an  early  age  was 
married  to  a  wealthy  Engii>h  manufacturer.  Their 
union  was  not  happy ;  perhaps  her  peculiar  views  of 
society  and  of  the  proper  position  of  her  sex  contri- 
buted to  the  estrangement  of  their  sympathies. 
After  separating  from  her  husband  she  attracted 
public  attention,  especially  in  Berlin,  by  appearing 
on  tlie  streets  in  man's  dress,  smoking  cigars,  &c. 
This  conduct  brought  her  into  several  collisions 
with  the  police,  and  she  was  twice  forced  to  leave 
the  city.  During  the  Schleswig-Holstein  war, 
however,  she  found  a  nobler  sphere  for  her  woman's 
nature,  and  displayed  the  greatest  heroism  and 
self-sacrificing  devotion  as  an  hospital  nurse.  She 
has  written  various  books,  the  j  rincipal  arc — Wild 


ASTOR— ASTRAGALUS. 


Jloscs  (l)Ciliii,  ISIO),  AV\(\  Frcischarler-Ileminiscen-en 
(Leip.  1849),  each  of  which  contains  twelve  lyiical 
poejiis,  none  remarkable  for  ability ;  Jfcine  Evianii- 
pation,  Verwcisung,  und  Rech'fcrti(/v>ic/{}tly  Vlmnuci- 
patiou,  Exile,  and  Vindication,  Brussels,  1810);  a 
novel,  Aim  (km  Lcbcit,  eiiicr  Frau  (The  Biography  of 
a  Woman,  Hamburg,  18-17);  Rcvohitlon  und  C'ontrc- 
revoiution  (M;innh.  1849).  In  the  beginning  of  1851, 
she  married  Dr.  Meier  of  Bremen. 

ASTOR,  John  Jacob,  an  enterprising  merchant, 
founder  of  the  '  American  Fur  Company,'  was  born  in 
a  village  near  Heidelberg,  in  Germany,  17G3.  After 
spending  some  years  in  London,  he  sailed  to  America 
in  1783,  and  soon  invested  his  small  capital  in  furs. 
By  economy  and  industry,  he  so  increased  his 
means  that  after  six  years  ho  had  ac([uired  a  for- 
tune of  200,()U0  dollars.  Although  tlie  increasing 
influence  of  the  English  Fur  Conipaniea  in  North 
America  was  unfavourable  to  his  plans,  he  now 
ventured  to  fit  out  two  expeditions  to  the  Oregon 
territory — one  by  land,  and  one  by  sea — the  purpose 
of  which  was  to  open  up  a  regular  commercial  inter- 
course with  the  natives.  After  many  mishaps,  his 
object  was  achieved  in  1811,  and  the  fur-trading 
station  of  Astoria  (q.  v.)  was  estal)lishcd ;  but  the 
war  of  1812  stopped  its  prosperity  for  a  time.  From 
this  period  A.'s  commercial  connections  extended 
over  the  entire  globe,  and  his  ships  were  found  in 
every  sea.  Ho  died  March  29,  1848,  leaving  pro- 
perty amounting  to  80,000,000  dollars.  He  left  a 
legacy,  amounting  to  350,000  dollars,  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  public  library  in  New  York.  (Wash- 
ington L'ving's  Astoria.) 

ASTO'RGA,  E.MANUELE  d',  a  musician,  celebrated 
partly  on  accotnit  of  his  personal  history,  was  born 
in  Sicily  in  1680.  His  father,  a  baron  of  Sicily,  in 
the  contest  respecting  the  annexation  of  the  island 
to  Spain,  was  delivered  over  to  the  enemy  by  his 
own  mercenary  soldiers,  and  was  executed  in  1701  ; 
while  his  wife  and  son  (Emanuele)  were  barbarously 
compelled  to  witness  the  tragedy.  The  wife  died 
on  the  spot,  and  the  son  fell  into  a  state  of  uncon- 
sciousness. Afterwards,  through  the  interest  of  the 
Spanish  Princess  Ursiui,  he  was  educated  in  a 
monastery  at  Astorga  iu  Leon,  from  which  he 
derived  his  name.  Here  he  especially  devoted 
himself  to  music,  and  made  such  progress  that,  in  a 
few  years,  he  was  invited  to  the  court  of  the  DcdvC 
of  Parma.  His  patron,  erroneously  suspecting  that 
his  daughter  was  receiving  the  addresses  of  the 
musician,  sent  him  away  to  the  court  of  the 
Emperor  Leopold.  After  Leopold's  death,  A. 
travelled  through  a  great  part  of  Europe,  and  it  is 
supposed  that  he  died  in  a  Bohemian  monastery. 
His  best  work  is  the  Sf.abaf.  Ma'er,  a  masterly  com- 
position, of  which  the  original  score  is  still  preserved 
in  Oxford. 

ASTO'RIA,  originally  a  fur-trading  station  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Columbia,  near  the  Pacific,  tak- 
ing its  name  from  its  founder,  John  Jacob  Astor 
of  New  York.  It  demands  notice  here  chiefly 
as  having  been  a  main  point  in  the  American  claim 
to  the  Oregon  Territory  (q.  v.). 

ASTRABA'D,  a  town  in  the  north  of  Persia, 
capital  of  the  province  of  the  same  name,  is  built 
at  the  foot  of  the  northern  slojie  of  the  Elbruz 
Mountains,  on  a  sukiU  river  which  runs  into  A. 
Bay,  at  the  south-east  extremity  of  the  Caspian, 
from  which  it  is  distant  20  miles.  Lat.  36°  5o'N., 
long.  54°  31'  E.  It  was  long  the  residence  of  the 
Kajar  princes,  from  whom  the  present  Shah  of 
Persia  is  descended  ;  but  on  account  of  its  situation 
iu  a  remote  corner  of  the  kingdom,  it  was  not 
advanced  to  the  dignity  of  the  metropolis  of  Persia. 
Teheran,  at  the  foot  of  the  chain  of  nioiuit;.ins  which 


separates  Iran  from  Mazanderan,  became  the  capital . 
and  since  then  the  importance  of  A.  has  consider- 
ably sunk.  It  is  still  enclosed  by  a  dry  ditch  and 
mud-wall,  3  miles  in  circumference,  but  its  great 
to.wers  have  disappeared.  Trade  is  small.  The 
causeway  constructed  by  Shah  Abbas  is,  however, 
kept  in  good  repair,  and  connects  A.  with  Klioras- 
san,  Afghanistan,  <S:e.  Pop.  varies  from  4i tin i  toio,- 
(UO,  on  account  of  the  unhealthiness  of  the  place 
during  the  summer  rains. 

ASTR.E'A,  daughter  of  Zens  and  Themis,  or  of 
Astrajus  and  Aurora,  was  the  goddess  of  justice, 
the  last  of  all  the  goddesses  who  left  the  earth  when 
the  golden  age  had  passed  away  and  men  began  to 
forge  weapons  and  perpetrate  acts  of  violence.  She 
took  her  place  in  heaven  as  the  constellation  Virgo 
in  the  zodiac. — Greek  art  usually  represented  her 
with  a  pair  of  balances  in  her  hand,  and  a  crown  of 
stars  on  her  head. — A.  is  also  the  name  of  one  ci  the 
Planetoids  (q.  v.). 

ASTR.'E'A.     See  Coual  and  Madrkpork. 

ASTRA'GALUS,  a  bone  of  the  foot,  which,  by  a 
convex  upper  surface  and  smooth  sides,  forms,  with 
the  leg-bones,  the  hinge  of  the  ankle-joint.  Its  lower 
surface  is  concave,  and  rests  on  the  os  ca/cis,  or  heel- 
bone,  to  which  it  is  attached  by  a  strong  ligament. 
In  front,  it  has  a  round  head,  which  rests  in  the  con- 
cavity of  the  scaphoid,  another  bone  of  t!ic  tarsus, 
and  upon  an  elastic  ligament,  its  pressure  upon 
which  gives  in  a  great  measure  the  necessary  elasti- 
city to  the  foot :  it  is  at  this  joint  that  inversion  and 
eversion  of  the  foot  take  place.  It  will  be  seen  that 
the  A.  is  a  bone  of  great  importance  to  the  member, 
as  it  supports  the  weight  of  the  body  in  standing, 
and  enters  into  most  of  the  movements  of  the  foot. 
It  is  occasionally  displaced,  generally  in  front  of  the 
outer  ankle. 

ASTRA'GALTTS,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order    Lrguinhioxiv,   sub-order  Fajyilionaccce.       The 


Astragalus  Boiticus. 

pod  is  more  or  less  perfectly  2-celled.  The  leaves 
ai-e  pinnate,  with  a  terminal  leafier.  The  species 
are    minierous,  natives  chiefly  of  the   temperate  and 

5n3 


ASTR  AKII  AX— ASTROC  A  JIYUM . 


co?der  parts  of  tho  Old  World,  shrubby,  and  often 
spiny,  or  unarmed  and  licrbaccous.  A  number  of 
the  shrubby  species  yield  the  .«ub.stance  called 
Tragacauth  (q.  v.),  or  Gum  Tragacanth. — A.  Bo'c 
ticus,  an  annual,  native  of  the  south  of  Europe, 
with  upright  branching  stems,  is  cultivated  in 
Hungary,  Germany,  and  other  parts  of  Europe,  for 
its  seeds,  which  are  roasted,  ground,  and  used  as  a 
substitute  for  cofl'ce,  or  mixed  with  it  to  improve  its 
flavour.— The  Sweet  Milk-vetch,  or  Wild  Liquorice 
{A.  ffl_i/ci/phi/llos),  a  native  of  Britain  and  other  parts 
of  Europe,  perennial,  with  long  and  very  thick 
roots,  which  penetrate  deep  into  the  soil,  and  al- 
most prostrate  stems,  three  feet  in  length,  is  occa- 
sionally cultivated  for  food  of  cattle,  yielding  a  very 
abundant  herbage.  Cattle  are  not  fond  of  it  at 
first,  but  are  said  to  become  fond  of  it  after  being 
accustomed  to  it  for  some  time.  The  roots  have 
somewhat  of  the  sweetness  of  liquorice. 

ASTRAKHA'N,  originally  a  province  of  the 
Mogul  empire,  but  united  with  the  Russian  empire 
in  1554.  At  present,  A.  forms  one  of  the  south- 
east governments  of  Russia  in  Europe,  and  is 
bounded  on  the  S.  by  the  Caspian  Sea  and  the 
Caucasus ;  on  the  W.,  by  the  country  of  the  Don 
Cossacks  ;  on  the  N.,  by  the  government  of  Saratov; 
and  on  the  E.,  by  Orenburg.  Area,  50,000  s(|uare 
miles;  pop.  285,000.  The  province  of  A.  is  almost 
entirely  a  barren  waste,  the  only  fertile  portions 
being  the  banks  of  the  Volga,  which  divides  the 
province  into  two  equal  parts.  Salt  is  procured 
from  the  marshes  of  the  steppes,  consi(lcral)le  num- 
bers of  cattle  are  reared,  and  the  annual  value  of  the 
stui-geon-fishing  in  theA'olga  is  as  much  as  2,500,000 
rubles  (about  £400,000).  The  climate  varies  from 
•^O"  r.  in  summer,  to  13^  in  winter.  The  population 
is  composed  of  diverse  elements — Russian,  Tatar, 
Georgian,  Armenian,  Bokharese,  Tcrsian,  and 
Hindu. 

Astkakha'n,  the  chief  town  of  tlic  government 
of  the  same  name,  is  situated  on  an  island  of  (he 
Volga,  and  near  the  Caspian  Sea,  in  lat.  40°  21'  N., 
and  long.  48°  4'  E.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  Greek 
archbishop  and  an  Armenian  bishop ;  lias  thirty- 
seven  Greek,  two  Roman  Catholic,  one  Protestant, 
and  two  Armenian  churches;  fifteen  mosques,  an 
Indian  temple,  a  gymnasium,  a  seminary  for  priests, 
a  botanical  garden,  and  many  manufactories.  Pop. 
30,480.  The  houses  are  mostly  of  wood,  and  irre- 
gularly built.  The  fisheries  in  the  Volga  supply 
occupation  to  great  numbers  of  the  inliubitants  of 
A.  and  its  neighbourhood.  The  principal  exports 
are  leather,  linen  and  woollen  goods,  salted  sturgeon, 
caviar,  and  isinglass.  Imports  consist  chiefly  of 
gold-embroidered  silken  goods  from  Persia,  silk 
stuffs,  woollen  goods,  rice,  rhubarb,  raw  silk,  drugs, 
&c.  From  July  to  October,  the  neighbouriiood  of 
A.  is  frequently  visited  by  swarms  of  locusts. — A. 
is  the  name  of  a  fine  description  of  fur,  the  produce 
of  a  variety  of  sheep  found  in  Bokhara,  Persia,  and 
Syria. 

A'STRAL  SPI'RITS.  The  star  (Gr.  astron)  and 
fire  worship  of  the  eastern  religions  rested  on  the 
doctrine,  that  every  heavenly  body  is  animated  by  a 
pervading  spirit,  forming,  as  it  were,  its  soul  ;  and 
this  doctrine  passed  into  the  religio-physical  theories 
of  the  Greeks  and  Jews,  and  even  into  the  Christian 
world.  In  the  demonology  or  spirit-systems  of 
Christendom  in  the  middle  ages,  A.  S.  are  conceived 
of  sometimes  as  fallen  angels,  sometimes  as  souls  of 
departed  men,  sometimes  as  spirits  originating  in 
fire,  and  hovering  between  heaven,  earth,  and  hell, 
without  belonging  to  any  one  of  these  provinces. 
Their  intercourse  with  men  and  their  influence  were 
variously  represented,  according  to  the  notion  formed 
504 


of  their  nature.  As  tlie  belief  in  spirits  and  witch- 
craft reached  its  height,  in  the  15th  c,  the  demoi.o- 
logists,  or  special  students  of  this  subject,  systema- 
tised  the  strange  fancies  of  that  wild  period;  and  A. 
S.  were  made  to  occupy  the  first  rank  among  evil 
or  demoniacal  spirits.  Paracelsus,  however,  and 
others  attributed  to  every  human  being  an  astral 
sj)irit,  or  sidereal  element,  in  which  the  human  sold, 
or  spirit  proper,  is  thought  to  inhere,  and  which  lives 
lor  a  time  after  the  person  dies. 

ASTRI'NGENTS,  medicines  employed  for  the  pur- 
pose of  contracting  the  animal  fibres  and  canals,  so 
as  to  check  fluxes,  h.-vmorrhage,  and  diarrhoea.  The 
drugs  most  commonly  used  as  A.  arc  alum,  catechu, 
oak-galls,  ihatany-root,  &c.  Many  of  the  vegeta- 
ble A.  owe  that  property,  in  whole  or  in  great  part, 
to  tannin.  A  severe  degree  of  cold  is  a  powerful  as- 
tringent. 

ASTROCA'RYUM  (from  the  Gr.  aslron,  a  star, 
and  karj/071,  a  nut),  a  genus  of  Palms,  of  which  about 
sixteen  species  arc  known,  natives  of  tropical  Amer- 
ica, remarkable  for  the  abundance  of  acute  and 
formidable  spines — in  some  cases,  a  foot  long — with 
which  almost  every  part — stem,  leaves,  spaihe,  and 
fruit-stalk — is  arnu'd.  They  have  beautiful  pinnated 
leaves ;  some  of  thcni  are  lofty,  others  are  of  very 
moderate  height,  as  8 — 15  feet,  whilst  some  are 
almost  or  altogether  stemless.  The  iriiit  of  some 
species  is  eatable — a  juicy  pulp  covering  a  stony 
seed  —  as  the  fruit  of  the  MuiirMinu  palm  (A. 
Muruuntru),  the  pulp  of  which  is  said  to  resemble 
a  melon  in  flavour,  has  a  sort  of  musky  odour,  and 
is  highly  esteemed.  It  is  a  palm  of  only  about  8 — 12 
feet  high,  abundant  about  Para  and  elsewhere  on 
the  Amazon.  Cattle  roam  the  forests  in  ([uest  of 
its  fruit,  and  swine  fatten  on  the  seed,  which  they 
crush  witii  their  teeth,  alihough  to  break  it  reijuires 
a    smart   blow    of  a   hammer,    and    ia   hardness   it 


/#^ 


Tuciim  Palm  {A.  vxdcjare). 

almost  resembles  vegetable  ivory.  Another  edible 
fruit  is  that  of  the  Tucuma  palm  (^-1.  Tucuma). 
abundant  in  the  same  regions.  These  fruits  are  about 
an    inch    loner,   the   Murumurii   ovate    the    Tucuma 


ASTROLABE— ASTROXOMY. 


almost  {jlobular.  The  Tucumu  palm  is  30 — -iO 
feet  liigli,  the  stem  encircled  with  narrow  rings 
of   black  spines,  which  are    disposed  with  beautiful 


Stcmless  Palm  (A.  acavle). 

b,  spadix,  with  spatho  forming  a  hood  over  fruit ;  c,  fruit, 

about  one-fiftli  natural  size. 


regularity.  The  TucuM  palm  {A.  vulgare),  a  species 
quite  distinct  from  the  Tucuma,  and  more  lofty,  is 
of  great  importance  to  the  Indians,  and  in  places 
where  it  is  not  indigenous,  is  cultivated  with  care 
for  the  sake  of  the  epidermis  of  its  unopened  leaves, 
of  which  they  make  cordage,  very  useful  for  bow- 
strings, fishiug-ncts,  &c.  The  fibre  is  at  once  fine, 
strong,  and  durable,  and  may  yet  perhaps  become 
important  as  an  article  of  commerce.  Beautifid 
hammocks  are  made  of  tucum  thread,  which  are 
sold  at  about  £3  each,  or  if  ornamented  with  feather- 
work  borders,  at  twice  that  sum.  Martins,  in  his 
great  work  on  Palms,  has,  by  mistake,  represented 
the  Tucuniil  instead  of  the  Tucum  palm  as  yielding 
this  fibre.  See  Wallace,  Palm  7'reen  of  the  Amaxo^i. 
Loud.  ISnS.  The  fibre  is  obtained  by  cutting  down 
the  terjuinal  bud  or  colunm  of  unopened  leaves 
whic'.i  rises  from  the  centre  of  the  crown  of  follMge. 
The  tender  leaflets  are  then  carefully  stripped  of 
their  epidermis,  in  pule,  ribbon-like  pellicles  which 
shrivel  up  almost  to  a  thread.  These  are  tied  iu 
bundles,  and  dried,  and  are  afterwards  twisted  into 
thread,  or  nuule  into  thicker  cords,  by  mere  rolling 
and  manipulation. 

A'STROLABE  (from  two  Greek  words  signifying 
'  to  take  the  stars'),  the  name  given  by  the  Greeks 
to  any  circular  instrument  for  observing  the  stars. 
Circular  rings,  arranged  as  in  the  Armillary  sphere 
(q.  v.),  were  used  for  this  ptu-pose.  A  projection  of 
the  spiiere  upon  a  plane,  with  a  graduated  rim  and 
sights  for  taking  altitudes,  was  known  as  an  A.  in 
the  palmy  days  of  astrology,  and  was  the  badge  of 
the  astrologer.  The  A.  has  been  superseded  by  the 
more  perfect  instruments  of  modern  astronomy. 

ASTRO'IiOGY  meant  originally  much  the  same 
as  astrononti/,  '  the  knowledge  of  the  stars,'  but  was 
at  length  restricted  to  the  science  of  predicting 
futuie  events,  especially  the  fortunes  of  men,  from 
the  positions  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  This  was  con- 
sidered tlie  higher,  the  real  science;  while  the  mere 
knowledge  of  tlie  stars  themselves,  their  places  and 
motions  (astronomy),  was,  till  a  very  recent  [jcriod, 
cultivated  mostly  witli  a  view  to  (judicial)  astrology, 
A.  is  o;ie  of  the  most  ancient  forms  of  superstition, 
and  is  found  prevaiiing  among  the  nations  of  the  East 
(Egyptians,  Chaldiean-;,  Hindus,  Chinese)  at  the  very 
dawn  of  history.  The  Jews  became  much  addicted 
to  it  after  the  captivity.  It  spread  into  the  West  and 
to  Rome  about  the  bcginuiug  of  the  Christian  era. 


Astrologers  played  an  important  part  at  Rome, 
where  tiiey  were  called  Clialdirans  and  Mathe- 
maticians ;  and  though  often  banisjied  by  the  senate 
and  emperors  under  pain  of  death,  and  otherwise 
persecuted,  they  continued  to  hold  their  ground.  The 
Roman  poet  Manilius,  author  of  an  astronomical 
poem  still  extant,  was  addicted  to  A.  ;  and  even 
Ptolemy  the  astronomer  did  not  escape  the  infection, 
which  in  his  time  had  become  universal.  It  accords 
well  with  the  predestiuarian  doctrines  of  Moham- 
medanism, and  was  accordingly  cultivated  with 
great  ardour  by  the  Arabs  from  the  7th  to  the  13th 
c.  Some  of  the  early  Christian  fathers  argued 
against  the  doctrines  of  A.,  others  received  them  iu 
a  modified  form.'  In  its  public  capacity,  the  Catholic 
Church  several  times  condemned  the  system  ;  but 
many  zealous  Catholics,  even  churchmen,  have 
cidtivated  it.  Cardinal  d'Ailly,  'the  Eagle  of  the 
doctors  of  France'  (died  142(j),  is  said  to  have  calcu- 
lated the  horoscope  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  maintained 
that  the  deluge  might  have  been  predicted  by  A. 
For  centuries  the  most  learned  men  continued 
devoted  to  this  delusive  science  ;  Regiomontanus, 
the  famous  mathenuitician  Cardan,  even  Tycho 
Brahe  and  Kepler  could  not  shake  off  the  fascina- 
tion. Kepler  saw  the  weakness  of  A.  as  a  science, 
but  could  not  bring  himself  to  deny  a  certain  con- 
nection between  the  positions  ('constellations')  of  the 
planets  and  the  qualities  of  those  born  under  them. 
The  Copernican  system  gave  tlic  death  blow  to  A. 
Wlien  the  earth  itself  was  found  to  be  only  one  of 
the  planets,  it  seemed  absurd  tliat  all  the  others 
should  be  occupied  in  influencing  it.  The  argument 
has  really  little  force,  but  it  produced  the  effect. 
Belief  in  A.  is  not  now  ostensibly  professed  in  any 
Christian  country,  though  a  few  solitary  advocates 
have  from  time  to  time  appeared,  as  J.  M.  Pfaff 
in  Germany,  Astrolor/le  (Bamb.  ISIG).  But  it  still 
holds  sway  in  the  East,  and  aniong  Mahoumiedans 
wherever  situated.  Even  in  Europe  the  craving 
of  the  ignorant  of  all  countries  for  divination  is 
still  gratified  by  the  publication  of  nniltitudes  of 
almanacs  containing  astrological  piedictious,  though 
the  writers  no  longer  believe  in  them. 

Many  passages  of  our  old  writers  are  unintelligible 
without  some  laiow  ledge  of  astrological  terms,  num- 
bers of  which  have  taken  root  in  the  language.  la 
the  technical  rules  by  which  human  destiny  was 
foreseen,  the  heavenly  houses  played  an  imp.ortant 
part.  Astrologers  were  by  no  means  at  one  as  to 
the  way  of  laying  out  those  houses.  A  very  general 
way  was  to  draw  great  circles  through  the  north 
and  south  points  of  the  horizon,  as  meridians  pass 
throngh  the  poles,  dividing  the  heavens,  visible  and 
invisible,  into  twelve  equal  parts — si.\  above  the 
horizon,  and  six  below.  These  were  the  twelve 
houses,  and  were  numbered  onward,  beginning  with 
that  which  lay  in  the  east  immediately  below  the 
horizon.  The  first  was  called  the  liouse  of  life;  the 
second,  of  fortune,  or  riches;  the  third,  of  brethren; 
the  fourth,  of  relations;  the  fifth,  of  children;  the 
sixth,  of  health ;  the  seventh,  of  marriage ;  the 
eighth,  of  death,  or  the  ujiper  portal;  the  ninth,  of 
religion ;  the  tenth,  of  dignities ;  the  eleventh,  of 
friends  and  benefactors ;  the  twelfth,  of  enemies,  or 
of  captivity.  The  position  of  the  twelve  hor.ses  for 
a  given  time  and  place — the  instant  of  an  individual's 
birth,  ibr  instance — was  a  (heme.  To  construct  such 
a  plan  was  to  cast  the  person's  nativity.  The  houses 
had  dificreut  powers,  the  strongest  being  the  first ; 
as  it  contained  the  part  of  ll'.e  heavens  about  to  rise, 
it  was  called  the  ascendant,  and  the  point  of  the 
ecliptic  cut  by  its  upper  boundary  was  the  horo- 
scope. Each  house  had  one  of  the  heavenly  bodies 
as  its  lord,  who  was  strongest  in  his  own  house. 

ASTRONOMY  (Gr.  astroriy  a  star,  nomos,  a  law) 

505 


ASTRONOMY. 


teaches  whatever  is  known  of  the  heavenly  bodies. 
A.  may  be  properly  divided  under  three  heads.  1. 
Geometrical  or  Jila'licinatical  A.,  including  the  exact 
determination  of  the  numerical  and  geometrical  ele- 
ments of  the  heavenly  bodies — that  is,  their  distances, 
shapes,  nuignitudes,  the  figures  they  describe  in 
their  motions,  &c.  2.  Physical  A.,  or  the  nature  of 
the  powers  or  forces  that  carry  on  the  heavenly 
motions,  the  kaws  that  they  observe,  and  the 
calculation  of  the  motions  from  a  knowledge  of 
these  laws.  S.  Sidereal  A.,  or  whatever  is  ascer- 
tained regarding  the  universe  of  the  fi.Ked  stars. 
Practical  A.  might  form  another  division,  which 
would  include  a  knowledge  of  the  various  astro- 
nomical instruments ;  and  a  familiarity  generally 
with  the  rules  and  calculations  by  which  the  re- 
quisite results  are  deduced  from  observations. 

Such  parts  of  this  extensive  subject  as  are  deemed 
Buited  to  tlie  present  work,  will  be  found  under  their 
appropriate    heads,    such    as    CiRcr.E,    Transit    In- 

STRUMKNT,       ABERRATION,       REFRACTION,      PaRAM.AX, 

Equator,  Precession  of  the  Equinoxes,  Time, 
SoLAU  System,  Sun,  Libration  of  the  Moon, 
Planets,  Planetary  Motion,  Fixed  Stars,  Comets, 
&c.  A  brief  sketch  of  the  history  of  astronomical 
discovery  is  all  that  can  be  attempted  in  the  present 
article. 

The  history  of  A.  dates  from  a  very  early  period. 
It  is  the  most  ancient  of  all  the  sciences.  The 
Chinese,  Hindus,  Chaldeans,  Egyptians,  and  even  the 
Greeks,  are  known  to  have  investigated  the  heavens 
very  long  before  the  Christian  era.  But  with  the 
first  four  nations,  A.  may  be  said  to  have  been  a 
sentiment  rather  than  a  science — a  vague  notion 
built  up  out  of  crude  speculations,  ratlier  than  a 
correct  theory  founded  on  systematic  observation. 
In  China,  A.  was  intimately  associated  with  state 
politics ;  the  Indians,  Chaldaeans,  and  Egyptians 
made  it  a  matter  of  religion ;  and  each  of  these 
nations  applied  it  to  astrological  purposes.  In 
Greece  alone  was  it  prosecuted  for  its  own  sake. 

The  Chinese,  Chaldieans,  Hindus,  and  Egyptians 
each  claim  the  honour  of  having  been  the  first 
students  of  A.,  and  each  has  had  advocates  to  sup- 
port its  claim.  The  Tirvalore  tables  (asserted  by  the 
Hindus  to  belong  to  an  epoch  of  3102  years  p.  c. — 
the  commencement  of  the  Cali-yug,  or  iron  age,  of 
their  mythology — at  which  period  a  conjunction  of 
the  sun,  moon,  and  phincts  is  said  to  have  occurred) 
are,  so  far  as  their  date  is  concerned,  altogether  unre- 
liable. Modern  calculations  have  conclcsivcly  proved 
that  no  such  conjunction  could  possibly  have  tiken 
place  at  the  time  specified;  and  the  elements  of  the 
tables  are,  in  the  general  opinion  of  scientific  men, 
of  a  character  far  in  advance  of  the  actual  observa- 
tions of  that  period.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the 
epoch  is  fictitious — that  the  date  of  these  tables  is 
fixed  much  earlier  than  their  internal  evidence 
justifies  ;  but  it  is  matter  of  dispute  whether  they 
were  the  result  of  the  observation  of  Hindus  them- 
selves at  some  later  period  before  the  Christian  era, 
or  whether  they  were  constructed  after  that  era 
from  data  furnished  to  them  by  the  Arabs  or  Greeks. 
Those  who  hold  the  former  view,  quote  the  well- 
known  mathematical  attainments  of  the  Indians, 
and  their  aversion  to  intercourse  with  foreigners,  as 
arguments  in  its  favour ;  those  who  support  the 
latter,  point  out  that  the  tables  are  a  mean  between 
those  of  Ptolemy  and  Albategnius,  or  Al  Batani,  a 
distinguished  Arabian  astronomer,  and  therefore 
likely  to  have  been  derived  from  these  two  sources. 
Those  who  are  interested  in  the  question  of  the 
o'riginality  of  these  tables,  may  refer  to  Delambre, 
and  to  Bailly's  Ili:4.  dc  rAsfronomie  Indicn^tc. 

The  Chinese  have  astronomical  annals  claiming 
to  go  back  2857  years  e.  c.  In  these  there  is  little 
506 


record  of  anything  but  of  the  afipcaranee  of  comets 
and  solar  eclipses  ;  and  regarding  the  latter  pheno- 
mena, they  tell  nothing,  save  the  fact  and  date  of 
their  occurrence.  Professional  astronomers  were 
compelled  to  predict  every  eclipse  under  pain  of 
death.  The  popular  idea  was,  that  an  eclipse  was  a 
monster  having  evil  designs  on  the  sun,  and  it  was 
customary  to  nuike  a  great  noise,  by  shouting,  beat- 
ing of  gongs,  <S:c.,  in  order  to  frighten  it  away  from 
its  solar  prey.  The  many  eclipses  which  the  Chinese 
report  have  been  recalculated,  but  not  more  than 
one  anterior  to  the  time  of  Ptolemy  could  be  verified. 
At  an  early  period,  however,  the  Chinese  appear  to 
have  been  acquainted  with  the  luni-solar  cycle  of 
nineteen  years  (introduced  into  Greece  l)y  Melon, 
and  since  known  as  the  Metonic  Cycle),  and  they  luid 
also  divided  the  year  into  'MMj^  days.  Solstitial 
observances  arc  said  to  have  been  made  l)y  a 
gnomon  in  the  11th  c.  p.  c.  To  the  burning  of  all 
scientific  books  by  one  of  their  princes  (Tsin-Chi- 
Hong-Ti),  221  u.  c,  the  Chinese  attribute  tlic  loss  of 
many  theories,  or  methods  previously  in  use.  The 
precession  of  the  equinoxes  was  not  known  to  the 
Chinese  until  4(iO  A.n.,  but  long  prior  to  that  they 
were  familiar  with  the  motion  of  the  planets. 

The  mass  of  evidence  seems  in  favour  of  the 
plains  of  Chaldiea  being  the  ju-inuil  scat  of  observa- 
tive  A.  The  risings  and  settings  of  the  heavenly 
bodies  and  eclipses  were  subjects  of  observation  and 
notation  by  their  priests  at  a  very  remote  period. 
Simplicius  and  Porphyry  mention  that  Ari.'stotle 
had  transmitted  to  him  fioni  Baliylon,  by  order  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  a  catalogue  of  eclipses  oliserved 
(luring  1903  years  preceding  the  con(|uesi.  of  that  city 
by  the  Macedonians.  Ptolemy  gives  six  of  the  eclipses 
from  this  catalogue,  but  the  earliest  does  not  extend 
further  back  than  720  p.c.  The  prol)al)ility  tiiere- 
fore  is,  that  the  statement  of  Simplicius,  as  to  their 
early  date,  is  an  exaggeration.  In  these  observations, 
the  time  is  only  given  in  hours,  and  the  .part  of  the 
diameter  eclipsed  within  a  quarter;  but  rough  as 
they  are,  they  are  the  earliest  reliable  oljscrvations 
extant ;  and  a  comparison  of  them  with  modern 
observations,  led  Ilalley  to  the  discovery  of  the  doc- 
trine of  the  moon's  acceleration — that  is,  that  she 
now  moves  round  the  earth  with  greater  velocity 
than  formerly.  It  is  renuirkably  illustrative  of  their 
habit  of  diligent  observation,  that  the  Chaldajans 
were  acquainted  with  the  cycle  of  (I.jS.'ji^  days,  during 
which  the  moon  makes  about  223  synodical  revolu- 
tions, and  experiences  the  same  nuinlier  of  eclipses, 
alike,  too,  in  order  and  magnitude,  comparing  cycle 
with  cycle.  The  clepsydra  as  a  clodc,  the  gnomon 
for  determining  the  solstices,  and  a  hemispherical  dial 
for  ascertaining  the  positions  of  the  sun,  «ere  used 
by  the  Chaldasans,  and  they  have  the  credit  of  the 
invention  of  the  zodiac  and  the  duodecimal  division 
of  the  day. 

The  Egyptians,  it  is  supposed,  were  the  first 
instructors  of  the  Greeks  in  A.  They  do  not,  how- 
ever, appear  to  have  observed  much  for  tlcniselves. 
The  meaning  of  what  data  they  have  left  behind 
them  can  be  guessed  at  only  in  a  few  instances.  No 
mention  is  made  by  Ptolemy  of  the  idea  asciibcd  to 
them,  that  the  planets  Mercury  and  Venus  moved 
round  the  sun;  the  probability  therefore  is,  Piolemy 
not  being  lil;ely  to  overlook  such  a  novel  theory, 
that  they  entertained  no  such  notion  at  the  time 
of  his  visit,  but  that  it  is  an  aftcT-thought  of 
more  recent  ages.  From  the  accuracy  with  which 
some  of  the  pyramids  face  the  cardinal  points, 
there  is  a  supposition  that  they  nuist  have  been 
erected  for  astronomical  purposes;  but  it  it  be 
true,  as  is  stated,  that  Thalcs  taught  the  Egyptians 
how  to  find  the  height  of  the  pyramids  by  the 
shadow,   and    that    the    latter   informed    Herodotus 


ASTRONOMY. 


tliat  the  sun  had  twice  Ijeen  seen  to  rijc  in  the  west, 
the  conohision  is  tliat  the  A.  of  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians was  very  meagre  and  absurd. 

Up  to  this  time,  A.  is  little  else  than  tradition. 
The  Greeks  have  the  honour  of  elevating  it  into  a 
reliable  history,  and  to  the  dignity  of  a  science. 
Thales  (G-iO  i;.c.),  the  founder  of  the  Ionic  school, 
laid  the  foundation  of  Greek  A.  He  it  was  who  first 
propagated  the  theory  of  the  earth's  sphericity.  The 
sphere  he  divided  into  five  zones..  He  predicted 
the  year  of  a  great  solar  eclipse,  but  this  it  is  now' 
supposed  ho  must  have  casually  succeeded  in  doing 
— the  Greeks  at  this  time  having  no  observations 
of  their  own  to  guide  them — by  means  of  the  Chal- 
dean Saros,  or  period  of  eighteen  years  and  ten 
days,  which  gives  a  regular  recurrence  of  eclipses. 
He  made  the  Greeks,  who,  prior  to  his  time,  were 
content  to  navigate  their  vessels  by  the  Great  Bear 
— a  rough  appro.ximation  to  the  north — acquainted 
with  the  lesser  constellation  of  that  name,  a  much 
better  guide  for  the  mariner.  His  system,  however, 
contained  a  good  deal  of  absurdity.  Among  other 
things,  he  held  that  the  stars  were  com])Osed  of  fire, 
and  that  the  earth  w  as  the  centre  of  the  universe. 
The  succes.-ors  of  Thales  held  opinions  which  in 
many  respects  are  wonderfully  in  accordance  with 
modern  ideas.  Anaximander,  it  is  said,  held  that 
the  earth  moved  about  its  own  axis,  and  .that  the 
moon's  light  was  reflected  from  the  sun.  To  him  is 
also  attributed,  on  somewhat  slender  authonty,  the 
belief  in  the  grand  idea  of  the  plurality  of  worlds. 
Anaxagoras,  who  transferred  the  Ionic  school  from 
Miletus  to  Athens,  is  said  to  have  olFered  a  conjec- 
ture that,  like  the  earth,  the  moon  had  habitations, 
hills,  and  valleys. 

Pythagoras  (500  B.C.),  who  was  the  next  astro- 
nomer of  eminence,  was  very  far  in  advance  of  his 
predecessors.  He  promulgated,  on  grounds  fanciful 
enough,  the  theory,  the  truth  of  which,  however,  has 
been  since  established,  that  the  sun  is  the  centre  of 
the  [)l.metary  world,  and  that  the  earth  circulates 
round  it.  Pythagoras  also  first  taught  that  the  morn- 
ing and  evening  star  wore  in  reality  one  and  the 
same  planet.  But  the  views  of  Pythagoras  met  with 
little  or  no  support  from  his  successors  until  the  time 
of  Copernicus.  Between  Pythagoras  and  the  advent 
of  the  Alexandrian  school,  nearly  a  couple  of  cen- 
turies later,  the  most  piominent  names  in  astronomi- 
cal annals  are  those  of  Meton  (432  B.C.),  who  in- 
troduced the  luni-solar  cycle,  as  already  intimated, 
and  in  conjunction  with  Euctemon,  observed  a  sol- 
stice at  Athens  in  the  year  424:  B.C.;  Callippus  (3oO 
B.C.),  who  improved  the  Metonic  cycle ;  Eudoxus 
of  Cnidus  (370  B.C.),  who  brought  into  Greece  the 
year  of  Sij.i^  days,  and  wrote  some  works  on  A. ; 
and  Nicctas  of  Syracuse,  who  is  reported  to  have 
taught  the  diurnal  motion  of  the  earth  on  its 
axis. 

To  the  Alexandrian  school,  owing  its  existence  to 
the  munificent  Ptolemies,  v/e  are  indebted  for  the 
first  systematic  observations  in  A.  Hitherto  the 
truths  of  A.  rested  on  no  better  evidence  tlian  the 
conjectures  of  sagacious  minds,  and  these  being  op- 
posed to  the  testimony  of  the  senses,  met  with  but 
little  acceptance  from  the  world.  The  Alexandrian 
school  originated  a  connected  scries  of  observations 
relative  to  the  constitution  of  the  universe.  The 
positions  of  the  fixed  stars  were  determined,  the 
paths  of  the  planets  carefully  traced,  and  the  solar 
and  hmar  inequalities  ;nore  accurately  ascertained. 
Angular  distances  were  calculated  with  instruments 
suitable  to  the  purpose  by  trigonometrical  metiiods, 
and  ultimately  the  school  of  Alexandria  presented 
:0  the  world  the  first  system  of  theoretical  astron- 
omy that  had  ever  comprehended  an  entire  plan 
of  the  celestial  motions.     The  system  w^e  know  to 


be  false,  and  inferior  to  the  Pythagorean  notions; 
but  it  had  the  merit  of  being  founded  upon  a  long 
and  patient  observation  of  phenomena,  a  ]iiinciplo 
which  finally  bix)ught  about  its  own  destruction, 
while  the  previous  theories  were  the  results  of  pure 
iiypothesis. 

The  most  interesting  circumstances  connected  with 
the  early  history  of  the  Alexandrian  school  arc  the 
attomjjts  made  to  determine  the  distance  of  the  earth 
from  the  sun,  and  the  magnitude  of  the  terrestrial 
globe.  Aristarchus  of  Samos — the  pioneer  of  the 
Copernican  system,  as  Humboldt  calls  him — is  the 
author  of  an  ingenious  plan  to  ascertain  the  former. 
See  Akistarciius  of  Samos. 

Among  other  eminent  members  of  this  school  were 
Timocharis  and  Aristyllus,  who  made  the  observa- 
tions, which,  together  with  observations  of  his  own, 
enabled  Ilipparchus  (q.  v.)  to  discover  the  precession 
of  the  equinoxes ;  Eratosthenes  (q.  v.),  who  was  the 
first  who  attempted  to  determine  on  true  principles 
the  magnitude  of  the  earth,  and  to  clear,  as  Hum- 
boldt expresses  it,  'the  description  of  the  earth  from 
its  fabulous  traditions;'  and  Autolycus,  whose  l)OoI<3 
on  A.  are  the  earliest  extant  in  the  Greek  language. 

We  have  now  arrived  at  by  far  the  greatest  name 
we  have  yet  met  in  astronomical  science — that  of 
Ilipparchus  of  Bithynia  (160 — 125  B.C.),  and  here 
may  be  said  to  begin  the  real  written  history  of 
scientific  A.;  for  not  until  his  era  were  there  facta 
correct  enough  and  sufficient  in  number  upon  which 
to  build  a  system.  Ilipparchus  was  at  once  a 
theorist,  a  mathematician,  and  an  observer.  He 
catalogued  no  less  than  ]i)81  stars.  This  is  the  first 
reliable  catalogue  we  have.  He  discovered,  as  we 
have  already  mentioned,  the  precession  of  the  equi- 
noxes; he  determined  with  greater  exactitude  than 
his  predecessors  had  done,  the  mean  motion,  as  well  as 
the  inequality  of  the  motion  of  the  sun;  and  also  the 
lengih  of  the  year.  He  also  determined  the  mean 
motion  of  tlie  moon,  her  eccentricity,  the  equation  of 
her  centre,  and  the  inclination  of  her  orbit ;  and  he 
suspected  the  inecjuality  afterwards  discovered  by 
Ptolemy  (the  evcction).  He  invented  processes  ana- 
logous to  plane  and  spherical  trigonometry,  and  was 
the  first  to  use  right  ascensions  and  declinations, 
which  ho  afterwards  abandoned  iu  favor  of  latitudes 
and  longitudes. 

For  more  than  two  centuries  and  a  half  after  the 
demise  of  this  indefatigable  astronomer,  we  meet  with 
no  name  of  note.  Ptolemy  (130 — 150  a.d.)  is  the 
next  who  rises  above  the  mass  of  mediocrities.  Be- 
sides being  a  practical  astronomer,  he  was  accom- 
plished as  a  musician,  a  geographer,  and  mathema- 
tician. His  most  important  discovery  in  A.  w;is  the 
libration  or  eveclion  of  the  moon.  He  also  was  the 
first  to  point  out  the  effect  of  refraction.  He  ex- 
tended and  improved  many  of  the  theories  of  Ilip- 
parchus, and  was  the  founder  of  the  false  system 
known  by  his  name,  and  which  was  universally  ac- 
cepted as  the  true  theory  of  the  uidverse,  until  the 
researches  of  Copernicus  exploded  it.  Tlie  Ptolemaio 
system,  expounded  in  the  Great  Collection,  or,  as  it 
was  called  by  tlie  Ara-bs,  the  Aluxu/est — from  which 
source  most  of  our  knowledge  of  Gi'cek  A.  is  derived 
— placed  the  earth  innnovable  in  the  centre  of  the 
universe,  making  the  entire  heavens  revolve  round 
it  in  the  cotn-sc  of  twenty-four  hom-s. 

With  Ptolemy  closes  the  originality  of  the  Greek 
school.  His  successors  were  men  of  no  mark,  con- 
fining themselves  for  the  most  part  to  astrology,  or 
to  comments  on  earlier  writers.  It  is  to  the  Ai-abs 
that  we  owe  the  next  advances  in  A.  They  com- 
menced making  observations  7G2  a.d.,  in  the  reign 
of  the  Caliph  Al  Mansur,  who  gave  great  encour- 
agement to  science,  as  did  also  his  successors,  the 
'good  Haroun  Alraschid'  and  Al  Mamoum,  both  of 

507 


ASTRONOMY. 


whom  wore  themselves  dihgent  students  of  A.  For 
four  centuries,  the  Arabs  prosecuted  the  study  of 
the  science  with  assiduity,  but  tliey  are  chiefly  meri- 
torious as  observers.  They  had  little  capacity  for 
speculation,  and  throughout  held  the  Greek  theories 
in  superstitious  reverence.  They,  however,  deter- 
mined with  much  more  accuracy  than  the  Greeks 
had  done  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes,  the 
obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  and  the  solar  eccentricity  ; 
and  the  length  of  the  tropical  year  was  ascertained 
within  a  few  seconds  of  the  truth.  The  most  illus- 
trious of  the  Arabian  school  were  Albategnius  or 
Al  Batani  (880  a.d.),  who  discovered  the  motion  of 
the  solar  apogee  (see  Anomalistic  Ykak),  and  who 
was  also  the  lirst  to  make  use  of  sines  and  versed 
sines  instead  of  chords ;  he  corrected  the  Greek 
observations,  and  was  altogether  the  most  distinguished 
observer  between  Ilipparchus  and  the  Copernican  era  ; 
and  Ibn-Yunis  (1000  a.d.),  an  excellent  mathematician, 
who  made  observations  of  great  importance  in  deter- 
mining the  disturbances  and  eccentricities  of  Jupiter 
and  Saturn,  and  who  was  the  first  to  use  cotangents 
and  secants. 

In  the  northern  part  of  Persia,  an  observatory  was 
erected  by  a  descendant  of  the  renowned  warrior 
Genghis  Khan,  where  some  tables  were  constructed  by 
Nasir-Eddin  ;  and  at  Samarcand,  Ulugh  Beg,  a  grand- 
son of  Timur,  made,  in  14:J3  a.d.,  many  observations, 
and  the  most  correct  catalogue  of  stars  which,  up  to 
his  time,  had  been  published. 

In  the  i;5th  c,  A.  was  again  introduced  into 
Western  Europe,  the  first  translation  from  the 
Almagext  being  made  under  the  Eniijcror  Frederick 
II.  of  Germany,  about  1230;  and  in  1252  an  impulse 
was  given  to  the  science  by  the  formation  of  astrono- 
mical tables  under  the  auspices  of  Alfonso  X.  of 
Castile.  An  Englishman,  named  Ilolywood  (Sacro- 
bosco),  in  1220  wrote  a  Ijook  of  great  repute  in  its 
day  on  the  spheres,  chiefly  abridged  from  Ptolemy; 
and  among  others  who  did  much  to  promote  a  taste 
for  A.  were  Purbach  (HfiO),  Rcgiomontanus  (John 
MuUcr),  who  died  in  147(J,  and  Waltherus,  a  pupil 
of  the  latter,  who  made  numerous  observations  of 
merit. 

We  now  come  to  the  illustrious  name  of  Coper- 
nicus-(b.  I-IVS,  d.  1543),  to  whom  was  reserved  the 
grand  honour  and  the  danger — for  there  is  ever 
danger  in  bringing  old  notions  into  disrepute  by 
introducing  new  systems  of  truth — of  exploding  the 
Ptolemaic  idea,  and  of  pronmlgating  a  correct  though 
imperfect  theory  of  the  universe.  His  system  is  in 
some  part  a  revival  and  systematic  application  of 
the  opinions  said  to  have  been  held  by  Pytliagoras. 
It  makes  the  sun  the  immovable  centre  of  the  uni- 
verse, around  which  all  the  planets  revolve  in  con- 
centric orbits,  Mercury  and  Venus  within  the  earth's 
orbit,  and  all  the  otlier  planets  without  it.  In  the 
Copernican  theory,  there  were  many  of  the  old  notions 
which  have  since  been  exploded.  It  is  a  current 
belief  that  Copernicus,  afraid  to  state  boldly  such 
heterodox  views  of  the  universe  as  those  he  enter- 
tained, gave  them  forth  in  the  form  of  an  hypothesis. 
Humboldt,  in  his  second  volume  of  Cosmos  (p.  345), 
denies  that  he  did  so.  This  distinguished  authority 
says :  '  The  language  of  Copernicus  is  powerful  and 
free,  and  bursts  forth  from  his  inmost  convictions, 
and  thus  sufficiently  refutes  the  ancient  opinion,  that 
he  has  brouslit  forward  the  system  which  is  immor- 
talised liy  his  name,  as  an  hypothesis  made  for  the 
convenience  of  calculating  astronomers,  or  for  one 
which  has  but  a  probable  foundation.'  The  same 
author  also  refutes  the  popular  notion  that  Coper- 
nicus died  a  few  hours  after  receiving  a  printed 
copy  of  his  book.  He  was  broken  down  in  body 
and  mind  when  his  work  Oji.  the  Ee.i'olutions  of  the 
Heavenly  Bodies  was  brought  to  him,  but  he  did 
508 


not  die  until  '  many  days  afterwards,  on  the  24th  May 

1543.' 

Among  the  contemporaries  of  Copernicus  wore 
Rheinhold,  who  constructed  the  Prulenic  tables  ;  Re- 
corde,  who  was  the  first  to  write  on  A.  in  English  ; 
and  Nonius,  a  Portuguese,  who  invented  a  method  for 
dividing  the  circle.  The  study  of  A.  was  al.<o  much 
aided  about  this  time  by  the  liberality  of  the  Landgrave 
of  Hesse-Cassel,  William  IV. 

Decidedly  the  most  industrious  observer  and  emi- 
nent practical  astronomer  from  the  time  of  the 
Arabs  to  the  latter  half  of  the  Ifith  c.  was  Tycho 
Brahe  (b.  154(),  d.  1001).  Considerable  odium  at- 
taches to  him  on  account  of  his  repudiation  of  the 
Copernican  system,  but  it  should  not  be  forgotten 
that  in  the  time  of  Tycho  that  system  was  not 
su])ported  by  the  conclusive  eviiiciue  we  are  now  in 
possession  of.  Tycho's  system,  which  made  the  sun 
move  round  the  earth,  and  all  the  other  planets 
round  the  sun,  they  moving  with  it  round  the  earth, 
explained  all  natural  phenomena  then  observed 
e([ually  well,  while  it  must  have  appeared  more 
probable  than  the  crude  and,  at  that  era,  undcmon- 
strable  theories  of  Copei'iiicus.  Tycho  Brahe  com- 
piled a  catalogue  of  777  fixed  stars,  more  perfect 
I  than  any  that  had  previously  api)eared.  He  made 
the  first  table  of  i-efractions,  and  discovered  the  va- 
riation iind  aimual  equation  of  the  moon,  the  inequal- 
ities of  the  motion  of  the  nodes,  and  the  inclination 
of  the  lunar  orbit,  and  rejected  the  trepidation  of  the 
precession,  which  had  hitlu-rto  injuriously  atlVctcd  all 
tables.  He  also  made  some  interesting  cometary  in- 
vestigations. 

To  his  researches  arc  mainly  duo  the  discovery  by 
Kepler  (b.  ].'')71,  d.  1030)  of  tho.se  famous  laws  which 
have  rendered  his  name  immortal.  See  Kkpleii's 
Laws.  To  Kepler  is  due  the  credit  of  divesting  the 
Copernican  system  of  its  absurdities.  Kepler  is  also 
said  to  have  had  some  notion  of  the  law  ol'  giavita- 
tion. 

Galileo  Galilei  (b.  15G4,  d.  1642)  first  applied  the 
telescope  (which  he  made  from  a  gencial  description 
of  the  instrument  of  Hans  Lijlperhey  of  Holland,  who 
was  the  first  inventor  of  the  telescope)  to  the  investi- 
gation of  the  heavens.  He  was  rcwaided  by  the 
discovery  of  the  inequalities  on  the  moon's  surface. 
The  important  discoveries  of  the  four  satellites  of 
Jupiter,  the  ring  of  Saturn — not  then  distinctly  recog- 
nised as  a  circle — the  spots  on  the  sun,  and  the  cres- 
cent form  of  Venus,  followed  in  quick  succession. 
For  propagating  the  Copeniican  doctrine  of  tl.e 
world,  Galileo  incurred  the  displeasure  of  the  priests, 
and  was  compelled  by  the  In(lui!^ition  to  retract  his 
opinions. 

But  the  eternal  laws  of  nature  are  not  to  be  sus- 
pended )>y  the  recantation  of  a  philosopher  forced  by 
the  tyranny  of  priestcraft.  The  earth  moved  grandly 
on  round  the  sun  in  spite  of  both  ;  and  scientific  truth 
was  now  too  old  to  remain  in  the  restrictive  leading- 
strings  of  any  ecclesiasticism. 

The  next  great  epoch  in  the  hi-story  of  A.  brings 
us  to  England  and  Newton  (b.  1042,  d.  1727).  In 
the  interval,  practical  A.  had  profited  largely  by  the 
j  logarithms  of  Napier ;  the  mathematical  researches 
of  Descartes;  the  application  of  the  telescope  to  the 
quadrant  by  Gascoigne,  an  Englishman,  and  afterwards 
by  Auzout  and  Picard  ;  by  Romer's  discovery  of  the 
progressive  motion,  and  measurement  of  the  velocity, 
of  light ;  by  the  invention  of  Vernier ;  and  the  ap- 
plication of  the  pendulum  to  clocks  by  Huygens, 
who  also  lirought  into  use  the  spiral  spring,  and  made 
some  valuable  observations  on  the  ring  and  satellites 
of  Saturi\ ;  as  well  as  by  the  investigations  of  Nor- 
wood, Horrocks,  Hooke,  Hevelius,  Gilbert,  Leib- 
nitz, and  Dominicus  Cassini,  to  the  last  of  whom 
especially  the  scientific  world  owes   much.     Aniorg 


ASTUR— ASTURIAS. 


a  variety  of  other  v:iluuble  observations  and  dis- 
coveiit'S  may  be  mentioned  liis  thoiont:!!  investiga- 
tion of  the  zodiacal  liglit,  liis  determination  of  the 
rotations  of  Jupiter  and  Mars,  and  of  the  motions  of 
Jupiter's  satellites  from  tlieir  eclipses,  his  discovery 
of  the  dual  character  of  Saturn's  ring,  and  also  of 
four  of  his  satellites.  Newton's  fame  rests  \ipon 
his  discovery  of  the  law  of  gravitation,  upon  -nhicli 
the  common  belief  is  he  was  led  to  speculate  by  the 
fall  of  an  apple.  Newton  announced  his  discovery 
in  the  Pr'mcipia  in  1G87,  which  was  briefly  that 
every  particle  of  matter  is  attracted  by,  or  gravitates 
to,  every  other  particle  of  matter,  with  a  force 
inversely  proportional  to  the  squares  of  their  dis- 
tances. The  first  gleam  of  this  grand  conclusion  is 
said  to  have  so  overpowered  Newton  that  he  had  to 
suspend  his  calculations,  and  call  in  a  fiiend  to  finish 
the  few  arithmetical  computations  that  were  incom- 
plete. This  discovery  is  perhaps  the  grandest  efi'ort 
of  human  genius  of  which  we  have  any  record. 
Newton  also  made  the  important  discovery  of  the 
revolution  of  comets  round  the  sun  in  conic  sections, 
proved  the  earth's  form  to  be  an  oblate  spheroid, 
gave  a  theory  of  the  moon  and  tides,  invented 
fluxions,  and  wrote  upon  0])tics. 

"While  the  foundations  of  physical  A.  were  thus 
broadly  laid  by  Newton,  Flamsteed — the  first  astro- 
nomer royal  at  Greenwich,  to  whom,  until  recently, 
scant  justice  has  been  done — and  Halley  were 
greatly  improving  and  extending  the  practical 
department  of  the  science.  To  the  former  we  are 
indebted  for  numerous  observations  on  the  fixed 
stars,  on  planets,  satellites,  and  comets,  and  for  a 
catalogue  of  2884  stars.  His  Historia  Coelesiis 
formed  a  new  era  in  sidereal  A.  Dr.  Halley,  who  suc- 
ceeded Flamsteed  as  astronomer  royal,  discovered 
the  accelerated  mean  motion  of  the  moon,  and  certain 
inequalities  in  Jupiter  and  Saturn,  but  he  is  most 
famed  for  his  successful  investigations  into  the 
motions  and  nature  of  comets.  His  successor  was 
Dr.  Biadley,  who,  in  the  year  of  Newton's  death, 
made  the  important  discovery  of  the  aberration  of 
light,  which  furnishes  the  only  direct  and  conclusive 
proof  we  have  of  the  earth's  annual  motion.  To 
him  also  we  are  indebted  for  our  knowledge  of  the 
mutation  of  the  earth's  axis.  He  was,  besides,  an 
unweaiicd  observer,  and  left  behind  him  at  his 
death  upwards  of  60,000  observations.  Altogether, 
Bradley's  is  deservedly  one  of  the  most  honoured 
names  in  modern  A.  Dr.  Maskelyne,  who  was 
appointed  to  the  observatory  after  Bradley,  originated 
the  A'antical  Almanac. 

Merely  to  mention  the  names  of  men  who  from 
the  death  of  Bradley  to  the  present  time  have  added, 
by  theory  and  practice,  to  our  knowledge  of  A., 
would  extend  this  synopsis  much  beyond  the  limit 
necessarily  assigned  to  it.  If  the  18th  c.  opened  with 
lustre  derived  from  the  physical  demonstrations  of 
Newton,  it  closed  magnificently  with  the  telescopic 
discoveries  of  Sir  William  Herschel,  who  added  to 
our  universe  a  primary  planet  (Uranus)  with  its 
satellites,  ga\'t;  two  more  satellites  to  Saturn,  resolved 
the  milky-way  into  countless  myriads  of  stars,  and 
unravelled  the  mystery  of  nebulae  and  of  double 
and  tiiple  stai's.  Laland,  Lagrange,  Lacaille,  and 
Delambre,  in  the  latter  half  of  the  18th  c,  did  much 
by  their  researches  and  analyses  to  systematise 
and  improve  the  science  of  A.  The  instrunrental 
means  of  observation  were  also,  during  that  time, 
brought  to  high  perfection.  Lajjlace,  in  his  great 
work  the  Mechaiiique  Celeste  (1799 — 1808),  gave 
what  further  proof  was  needed  of  the  truth  and 
sufficiency  of  the  Newtonian  theory. 

The  19th  c.  opened  with  the  discovery  of  the  four 
small  planets — Ceres,  in  ISol,  by  Piazza;  Pallas  and 
Vesta  by  Olbers — the  former  in  1802,  and  the  latter 


in  1807  ;  and  Juno,  by  Harding,  in  1S04.  In  1845 
Hencke  discovered  the  fifth  of  this  group  revolving 
between  Mars  and  Jupiter,  to  which  the  name  of 
Astnea  was  given  ;  and  up  to  the  present  time  (1870), 
upwards  of  1 09  planetoids  (q.v.)  have  been  discovered. 
The  greatest  event  of  the  century  has  been  the  dis' 
covery  of  the  planet  Neptune  in  1846. 

Observations  upon  Ui-anus  had  shewn  the  motions 
of  that  planet  to  present  great  irregularities,  which 
could  not  be  explained  by  the  action  of  Jujiiter  and 
Saturn ;  and  after  carefully  examining  the  analyti- 
cal theory  of  Uranus,  Leverrier,  a  young  academi- 
cian of  France,  in  the  summer  of  1846,  published 
the  elements  of  an  undiscovered  planet,  the  cause 
of  the  perturbations.  He  boldly  predicted  its  exist- 
ence, calculated  its  mass,  and  referred  to  its  place 
in  the  heavens;  and  scarcely  a  month  afterwards, 
on  the  23d  of  September,  the  hitherto  concealed 
object  (Neptune)  was  found  by  M.  Gallc  of  Berlin. 
But  it  has  only  been  by  accidental  circumstances 
that  France  has  the  honour  of  this  remarkable 
achievement.  Mr.  Adams  of  Cambridge  had  arrived 
at  results  more  perfect  than  those  of  Leverrier,  and 
had  communicated  them  to  Mr.  Challis,  professor  of 
A.  at  Camljridge,  in  September  1845,  a  year  before 
the  discovery  of  tb.e  planet,  and  nearly  a  year  before 
the  publication  of  Leverrier's  final  calculations.  Mr. 
Ciiallis,  it  appears,  commenced  a  search  for  the 
planet  on  July  29th,  and  on  August  4th  and  12th, 
he  actually  seized  the  planet,  and  recorded  two 
positions  of  it,  but  did  not  recognise  it,  through  not 
comparing  his  observations,  which  a  pressure  of 
occupation,  and  an  impression  that  the  discovery 
required  a  much  more  extensive  search,  preventeij. 
But  for  this,  and  the  non-publication  of  the  Cam- 
bridge mathematician's  results  at  the  time  they  were 
forwarded  to  Mr.  Airy  in  October  1845,  the  honour- 
able position  of  M.  Leverrier  would  have  been 
occupied  by  Mi'.  Adams,  and  that  of  M.  Galle  by 
Mr.  Challis. 

Astronomical  discovery  has  made  very  remarkable 
advances  during  the  last  decade.  A  vast  addition  has 
been  made  to  the  number  of  asteroids.  Photometric 
analysis  has  been  applied  to  the  measurement  of  the 
light  of  the  sun  and  stars,  and  the  spectroscope  has 
been  employed  in  determining  their  composition 
with  vei'V  promising  results,  and  the  approximate 
rate  of  motion  in  space  of  some  of  the  hitherto  es- 
teemed fixed  stars  has  been  ascertained  Iiy  the  same 
method.  More  accurate  methods  of  recording  ol)- 
servations  have  been  devised,  and  the  field  of  practical 
astronomy  is  continually  cnlai-ging  and  extending  into 
those  of  the  cognate  sciences. 

ASTUR.     See  Falcoxidje  and  Goshawk. 

ASTU'RIAS,  a  northern  province  of  Spain, 
bounded  on  the  E.  by  Santander,  on  the  S.  by  Leon. 
on  the  W.  by  Galicia,  and  on  the  N.  by  the  Bay  of 
Biscay,  The  low  hills  of  Leon  and  Old  Castile  rise 
gradually  to  the  mountain-chain  which  forms  the 
south  boundary,  and  towers  to  a  height  of  about 
11,000  feet  in  the  summit  Pena-dc-rcharanda.  The 
main  road  from  Leon  to  Oviedo  passes  over  the 
mountain-chain  at  Pajares.  The  northern  slopes 
are  broken  by  steep  and  dark  valleys  or  chasms, 
which  are  among  the  wildest  and  most  picturesque  in 
Spain.  The  sunmiits  of  the  mountains  are  covered 
with  snow  even  as  Lite  in  the  year  as  August.  The 
climate  is  damp;  clouds  hang  almost  continually 
about  the  peaks,  gathering  to  them  the  fogs  of  the 
Atlantic.  From  the  mass  of  calcareous  rock, 
marble  crags  rise  from  200  to  more  than  400  feet. 
The  principal  kinds  of  wood  are  oak,  chestnut, 
silver  and  Scotch  firs.  Some  of  the  forests  in  the 
remoter  districts  are  very  superb.  Alpine  pastr.r« 
age  decks  the  slopes,  and  a  richer  covering  of  green, 

509 


ASYLUM— ATACAMITE. 


is  found  in  the  narrow  valleys.  In  the  wider 
valleys,  the  soil  yields  barley,  wheat,  maize,  figs, 
olives,  grapes,  oranges.  The  coasts  have  good 
fisheries.  The  chief  minerals  of  the  province  are 
copper,  iron,  lead,  cobalt,  arsenic,  antimony,  and 
coal.  The  pasturage  of  the  higlicr  valleys  supports 
an  excellent  breed  of  horses,  with  numerous  horned 
cattle. 

A.  was  never  firmly  occupied  by  the  Arabs,  but 
afforded  a  place  of  refuge  to  the  Goths  in  the  Sth  c. 
Here  the  famous  Pehiyo  was  made  king  in  718 
A. P.  ;  and  his  successors,  after  contending  success- 
fully against  the  Arabs,  were  made  kings  of  Leon, 
in  the'^  10th  c.  The  Astuiian  still  boasts  of  his 
independence  as  a  free  hidalgo,  and  is  simple  in 
manners  and  brave,  but  less  industrious  and  sociable 
than  his  neighbours  in  Biscay  and  Galicia.  Many 
Asturians  leave  their  province  to  seek  a  livelihood 
in  other  parts  of  Spain,  and  after  saving  money, 
return  to  dwell  among  their  native  hills  and  valleys. 
They  have  been  termed  the  Swiss  of  Spain ;  and 
they  are  equally  faithful  and  fond  of  money.  Among 
them,  the  Va'qucros  form  a  distinct  caste,  inter- 
marrying among  themselves,  and  leading  a  nomadic 
course  of  life,  spending  the  winter  on  the  sea-coast, 
and  the  siunmer  on  the  hills  of  Leytariegos. 
OviF.DO,  the  capital  of  A.,  has,  since  1833,  given  its 
name  to  the  whole  province.  The  other  consider- 
able towns  are  the  ports  Gijon  and  Aviles.  The 
whole  area  of  A.  includes  about  2148  square  miles, 
witli  a  population  in  1864,  of  571,335. 

The  eldest  son  of  the  Spanish  king  has  the  title  of 
Prince  of  A.,  professedly  an  imitation  of  tlie  English 
Prince  of  Wales,  having  been  taken  at  the  solicita- 
tion of  the  Duke  of  Lancaster  in  138S,  when  his 
daughter  married  the  eldest  son  of  Juan  L 

ASY'LUM,  a  place  of  refuge.  In  ancient  times, 
sacred  places,  especially  the  temples  and  altars  of 
the  gods,  were  appointed  as  asyium;5  to  which  crimi- 
nals, as  well  as  persecuted  individuals,  might  flee 
for  refuge  ;  and  to  molest  them  in  such  pl-aces  was 
regarded  as  an  impiety.  An  analogous  institution 
is  "found  in  the  laws  of  the  Jews  as  described  in 
the  3.5th  chapter  of  Numbers,  where  six  'cities  of 
refuge  are  appointed  for  persons  guilty  of  man- 
slaughter. Among  the  Greeks  in  early  times,  these 
asylums  might  be  sometimes  useful  in  preventing 
hasty  retribution ;  but  in  the  course  of  time  they 
were  so  much  abused  that  their  sanctity  was  in  a 
great  measure  disregarded.  Tims  Pausanias,  who 
fled  to  the  altar  of  Minerva,  was  taken  and  slain 
there  by  the  Lacedaemonians,  and  in  other  cases  the 
refugee  was  compelled  to  leave  the  A.  by  fire  or 
starvation.  In  Rome,  the  Emperor  Tiberius  abolished 
all  such  places  of  refuge  from  law,  excepting  those 
in  the  temples  of  Juno  and  .Esculapius.  The 
custom  of  allowing  to  real  or  supposed  criminals  a 
place  of  safety  in  temples,  was  also  adopted  by  the 
Christian  Church.  In  the  time  of  Constantine  the 
Great,  the  churches  were  made  asylums;  and  Theo- 
dosius  n.  extended  the  privilege  to  all  courts,  alleys, 
gardens,  and  houses  belonging  to  the  church.  In 
081  A.D.,  the  synod  of  Toledo  extended  the  privi- 
lege of  A.  to  a  space  of  30  paces  around  every 
church.  In  the  lawless  periods  of  the  middle 
ages,  the  influence  of  the  church  often  prevented 
deeds  of  gross  injustice  and  violonce;  but  the 
sanctity  of  churches  was  abused  by  criminals ;  and 
this  led  to  several  modifications  which  gradually 
destroyed  the  privilege  of  Sanctuary  (q.  v.).  In 
England,  it  was  abolished  by  acts  passed  in  1534 
and  1G'J7.  The  word  A.  is  now  applied  to  places  of 
shelter  for  unfortunate  or  destitute  persons,  and 
especially  to  hospitals  for  the  insane.     See  Lunacy. 

A'SYMPTOTE  (Gr.  not   coinciding),  a   line  that 
510 


approaches  nearer  and  nearer  to  some  curve  without 
ever  meeting  it.  An  example  of  an  A.  will  be  seen 
under  IIvPKunoLA.  As  another  illustration,  let  AB 
be  a  straight  line  which  can  be  produced  to  any 
length  towards  B.  Take  any  point,  C,  without  the 
line,  and    draw    a    periiendicular    reaching    to    any 


D 

<•/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/       / 

A 

E 
C 

/' 

B 

Asymptote. 

distance,  D,  beyond  the  line ;  set  off  any  equal  dis- 
tances, E — 1,  1 — 2,  2 — 3,  &c.,  along  AB  ;  and  draw 
Clrf,  {:-ld\  C3cZ",  &c.,  making  Id,  '2d',  ',]d",  cScc,  equal 
to  ED.  Now,  it  is  evident  that  each  of  the  points  d, 
d',  &c.,  is  nearer  to  the  line  AB  than  the  one  to  the 
left  of  it ;  if,  therefore,  a  curve  is  traced  through 
these  points  (the  curve  is  called  the  conchoid),  it 
must  continually  nj)proach  the  line  AI5.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  evident  that  the  curve  can  never 
meet  AB  ;  for  a  line  drawn  from  C  to  any  i)oint  in 
AB,  however  distant  that  point,  must,  when  pro- 
duced, cross  AB.  AB  is  thus  an  A.  to  the  curve. 
To  the  senses,  indeed,  the  curve  and  line  soon 
become  one,  because  all  physical  or  sensible  lines 
have  breadth.  It  is  only  with  regard  to  mathematical 
lines  (see  Link)  that  the  proposition  is  true  ;  and  the 
truth  of  it  has  to  be  conceived  by  an  effort  of  pure 
reason,  for  it  cannot  be  represented. 

ATA'CAMITE,  an  ore  of  copper,  found  as  a  crust 
on  the  lavas  of  Vesuvius  and  Etna,  especially  on 
those  of  Vesuvius  erupted  in  the  years  97,  18()4, 
1820,  and  1822.  It  occurs  abundantly  in  some  parta 
of  South  America,  as  at  Atacania  in  Peru,  from 
which  it  derives  its  name  ;  at  Reuiolinos,  Santa 
Rosa,  and  other  districts  in  Chili ;  and  at  Sarapaca 
in  Bolivia,  where  it  is  associated  in  veins  with  ores 
of  silver.  Tiie  natural  varieties  of  A.  are  crystallised, 
massive,  and  jjulverulent  or  granular.  Tlie  massive 
or  compact  variety  is  usually  reniibrm,  with  a  fibrous 
structure.  The  crystals  are  short  and  needle-shaped; 
the  primary  form  is  a  rhombic  prism.  It  has  been 
sometimes  described  as  a  chloride  of  cojiper,  but 
incorrectly  ;  and  sometimes  as  a  hydrochlorate 
(muriate)  of  copper  ;  it  is  rather  to  be  regarded  as 
a  combination  of  protoxide  of  copper  witli  chloride 
of  copper.  It  is  a  rich  and  productive  ore,  contain- 
ing about  55  to  60  percent,  of  copper.  The  percent- 
age composition  of  various  specimens  of  A.  is  as 
follows : 

i^:sL.  'S'^  ^=^*-  Tot... 

Compact  atacamite,      72-0  1(5-3  11-7  100 

7C-5  11-0  12-5  100 

Sandv'atacamitei      .      70-5  11-5  IS'O  100 

Crystallised  atacamite,  73-0  16-2  10-8  100 

A.  often  forms  on  the  surface  of  copper  exposed 
to  the  air  or  sea-water ;  and  the  greenish  incrusta- 
tion observed  on  antique  bronze  utensils,  weapons, 
and  other  articles,  and  commonly  known  as  the 
aerugo  nobilis,  is  composed  of  this  salt.  On  some 
antique  bronzes  from  Egypt  the  A.  is  crystalline. 
Atacamite  is  worked  in  South  America  as  an 
ore  of  copper ;  and  considerable  quantities  are  sent 
to  England  to  have  the  metal  extracted  therefrom. 
See  Copper. 


ATAHUALrA— ATE. 


ATAIIUALPA,  the  favourite  sou  of  Huayna 
Capac,  luca  of  Peru,  who  died  iu  1525,  about  scveu 
years  before  Pizurro's  arrival  in  Peru.  The  mother 
of  A.  not  being  of  the  pure  Iiica  blood,  her  son  was 
formally  exeluded  from  inheriting  the  throne ;  but 
his  handsome  figure,  bold  sjjirit,  and  (juick  intelli- 
gence so  won  ujjon  the  affection  of  his  father,  tliat 
on  his  death-bed  he  declared  it  to  be  his  will  that 
A.  should  receive  as  his  portion  the  ancient  kingdom 
of  Quito  (recently  coiKiuered),  while  Huascar,  his 
eldest  son,  should  possess  Peru.  For  five  years  the 
brothers  lived  on  terms  of  real  or  apparent  friend- 
ship ;  but  at  length  the  restless  ambition  of  A.,  who 
was  constantly  aspiring  to  new  conquests,  excited 
the  uneasiness  of  Huascar,  who,  in  an  evil  hour, 
was  induced  to  send  an  envoy  to  his  brother,  with 
instructions  to  require  him  to  render  homage  for  his 
kingdom  of  Quito.  A.  fired  at  the  proposal,  and 
war  was  instantly  declared.  Placing  himself  at 
the  head  of  the  army  of  veterans  which  his  father 
had  left  him,  he  invaded  Peru,  and  in  the  spring  of 
1532  completely  defeated  Huascar  on  the  plains, of 
Quipaypan,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Cuzco,  the 
native  Peruvian  metropolis,  only  a  few  months 
before  tlie  arrival  of  the  Spaniards.  Huascar  was 
taken  prisoner,  and  confined  in  tlie  strong  fortress  of 
Xauxa.  Then  followed,  according  to  Garcilasso  de 
la  Vega,  a  series  of  atrocious  massacres  of  all  in 
whose  veins  ran  the  blood  of  the  'Incas ;  but  his 
statements  are  so  monstrous,  and  possess  so  little 
congruity,  that  they  are  rejected  by  Prescott  as 
intrinsically  incredible.  In  the  meantime,  the 
Spaniards  had  disembarked  at  Tumbez ;  and  after 
a  long,  brave,  and  perilous  march  throngh  the 
unknown  coiuitry,  Pizarro,  at  the  head  of  his  two 
hundred  cavaliers,  approached  the  victorious  camp 
of  A.,  where  he  found  some  fifty  thousand  men 
assembled.  By  a  daring  but  diabolical  stratagem, 
Pizarro  obtained  possession  of  the  person  of  the 
king,  who  had  come  to  visit  him  in  a  friendly  spirit. 
While  a  priest  was  explaining  the  Christian  religion, 
and  the  power  of  the  pope  over  all  the  kingdoms  of 
the  earth,  and  how  the  pope  had  presented  Peru 
to  the  Spanish  monarch,  in  whose  name  they  had 
come.  A.,  indignantly  interrupting  him,  told  him 
that  the  pope  (whoever  he  was)  nmst  be  a  crazy 
fool  to  talk  of  giving  away  countries  which  were 
not  his  own.  When  he  inquired  on  what  authority 
such  claims  were  made,  the  j)riest  pointed  to  the 
Biljle,  on  which  A.  dashed  the  book  on  the  ground, 
and  the  fields  began  to  fill  with  Indians.  The  moment 
was  critical.  The  crime  which  Pizarro  had  resolved 
upon  the  night  before  must  be  executed  then  or 
never.  He  waved  a  white  scarf,  which  was  the 
signal  agreed  upon.  The  mysterious  artillery  poured 
sudden  death  into  the  terrified  masses  of  Peruvians, 
while  the  Spanish  cavalry  rode  them  down  with 
merciless  fury.  Confusion  seized  the  natives ; 
they  submitted — being  unarmed — to  this  horrible 
butchery,  only  anxious  to  save  their  sacred  Inca ; 
but  all  their  efforts  to  accomplish  this  proved  un- 
availing, and  after  exhausting  lio\ns  in  the  miserable 
work  of  murder,  the  inhuman  Spaniards  succeeded 
in  capturing  him.  A.  was  treated  with  a  great  show 
of  kindness  at  first,  and  more  especially  when  he 
offered,  as  a  ransom,  '  not  merely  to  cover  the  floor, 
but  to  fill  the  room  in  which  he  stood  with  gold 
as  high  as  he  could  reach.'  When  A.'s  brother, 
Huascar,  who  was  still  a  prisoner,  heard  of  this,  he 
offered  still  more  advantageous  terms  for  himself 
To  prevent  this,  A.  had  him  secretly  assassinated. 
The  golden  treasure  which  wa^  to  constitute  the 
ransom  of  A.  now  began  to  pour  in,  and  at  length 
A.  demanded  his  freedom.  This  Pizarro  refused  to 
grant,  and  accused  A.  of  plotting  against  liini.  The 
result,  after  much  base  treachery  on  tlie  part  of  the 


Spaniard,  was  a  mock-trial,  in  which  A.  was  con- 
denmed  to  be  burned.  On  the  29th  of  August  1533, 
lie  was  led  to  the  stake,  but  on  agreeing  to  l)e  '  bap- 
tised,' his  sentence  was  commuted  to  death  by  stran- 
gulation. 

ATALA'NTA,  a  mythical  personage,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Jasus  and  Clymene,  was  born  in  Arcadia,  and 
celebrated  as  a  huntress,  well  skilled  in  the  use  of 
the  bow  and  arrow.  Her  father,  who  had  wished 
a  son,  exposed  her,  while  an  infant,  on  Mount 
Parthenios,  where  she  was  found  near  the  entrance 
of  a  cave  by  hunters,  who  are  said  to  have  brought 
her  up,  and  afterwards  restored  her  to  her  parents. 
While  living  as  a  wild  mountain-maiden,  she 
slew  the  centaurs  Rha^cus  and  Hylasus.  After- 
wards, she  sailed  with  the  Ai-gonauts  (q.  t.)  to 
Colchis,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  chase  of 
the  Calydonian  boar  (q.  v.).  She  had  many  suitors, 
but  was  merciless  in  the  conditions  which  she 
imposed  on  them.  Being  the  swiftest  of  mortals, 
she  offered  to  become  the  wife  of  him  that  should 
outstrip  her — the  penalty  of  defeat  being  death. 
At  length  she  was  conquered  by  a  trick  of  one  Meila- 
nion,  whom  she  was  compelled  to  marry.  He  obtained 
from  Venus  a  gift  of  three  golden  apples,  which  he 
successively  dropped  in  the  race ;  and  A.  was  so 
charmed  by  their  beauty,  that  she  could  not  refrain 
from  stooping  to  gather  them,  and  so  lost. — Mention  is 
made  of  another  A.  in  Greek  antiquity,  to  whom  a 
different  parentage  is  assigned,  but  regarding  whom 
the  myth  is  essentially  the  same. 

ATARAIPU',  a  term  signifying  DcviV.^  Rocl:  It 
is  applied  to  one  of  the  most  singular  eminences  in  the 
world,  a  granite  pyramid  in  Briti.sh  Guiana,  which  rises 
abruptly  from  the  plain  about  900  feet,  wooded  for 
rather  more  than  one-third  of  the  height,  but  bare 
thence  to  the  peaked  summit. 

ATCHAFALAY'A,  a  branch  of  the  Mi.«si.ssippi 
at  its  delta.  It  forms  so  large  an  angle  with  the 
main  river,  that,  after  a  course  of  only  130  miles,  it 
enters  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  120  miles  to  the  west  of 
New  Orleans.  From  the  Red  River,  wliich  enters 
the  Mississippi  just  above  its  own  point  of  departure, 
the  A.  had  received  so  much  drift-wood,  as  formed 
at  last  a  stationary  raft  10  miles  long,  220  yards 
broad,  and  18  feet  deep — an  obstacle  to  navigation 
which  the  state  of  Louisiana  required  four  years  to 
remove. 

ATCHEE'N,  or  ACHEEX,  the  capital  of  a  nearly 
extinct  independent  kingdom  of  the  same  name  in 
the  north-west  of  the  large  island  of  Sumatra,  is 
situated  on  a  river  a  few  miles  from  the  sea,  and 
surrounded  at  a  distance  by  ranges  of  hills.  Lat.  5° 
35'  N.,  long.  95"  45'  E.  Pop.  uncertain.  The  en- 
trance from  the  sea  is  rather  dangerous,  as  a  bar 
stretches  across  the  delta,  and,  at  best,  is  only  possible 
for  small-craft,  so  that  the  trade  which  it  carries  on 
with  Singapore  and  a  few  other  places,  in  camphor, 
benzoin,  betel-nut,  pepper,  sulpliur,  cotton  cloth, 
and  gold-dust,  is  inconsiderable.  A.  has  a  pretty  look, 
a  short  way  off,  on  account  of  tlie  houses,  whit'h  are 
separate,  being  girt  in  many  cases  with  a  luxuriant 
fringe  of  trees,  while  the  environs  are  beautifully 
adorned  in  the  same  way. 

ATCHE'VEMENT  is  a  term  nearly  equivalent  to 
armorial  bearings,  and  is  often  u.sed  when  speaking 
of  the  arms  of  a  deceased  person  as  displayed  at  his 
funeral  or  elsewhere.  In  this  sense  it  is  more  com- 
monly used  in  its  abbreviated  form  of  Hatchment 
(q.  V.').  ^ 

A'TE,  according  to  Homer,  the  daughter  of 
Jupiter — or  of  Eris,  as  Ilesiod  says — w.is  a  vengeful 
goddess,  ever  attending  di//!7iomia,  or  transgression 
of  law,  though  she  herself  prompted  men  to  such. 
She  was  banisl:ed  from  Olvmpus  bv  Jove,  whom  she 

511 


ATELEI^— ATH. 


had  incited  to  take  an  oath  of  which  he  subsequently 
repented.  She  then  travelled  to  and  fio  over  the 
earth  with  great  rapidity,  always  intent  on  exercising 
a  pernicious  inliucnce  upon  mankind.  But  her  steps 
were  followed  by  the  goddesses  Liiai  (prayers), 
benevolent  daughters  of  Jove,  who  healed  tho.'^e  who 
had  been  afflicted  by  A.  The  tragic  writers  describe 
A.  as  the  goddess  of  retribution.  Their  represen- 
tations almost  identify  her  with  Kemesis  and 
Ekinnys. 

ATE'LES  (Gr.  incomplete),  a  genus  of  American 
monkeys,  of  the  division  with  long  prehensile  tails, 
to  which  the  name  Sapajois  (q.  v.)  is  sometimes 
collectively  applied.  In  the  genus  A.,  the  head  is 
round,  and  the  facial  angle  about  60°  ;  the  limbs  are 
remarkably  long  and  slender,  upon  which  account 
the  English  name  SpinER  Monkey  (q.  v.)  is  some- 
times used  as  a  generic  designation ;  and  the  fore- 
limbs  are  either  entirely  destitute  of  a  thumb,  or 
have  a  mere  rudimentary  one,  a  peculiarity  in 
allusion  to  which  the  name  A.  was  given.  The 
name  Coaita  or  Quata  is  frequently  given  to  some 
of  the  species  of  A.,  but  is  sometimes  limited  to  A. 
Paiiiscus,  as  Spider  Monkey  sometimes  is  to  A.  arncli- 
noidex.  One  of  the  best  known  species  is  the  Mari- 
monda  (A.  Bclzcbnb),  a  common  monkey  of  Guiana, 
and  which  occurs  in  immense  numbers  on  the  banks  of 
the  Orinoco. 

ATELIERS  XATIONAITX,  or  NATIONAL 
WORKSHOPS,  a  term  under  which  such  institu- 
tions became  renowned  in  connection  with  the  French 
revolution  of  1848.  In  almost  all  countries  and 
ages,  there  have  been  projects  for  organizing  labour 
under  public  authority,  designed  generally  for  the 
benevolent  purpose  of  obviating  the  distress  caused 
by  casual  depressions  in  trade.  However  distinctly 
the  laws  of  political  economy  were  laid  down  on  the 
point,  it  could  always  be  said  that  these  were  merely 
theoretic,  and  therefore  this  one  instance  of  practical 
experiment,  however  calamitous  in  its  day,  left  behind 
it  a  valuable  lesson.  The  principles  of  political 
economy  on  this  matter  are — that  competition  only 
can  fix  the  extent  to  which  laljour  is  required  in  any 
department,  and  the  rate  at  which  it  must  be  remu- 
nerated ;  that  it  is  this  competition  which  gives  the 
workman  a  stimulus  to  labour  effectively  and  profit- 
ably ;  and  that  if  this  stimulus  were  withdrawn,  and 
all  were  paid  alike,  whether  they  worked  well  or  ill, 
all  woidd  work  ill,  the  pul)lic  would  be  losers,  and  the 
large  fund  out  of  which  labourers  are  supported  under 
the  competitive  system  would  cease  to  exist.  Imme- 
diately on  the  formation  of  the  Provisional  Govern- 
ment in  February  1848,  a  permanent  department  was 
established,  called  The  Covmiittce  of  the  Government 
for  the  Worhnen.  This  establishment  acted  on  the 
doctrine  that  all  workmen  were  entitled  to  have  a  liv- 
ing provided  for  them  on  a  certain  uniform  scale. 
They  did  not  forcibly  abolish  private  employment,  but 
they  held  out  inducements  which  made  workmen  leave 
and  employers  break  up  the  existing  establishments. 
Consequently,  nearly  all  the  Parisian  workmen  threw 
themselves  on  the  government,  and  others  flocked 
in  from  other  quarters  in  alarming  numbers.  It  was 
found  that  these  crowds  of  men,  who  claimed  the 
privilege  of  emplojTiient  by  the  state,  had  very  little 
idea  of  the  duty  of  working,  even  were  there  distinct 
employment  for  them.  But  when  the  body  had 
increased  to  considerably  above  a  hundred  thousand, 
the  government  found  that  they  had  this  ever-increas- 
ing mass  to  feed,  and  nothing  to  feed  them  with, 
since  trade  thus  meddled  with  was  in  reality  ruined, 
^t  was  consequently  found  necessary  to  put  an  end  to 
the  system,  and  the  result  was  the  bloody  battle  of 
Paris,  which  brought  about  the  restoration  of  despot- 
ism. One  incidental  experiment  will  perhaps  best 
512 


explain  the  ruinous  tendency  of  the  whole  .system.  In 
the  Hotel  Clichy,  1500  tailors  were  a.-sembkd  to  make 
uniforms  for  the  new  garde  iiiohile.  The  men  were 
to  receive  among  them  for  the  comjjleted  work  as 
much  as  an  arniy-contractor  would  have  demanded. 
In  the  meantime,  they  were  paid  two  francs  a  day  of 
subsistence  money  ;  the  rest  was  to  be  divided  among 
them  at  the  end.  The  men  were  buoyed  u)>  v.ith  the 
notion  that  they  were  to  receive  not  only  their  own 
proper  wages,  but  the  indefinite  and  enormous  sum 
which  they  supposed  to  form  the  profit  of  the  con- 
tractor, forgetting  that  such  profit  seldom  exceeds 
about  3  per  cent.  Their  disappointment  was  groat 
when  they  found  nothing  to  divide.  There  was,  in 
fact,  a  loss.  When  j)aid  their  two  francs — not  much 
more  than  half  what  they  obtained  when  employed  by 
a  contractor — they  were  paid  more  than  the  value  of 
their  labour  and  the  profit  of  the  transaction  to  boot. 
The  reason  is  pretty  obvious.  Each  man  working 
for  himself,  and  i)aid  for  his  work  on  the  competitive 
system,  exerted  liimself ;  ))ut  when  one  man's  exer- 
tions went  virtually  for  nothing,  unless  he  got  the  1499 
others  to  exeit  themselves  to  the  same  amount,  all 
were  alike  lazy. 

ATELLA'X/E,  FuhuUe.  Atcllanct  (also  styled  Ludi 
Osri),  a  kind  of  popular  drama  in  Rome,  fir.'-t  intro- 
duced from  Atella,  a  town  in  Campania,  l)etween 
Capua  and  Naples.  After  the  Greek  drama  had 
been  brought  to  Rome  by  Livius  Andronicus,  the  old 
Fabnhe  Atellance  were  still  retained  as  interludes 
and  after-pieces.  They  are  not  to  be  confounded 
with  the  (ireek  satiric  drama,  although  the  character 
of  both  was  to  some  extent  the  same.  In  the  latter, 
satyrs  figured ;  while  the  former  personated  real 
Oscan  characters.  The  Macrhus  and  Bncco  of  the 
Fahnla;  A  t ell anu:  may  be  considered  the  origin  of  the 
modem  Italian  arltcchino  (harlequin),  and  other 
characters  of  the  same  stamp.  They  were  the 
favourite  characters ;  spoke  the  Oscan  dialect,  and 
excited  laughter  by  its  quaint  old-fashioned .  words 
and  phrases.  The  A.  were  neither  so  dignified  as 
the  coonadia  pratextaln,  nor  so  low  as  the  coinoedia 
tahernaria,  but  indulged  in  a  kind  of  genial  and 
decent  drollery.  The  caricature  was  at  first  always 
pleasant,  and  though  quizzical,  it  did  not  lapse  into 
obscenity,  like  the  miini.  Respectable  Roman  youths, 
who  could  not  appear  as  actors  in  the  regular  Greek 
drama  without  losing  caste,  were  allowed  to  take  parts 
in  the  A.  A  few  fragments  of  these  jiopular  farces 
have  been  collected  by  Bothe  in  his  J'oitiiriun  Latino- 
rum  Bcenicorvm  Fragmcnta  (Leip.  1884).  See  also 
Munk,  Le  FabuUs  Alellanis  (Leip.  1840). 

A  TEMPO  (Ital.),  in  time.  A  term  used  to 
denote  that,  after  some  short  relaxation  in  the  time, 
the  performer  must  return  to  the  original  degree  of 
movement. 

A  TEMPO  GIU  STO  (Ital.),  in  correct  time.  A 
term  used  to  denote  that,  after  a  recitative,  the  per- 
former should  keep  the  mu.«ic  true  and  correct,  which, 
during  the  recitative,  had  been  altered  to  suit  the  ac- 
tion and  passion  of  the  scene. 

A'TESHGA  (the  Place  of  Fire),  a  spot  on  the 
peninsula  of  Apsheron,  on  the  west  coast  of  the 
Caspian  Sea.  It  is  considered  sacred  by  the  Guebres, 
or  Persian  Fire-worshippers,  who  visit  it  in  large 
numbers,  and  bow  before  the  holy  flames  which 
issue  from  the  bituminous  soil.  It  i.s  about  a  mile 
in  diameter,  and  from  its  centre,  in  clear  dry  weather, 
creeps  forth  a  blue  flame  (caused  by  the  ignition  of 
the  naphtha),  v.Lich  shines  Mith  great  brightness  by 
night. 

ATEU'CHUS.     See  Beetle  and  ScARABj:rs. 

ATH,  or  AATH,  a  strongly  fortified  toT\Ti  in  the 
province  of  Hainault,  Belgium,  situated  on  the 
Dender,  in  lat.  50°  36'  N..  long.  3°  40'  E.     It  has  an 


ATHABASCA— ATIIANASIAX  CREED. 


)M>Tiial,  hospital,  and  college,  and  important  manu- 
factures of  linen,  calicoes,  lace,  gloves,  cutlery,  large 
hammers,  &c.,  and  carries  on  a  brisk  trade.  Pop. 
10,01)1).  The  ancient  church  of  .St.  Julien  in  A.  is 
noted  for  its  extraordinarily  high  tower.  The  town 
has  been  several  times  besieged  and  taken :  in  1(597, 
by  Catinat  and  Vauban  ;  in  ITOO,  by  the  allied  forces 
under  the  Dutch  general  Owei'kerke  ;  in  174S,  by  the 
French,  after  a  short  siege  ;  and  in  1792,  by  the  forces 
of  the  Republic  under  Berncron. 

ATHABA'SCA,  a  river  and  lake  in  the  north- 
west of  America,  forming  part  of  the  great  basin  of 
the  Mackenzie,  and  lying,  thereibre,  beyond  the 
Hudson's  Bay  Territory,  properly  so  called.  The 
river  rises  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  near  Mount  Brown, 
the  highest  point  in  the  range.  Its  actual  source 
is  the  small  lake,  already  mentioned  under  the 
head  of  America  as  the  Committee's  Punch 
Bowl,  which  sends  its  tribute  at  once  through  the 
A.  to  the  Frozen  Ocean,  and  through  the  Columbia 
to  the  Pacific.  Its  general  course  is  north-east, 
till,  after  passing  through  A.  Lake,  or  rather  crossing 
its  west  end,  it  turns  towards  the  north-west,  and, 
after  a  course  of  30  or  40  miles,  unites  with  the 
Peace  River,  from  beyond  the  Rocky  Mountains,  to 
form  the  Slave  River,  which,  again,  after  passing 
through  Great  Slave  Lake,  takes  the  name  of  the 
Mackenzie. — Lake  A.  receives  nearly  all  its  waters 
from  the  A.  river,  and  is  probably  unique  in  this, 
that  its  principal  feeder  traverses  not  its  length  but 
its  breadth,  and  that  not  in  its  middle,  but  at  its 
extrenuty.  The  lake's  single  outlet  is  the  river  A. 
The  lat.  is  about  59^  N.,  and  the  long,  between  106° 
and  112°  W.,  the  length  230  miles,  and  the  average 
width  20.  ° 


ATHALI'AH,  the  daughter  of  Ahab,  king  of 
Israel,  married  Jehoram,  king  of  Judah,  who  died 
885  B.  c.  After  the  death  of  her  son  Ahaziah,  who 
succeeded  him,  but  reigned  for  only  one  year,  she 
paved  her  ovm  way  to  the  throne  by  putting  to 
death  (as  she  supposed)  all  the  seed-roval.  '  But 
Jehosheba,  the  daughter  of  king  Jehoram,  sister 
of  Ahaziah,  took  Joash,  the  son  of  Ahaziah,  and 
stole  him  from  among  the  king's  sons,  who  were 
slain.'  The  young  prince  thus  rescued  was  pri- 
vately educated  in  the  temple,  and,  after  A.  had 
reigned  six  years,  the  high  priest  Jehoiada  placed 
Joash  on  the  throne  (878  b.  c).  A.,  hearino-  the 
noise  attending  the  coronation,  hastened  to''  the 
temple,  where  the  people  were  shouting,  '  God  save 
the  king ! '  As  she  looked  around  in  astonish- 
ment on  the  young  king,  whom  she  had  supposed 
to  be  dead,  surrounded  by  priests,  Levites,  rulers, 
captains,  and  a  rejoicing  multitude,  she  '  rent  her 
clothes,  and  cried,  "  Treason  !  treason  !  "  '  By  the 
command  of  the  high  priest,  she  was  led  out  of  the 
temple,  and  slain  in  the  gateway  of  the  palace.  The 
house  of  Baal,  with  its  altars  and  images,  was  broken 
down.  This  narrative  (2  Kings  xi.  ;  2  Chronicles 
xxi.  6,  xxii.  10—12,  xxiii.)  is  the  .subject  of  Racine's 
drama,  Athalk. 

ATHA'NARIC,  a  king  of  the  Western  Goths, 
whose  settlements  lay  on  the  north  bank  of  the 
Lower  Danube,  in  the  4th  c.  Having  taken  advan- 
t:ige  of  the  weakness  of  the  Roman  empire  when 
the  imperial  armies  were  engaged  in  suppressing  the 
rebellion  of  Procopius,  war  was  declared  against  him 
by  the  Emperor  Valens.  A.  acted  strictly  on  the 
defensive  during  two  campaigns,  in  which  the 
Romans  gained  no  advantage  over  him ;  but  in  the 
third  year  of  the  war  (3(59  a.  d.),  he  liazarded 
a  general  battle,  and  was  defeated,  whereupon  he 
sued  for  peace,  and,  with  that  o))jcct,  had  a  confer- 
ence with  Valens  in  a  boat  on  the  Danube.  Peace 
was  concluded,  and  A.  had  his  attention  occupied  in 
33 


settling  dissensions  arising  out  of  the  Arian  contro- 
versy which  then  agitated  his  people,  when  the  first 
advance  of  the  IIuiis  on  Europe  alarmed  the  Gothic 
nation.  A.  attempted  to  secure  the  eastern  borders 
of  his  kingdom  ;  but  the  Huns  forced  the  jiassages 
of  the  Dnieper,  defeated  the  Goths,  and  advanced°in 
great  force  into  the  jjlains  of  Dacia.  When,  in  374, 
the  Western  Goths  were  received  by  the  Romans,  as 
allies,  and  had  settlements  granted  them  on  the 
south  of  the  Danube,  A.,  with  a  part  of  his  people, 
refused  to  accomi)any  them,  removing  to  the  West' 
and  fortifying  him.self  against  the  new  enemy.  In 
380,  however,  he  was  obliged  to  retire,  wlicn  he 
accepted  the  hospitality  of  the  Empire,  and  removed 
to  ('onstantinople,  where  he  met  with  a  cordial  and 
honourable  reception  by  the  Emperor  Theodosius. 
At  this  time  died  Fritigern,  the  king  of  the  Goths 
that  had  settled  on  the  .south  of  the  Danube ;  and 
A.  lieing  made  king  of  the  whole  Western  Gothic 
nation,  concluded  a  treaty  of  peace,  in  behalf  of  the 
whole,  which  had  the  effect  of  incorporating  that 
people  with  the  other  subjects  of  the  empire.  He 
died  at  Constantinople  in  381. 

ATHANA'SIAN  CREED,  the  third  of  the  three 
oecumenical  symbols,  derived  its  name  from  its  com- 
position being  attributed  to  Athanasius ;  it  is  also 
known,  from  its  initial  words  in  Latin,  as  the  creed 
Qukunquc  Villi.  The  first  part  of  this  creed 
contains  a  detailed  exposition  of  the  Trinity;  the 
second,  the  doctrine  of  the  incarnation.  Modem 
criticism  has  called  in  question  the  title  of  Athanasius 
to  be  considered  the  author  of  this  creed.  It  was 
known  as  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  6th  c,  but 
not  under  its  present  name.  It  is  spoken  of  as 
'  Athanasius's  Tract  on  the  Trinitv,'  in  some  Articles 
of  the  middle  of  the  8th  c,  and"  is  supposed  to  be 
alluded  _  to,  '  as  the  Faith  of  the  holy  prelate 
Athanasius,'  in  the  Council  of  Autun,  about  670- 
Athanasius  himself  makes  no  mention  of  this 
creed,  although  its  doctrines  are  essentially  his ;  nor 
do  any  of  the  church  fathers.  Other  two  circum- 
stances speak  against  its  authenticity:  it  is  in 
Latin,  and  Athanasius  wrote  in  Greek ;  the  ex- 
pressions, again,  are  diflTercnt  from  those  used  by 
Athanasius  in  .speaking  of  the  same  things.  By 
Protestants,  therefore,  and  even  by  most  Catholics, 
its  Athanasian  origin  has  been  given  up,  and  its  pro- 
duction has  been  assigned  with  most  probability  to 
the  5t]i  c.,  and  to  Gaul ;  Hilary,  Archbishop  of  Aries 
(about  430),  being  conjectured  to  bo  the  author.  The 
title  of  Athanasian  probably  became  attached  to  it 
during  the  Arian  controversy  in  Gaul,  as  being  an 
exposition  of  the  system  of  doctrine  which  was 
opposed  to  the  Arian  system,  and  which  would 
naturally  be  called  Athanasian  from  its  chief  pro- 
pounder.  It  was  received  into  the  public  offices  of 
the  Gallic  Church  in  the  7th  c,  and  by  the  middle 
of  the  10th  c,  it  was  adopted  at  Rome  "and  all  over 
the  West.  In  Britain,  it  was  probably  in  use  as  early 
as  800.  The  Greek  Church  was  late  in  receiving  it,  and 
even  then  not  without  altci-ing  the  article  concerning 
the  '  Procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost.'  The  Reformers 
adhered  to  the  A.  C,  and  Luther  called  it  '  a  bulwark 
of  the  Apostles'  Creed.'  Even  those  churches  that  do 
not  in  any  way  acknowledge  it  as  a  symbol  (as  the 
Presbyterian  Churches  of  Britain  and  America,  as 
well  as  the  Independents)  generally  accept  its  doc- 
trines. 

The  A.  C.  is  the  most  rigid  and  iritoli^rant  of  the 
three  Catholic  .symbols,  and  has  given  rise  to  much 
controversy  ;  and  though  still  generally  received  by 
Protestants  as  well  as  Catholics,  the  regard  once  had 
for  it  has  declined.  The  points  in  this  creed  that 
give  offence  to  some  are  defended  by  others,  on 
the  plea  that  it  was  not  drawn  up  for  the  sake 
of  gratuitously  dogmatising  on  abstruse  speculative 

513 


ATHANASIUS— ATHEISM. 


truths,  but  to  counteract  other  dogmas  which  were 
held  to  be  dangerously  heretical.  Waterland,  in  his 
Critical  History  of  the  Atlianasian  Creed,  says:  'The 
use  of  it  will  hardly  be  thought  superfluous  so  long  as 
there  are  any  Arians,  Photinians,  Sabellians,  Mace- 
donians, ApoUinarians,  Nestorians,  or  Eutychians,  in 
these  parts.'  (See  Articles  under  these  heads.)  With 
respect  to  what  are  called  tlie  '  damnatory  clauses' 
(the  clauses,  namely:  'Which  Faith  e.\cept  every 
one  do  keep  whole  and  undefiled,  without  doubt  he 
shall  perish  everlastingly  ;  '  and  :  '  This  is  the  Catholic 
faith,  which  except  a  man  believe  faithfully,  he  can- 
not hQ  saved'),  the  churches  which  adopt  the  creed 
do  not  mean  by  them  to  imprecate  curses,  but_  to 
declare,  as  a  logical  sequence  of  a  true  faith  being 
necessary  to  salvation,  that  those  who  do  not  hold  the 
true  ftiith  are  in  danger  of  perishing ;  as  it  is  said, 
Mark  xvi.  16,  '  He  that  belioveth  not  shall  be  damned.' 
These  clauses  are  also  held  to  apply  to  those  who 
deny  the  substance  of  the  Christian  religion,  and  not 
infallibly  to  every  person  who  may  be  in  error  as  to 
any  one  particular  article.  A  rubric  to  this  effect  was 
drawn  up  by  the  commissioners  appointed  in  10S9  for 
the  review  of  the  English  Common  Prayer  Book,  but 
none  of  their  suggestions  took  effect.  Comfjare  also 
the  18th  Article  of  the  Church  of  England  with  tlicse 
clauses. 

ATHANA'SIUS,  Primate  of  Egypt,  was  bom 
in  Alexandria  about  the  year  206  a.d.  Tiierc  are 
no  particulars  on  record  of  his  lineage  or  his  parents. 
Alexander,  then  officiating  as  primate  or  patriarch  of 
Alexandria,  brought  him  up  in  his  own  family,  and 
superintended  his  education,  with  the  view  of  iiis 
entering  on  the  Christian  ministry.  In  his  youtli,  he 
often  visited  the  celel^rated  hermit  St  Antony,  and 
embraced  for  a  time  the  ascetic  life  with  the  venera))le 
recluse.  He  was  but  a  youth  and  only  a  deacon  when 
appointed  a  member  of  the  first  general  council  at 
Nice,  in  which  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  erudi- 
tion and  his  eloquence. 

His  patron,  Alexander,  having  died  in  the  fol- 
lowing year,  he  was  duly  elected  to  the  primacy 
by  the  clergy  and  people ;  and  was  but  newly 
installed  in  his  office,  when  Arius,  who  had  been 
banished  at  the  time  of  the  condemnation  of  his 
doctrine  at  Nice,  was  recalled,  and  made  a  recanta- 
tion of  his  erroneous  principles.  A.,  it  is  .said,  refu.sed 
on  this  occasion  to  comply  with  the  will  of  the 
emperor  that  the  heretic  should  be  restored  to 
communion.  On  this  account,  and  in  consequence 
of  several  other  charges  brought  against  him  by  the 
Arian  party,  he  was  summoned  by  the  Emperor 
Constantino  to  appear  before  the  synod  of  Tyre, 
in  335  A.D.,  which  deposed  him  from  his  office. 
His  sentence  was  confirmed  by  the  synod  of  Jerusa- 
lem in  the  following  year,  when  he  was  banished 
to  Treves.  In  338,  Constantius,  now  Emperor  of  the 
East,  though  unfriendly  to  the  principles  of  the 
Trinitarians,  recalled  A.  from  his  banishment,  and 
restored  him  to  the  primacy  at  Alexandria.  His 
entrance  into  the  city  was  like  a  triumphal  proces- 
sion ;  but  the  Arians  soon  rose  against  him,  and 
(in  341)  he  was  again  condemned  by  a  council  of  00 
Arian  bishops  assembled  at  Antioch.  Against  this 
decision  a  protest  was  made  by  100  orthodox  bishops 
at  Alexandria ;  and  in  a  council  hold  at  Sardis,  300 
bishop.s,  with  Julius,  bishop  of  Rome,  at  their  head, 
confirmed  the  decision  in  favor  of  A.,  who  was 
again  replaced  in  his  office  (349  a.d.).  The  Arians 
once  more  acquired  the  ascendency  after  Constantius 
(in  3.53)  had  been  made  Emperor  of  both  the  East  and 
the  West ;  for  in  that  year  A.  was  condemned  by  a 
council  held  at  Aries,  and  the  sentence  was  con- 
firmed by  another  held  at  Milan  in  355,  the  influence 
of  the  sovereign  being  strongly  exerted  to  secure 
his  condemnation.  As  the  resolute  patriarch  had 
514 


declared  that  he  wcjuld  not  leave  his  place  without 
an  express  order  from  the  emjicror,  violent  means 
were  resorted  to  for  his  exi)ulsion.  While  engaged 
in  conducting  divine  service,  he  was  interjuj)ted 
by  a  conipany  of  soldiers,  from  whom  he  niaiie  his 
escape  into  the  Egyjitian  desert.  A  price  was  set  on 
his  head  ;  and  to  avoid  his  persecutors,  he  retired 
from  the  usual  haunts  of  the  anchorets  to  a  remote 
desert  in  Upper  Egypt,  where  he  was  attended  by 
one  faithful  follower.  Here  he  wrote  several  works 
to  confirm  orthodox  Christians  in  their  faith.  On 
the  accession  of  J\ilian  to  the  imperial  throne, 
toleration  was  proclaimed  to  all  religions,  and  A. 
returned  to  his  former  position  as  Patriarch  of 
Alexandria  (361  a.d.).  His  next  controversy  was  with 
the  heathen  subjects  of  Julian,  to  \vl.om  tlie  patriarch, 
by  his  zeal  in  opposing  their  religion,  had  made  him- 
self very  offensive.  To  save  his  life,  he  was  com- 
pelled again  to  flee  from  Alexandria,  and  remained 
concealed  in  the  Theban  desert  until  303,  when  Jovian 
iisccndcd  the  throne.  Aftei'  holiiiug  office  again  as 
patriarch  for  only  a  short  space  of  time,  he  was  ex- 
pelled anew  by  the  Arians,  under  the  Emperor  Valens. 
A.  now  found  refuge  in  the  tomb  of  his  father,  where 
he  remained  l;idden  four  months,  until  Valens,  moved 
by  petitions  from  the  orthodox  Ak'xandrians,  restored 
the  patriarch  to  his  see,  in  which  he  continued  till  his 
death  in  373  a.d. 

A.  was  the  leading  ecclesiastic  in  the  most  trying 
period  of  the  history  of  the  early  Christian  Church. 
His  ability,  his  conscientiousness,  his  judiciou.s- 
ness  and  wisdom,  his  fearlessness  in  the  storms  of 
opposition,  his  activity  and  patience,  all  mark  him 
out  as  an  ornamer.t  of  the  age,  as  well  as  the  most 
influential  public  character  in  matters  of  religion. 
Though  twenty  years  of  his  life  were  spent  either  in 
exile,  or  what  was  e(|uivaleiit  to  it,  yet  his  prudence 
and  steadfastncs,  combined  with  the  support  of  a  large 
party,  crowned  his  exertions  with  complete  success. 
He  was  a  clear  thinker,  and  as  a  speaker,  w.is  distin- 
guished for  extemporaneous  precision,  force,  and  per- 
suasiveness. 

His  writings  are  polemical,  historical,  and  moral ; 
all  marked  liy  a  style  simple,  cogent,  and  clear.  The 
j)oleniical  works  treat  chiefly  of  the  doctrines  of  the 
Trinity,  the  incarnation  of  our  Saviour,  and  the  divin- 
ity of  the  Holy  Spirit. 

The  earliest  edition  of  the  collected  works  of 
A.  in  the  original  Greek  appeared  in  two  volumes, 
folio,  at  Heidelberg  in  1C(H).  It  was  accompanied 
with  a  Latin  translation.  The  most  complete  edition 
is  that  pul)li.shcd  at  Padua,  in  1777.  A.'s  Pour  Ora- 
tions against  the  Arians,  and  his  Oration  against  the 
Gentiles,  were  translated  by  S.  Parker  (Oxford,  1713); 
also,  his  Treatise  on  the  Incarnation  of  the  Word  was 
translated  by  W.  Whiston,  forming  part  of  that 
gentleman's  (Jollection  of  Ancient  Jlonmncvix  Relat- 
ing to  the  Trinit'j  and  Incarnation,  London  in  1713. 
Th.e  Epistles  of  A.  in  defence  of  the  Xicene  Creed, 
and  on  the  councils  of  Aiiminum  and  Selcucia,  to- 
gether with  his  first  Oration  against  the  Arians,  were 
translated,  with  notes,  l;y  the  Kcv.  John  Henry  New- 
man, Oxford  (1842). 

ATHEISM,  a  word  of  modern  formation,  from 
Gr.  aiheos,  '  without  God,'  signifies  the  doctrine  of 
those  who  deny  the  existence  of  a  God.  The  term 
atheist  conveys  such  terrible  associations  to  almost 
ail  Hiinds,  that  there  is  perhaps  no  reproach  from 
which  men  shrink  more  ;  and  yet  it  has  been  freely 
applied  by  the  zealous  of  all  ages  to  those  whose 
notions  of  the  invisible  powers  differed  from  their 
own.  The  imputation  is  the  most  daniaging  that 
can  be  made,  and  it  requires  only  a  little  ingenuity 
to  make  out  a  case  of  constructive  A.  from  any  set  of 
opinions  at  all  differing  from  the  common.  Thus, 
the  ancient  Greeks  accused  some  of  their  philosophers 


ATHELXEY— ATHENS. 


of  A.  though  they  did  not  deny  the  existence  of  a  i 
divinity,  but  only  rejected  the  eonnnon  notions  of  a 
plurahty  of  gods.  And  in  the  Christian  Cliurch, 
after  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  had  been  fixed  and 
defined,  those  tliat  denied  the  divinity  of  Christ  were 
not  unusually  branded  as  atheists. 

The  horror  inspired  by  this  name  is  strikingly 
shewn  in  the  way  it  is  repudiated  by  the  adherents 
of  pantheism  {(i-  v.),  who  reject  a  personal  god, 
and  substitute  the  idealised  principle  of  order  that 
pervades  the  universe.  It  is  hardly  to  be  denied, 
however,  that  the  idea  associated  with  the  word  God 
has  hitherto  involved  personality  as  its  very  essence  ; 
and  except  for  the  purpose  of  avoiding  odium,  there 
could  be  little  propriety  in  retaining  the  word  when 
the  notion  is  so  completely  altered. 

The  view  of  those  who,  like  Kant,  believe  it 
impossible  to  deuiomtratc  satisfactorily  the  existence 
of  God,  though  it  must  be  held  on  other  grounds,  is 
called  speculative  A.,  in  opposition  to  the  dogmatic 
A.  of  those  who  attempt  to  disprove  that  existence. 

A'THELNEY,  Isle  of,  a  marsh  at  the  junction  of 
the  rivers  Tone  and  Parret,  in  the  middle  of  Somer- 
setshire. Here  Alfred,  when  driven  from  his  throne, 
hid  from  his  enemies,  and  founded,  in  888,  a 
Benedictine  abbey,  now  entirely  gone.  Among  the 
many  relics  found  in  this  spot  is  a  ring  of  Alfred's, 
preserved  in  the  Oxford  Museum.  The  name 
Athelney  means  '  island  of  the  nobles,'  or  '  royal 
island.' 

A'THELSTAN",  the  grandson  of  Alfred  the  Great, 
was  born  about  895  A.  D.,  and  was  the  first  Saxon 
monarch  who  took  the  title  of  king  of  England, 
Alfred  himself  only  asuming  that  of  king  of  the 
Anglo-Saxons.  He  was  crowned  at  Kingston-upon- 
Thames  in  9'25,  and  seems,  to  have  possessed  both 
great  ambition  and  high  talent.  It  is  supposed  that 
his  design  was  to  unite  in  subjection  to  his  single 
sway  the  entire  island  of  Britain.  His  resources, 
however,  were  not  equal  to  the  undertaking,  and  he 
had  to  content  himself  with  the  acquisition  of 
portions  of  Cornwall  and  Wales.  On  the  death  of 
Sigtric,  king  of  Northumbria,  who  had  married  one 
of  his  daughters,  A.  took  possession  of  his  dominions. 
This  excited  the  alarm  and  animosity  of  the  neigh- 
bouring States,  and  a  league,  composed  of  Welsh, 
Scotch,  and  Irish,  was  formed  against  the  English 
king,  for  the  purpose  of  placing  Aulaff,  the  son  of 
Sigtric,  on  his  father's  throne.  A  fierce  and  decisive 
battle  was  fought  at  Bruncnburgh,  in  which  the 
allies  were  utterly  defeated,  and  which  became 
famous  in  Saxon  song.  After  this,  the  reputation 
of  A.  spread  into  the  continent.  His  sisters  were 
married  into  the  royal  families  of  France  and 
Germany,  and  he  himself  enjoyed  the  greatest 
influence  and  consideration.  At  home,  he  exhibited 
a  deep  interest  in  the  welfare  of  his  people,  improved 
the  laws,  built  monasteries,  and  encouraged  the 
translation  of  the  Bible  into  the  vernacular.  He  died 
at  Gloucester  on  the  25th  October  941,  in  his  47th 
year. 

ATHEN.E'UM  (Gr.  Athenaion),  the  Temple  of 
Minerva  (Gr.  Athene)  at  Athens,  which  was  fre- 
quented by  poets,  learned  men,  and  rhetoricians,  who 
there  read  aloud  thei-r  works. — The  A.  in  Rome  was 
a  school  or  college  erected,  by  the  Emperor  Hadrian, 
for  the  study  of  poetry  and  rhetoric,  with  a  regular 
staff  of  professors.  It  existed  for  a  long  period.  In 
the  time  of  Theodosius  II.,  it  had  three  professors  of 
oratory,  ten  of  grammar,  five  of  sophistry  or  dialec- 
tics, one  of  philosophy,  and  two  of  jurisprudence. — 
In  modern  times,  the  name  A.  has  been  revived  as  an 
appellation  for  certain  literary  institutions,  and  also 
as  a  collective  title  for  literary  essays  and  reviews. 
A.   is  the  title  of  two  weekly  journals  of  literature 


and  the  fine    arts — one    published    in    London,   the 
other  in  Paris. 

ATHEX^E'US,  a  Greek  rhetor  and  litterateur, 
born  at  Naucratis  in  Egypt.  He  lived  at  the  close 
of  the  second  and  beginning  of  the  third  century. 
His  work,  entitled  Deipnosophistte  (Banquet  of  the 
Learned),  in  fifteen  books,  but  of  which  we  possess 
the  first  two,  and  piuts  of  the  third,  eleventh,  and 
fifteenth  only  in  an  abridged  form,  is  very  interest- 
ing, as  it  has  preserved  for  us  copious  fragments 
of  old  writers,  and  treats,  in  the  form  of  dialogue, 
of  almost  all  the  topics  of  ancient  Greek  manners, 
private  and  public  life,  arts,  sciences,  &c.  It  is 
not  a  work  indicative  of  any  high  ability ;  the 
author,  for  the  most  part,  appears  in  the  character 
of  an  agreeable,  well-read,  epicurean  gentleman, 
excessively  fond  of  tit-bits,  both  of  scandal  and 
cookery.  He  tells  many  stories  to  the  disadvantage 
of  people  whom  history  praises;  but  these  vfe  are 
by  no  means  bound  to  believe,  nor,  indeed,  is  he  a 
man  whose  opinions  are  worth  much  on  any  subject ; 
but  as  a  melange  of  literary,  social,  and  domestic 
gossip,  the  value  of  the  work  is  unrivalled.  A. 
appears  to  have  read  enormously  ;  he  states  that  he 
had  made  extracts  himself  from  800  plays  of  the 
middle  comedy  alone.  But  his  dialogue  is  prolix  and 
lumbering  ;  and  his  work  is  not  irradiated  by  a  single 
gleam  of  genius  and  has  only  achieved  immortaUty 
through  being  a  storehouse  of  miscellaneous  informa- 
tioji,  that  otherwise  would  have  been  lost  to  the  race. 
The  best  editions  are  by  Schweighauser  (14  vols. 
Strasb.  1801—1807),  and'  Dindorf  (3  vols.  Leip. 
1827).  There  is  an  English  translation  of  A.  in 
Bohn's  Classical  Library  (3  vols.  Lond.  1854.) 

ATHEXA'GOPiAS,  an  early  Christian  philosopher, 
who  taught  first  at  Athens,  and  afterwards  at  Alexan- 
dria. He  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  the  apologetical 
writers,  and  is  favourably  known  by  his  Legatio  pro 
Christianis,  which  he  addressed  to  the  Emperor 
Marcus  Aurelius  in  the  year  177  a.  d.  He  therein 
defended  the  Christians  against  the  monstrous  accusii- 
tions  of  the  heathen,  viz.,  that  they  were  guilty  of 
atheism,  incest,  and  cannibalism.  His  work  is  writ- 
ten in  a  pilosophical  spirit,  and  is  marked  by  great 
clearness  and  cogency  of  style.  We  likewise  po.sscss 
1  a  valuable  treatise  of  his  on  the  resurrection  of  the 
!  dead. 

ATIIEXA'IS,  an  Athenian  of  distinguished  beau- 
ty, the  daughter  of  Leontinos  the  Sophist,  was 
born  about  the  close  of  the  4th  c,  a.  p.  She  re- 
ceived from  her  father  a  superior  education,  being 
skilled  in  Greek  and  Latin  literatiire,  rhetoric,  as- 
tronomy, geometry,  and  the  science  of  arithmetic. 
After  his  death  she  repaired  to  Constantinople,  to 
obtain  justice  for  the  harsh  treatment  to  which  her 
brother  subjected  her.  Hero  her  beauty  and  intelli- 
gence made  her  the  favnurite  of  Augusta  Pulcheria, 
sister  of  Theodosius  II.,  who  considered  that  she 
would  make  an  excellent  wife  for  the  emperor.  In 
421,  A.  having  been  Ijaptised  and  named  Eudocia, 
was  married  to  Theodosius,  and  in  438,  made  a 
splendid  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem,  bringing  with  her 
on  her  return,  the  supposed  relics  of  the  first  martyr, 
Stephen.  Afterwards,  she  lost  the  favoiu-  of  Pul- 
cheria— the  real  manager  of  affairs — and  was  ban- 
ished from  the  court.  She  then  retired  to  Jeru- 
salem, where  she  suffered  many  persecutions,  and 
died,  in  the  odour  of  sanctity,  460  a.  n.  A.  wrote 
an  epic  poem  on  the  war  of  Theodosius  against  the 
Persians,  and  several  other  metrical  works  which  have 
not  been  preserved. 

A'THEXS,  the  capital  of  the  ancient  state  of 
Attica,  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Cecrops, 
about  1550  b.  c,  and  styled  Cecropia ;  but  even  the 
ancients  themselves  doubted  this  tradition.     Equally 

515 


ATHENS. 


uncertain  is  the  story  that  it  was  first  styled  A.,  in 
honor  of  Athene,  during  the  reign  of  Ericlithonius. 
The  ancient  citideF  was  situated  on  the  top  of  a 
square  craggy  rock,  150  feet  high,  with  a  flat  summit, 
1000  feet  long,  and  500  broad.  Gradually,  as  popula- 
tion increased,  A.  extended  itself  over  the  wide  and 
beautiful  plain  below.  This  increase  is  said  to 
have  been  occasioned  by  the  organization  of  the 
twelve  Attic  tribes  into  a  jiolitical  confederacy  or 
union  by  Theseus,  the  brightest  figure  that  shines 
through  the  '  dark  ages  '  of  Attic  history.  The  posi- 
tion of  A.  near  the  Gulf  of  Saronica,  oppo.site  the 
eastern  coast  of  the  Peloponnesus,  was  favourable 
to  the  acquirement  of  naval  power.  The  city,  which 
was  distant  four  or  five  miles  from  the  sea,  possessed 
three  harboui'S,  all  situated  on  the  south-west,  and 
connected  with  it  by  walls.  The  oldest  of  these 
harbours  was  Phalerum.  It  was  also  the  nearest  to 
the  city,  and  accessible  at  all  times  by  a  dry  road. 
The  Peira^us  wms  first  used  as  a  harbour  Ijy  Themis- 
tocles.  Munychia  was  the  Acropolis  of  the  whole 
rocky  peninsula  termed  the  Peira^us,  and  of  immense 
importance  strategetically.  The  two  last  harbours 
were  connected  with  the  city  by  the  famous  '  long 
walls,'  of  which  we  read  so  much  in  Athenian 
history.  They  were  forty  stadia,  or  nearly  five  miles 
in  length.  Two  streams  flowed  in  the  vicinity  of 
A.  ;  on  the  east  side,  the  Ilissus,  which  also  washed 
the  southern  part  of  the  city ;  and  on  the  west,  the 
Cephisus,  about  a  mile  and  a  half  beyond  the  walls. 
To  the  west  lay  Salamis,  with  Eleusis  on  the  north- 
west, Phylse  and  Decelca  on  the  north,  Marathon  on 
the  north-east,  and  Ilymettus  on  the  south.  All  along 
the  coast  rose  splendid  buildings. 

The  whole  of  the  magnificent  prospect  was  crowned 
by  the  Acropolis,  where  all  the  most  glorious 
monuments  of  A.  were  assembled.  First  rose  the 
Parthenon  (q.  v.),  or  Temple  of  Minerva,  a  pile  which 
even  now,  after  the  lapse  of  centuries,  remains 
among  the  wonders  of  the  world.  The  Propyhea, 
all  V)uilt  of  white  marble,  formed  the  entrance  to 
the  Parthenon.  Close  to  it,  on  the  north  side  of  the 
Acropolis,  rose  the  Ercchtheium,  the  most  venerated 
of  all  Athenian  sanctuaries,  and  connected  with  the 
oldest  religious  history  of  the  city.  The  whole  of  it 
was  destroyed  by  the  Persians,  but  was  restored 
during  the  Peloponnesian  war.  Its  ruins  still  exi.st, 
and  allow  us  to  form  a  very  correct  idea  of  its 
external  form  and  structure.  In  some  points,  it 
differed  from  all  other  examples  of  Greek  temples. 
But  it  would  be  tedious  and  unprofitable  to  mention 
in  detail  all  those  magnificent  buildings  which  were 
the  glory  of  ancient  Athens.  It  is  sufficient  to  say, 
that  gods  were  never  more  superbly  honoured  in 
any  land.  That  enthusiastic  love  of  the  beautiful 
which  animated  the  Athenians,  turning  their  religion 
into  an  art,  and  making  worship  an  education  in  aesthe- 
tics, is  nowhere  so  clearly  visible  as  in  their  religious 
architecture.  Their  mythological  faith  stood  daily 
before  their  eyes  in  monumental  splendour,  for 
almost  every  deity  had  his  temple  or  shrine  in  the 
city.  Two  of  the  finest  buildings^the  Temple  of 
Theseus,  and  that  of  Jupiter  Olympus — were  on  the 
outside  of  the  city ;  the  first  to  the  north-west, 
the  second  to  the  south.  The  former  was  both  a 
temple  and  a  tomb,  inasmuch  as  it  held  the  remains 
of  Theseus  himself.  It  was  built  about  4fi5  b.  c, 
and  was  therefore  older  than  the  Parthenon.  It 
had  the  privilege  of  an  asylum  for  slaves,  and 
the  large  space  of  ground  which  it  enclosed  was 
frequently  used  as  a  muster-ground  for  the  Athen- 
ian soldiery.  It  was  built  of  the  favourite  Pen- 
telio  marble,  in  the  Doric  style  of  architecture, 
and  is  the  best  preserved  of  "all  the  monuments 
of  ancient  Athens.  For  centuries  it  was  a  Chris- 
tian church,  appropriately  enough  dedicated  to 
610 


St.  George,  the  chivalrous  hero  of  the  '  dark  ages ' 
of  Christianity,  as  Theseus  had  lieen  of  the  '  dark 
ages'  of  Attic  history;  but  is  now  the  national 
museum  of  the  city.  The  Tenijile  of  Jujiiter,  of 
which  sixteen  grand  Corinthian  columns  are  still 
extant,  to  the  south-east  of  the  Acropolis  and  near 
the  right  bank  of  the  Ilissus,  in  size,  splendour,  and 
beauty,  excelled  all  other  Athenian  structures.  Im- 
mense sums  of  money  were  expended  upon  it 
from  the  time  when  it  was  commenced  l)y  Peisis- 
tratus,  until  it  was  completed  by  Hadrian,  a  )ieriod 
of  'Z'lO  years.  The  building  of  it  was  freciuently  sus- 
pended, so  that  Pliilostratus  calls  it  '  a  struggle  with 
time.'  At  the  time  the  I'ersians  sacked  the  city,  it 
was  fortunately  only  beginning  to  be  built,  and  so 
escaped  destruction.  Aristotle  speaks  of  it  as  a 
work  of  despotic  grandeur,  and  equal  to  the 
pyramids  of  Egypt.  The  ext(>ri(ir  was  decorated  by 
aliout  120  fluted  colunnis,  fil  feet  in  lu'iglit,  and 
more  than  tl  feet  in  diameter.  It  was  ;i54  feet 
long,  and  171  broad,  and  contained  tlie  celebrated 
statue  of  the  Olympian  Jupiter  in  ivory  and  gold,  the 
work  of  Phidias. 

Besides  these  wonders  of  art,  the  city  contained 
places  of  interest  of  which  the  memory  will  jierpc- 
tually  remain — the  Academy  wiicre  Plato,  whose 
estate  lay  near  it,  gave  his  lessons  in  a  grove  of 
plane-trees  adorned  with  statutes ;  tradition  alleged 
it  to  have  belonged  originally  to  Academus.  .  llii)- 
parchus  surrounded  it  with  a  wall,  and  Cimon 
adorned  it  witli  walk.s,  fountains,  and  olive-groves. 
The  Lyceum,  the  most  important  of  the  Athenian 
gymnasia,  where  Aristotle  lectuied ;  and,  near  to 
this  the  Cyno.su'ges,  where  Antisthenes  the  Cynic 
expounded  is  'harsh  and  crabbed'  doctrine;  the 
hill  of  the  Areopagus  where  the  most  venerable  court 
of  judicature  was  held ;  and  the  Prytaneum,  or 
senate-house.  About  a  quarter  of  a  mile  to  the  west 
of  the  Acropolis  rises  a  low  hill,  which  marks  the 
locality  of  the  Pnyx,  a  place  of  public  assembly, 
forming  a  large  semicircular  area,  boundc<l  at  the 
Ixise  by  a  limestone  wall,  from  wiiich  jirojects  a 
pedestal,  carved  out  of  the  rock,  and  ascended  by 
steps.  This  most  interesting  place  has  been  pre- 
served almost  in  its  integrity,  and,  as  we  look 
around,  we  are  carried  back  to  the  times  when  some 
six  thousand  Athenian  citizens  were  here  a.ssembled, 
when  the  orator,  standing  upon  the  pedestal,  could 
survey  the  Aci'opolis,  with  all  its  temples,  the  vene- 
rable Areopagus,  and  beyond  the  city,  the  extended 
plains  and  villages  of  Attica,  with  corn-fields,  olive- 
grounds,  and  vineyards. 

A.,  in  its  most  flourishing  period,  numbered  21,- 
000  free  citizens ;  from  which  we  may  calculate 
that  it  contained  about  200,000  inhabitants.  More 
than  two  thousand  years  have  pa-ssed  over  tlie 
beautiful  city,  and  still  its  remains  excite  the  admi- 
ration of  the  world.  The  Tuik  surrounded  it  with 
wide  irregular  walls,  partly  built  out  of  the  ruins 
of  the  old  walls,  and  containing  many  fragments  of 
noble  columns.  Of  the  Propyla>a,  the  right  wing,  or 
Temple  of  Victory,  was  destroyed  in  1656  by  the 
explosion  of  a  powder  magazine.  Six  colunms,  with 
lofty  arches,  remain  to  mark  the  site  of  the  opposite 
wing.  The  interior  of  the  Parthenon  was  used 
for  some  tinie  a  Turkish  mosque.  Eight  columns 
remain  on  the  east  of  the  front,  several  colon- 
nades at  th«  sides ;  and  of  the  back  pediment, 
where  the  combat  of  Minerva  and  Neptune  was 
sculptured,  nothing  remains  save  the  head  of  a  sea- 
horse, and  two  decapitated  female  figures.  Of  the 
pediment  in  front,  several  figures  belonging  to  the 
groiip  rcprescnthig  the  birth  of  Minerva  are  pre- 
served in  the  British  Museum,  and  justly  regarded 
as  mj.ster-pieces  of  ancient  sculpture.  Of  all  the 
statues   which    the    Parthenon    contained,    only   one 


ATHENS. 


that  of  Hadrian  lias  been  preserved.  Kuincd  as  it 
has  been,  the  ^^eneral  as|,eet  of  tlie  Partlienon  is  still 
sublime.  Of  the  Euchtlieiuin  (or  l\niple  of  Neptunu.s 
Plrechthcius)  con.-iileruLIe  ve.^^tijre.s  remain,  especially 
the  beautilul  female  figures  styled  t'anatides. 

The  situations  and  vast  e.xtent  of  the  tuo  theatres 
may  still  be  traced,  though  giain  is  now  grown  in 
the  arenas.  All  these  remains  belong  to  the  Acro- 
polis. In  the  city  below,  there  are  no  such  s])lendid 
memorial.*.  ThoIIorologium,  or  octagonal  Temple 
of  the  Winds  (built  by  Andronicus  Kyrrhestes),  has 


been  well  preserved ;  but  a  few  fragments  found  in 
broken  walls  are  all  that  remain  to  tell  of  the  splen- 
did Gymnasium  built  by  I'tolemajus.  Beyond  the 
city,  tiie  attention  of  the  spectator  is  arre.sted  by 
the  subhnie  ruins  of  the  Temple  of  Jupiter  Olympus. 
Pedestals  and  inscriptir)ns  liave  been  lound  here  and 
there,  sometimes  buried  in  the  earth.  The  sculptured 
on  the  friezes  of  the  interior  of  the  Tem.ple  of 
Theseus,  representing  the  exploits  of  Theseus,  have 
been  well  preserved,  v^hile  the  external  sculptures 
arc  ahnost  utterly  destroyed.     A  Turkish  burial-place 


Temple  of  the  Winds,  Athens 


now  occupies  the  hill  where  the  Areiopagus  hold  its 
sittings.  The  site  of  the  Lyceum  is  indicated  only 
by  scattered  stones,  and  a  modern  house  and  garden 
occupy  the  place  of  the  Academy.  Scarcely  any- 
thing remains  to  shew  the  old  magnificence  of  the 
harbours  Peirasus,  Plialeros,  and  Munychia. 

It  is  probable  that,  in  the  time  of  Pausanias,  many 
structures  remained  belonging  to  the  period  before 
the  Persian  war,  as  Xerxes,  during  his  short  time  of 
mastery  over  A.,  would  scarcely  have  been  able  to 
destroy  more  than  the  fortifications  and  principal 
public  buildings.  Themistoeles,  in  his  restoration 
of  the  city,  had  chiefly  a  regard  to  utility  ;  Cimon 
paid  attention  to  its  decoration  ;  but  Pericles  far 
exceeded  them  in  the  magnificence  of  his  designs, 
which  were  too  vast  to  be  carried  into  effect  in  later 
times.  The  civilisation,  sprtading  fioni  A.  as  its 
centre,  raised  ilacedon  and  otiier  states  into  dan- 
gerous rivalry.  The  defeat  at  Chreroneia  was  a;?  fittal 
to  the  fine  arts  as  to  the  liberty  of  the  Athenians. 
After  the  works  at  the  Peiranis  had  been  destroyed 
by  Sulla,  the  naval  power,  and  with  it  the  whole 
political  importance  of  A.,  rapidly  declined.  It  is 
true  that  the  city  was  treated  leniently  by  its  con- 
querors; the  temples  and  statues  were  preserved 
from  violation,  and  A.,  with  all  the  trophies  of  eight 
centuries  of  greatness,  remained  under  the  Antonines; 
but  the  free  national  spirit  of  the  Atlieniaiis  had 
departed  for  ever,  and  slowly,  but  surely,  the  fine 
arts  shared  the  fate  of  Grecian  liberty.  Their  trea- 
sures, which  had  been  spared  by  the  Roman  emperors, 
were  gradually  stolen  away  by  various  thievish  col- 
fectors,  especially  for  the  decoration  of  Byzantium, 
or  were  destroyed  by  irreflectivc  Christian  zeal 
and  barbarian  invasion.  About  4*20  a.d.,  the  ancient 
religion  and  temple-service  of  A.  had  entirely 
disappeared ;  afterwards,  the  sihools  of  philosophy 
■were  closed  by  Justinian,  and  Greek  mythology 
was  gradually  forgotten.  St.  George  took  the  jiiace 
of  Tiieseus,  and  the  Parthenon  was  converted  into  a 
church.  The  surviving  industry  of  A.  was  injured  by 
Roger  of  Sicily,  who  removed  its  silk  manufactures. 


In  145ri,  A.  fell  into  the  hands  of  Omar,  and,  to 
c.on.summate  its  degradation,  under  the  low,  sensu;il 
Turks,  the  city  of  Athene  was  regarded  as  an 
appanage  of  tiie  harem,  and  governed  by  a  black 
eunuch.  Tiie  Venetians  having  captured  the  city 
in  ICiST,  intended  to  carry  away  as  a  trophy  the 
qua<lriga  of  victory  from  the  west  front  of  the 
Parthenon,  but  shattered  it  in  their  attempt  to 
remove  it.  In  1688,  A.  was  again  delivered  into 
the  hands  of  the  Turks,  and  the  work  of  demoUtion 
now  proceeded  rapidly.  The  grand  remains  of 
antiquity  were  used  as  quarries  to  supply  materials 
for  all  ordinary  buildings,  and,  in  the  course  of 
another  century,  the  city  was  reduced  to  its  lowest 
point  of  degradation. 

Modern  A.  (styled  by  the  Turks  Athina  or 
Setines)  is  now  the  capital  of  the  new  kingdom  of 
Greece.  Previous  to  the  Greek  revolution  (1821), 
it  was  a  provincial  city  of  inferior  importance,  the 
seat  of  a  Greek  metiopolitan  bishop,  and  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Turkish  governor  in  Euba>a.  In 
1821,  the  war  of  liberation  commenced,  and  the 
Turks  surrendered  Athens  in  the  following  year ; 
but  again  captured  it  in  1820,  and  took  the  Acropolis 
in  1827.  Alter  this  it  was  left  in  ruins  until  183(1, 
when  Attica  was  declared  united  with  Greece  by 
the  protocol  of  the  London  Conference.  In  1831, 
Otho,  the  son  of  the  Bavarian  monarch,  who  had 
been  elected  to  the  sovereignty  of  the  new  king- 
dom, removed  his  residence  I'roni  Nauplia  to  A. 
Improvements  now  proceeded  rapidly  :  Turkish  man- 
ners and  customs  disappeared ;  the  contemptible 
wooden  houses  and  crooked  streets  were  superseded 
by  new  ones — among  which  the  Hermes,  Jiolus, 
Athene,  and  New  Stadion  streets  are  conspicuous; 
and  in  lSo6,  the  fotnidation  of  a  new  palace  was 
laid.  The  municipal  atliiirs  of  A.  are  now  regu- 
lated by  a  mayor  (demarchos)  and  council  elected 
by  the  citizens.  Besides  other  public  institutions, 
modern  A.  has  a  gymnasium,  a  library  enriched  with 
many  donations  from  France  and  Germany,  and  a 
universitv,  where  about  3'J  professors  and  tutors  are 

517 


ATHENS— ATIIERINE. 


oiijjugcd.  The  nninber  of  students  is  between  500 
;iiid  GOO.  Severiil  interesting  works  have  been 
printed  in  A.  The  Frencli  government  has  founded 
an  Archa'ological  Institute,  and  several  missionary 
t^ocieties  have  appointed  agents  here.  A.  has  almost 
no  trade  except  in  walking-sticks  and  sinoking-tubes 
made  of  the  black-thorn  of  old  I'ai-nassus. 

PoUiical  History  of  A. — It  was  the  Ionic  race 
that  manifested  most  signally  the  distinguishing 
characters  of  Greek  civilisation;  and  of  this  portion 
of  Hellas,  A.,  in  the  brilliant  part  of  its  history, 
stands  out  most  prominently.  According  to  tradi- 
tion, its  ]ioIitical  power  was  first  established  by 
Theseus,  king  of  Attica,  who  made  A.  the  metropolis. 
Here  he  instituted  the  great  popular  festival  of  the 
ranathensea,  and,  by  encouraging  settlements  in  the 
city,  greatly  increased  its  population.  He  divided 
the  citizens  into  three  classes:  nobility,  agricultur- 
ists, and  mechanics.  Until  the  death  of  Codrus  in 
■106S  li.C,  A.  was  governed  by  kings  ;  afterwards,  by 
archons  elected  from  the  nobility.  The  time  of 
holding  office  was  limited  to  ten  yeai's  in  752  n.C, 
and  to  one  year  in  68;J  B.C.,  when  nine  archons  were 
annually  elected,  one  being  called  the  ardion  cpoiiy- 
inn.i,  because  the  year  was  distinguished  by  his  name. 
Here  begins  the  authentic  history  of  A.  These 
archons,  together  with  the  council  of  nobles,  after- 
wards called  the  Areiopagus,  exercised  the  whole 
power  of  the  state,  and  administered  justice.  The 
Athenian  government  was  thus,  like  all  other  Hel- 
lenic governments,  an  oligarchy ;  Ijut  the  changes 
introduced  by  the  archon  Solon,  59-1  p.c,  thougii 
remarkably  moderate,  laid  the  foundation  of  that 
democratic  constitution  which  was  afterwards  per- 
I'ected  by  Cleisthenes.  The  condition  of  the  popu- 
lation at  the  time  of  Solon  was  one  of  extreme 
suffering  and  discord,  arising  chiefly  from  the  oppres- 
sive execution,  by  the  aristocratic  archons,  of  the 
law  of  debtor  and  creditor.  Tliis  law  was  of  old 
extremely  harsh  in  Greece  as  well  as  in  Rome;  it 
assigned  the  debtor  that  could  not  fulfil  his  con- 
tract as  the  slave  of  his  creditor.  The  great  part 
of  the  soil  of  Attica  was  in  the  hands  of  the  rich, 
and  the  mass  of  the  population,  who  tilled  the 
lands  as  tenants,  were  cither  in  hopeless  arrears, 
or  already,  with  their  families,  actual  slaves.  Driven 
to  desperation,  the  populace  were  ready  to  rise  in 
mutiny ;  the  oligarchy  were  afi-aid  or  unable  to 
enforce  the  laws;  and  thus  it  w-as  agreed  to  confer 
dictatorial  power  on  Solon,  well  known  for  his 
wisdom,  int<'grity,  and  sympathy  with  the  people, 
and  allow  him  to  solve  the  problem.  The  disease 
being  desperate,  Solon  applied  the  desperate  remedy 
of  abolishing  existing  contracts,  liberating  those  that 
had  been  reduced  to  slavery,  and  forbidding  for  the 
future  any  one  from  pledging  his  own  person  or  that 
of  a  member  of  his  family.  He  next  reformed  the 
political  constitution  by  dividing  the  freemen  into 
four  classes,  according  to  the  amount  of  their  pro- 
])erty.  It  was  only  the  richer  classes  that  paid  taxes 
and  were  eligible  to  the  ofSces  of  state ;  but  all  had 
votes  in  the  assembly  that  elected  the  archons,  and 
all  sat  in  judgment  on  their  past  conduct,  on  the 
expiry  of  their  year  of  office.  The  government, 
though  still  oligarchical,  was  tlius  modified  by  pop- 
ular control.  Its  free  operation  was  for  some  time 
(560 — 510  B.C.)  interrupted  Ly  the  usurpation  of 
Peisistratus  and  his  sons,  whose  tyranni/,  however, 
was  niild  and  enlightened,  the  forms  at  'least  of  the 
Solonian  constitution  being  preserved. 

On  the  banishment  of  the  Teisistratidaa  (510  B.C.), 
a  further  political  reform  was  introduced  by  Cleis- 
thenes, who  extended  the  basis  of  the  constitution, 
and  rendered  it  essentially  democratic.  To  Cleis- 
thenes is  ascribed  the  origin  of  the  practice  called 
ostracism  (q.  v.). 
518 


Then  followed  the  brilliant  period  of  the  Tersiaii 
war,  when  out  of  the  circumstances  whicli  had  seemed 
to  tlircaten  destruction,  A.  rose  to  the  highest  point 
of  power  and  prosperity.  Miltiades  at  Marathon, 
and  Thcmistocles  at  Salamis,  gained  the  victories 
which  infused  new  courage  and  enthusiasm  into 
the  Greek  nation.  The  jjiriod  lictween  ihe  Persian 
war  and  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  or  from 
500  to  336  B.C.,  was  the  most  glorious  in  Athenian 
iiistory ;  and  in  444,  Cimon  and  Pericles  raised  tlic 
city  to  its  highest  |)oint  of  grandeur  and  beauty. 
Rut  under  Pericles,  the  beginning  of  a  decline  took 
jilace,  thiough  the  decay  of  aniicnt  morals  and  the 
Peloponnesian  war,  which  ended  in  the  capture  of 
A.  by  the  Laccd:Bmonians.  Alter  this  A.  retained 
only  the  shadow  of  its  former  power  and  dignity. 
The  thirty  appointed  ministers  of  government  were, 
in  fact,  so  many  tyrants  supported  by  the  Lacedae- 
monian arn)y.  After  eight  months  of  despotism  had 
been  endured,  the  tyrants  were  expelled  by  Thrasy- 
bulus,  a  free  constitution  was  restored  to  A.,  and  a 
new  period  of  prosperity  commenced.  But  it  was 
not  destined  to  endure  long ;  a  formidable  foe, 
Philip  of  Macedon,  now  appeared  in  the  north.  The 
Athenians  having  Ofiposcd  him  in  the  Phocian  war, 
Philip  took  from  them  several  of  their  colonies. 
Then  followed  the  defeat  of  the  Athenians  at 
Cha^roneia  (338  B.C.),  a  fatal  blow  to  Greece.  A. 
with  other  states  became  subject  to  Macedon.  The 
fiee  spirit  of  the  citizens  was  broken,  and  in  moral 
character  they  degenerated.  After  Alexander's 
death,  a  fruitless  attempt  was  made  to  regain  tiieir 
liberty.  Antipater  instituted  an  oligarchy  of  wealth. 
Soon  afterwards  A.  was  taken  l)y  Cassander,  and 
placed  under  the  rule  of  Demetrius  Phalereus,  who 
employed  ins  jiower  wisely  and  beneficently.  Once 
more  the  old  consiitution  of  A.  Avas  restored  by 
Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  and  a  short  interval  of  inde- 
pendence was  enjoyed,  until  the  city  was  taken  by 
Antigonus  Gonatas.  After  liberating  themselves 
from  the  dominion  of  Macedon,  and  joining  the 
Achaian  confederacy,  the  Athenians  w^ere  so  mis- 
guided as  to  support  Mithridates  against  the  Romans. 
This  last  error  was  fatal.  Sulla  contpu'red  A.,  de- 
stroyed the  port  of  the  Piraeus,  and  left  only  the  ap- 
pearance of  lil)erty  and  independence,  w  hich  entirely 
vanished  in  the  time  of  Vespasian.  Still,  after  the 
spirit  of  liberty  and  progress  had  departed,  A.  long 
remained  safe  from  spoliation.  The  Romans,  in  their 
respect  for  Grecian  pre-eminence  in  art  and  philoso- 
phy, and  moved  also  by  religious  reverence,  long  re- 
garded Athens  as  a  captive  too  noble  and  beautiful 
to  suffer  any  indignity. 

ATHENS,  a  name  applied  to  twenty-three  places 
in  the  United  States.  The  most  important  of  them  is 
a  thriving  town  in  Georgia,  Vt2  miles  to  the  west- 
north-west  of  Augusta.  It  is  the  terminus  of  a 
branch-railway,  which  joins  the  Georgia  Central.  It 
contains  a  cotton  manufactory,  and  is  the  market  for 
an  extensive  cotton-growing  region.  It  is  the  seat 
also  of  Franklin  College,  a  flourishing  seminary  of 
education. 

A'THERINE  {Atheri'na),  a  genus  of  small  fishes, 
allied  to  the  Mullet  family  [Muffilida),  but  latterly 
separated  into  a  distinct  family,  Athcrin'uhc.  The 
Atherines  have  more  than  twice  as  many  vcrtebrje 
as  the  Mullets;  they  are  of  a  rather  slender  form, 
but  few  of  them  exceed  six  inches  in  length.  They 
have  a  proti'uctile  mouth,  and  very  small  teeth ; 
some  are  quite  toothless.  Almost  all  the  known 
species,  which  are  numerous,  and  fotmd  in  the  seas 
of  different  parts  of  the  world,  have  a  bioad  silvery 
band  along  caih  flank.  Some  of  them  are  much 
esteemed  for  the  ir  delicacy.  They  rll  congregate  in 
great  shoals.     They  abound  ir.  the  Mediterranean. 


ATHEROMA— ATIIOS. 


One  species,  A.  notata,  is  conunon  on  the  east  coast 
of  Nortli  Anierifii;  three  sjieeics  of  CJiirontoma  re- 
j)vescnt  them  in  tlie  fresh  waters  of  tliat  continent, 
'ilie  A.  prcxbijle)-  is  conunon  on   the  coasts  of  Eu- 


'^. 


Atheri;i('  (  Atherina  rreshyter). 

rope,  and  is  sold  in  some  of  the  tow-ns  of  Eng- 
hmd  nnder  the  name  of  Smelt :  in  Brighton  and 
some  other  places  it  is  called  Hand  Smelt.  Where 
this  fish  ahoimds,  it  is  often  taken  hy  anglers  from 
the  shore,  hiting  readily  at  almost  any  bait. 

ATHEROMA,  or  '  fatty  deposit,'  is  generally 
found  in  the  tissues  of  aged  persons,  or  those  who 
have  lived  dissipated  and  ill-nourished  lives.  In 
appearance,  it  is  yellow  and  cheesy,  shewing  imder 
the  microscope  fatty  granules  and  crystals  of  choles- 
terine.  Its  most  common  situation  is  between  the 
middle  and  inner  coats  of  arteries,  and  is  dangerous, 
inasmuch  as  it  interferes  with  the  elasticity  of  the 
arterial  tube,  rendering  it  more  liable  to  injury,  and 
less  able  to  repair  itself,  should  any  occur.  A.  gene- 
rally precedes  aneurism  (q.  v.).  Cy^ts  filled  with  con- 
tents resembling  bread-sauce,  which  frequently  occur 
iu  the  scalp,  are  termed  atheromatous  tumours. 

ATHLETE  (Gr.  athleo,  to  contend),  the  name 
given  to  a  combatant,  pugilist,  wrestler,  or  runner, 
in  ancient  Greece.  Athletics  were  studied  in 
Greece  as  a  branch  of  art,  and  led  to  several 
useful  rules  of  diet,  exercise,  &e.,  applical)le  to  ordi- 
nary modes  of  life.  Bodily  strength  and  activity 
were  so  highly  honoured  by  the  Greeks,  that  the 
A.  held  a  position  in  society  totally  different  from 
that  of  the  modern  pugilist.  AVhen  he  i)roposed  to 
enter  the  lists  at  the  Olympic  or  other  public  games, 
he  was  examined  with  regard  to  his  birth,  social 
position,  and  moral  character.  A  herald  tiien 
stepped  forth  and  called  upon  any  one,  if  he  knew 
aught  disgraceful  to  the  candidate,  to  state  it.  Even 
men  of  genius  contended  for  the  palm  in  atliletic 
exercises.  Chrysippus  and  Cleanthes,  the  famous 
philosophers,  were  victorious  athletes,  or,  at  least, 
aqorii.std',  i.  e.,  persons  who  pursued  gymnastic  ex- 
ercises, not  as  a  profession,  but  for  tiie  sake  of 
exercise,  just  as  at  the  present  day  we  have  gentle- 
men-cricketers, amateur-pugilists,  &c.  The  profound 
and  eloquent  Plato  appeared  among  the  wrestlers  in 
the  Isthmian  games  at  Corinth,  and  also  in  the 
Pythian  games  at  Sicyon.  Even  the  meditative 
Pythagoras  is  said  to  have  gained  a  prize  at  Elis,  and 
gave  instructions  for  athletic  training  to  Euryraenes, 
who  afterwards  gaini'd  a  j)rize  at  tlie  same  place. 
So  great  was  the  honour  of  an  Olympian  victor,  that 
his  native  city  was  regarded  as  ennobled  by  his  suc- 
cess, and  he  himself  considered  sacred.  He  entered 
the  city  through  a  special  breach  made  in  the  walls  ; 
he  was  supported  at  the  ])ublic  expense  ;  and  when  he 
died,  was  honoured  with  a  jiublic  funeral.  Euthymus, 
of  Loeri  in  Italy,  who  had,  with  only  one  exception, 
been  regularly  victorious  at  Elis,  was  honoured  with 
a  statue,  to  whiiih,  even  during  his  lifetime,  homage 
was  paid  by  command  of  an  oracle.  Athletic  sports 
were  first  witnessed  at  Rome  ISti  n.o.  They  were 
introduced  by  M.  Fulvius  at  the  end  of  the  yEtolian 
war,  and  became  excessively  popular  in  the  time  of 
the  emperors.  At  Rome,  the  athletes  formed  a  cor- 
poration. 

ATIILO'NE,    a    small    town    in    the    centre     of 


Ireland,  on  both  sides  of  the  Shannon,  chieliy  in 
the  county  of  Westmeath,  but  jiartly  in  that  of 
Roseom -ion.  It  is  the  largest  town  between  Dublin 
and  (nilway,  and  lies  on  a  commanding  situation, 
;5  miles  beiow  Lough  Ree,  in  a  carboniferous  lime- 
stone district.  The  chief  manufactures  are  felt-hats, 
friezes,  linens,  and  stays.  A  canal  here,  a  mile 
long,  enables  large  river  steamers  to  navigate  the 
Shaiiium  for  1 IG  miles,  from  Killaloe  to  Carrick- 
on-Shannon,  uninterrupted  by  the  rajmls.  'Hie 
Shiumon  is  crossed  by  a  fine  how-string  and  lat- 
tice u-on  bridge  of  t-\\o  arches,  175  and  40  feet 
span.  Pop.  in  1861,  5601.  A.  sends  one  member  to 
parliament.  A.  Castle,  on  the  Rosconnnon  bank  of 
the  Shannon,  was  founded  in  the  reign  of  King 
John,  and  has  now  been  rendered  one  of  the  chief 
military  positions  in  Ireland.  The  fortifications 
cover  15  acres,  and  contain  barracks  for  1500  men. 

A'TIIOLE  (Pleasant  Land),  a  district  of  450 
square  miles,  in  the  north  of  Pertlishire.  It  occupies 
a  great  part  of  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Grampian 
mountains,  and  is  intersected  by  many  narrow 
glens,  down  which  flow  the  rapid  tributaries  of  the 
Tay.  It  is  chiefly  composed  of  gneiss  and  qiuirtz 
rock,  with  beds  of  primary  limestone.  Dr.  Ilutton's 
explorations  among  the  granite  veins  in  Glen  Tilt, 
were  among  the  chief  means  of  establishing  the 
Plutonic  theory  of  geology.  A.  was  once  one  of  the 
best  hunting  districts  in  Scotland.  Athole  deer-forest 
is  said  to  contain  100,000  acres,  and  6000  head  of  deer, 
of  which  100  are  killed  annually.  In  the  picturesque 
Pass  of  Killiecrankie,  in  this  district,  17  miles  north- 
west of  Dunkeld,  Claverhouse  fell  in  1CS9,  though 
victorious  over  the  troops  of  King  William  III. 

A'THOR,  or  ATHYR,  but  properly,  TIrt-Iin;  i.  e., 
'  the  habitation  of  God,'  the  name  of  an  Egyptian 
goddess  who,  in  the  mythological  system  of  that 
people,  is  ranked  among  the  second  class  of  deities. 
She  was  the  daughter  of  Ra,  the  sun.  By  the 
Greeks,  she  was  identified  with  Aphrodite  (Venus). 
The  cow  was  regai-ded  as  her  symbol,  and,  in 
hieroglyphics,  she  generally  appears  with  the 
head  of  that  animal,  bearing  between  her  horns  the 
figure  of  the  sun's  disk.  A.  is  also  represented  as  a 
cow  itself,  and  as  a  bird  with  human  fi\ee,  horns, 
and  the  sun's  disk.  On  the  oldest  monuments,  she 
is  i'rcquently  portrayed  bearing  a  temple  on  her  head, 
as  in  the  Athor-capitals  of  the  Ptolemaic  buildings, 
falsely  supposed  to  be  heads  of  Isis.  Originally, 
the  goddess  had  a  cosmogonic  significance ;  later, 
she  was  called  the  '  mistress  of  dance  and  jest,'  and 
held  in  her  hands,  as  symbols  of  joy,  the  cord  of  love 
and  the  tambourine.  Queens  and  princesses  were 
often  represented  by  the  figure  of  A.  Her  worship 
was  generally  spread  through  Egypt.  Her  most  sacred 
abode  was  at  Denderah.  After  her  the  third  month  of 
the  Egyptian  year  was  named. 

A'THOS,  HA'GIOX  ORGS,  or  MO'NTE  SA'N- 
TO,  i.  e.,  the  Holy  Hill,  the  principal  mountain 
of  a  chain  extending,  in  a  peninsular  form,  from  the 
coast  of  Macedonia  into  the  vl^^gean  Sea,  between 
the  Gulfs  of  Contessa  and  Monte  Santo,  and  con- 
nected with  the  mainland  by  a  narrow  isthmus. 
The  length  of  the  peninsula  is  40  miles ;  breadth,  4. 
According  to  tradition,  it  received  its  name  i'rom  A., 
son  of  Neptune,  or  from  A.,  a  gi.ant  who  battled 
against  the  gods.  The  highest  summit  in  the  chain, 
or  Mount  A.  proper,  a  solitary  peak  at  the  southern 
extremity  of  the  jteninsula,  rises  6350  feet  above  the 
sea-level.  In  ancient  times,  several  towns  were 
built  on  A.  Herodotus  mentions  five.  The  most 
memorable  thing  in  connection  with  A.,  is  the  canal 
which  Xerxes  cut  through  the  isthmus,  in  order  to 
escape  the  stormy  gales  which  rendered  the  naviga- 
tion round  the  promontory  very  perilous,  and  which 

619 


ATHY— ATLANTIC  OCEAN. 


had  sliattc'ied  the  i3eet  of  Mardonius  some  years 
before.  Traces  of  this  canal  still  exist.  In  the  middle 
a'>es,  A.  was  covered  with  monasteries,  of  which  20 
still  remain  (besides  several  hermitages,  chapels, 
&c.).  The  largest  are  the  monasteries  of  Ivoron 
and  St.  Laura;  the  richest,  Vatopsdi.  The  entire 
number  of  monks  who  inhabit  the  '  Holy  Hill '  is 
about  8000.  They  form  a  kind  of  monastic  republic 
under  the  Turkish  government,  to  which  they  pay 
an  annual  tribute  of  nearly  £4000.  The  monks 
follow  the  rule  of  Basilius,  and  lead  an  ascetic 
life,  engaged  chiefly  in  agriculture,  gardening,  and 
the  care  of  bees.  In  diet,  they  restrict  themselves 
to  herljs,  fruits,  and  fish.  They  carry  on  a  consid- 
erable trade  in  amulets,  images,  crucifi.xes,  wooden 
articles  of  furniture — all  of  their  own  manufacture 
— and  also  reap  profits  from  the  numerous  visits  of 
pilgrims.  Karyass,  the  principal  place  in  the  penin- 
sula, is  picturesquely  situated  in  the  midst  of  vine- 
3-ards  and  gardens,  and  has  1000  inhabitants.  Here 
the  market  is  held  ;  but  no  female,  even  of  the  ani- 
mal kind,  is  permitted  to  be  present,  or  even  to 
enter  the  peninsula.  In  the  middle  ages,  A.  was 
the  centre  of  Greek  learning  and  Christian-Byzantine 
art.  Now,  scarcely  more  than  two  or  three  monks, 
of  tolerable  education,  can  be  found  in  a  monastery. 
The  libraries  are  neglected,  though  containing  several 
beautiful  old  manuscripts,  some  specimens  of  which 
have  been  Ijronght  to  Western  Euro[)e.  They  con- 
tain, however,  little  or  nothing  of  value  in  classical 
literature.  • 

ATHY',  a  small  town  in  the  south-west  of  Kildare 
county,  Irelanil,  on  the  east  side  of  the  river  Barrow, 
here  navigal)le  for  barges.  It  lies  in  a  carhonii'erous 
limestone  district.  It  chiefly  consists  of  two  main 
streets.     Pop.  (1861)  4113.     Its  chief  export  is  grain. 

ATLA'NTA,  a  flom-ishing  city  of  Fulton  co.,  Geor- 
gia, about  7  miles  S.  E.  of  the  Chattahoochee,  and  on 
the  railroads  fi-om  Savannah  to  Chattanooga  and  Nash- 
ville, 101  miles  N.  W.  of  Macon,  171  W.  of  Augusta, 
and  291  from  Nashville.  The  Georgia  R.  R.  extends 
from  Atlanta  to  Augusta ;  the  Macon  and  Western 
R. R.  to  Macon;  the  Atlantic  and  Western  R.  R.  to 
Chattanooga,  and  the  La  Grange  R.  R.  to  West  Point, 
72  miles  distant.  It  ^\as  destroj'ed  liy  Gen.  Sherman, 
Nov.  1864,  but  is  rapidly  recovering  its  former  pros- 
perity.    Pop.  in  1860,  9554. 

ATLA'NTES,  in  Arch.,  so  called,  by  the  Greeks, 
in  reference  to  the  mythical  Atlas  (q.  v.),  arc  male 


Atlas  Column,  from  the  Baths  at  Pompeii. 

figures  used  instead  of  columns.     The  Romans  called 
them  Telarnones. 

ATLA'NTIC     OCEAN,     so     called     either     from 
520 


Mount  Atlas,  or  from  the  fabulous  island  of  Atlantis, 
is  that  part  of  the  ocean  that  divides  the  Old  World 
from  the  New.  Its  extreme  breadth  is  about  5000 
miles,  and  its  narrowest  part,  between  Ca])e  St. 
Roquc  in  Brazil,  and  the  nearest  point  in  Africa, 
about  IGOO  miles.  If  the  A.  be  supposed  to  be 
bounded  liy  the  polar  circles,  it  covers  an  area 
computed  at  25  njillion  stiuare  milts.  The  A.  is 
naturally  divided  into  three  portions — the  north, 
south,  and  intertrojiical  A.  It  stands  in  open  con- 
nection with  the  north  and  south  i)olar  seas,  and 
in  the  remarkable  parallelism  of  its  coasts,  resembles 
rather  a  vast  river  than  an  ocean.  Its  northern  half 
sends  off  numerous  ramifications  on  both  sides,  some 
of  them  forming  almost  shut  seas :  on  the  west, 
Hudson's  Bay,  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  and  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico ;  on  the  east,  the  Baltic,  Noi'th, 
Mediterranean,  and  Black  Seas.  In  the  south,  again, 
both  coasts  present  a  comparatively  unbroken  line ; 
but  there  is  a  remarkal)le  correspondence  between 
their  projecting  and  retiring  angles,  the  convex 
coast  of  Brazil  lying  opposite  to  the  Gtdf  of  Guinea, 
and  the  projection  of  Sencgambia  answering  to  the 
ictirement  of  the  American  coast  in  the  Caribbean 
Sea. 

The  whole  of  the  New  World,  with  the  exception 
of  tl'.e  narrow  strip  lying  west  of  the  Andis  and 
Rocky  Mountains,  belongs  to  the  hanin  of  this  ocean. 
It  drains  comparatively  little  of  the  Old  World,  as 
may  be  seen  by  tracing  the  water-shed  on  a  map. 
Owing  to  the  numerous  seas  and  inlets  connected 
with  it,  the  extent  of  its  shores  is  immense,  over 
50,000  miles,  several  thousands  more  than  that  of 
the  shores  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  Indian  Sea 
together.  Except  near  the  continents,  the  Atlantic 
is  poor  in  islands  compared  with  the  Pacific.  The 
chief  islands  in  the  open  ocean  are  Iceland,  the  Faroe 
Islands,  Bermudas,  Azores,  Ascension,  St.  Helena, 
the  Falkland  Islands,  South  Georgia,  and  Sandwich 
Land. 

The  A.  is  now  the  greatest  liighway  of  the 
civilised  world,  and  eveiything  that  concerns  its 
navigation  becomes  of  vast  importance.  Under  the 
system  of  observations  established  by  Lieutenant 
Maury  of  the  United  States  Observatory  at  Wash- 
ington, and  now  co-operated  in  by  England,  much 
has  been  done,  and  is  doing,  to  amass  informa- 
tion as  to  its  currents,  winds,  depth,  tenii)erature,  &c. 
The  operations  connected  with  the  Tclegraj)!!  cable 
were  also  the  means  of  furnishing  us  with  some 
valuable  information  regarding  the  Atlantic.  It  was 
then  discovered,  from  a  comparison  of  meteorolo- 
gical observations  extending  over  a  long  period,  that 
the  western  part  of  what  has  been  named  the  Tele- 
graphic Plateau  is  exempt  from  gales  during  summer  ; 
that  the  eastern  part  iij  almost  free  in  August,  except 
on  the  coast  of  Ireland  ;  and  that  there  is  little  risk 
from  storms  in  June  and  July.  In  June,  fogs  are  of 
more  frequent  occurrence  on  the  western  than  on  the 
eastern  side.  Between  June  and  August,  there  is 
less  danger  from  ice  than  at  any  other  time  of  the 
year  ;  and,  considering  all  things,  the  A.  is  i'reest  from 
disturbing  causes  between  the  20th  of  July  and  the 
12th  of  August. 

The  chief  A.  currents  are  two.  The  Eqiiatorial 
Current,  which,  starting  from  the  Bay  of  Benin, 
proceeds  westwards  on  both  sides  of  the  equator 
till  near  the  coast  of  Brazil,  where  it  divides,  one 
branch  running  south,  and  the  other  along  the 
coast  of  Guiana  into  the  Caribbean  Sea.  The  velo- 
city of  this  current  is  very  varied,  in  some  places 
flowing  at  the  rate  of  25  miles  a  day,  and  in  others, 
at  three  times  the  speed.  Its  force  also  varies 
with  the  months ;  but  the  meJin  velocity  may  oe  set 
down  at  about  30  nautical  miles  a  day.  Its  breadth 
varies  from  200  to  400  miles  ;  and  its  temperature  is 


ATLANTIC  OCEAN— ATLANTIC  TELEGRArH. 


lower  than  the  suiTouiidu)g  oeean.  The  other  great 
current  is  the  Gu!f  Stnani.  This  iiHsues  i'roiu  tiie 
Gulf  of  Mexico  through  the  Strait  of  Florida,  and 
after  following  the  direction  of  the  American  coast 
to  about  41)",  turns  s^.-award,  touches  the  great  New- 
foundland Bank,  and  gradually  curving  round,  is 
lost  aljout  the  Azores.  But  part  of  its  waters  find 
their  way  to  the  British  and  Farina  Islands,  and 
to  the  coast  of  Norway.  The  water  of  this  stream 
is  often  upwards  of  20'  warmer  than  the  surround- 
ing ocean.  Its  physical  identity  is  preserved  for 
thousands  of  miles.  Lieutenant  Maury  calls  it 
'a  river  in  t!ie  ocean;'  and  the  line  of  junction, 
oven  as  far  out  from  the  gulf  as  the  Carolina 
coasts,  is  so  distinctly  marked,  tiiat  it  may  be 
traced  by  the  eye.  'Often  one  half  of  the  vessel 
may  be  perceived  floating  in  the  Gulf  Stream  water, 
while  the  other  half  is  in  common  water  of  the  sea  ; 
so  sliarp  is  the  Hne,  and  such  the  want  of  afHnity 
between  those  waters.'  The  Gulf  Stream  has  an 
immense  influence  on  the  A.  According  to  Lieu- 
tenant JIaury's  calculation,  it  keeps  in  perpetual 
motion  one-lourth  of  all  the  waters  in  the  ocean. 
Its  velocity  and  breadth  vary  very  considerabl}'. 
The  branches  and  fruits  of  tropical  trees,  often 
found  on  the  coasts  of  the  Hebrides  and  Faroe 
Islands,  are  no  doubt  transported  by  this  current. 
See  GcLF  Stream.  Besides  these  great  currents, 
the  A.  abounds  with  smaller  ones,  whicli  are  as 
yet  mysteries  to  the  mariner.  No  researches  that 
have  liitlierto  been  undertaken  have  enabled  him  to 
define  their  whereabouts  and  their  strength  and 
direction  so  i)recisely  and  accurately  that  he  may 
at  all  times  '  be  certain  of  their  help,  when  favour- 
able, and  sure  of  avoiding  them  if  adverse.' — Speak- 
ing of  under-currents.  Lieutenant  Maury  says  :  '  There 
seems  to  be  a  larger  flow  of  polar  waters  into  the  A. 
than  of  other  waters  from  it,  and  I  cannot  account  for 
the  preservation  of  the  equilibrium  of  this  ocean  by 
any  other  hyi)othesis  than  that  which  calls  in  the  aid 
of  under-currents.  They,  I  have  no  doubt,  bear  an 
important  part  in  the  system  of  oceanic  circulation.' 
As  a  means  of  ascertaining  the  force  and  direction  of 
these  under-eurre;its,  the  same  authority  recommends 
a  submarine  kite,  constructed  on  the  principle  of  an 
air  kite. 

It  is  only  within  very  recent  years  that  the  depth 
of  the  A.  has  been  determined  w-itli  anything  like 
accuracy.  Under  the  old  system  of  lead-and-line 
sounding,  enormous  depths  were  reported.  Lines 
34,000  feet,  4l),000  feet,  and  even  50,000  feet,  had 
been  run  out  in  the  South  A.  without  discovering 
any  bottom.  The  reason  of  this  is  now  attri- 
buted, not  to  the  great  depth  of  the  ocean,  but 
to  the  fact  tliat  tlie  shock  caused  by  a  weight  so 
light  as  that  in  common  use  striking  the  bottom 
cannot  be  communicated  through  very  great  depths  ; 
and  besides,  the  under-currents  have,  as  a  general 
rule,  more  than  sutticient  force  to  take  the  line  out 
long'  after  the  plummet  is  at  rest.  Various  experi- 
ments were  made  with  a  view  to  improve  the  method 
of  sounding,  chiefly  by  ofiicers  in  the  service  of  the 
United  States  government,  and,  finally,  it  was  deter- 
mined to  sound  with  a  cannon-ball  of  32  lbs.  (which 
it  was  thought  would  be  of  sullicient  weight  to  give 
an  indication  when  it  touched  the  bottom)  attached 
to  sounding-twine  marked  every  hundred  fathoms, 
and  wound  o;i  reels  holding  10,000  fathoms  each. 
As  soon  as  the  slack  gave  token  that  the  ball  had 
reached  the  bottom,  the  line  was  cut  and  the  length 
remaining  on  the  reel  measured,  the  difference 
between  that  and  the  original  length  being  the 
depth  of  the  ocean.  This  plan  was  not  perfect 
without  Trarious  calculations  as  to  currents,  velocity 
of  descent,  &c.,  which  have  since  been  made,  and 
which  have  rendered   deep-sea  soundings  something 


like  reliable.  The  result  is,  that  the  ocean  is  not 
above  half  the  depth  it  was  lormcrly  supposed  to 
be.  The  greatest  depth  of  the  North  A.  yet  dis- 
covered is  25,(100  feet,  about  4|  miles.  The  deepest 
part,  in  the  opinion  of  Lieutenant  Maury,  is  probably 
between  the  jjarallells  of  35'  and  4"  N.  lat.,  and 
immediately  to  the  southward  of  the  Grand  Banks 
of  Newlbundland.  A  remarkable  ridge,  about  400 
miles  wide,  and  10,000  to  12,000  feet,  or  2  to  2^ 
miles  below  the  surlace  of  the  sea,  extends  along  the 
bottom  of  the  A.  fiorn  Cape  Clear  in  Ireland  to 
Cape  Race  in  Newfoundland,  a  distance  of  ltj40 
miles.  A  specimen  of  the  nature  of  this  i)lateau 
was  brought  up  by  a  beautiful  sounding  apparatus, 
the  invention  of  a  United  States  officer,  which 
detaches  the  siifliing-weight  as  soon  as  it  touches 
the  ground,  and  is  so  contrived  that  it  brings  up 
specimens  of  the  bottom  along  with  it.  When 
examined  by  the  microscope,  this  specimen  was  found 
to  be  chiefly  composed  of  little  calcareous  sheila 
{Forambiifcrm).  No  particle  of  sand  mingled  with 
these  shells.  Lieutenant  Bcrryman  has  since  found 
in  this  track  obsidian,  pumice,  &c.,  forming  a  line  of 
volcanic  cinders  10<i  miles  long.  U|)on  this  plateau 
the  A.  Telegraph  cables  were  laid  in  1858  and 
1866.  . 

Leaving  out  of  account  the  coasts,  the  A.  is  shal- 
lowest in  wl'.at  the  Portuguese  call  the  Mer  de  Sargas.so 
(q.  v.),  or  '  Weedy  Sea  ; '  a  vast  trac't  extending  from 
the  3(»th  meridian  to  the  Bahama  Islands,  and  between 
the  jiarallels  of  lid"  N.  and  I'J  N.,  densely  covered  in 
nuiny    parts    with    gulf-weed    (Fucus    nalaus).      See 

GCLF-WKEn. 

The  bottom  of  the  A.,  as  shewn  in  a  map  executed 
by  Lieutenant  JIaury,  is  a  series  of  ridges.  The  first 
ridge  nearest  the  shore  is  less  than  Gdon  feet  beneath 
the  surface  of  the  sea  ;  the  second  ridge  is  reached 
at  a  depth  of  12,000  feet ;  the  third,  at  a  depth  of 
1S,000  feet ;  and  the  fourth,  at  a  depth  of  24,000  feet. 
This  last  ridge  rises  over  depths  yet  unfathomed,_  be- 
tween the  Bermudas  and  the  Grand  Banks  of  New- 
foundland. 

In  the  intertropical  portion  of  tl.e  A.,  the  trade- 
winds  (q.  V.)  regularly  prevail  ;  beyond  this,  the  winds 
are  variable.  On  an"  average  of  six  years  the  voyage 
from  Liverpool  to  New  York,  by  sailing-vcs.sels,  takes 
not  less  than  40  days,  while  the  return  voyage  is  ac- 
complished in  23  days.  The  diftcrence  of  time  out 
and  home  is  entirely  due  to  the  prevalence  of  south- 
west winds  in  the  North  A. 

The  A.  abounds  with  fish  ;  herring  and  cod  fishing 
forming  important  branches  of  industry  in  Northern 
Europe. 

Johnston's  Pln/xical  Atlas,  and  Lieutenant  Maury's 
P/ii/sical  O'cor/raplii/  of  the  Sen,  aflbrd  detailed  infor- 
mation regarding  the  temperature,  winds,  currents, 
navigation,  &c.  of  the  A.  0. 

ATLANTIC  TELEGRAPH,  Ilisronv  of.  In 
1S42,  Professor  ^Morse  of  New  York",  having 
stretched  a  submarine  cable  between  Castle  (Jarden 
and  Governor's  Island,  New  York,  and  succeeded 
in  transmitting  an  electric  current  from  one  end 
to  tlie  other,  expressed  his  opinion  that  it  would 
be  possible  to  effect  an  electrical  communication 
through  the  sea.  After  further  inve.-;tigations,  he 
announced  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  of 
the  United  States,  'that  a  telegraph  comnmniea- 
tion  on  his  i)lan  might  with  certainty  1)0  established 
across  the  Atlantic.'  Three  years  prior  to  that, 
Sir  William  O'Shaughnessy  gave  practical  proof  that 
electrical  UK-ssages  could  be  conveyed  through  water, 
by  depositing  a  cable  in  the  bed  of  the  Hooghly ; 
but  it  was  the  successful  sul)marine  telegraphic 
undertakings  of  the  Messrs  Brett,  wl.o,  in  June  1845, 
registered  a  '  General  Oceanic  Telegraph  Company,' 
with  the  object  among  others  of  joining  this  country 

621 


ATLANTIS— ATLAS. 


with  America  by  means  of  a  telegraph  '  across  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,'  and  six  years  afterwards  united 
England  with  France  (see  Submauine  Telegraph), 
that  first  fairly  convinced  the  public  mind  that 
the  New  World  might  be  pnt  on  what  may  be 
called  conversational  terms  with  the  Old.  The 
supposed  great  depths  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  pre- 
sented the  most  imposing  obstacle  to  this  desired 
closeness  of  communion ;  but  when  it  was  dis- 
covered that  between  Ireland  and  Newfoundland 
there  extended,  along  the  bottom  of  the  Atlantic, 
at  a  depth  of  not  more  than  two  miles  below  the 
surface,  a  fine  broad  platform  (see  Atlantic 
Ocean),  seemingly  so  specially  formed  by  nature 
for  the  purpose  of  electrical  connnunication,  that 
Captain  Maury  at  once  designated  it  the  Tele- 
graph Plateau,  the  project  of  an  Atlantic  sub- 
marine cable  assumed  a  practicable  form.  In  1854, 
the  colonial  government  of  Newfoundland  passed 
an  act  incorporating  a  company  to  establish  a  tele- 
graphic communication  between  the  Old  World  and 
the  New,  and  aided  it  by  a  subsidy,  and  l>y  grants  of 
lands.  The  colonial  govermncnt  also  conferred  upon 
the  company  the  exclusive  right  of  landing  a  tele- 
graphic line  upon  the  coasts  under  its  jurisdiction. 
The  governments  of  Prince  Edward's  Island  and 
the  state  of  Maine  made  similar  concessions ;  and 
authority  for  certain  subsidiary  operations  in  Canada 
was  also  obtained.  The  company  incorporated  under 
the  title  of  '  The  New  York,  Newfoundland,  and 
London  Telegraph  Company,'  commenced  operations 
by  uniting  St  John's  in  Newfoimdland  with  lines  in 
the  United  States  and  British  North  America.  This 
done,  numerous  preliminary  experiments  were  under- 
taken by  eminent  electricians  and  engineers,  in  order 
to  determine  the  amount  of  retarding  force  which 
inducted  and  disguised  electricity  were  likely  to 
offer  to  the  transmission  of  currents  along  submarine 
wires  of  imusual  lei'gth.  Having  by  these  experi- 
ments, 2000  in  number,  tried  with  G2"  different  kinds 
of  cable,  determined  the  one  best  adapted  for  the 
conveyance  of  electricity  through  such  a  length, 
and  at  such  a  depth  in  the  Atlantic,  the  next  step 
was  the  formation  of  a  more  influential  companv. 
In  1856,  'The  A.  T.  Company,'  to  which  all  tlie 
privileges  conferred  on  the  old  company  were  handed 
over,  was  formed  with  a  capital  of  £350,000.  The 
governments  of  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States 
liberally  aided  the  company,  guaranteeing,  by  a  con- 
tract of  25  years'  duration,  to  pay  to  the  company, 
imtil  such  time  as  its  dividend  reached  6  per  cent.,  a 
subsidy  of  £14,000  a  year,  and  of  £10,000  subse- 
quently. They  also  agreed  to  furnish  ships  for  laying 
down  the  cable. 

The  cable,  which  weighed  about  a  ton  per  mile, 
equal  to  14  cwt.  in  water,  was  composed  of  a  strand 
of  seven  wires  of  pure  copper,  coated  with  three 
separate  layers  of  gutta  percha,  wrapi)ed  over  with 
hemp  saturated  with  pitch  and  tar,  and  finally  bound 
round  with  iron  wires,  332,500  miles  of  iron  and 
copper  wire  being  employed  in  its  construction. 
It  was  deposited  in  the  holds  of  the  Aciamenmon, 
a  line-of-battle  ship  supplied  by  the  British  govern- 
ment, and  the  Niagara,  a  splendid  frigate  furnished 
by  the  United  States,  and  the  two  vessels  started 
on  their  grand  mission.  After  two  unsuccessful  at- 
tempts during  the  years  1857  and  1858,  the  expedition 
started  again  for  mid-ocean,  whence  the  ships  were  to 
start,  paying-out  towards  opposite  shores,  on  the  17th 
of  July  1858.  The  cable  was  united  and  lowered  on 
the  29th  of  the  same  month  ;  and  the  Ac/amnmion, 
notwithstanding  a  severe  gale  of  wind,  \irrived  at 
Valeiitia,  having  successfully  laid  her  portion  of  it, 
on  tlie  morning  of  the  5th  of  August.  The  Kiaaara 
about  the  same  time  arrived  in  Trinity  Bay, 
Newfoundland,  aud  science  had  annihilated  space 
622 


between  the  Old  World  and  the  New.  On  the 
I7th  August,  the  extremities  of  the  cable  having 
been  put  in  connection  with  the  recording-instru- 
ments, the  following  message  was  flashed  through 
the  ocean  in  thirty-five  minutes:  '  Europe  and  Amer- 
ica are  united  by  telegraph.  Glory  to  (Jod  in  the 
highest ;  on  earth  peace  and  good-will  towards 
men.'  Messages  and  replies  from  the  Queen  to  the 
President  of  the  United  States,  from  the  Mayor  of 
London  to  the  Mayor  of  New  York,  &c.,  followed. 
But  on  the  4th  of  September,  the  signals  at  Valentia 
became  unintelligible,  and  subsequently  remained  so. 
One  commercial  message  of  great  inqHU'tance  ]»assed 
through  the  cable,  in  reference  to  the  collision  between 
the  Atlanti"  steamers,  the  Europa  and  Arnhia  ;  this 
single  message  saved  the  commercial  world  £50,- 
000,  w-hich  would  doubtless  have  been  spent  in  extra 
insurance  on  the  vessels  and  cargoes  thus  delayed  be- 
yond their  anticijiated  time  of  arrival.  In  the  year 
1865  an  unsuccessful  attcnqit  was  made  to  lay  an- 
other catile ;  but  in  1866  the  enterprise  was  renewed 
and  carried  to  a  successful  completion.  For  a  detailed 
account  of  those  expeditions  see  Supplement,  Vol. 
X.,  Article  Atlantic  Telegb^vph. 

ATLANTIS,  according  to  ancient  tradition,  the 
name  of  a  va.st  island  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  It  is 
first  mentioned  by  Plato,  who  represents  an  Egyptian 
priest  as  dcsciibing  ft  to  Solon,  but,  of  course,  accord- 
ing to  Plato's  view  of  the  matter.  In  this  description, 
A.  ap])cared  as  an  island  larger  than  Liliya  and  Asia 
Minor  taken  together,  and  lying  off  the  Pillars  of 
Hercules  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Plato  gives  a  heau- 
tiful  ])icture  of  the  interior  of  this  imaginary  land, 
and  enriches  it  with  a  fabulous  history.  Some  early 
writers  supposed  that  the  Canary  Islands  were  the 
remains  of  the  old  A.  ;  for  Plato  had  stated  that  at 
the  close  of  the  long  contest  which  its  inhabitants 
maintained  against  the  Athenians,  nine  thousand 
years  before  his  time,  the  sea  suddenly  engulfed 
the  island,  and  had  ever  since  been  unnavigablc,  by 
reason  of  the  shoals  of  mud  created  by  the  sunken 
island.  Some  found  it  in  the  Scandinavian  penin- 
sula;  other  (first  Birchcrod  in  1GS5)  have  supposed 
that  Phu'iiiciaii  or  Carthaginian  merchant-.ships,  had 
been  di'iven  by  storm  on  the  coast  of  America,  and 
that  the  supposed  vast  Island  of  A.  mentioned  by 
Plato,  as  well  as  the  great  unnamed  island  spoken  of 
by  Pliny,  Diodorus,  and  Arnobius,  may  have  been  the 
New  World. 

A'TLAS  is  that  piece  of  the  human  vertebral 
column  which  is  nearest  to  the  skull ;  in  other  words, 
it  is  the  first  cervical  vertebra.  It  may  be  known 
from  the  other  six  by  its  being  without  a  body  or 
spinous  process,  by  its  being  a  mere  irregular  bony 
ring,  partly  divided  into  two  unequal  parts  by  a  con- 
striction ;  this  division  in  the  recent  subject  is  com- 
pleted by  a  ligament,  the  part  in  front  Ixing  oc- 
cupied by  the  tooth-like  process  of  the  second  cer- 
vical vertebra,  and  that  behind,  by  the  spinal-marrow. 
On  each  side,  the  ring  is  very  thick  ;  it  is  smooth  and 
cupped  above  to  receive  the  condyles  of  the  occipital 
bone.  The  corresponding  parts  below  are  flat,  and 
rest  on  the  second  cervical  vertebra. 

The  A.,  with  the  occipital  bone,  forms  the  joint  on 
which  the  head  moves  in  bowing  ;  and  turns  on  the 
pivot  of  the  second  cervical  vertebra,  when  we  look 
from  side  to  side. 

A'TLAS,  according  to  Hesiod's  Thropoiiy,  one 
of  the  Titans,  the  son  of  lapetus  and  Clvnune,  and 
brother  of  Mentrtius,  Prometh(-us,  and  Epimetheus. 
Apollodorus,  however,  states  him  to  have  been  a 
son  of  Asia,  and  Hyginus,  a  son  of  yl^'thcr  and 
Gaea.  He  mari-icd  Pleone,  daughter  of  Oceanus 
(or  Hcsprris,  his  own  niece\  and  bccinie  tie  f.-.th.er  cf 
the  Pleiades.     As  leader  of  the  Titans,  he  attempted 


ATLAS— ATMOSniERE. 


to  storm  the  heavens,  and  for  this  supreme  treason 
was  eondemncd  hv  Zeus  to  bear  tlie  vauU  of  heaven 
on  his  head  and  liands— the  stinj^  of  tliis  nivtiiokv 
gieul  punishment  obviously  being,  tliat  A.  was  com- 
pelled to  support  what  he  thirsted  to  destroy.  The 
later  writers,  however,  rationalize  the  myth,  and 
state  that  A.  was  a  mighty  king  who  had  great  skill 
in  astronomy,  and  only  tried  to  storm  heaven  intel- 
lectually.— In  consequence  of  the  ancient  views  which 
made  t'hc  vault  of  heaven  rest  on  solid  pillirs  or 
other  supports,  the  name  A.,  originally  mythological 
and  cosuiogonic,  was  introduced  into  geography. 
Mereator,  in  the  IGlh  c,  gave  the  name  A.  to  a  col- 
lection of  maps;  jirobably  beeanse  the  figure  of  A. 
supporting  the  heavens  had  been  given  on  the  titlc- 
page.s  of  such  works. 

A'TLAS,  a  mass  of  mountain-land  in  the  western 
part  of  North  Africa.     Herodotus  mentions  a  sniok- 
in"  mountain   of  this  name   situated  on    the  south- 
west of  the   Little   Hyrtis,  and  twenty  days' journey 
westwards  from  the  Garamantes,  styled  by  the  na- 
tives the  '  pillars  of  heaven.'     By  later  writers,  after 
the  time  of  Folybius,  the  name  A.  was  always  given 
to    the    chain    of   mountains   in    North  west    Africa 
extending   from   the   island  of  Cerne  (now  Cape  de 
Ger)  north-west  through  Mauritania,  and  Tingiiana 
(now    Fez    and    Maroeco),    and    including    also    the 
heights    dispersed    through    the    region    of    Sahara. 
It  is  divided  into  tlu3  Little  Atlas  and  the  Great  Atlas  ; 
the  former  denominating  a  secondary  range   in  the 
country   of  Sous,  and   the  other,   the   loftier  moun- 
tains of  Maroeco.     The  A.  is  not  properly  a  moun- 
tain-chain, but  rather  a  very  irregular  mountainous 
mass  of  land   formed  into   many  chains   running  in 
various    directions,   meeting    in    mountain-knots,   or 
connected    bv    vokes,    or    short   chains    of   inferior 
height,  and  diveVsiHeil  still  further  by  several  solitary 
mountains   and    groups   of  mountains.       The   A.  at- 
tains its  greatest  height  (13,nn()  feet  in  Maroeco,  the 
only    part   where   it   rises   above  the  suow-hne,  and 
obtains  the  name  of  Jebel-el-Tlielj,  or  Snowy  Moun- 
tains.    Its  highest  peaks  are  Miltsin— 27  miles  south- 
east of  the  city  of  Maroeco— Bibawan,  and  Taghe- 
rain.     The  most  southern  chain  diverging  here  from 
the  central  mass  bears  the  name  Jebd-Hadnar.     The 
heights  approach  the  sea,  and  form  the  promontories 
jutUng  out  into  the  Atlantic.     From  Maroeco,  the 
A.  gradually  decreases  in  height  towards  the  east. 
In  Algeria,  the  elevation  is  only  7673  feet ;  in  Tunis, 
4470  licet;    and   in   Tripoli,   3200  feet.     The  whole  ^ 
mountain-system  is   intersected  by  the  valley  of  the 
Muluia   river,    which    tlows    through    the    north-east 
part   of  Maroeco,   and   falls  into  the  Mediterranean. 
The  slopes  on  the  north,  west,  and  south  are  covered 
with   vast  forests   of  pine,   oak,   cork,  white  poplar, 
wild  olive,  &c.     The   valleys  are  well   watered  and 
capable    of  cultivation    with    great    prolit.       The  A. 
seems   to   be   chlelly   calcareous  in   its  composition. 
The  mineral  wealth  remains,  however,  almost  wholly 
unexplored,  though  copper,  iron,  lead,  antimony,  &c., 
are  stated  to  exist  in  abundance. 

A'TMOSPIIERE  (Gr.  atmos,  vapour,  sphalra, 
sphere)  is  the  name  applied  to  the  gaseous  envelope 
which  surrounds  the  earth.  The  existence  of  an  A. 
is  to  us  a  matter  of  vital  importance.  We  owe 
to  its  influence  the  possibility  of  animal  and  veget- 
able life,  the  modifying  and  retaining  of  so'.ar  heat, 
the  transmission  of  sound,  the  gradual  shading  of 
day  into  night,  the  disintegration  of  rocks,  and  the 
occurrence  of  weather  phenomena.  In  conseciucnce 
of  the  action  of  gravity,  the  A.  assumes  the  form 
of  a  spheroidal  stratum  concentric  with  the  earth, 
and  presses  heavily  on  its  surface.  It  exhibits,  in 
common  with  ail  fluid  bodies,  the  usual  characier- 
isiics  of  hydrostatic  jircssuro,  but  its  internal  condi- 


tion differs  from  that  of  a  liquid  inasmuch  as  its 
!  particles  repel  each  other,  and  can  only  be  held  in 
proximity  by  external  force.  From  this  circum- 
!  stance,  it  follows  that  the  volume  of  any  portion  of 
I  air  varies  much  more  under  the  influence  of  external 
I  pressure  than  that  of  an  e(iual  volume  of  water: 
'  hence,  the  stratum  of  air  nearest  the  earth  is  denser 
I  than  strata  in  the  upper  regions,  where,  from  their 
!  being  subjected  to  the  weight  of  a  smaller  mass  of 
I  sui)erineumbeiit  air,  the  repulsive  force  of  the  parti- 
'  cles  has  freer  i)lay. 

That   air   possesses  weight,  is   illustrated   by  the 
following    simple    experiment.       If    a    hollow    glass 
"■lobe  of  i)  or  (J  imhes  in  diameter  be  weighed  flist, 
whi'ii  filled  with  air,  and  then,  alter  the  air  has  been 
extracted    from    it    by    means    of  the    air-pump,    it 
will,  when   thus  exhausted,  weigh  sensibly  less  than 
it  did  before,  and  the  difference  of  the  two  results 
will    represent   the    weight   of  the   quantity   of  air 
which  has  been  withdrawn.     It  has  b.-en  determined 
bv   Biot    and   Arago    that    loo  cubic   inches  of  dry 
aiV,    when    the  barometer    is   at  30  inches,  and  the 
thc'rmonieter  at  Co'  Fahrenheit,  weigh  31-074  grains. 
The  law  of  Archimedes  (see  Ar.cn niKnics,  Principle 
of),  that  a   body  immersed   in  a  fluid  loses  a  part 
of  its  weight   equal  to  the  weight  of  the  volume  of 
fluid   displaced   by   it,  finds   its   application   in    the 
A.    as   well   as   in   water.      If  a   glass   globe   filled 
with  air  and  closed,  be  suspended  at  the  extremity 
of  the    beam    of  a    delicate    balance,    and    be    kept 
in   equilibrium  bv  a   brass   weight  at  the  oiher  ex- 
tremity, and  if  tlie  whole  be  then  placed  under  the 
ivceiver  of  an  air-pump,  and  the  air  extracted,  the 
equililirium    previously    existing   in   air  will  be   dis- 
turbed, and  the  larger  body  will  become  the  heavier. 
The  reason  of  this  is,  that  when  first  weighed,  they 
each  lose   as  much   of  their  own  weight   as  that  of 
the    respective    volumes    of   air  disiilaced    by  them, 
and  are  therefore  made  buoyant,  though  in  diflerent 
degrees,  the  ball  with  the  larger  volume  having  the 
n-rcater'buovancv.     In  a  vacuum,  they  arc  deprived 
Sf   this   buoyancy,    and    the   larger    body,   suffering 
the    gnater    loss,    beconn's    sensibly    heavier    than 
the  other.      In   like   manner,   a   balloon    filled  with 
heated    air    or    hydrogen    gas    is    lighter    than    the 
volume  of  air  displaced  by  it.     It  is  theiefore  forced 
upwards  till   it  reaches   a    stratum   of  such  destiny 
that  the  weight  of  the  volume  of  air  there  displaced 
by  it  equals  the  weight  of  the  balloon  itself.      In 
this   stratum   it   M'ill  remain    poised,    or  move  hori- 
zontally with  the  currents  to  which  it  may  be  ex- 
posed. 

In  endeavouring  to  determine  the  foriii^  ol  the 
atmospheric  envelope,  it  is  necessary  to  bear  in  mind 
that,  according  to  the  law  of  tiuid-picssure,  in  order 
to  produce  a  state  of  equilibrium  at  the  level  of  the 
sea,  the  pressure  of  the  A.  must  be  equal  at  that 
level  over  the  whole  of  the  earth's  surface.  Gravity 
acts  with  less  force  on  the  air  at  the  equator  than 
on  that  at  the  poles,  in  consequence  of  the  spheroidal 
form  of  the  earth.  It  has  there,  in  addition,  to 
contend  with  the  centrifugal  force,  which  entirely 
fails  at  the  po'es,  and  which  has  a  tendency  to 
lighten  the  air  bv  acting  contrary  to  that  of  gravity. 
Hence  we  infer,  that  in  order  to  produce  the  same 
pressure  at  the  level  of  the  .«ea,  the  atmospheric 
height  at  the  cipiator  must  be  greater  than  that  at 
the  poles,  and  tiuit  tlie  A.  must  therefore  possess  the 
form  of  an  oMate  spheroid,  whoso  oblateness  is  con- 
siderably greater  than  that  of  the  earth  itself.  The 
greater  heat  at  the  tropical  regions  must  also  have 
The  effect  of  increasing  the  obl.iteness. 

The  hciffJit  of  the  A.  has  not  yet  been  deternnned. 

That  it  must  have   a  certain  limit,  is  evident  from 

the    consideration    that  there    nnist    be    a    point    at 

which    trraviiv    on    the    one    hand,    and    centrifugal 

^         •  523 


ATMOSPHERE. 


force  and  the  repulsive  action  of  the  particles  on  the 
other,  arc  poised,  and  beyond  which  the  latter  forces 
on  balancing  the  former  force,  the  aerial  particles 
wonkl  be  borne  away  from  the  earth.  As,  however, 
the  law  of  the  diminution  of  temperature,  which 
materially  affects  the  repulsive  action,  is  unknown 
lor  the  upper  regions  of  the  air,  it  is  impossible  to 
calculate  the  height  of  the  atmosphere  from  the  re- 
lations of  these  forces.  The  only  result  upon  which 
dependence  can  be  placed  is  derived  from  the  ma- 
thematical data  founded  on  the  duration  of  twilight, 
which  gives  a  height  of  about  45  miles. 

Thi'  prcs-mrc  of  the  A.  is  one  of  its  most  import- 
ant pi  operties.  Its  effect  is  exhibited  in  the  action 
of  the  ordinary  water-pump.  The  piston  is  fitted 
air-tigiit  in  its  cylinder;  and  on  being  drawn  up, 
creates  a  vacuum.  The  water  within  the  pump 
being  thus  freed  from  pressure,  while  that  outside 
of  it  is  exposed  to  the  pressure  of  a  column  of 
air  reaching  to  the  surface  of  the  A.,  is  at  once 
forced  up  by  reason  of  the  weight  of  air  which  it 
must  rise  to  iialance.  The  ascent  of  the  water  takes 
place  till  the  piston  has  reached  the  height  of  nearly 
34  feet,  from  which  we  conclude  that  a  colutun  of 
a'r  is  equal  in  weight  to  a  column  of  water  of  the 
same  horizontal  section,  and  of  the  height  of  nearly 
84  feet.  As  mercury  is  130  times  heavier  than 
water,  a  mercurial  colunm  freed  iiom  atmospheric 
pressure  at  the  otic  extremity,  and  subjected  to  it 
at  the  other,  is  13'0  times  less  in  height  than  the 
column  of  water,  or  about  30  inches.  From  the 
more  convenient  size  of  this  column,  mercury,  has 
been  adopted  as  the  standard  for  atmospheric  pres- 
sure, and  is  employed  in  our  ori.!inary  barometers 
(q.  v.).  A  mercurial  column  of  30  inches  in  heigh.t, 
and  1  square  inch  in  section,  weigiis  1.5  lb.':,  (more  ac- 
curatelv,  14"73),  ■which  gives  us  the  equivalent  weight 
of  a  column  of  atmospheiie  air  of  the  same  section. 
The  word  A.  is  often  employed  to  express  this  weight 
or  pressure  on  a  square  inch  of  surface,  so  that  when 
we  speak,  in  Mechanics,  of  the  pressure  of  steam  on 
a  boiler  as  amounting  to  three  atmospheres,  wc  mean 
a  pressure  of  45  lbs.  on  the  square  inch.  The  pres- 
sure on  a  square  inch  being  thus  ascertained,  we 
have  merely  to  multiply  it  by  the  number  of  scpiare 
inches  on  the  earth's  surface  to  obtain  the  total 
weight  of  the  A.  It  amounts  to  ll-GlnSo  trillions 
of  lbs.,  or  about  ^j^--^^^^-^^^^  of  the  earth's  mass. 
It  must  be  observed  iliai  ilie  height  of  the  baro- 
metric column  is  not  a  constant  quantity,  as  it  varies 
with  the  latitude,  the  season  of  the  year,  and  the 
hour  of  the  day.  At  London,  its  mean  height  is  '29-88 
inches;  at  Paris,  29'0'2  inches.  The  pressure  of  the 
A.  in  the  northern  hemisphere  increases  as  wo  re- 
cede from  the  equator,  reaching  a  maximum  at  30° 
N)  lat.,  and  decreasing  from  30°  to  65°,  where  it  again 
begins  to  rise.  The  greater  height  at  30°  is  said  to 
be  due  to  the  accumulation  of  air  at  that  latitude 
by  the  action  of  the  trade-winds.  As  the  heat  of 
the  earth's  surface  increases  the  rarity  of  the  air 
above  it,  and  causes  the  air  at  the  top  of  the  heated 
column  to  overflow,  we  would  expect  that,  during 
the  year,  the  barometer  would  stand  at  a  minimum 
in  summer,  and  a  maximum  in  winter.  In  reality, 
however,  although  the  barometer  is  highest  in  mid- 
winter, there  is  another  maximum  in  mid-summer, 
making  thus  two  minima — one  in  spring,  the  other 
in  autumn.  This  arises  fiom  the  part  which  watery 
vapour  plays  in  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere.  The 
heat  of  nii.d-summer  introduces  into  the  air  a  large 
quantity  of  moisture,  in  the  form  of  elastic  vapour, 
which,  adding  its  pressure  to  that  of  the  dry  air, 
raises  what  would  otherwise  be  the  minimum  baro- 
metric column  to  a  higher  point  than  that  at  which 
it  stands  in  spring  and  autumn.  Similar  causes 
affect  the  pressure  of  the  A.  during  the  24  hours  of 
524 


the  day.  There  arc  t"0  maxima — one  at  ID  a.m., 
the  other  between  10  and  11  p.m.;  and  two  minima 
— at  4  A.M.  and  4  p.m.  Very  slight  variations  indi- 
cate the  existence  of  atmospheric  tidal  waves ;  but 
this  sul  jcct  is  stdl  involved  in  some  obscuiity.  The 
pressure  of  the  A.  txercises  a  most  important  influ- 
ence on  the  oigainsm  of  tiie  human  frame.  A  man 
of  ordinary  statuie  is  exposed  to  a  pressure  of  about 
14  tons  ;  but  as  the  air  permeates  the  whole  body, 
and  presses  iqually  in  all  directions,  no  inconvenience 
is  found  to  result  from  it.  From  expeiiments  insti- 
tuted by  the  brothers  Weber  in  (Jermany,  it  has 
been  ascertained  that  the  he.nds  of  the  tliigh  and 
arm  bones  are  kept  in  tiu'ir  sockets  by  the  i)ressure 
of  the  A.  ;  and  in  balloon  ascents  the  atM-onaut  often 
suffers  fioin  bleeding  at  the  nose,  lips,  and  even  eyes 
— a  fact  that  would  seem  to  indicate  that  tlic  strength 
of  the  blood-ve.ssels  lias  been  ac'justed  with  reference 
to  atmosplieric  pressure. 

(/uitiical  Coi/'pos/tioii  of  (/ic  A. — Recent  chemical 
researches  give  the  foTowing  as  the  mean  composi- 
tion of  lUO  volumes  and  of  loO  grains  of  drv  air : 


Volunic-s. 

Grains. 

Nitrogen, 

T'.''''2 

70.^4 

Oxvgen, 

ild-'.H 

23-10 

Carbonic  acid, 

o-Ol 

0-OC 

li. 11-00        100-00 

Besides  the  substances  just  nam6d,  other  gaseous 
matters  occur,  but  in  quantities  so  small  as  not 
sensibly  to  increase  the  bulk  of  the  A.,  such  as 
ammonia  and  ummoidacal  salts,  caibnrettcd  and 
sulphmctted  hydrogen,  carbonic  oxide,  sulphurous 
anil  suljihuric  acid,  nitric  acid,  and  perhaps  iodine, 
tl'.e  (piantity  and  even  the  presence  of  which  are 
ali'ected  by  local  and  meteorological  catses.  Roughly 
speaking,  then,  dry  air  maybe  said  to  consist  of  4 
volumes  of  nitrogen  and  1  of  oxygen,  with  a  slight 
adniixturc  of  carlionic  acid,  and  a  mere  trace  of 
several  otlier  substances.  As,  howe^  or,  the  air  of  the 
A.  is  never  found  dry,  wc  must  add  to  the  consti- 
tuents already  named  watery  vapour,  the  amount  of 
which  is  constanily  changing,  according  to  locality, 
weather,  wind,  and  teinjierature.  It  is  stated  that 
of  1(»00  grains  of  atmos[iheric  air,  the  proportion 
due  to  aqueous  vapour  varies  fiom  a  minimum  of 
4  to  a  maximum  of  1(5  grains.  By  far  the  most  ac- 
tive chemical  constituent  of  the  A.  is  oxygen,  to  the 
agency  of  which  are  owing  the  existence  of  animal 
life,  the  maintetiance  of  combustion,  the  rusting 
of  metals,  and  the  occurrence  of  several  other 
chemical  phenomena  too  numerous  to  be  detailed. 
A  small  portion  of  this  oxygen  occurs  in  the  form  of 
ozone  (q.  v.),  a  mollification  which,  according  to  re- 
cent chemical  discoveries,  plays  an  important  part  in 
the  chemistry  of  the  A.  The  nitrogen  w  hicli  forms 
the  bulk  of  the  A.  possesses  few  chemical  properties 
of  importance,  but  performs  the  important  part  of 
diluting  the  oxygen,  which,  if  it  occurred  alone, 
would  act  with  too  great  intensity.  The  presence 
of  carbonic  acid  in  the  air  is  shewn  by  the  produc- 
tion of  the  white  carbonate  of  lime  in  lime-water 
freely  exposed  to  its  influence.  Carbonic  acid  is 
produced  in  all  processes  where  carbonaceous  matter 
unites  itself  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  such  as  in 
animal  respiration,  in  combustion,  in  fermentation, 
in  putrefaction,  and  similar  processes.  The  green 
leaves  of  plants,  on  the  other  hand,  possess,  in 
presence  of  sunshine,  the  power  of  decomposing 
carbonic  acid  into  its  elements,  absorbing  tlie  carbon 
for  their  own  tissues,  and  restoring  the  oxygen  to 
the  A.  in  its  original  purity.  Between  the  processes 
above  mentioned,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  action  of 
plants  on  the  other,  the  quantity  of  carbonic  acid 
in  the  air  is  kept  nearly  constant.     From  the  table 


ATMOSPHERE— ATMOSPHERIC  ELECTRICITY, 


it  will  be  seuii  that  K)  ouO  voluines  of  atino^^pheric  air  |  electrical  machine,  and  that  the  sfanie  nieehanical  and 


contain  4  volumes  of  carbonic  acid.  If  it  occurred  in 
a  much  lar-^au-  proportion,  being  poi:ionou.'*,  it  would 
become  dangerous  to  animal  life  ;  and  if  it  occurred 
in  a  much  less  proportion,  the  vegetable  world 
would  lack  its  requisite  nourishment.  Tlie  other 
substances,  of  which  a  trace   is  always  or  only  some- 


luminous  ellects  are  common,  though  in  a  different 
degree,  to  both.  The  attention  that  was  first 
directed  by  this  discovery  to  the  A.  E.,  as  disi)layed 
in  the  thunder-cloud,  has  since  then  been  extended 
to  the  electrical  condition  of  the  air  in  all  the 
dilferent  states  of  the  weather.     It  is  now  Ibund  that 


substances,  ot   whicli  a  trace   is  aiwa.\s  oi  on.y  r.;,.iiv^- j  .....^.v ...  c.-..^.,  .-.    ...^  ..........     --    ■■ --     --  - 

times  found  in  atmospheric  air,  are  dithcult  to  detect  i  the   air  is  sen.s.by  electrical  not   only  wlien    the  sky 
.     .,       •    •..  ir  .....   „..„  .v,.„o,...iiv  f,..in,l   iiu^olvpd  in    i.q    overcast    With     thunder-clouas,    Ijut     wncn     tnc 


in  the  air  itself,  but  are  generally  found  dissolved  in 
rain-water,  more  especially  in  that  which  lias  fallen 
immediately  alter  a  long  drought.  Of  these,  ))y  far 
the  most  iu'ijiortant  and  widely  diffused  are  ammonia 
and  ammoniacal  salts,  which  are  of  essential  import- 
ance to  the  vegetable  economy,  l^ecause,  dissolved  in 
the  rain,  thev' furnish  plants  with  the  nitrogen  re- 
quired by  them  for  the  production  of  their  tiowei-s  and 
fruit.  Nitric  acid  is  detected  in  the  air  after  thunder- 
storms, sulphuretted  hydrogen  in  the  tainted  air  of 
sewers  and  such  like  places,  and  sulphurous  and  sul- 
phuric acid  onlv  in  the  neighbourhood  of  chemical  or 
smelting  works!  A  considerable  quantity  of  carbonic 
oxide  and  carburetted  hydrogen  escapes  unconsumcd 
from  our  furn.'ices  ;  and  although  the  latter  gas  is  in 
addition  given  off  to  the  air  in  marshy  and  bituminous 
districts,  the  two  occur  in  almost  inappreciable  quan- 
tity in  the  atmosphere. 

In  addition  to  its  gaseous  constituents,  the  A. 
contains  solid  substances  in  a  state  of  exceedingly 
fine  division,  the  presence  of  which  is  revealed 
in  the  sunbeam.  Many  of  these  minute  particles, 
being  the  seeds  of  plants  or  eggs  of  anim.als,  must 
exert  an  imjiortant  influence  on  the  organic  sub- 
stances on  which  they  may  finally  settle,  inducing 
in  many  of  them  the  conditions  of  disease  or 
putrefaction. 

When  the  composite  nature  of  the  A.  was  first 
discovered,  it  was  supposed  to  be  a  chemical 
combination  of  nitrogen  and  oxygen,  but  further 
inquiries  have  rendered  this  opinion  liigiily  im- 
probable. When  any  two  bodies  unite  Avith  each 
other  chemically,  the  substance  which  results,  from 
their  combination  invariably  possesses  properties 
which  the  original  constituents  did  not  possess. 
Now  the  atmospheric  union  of  oxygen  and  nitrogen  is 
distinguished  Ijy  no  properties  which  may  not  be 
attributed    individually    to    these   gases.      We    have 


.o  overcast  with  thunder-clouds,  but  when  the 
weather  is  clear,  or  when  no  thunder-clouds  are 
present.  The  observations  of  A.  E.,  in  the  latter 
circumstances  are  made  by  means  of  very  delicate 
electroscopes  (q.  v.).  These  instruments  are  con- 
structed  i'or  being  used  either  alone  in  the  open  air, 
or  in  a  room,  in  conjunction  with  an  apparatus  on 
the  roof  of  the  house  for  collecting  the  electricity. 
The  following  are  some  of  the  results  derived  from 
these  observations :  When  the  sky  is  clear  and  free 
from  clouds,  the  A.  E.  is  always  positive,  and  an 
electroscope  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  air  is  ch.irged 
with  positive  electricity.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
electricity  of  the  ground  is  found  to  be  negative. 
This  was  shewn  in  a  very  ingenious  way  by  Volta, 
who,  by  catching  the  fine  spray  of  a  fountain  on  the 
plate  of  a  straw  electroscope,  found  the  straws  to 
diverge  with  the  negative  electricity  communicated 
to  them  by  the  water,  which  was  necessarily  of  the 
same  character  as  that  of  the  ground.  It  is  from 
this  filet  that  electroscopes,  or  the  collecting  appa- 
ratus connected  with  them,  must  not  be  overtopped 
by  the  neighbouring  trees  or  buildings,  the  negative 
electricity  of  which  materially  affects  the  indicatiotis 
given,  and  it  is  due  to  the  same  fact  that  no  A.  E.  is 
discovered  in  the  middle  of  a  wood,  or  in  a  room, 
however  high  the  ceiling.  Under  a  clear  sky,  the 
tension  of  the  A.  E.  is  found  to  increase  as  we  ascend, 
the  lower  aerial  strata  being  less  electrical  than  the 
higher.  Becquerel  proved  this  by  a  simple  experi- 
ment on  the  plateau  of  Mount  St  Bernard.  On  a 
piece  of  oiled  silk  he  placed  a  silk  thread,  covered 
with  tinsel,  one  end  of  which,  terminated  by  a  ring, 
was  connected  with  the  rod  of  a  straw  electroscope, 
and  the  otlier  end  was  tied  to  an  arrow  armed  with  a 
metal  point.  When  the  arrow  was  shot  horizontally, 
the  straws  .shewed  no  divergence ;  but  when  the 
arrow  was  shot  upwards,  they  opened  as  it  ascended. 


atiriDiueu    iiiuiviuuaii>    bu    imrnij   guot^.       ..^    x.^v.^,  |„...^..   — ,         -  ,        .     »  _ 

then  in  this  respect,  "no  indication  that  the  atraos- |  and  diverged  most  when  the  arrow  m  ascenain^, 
nheric  combination  of  oxygen  and  nitrogen  is  a  chem-  I  disengaged  the  ring  from  the  rod  of  the  electroscope, 
ical  one  A^-ain  when  any  comjiosite  gas  is  dissolved  ]  The  same  fact  is  shewn  in  the  following  way  :  \\  hen 
in  water  the'' proportion  of  the  ingredients  dissolved  a  very  delicate  electroscope  is  adjusted^  lor  any  par- 
in  it  is  exactly  the  same  as  that  in  which  thev  occur  ticular  position,  it  will,  when  elevated  a  lew  icct 
in  the  compound  itself;  but  this  is  not  the  case  with  ;  above  that  position,  give  indication  ot  positive  elec- 
air  dissolved  in  water,  which   is  found  to  be  richer  in    tricity,  and   when  placed  a  few  feet   below,  itwUl^be 


oxvgen  than  atmospheric  air.  Now,  as  oxygen  dis- 
solves more  readily  in  water  than  nitrogen,  it  is  mani- 
fest that  this  larger  proportion  of  oxygen  arises  from 
both  gases  acting  independently  of  each  other  _  in 
respect  to  the  water,  a  condition  that  would  be  im- 
possible if  they  were  in  chemical  union.  From  these 
and  other  corroborative  facts,  the  A.  is  considered  to 
be  simply  a  mechanical  combination  of  the  g-ases  con- 
tained in  it.  This,  however,  does  not  prevent  the  A. 
from  having  a  unitbrm  composition,  as  might  at  first 
sight  be  supposed;  for  when  gases  are   mixed   with 


charged  negatively.  In  clear  weather,  likewise,  the 
A.  E.  is  found  to  "be  suljiject  to  certain  daily  period- 
ical variations,  and  appears  to  have  two  maxima 
and  two  minima  in  the  course  of  twenty-four  hours. 
The  first  maximum  takes  place  a  short  time  after 
sunrise,  and  the  second  shortly  after  sunset;  the 
first  minimum  shortly  before  sunrise,  and  the  second 
in  the  afternoon,  when  the  heat  of  the  day  is 
greatest.  The  cause  of  these  periodical  changes  is 
attributed  to  the  formation  and  condensation  of 
watery  vapour  in  the  atmosphere ;  shortly  after  sun- 


each  other  they  entermingle  thoroughly  throughout  I  rise,  a  vast  quantity  of  vapour  ruses  into  the  lower 
the  whole  si)ace  occupied  by  them.  "Local  causes  !  stratum  of  the  air,  and  acting  as  a  conductor,  trans- 
may  temporarily  affect  the  relative  proportion  of  the  i  mits  the  electricity  of  the  higher  strata  towards  the 
atmospheric  ingredients,  but  the  changes  are  so  mi- |  surface  of  the  earth,  giving  rise  to  the  first  maxi- 
nute  as  to  require  the  most  delicate  analysis  to  detect  [  mum.  As  the  heat  ot  the  day  increases,  the  air 
^l^Q^  becomes   less   and   less   moist,    and   loses,   m   conse- 

ATMOSPHERIC    ELECTRICITY.     Franklin  was    quence,    its   conducting    power    so    that   when   the 
the    fiist    to    establish    the    identity    of    the    light- |  atmosphere    i.s     ^^^^^  ^\^^^^    f°^;;°3 
ning  of  the  heavens  with  the   electric  spark.     By  his  1  mmmium      takes     jilace        f  ^^^   ^f  ^^^^^^^^^      '^    •;^P^ 
faiiTous    kite-experiment,    he    ascertained     that     the  i  condensation   occurs,  ami   the  lower  s^^^^^^ 
thunder-cloud      assumes      an      electrical      condition  i  ii^ore  charged   wi^^h  moisture   w.ich  c.au^^^^ 
precisely   similar   to    that    of    the   conductor   of    an  1  maximum  at  the  beginmng  of  night.     Before  sunrise, 


ATMOSPHERIC  RAILWAY— ATOM. 


t\w  deposition  of  clew  becomes  greatest,  so  that  tlie 
positive  electricity  of  the  lower  strata  is  transmitted 
to  the  soil,  causing  a  minimum  at  that  time.  It 
seems  to  hold  generally  that  anything  which  tends 
to  increase  the  conducting  power  of  the  lower  strata, 
such  as  watery  vapour  in  a  visible  form,  increases  at 
the  same  time  the  A.  E.,  and  hence  it  is  that  in  time 
of  mist  the  electrical  tension  is  higher  than  in  clear 
weather.  It  may  also  ))e  attributed  to  the  same 
fact  that  the  A.  E.  is  greatest  in  January,  and  least 
in  June,  the  former  month  being  cold  and  misty, 
and  the  latter  warm  and  clear.  In  cloudy  weather, 
the  electroscope  is  affected  sometimes  positively, 
sometimes  negatively,  and  is  generally  Ic.^s  influenced 
than  in  clear  weather.  The  electricity  of  rain,  snow, 
hail,  &c.,  is  sometimes  positive,  sometimes  negative. 
In  Stuttgart,  for  instance,  it  was  found  in  the  course 
of  a  year  that  the  rain  was  71  times  positive  to  69 
times  negative,  and  the  snow  24  times  positive  to  (> 
limes  negative. 

The  cause  of  A.  E.  has  given  rise  to  much  dis- 
cussion among  meteorologists,  and  as  yet  no  theory 
has  been  proposed  which  satisfiictorily  accounts  for 
it.  According  to  Pouillet's  theory,  the  electricity 
developed  in  evaporation  and  vegetation  is  a 
sufficient  cause  for  the  po.sitive  electricity  of  the 
air ;  the  vapours  and  gases  evolved  in  these  pro- 
cesses being  charged  positively,  the  soil  and  plants, 
on  the  other  hand,  negatively.  This  oi)inion  is  com- 
bated by  more  recent  observers,  such  as  Riess  and 
Reich,  who,  after  a  series  of  careful  experiments, 
give  it  as  their  opinion  that  if  such  be  the  cause  of 
A.  E.,  the  fact  is  wholly  without  experimental  data. 
Lamont  maintains  that  the  air  itself  is  not  electrical, 
and  is  not  capal)le  either  of  conducting  or  of  retain- 
ing electricity,  and  that  the  phenomenon  of  A.  E.  is 
due  to  the  induction  arising  from  the  negative  elec- 
tricity of  the  earth,  which  he  considers  to  be  perma- 
nent. This  theory  can  account  for  all  the  phenomena 
referred  to  in  this  article ;  but  the  statement  that 
atmospheric  air  is  incapable  of  conducting  or  letain- 
ing  electricity,  stands  in  need  of  experimental  con- 
firmation. For  the  electricity  of  the  thunder-cloud, 
see  Lightning. 

ATMOSPHERIC  RAILWAY,  a  railway  on 
which  the  locomotive-power  is  supplied  by  the  pres- 
sure of  the  atmosphere  more  or  less  directly  on  the 
carriages  themselves.  The  idea  of  producing  rail- 
way locomotion  in  this  manner  has  been  succes- 
sively prosecuted  by  Lewis,  Medhurst,  Vallance,  and 
Pinkus ;  and  latterly  with  a  greater  prospect  of  suc- 
cess by  Clegg,  in  connection  with  Samuda.  Vallance 
patented  a  plan  -which  proposed  the  conveyance  of 
passengers  along  a  railway  laid  within  an  air-tight 
tunnel  exhausted  in  front  of  a  carriage  working  as  a 
piston,  the  pi'essur.3  of  the  atmosphere  acting  on  the 
carriage  from  behind.  This  plan  was  made  public  in 
1825,  and  ultimately  brought  into  experimental  oper- 
ation at  Brighton,  proving  the  possibility  of  such  a 
mode  of  transit.  The  general  opinion  as  to  its  merits 
was,  that  though  it  might  succeed  in  the  transmis- 
sion of  goods,  or,  with  a  smaller  tube  than  the 
tunnel,  might  suit  well  the  conveyance  of  the  mails, 
it  could  not  be  expected  to  enjoy  the  fovour  of  the 
travelling  public,  on  account  of  its  dark  close  tunnel. 
Thus  the  subject  of  atmospheric  railways  had 
ceased  to  attract  attention,  when  the  curiosity  of  the 
public  was  again  called  to  it,  by  the  proposal  of 
another  plan  of  propulsion,  by  Henry  Pinkus,  an 
American  gentleman,  resident  in  England,  who  took 
out  a  patent  for  it  about  the  year  1835,  under  the 
rame  of  the  Pneumatic  Railway.  The  apparatus  for 
this  w;is  to  consist  of  a  cast-iron  tube  of  about  forty 
inches  diameter,  having  a  slit  of  about  two  inches 
wide  on  its  upper  side,  the  slit  (which  was  covered 
by  a  flexible  flap  or  valve)  furnishing  an  opening 
62G 


through  which  the  mechar.isni  of  a  piston  working 
within  the  tube  might  be  connected  with  that  of  the 
leading  carriage  without. 

Under  improved  arrangements  of  the  details, 
Messrs  Clegg  and  Sannida  made  an  experiment  of 
this  plan  in  1840,  on  a  part  of  the  line  of  the  West 
London  Railway ;  and  so  favourable  was  the  issue, 
that  the  directors  of  the  Dublin  and  Kingstown  Rail- 
way adopted  the  atmospheric  jircssure  system  for  a 
projected  extension  of  their  line  frotn  Kingstown  to 
Dalkey.  The  nature  of  the  ground  through  which 
this  extension  was  to  pass  was  so  undulating,  as  to 
render  the  cutting  of  a  line  on  it  for  being  worked 
by  locomotive  engines  very  expensive.  Accordingly, 
parliamentary  sanction  was  obtained  for  the  line,  and 
the  first  A.  R.  was  in  full  operation  at  the  beginning 
of  the  year  1844.  In  that  year  the  London  and 
Croydon  Railway  Company  began  to  lay  down  a 
line  of  A.  R.  alongside  of  their  locomotive  line  from 
London  to  Croydon.  The  South  Devon  Railway  Com- 
pany also  adopted  the  atmospheric  mode  of  working 
on  a  part  of  their  railway.  Roth  of  these  lines,  how- 
ever, where  shortly  afterwards  abandoned  as  unsatis- 
factory. 

The  result  of  these  trials  has  clearly  shewn  that 
the  A.  R.  system  cannot  stand  in  competition  with 
that  of  the  locomotive  engine,  unless,  perhaps,  in 
some  very  peculiar  situation.  The  expense  and  care 
necessary  to  keep  the  tube  with  its  valve  in  good 
working-order,  led  to  the  removal  of  the  atmospheric 
mechanism  from  the  various  railways  on  wliich  it 
was  established  ;  so  that  the  history  of  Atmospheric 
Railways  may  be  ranked  under  the  chapter  of 
failures. 

ATOM  (Gr.  atomos,  an  indivisible  particle ;  from 
a,  not,  &nA.tewnd,  I  cut).  In  ancient  philosophy,  two 
theories  of  the  natiire  of  matter  were  recognised, 
and  these  have  continued  to  form  subjects  of  argu- 
ment among  speculative  men  since  the  year  510  B.C. 
to  (he  present  time.  The  one  theory  is,  that  matter 
is  infinitely  divisible.  Thus,  a  needle  may  be  divided 
into  two,  and  each  of  the  parts  may  in  its  turn  be 
broken  or  cut  into  two,  and  each  of  the  latter  again 
and  again  be  subdivided,  till  the  parts  become  so 
small  that  it  may  be  impo.ssible  to  sec  them  by  the 
naked  eye  ;  but  these  parts  aie  regarded  as  capable 
of  .still  further  division,  without  limit  or  stoppage, 
provided  more  perfect  or  delicate  means  could  be 
emj)loyed  to  act  upon  them.  The  second  theory 
regarding  the  constitution  of  matter  is,  that  in 
the  repeated  division  and  subdivision  of  a  solid, 
liquid,  or  gas,  a  point  will  be  at  length  reached 
when  it  will  no  longer  be  possible,  by  any  conceiv- 
able means,  to  break  a  molecule  in  two,  the  molecule 
being  a  real  unity,  not  composed  of  separable  parts — 
in  other  words,  an  utivn.  The  latter  theory  recognises 
the  finite  divisibility  of  matter,  and  considers  that 
all  matter  is  more  or  less  compactly  built  up  of 
myriads  of  atoms  aggregated  together,  and  having 
spaces  or  ports  between  the  several  atoms  or  par- 
ticles. If  it  were  possible  to  subject  .such  matter  to 
the  scrutiny  of  a  sulTiyiently  powerful  magnifying- 
glass,  or  microscope,  and  thus  exhiliit  or  behold  the 
atoms  so  separated  by  spaces,  then  an  appearance 
would  be  presented  similr.r  to  that  which  the  painter 
chooses  to  depict  on  the  canvas  when  he  is  repre- 
senting a  snow-storm,  and  where  every  little  flake 
of  snow  is  separated  from  its  neighbour  one  by  a 
space  in  which  there  are  none ;  or  that  which 
would  be  observed  if,  during  a  hailstorm,  some  great 
power  were  to  cry,  '  Halt ! '  and  that  instant  every 
minute  hailstone  was  arrested  in  the  spot  it  had 
reached. 

This  view  of  the  physical  nature  of  matter  is  that 
wh.ich  is  known  as  the  atomic  or  covpuarrdar  fheorji, 
and   lias   in    modern    times    received    some    support 


ATOMIC  HEAT— ATOMIC  THEORY. 


from  the  facts  embodied  in  the  ehemicul  atomic  theory 
originated  by  Dalton.  Granting,  however,  tiiat  the 
chemist  can  prove  that  his  simple  and  compound 
forms  of  matter  are  built  up  of  chemical  atoms,  the 
problem  still  remains  to  be  solved  as  to  the  possible 
identity  of  physical  and  chemical  atoms.  Wtiat  the 
cliemist  regards  as  an  A.  in  his  science,  may  not  be 
an  ultimate  and  indivisible  A.  in  a  physical  point  of 
view  ;  the  chemical  A.,  though  inca[)al>le  of  division 
as  a  chemical  A.,  may  still  be  coni[)osed  or  ))uilt  up 
of  many  physical  atoms,  and  may  be  capable  of  being 
subdivided  into  such.  Indeed,  whilst  the  atomic 
theory  of  Dalton,  when  first  announced,  was  eagerly 
seized  upon  a.s  the  best  possible  evidence  for  the 
existence  of  both  chemical  and  physical  atoms,  the 
tendency  of  recent  researches  and  discussions  in 
chemistry  has  been  to  shew  that  t!ie  chemical  A.  is 
different  from  the  physical,  and  does  not  necessitate 
the  existence  of  the  latter.  See  Atomic  Theory. 
According  to  the  ordinary  acceptation  of  the  term, 
it  is  a  molecule  of  matter  having  a  definite  weight, 
magnitude,  and  form,  possitily  alike  for  the  atoms  of 
the  same  material,  but  differing  in  those  of  diiferent 
substances.  The  form  of  an  A.  is  supposed  by  some 
men  of  science  to  be  the  same  as  that  which  the 
fragments  of  a  substance  assume  when  it  is  split  in 
the  direction  of  the  planes  of  the  cleavage  of  its 
crystals  (see  Crystallography),  but  the  general 
belief  is,  that  all  atoms  are  spherical,  and  that  the 
various  crystalline  forms  are  produced  by  the  manner 
in  which  the  atoms  are  grouped  together.  In  regard 
to  the  size  of  atoms,  the  researches  of  the  famous 
microscopist,  Ehrenberg,  have  demonstrated  that  an 
A.  must  be  less  than  ^-.^jJo.oT^  ^^  '^  ''"^  'fi  diameter  ; 
and  the  late  Dr.  Thomas  Tiiorason,  of  the  university  of 
Glasgow,  shevi^ed  that  an  A.  of  lead  must  occupy 
a  space  something  less  than  s^-^.T^ir.oo o.ooo.oTff  part 
of  a  cubic  inch. 

ATOMIC  HEAT.     See  Heat. 

ATO'MIC  THEORY.  When  one  or  more  atoms 
of  one  kind  of  substance  are  brought  into  physical 
contact  with  one  or  more  atoms  of  a  different  sub- 
stance, the  various  atoms  unite  together  by  the  force 
of  chemical  affinity  (q.  v.),  and  produce  a  chemical 
compound.  The  respective  quantities  of  each  of  the 
combining  substances  are  not  the  result  of  mere  chance 
or  casual  freak  of  nature,  but  are  regulated  by  certain 
laws.  These  laws  were  partially  observed  and  discussed 
by  earlier  chemists  and  physicists,  but  it  was  reserved 
for  Dalton  (q.  v.)  to  systematise  the  somewhat  inco- 
herent labours  of  his  predecessors,  and  to  announce, 
in  positive  language,  the  four  laws  which  regulate 
the  miion  of  various  kinds  of  substances,  and  whicli 
are  still  acknowledged  by  chemists  as  the  laws  of 
coMni.MXft  proportion,  or  the  Atomic  Theory. 
These  laws  regulate  the  combination  of  unlike  sub- 
stances Ijy  weight,  and  not  by  volume  ;  and  they  are 
based  upon  the  preliminary  acknowledged  fact,  ca- 
pable of  experimental  demonstration,  that  the  same 
compound  substance  is  always  composed  of  the  same 
higrcdients  or  elements. 

The  first  law  of  combination  by  weight  compre- 
hended under  the  A.  T.  is  the  law  of  constant 
PROPORTION,  which  teaches  that  the  elements  or 
ingredients  which  form  a  chemical  compound  arc 
always  united  in  it  in  the  same  proportion  l)v 
weight.  Thus,  water,  which  consists  of  oxygen  atid 
hydrogen,  does  not  contain  one  or  both  of  these 
elements  in  indefinite  amount,  but  it  is  invariably 
made  up  of  8  parts  by  weight  of  oxygen  to  1 
part  by  weight  of  hydrogen.  It  makes  no  matter 
whether  the  total  amount  of  either  element  be 
represented  by  grains,  ounces,  pounds,  or  tons,  it 
will  always  be  found  that  the  proportion  of  8 
parts  of  oxygen  to   1   part  of  hydrogen  is  kept  up. 


Neither  does  the  source  of  the  water  make  any  dif- 
ference, for  pure  water  obtained  from  rain,  snow,  or 
hail,  the  river  or  the  sea,  the  .sap  of  plants  or  the 
juices  of  animals,  invariably  contains  the  same  ele- 
ments in  the  same  proportions.  Again,  common  salt 
(chloride  of  sodium),  whether  it  be  obtained  from 
sea-water,  salt-.springs,  rock-salt,  or  even  the  blood 
of  animals,  always  consists  of  chlorine  and  sodium 
in  the  exact  and  never  varying  proportion  of  3.5i 
parts  of  chlorine  to  23  parts  of  .sodium.  Whilst  the 
law  of  constant  proportion  teaches  us  that  the 
same  compound  is  always  built  up  of  the  same  ingre- 
dients in  the  same  proportion,  it  does  not  necessarily 
follow  that  the  same  elements  or  components  in 
the  same  proportions  will  invariably  form  the  same 
compound  body.  It  is  far  otherwise  ;  and  many  ex- 
amples can  be  obtained,  especially  from  oi-ganic 
chemistry,  where  the  same  components  in  the  same 
proportions  produce  very  different  substances. 
Thus,  starch  and  cotton  (ligninc) — very  dissimilar 
substances — consist  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen 
in  the  very  same  proportions ;  and  gum-arabic  and 
cane-sugar  are  similarly  circumstanced.  See  Isomeric 
Bodies. 

The  second  law  is  the  law  of  reciprocal 
PROPORTION,  which  tells  us  that  if  two  substances 
combine  in  certain  proportions  with  a  third,  they  com- 
bine in  the  very  same  proportion  with  each  other. 
Thus,  as  has  been  already  observed,  8  is  the  propor- 
tion in  which  oxygen  will  unite  with  1  of  hydrogen, 
and  6  is  the  proportion  in  which  carbon  unites  with 
1  of  hydrogen  ;  and  the  law  now  under  considera- 
tion teaches  us,  that  v/hilst  oxygen  combines  with 
hydrogen  as  8  to  1,  and  carbon  with  hydrogen  as  6 
to  1,  we  can,  from  these  experimental  results,  deduce 
the  conclusion  that  8  will  be  the  proportion  .of 
oxygen  wliich  will  combine  with  6  of  carbon.  Again, 
8  parts  of  oxygen  unite  with  28  of  iron,  and  IG  parts 
of  sulphur  combine  with  28  of  iron,  and  from  these 
statements  we  can  deduce,  by  the  aid  of  the  second 
law,  that  sul[)hur  and  oxygen  will  unite  together 
in  the  proportions  of  16  to  8.  The  figures  which 
represent  the  proportions  in  which  the  elements 
constantly  combine  with  each  other,  are  called  their 
equivalents  or  atomic  iveir/hts  (q.  v.).  The  second 
law  is  one  of  great  importance,  and  simplifies  much 
the  researches  of  the  chemist,  for  it  renders  it 
unnecessary  for  him  to  determine  in  order  the  pro- 
portion in  which  a  new  substance  will  unite  with 
every  other  of  the  sixty-one  elementary  substances ; 
for  having  experimentally  estimated  the  proportion 
in  which  the  stranger  element  combines  with  one  or 
two  substances,  he  can  predict  that  the  very  same 
proportion  will  regulate  its  chemical  union  with  all  the 
others. 

The  third  law  is  the  law  of  multiple  propor- 
tion, which  is,  that  when  one  substance  combines 
witii  another  in  several  proportions,  the  higher  pro- 
portions are  multiples  of  the  first  or  lowest.  Thus, 
aydrogen  unites  with  oxygen  in  two  proportions ;  as 
1  of  hydrogen  to  8  of  oxygen,  when  ordinary  pure 
water  is  the  result  of  union  ;  and  as  1  of  hydrogen  to 
16  of  oxygen,  wiicn  peroxide  of  hydrogen,  a  power- 
fid  bleacliing  agent,  is  jiroduccd — the  difterenee  in 
the  respective  amounts  of  the  oxygen — 8  and  16 — 
l)eing,  that  the  latter  is  a  multiple  of  the  former  l)y  2. 
Again,  carbon  unites  with  oxygen  in  two  proportions : 
>is  ()  of  carbon  to  8  of  oxygen,  when  the  inflammable 
gas,  carl)onic  oxide,  is  formed  ;  and  as  6  of  carbon 
CO  16  of  oxygen,  when  the  non-inflammable  gns, 
carbonic  acid,  is  the  result.  The  variation  in  this 
instance  is,  that  the  oxygen  is  present  in  the  one 
case  as  8,  and  in  the  other  as  a  multijile  of  that 
number  by  2,  viz.  16.  One  of  the  best  illustrations 
of  this  law  occurs  in  the  case  of  the  union  of  nitrogen 
and   oxvgen :    14  parts   of  nitrogen  can  unite   with 

527 


ATOMIC  VOLUMES— ATOMIC  WEIGHTS. 


8  of  oxygen,  and  then  exist  as  laughing-gas  ;  but  tlie 
same  amount  of  nitrogen  can  combine  with  16,  24, 
82,  or  -10  of  oxygen — in  the  latter  case,  constituting 
nitric  aiid — all  of  the  higher  numbers  being  multiples 
of  the  first  or  lowest,  viz.  8  by  2,  3,  4,  and  5  times. 

The  fourth  law  is  the  law  of  compound  piiopor- 
TION,  which  teaches  that  the  combining  proportion 
of  a  compound  substance  is  the  sum  of  tlic  combining 
proportions  of  its  components.  Thus,  the  comitound 
body,  carbonic  acid,  which  consists  of  (>  of  car])on 
imited  with  16  of  oxygen,  has  the  combining  propor- 
tion 22,  which  is  the  sum  of  the  combining  i>ropor- 
tions  of  the  carbon  and  oxygen  composing  it,  viz. 
6 -f  16  =  22.  Similarly,  the  compound  substance,  lime, 
contains  20  of  the  metal  calcium  combined  with  8  of 
oxygen,  and  has  the  combining  proportion  of  20  -f  S, 
or  28.  When  carbonic  acid  and  lime  arc  linked  to- 
gether, as  in  marble,  which  is  the  carbonate  of  lime, 
then  they  are  united  in  the  proportion  of  22  parts  of 
carbonic  acid  and  28  of  lime.  Not  only  is  22  tiie  pro- 
portion in  which  carbonic  acid  will  combine  with  lime, 
but  it  is  the  proportion  in  which  it  will  form  com- 
pounds with  every  other  substance  of  the  same  chemi- 
cal constitution. 

The  preceding  laws  regulating  the  union  of  sub- 
stances by  weight  were  announced  by  Dalton  as  the 
results  of  experimental  observation,  and  they  are 
therefore  entitled  to  have  full  confidence  placed  in 
them.  Moreover,  every  succeeding  observer  in  the 
same  department  of  chemical  science  has  brought 
forward  researches  which  tend  to  strengthen  the 
belief  in  the  existence  of  such  laws,  and  in  the  inter- 
pretation placed  uj)ou  them.  So  long  as  we  deal 
with  quantities  of  material  which  can  be  weighed 
upon  balances  which  may  be  so  delicate  in  their 
npvcments  as  to  turn  and  indicate  with  a  thousandth 
of  a  grain  weight,  then  each  fresh  experiment  I)Ut 
serves  to  add  fresh  laurels  to  the  profound  wisdom 
and  the  clear  head  of  the  discoverer  of  thc.-;e  laws  ; 
but  Dalton,  in  his  zeal  to  fathom  the  subject  to  its 
greatest  depths,  carried  these  laws  from  their  proper 
sphere,  viz.  the  regulation  of  weighablc  quantities  of 
material,  to  the  support  of  a  hypothesis  w-hich  took 
cognizance  of  unveighnble  quantities  or  atoms.  He 
believed  that,  if  it  were  possible  to  get  hold  of  a  single 
atom  of  hydrogen,  it  would  be  represented  by  the 
weight  1  ;  that  a  single  atom  of  oxygen  would  be 
found  to  be  8  ;  an  atom  of  carbon,  6  ;  kc.  In  short, 
that  the  figures  which  signified  the  proportions  in 
which  the  various  substances  entered  into  union  with 
each  other,  also  indicated  the  proportional  weights 
of  .single  atoms  of  these  substances.  It  is  scarcely 
necessary  to  mention  that  the  latter  hypothesis  is 
quite  separable  from  the  doctrine  propounded  in  the 
four  laws  of  combining  proportion,  and,  whilst  it 
assists  in  the  conception  of  these  laws,  it  is  merely 
entitled  to  the  position  of  a  poetical  fancy.  The  laws 
of  the  A.  T.,  however,  are  not  based  upon  this  atomic 
hypothesis,  and  they  demand  our  adherence  solely  on 
account  of  their  being  the  enunciation  of  experiment- 
al facts,  and  are  and  may  be  believed  in,  totally  irre- 
spective of  any  opinion  as  to  the  existence  or  ncn- 
existence  of  atoms. 

Recently,  the  subject  of  chemical  atoms,  and  their 
construction,  has  been  revived  by  the  celebrated 
French  chemist,  Dumas.  He  considers  it  likely  that 
chemical  atoms  are  different  from  physical  atoms, 
and  supposes  it  probable  that  whilst  a  chemical 
atom  of  oxygen  may  be  represented  by  the  propor- 
tional number  8,  and  carbon  by  6,  &c.,  and  that  these 
are  not  divisible  by  chemical  means,  yet  that  such  a 
chemical  atom  may  be  capable  of  division  or  separa- 
tion by  mechanical  force,  and  then,  ceasing  to  be  a 
chemical  atom,  it  may  fall  down  into  an  indefinite 
number  of  physical  atoms.  In  fact,  Dumas  inclines 
to  the  belief,  which  is  now  being  shared  bv  manv 
628 


chemists,  that  all  physical  atoms  arc  the  sanie ;  that 
a  ciicn.ical  atom  of  any  substance  consists  of 
a  numbtr  of  physical  atoniS  cnvclojjcd  as  it  were  in 
a  bag  or  otherwise  held  together ;  that  the  oxygen 
bag  or  aggregated  chemical  atom  contains  8  times 
n.orc  physical  atoms  than  the  hydrogen  atom,  and 
tlais  its  combining  weight  is  8  times  greater  ;  that  the 
carbon  bag  is  6  times  that  of  the  hydrogen,  &c.  ;  at 
the  same  time,  no  opinion  is  expressed  as  to  the  num- 
ber of  jihysical  atoms  which  may  be  in  a  chemical 
atom,  for  thousands  of  the  former  may  be  required  to 
constitute  one  of  the  latter. 

ATOMIC  VOLUMES.  The  combination  of  sim- 
ple and  compound  gases  by  volume  occupied  the 
attention  of  Dalton  and  Gay  Lussac,  and  they  an- 
nounced a  very  simple  relation  which  subsists  between 
the  A.  V.  of  gases.  Thus,  taking  etjual  atomic 
weights  (q.  v.)  of  various  elements,  we  find  that  1 
eciuivalcnt  or  8"0  grains  of  oxygen  occupy,  at  CO"  F. 
and  a  barometric  pressure  of  V,0  in.,  T'r'.i  culiic  inches; 
1  equivalent  or  UO  grain  of  hydrogen  occupies,  at 
CO"  F.  and  30  in.  bar.,  46'7  cubic  inches;  1  equi- 
valent or  o5o  grains  of  chloi-ine  occupy,  r.t  C0°  F. 
and  30  in.  bar.,  46-2  cubic  inches ;  1  equivalent  or 
127"0  grains  of  iodine  vapour  occupy,  at  €0^  F.  and 
80  in.  bar.,  4fi'7  cubic  inches.  In  other  words,  that 
equal  atomic  weights  of  hydrogen,  chlorine,  and  iodine, 
occupy  twice  the  bulk  of  the  same  amount  of  oxygen, 
and  hence  the  atomic  volume  of  the  fbrnier  is  2,  as 
compared  with  oxygen,  which  is  1.  Ilie  atomic 
volume  of  a  i)ody  is  the  space  occui)ie<l  by  a  quantity 
of  it  proportional  to  its  atomic  weight,  anrl  is  expressed 
by  the  quotient  of  the  atomic  weight  divided  by  the 
sjiecitic  gravity. 

ATOMIC  WEIGHTS,  or  CHE'MICAL  EQUF- 
VALENTS,  are  the  proportions  by  weight  in  which 
the  various  elementary  substances  \niite  together. 
It  is  necessary  that  one  element  be  selected  as  the 
starting-poiiit  of  the  series,  and  an  arldtrary  sum 
affixed  to  it,  and  thereafter  all  the  other  elements 
can  have  their  sums  awarded  to  them,  according  to 
the  proportional  amounts  in  which  they  combine  with 
each  other.  The  second  law,  mentioned  under  the 
Atomic  Theouy  (q.  v.).  explains  the  manner  in 
which  it  can  be  demonstrated  that  a  given  amount 
of  one  element  is  etiuivalcnt  to,  and  serves  the 
same  purpose  in  combining  with  a  second  element, 
as  a  greater  or  less  amount  of  a  third  sub.stance. 
In  Britain  and  America,  hydrogen  is  taken  as  1, 
and  all  the  other  elements  are  represented  by 
a  quantity  which  is  the  minimum  amount  in  which 
they  might  or  do  unite  with  1  of  hydrogen.  On  the 
continent,  oxygen  is  regarded  as  the  starting-point 
of  the  .series,  and  is  called  100,  whilst  the  other 
elements  have  a  proportional  nim.ber  attached.  In 
the  following  table,  the  various  elementary  sub- 
stances are  arranged  alphabetically,  and  in  a  line 
therewith,  the  symbol  of  each  is  given,  and  the 
atomic  weight  or  equivalent  on  the  hydrogen  scale. 

Elementary  Suestances,  with  their  Symbols, 
AXD  Atomic  Weights  or  Equivalents. 


Aluminium, 

Antimony  (Stibium), 

Arsenic, 

Barium,  . 

Bismuth,     . 

Boron,     .         .  •      . 

Bromine,     . 

Cadmium, 

Calcium, 

Carbon,   . 

Cerium, 


Symbol. 

A.  W.  or  Equiv 
11  =  1. 

Al 

13-7.5 

Sb 

120-30 

As 

7.5-00 

Ba 

68-64 

Bi 

210-00 

B 

11-00 

Br 

80-00 

Cd 

56-00 

Ca 

20-00 

C 

12-00 

Co 

46-00 

ATOMIC  WEIGHTS— ATONEMENT. 


EU'meut. 

Symbol. 

A.  W.  or  Kquiv. 
11  =  1. 

Cliloriiie,  .... 

CI 

3.5-49 

Chroiuiuin,   . 

.     Cr 

26-27 

Colmlt,      .         .         .         . 

Co 

29-49 

Coi)per  (Caprmii), 

.     Cu 

.31-70 

Didytniuni, 

I) 

48-00 

Urbiiun, 

.     K 

riuorine,  .         .         .         . 

¥ 

19-00 

Olucinnm,     . 

.     G 

4-70 

Gold  (Auriun), 

Au 

196-00 

Hyilrt)j;oii,     . 

.     11 

1-00 

llincniutii, 

11 

Iodine, 

.     1 

127-00 

I'ridiiun,    .         .         .         . 

Ir 

98.56 

Iron  (Fcrrum),      . 

.     Fe 

28-00 

Lantaninin, 

La 

46-00 

Lead  (Plunibum), 

.     Pb 

103-.57 

Lithium,    .         .         .         . 

Li 

6.53 

Magnesium, 

.    Mg 

12-00 

Manganese, 

Mn 

27-57 

Mercury  (  Hydrargyrum) , 

.     Hg 

100-00 

Molijbdeiitiin,     . 

Mo 

46-00 

Nickel, 

.     Ni 

29-54 

Niobium, 

Nb 

Nitrogen, 

.    N 

14-00 

Osmiion,    . 

Os 

1 00-00 

Oxygen, 

.    0 

16-00 

Palladium, 

P(l 

.5300 

Phosphorus, 

.    P 

31-00 

Platinum, 

Pt 

99-00 

Potassium  (Kalium),     . 

.     K 

39-00 

Jihodiimiy. 

llo 

52-00 

Ititthenium,  . 

.     llu 

52-00 

Selenium, 

Se 

79-00 

Silicon, 

.     Si 

28-00 

Silver  (Argcntum),    . 

•        Ag 

108-00 

Sodium  (Natrium), 

.     Na 

23-00 

Strontium, 

St 

43-84 

Sulphur, 

.   s 

32  00 

Tantalutn  or  Columbium, 

Ta 

137-60 

TcHuriuiii,     . 

.    Te 

128-00 

Terbium,    . 

Tb 

Thorinum,    . 

.     Th 

59-.50 

Tin  (Stiumum), 

Sn 

118-00 

Titanium, 

.    I'i 

50-00 

Tungsten  (Wolfram), 

AV 

92-00 

Uranium, 

.     U 

60-00 

V(iHtuliu.m, 

V 

68-50 

Yttrium, 

.    Y 

Zinc, 

Zn 

32-52 

Zirconium,    . 

.     Zr 

33-58 

The  less  important,  because  rare,  elements  are  printed 
in  italics.  Several  of  the  above  are  not  even  num- 
bers, and  the  researches  of  M.  Stas  have  convinced 
him  that  there  is  no  simple  division  of  the  atomic 
v/eiglits  of  elementary  bodies. 

The  atomic  weights  were  first  investigated  by 
iSerzelius,  and  the  numbers  obtained  by  him  are 
those  at  present  in  use,  ^\ath  certain  important  excep- 
tions, the  result  of  subsequent  researches  by  Dumas, 
Pelouze,  De  Marignac,  Stas  and  others.  Thus  the 
COTiibining  number  of  carbon  was  formerly  6,  but 
Dumas  and  Stas  have  placed  it  at  12  ;  sulphur  was 
formerly  16,  but  its  combining  number  is  now  es- 
tablished at  32,  and  oxygen,  formerly  8,  is  now  ac 
knowledged  to  be  16. 

The  atomic  weight  of  each  element  may  be  said  to 
represent:  1st.  The  smallest  proportion  by  weight 
in  which  it  enters  into  or  is  exiicllcd  from  a  chemical 
compound,  the  smallest  weight  of  hydrogen  being 
taken  as  unity.  2d.  The  weight  of  the  clement  in  a 
solid  state,  which  at  any  given  temperature  contains 
the  same  amount  of  heat  as  seven  parts  of  lithium  at 
the  same  temperature,  that  being  one  of  the  elements 
having  the  lowest  combining  immbcr.  3d.  The  weight 
of  the  element,  which  in  the  form  of  gas  or  vapour  oc- 
34 


drogen.     The  atomic  weight  of    a  compound  is  the 
sum  of  the  atomic  weight  of  its  elements. 

In  many  instauccs  the  atoms  of  isolated  elements 
are  associiitcd  in  pairs  when  in  combination,  and  such 
an  isolated  atom  or  group  of  atoms  constitutes  an 
elementary  molecule,  and  the  molecular  weight  of  an 
element  is"  in  a  large  number  of  cases  twice  its  owii 
atomic  weight,  while  the  molecular  weight  of  a  com- 
pound is  with  very  few  exceptions  indentical  with  its 
itomic  weight. 

ATO'NE.MEXT.  Sin  violates  the  ground  of 
union  which  the  personal  creature  has,  by  nature, 
with  the  holy  (iod.  Tlie  act  of  sin  is  one  of  separa- 
tion ;  the  act  begets  the  state  of  sin,  the  state  con- 
firms and  repeats  the  act.  The  doctrine  of  the  A. 
treats  of  the  nuMliation  necessary  for  restoring  the 
union  between  God  and  man,  which  has  been  lost 
by  sin.  The  A.,  therefore,  must  ever  be  the  funda- 
mental doctrine  in  every  religion  of  sinful  creatures. 
In  the  Christian  religion,  it  manifestly  occupies  this 
central  position ;  for  the  Christian  doctrine  of  the 
A.  is  but  the  explanation  of  its  great  historic  fact — 
the  embodiment  in  one  person  of  the  Divine  and 
human  natures  in  perfect  agreement.  In  the  person 
of  Christ,  God  and  man  are  atoned :  He  is  their 
Atonement. 

So  fundamental  is  the  doctrine  of  the  atonement 
in  the  Christian  religion,  that  it  does  not,  like  many 
other  doctrines,  form  a  ground  of  distinction  among 
the  different  bodies  into  which  the  Christian  world  has 
been  divided.  All  churches  may  be  said  to  be  equally 
orthodox  on  this  point.  The  Church  of  Rome,  the 
Greek  Church,  the  various  Protestant  churches — 
established  and  dissenting — all  agree,  taking  their 
standards  as  a  criterion,  in  resting  the  sinner's  hope 
of  salvation  on  the  mediatorial  work  or  atonement  of 
Jesus  Christ.  Nevertheless,  there  have  been  from 
the  very  beginning  of  speculative  Christian  theology, 
and  still  continue  to  be,  within  the  bosom  of  the 
several  churches,  various  ways  of  conceiving  and 
explaining  the  exact  nature  and  mode  of  operation 
of  this  mediatorial  work.  What  follows  is  a  brief 
sketch  of  ihe  historical  development  of  these 
speculations. 

Christianity  differs  from  heathenism  in  the  clear 
perception  which  it  has  of  the  antagonism  sin  has 
introduced  between  God  and  man.  Heathenism  but 
vaguely  conceives  of  this  variance,  and  consequently 
has  but  an  ill-defined  notion  of  the  atonement  re- 
quired, the  notion  seldom  containing  more  than  the 
idea  of  a  reconciled  union  of  the  individual  man  with 
nature  and  the  universal  life.  Even  where  its  myth- 
ical divinities  assume  personality,  it  is  but  an  ideal 
personality  without  any  concrete  reality  of  life,  and 
consequently  without  any  real  significance  for  the 
conscience.  In  this  state,  the  abject  subjection  of 
man  to  nature  prevents  his  rising  into  that  sphere 
of  conscious  freedom  which  makes  sin  sinful,  and 
demands  an  A.  with  one  who  is  Lord  both  of  nature, 
and  man. 

In  Judaism,  man  stands  above  nature,  in  con- 
scions  relation  to  a  personal  God,  whose  written  law 
exhibits  the  requirements  of  His  relationship  witl 
jTiau — requirements  which  arc  never  met,  and  whicl 
only  make  him  fearfully  conscious  of  the  ever- 
widening  breach  between  him  and  his  God.  .  Thus 
the  law  awakened  the  sense  of  guilt,  and  the  desire 
for  an  A.  ;  a  desire  it  could  never  satisfy.  The 
never-ceasing  demands  of  these  ever-unfulUlled  re- 
quirements were  cotistantly  acknowledged  by  its 
whole  sacrificial  cultus,  which  expressed  the  hidden 
ground  of  Jewish  hope,  and  proplietically  pointed  to 
its  future  manifestation. 

But   whilst   the,.  Holy  Scriptures,  throughout  the 

529 


ATONEMENT. 


Old  Testament,  exhibit  the  making  of  an  A.  by 
vicarious  sacrifice  (Lev.  xvi.  21;  xvii.  11);  and  the 
idea,  both  of  the  suilering  and  the  deliverance  of 
many  by  the  sins  and  virtues  of  one,  was  common 
to  all  antiquit^v,  the  idea  of  the  suffering  and 
vicarious  Messiah,  plainly  declared  in  the  writings 
of  the  prophets  (Luke  xxiv.  46 ;  Lsaiah  liii. ; 
Psalms  xxii.),  and  not  entirely  hidden  from  the 
moi-e  thoughtful  and  devout  contemporaries  of 
Jesus  (Luke  ii.  SI;  Joliii  i.  29),  was  one  which  was 
foreign  to  the  Messianic  faith  of  the  great  body  of 
the  people. 

In  the  New  Testament,  Christ  is  everywhere  exhi- 
bited as  one  sent  from  God  for  the  .salvation  of  the 
world  (John  iii.  16,  17);  and  as  the  condition,  on 
the  part  of  man,  of  his  obtaining  this  salvation,  we 
read  of  the  requirement  of  repentance,  faith,  and 
reformation  (Matt.  iv.  17;  v.  S,  11;  vi.  1:2;  Mark 
xvi.  16;  Luke  xv.  11),  wliilst,  on  the  part  of 
God,  as  conditioning  and  mediating  His  forgive- 
ness of  sins,  we  have  exliibited  the  entire  life 
of  Christ  upon  earth  conceived  of  as  embracing 
severally  its  individual  features  (Acts  v.  31  ; 
Koni.  iv.  2o ;  viii.  34);  but  more  especially  His 
death  as  a  ransom  for  our  sins  (Matt.  xx.  28;  xxvi. 
28),  as  a  vicarious  sacrifice  (1  Peter  i.  19;  2  Cor.  v. 
21),  by  which  we  are  redeemed  from  the  bondage  of 
sin  (1  Tim.  ii.  6;  Gal.  iii.  13;  2  Peter  ii.  1),  and 
obtain  forgiveness  (Rom.  v.  19  ;  1  Cor.  xv.  3  ;  1  John 
i.  7),  and  eternal  life  and  peace  with  God  (John  x. 
11;  Col.  i.  2ii).  Christ  is  therefore  the  Mediator 
between  God  and  man  (1  Tim.  ii.  5),  having  made 
peace  tlirougli  tlie  blood  of  His  cross  (Col.  i.  'J.\) ;  the 
propitiation  for  our  sin-!  (1  John  ii.  2;  iv.  l(i);  and 
our  high-priest  who  offers  himself  a  sacrifice  to 
reconcile  us  with  God  (lleb.  ii.  17;  v.  1;  ix.  28). 
Moreover,  we  are  also  taught  that  God  has  in  Christ 
reconciled  the  world  with  Himself  (Rom.  v.  10;  Col. 
i.  22;   2  Cor.  v.  19). 

Li  accordance  with  this  full  and  explicit  teaching 
of  Holy  Scripture,  we  find  that  the  sufterings  and 
death  of  Christ  were  ever  regarded  as  of  primary  and 
essential  importance  in  His  work  of  redemption  ;  but 
notwitlistauding  this,  wo  look  in  vain  throughout  the 
early  centuries  of  the  Christian  Church  for  anything 
like  a  systematic  development  of  the  doctrine  of 
the  Atonement.  The  germs  of  tlie  doctrine  existed, 
but  without  any  logical  connection  or  clearness.  '  On 
this  head  there  lias  been  a  twofold  mistake — some- 
times the  existing  beginnings  of  many  later  ela- 
borated dogmas  have  been  overlooked ;  or,  on  the 
other  hand,  it  has  been  attempted  to  point  out  with 
literal  distinctness  church  doctrines  as  if  already 
developed.'  The  early  cimrcli  fathers  dwell  with  a 
sort  of  inspired  devotion  upon  those  facts  of  the 
gospel  which  represent  Ciirist  as  the  sacrifice  for  our 
sins,  as  the  ransom  paid  for  our  redemption,  as  our 
deliverer  from  the  power  of  Satan,  as  tlie  restorer  to 
mankind  of  whatever  was  lost  by  the  fall  of  Adam  ; 
but  they  seldom  attempt  to  shew  how  these  blessed 
results  connect  themselves  with  the  sufferings  and 
dcatli  of  Christ;  neither  do  they  shew  in  what 
manner  the  A.  has  objectively  been  made,  nor  how 
it  is  brought  to  the  experience  of  its  individual 
subjects. 

The  narrow  limits  of  this  article  will  not  allow  us 
to  specify  the  many  ways  in  which  the  sufferings 
and  death  of  Christ  were  regarded  in  relation  to 
their  A.  for  sin.  During  the  first  four  centuries 
there  appeared  no  certainty  of  opinion  as  to  whether 
they  were  a  ransom  price  paid  to  God  or  to  the 
devil.  The  latter  supposition  is  the  more  prevalent, 
and  is  shared  in  by  Origen  and  St.  Augustine.  Gregory 
of  Nyssa  explains  this  opinion  by  saying,  that  the 
devil  consented  to  receive  Jesus  as  a  ransom,  because 
he  regarded  Him  as  more  than  an  equivalent  for  all 
530 


those  under  his  power;  but  that,  notwitlistauding 
his  8ul)tilty,  he  was  outwitted,  for,  owing  to  the 
humiliation  in  which  Christ  was  veiled,  he  did  not 
fully  recognise  iliui  as  the  Son  of  God,  and  conse- 
ciuently  was  himself  deceived.  But  having  consented 
to  receive  Him  as  a  ransom  for  mankind,  he  was 
righteously  deprived  of  his  dominion  over  man, 
whilst  he  could  not  retain  Jesus  when  he  discovered 
Him  to  be  the  Holy  One  of  God,  being  horrified  and 
tormented  by  His  lioliness. 

Athanasius  first  of  all  successfully  controverted 
this  notion,  and  maintained  that  the  ransom  was 
paid  to  (lod.  He  argued  that  as  God  had  threatened 
to  punish  transgressors  with  death.  He  could  but 
execute  His  threat.  But  then  it  was  not  becoming 
the  cliaracter  of  God  to  allow  His  purpose  in  the 
creation  of  man  to  be  frustrated  l)y  an  imposition 
practised  upon  hini  by  the  devil.  The  only  expedient, 
therefore,  which  remained  for  his  deliverance  from 
death,  was  tlie  incarnation  and  sacrifice  of  the  Logos 
in  liis  stead,  by  which  tlie  justice  and  veracity  of 
God  would  be  maintained,  man  delivered,  the  law 
fulfilled,  and  the  power  of  the  devil  broken.  It  has 
often  been  stated  that  Teitullian  uses  the  term 
satisfaction  with  respect  to  Christ's  A.  for  sin,  but 
this  is  incorrect,  for  although  he  employs  the  term, 
he  never  docs  so  in  the  sense  of  a  vicarious  satisfac- 
tion, but  only  in  the  sense  of  making  amends  for  our 
own  sins  by  confession  and  repentance. 

These  elemental  and  mythical  conceptions  of  the 
doctrine  of  the  A.  remained  in  a  most  imperfect  and 
altogether  undeveloped  condition,  until  the  acute  and 
subtle  genius  of  the  Piedinontese  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  reduced  them  to  order,  and  presented 
them  in  logical  consistency.  We  must  regard 
Anselm,  therefore,  as  the  author,  at  least  as  to  its 
form,  of  the  doctrine  of  vicarious  satisfaction,  which, 
under  vai-ious  modifications,  has  ever  since  continued 
to  be  held  as  the  orthodox  doctrine  of  the  church. 
The  following  is,  in  all  essential  respects,  i;is  state- 
ment of  the  doctrine :  The  infinite  guilt  w  Inch  man 
had  contracted  by  the  dishonour  of  his  sin  against 
the  infinitely  great  God,  could  be  atoned  for  by  no 
mere  creature ;  only  the  God-man  Christ  Jesus  could 
render  to  God  the  infinite  satisfaction  required. 
God  only  can  satisfy  Himself.  The  human  nature  of 
Christ  enables  Him  to  incur,  tlie  infinity  of  His 
divine  nature  to  pay,  this  debt.  But  it  was  incum- 
bent upon  Christ  as  a  man  to  order  His  life  accord- 
ing to  the  law  of  God;  the  obedience  of  His  life, 
therefore,  was  not  able  to  render  satisfaction  for  our 
guilt.  But  although  He  was  under  obligation  to  live 
in  obedience  to  the  law,  as  the  Holy  One  he  was 
under  no  obligation  to  die.  Seeing,  then,  that  lie 
nevertheless  voluntarily  surrendered  His  infinitely 
precious  life  to  the  honour  of  God,  a  recompense 
from  God  became  His  due,  and  His  recompense 
consists  in  the  forgiveness  of  the  sins  of  His  brethren. 
— In  this  form  of  the  doctrine  we  are  taught  the 
necessity  of  an  active  vicarious  satisfaction ;  but 
Anselm  nowhere  teaches  the  passive  satisfaction,  he 
nowhere  says  that  Christ  endured  the  punishmeut  of 
men.  Nor  do  we  find  in  his  writings  the  develop- 
ment of  the  .subjective  side  of  the  doctrine — namely, 
how  the  satisfaction  rendered  to  God  mediates  the 
A.  in  the  experience  of  the  believer. 

Subsequent  to  the  time  of  Anselm,  and  prior  to 
the  Reformation,  there  are  two  views  of  the  A.  which 
divide  the  opinions  of  this  period:  the  one  regarding 
the  peculiar  manner  in  which  it  was  accomplished 
as  absolutely  necessary,  and  deriving  its  efficiency 
from  its  olijective  nature;  the  other  supposing  a 
sulyectivc  connection  between  the  suflerings  of 
Jesus  and  the  price  of  redemption,  because  this  was 
best  fitted  to  effect  the  moral  translbrmution  of  men. 
According  to  Anselm,  the  satisfaction  rendered  by 


ATONEMENT. 


Christ  was  greater  tiiaii  the  guilt  ior  whieh  He 
atoned  ;  and  it  needed  to  be  greater,  for  the  payment 
of  the  debt  due  to  God  gave  man  no  elaini  to  the 
favour  of  God.  Thomas  Aciuinas  and  his  followers 
maintained  Augustine's  opinion  of  the  infinite  value 
of  the  blood  of  Christ  rendering  it  more  than  suffi- 
cient ;  while  tlie  Seotists  maintained  tliat  it  was  suffi- 
cient only  because  God  was  pleased  to  regard  it  as 
sufficient.  But  in  the  period  between  Anselm  and 
the  Reformation,  little  or  no  progress  was  made  in 
the  development  of  this  doctrine. 

We  now  come  to  the  period  of  the  Reformation, 
when  the  objective  speculations  of  the  schoolmen  are 
brought  under  the  subjective  requirements  of  human 
souls,  and  the  doctrine  of  the  A.  is  viewed  in  this 
light.  In  the  writings  of  Luther,  one  will  only  with 
difficulty  arrive  at  his  intellectual  apprehension  of 
this  doctrine  in  its  scientific  form  ;  \mt  setting  out 
with  the  consciousness  of  sin,  one  will  everywhere 
discover  how  he  realised  that  in  Christ  all  sin  is 
'  vanquished,  killed,  and  buried,  and  righteousness  re- 
maineth  a  conqueror  and  reigncth  for  ever.'  The 
following  is  an  outline  of  the  Lutheran  doctrine,  as 
laid  down  in  the  Concovdicnformcl :  It  is  alone  by 
faith  we  can  receive  the  blessings  presented  to  us 
in  the  gospel  by  the  Holy  Ghost.  Faith  justifies, 
because  it  appropriates  the  merit  of  Christ.  There- 
fore, the  righteousness  which  is  imputed  to  the 
believer,  simply  by  the  grace  of  God,  is  the  obedience, 
the  suftering,  and  the  resurrection  of  Christ,  by  which 
He  has  satisfied  the  claims  of  the  law,  and  atoned  for 
our  sins.  For  as  Christ  is  not  merely  man,  but  God 
and  man  in  one  person.  He  was,  as  Lord  of  the  law, 
no  more  subject  to  it  than  He  was  subject  to  suf- 
fering and  death.  For  this  reason.  His  twofold 
obedience — that  which  He  rendered,  on  the  one  hand, 
by  His  suffering  and  death  ;  and,  on  the  other,  by  His 
righteous  fulfilment  of  the  law  on  our  behalf — is 
imputed  to  us,  and  God  acquits  us  of  our  sins,  and 
regards  us  as  just,  in  view  of  His  complete  obedience 
in  what  He  did  and  suffered.  This  obedience  em- 
braces the  entire  existence  of  Christ  upon  earth,  and 
is  so  complete  that  it  fully  covers  the  disobedience  of 
men,  so  that  it  is  not  reckoned  against  them  for  con- 
demnation. Christ  is  our  righteousness,  therefore, 
only  in  so  far  as  in  His  entire  person  the  most  perfect 
obedience  is  exhibited,  which  He  was  able  to  render 
in  that  He  was  neither  God  alone,  nor  man  alone,  but 
both  in  one,  God  and  man. 

According  to  Calvin  :  if  one  asks  how  Christ  has 
reconciled  us  with  (Jod,  and  purchased  a  righteousness 
which  made  Him  favourable  to  us,  it  may  be  answered 
generally,  that  He  accomplished  this  by  the  whole 
course  of  His  obedience.  But  although  the  life  of 
Christ  is  to  be  regarded  as  paying  the  price  necessary 
for  our  deliverance,  the  Scriptures  ascribe  our  redemp- 
tion especially  to  His  death.  Calvin  attached  great 
importance  to  the  particular  mode  of  His  death — any 
other  mode  of  death  would  not  have  rendered  the 
same  satisfaction  to  God.  He,  however,  says  little  or 
nothing  about  Christ's  fulfilling  the  law  for  us,  but 
dwells  upon  His  delivering  us  from  its  curse.  He 
does  not,  therefore,  exhibit  His  active  obedience  sepa- 
rated, as  an  essential  i>art  of  His  satisfaction  for  sin, 
from  His  passive  obedience.  The  importance  attached 
to  the  obedience  of  His  life  arises  from  its  natural  and 
necessary  connection  with  His  suffering  and  death. 
And  the  great  importance  attached  to  His  death  is 
drawn  rather  from  the  view  of  its  subjective  neces- 
sity, than  from  the  idea  of  the  divine  righteousness — 
namely,  that  without  such  a  death  there  would  have 
been  no  sufficient  ground  for  the  subjective  realisa- 
tion of  deliverance  from  sin  and  guilt.  Calvin's  view 
differs  from  that  of  the  Lutheran  Concordirnfoiincl 
in  that  he  does  not  regard  the  relationship  of  God  to 
inan  merely  from   the   stand-point   of  punitive   and 


satisfyinir  righteousness,  which  always  leads  to  the 
merely  negative  notion  of  a  Redeemer  from  guilt  and 
punishment,  but  looks  upon  Christ  as  the  highest 
Mediator,  through  whom  the  nature  of  God  is 
couimunicated  to  man.  There  was  a  necessity  for 
Christ's  incarnation,  net  merely  because,  apart  "from 
the  suffering  of  the  God-man,  the  divine  righteous- 
ness could  not  be  atoned,  but  also  because,  without 
such  a  divine  Mediator,  there  could  be  no  vital  rela- 
tion between  God  and  man.  '  Had  man  remained 
free  from  all  taint,  he  was  of  too  humble  a  condition 
to  penetrate  to  God  without  a  Mediator.' 

While  the  reformers  established  the  doctrine  of 
the  A.  on  the  theory  of  Anselm,  and  extended  it  so 
as  to  make  the  sufferings  of  Christ  include  the  Divir.c 
curse,  and  introduced  distinctions  between  Christ's 
active  and  passive  obedience,  Pocinus  endeavoured 
to  prove  the  falseness  of  Anselm's  theory.  He 
shares  with  the  Protestants  the  subjective  principle, 
which  the  period  of  the  Reformation  established,  but 
developed  it  in  a  one-sided  n;anner.  Pocinianism 
represents  man  as  attaining  to  oneness  with  himself 
and  with  God  by  his  own  moral  energy.  It  rejects 
that  idea  of  the  righteousness  of  God  which  makes  it 
impossible  for  Him  to  forgive  sin  without  a  satisfaction, 
as  imposing  finite  limitations  upon  the  divine  Being ; 
and  also  ol)jects  to  the  doctrine  of  a  satisfaction,  on  the 
ground  that  satisfactioTi  for  sin  and  forgiveness  of 
sin  are  incompatible  with  each  other ;  and,  moreover, 
objects  that  sin  and  puni.'^hment  are  of  so  personal 
a  nature  as  not  to  allow  of  their  being  transferred. 
It  further  opposes  the  doctrine  of  the  active  and 
passive  obedience  of  Christ,  on  the  ground,  that  the 
one  excluded  the  other.  Another  objection  maintained 
the  actual  impossibility  of  Christ's  rendering  the  sup- 
posed satisfaction  for  sin. 

The  doctrine  it  sought  to  establish  in  the  place  of 
the  one  it  attempted  to  overthrow  may  in  brief  l)e 
stated  as  follows.  Man  is  reconciled  to  God  tiy 
repentance  and  reformation.  Only  from  an  act  of 
man  changing  his  disposition,  and  not  from  an  act 
of  God  changing  His  relation  to  man,  follows  his 
reconciliation  with  God.  God  is  in  Himself  evir 
the  same  towards  man — reconciled  from  all  eternity  ; 
man  alone  has  to  assume  a  new  relation  ;  as  soon  as 
he  does  this,  he  is  immediately  reconciled  ;  by  this  act 
of  his  will,  he  is  at  one  with  God.  Only  in  man's 
moral  state  is  there  any  obstacle  to  his  reconciliation. 
This  greatest  and  holiest  accomplishment,  the  recon- 
ciliation of  man  with  God,  is  achieved  by  an  act  of 
his  will. 

In  this  purely  subjective  theory,  repentance  oc- 
cupies the  place  of  faith  in  the  orthodox  doctrine, 
and  faith  becomes  identical  with  obedience;  f ( r 
repentance  and  reformation  are  regarded  as  but  the 
two  sides  of  the  same  act  of  the  will.  It  follows 
from  this  that  justification  is  of  works  as  well  as 
reconciliation.  A  necessity  for  the  sufferings  of 
Christ  is  shewn  for  the  following  objects — that  He 
might  become  our  example ;  better  fitted  to  rendi  r 
us  help  ;  that  we  niiglit  have  a  pledge  and  guarantee 
of  the  Divine  forgiveness ;  and  as  conditioning  His 
resurrection  and  ascension  to  glory. 

We  must  now  hasten  to  the  form  of  this  doctrine 
among  '  ^Modern  Calvinists,'  without  attempting  fur- 
ther to  exhibit  the  links  in  the  chain  of  its  liistoric 
coimection.  '  Modern  Calvinism  '  represents  the  A.  ns 
that  satisfaction  for  sin  which  was  rendered  to  God, 
in  his  public  character  as  moral  governor  of  the  world, 
by  the  per'^ect  obedience  unto  death  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ.  The  nature  of  this  satisfaction  was  a  moral, 
not  a  pcctmiary  satisfaction.  It  preserves  to  tlie 
moral  government  of  God  its  authority,  whilst  its 
tendency  is  to  secure  the  forgiveness  of  sin.  Tl  e 
value  of  the  sufferings  of  Christ  consists  in  their 
tendency  to   uph.old   the  Eivine   moral    goverrn.ei - 

6S1 


ATONEMEXT. 


uuimpaircd  whilst  pardon  is  extended  to  those  who 
have  violated  it,  rather  than  in  their  intrinsic  excel- 
lence, which,  though  essential  to,  did  not  constitntc 
their  value.  There  was  a  moral  necessity  for  Christ's 
sufferings  and  death — obstacles  to  the  bestownient 
of  pardon  had  to  be  removed — the  influence  of 
the  Holy  Spirit  had  to  bo  secured.  The  whole 
contents  of  Christ's  earthly  existence,  embracing 
both  His  active  and  passive  obedience — a  distinction 
which  is  unsupported  by  the  word  of  God — must  be 
regarded  as  contributing  to  the  A.  which  He  made. 
Of  the  actual  sufferings  of  Christ  immediately  attend- 
ing His  death,  it  would  be  rmpardonable  to  speak 
with  confidence,  so  little  has  been  revealed.  It  may, 
however,  be  considered — whether  the  Saviour's  de- 
privation of  His  Father's  countenance  may  not  have 
lieen  indirectly  caused  rather  by  His  awful  and  afflict- 
ing sense  of  the  evil  of  sin,  than  otherwise  ? — As  to 
the  'Extent'  of  the  A.,  there  is  a  broad  distinction 
to  be  made  between  the  xufficicnci/  of  the  A.,  and 
its  cffi.cienc;i.  It  may  be  true  that  .Jehovah  did  not 
intend  to  exercise  that  influence  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
npon  all  which  is  necessary  to  secure  the  salvation 
of  any  one,  but  as  the  A.  was  to  become  the 
basis  of  moral  government,  it  was  necessary  that  it 
should  be  one  of  infinite  worth,  and  so  in  itself  ade- 
quate to  the  salvation  of  all.  See,  on  this  point  of 
the  'Extent'  of  the  A.,  the  art.  Redemption,  Parti- 
cular and  Universal. 

The  foregoing  represents  the  modified  view  of  the 
doctrine  as  advocated  by  Dr.  Payne,  and  as  held,  in 
all  essential  respects,  by  such  men  as  Pye  Smith 
and  Wardlaw,  which  in  its  earlier  form,  and  as  found 
in  the  writings  of  Owen  and  Edwards,  maintains 
that  the  A.  was  made  only  for  the  elect ;  and 
that  its  necessity  with  respect  to  them  arose  out  of 
tlie  eternal  justice  of  God,  which  required  that  every 
individual  should  receive  his  due  des<>rt ;  and,  conse- 
quently, that  the  sufferings  of  Christ  were  the 
endurance  of  punishment  equivalent  in  amount  of 
suffering,  if  not  identical  in  nature — as  Owen  main- 
tains— with  that  to  which  the  elect  were  exposed  : 
and,  moreover,  that  the  meritorious  obedience  of 
Christ  in  fulfilling  the  law,  imputes  a  righteousness 
to  those  for  whom  the  A.  secures  salvation,  which 
gives  them  a  claim  to  the  reward  of  righteousness. 

Our  space  will  not  allow  us  to  present  to  the 
reader  the  various  forms  which  this  doctrine  is  made 
to  assume  in  the  philosophic  theology  of  Germany 
from  Kant  to  the  present  time.  See  Nkander. 
We  must,  therefore,  confine  ourselves  to  the  pre- 
sentation of  those  views  of  the  doctrine  advocated 
by  our  own  countrymen  in  our  own  time,  which  may 
fairly  represent  the  present  state  of  opinion  witli 
respect  to  this  fundamental  doctrine. 

Let  us  begin  with  the  view  of  modern  Unita- 
rianism,  which  may  very  clearly  and  fairly  be  pre- 
sented in  the  words  of  one  of  its  most  able  living 
advocates,  the  Rev.  Professor  John  James  Tayler : 
'"There  is  one  mediator  between  God  and  men, 
the  man  Christ  Jesus."  This  can  only  refer  to 
unrivalled  pre-eminence,  not  to  exclusive  function. 
For  all  higher  minds  do,  in  fact,  mediate  between 
their  less  gifted  fellow-creatures  and  the  great 
reahties  of  the  invisible  world.  This  "o»!e"  is 
a  human  mediator,  '-the  man  Christ  Jesus" — not 
a  being  from  another  sphere  an  angel  or  a  God — but 
a  brother  from  the  bosom  of  our  own  human  familv. 
"He  gave  himself  a  lansom  for  aT'  who  embrace 
His  otters  and  will  hearken  to  His  voice.  He  brings 
from  God  a  general  summons  to  repent ;  and  with 
that  He  conveys,  through  faith,  a  spiritual  power  to 
shake  off  the  bondage  of  sin,  and  put  on  the  freedom 
of  a  new  heart  and  a  new  Hfe.  He  is  a  deliverer 
from  the  power  of  sin  and  the  fear  of  death.  This 
is  the  end  of  His  mediation.  This  is  the  redemption 
532 


of  which  He  paid  the  price.  His  death,  cheerfully 
met  in  the  inevitable  se(|uencc  of  faithful  duty,  was 
only  one  among  many  links  in  the  cliain  of  instru- 
mentalities by  which  that  didiverancc  was  effected. 
It  was  a  proof  such  as  could  be  given  in  no  other 
way,  of  trust  in  God  and  immortality,  of  fidelity 
to  duty,  and  of  love  for  mankind.  In  those  who 
earnestly  contemplated  it,  and  saw  all  that  it  implied, 
it  aW'Oke  a  tender  response  of  gratitude  and  confi- 
dence, which  softened  the  obdurate  heart,  and  opened 
it  to  serious  impressions  and  the  quickening  influences 
of  a  religious  spirit.' 

Professor  Jowett  advocates  an  opinion  peculiarly 
his  own,  if,  indeed,  language  so  confessedly  vague 
and  indefinite  can  be  said  to  emliody  an  ophiiov. 
It  is  this :  '  that  the  oidy  sacrifice.  A.,  or  satisfaction 
with  which  the  Christian  has  to  do,  is  a  moral  and 
spiritual  one ;  not  the  pouring  out  of  blood  upon  the 
earth,  but  the  living  sacrifice  "  to  do  thy  will,  O  <iod  ;" 
in  which  the  believer  has  part  as  well  as  his  Lord  ; 
about  the  meaning  of  which  there  can  be  no  more 
question  in  our  day  than  there  was  in  the  first  ages.' 
— '  Heathen  and  Jewish  sacrifices  rather  shew  us 
what  the  sacrifice  of  Christ  was  not,  than  what  it 
was.  They  arc  the  dim,  vague,  rude,  almost  bar- 
barous expression  of  that  want  in  human  nature 
which  has  received  satisfaction  in  Him  only.  Men 
arc  afi-aid  of  something;  they  wish  to  give  away 
something  ;  they  feel  themselves  bound  by  some- 
thing ;  the  fear  is  done  away,  the  gift  olVered,  the 
oliligation  fulfilled  in  Christ.  Such  fears  and  desires 
can  no  more  occupy  their  souls ;  they  are  free  to 
lead  a  better  life;  they  arc  at  the  end  of  the  old 
world,  and  at  the  beginning  of  a  new  one.' — The 
work  of  (^hrist  is  set  f^orth  in  Scripture  under  many 
different  figures,  lest  we  should  rest  in  one  only. 
His  death,  for  instance,  is  described  as  a  Ransom. 
It  is  not  that  God  needs  some  payment  before 
He  will  set  the  captives  free.  Ransom  is  deliver^ 
ance  to  the  captive.  'Whosoever  committcth  sin 
is  the  servant  of  sin.'  Christ  delivers  from  sin. 
'  If  the  Son  shall  make  you  free,  ye  shall  be  free 
indeed.'  To  whom?  for  what  was  the  ransom' 
paid?  are  questions  about  which  Scripture  is  silent, 
to  which  reason  refuses  to  answer. 

A  remarkably  original  work  has  been  issued 
within  the  last  few  years  by  the  Rev.  John  M'Leod 
Campbell  on  the  subject  of  the  Atonement.  His 
views  are  as  follows  :  The  work  of  the  Son  of  God, 
who  came  to  do  and  did  the  will  of  His  Father, 
must,  in  view  of  the  deliverance  which  He  wrought, 
be  regarded  as  twofold :  first,  as  dealing  with  man 
on  behalf  of  God,  and  second,  as  dealing  with  God 
on  behalf  of  man. 

In  deahng  with  man  on  behalf  of  God,  Christ 
revealed  to  us  the  Father  in  His  relation  to  a  sinful 
world,  shewed  us  what  our  sins  were  to  God,  vindi- 
cated in  the  world  the  Father's  name,  and  witnessed 
to  the  excellency  of  that  will  against  which  we  were 
rebelling.  In  thus  revealing  the  will  of  the  Father 
towards  sinful  men.  He  necessarily  became  a  man  of 
sorrow  and  suffering,  but  these  arose  naturally  out  of 
what  He  was,  and  the  relation  in  which  He  stood  to 
those  for  whom  He  suffered  ;  and  to  the  holiness 
and  love  of  His  very  nature  must  we  refer  their 
awful  intensity  and  immeasurable  amount.  He 
suffered  what  He  suffered  just  through  seeing  sin 
and  sinners  with  God's  eyes,  and  feeling  in  reference 
to  them  with  God's  heart.  By  what  He  suffered.  He 
condemned  sin,  and  revealed  the  wrath  of  God  against 
it.  His  holiness  and  love  taking  the  form  of  suffer- 
ing, compose  the  very  essence  and  adequacy  of  His 
sacrifice  for  sin. 

Again,  in  dealing  with  God  on  behalf  of  man,  the 
oneness  of  mind  with  the  Father  which  towards  man 
took  the  form   of  condemnation  of  sin,  became  iu 


ATONEMENT. 


His  (lealinc;  with  the  Father  in  relation  to  us  a 
perfect  confession  of  our  sins,  which  was  a  perfect 
Amen  in  humanity  to  the  judgment  of  God  on  the 
sin  of  man.  Such  an  Amen  was  due  in  the  truth  of 
all  things,  due  on  our  behalf,  though  wc  could  not 
render  it,  due  from  Ilim  as  in  our  nature  and  our 
true  brother.  He  who  was  the  truth,  could  not 
be  in  humanity  and  not  utter  it  ;  and  it  was 
necessarily  a  first  step  in  dealing  with  the  Father  on 
our  behalf.  This  eonlcssion  of  our  sins  by  llim  who, 
as  the  Son  of  (lod  and  the  son  of  man  in  one  person, 
could  perfectly  realise  the  evil  of  man's  alienation, 
was  a  peculiar  development  of  the  holy  sorrow  in 
which  lie  bore  the  burden  of  our  sins  ;  and  which, 
like  His  sufferings  in  confessing  His  Father  before 
men,  had  a  severity  and  intensity  of  its  own.  But 
apart  from  the  sufterings  present  in  that  confession, 
this  Amen  from  the  depths  of  the  Humanity  of  Christ 
to  the  divine  condemnation  of  sin,  is  necessarily  con- 
ditioned by  the  reception  of  the  full  apprehension 
and  realisation  of  the  wrath  of  God,  as  well  as  of 
the  sin  against  which  it  comes  forth  into  His  soul 
and  spirit,  into  the  bosom  of  the  divine  humanity, 
and,  so  receiving  it.  He  responds  to  it  with  a  perfect 
response,  and  in  that  perfect  response  He  ab-orbs  it. 
For  that  response  has  all  the  elements  of  a  perfect 
repentance  in  humanity,  for  all  the  sin  of  man — a 
perfect  sorrow — a  perfect  contrition — all  the  ele- 
ments of  such  a  repentance,  and  that  in  absolute 
perfection;  all — excepting  the  personal  consciousness 
of  sin — and  by  that  peifect  response  or  amen  to  the 
mind  of  God,  in  relation  to  sin,  is  the  wrath  of  God 
rightly  met,  and  that  is  awarded  to  divine  justice 
which  is  its  due,  and  could  alone  satisfy  it. 

Tliis  confession  of  the  world's  sin  by  the  Head  and 
Representative  of  humanity,  was  followed  up  by  His 
intercession  as  a  part  of  the  full  response  of  the 
mind  of  the  Son  to  the  luind  of  the  Father — a  part  of 
that  utterance  in  humanity  which  propitiated  the 
divine  luercy  by  the  righteous  «ay  in  which  it  laid 
hold  of  the  hope  for  man  which  was  in  God.  '  He 
bore  the  sins  of  many,  and  made  intercession  for  the 
transgressors.' 

The  Rev.  F.  D.  Maurice  professes  to  hold  a  purely 
biblical  theology,  as  opposed  to  the  theologies  of  con- 
sciousness, which  he  repudiates.  His  doctrine  of  the 
A.  is  the  answer  which  the  Bible  gives  to  the  demands 
of  a  sin-smitten  conscience.  A  sinner  requires,  and 
is  content  to  be  told  on  the  authority  of  Scripture, 
that  the  Son  of  God  has  taken  away  sin.  This 
message  from  God  is  the  gospel  for  all  men.  The 
sinner  wants  to  be  assured  that  God  has  spoken,  that 
He  has  declared  Himself  the  Reconciler,  and  desires 
to  be  shown  how  and  in  whom  He  has  accomplished 
that  work  on  his  behalf. 

To  this  question — How  and  in  whom  the  work  of 
reconciliation  has  been  accoiuplished? — Mr.  Maurice 
replies,  in  effect  and  almost  in  words  as  follows  :  The 
will  of  God  is  set  forth  in  the  Bible  to  be  a  will 
which  is  good  to  all,  and  the  ground  of  all  that  is 
right,  true,  just,  and  gracious;  that  it  also  sets  forth 
the  Son  of  God  as  being  one  in  will,  purpose,  and 
substance  with  the  Father,  and  that  His  whole  life 
on  earth  was  an  exhibition  of,  and  submission  to  His 
Father's  will ;  that  the  Son  of  God  was  Lord  of 
men,  the  Root  and  Head  of  himianity,  and  the  source 
of  all  light  and  righteousness  in  man  :  that  being 
thus  one  with  God  and  one  with  man.  He  brought 
the  will  of  God  into  our  nature,  fulfilled  it  in  our 
nature  perfectly,  and  carried  it  down  into  the  lowest 
condition  into  which  it  had  fallen  through  sin  ;  that 
in  the  fulfilment  of  this  will  in  our  nature,  as  its 
head.  He  shared  its  sufferings,  enduring  that  wrath, 
or  punishment,  which  proceeded  from  Holy  Love, 
thus  realising,  on  the  one  hand,  the  sins  of  the  world, 
and  on  the  other,  the  consuming  fury  of  the  holiness 


of  the  love  of  God — with  an  anguish  which  only  a 
perfectly  pure  and  holy  Being,  who  is  also  a  perfectly 
sympathising  and  gracious  Being,  can  feel :  that  the 
man  Christ  Jesus  was  for  this  reason  the  object  of 
His  Father's  continual  complacency — a  complacency 
fully  drawn  out  by  the  death  of  the  cross — which  so 
perfectly  brought  out  to  riew  the  uttermost  power 
of  self-sacrifice  which  lay  hidden  in  the  divine  love, 
and  consequently  that  He  exhibited  humanity,  in  its 
head,  atoned  for,  reconciled.  Hi  this  way,  to  Mr. 
Maurice,  is  Christ  '  the  Lamb  of  God,  which  taketh 
away  the  sin  of  the  world.' 

Finally,  Dr.  Trench,  who  may  be  regarded  as  fairly 
representing  the  prevalent  views  of  the  more  devout 
and  thoughtful  men  of  the  present  day  holding  ortho- 
dox opinions,  speaks  as  follows:  '  The  spirit  of  man 
cries  out  for  something  deeper  than  repentance,  con- 
fession of  sin,  amendment  of  life ;  something  which 
shall  reach  further  back:  which  shall  not  be  clogged 
with  sinful  infirmitii'S,  as  his  own  repentance  even  at 
the  very  best  must  be.  Men  cry  for  some  work  to  rest 
upon,  which  shall  not  be  their  Avork,  but  which  shall 
be  God's;  perfect,  complete.  They  feel  that  there 
must  be  something  which  God  has  wrought,  not  so 
much  in  them  as /or  them;  they  yearn  for  this,  for 
A.,  propitiation,  ransom,  and  conscience  purged  from 
dead  works  by  the  blood  of  sprinkling  ;  a  rock  to 
flee  to  which  is  higher  than  they,  than  their  repent- 
ance, than  their  faith,  than  their  obedience,  even 
than  their  new  life  in  the  spirit.  Kow,  this  rock  is 
Christ ;  and  John  the  Baptist  pointed  to  this  rock, 
when,  to  those  about  him  who  longed  after  more  than 
amendment  of  life,  he  exclaimed,  in  the  memorable 
words  :  "  Behold  the  Lamb  of  God  which  taketh 
away  the  sin  of  the  world."  ' 

Christ's  sacrifice  was  vicarious — He  died  not  mere- 
ly for  the  good  of,  but  in  the  room  and  in  the  stead 
of  others,  tasted  death/;/-  them.  He  did  this  of  His 
own  free  will.  He  saw  that  nothing  else  would  over- 
come their  sinful  perversity  and  wilful  obduracy,  and 
that  this  would  be  eflectual  to  do  so. 

Christ  took  upon  Himself  the  penalties  of  a  sinful 
world,  and  His  self-sacrifice  is  only  not  righteous, 
because  it  is  so  much  better  than  righteous,  because 
it  moves  in  that  higher  region  where  law^  is  no  more 
known,  but  only  known  no  more  because  it  is 
transfigured  into  love.  Vicarious  suffering  is  the 
law  and  condition  of  all  highest  nobleness  in  the 
world.  It  is  this  which  God  is  continually  demand- 
ing of  His  elect,  they  approving  themselves  His  elect 
as  they  freely  own  themselves  the  debtors  of  love 
to  the  last  penny  of  the  requirements  which  it 
makes. 

But  the  sufferings  and  death  of  Christ  were  not 
merely  vicarious,  they  were  also  satisfactory  ;  and 
thus  atoning  or  setting  atonf,  bringing  together  the 
Holy  and  the  unholy,  who  could  not  have  been  re- 
conciled in  any  other  way.  It  is  not  maintained  that 
God  covild  have  pleasure  in  the  sufferings  of  the 
innocent  and  the  holy,  and  that  innocent  and  holy 
His  own  Son  ;  but  only  that  He  must  have  the 
highest  pleasure  in  the  love,  the  patience,  the  obe- 
dience which  those  sufferings  gave  Him  the  opportu- 
nity of  displaying,  which  but  for  those  He  never  could 
have  displayed,  Christ's  sublime  devotion  to  the 
will  of  God  permitted  the  Father  to  say,  '  I  have 
found  a  ransom.'  Christ  satisfied  herein,  not  the 
divine  anger,  but  the  divine  craving  and  yearning 
after  a  perfect  lioliness,  righteousness,  and  obedience 
in  man;  which  craving  no  man  had  satisfied,  but  all 
had  disappointed  before. 

The  reader  is  referred  for  further  and  fuller  infor- 
mation on  this  subject  to  the  following  works,  which 
have  been  consulted  and  used  in  the  preparation 
of  this  article :  Baur's  Christluhe  Lthre  von  der 
Vei-iuhnunff ;   Uase's  Hutterus  Redivivus  ;  Neander'a 

533 


ATRATO— ATTACHMENT. 


Christliche  Dogmengeichichte ;  Gicseler's  Lchrbnvh 
der  JJoffwenpe'sc/iichtc  ;  Hagenbach's  Lelirbuch  der 
Dogrimigesrh'ichte,  vierte  AuHage ;  Calvin's  Instituks 
of  ^the  Christian  Religion  ;  Edwards,  Concerning  the 
Necessity  and  Reasonableness  of  the  Christian  Doc- 
trine of  Satisfaction  for  Sin  ;  Owen's  Death  of  Death 
in  thi  'Death  of  Christ,  and  Of  the  Death  of  'Christ^; 
Payne's  Lectures  on  Dimne  Sovereignty ;  Chalmers's 
Institutes  of  Theology;  Wardlaw's  Systematic  Theo- 
logy, Campbell's  (Jolin  M'Leod)  Nature  of  the  Atone- 
tnVnf,  &c.  ;  Tayler's  (J.  J.)  Christian  Aspects  of  Faith 
and  Duty  (Discourse  on  '  Christ  the  Mediator') ; 
Maurice's' ?7ieo%«Va/  Nssai/s ;  Jowett's  St.  PauVs 
Epistles,  first  and  second  editions  (Article  '  On  Atone- 
ment and  Satisfaction') ;  Trench's  Five  Sermons  (ser- 
mon on  '  Christ  the  Lamb  of  God'). 

ATRA'TO,  a  river  of  New  Granada,  more  import- 
ant from  its  position  than  from  its  magnitude.  It 
has  already  been  mentioned  under  the  head  of  Amer- 
ica in  connection  with  the  scheme  of  opening  a  com- 
munication by  water  betrween  the  Atlantic  and  the 
Pacific. 

The  main  stream  fiills  into  the  Gulf  of  Daricn  by 
9  mouths — the  quantity  of  water,  from  the  almost 
daily  rains,  being  large  in  proportion  to  the  area 
drained,  which  docs  not,  at  the  utmost,  exceed  300 
miles  by  75.  Of  the  9  mouths,  the  third  in  rank,  the 
Boca  Coquito,  appears  to  offer  the  most  available  facil- 
ities for  improving  the  navigation.  About  220  miles 
above  this  entrance,  opposite  to  (^uibdo,  the  A.  is  8.")U 
feet  wide  and  8  feet  deep  at  the  shallowest  i)arts,  while 
the  entire  fall  to  the  sea  averages  less  than  3  inches  to 
a  mile.  Unfortunately,  however,  the  A.  itself  cannot 
advant.igeously  be  followed  thus  far,  because,  as  one 
advances  to  the  south,  the  intervening  ridge  to  the 
west,  and  its  streams  towards  the  Pacific  become  less 
and  less  practicable. 

But  a  comparatively  convenient  route  has  been 
surveyed  through  the  munificence  of  Mr.  F.  M. 
Kelley,  a  private  citizen  of  New  York.  Ascending 
the  Boca  Coquito  as  before,  this  route  leaves  the 
main  stream  at  a  distance  of  Q^  miles  from  the  sea, 
following  the  Truando,  one  of  its  western  affluents, 
for  36  miles  more  without  impediment  or  interrup- 
tion. From  this  point  on  the  Truando  to  the  Pacific 
there  would  still  remain  32  miles ;  and  it  is  only  on 
this  section  that  any  serious  difficulties  would  be 
found.  The  heaviest  work  would  l)e  a  tunnel  of  3J 
railes  in  length.  According  to  the  plan,  the  canal 
would  be  without  a  lock  ;  and  its  termini  would  re- 
quire but  little  improvement  to  render  them  excellent 
harbours. 

Thus  would  the  A.  realise  the  destiny  which 
Humboldt  chalked  out  for  it  upwards  of  50  years 
ago. 

ATRI'P.  An  anchor  is  said  to  be  A.  when  it  is 
just  drawn  out  of  the  ground  in  a  perpendicular  di- 
rection. A  top-sail  is  A.  when  it  is  just  started  from 
the  cap. 

A'TRIPLEX.     See  CnENOPoniACEiE  and  Orache. 

ATRIUM,  in  Roman  Architecture,  was  the 
covered  court  or  entrance-hall  which  formed  the 
chief  part  of  a  Roman  house.  It  was  lighted  from 
the  roof,  which  sloped  towards  an  opening  in  the 
centre  (the  complwinm),  through  which  the  rain- 
water flowed  into  a  kind  of  cistern  situated  on  the 
floor  (the  impluviam).  On  both  sides  passages  led  to 
the  several  chambers.  Its  size  was  in  proportion  to 
the  other  parts  of  the  house.  After  the  burning  of 
Rome  in  the  reign  of  Nero,  great  attention  was  paid  to 
the  decorations  of  the  entrance-halls  or  Atria.  Here 
the  female  slaves  were  engaged  in  weaving  and  other 
domestic  occupations,  under  the  superintendence  of 
their  mistress.  Family  pictures  were  preserved  in 
the  A.,  it  also  contained  the  nuptial  couch,  and  it 
534 


1  served  as  a  general  waiting-room  for  visitors  and 
clients.  The  Atria  of  the  temples  were  used  us  places 
of  a.-isembly  of  the  senators,  and  for  other  public 
meetings. 

A'TROPA.     Pee  Belladonna. 

A'TROPHY  (Gr.  alrophi<i,  ■wAnt  of  nourishment ; 
from  a,  not,  and  trojihe,  nourishment)  is  a  niorbi(l 
condition  of  animal  or  vegetable  life,  resulting  in 
deficient  nutrition  of  tlie  body,  or  part  of  tlic  body, 
and  a  consequent  decay  and  wa.ste  of  its  sui>st4Uice. 
The  term  is  not  applied  to  the  mere  withholding 
the  requisite  supply  of  nutriment,  but  to  the  condi- 
tion produced  by  various  diseases  that  affect  the 
body.  See  NuntiTioN,  also  Digestion,  Dyspepsia, 
Hypertrophy. 

A'TRYPA,  a  genus  of  fossil  brachiopod  or  lamp 
shells,  having  a  close  resemblance  to  the  well-known 
Terebratula.  It  possessed  a  perforation  for  tlie  pas- 
sage of  the  peduncle,  by  which  the  animal  attached 
it.self  to  foreign  bodies.  This  foramen  is  not  visible 
in  all  examples  of  the  same  species,  from  the  bealc 
touching  and  overlying  the  umbo  of  the  other  valve ; 
the  animal  was,  therefore,  ]irol)ably  free  during  a  por- 
tion of  its  existence.  The  name  (derived  from  a,  with- 
out, and  irypa,  foramen)  was  given  to  this  genus  by 
Dalnian,  as  he  erroneously  sujijiosed  that  the  perfora- 
tion was  entirely  absent.  Jutiging  from  the  markings 
on  the  interior  of  the  .'hell,  the  atiimal  seems  to  have 
differed  little  from  the  recent  Rhynconella.  except 
that  it  had  large  calcareous  sj)ines  for  the  support  of 
its  labial  appendages.  A.  is  a  strictly  palieozoic 
l)rachi()]K)d,  the  solitary  Permian  species  being  the  last 
representative  of  the  genus.  Of  the  179  described 
species,  100  are  Silurian,  66  Devonian,  22  Carbonifer- 
ous, and  1  Permian. 

ATTACHE  (French),  a  subordinate  or  a.s.sistant. 
The  term  is  generally  applied  to  young  diplomatists 
who  accompany  embassies. 

ATTA'CHMENT  is  an  Engli.sh  legal  term,  signi- 
fying the  form  of  process,  by  the  authority  of  which 
the  i)erson  or  the  goods  of  a  debtor  may  be  seized  in 
.satisfaction.  As  a  proceeding  against  the  person,  it 
is  a  s]iccies  of  criminal  process,  and  has  the  force 
of  much  that  will  be  found  under  Apprehend 
(q.  v.) ;  but  in  strictness,  it  means  a  proce.'ss  issuing 
from  a  court  of  record  against  a  i)erson  guilty 
of  a  contempt,  or,  more  properly,  of  a  judicial  con- 
tempt, and  who  is  puni-shable  in  a  summary  manner 
by  the  court  in  whose  presence,  against  whose  autho- 
rity, or  against  whose  writs  the  contempt  has  been 
overtly  displayed.  Thus,  in  Hawkins's  Pleas  of 
the  Crown,  such  contempts  are  thus  cla.ssed : 
1.  Disobedience  to  the  Queen's  writs;  2.  Contempts 
in  the  face  of  a  court ;  3.  Contemptuous  words  or 
writings  concerning  a  court ;  4.  Refusing  to  comply 
with  the  rules  and  awards  of  a  court ;  and  5.  For- 
gery of  writs,  or  any  other  deceit  tending  to  impose 
on  a  court.  Parties  are  also  liable  to  the  proce.ss  of 
A.  as  for  a  contempt  of  court  where,  in  an  arbitra- 
tion (see  Arbitration)  the  award  having  been  made 
a  rule  of  court  under  the  9  and  10  Will.  III.  c.  15, 
the  parties  refuse  to  obey  the  same.  In  Chancery, 
there  may  be  A.  of  the  person  for  judicial  default  or 
other  offence  to  the  court,  as,  for  example,  where  a 
defendant  fails  to  put  in  his  answer  or  proper  plea 
to  the  plaintrfTs  bill  of  complaint.  The  only  other 
process  of  A.  against  the  person  which  it  is  necessary 
here  to  notice,  is  the  non-attendance  in  court  of  a 
witness,  who  in  such  event  is  considered  to  have 
committed  a  contempt  of  court,  and  to  be  liable  to 
be  punished  for  such  contempt  by  attachment.  An 
action  may  also  be  brought  against  such  defaulting 
witness  at  the  suit  of  the  aggrieved  party,  on  account 
of  any  loss  or  damage  occasioned  by  the  non-attend- 
ance. 


ATTACHMENT— ATTAINDER. 


The  proceeding  by  A.  of  goods  re.'^enibles  in  some 
respects  tlie  Scotch  diligence  or  process  of  arrest- 
ment. See  AiuiKsT.MENT.  The  best  ilhistration  we  can 
give  of  it,  in  this  sense,  is  that  relating  to  the  power 
of  a  judgment  creditor  to  recover  under  his  judg- 
ment. By  the  17  and  IS  Yict.  c.  125,  it  is  jirovided 
that  the  judgment  creditor  may  apply  to  the  court  or 
a  judge  lor  a  rule  or  order  to  have  the  debtor  orally 
examined  as  to  the  debts  owing  to  him  by  any  third 
party,  ov  (/aniishse,  as  he  is  called  (see  Garnishee), 
and  also  for  an  order  that  all  such  garnishee  debts 
be  attached  to  answer  the  judgment  debt,  the 
service  of  which  order  has  the  cflect  of  binding  or 
attaching  the  debts  in  the  garnishee's  hands. 

ATTA'CHMENT,  Foreign.  See  Foreign  At- 
tachment. 

ATTA'CK,  in  military  warfare,  is  an  advance 
xipou  the  enemy,  with  a  view  of  driving  him  from 
his  position.  It  may  either  be  an  attack  in  the  open 
field  or  an  attack  upon  a  fortress. 

In  an  attack  in  the  open  field,  the  general  first 
ascertains  the  strength  and  position  of  the  enemy, 
by  means  of  a  reconnaissance  or  of  spies.  He  then 
Seeks  to  discover  at  what  point  the  enemy  can  make 
the  least  resistance;  which  is  generally  on  one  or 
other  flaidv.  lie  next  arranges  to  concentrate  his 
chief  strength  upon  this  particular  point;  and  to 
mask  his  real  intentions  by  feigned  operations  in 
other  places.  He  then  attacks  with  energy  and 
force;  his  troops  advancing  without  halt  till  near 
enough  to  use  their  weapons  with  the  greatest  effect. 
The  more  the  attack  has  the  character  of  a  'sur- 
prise,' the  greater  the  probability  of  its  success.  In 
order  to  make  this  success  as  much  felt  as  possible, 
and  to  be  provided  also  against  unforeseen  disaster, 
the  attacking  body  should  be  followed  at  a  distance 
by  a  reserve ;  a  neglect  of  this  precaution  has 
frequently  caused  the  entire  failure  of  an  attack. 
Various  forms  have  been  devised  for  the  attack  ;  but 
generally  the  parallel  ov  frontal  is  the  one  made  use 
of.  Frederick  the  Great,  however,  won  most  of  his 
battles  by  the  oblique  attack,  in  which  one  wing  is 
more  advanced  than  the  other.  The  first  Napoleon 
preferred,  by  means  of  his  heavy  columns,  to  pene- 
trate, and  break  up  the  enemy's  centre.  Another 
mode  combines  an  attack  on  one  flank  as  well  as 
in  front,  by  two  separate  corps  ;  so  as  either  to  get 
into  the  enemy's  rear,  or  to  perplex  him  as  to  his 
retreat.  A  skilful  general  will  be  guided  by  circum- 
stances in  his  selection  among  these  several  modes 
of  operating.  An  attack  by  night  might  act  most 
signally  as  a  surprise  ;  but  as  this  requires  a  very 
exact  knowledge  of  the  ground,  an  attack  at  early 
dawn  is  generally  preferred. 

The  different  arms  of  the  service  render  each  its 
own  kind  of  aid  during  an  attack.  First  come  the 
skirmishers,  or  perhaps  whole  battalions  of  light 
and  active  troops,  whose  rifles  or  long-range  guns 
commence  the  firing.  Then  come  the  main  body  of 
infantry  in  heavy  colunm ;  they  halt  within  musket- 
shot,  tire,  and  charge  with  the  bayonet — the  skir- 
mishers meanwhile  deploying  round  to  the  rear  of 
the  column,  but  holding  themselves  in  readiness  to 
harass  the  enemy's  flanks.  English  troops  especially 
excel  in  the  attack  by  bayonet  in  line ;  but  foreign 
armies,  for  the  most  part,  rely  more  upon  the 
momentum  of  a  compact  and  heavy  column  in  an 
attack.  There  are  positions  in  which  the  cavalry 
attack,  with  its  shock  and  the  use  of  the  sword,  is 
more  efficacious  than  that  of  the  infantry.  The 
troopers  approach  at  a  trot,  break  into  a  gallop  at  a 
distance  of  one  or  two  hundred  paces  from  the  enemy, 
and  endeavo\ir  by  their  weight  and  impetuosity  to 
force  the  enemy's  line.  There  are  many  forms  of 
cavalry  attack,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  ground 


and  the  position  of  the  enemy.  The  artillery,  work- 
ing at  a  distance,  often  begin  an  attack  long  before 
the  infimtry  and  cavalry  can  come  up,  harassing 
and  confusing  the  enemy.  At  S(X)  to  1200  yards' 
distance,  the  artillery  pour  out  shot  and  shell,  and 
try  to  silence  the  enemy's  guns,  so  as  to  make 
way  for  the  attack  of  tlie  infantry  ;  while  the 
bayonet-charge  is  being  made,  the  artillery  keep  in 
check  the  enemy's  cavalry.  If  the  attack  succeeds, 
the  infantry  and  artillery  take  up  the  ground 
recently  occupied  by  the  enemy,  leaving  the  cavalry 
and  riflemen  to  maintain  a  pursuit;  but  if  it  fail, 
the  artillery  and  cavalry  take  up  such  positions  as 
will  cover  the  retreat  of  the  infantry. 

In  an  attack  upon  a  fortress,  the  operation  is  a 
part  of  that  of  besieging  (see  Siegk);  but  very 
often  intrenchments  are  attacked  in  the  open  field. 
Such  an  attack  has  the  character  of  a  surprise, 
when  the  works  are  af)proached  under  cover  of 
night,  and  an  attempt  is  made  to  break  into  them 
on  all  sides.  In  such  case,  there  is  a  reserve  corps, 
which  is  rapidly  brought  up  when  wanted  ;  but 
the  attacking  corps  retire  behind  the  reserve,  if 
repulsed.  The  artillery  post  themselves  on  the  pro- 
longation of  the  line  of  works,  and  try  to  dislodge 
the  enemy's  guns  and  gunners;  or  pour  a  con- 
centric fire  sufficient  to  breach  the  works.  The 
infantry  advance  as  close  as  will  enable  them  to 
fire  upon  the  gunners.  When  the  enemy's  fire  is 
silenced,  the  engineers  (under  cover  of  the  artil- 
lery) proceed  to  remove  palisades  and  all  other 
obstacles,  and  to  bridge  over  ditches  and  openings. 
Then  follow  the  operations  of  the  storming-party, 
analogous  to  those  noticed  under  Assault. 

ATTAI'NDER  is  the  legal  consequence  of  judg- 
ment of  death  or  outlawry,  in  respect  of  treason  or 
felony.  It  is  said  to  have  been  derived  from  the 
Latin  word  attinctux,  attaint,  stained,  and  it  is 
followed  by  forfeitrire  of  estate,  real  and  personal, 
and  by  corruption  of  blood ;  and  generally  it  imports 
the  extinction  of  civil  rights  and  capacities.  Thus, 
an  attainted  person  cannot  sue  in  a  court  of  justice; 
he  loses  all  power  over  his  property  ;  and  he  is 
by  his  A.  rendered  incapable  of  performing  apy 
of  the  duties,  or  enjoying  any  of  the  privileges  of 
a  free  citizen.  But  absolute  and  severe  as  the  con- 
sequences of  A.  seem  to  be,  they  have  their  limits. 
In  regard  to  the  attainted  person,  neither  the  govern- 
ment nor  the  crown  can  exercise  absolute  or  capri- 
cious authority  ;  everything  must  be  done  according 
to  legal  and  constitutional  piinciple  and  rule,  and 
for  the  ends  of  public  justice  alone.  Formerly,  an 
attainted  person  could  not  give  evidence  in  a  court 
of  justice;  but  that  disability  in  England  has  been 
removed  by  the  G  and  7  Vict.  c.  85,  and  in  Scotland 
by  the  15  and   16  Vict.  c.  27. 

We  have  stated  that  the  immediate  consequences 
of  A.,  are  forfeiture  of  estate  and  corruption  of  blood. 
The  forfeituie  is  of  estate  real  and  personal ;  the 
latter,  indeed,  may  be  forfeited  by  mere  conviction 
alone,  and  without  A.,  no  sentence  or  judgment  being 
necessary  to  infer  it.  But  A.  is  essential  to  the  for- 
feiture of'  real  estate,  as  to  which  the  most  serious 
A.  occurs  in  treason,  where  the  attainted  man  for- 
feits to  the  crown  all  his  lands  and  freehold  inherit- 
ance, whether  fee-simple  or  fee-tail,  and  all  his  lights 
of  entry  on  lands  and  tenements  of  freehold  tenure, 
to  bo  for  ever  vested  in  the  crown  ;  and  also  the 
l)rofits  of  all  lands  and  tenements  of  freehold  tenure 
which  he  had  in  his  own  right.  This  forfeiture 
relates  backward  to  the  time  of  the  treason  com- 
mitted ;  and  yet  it  does  not  take  effect  unless  there 
be  A.  complete;  and  therefore,  if  a  traitor  dies  before 
judgment,  or  is  killed  in  open  rebellion,  or  is  capi- 
tally punished  by  martial  law,  the  A.  operates  no 
forfeiture  of  lands,  for  he  never  was  attainted    of 

535 


ATTAIXDER— ATTERBURT. 


treason.  But  to  this  there  is  a  curious  exception 
nientionccl  by  Bliickstoiic — viz.,  tiiat  wiicre  the 
chic'l-justice  of  tlie  Court  of  Queen's  Benuli  in  per- 
son, !is  the  .«uprcinc  coroner  of  all  Enfjhiml,  upon  the 
view  of  the  body  of  one  killed  in  open  rebellion, 
records  the  fact,  and  returns  the  record  into  his  own 
court,  both  lands  and  floods  shall  be  forfeited. 

A.  for  felonij  involves  the  forfeiture  of  all  chattel 
interest  a'bsolutely,  and  the  profits  of  all  freehold 
estates  during  life;  and  by  A.  ior  warder,  tiie  fiee- 
hold  lands  of  the  offender  held  in  fee-simple  are  also 
forfeited  to  the  crown  for  a  year  and  (hiy,  with 
power  to  the  crown  of  committing  u[ion  them  what 
waste  it  pleases.  See  Waste.  This  doctrine  of  »/crt>- 
and  daii,  and  lomte,  applied,  until  recently,  to  any 
felony  whatever,  with  the  exception  of  tiea.'^on.  But 
now,  l)y  the  54  Geo.  III.  c.  145,  no  A.  ior  felony 
— except  in  the  cases  of  treason  or  murder,  or  of 
abetting,  procuring,  or  counselling  the  same — shall 
extend  to  the  disinheritance  of  any  heir,  nor  to  the 
prejudice  of  any  person  other  than  the  right  or  title 
of  the  offender  himself  during  his  own  lil'e. 

The  other  consetiucnces  of  A. — viz.,  corruption 
of  blood,  is  anxiously  and  learnedly  treated  of  in  old 
law-books,  and  in  Blackstone's  Coiianetiiarien ;  but 
the  ancient  law  on  the  subject  has  been  so  much 
narrowed  in  its  application  by  modern  legislation  as 
to  have  lost  much  of  its  importance  ;  and,  indeed, 
this  doctrine  of  corruption  of  blood  was  in  modern 
times  always  looked  upon  as  a  peculiar  hardship,  at 
least  as  regards  the  family  of  the  offender ;  and 
now,  bv  the  statutes  54  Geo.  III.  c.  145,  already 
referred  to,  3  and  4  Will.  IV.  c.  lOfi,  and  13  and  14 
Vict.  c.  CO,  whatever  savoured  of  inhumanity  or 
harshness  under  the  ancient  system  has  been  elVec- 
tually  removed;  in  fact,  it  maybe  stated  tliat, 
excepting  in  the  cases  of  treason  and  nmrder,  the 
law  of  corruption  of  blood,  so  far  as  the  family  of 
the  offender  are  concerned,  has  ceased  to  form  part 
of  the  law.  Besides  A.  by  the  operation  of  law  as 
above  stated,  there  have  been  frequent  instances  of 
attainders  by  express  legislative  enactment,  as  to 
which,  see  Bill  of  Attainder. 

The  Scotch  law  of  A.,  consequent  on  a  conviction 
for  treason,  corresponds  to  the  English  doctrine  ;  and 
although  the  word  A.  is  not  a  Scotch  technical  term 
in  regard  to  crimes  other  tlnm  treason,  the  for- 
feitures consequent  on  conviction  and  judgment  are 
very  much  the  same  as  the  English. 

ATTAI'NDER,  Bill  of.  Sec  Bill  ok  Attain- 
der. 

ATTAI'NT,  WuiT  of,  was  anciently  a  mode  of 
inquiring  whether  a  jury  had  given  a  false  verdict, 
which  has  been  abolished  by  the  4  Geo.  IV.  c.  50. 
A.  is,  however,  still  in  use  to  some  extent  as  a  tcch- 
lucal  word  in  the  law  of  England;  thus,  there  is 
the  plea  of  autrefois  A.,  or  of  a  former  attainder, 
for  the  same  crime,  and  now  regulated  by  the  7  and 
8  Geo.  IV.  c.  28,  s.  4. 

In  the  old  Scotch  criminal  law.  A.,  or  attaijnt, 
signified  a  conviction,  or  being  convicted. 

ATTALE'A,  a  genus  of  Palms,  comprising  a 
immber  of  species,  natives  of  the  tropical  jiarts  of 
South  America.  They  have  in  general  lofty  cylin- 
drical smooth  stems,  but  there  are  some  stendess 
species.  The  haves  are  large  and  pinnate.  The 
fruit  has  a  dry  fibrous  husk,  enclosing  a  nut  with 
three  cells  and  three  seeds.  The  leaves  of  some 
species  are  much  used  for  thatching,  and  tho>e  of 
some  are  woven  into  hats,  mats,  &c.  The  nuts  of 
A.  exccha  and  of  ^4.  spcciosa  are  burned  to  dry  the 
India-rubber  obtained  from  the  Siplionia  dastica, 
which  acquires  its  black  colour  from  their  smoke. 
The  leaf-stalks  of  A.funifera,  which  is  found  in  the 
southern  maritime  provinces  of  Brazil,  and  is  there 
536 


called  Piassaba,  yield  a  fibre  much  used  for  cordage. 
The  ropes  made  of  it  are  \  cry  strong,  and  extremely 
durable  in  salt  water.  The  Piassaba  jialm  of  the 
northern  parts  of  Brazil,  however,  is  totally  dill'er- 
eiit,  and  much  of  the  Piassal)a  (q.  v.)  fibre  imported 
into  Britain  is  obtained  from  it.  The  fruit  of  A. 
funifera,  known  by  the  name  of  ro(|uilla  nut,  is  as 
large  as  an  ostrich's  head,  and  supplies  a  kind  of 
vegetable  ivory,  used  ior  nuiking  mnliretla  handles, 
&c.  The  fruit,  of  A.  comjita,  the  Pindova  or  Indaja 
l)alm,  is  of  the  size  of  a  goose's  egg,  and  the  keinels 
are  eatable.  It  is  a  stately  and  beautiful  tree,  with 
a  wide-spreading  crown. 

A'TTAR.     Sec  Otto. 

ATTEMPT  to  commit  a  felony  or  criminal  offence 
is  in  many  instances  equally  cognizable  by  the  crimi- 
nal tribunals  with  the  completed  crime  itself.  See 
Tkeasox,  Felony,  MisnEMEANouu. 

A'TTEKBURY,  Francis,  Bishop  of  Rochester, 
was  born  on  the  Glh  of  March  ICCrJ,  at  Milton, 
near  Newport  Pagnel,  iu  Buckinghamshire,  and 
educated  in  Westminster  School,  i'lom  which,  in 
1080,  he  passed  to  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  In  IC.ST, 
ho  gave  proof  of  ih.at  ready  controversial  talent 
which  distinguished  him  through  life,  in  a  reply 
to  a  pseudonymous  attack  on  Piotestantism  by 
Obadiah  Walker,  master  of  University  College. 
I)isa])pointed  in  hia  expectation  of  succeeding  to  his 
father's  rectory,  in  l(j',t3,  he  sought  a  wider  field 
of  distinction,  i'or  ambition  seems  to  have  stimulated 
his  efforts  rather  more  than  the  love  of  souls,  and  in 
London  his  rhetorical  powers  soon  won  him  reputa- 
tion. He  became  a  royal  chaplain,  minister  of 
Bridewell,  and  lecturer  of  St  Bride's.  In  1098,  a 
temporary  sensation  was  created  in  the  learned 
world  by  the  ajjpearance  of  the  Hon.  Charles  Boyle's 
E.ruiiuHat'ii>n  of  Jlr.  Bcntlcifs  J>isserliitio>is  on  t/ie 
A'pistlcs  of  Plidlarix  aud  the  Fables  of  yEsop.  This 
clever,  but  shallow  and  malicious  i)erforniance,  was 
in  reality  composed  chiefly  by  A.,  who  had  been  the 
young  nobleman's  tutor  at  Christ  Church.  In  1T<10 
lie  distinguished  himself  in  a  controversy  with  Dr. 
Wake  and  others  regarding  the  ]iowers  and  privi- 
leges of  convocations.  A.'s  zealous  and  caustic 
defence  of  the  ecclesiastical  against  the  civil 
authority,  procured  him  the  thanks  of  the  lower 
House  of  Convocation,  and  the  degree  of  D.D. 
In  1704,  he  was))romoted  to  the  deanery  of  Carlisle, 
on  which  occasion  he  subjected  himself  to  just 
obloquy  by  attempting  to  procure  an  alteration  in 
the  date  of  his  predecessor's  resignation,  which 
happened  to  interpose  a  temporary  obstacle  to  his 
appointment.  In  1707  he  was  made  a  canon  of 
Exeter;  in  1709,  preached  at  the  Rolls  Chapel;  in 
1710  he  was  chosen  prolocutor  to  the  lower  House  of 
Convocation,  and  in  tiie  same  year  he  had  the  chief 
hand,  according  to  the  common  belief,  in  drawing 
up  the  famous  defence  of  Dr.  Sacheverell ;  in  17  l"i,  he 
became  Dean  of  Christ  Church,  where,  however, 
his  turbulent  and  combative  spirit  had  meanwhile 
involved  him  in  so  many  controversies,  that  there 
was  no  peace  until  he  was  removed;  in  171^5,  he 
was  made  Bishop  of  Rochester  and  Dean  of  West- 
minster. It  io  supposed,  not  unreasonably,  that 
A.  aspired  to  the  primacy;  but  the  death  of  Queen 
Aiuie  extinguished  his  hopes  iu  that  direction.  His 
known  character  and  Jacobite  leanings  nnide  him 
no  favourite  with  George  I.  In  1715  he  refused 
to  sign  the  bishop's  declaration  of  fidelity,  and 
some  of  the  most  violent  protests  of  the  Peers 
against  the  government  measures  proceeded  from 
his  reckless  pen.  His  deep  complicity  in  a  suc- 
cession of  plots  for  the  restoration  of  the  Stuarts, 
brought  down  upon  him  at  length  the  charge  of 
treason,  and,  in  August  1722,  he  was  committed  to 


ATTESTATION— ATTILA. 


the  Tower.  A  bill  of  pains  and  penalties  was  brought 
into  the  House  of  Coniinoiis,  and  passed  in  the  Lords 
by  a  nuijoriiy  of  83  to  43.  A.,  who  had  defended 
himself  with  great  aljility,  was  deprived  of  all  his 
ecclesiastical  offices,  incapacitated  Iroui  holding  any 
civil  or  spiritual  office  in  the  king's  dominions,  and 
condemned  to  perpetual  banishment.  There  is  no 
doubt  of  the  fact  tiiat  A.  was  implicated  in  treason- 
able plots,  but  the  leg.d  proof  on  which  this  seiiteiiee 
was  founded  cannot  be  regarded  as  sufficient  to  jus- 
tify its  severity.  In  June  1723,  he  quitted  England 
for  France,  and  after  a  short  stay  at  Brussels,  finally 
settled  in  Paris,  where  he  died,  February  15,  17oJ. 
In  his  exile,  he  maintained  a  constant  correspondence 
with  his  friends,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the  abor- 
tive conspiracies  of  the  Jacobites.  His  fame  as  a 
writer  is  founded  on  his  sermons,  and  his  letters  to 
Pope,  Swift,  &c. ;  as  a  letter-writer,  indeed,  he  has 
seldom  been  surpassed. 

ATTESTATION,  in  conveyancing,  is  the  verifi- 
cation of  the  execution  of  deeds  and  wills  by  wit- 
nesses; hence  the  clause  at  the  end  of  these  instru- 
ments which  immediately  precedes  the  signatures  of 
the  witnesses,  is  called  the  A.  clause.  Sec  Deeps, 
Wills,  Witnesses.  In  the  Scotch  piactice,  the  cor- 
res{)onding  clause  is  called  the  testing-clause.  Sec 
Testing-Clause. 

A'TTIC,  a  term  in  architecture,  employed  to  desig- 
nate a  low  story  rising  above  the  cornice  that  ter- 
minates the  main  elevation  of  a  building  ;  in  domes- 
tic arciiitecture,  it  is  usually  applied  to  sky-lighted 
rooms  in  the  roof. 

A'TTICA,  one  of  the  political  divisions  or  states 
of  Ancient  Greece  or  Hellas,  of  which  Athens  was 
the  capital.  The  territory  is  of  triangular  shape, 
having  its  north-east  and  southwest  sides  washed  by 
the  sea,  while  on  the  north  it  is  connected  with  the 
mainland.  In  ancient  times,  it  was  bounded  on  the 
W.  l)y  Megaris  and  the  Gulf  of  Saronica  ;  on  the 
S.,  which  ran  out  into  the  '  marble  steep'  of  Sunium, 
by  the  ^Egean  Sea  ;  on  the  E.  by  the  ^'Egeau  Sea  ;  and 
on  the  N.,  by  Bueoiii,  from  which  it  is  separated  by 
a  lofty  range  of  hills,  the  most  famous  part  of  which 
was  formerly  called  Cithaeron.  Ancient  A.  was  thus 
walled  in  fioni  the  rest  of  Greece.  The  two  principal 
rivers  w  ere  the  Cephissus  and  Ilissus ;  and  if  they 
exhibited  the  same  features  in  ancient  times  as  they 
do  now',  must  have  been  mere  mountain-torrents,  dry 
in  summer.  The  unfruitfulness  of  the  soil,  and  tlic 
scarcity  of  water,  compelled  the  inhabitants  occa- 
sionally to  send  out  colonies.  According  to  ancient 
tradition,  the  Aborigines  of  A.  were  first  civilised 
under  Cecrops,  who  is  said  to  have  come  hither  from 
Sais,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Nile  in  Egypt,  about  1550 
¥.C. ;  and  to  have  introduced  the  culture  of  olives,  and 
of  several  speeics  of  grain,  as  also  to  have  implanted 
milder  manners,  and  taught  the  worship  of  the  gods. 
He  is  stated  to  have  divided  the  country  into  1'2 
communities  or  states.  This,  however,  was  not  the 
only  division  known  in  early  A.  A  still  older  division 
into  pli;ilai,  or  tribes,  existed,  as  also  a  minute 
subdivision  into  dciiioi,  or  townships.  By  Theseus, 
Athens  was  united  with  the  eleven  other  states  of  A. 
tinder  one  government,  of  which  Athens  was  made 
the  seat.  After  this  union  of  the  several  states,  the 
whole  of  A.  .shared  in  the  fortunes  of  Athens  (q.  v.), 
and,  under  Vespasian,  became  a  Roman  province.  On 
the  division  of  ti.e  Roman  empire,  A.  naturally  fell 
into  the  hand>i  of  the  Greek  emperors.  In  3'.)(j  a.d., 
it  was  captured  by  Alaric,  king  of  the  Goths.  What 
may  have  been  its  population  in  ancient  times,  it  is 
impossible  to  determine  precisely.  .Clinton  estimates 
it  at  upwards  of  half  a  million,  but  this  is  probably 
exaggerated. 

At    the   jircsent  day  (18G8)  Attica  and   Boeotia 


form  a  department  or  government  in  the  kingdom 
of  Greece.  The  surface  of  the  country  is  broken  into 
hills  and  narrow  plains.  The  most  considerable  hills 
are — Oxea,  4036  feet;  Elate,  4G29;  Pentelicus,  fa- 
mous for  its  marble  in  ancient  times,  of  a  white  bril- 
liant appearance  and  perdurable  character,  3884;  and 
Ilymettus,  35O0.  The  largest  plains  extend  in  the 
neighbourhoods  of  Athens  and  Eleusis.  As  early  as 
the  time  of  Solon,  A.  was  well  cultivated,  and  j)ro- 
duced  «ine  and  corn.  Mount  Ilymeitus  was  cele- 
brated for  its  bees  and  honey,  and  metals  were  found 
in  the  range  of  the  Laurium.  Figs,  olives,  and 
grapes  arc  still  cultivated.  Goats  and  sheep  find 
suitable  pasturage;  but  the  country  docs  not  now 
proil'ice  much  grain.  The  population  of  the  depart- 
ment is  1  IG,OOU.     See  Leake  on  the  Demoi  of  A. 

ATTICUS,  TiTcs  PoMPON'ics,  one  of  the  most 
noble  and  generous  men  in  aneient  Rome,  was  born 
in  1(1'.)  li.c,  or  a  few  years befoie  the  birth  of  Cicero. 
His  excellent  education,  duiing  which  he  enjoyed 
the  companionship  of  Torquatus,  the  younger  Maiius, 
and  Cicero,  developed,  at  an  early  age,  a  love  of 
knowledge,  which  was  increased  during  his  stay  in 
Athens,  where  he  remained  many  years,  g!ad  to  be 
separated  from  the  political  distractions  of  his  native 
land.  After  G5  n.c,  when  he  was  induced  by  Sulla 
to  return  to  Rome,  he  still  devoted  himself  chiefly 
to  study  and  the  pleasures  of  friendship,  and  refused 
to  take  any  part  in  political  affiiirs.  Yet  ho  was  by 
no  means  without  infiuence  on  public  matters,  as  he 
Uved  on  terms  of  familiar  intercourse  with  several 
leading  statesmen,  and  Ireely  gave  his  counsel,  which 
was  generally  sound  and  wholesome,  while  it  was 
always  benevolent.  He  was  a  nuin  of  great  wealth, 
having  been  left  a  large  inheritance  by  his  father  and 
his  uncle,  which  he  greatly  increased  by  judicious 
mercantile  speculations.  His  mode  of  life  was  frugal. 
When  he  was  informed  that  a  disorder  under  which 
he  was  labouring  was  mortal,  he  voluntarily  starved 
himself,  and  died  in  32  n.c.  Among  his  personal 
friends,  Cicero  held  the  first  place.  The  Annalex^ 
written  by  A.,  were  highly  commended  by  lis  con- 
temporaries. They  were  especially  valuable  on  ac- 
count of  containing  genealogical  histories  of  llic  old 
Roman  families.  A.  was  one  of  those  men  (not  un- 
common either  in  ancient  or  modern  times)  in  wliom 
fine  culture  and  a  fortiuiate  social  position  had 
highly  developed  the  faculty  of  good  taste.  Ho  had 
no  creative  getiius,  but  was  possessed  of  such  delicate 
discerement  that  he  could  detect  the  Haw  that  would 
have  been  invisible  to  Cicero.  Every  author  was 
anxious  to  secure  his  favoural)le  opinion.  None  of 
his  writings  have  been  preserved.  His  biography  is 
found  in  Cornelius  Nepos,  and  in  Cicero's  Epiatles 
to  A. 

ATTILA  (Gor.  Et~d ,  Hungarian,  Ji^/hnle,  conjec- 
tnred  to  have  been  originally  titles  of  honour),  king 
of  the  Huns,  was  the  son  of  iluiidzul:,  a  Hun  of  the 
royal  blood,  and  in  434  A.n.  succeeded  his  uncle 
Roas  as  chief  of  countless  hordes  scattered  over  the 
north  of  Asia  and  Europe.  His  brother  Bleda,  or 
Bloilel,  who  shared  with  him  the  supreme  authority 
over  all  the  Huns,  was  put  to  death  by  A.  in  4-14  or 
445  A.n.  The  Huns  regarded  A.  with  superstitious 
reverence,  and  Christendom  with  superstitious  dread, 
as  the  'Scourge  of  God.'  It  was  believed  that 
he  was  armed  with  a  supernatural  sword,  which 
belonged  to  the  Scythian  god  of  war,  which  must 
win  dominion  c\er  the  whole  world.  It  is  not  known 
when  the  name  '  Scourge  of  God  '  was  first  applied  to 
A.  He  is  said  to  have  received  it  from  a  hermit  in 
Gaul.  The  whole  race  of  Huns  was  regarded  in  the 
same  light.  In  an  inscription  at  Aqvuleia,  written 
a  short  time  before  the  siege  in  452,  they  are 
described    as   imminentia  peccatoruni  Jla<jella   (the 

537 


ATTOCK— ATTORNEYS. 


threatening  scourges  of  sinners).  The  Vandals, 
O-strogoths,  Gepidtc,  and  many  of  tlie  Franks,  fought 
under  his  banner,  and  in  a  stiort  time  liis  dominion 
extended  over  the  people  of  (jermanj'  and  Scythia 
— i.  e.,  from  the  frontiers  of  Gaul  to  those  of  China. 
In  4-17,  after  his  unsuccessful  canii)aign  in  Persia 
and  Armenia,  he  advanced  through  Illyria,  and 
devastated  all  the  countries  between  the  Black  Sea 
and  the  Mediterranean.  Those  inhal)itants  who 
were  not  destroyed  were  compelled  to  follow  in  his 
train.  The  Emperor  Theodosius  collected  an  army 
to  oppose  the  inundation  of  the  barbarians,  but  in 
three  bloody  engagements  fortune  declared  against 
him.  Constantinople  owed  its  safety  solely  to  its 
fortifications  and  the  ignorance  of  the  enemy  in 
the  art  of  besieging ;  but  Thrace,  Maecdon,  and 
Greece  were  overrun ;  seventy  flourishing  cities 
were  desolated,  and  Theodosius  was  compelled  to 
cede  a  portion  of  territory  south  of  the  Danube,  and 
to  pay  tribute  to  the  conqueror,  after  treacherously 
attem[)ting  to  murder  liim.  In  4;')!,  A.  turned  his 
course  to  the  west,  to  invade  Gaul,  but  was  here 
boldly  confronted  by  Actius,  leader  of  tlic  Romans, 
and  theodoric,  king  of  the  Visigoths,  who  compelled 
him  to  raise  the  siege  of  Orleans.  He  then  retired 
to  Champagne,  and  in  the  wide  plain  of  the  Marne 
— called  anciently  the  Catalaunian  I'lain — waited  to 
meet  the  enemy.  The  army  of  the  West,  under 
Aetius  and  Tlieodoric  encountered  the  forces  of  tlie 
Iluns  near  the  site  now  occupied  by  the  city  of 
Chalons  sur-Marne.  Both  armies  strove  to  obtain 
the  hill  of  moderate  height  wiiicli  ri.-^cs  near  Mury, 
and  commands  the  field  of  battle,  and  after  a  terrible 
contest,  the  ranks  of  the  Romans  and  their  allies, 
the  Visigoths,  were  broken.  A.  now  regarded  vii.-fory 
as  certain,  when  the  Gothic  prince,  Thorisniund, 
immediately  after  his  father  had  fallen,  assumed  the 
command,  and  led  on  the  brave  Goths,  who  were 
burning  to  avenge  the  death  of  Theodoric.  Their 
charge  from  the  height  into  the  plain  was  irresistible. 
On  every  side  the  Huns  were  routed,  and  A.  with 
difficulty  escaped  into  his  encampment.  This,  if  old 
liistorians  are  to  he  trusted,  must  liave  l)een  the  most 
sanguinary  battle  ever  fought  in  Europe ;  for  it  is 
stated  by  contemporaries  of  A.  that  not  less  tiian 
252,000  or  oOO,Oi)0  slain  were  left  on  the  field.  A., 
having  retired  within  his  camp  of  wagons,  collected 
all  the  wooden  shields,  saddles,  and  other  baggage 
into  a  vast  funeral  pile,  resolving  to  die  in  the  llames 
rather  than  surrender  ;  but  by  the  advice  of  Aetius, 
the  Roman  general,  the  Huns  were  allowed  to  retreat 
without  much  further  loss,  though  they  were  pur- 
sued by  the  Franks  as  far  as  the  Rhine.  In  the 
following  year,  A.  had  recovered  his  strength,  and 
made  another  incursion  into  Italy,  devastating 
Aquileia,  Milan,  Padua,  and  other  cities,  and  driving 
the  terrified  inhabitants  into  ths  Alps,  Apennines, 
and  the  lagoons  of  the  Adriatic  Sea,  where  they 
founded  Venice.  The  Roman  emperor  was  helpless, 
and  Rome  itself  was  saved  from  destruction  only  by 
the  personal  mediation  of  Pope  Leo  I.,  who  visited 
the  dreaded  barbarian,  and  is  said  to  have  subdued 
his  ferocity  into  awe  by  the  apostolic  majesty  of  his 
mien.  This  deliverance  was  regarded  as  a  miracle 
by  the  affrighted  Romans,  and  old  chroniclers  relate 
that  the  apostles  Peter  and  Paul  visited  the  camp  of 
A.,  and  changed  his  purpose.  By  453,  however, 
A.  appears  to  have  forgotten  the  visit  of  the  two 
beatified  apostles,  for  he  made  preparations  for  an- 
other invasion  of  Italy,  but  died  of  htcmorrhage  on 
the  night  of  his  marriage  with  the  beautiful  Ildiko. 
His  death  spread  consternation  through  the  host 
of  the  Huns.  His  followers  cut  themselves  with 
knives,  shaved  their  heads,  and  prepared  to  celebrate 
the  funeral  rites  of  their  king.  It  is  said  that  his 
body  was  placed  in  three  coffins — the  first,  of  gold ; 
538 


the  second,  of  silver ;  and  the  third,  of  iron ;  tliat 
the  caparison  of  his  horses,  with  his  arms  and 
ornaments,  were  buried  with  him  ;  and  that  all  tlie 
captives  who  were  employed  to  make  his  grave  were 
put  to  death,  so  that  none  might  betray  the  restiug- 
placc  of  the  king  of  the  Huns. 

Jormmdes  describes  A.  as  having  the  Mongolian 
characteristics — low  stature,  a  large  head,  with  small, 
brilliant  deep-seated  eyes,  and  bioad  shoulders. 
There  can  be  little  doubt  that  circumstances  conspired 
in  the  case  of  A.,  to  give  a  certain  largeness  to  hi3 
barbaric  conceptions,  which  made  him  a  most  formi- 
dable foe  to  the  civilisation  of  Eurojie. 

A'TTOCK,  a  town  and  fort  of  the  Punjab,  on  the 
left  or  cast  bank  of  the  Indus,  lat.  33"  54'  X.,  long. 
72°  20'  E.  Pop.  2000.  A.  stands  within  the  limits 
of  the  fort,  which  is  itself  a  parallelogram  of  800 
yards  by  400.  The  place  was  established  by  the 
Emperor  Akbar  in  1581,  to  defend  the  passage  of 
the  river,  being  j)lanted  for  this  purpose  on  a  steep 
and  lofty  part  of  the  bank.  In  modern  warfare, 
however,  it  is  no  longer  a  position  of  strength,  being 
commanded  by  the  neighbouring  heights. 

The  situation  of  A.  is  important,  whether  in  a 
commercial  or  in  a  military  view.  It  is  at  the  head 
of  the  steam-boat  navigation  of  the  Indus,  being  1)40 
miles  from  its  mouth ;  while  about  2  miles  above  it, 
the  Cabul  River,  the  only  considerable  aflluent  of 
the  Indus  from  the  west,  is  practicable  for  ves>el3  of 
40  or  50  tons  to  a  distance  of  50  miles.  The  valley, 
again,  of  this  last-mentioned  stream,  presenting,  as  it 
does,  the  liest  approach  to  the  east  and  south  from 
Central  Asia,  has  been  the  route  of  nearly  all  but 
the  maritime  invaders  of  India  from  the  days  of 
Alexander  the  Great  downwards.  Taxila,  where  the 
Macedonians  crossed  the  Indus,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  the  same  as  Attoek. 

ATTO'RXEY,  in  its  general  meaning,  is  one  ap- 
pointed by  another  to  act  for  him  in  his  absence,  the 
authority  for  so  acting  being  expressed  by  a  deed 
called  a  Power  of  Attorney. 

ATTORNEYS  and  SOLI'CITORS  are  those  legal 
practitioners  who  conduct  litigation  in  courts  of  jus- 
tice, preparing  the  cause  for  the  bari'istcrs,  or  counsel, 
as  they  are  called,  whose  duty  and  privilege  it  is  to 
plead  and  argue  on  behalf  of  the  contending  par- 
ties, and  who  in  open  court  have  its  exclusive  au- 
dience. A.  and  S.  also  practise  conveyancing,  or 
the  preparation  of  legal  deeds  and  instruments,  and 
they  manage  a  great  deal  of  other  general  business 
connected  with  the  practice  of  the  law,  for  which, 
as  well  as  for  the  discharge  of  all  their  duties, 
they  are  highly  remunerated  by  a  fixed  and  liberal 
scaie  of  charge.  Theirs  is,  indeed,  an  extremely 
important,  infiuential,  and  lucrative  profession,  and 
the  well-emploved  attorney,  and  the  'family  solici- 
tor,' are  expressions  which  readily  suggest  the  idea 
of  acute  intelligence,  along  with  comfort  and  affluent 
means. 

They  are  called  A.  as  practitioners  in  the  courts  of 
common  law,  because  the  attorney  is  one  who  is 
put  in  the  place,  stead,  or  turn  of  another.  Former- 
ly, when  prosecuting  or  defending,  suitors  were  oblig- 
ed to  a\)\WAr  pcrwna!/)/  in  court;  but  now,  on  i)rin- 
ciples  of  convenience,  A.  may  represent,  and  be  made 
to  prosecute  or  defend  any  action  or  suit  in  the 
absence  of,  the  parties.  They  are  called  S.  in  the 
Courts  of  Chancery,  according  theoretically  to  tlie 
more  gentle  (but  not  less  absolute)  compulsion  of 
equity.  S.  also  is  the  name  ustially  given  to  this 
profession  when  they  transact  family  or  other  gene- 
ral business  out  of  court,  and  in  their  own  chambers. 
A.  and  S.  are  admitted  by  the  superior  courts,  of 
which,  therefore,  they  are  officers,  having  many 
privileges   as   such,  and  they   are,  '.n  consequence, 


ATTORNEYS  AND  SOLICITORS. 


peculiarly  subject  to  the   censure  and  control   of  the  i 
juiii^es. 

The  statutes  relating  to  this  branch  of  the  legal 
profession  being  numerous  and  complicated,  were 
amended  and  consolidated  by  the  6  and  7  Vict.  c. 
73,  by  which  it  is  enacted  that  no  person  .shall  act  as 
an  attorney  or  solicitor  in  any  court  of  civil  or  criminal 
jurisdiction,  or  in  any  court  of  law  or  equity  in  Eng- 
land or  Wales,  unless  he  sliall  have  been  admitted, 
enrolled,  and  be  otherwise  duly  qualified  according  to 
the  provisions  of  the  act.  And  it  has  been  decided 
that  the  person  who  acts  <as  an  attorney  without  being 
properly  qualified,  is  liable  to  be  indicted  for  a  misde- 
meanour. There  is  an  exception,  however,  to  the 
rule  of  admission  as  stated,  contained  in  a  subse- 
quent act,  the  7  and  8  Vict.  c.  101,  s.  68,  which  pro- 
vides that  clerks  or  other  officers  to  any  board  of 
guardians  under  the  poor  laws,  may  commence  or 
defend  proceedings  before  magistrates,  in  special  or 
petty  sessions,  or  out  of  sessions,  without  being  quali- 
fied as  attorneys.  And  by  the  20  and  21  Vict.  c. 
39,  fiicilities  are  afforded  for  the  admission  and  enrol- 
ment in  England  of  A.  and  S.  of  those  colonial  courts 
where  the  English  system  prevails. 

To  entitle  a  person  to  admission  as  an  attorney 
and  solicitor  under  the  above  act,  the  6  and  7  Vict.  c. 
73,  it  is  required :  1st,  That  he  shall  have  served 
— having  been  duly  bound  by  contract  in  writing  so 
to  do — with  some  practising  attorney  or  solicitor  in 
England  or  Wales,  a  clerkship  of  five  years ;  or — if 
ho  shall  have  taken  a  degree,  under  such  circum- 
stances as  in  the  act  mentioned,  at  Cambridge, 
Oxford,  Dublin,  Durham,  or  London — a  clerksliip 
of  tln-ee  years ;  and  2d,  That  in  addition  and  subse- 
quently to  such  service,  he  be  examined  by,  or  by 
direction  of,  one  or  more  of  the  judges  at  West 
minster,  or  (in  the  case  of  a  solicitor)  by  the  Master 
of  the  Rolls,  touching  his  articles,  service,  fitness, 
and  capacity  to  act  ;  and  the  judges  (or  Master  of 
the  Rolls,  as  the  case  may  be),  upon  being  satisfied 
by  sucli  examination,  or  by  the  certificates  of  ex- 
aminers appointed  by  them,  of  the  competency  of 
any  candidate  for  admission,  sliall  administer  to  him 
such  oatli  as  specified  in  the  act,  viz.,  '  that  he  will 
truly  and  honestly  demean  himself  in  pi-actice,'  and 
also  the  oath  of  allegiance ;  and  after  such  oaths, 
shall  cause  him  to  he  admitted  as  an  attorney  of  the 
said  courts  of  law  at  Westminster,  or  as  solicitor 
of  the  High  Court  of  Chancery,  as  the  case  may  be, 
and  his  name  to  be  enrolled  as  an  attorney  or  soli- 
citor of  such  courts.  It  is  moreover  enacted,  that 
there  shall  be  a  registrar  of  A.  and  S.,  whose  duty 
it  shall  be  to  keep  an  alphabetical  list  or  roll  of 
all  A.  and  S.,  and  to  issue  certificates  as  to  persons 
who  have  been  duly  admitted  and  enrolled  ;  and  the 
duties  of  this  office  are  by  the  act  committed  to  the 
'  Incorporated  Law  Society,'  until  some  person  sliall 
be  appointed  in  their  room.  Such  a  certificate  from 
the  registrar,  of  due  admission  and  enrolment,  must 
be  produced  to  the  proper  authorities,  by  any  person 
desirous  of  practising  as  an  attorney  or  solicitor, 
before  he  can  obtain  the  stamped  certificate  required 
by  the  Stamp  Act,  5.5  Geo.  III.  c.  184,  authorising  him 
to  practise  for  the  ensuing  year ;  and  in  order  to 
olitain  sucli  registrar's  certificate,  a  declaration  in 
writing,  signed  by  the  attori>ey  desirous  of  practising, 
or  by  his  partner,  or  in  some  cases  by  his  London 
agent,  containing  his  name  and  address,  the  courts 
of  which  lie  is  an  admitted  attorney  or  solicitor,  and 
he  date  of  his  admission,  must  be  delivered  to  the 
egistrar.  And  if  any  attorney  or  solicitor  shall 
practise  in  any  of  the  courts  aforesaid,  without  having 
obtained  a  stamped  certificate  for  the  current  year, 
he  shall  be  incapaJjle  of  maintaining  any  action  or  suit 
to  recover  his  fees  or  disbursements  for  business  done 
under  such  circumstances. 


The  same  statute  also  contains  the  following 
regulations,  among  others  of  less  general  informa- 
tion :  That  no  attorney  or  solicitor  shall  have  more 
than  two  clerks,  bound  by  contract  in  writing,  at  one 
and  tlie  same  time  ;  nor  any  sucli  clerk  after  he  shall 
have  left  off  business.  That  all  persons  admitted  as  A. 
of  one  of  tlie  superior  courts  of  law  at  Westminster 
may,  upon  production  of  a  certificate  thereof,  be 
admitted  in  any  other  court  of  law  in  England  or 
AVales,  upon  signing  the  roll  of  tlie  same ;  and 
that  persons  admitted  as  S.  in  the  High  Court  of 
Chancery  may  in  like  manner  obtain  tlieir  admis- 
sion in  all  other  courts  of  equity,  and  in  the  Court  of 
Bankruptcy.  That  no  attorney  or  solicitor,  who  shall 
be  a  prisoner  in  any  jail  or  prison,  may  commence  or 
defend  any  action,  suit,  or  proceeding  in  law,  equity, 
or  bankruptcy  ;  or  maintain  any  action  for  fees  for 
business  done  during  such  his  conlinemeiit ;  ami  that 
no  i)ractisiiig  attorney  or  solicitor  sliall  be  a  justice  of 
the  peace  in  England  or  Wales,  except  in  counties  or 
towns  corporate  having  justices  by  charter  or  other- 
wise. And  that  no  attorney  or  solicitor  shall  commence 
an  action  or  suit  for  his  fees  or  charges  in  respect  of 
any  business  whatever,  imtil  after  the  expiration  of 
one  calendar  month  after  a  bill  of  his  costs  and 
charges,  signed  liy  such  attorney  or  solicitor,  shall  have 
been  delivered  to  the  party  to  be  charged ;  and  such 
party  may,  on  a  proper  application,  obtain  an  order 
for  referring  such  bill  to  be  taxed ;  and  for  staying 
all  proceedings  to  recover  the  amount  thereof  in  the 
meantime.  An  order  may  also  be  obtained  directing 
an  attorney  or  solicitor  to  deliver  his  bill  (when  he 
has  not  done  so) ;  and  also  an  order  for  his  delivering 
up,  upon  payment  of  what  is  due,  all  deeds,  papers, 
and  document,  in  his  possession  or  power  touching 
the  business  in  such  bill  compi-ised.  It  is  provided, 
however,  that  the  act  shall  not  extend  to  the  exami- 
nation, admission,  rights,  or  privileges  of  any  per- 
son appointed  to  be  solicitor  to  the  Treasury,  Cus- 
toms, Excise,  Post-office,  Stamp-duties,  or  any  other 
branch  of  the  revenue  ;  or  to  be  the  solicitor  of  the 
city  of  London  ;  or  the  assistant  of  the  council  for 
the  affiiii'S  of  the  Admiralty  or  Navy  ;  or  the  solicitor 
to  the  Board  of  Ordnance.  (See  Stephen's  Commen- 
tariefi,  vol.  iii.  p.  308,  et  seq.) 

The  postion  of  A.  and  S.  in  Ireland,  like  the  system 
of  law  and  practice  in  that  country  generally,  is  so 
like  that  of  the  same  profession  in  England,  that  it  ia 
unnecessary  here  to  give  any  details  respecting  them. 

The  corresponding  professional  class  in  Scotland 
is  a  numerous  one,  and  of  various  qualities  and 
degrees.  The  chief  and  most  privileged  body  among 
them  are  the  Writers  to  the  Su/net  (<].  v.),  who,  with 
the  Solicitors  before  the  Supreme  Courts,  conduct 
all  the  business  before  these  tribunals,  although  the 
latter  have  not  the  privileges  of  the  former,  nor  are 
they  so  influential  a  body.  They  are  both,  however, 
on  a  footing  of  equality  as  ]iractising  A.  or  S.,  or 
law-agents,  as  they  are  called  in  Scotland,  and 
they  are  both  admitted  by  the  Court  of  Session, 
and  have  the  exclusive  right  of  conducting  legal 
business  before  that  tribunal  and  the  other  supe- 
rior courts;  and  they  have  facilities  also  for  prac- 
tising before  all  the  inferior  courts  of  the  country. 
The  provincial  attorney  class  in  Scotland  are  variously 
denominated  as  writers  and  solicitors,  the  former 
being  the  more  general  name  among  them.  But 
in  Aberdeen  they  have  assumed  the  name  of  advo- 
cates— a  name,  however,  by  which  they  must  not 
he  confounded  with  the  Faculty  of  Advocates  at  the 
Scotch  bar.  The  Aberdeen  advocate  is  neither  more 
nor  less  than  a  country  attorney.  These  provincial 
Scotch  practitioners  are  not  admitted  in  that  country 
by  the  superior  courts,  but  by  the  various  .sheriffs  or 
county  courts  within  whose  jurisdiction  they  practise 
their  profession. 

539 


ATTORNEY-GENERAL- ATWOOD'S  MACHINE. 


ATTORNEY-GENERAL,  the  title  by  which,  in 
England  and  Ireland,  the  first  ministerial  law  offi- 
cer of  the  crown  is  known.  The  A.  is  appointed 
by  letters  patent.  His  office  corresponds  in  many 
respects  to  that  of  the  Queen's  Advocate  in  the 
Court  of  Admiralty  and  of  the  Lord  Advocate  in 
Scotland  (q.  v.),  though  the  powers  of  the  latter  are 
more  extensive  and  less  clearly  defined.  Originally,  the 
A.  was  simply  the  king's  attorney,  and  stood  to 
the  sovereign  in  the  same  relation  that  any  other 
attorney  does  to  his  employer.  The  term  '  general ' 
was  afterwards  conferred  to  distinguish  him  from 
attorneys  appointed  to  represent  the  interests  of  the 
crown  in  particular  courts,  such  as  the  Court  of 
Wards ;  or  from  the  master  of  the  crown  office,  who 
is  called  the  '  Coroner  and  Attorney  for  the  Queen.' 
The  early  history  of  this  office  is  involved  in  obscu- 
rity. Tliough  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  crown 
must  always  have  been  represented  by  an  attorney 
hi  the  courts  of  justice,  there  is  no  trace  of  the  exist- 
ence of  such  an  officer  as  the  A.,  in  the  modern 
sense,  till  some  centuries  after  the  Conquest.  Up  to 
a  period  comparatively  recent,  the  king's  serjeant 
was  the  chief  executive  officer  of  the  crown  in  crimi- 
nal proceedings,  and  this  circumstance  gave  rise  to 
various  questions  of  difficulty  as  to  the  right  to 
precedency  of  these  officers  respectively.  These 
questions  were  set  at  rest  in  1811,  by  a  special  war- 
rant by  the  then  Prince  Regent,  afterwards  King 
George  IV.,  by  which  it  was  declared  that  both  the 
attoi-ncy  and  solicitor  general  should  have  i)lace  iind 
audience  before  all  other  members  of  the  English 
bar.  A  similar  fiuestion  arose  in  a  Scotch  appeal 
in  the  House  of  Lords  in  18o5,  between  the  A. 
and  Lord  Advocate,  which  was  also  decidul  in 
favour  of  the  former.  The  following  may  be  enume- 
rated as  the  principal  duties  of  the  A.  :  1st,  To 
exhibit  informations  and  conduct  prosecutions  (or 
crimes  which  have  a  tendency  to  disturb  tl;e  pe;ice 
of  the  state  or  endanger  the  constitution  (see  I'i.kas 
OF  THE  C'rown)  ;  2d,  To  advise  the  government  on 
legal  questions  ;  od,  To  conduct  prosecutions  and  suits 
relating  to  the  revenue  ;  4th,  To  file  informations  in 
the  Exchequer  for  personal  wrongs  committed  on 
any  of  the  possessions  of  the  crown ;  5th,  To  protect 
charitable  endowments  in  the  sovereign's  name,  as 
parens  patriae,  and,  generally,  to  appear  in  all  legal 
proceedings  in  which  the  interests  of  the  crown  are 
at  iitake.  The  attorney  and  solicitor  general  are  two 
of  the  Connnissioners  of  Patents  (q.  v.)  ex  officio. 
The  powers  of  the  solicitor-general  are  co-ordinate 
with  those  of  the  A.,  and  in  the  absence  of  the 
latter,  or  during  a  vacancy,  the  former  may  perform 
his  functions  in  all  their  extent.  Both  must  have 
seats  in  the  House  of  Commons,  and  their  tenure  of 
office  concurs  with  that  of  the  government  of  which 
they  :<re  members.  If  not  honourable  by  birth,  they 
are  always  knighted. 

ThG  duchies  of  Lancaster  and  Cornwall,  and  the 
county  palatine  of  Durham,  l.ave  separate  attorney- 
gen  era  is. 

ATTRA'CTION  is  the  general  name  for  the  force 
or  forces  by  which  all  bodies,  from  the  minutest  par- 
ticles to  the  largest  planets,  suns,  and  systems  of 
suns,  tend  to  approach,  or  are  drawn  towards  [ad,  to  ; 
tractus,  drawn)  one  anotlier,  and  when  in  contact, 
are  held  together.  The  term  is  generic,  embracing  a 
vast  variety  of  facts,  which  are  subdivided  under  five 
heads  or  species  of  A.  These  are — 1.  Gravitation; 
2.  Cohesion ;  3.  Adhesion ;  4.  Chemical  Affinity ; 
Fi.  The  attractions  of  Electricity,  Magnetism,  &c. 
See  Gravitation,  Cohesion,  &c.  Attempts  have 
been  made  to  deduce  all  these  phenomena  from  one 
principle  of  A.,  modified  by  an  opposing  force  of 
repulsion,  but  as  yet  without  success.  Still  less  can 
they  be  explained  by  assuming  oiJj  one  force — 
540 


A.  alone,  or  repulsion  alone — for  this,  too,  has  been 
attempted.  The  idea  of  an  attractive  force  acting  as 
the  bond  of  the  univeise  was  first  introduced  as  a 
scientific  hypothesis  by  Newton,  and  was  violently 
combated  by  Leibnitz  and  others. 

ATTRIBUTE,  in  the  Fine  Arts,  is  a  species  of 
synibol,  consisting  of  a  secondary  figure  or  object 
accompanying  the  jirincipal  figure — as  the  trident  of 
Neptune,  or  the  owl  of  Minerva.  Atlrii)Utes  serve 
to  mark  the  character  )Heant,  and  add  to  the 
significance  of  the  representation.  The  necessity 
of  using  them  lies  in  tlii'  limited  means  of  expression 
possessed  by  the  formative  arts.  Attributes  may  be 
either  essential  or  conventional.  Essential  attributes 
have  some  real  relation  or  r(  semblance  to  the  object 
or  idea  to  be  expressed  ;  and  are  often  such  as  could 
stand  alone  as  symbols — as  the  bee,  representing 
diligence.  Attributes,  in  the  strictest  sense,  and  as 
distinguished  from  symbols,  are  such  as  are  signifi- 
cant only  in  connection  Mith  a  figure,  to  which  they 
in  a  manner  belong;  e.  g.,  the  wings  of  genii,  the 
finger  on  the  niouth  of  I]ari)ocrates.  The  last  is  an 
example  of  an  accidental  or  conventional  A.,  of 
which  kind  are  also  the  anchor,  to  express  hope; 
the  crosx,  faith.  Connnon  attrib.utcs  in  Christian  art 
— the  harp  for  King  Pavid,  and  writing  materials 
for  the  evangelists,  esj)eeially  St  John. 

A  TTRIBUTE,  in  Logic,  is  used  to  denote  the 
opposite  of  substance.  Th.e  latter  is  considered  to 
be  self-existent,  while  the  former  can  only  be 
conceived  as  possessing  a  dejiendent  existence. 
Attributes  are  conimonly  said  to  belong  to  sub- 
stances. Tlius,  wisdom,  holiness,  goodness,  and 
truth  are  termed  attributes  of  (!od,  who  is  Himself 
regarded  as  the  substance  in  which  tiiey  inh.erc  ;  in  the 
same  way,  whiteness  is  called  r.n  A.  of  snow. 

A'TWOOD'S  JfACHINE,  an  instrument  for  illu.s- 
trating  the  relations  of  time,  s])ace,  and  velocity 
in  the  motion  of  a  l)ody  falling  under  the  action  of 
gravity.  It  was  invented  by  (ieorge  Atwood  or  Att- 
wood,  a  mathematician  of  some  cnjinence,  who  was 
born  in  174.'),  educated  at  Canibridgt-,  became  fel- 
low and  tutor  of  Trinity  College  in  that  university, 
j)ublished  a  few  treatises  on  Mechanics  and  Engi- 
neering, and  died  in  1807.  It  is  foimd  tliat  a  body 
falling  freely,  passes  through  16  feet  in  the  first 
second,  G4  feet  in  the  first  two  .<-eeonds,  144  feet  in 
the  first  three  seconds,  and  so  on.  Now,  as  these 
spaces  are  so  large,  we  should  re(iuire  a  machine  of 
impracticable  size  to  illustrate  tlie  relations  just 
mentioned.  The  object  of  A.  JL  is  to  reduce  the 
scale  on  which  gravity  acts  without  in  any  way 
altering  its  essential  features  as  an  accelerating  force. 
The  machine  consists  essentially  of  a  pulley,  P 
(see  fig.  1),  moving  on  its  axis  with  very  little 
friction,  with  a  fine  silk  cord  passii  g  over  it,  sus- 
taining two  equal  cylindrical  weights,  ji  and  r/,  at  its 
extremities.  The  pulley  rests  on  a  square  wooden 
pillar,  graduated  on  one  side  in  feet  and  inches, 
which  can  be  placed  in  a  vertical  position  by  the 
levelling-screws  of  the  sole  on  which  it  stands.  Two 
stages,  A  and  B,  slide  aloi^g  the  pi'lar,  and  can  l)e 
fixed  at  any  part  of  it  by  means  of  fixing-screws. 
One  of  these  stages.  A,  has  a  circular  hole  cut  into 
it,  so  as  to  allow  the  cylinder,  p,  to  pass  freely  through 
it ;  the  other  is  unbroken,  and  intercepts  the  pas- 
sage of  the  weight.  A  series  of  smaller  weiglits, 
partly  bar-shaped,  partly  circular,  may  be  placed  on 
the  cylinders  in  the  way  represented  in  figs.  2  and 
3.  A  pendulum  usually  accompanies  the  machine, 
to  beat  seconds  of  time.  The  weight  of  the  cylin- 
ders, p  and  a,  being  equal,  they  have  no  tendency  to 
rise  or  fall,  but  are  reduced,  as  it  were,  to  ma.sses 
witl'.out  weight.  When  a  bar  is  placed  on  p,  the 
motion    tliat    ensues    is    due    only    to   the    action    of 


AUBE— AUBER. 


<%^ 


Atwood's  Machine 


gravity  upon  it,  so  that  the  nioiion  of  the  whole 
must  be  considerably  slower  lliaii  that  of  tlie  bar 
falling  iieely.  Suppose,  for 
instance,  that  p  and  g  aie 
each  7^  ounces  in  weight, 
and  that  the  bar  is  1  ounce, 
the  force  ncting  on  the  sys- 
tem— lenving  the  fraction 
and  inertia  of  the  pulley 
out  of  account — would  be 
iV  "^  gravity,  or  the  whole 
w  ould  move  only  1  foot  in 
the  first  second,  instead  of 
11).  If  the  bar  be  left  free 
to  fall,  its  weight  or  mov- 
ing force  would  bring  its 
own  mass  through  1(5  feet 
the  first  second  ;  but  when 
placed  on  p,  this  force  is 
exerted  not  oidy  on  the 
mass  of  the  bar,  but  on 
that  of  p  and  p,  which  is 
15  times  greater,  so  that 
it  has  altogether  1(5  times 
more  matter  in  the  second 
case  to  move  than  in  the 
iirst,  and  must,  in  conse- 
quence, move  it  16  times 
more  slowly.  By  a  proper 
adjustment  of  weights, 
the  rate  of  motion  may 
be  made  as  small  as 
we  please,  or  we  can 
reduce  the  accelerating 
force  to  any  fraction  of 
gravity.  Suppose  the  weight  to  be  so  adjusted 
that  under  the  moving  force  of  the  bar  or  circular 
weight  the  whole  moves  through  1  inch  in  the  first 
second,  we  may  institute  the  following  simple 
experiments:  Experiment  1. — Place  the  bar  on  p, 
and  put  the  two  in  such  a  position  that  the  lower 
surface  of  the  bar  shall  be  horizontally  in  the  same 
plane  as  the  0  point  of  the  scale,  and  fix  the  stage  A 
at  1  inch.  When  allowed  to  descend,  the  bar  will 
accompany  the  weight,  p,  during  one  second  and 
for  1  inch,  Avhen  it  will  be  arrested  by  the  stage  A, 
after  which  p  and  g  will  continue  to  move  from  the 
momentum  they  have  acr|uired  in  passing  through 
the  first  inch.  Their  velocity  will  now  be  found  to 
be  q\iite  uniform,  being  2  inches  per  second,  illus- 
trating the  principle  that  a  falling  body  acquires,  at 
the  end  of  the  first  second,  a  velocity  per  second 
equal  to  twice  the  space  it  lias  fallen  through. 
Exp.  2. — Take,  instead  of  the  bar,  the  circular 
weight,  place  the  bottOTu  of  p  in  a  line  with  the  0 
point,  and  put  the  stage  B  at  64  inches.  Since  the 
weight  accompanies  p  throughout  its  fall,  we  have 
in  this  experiment  the  same  conditions  as  in  the 
ordinary  fall  of  a  body.  When  let  of,  the  bottom 
of  the  cyHnder,  p,  reaches  1  inch  in  1  second,  -1 
inches  in  2  seconds,  9  inches  in  3  seconds,  16  inches 
in  4  seconds,  25  inches  in  5  seconds,  49  inches  in  1 
seconds,  and  64  inches  and  the  stage  in  8  seconds — 
shewing  that  the  spaces  described  are  as  the  squares 
of  the  times.  Exp.  3.  If  the  bar  be  placed  as  in 
Exp.  1,  and  the  stage  A  be  fixed  at  4  inches,  the  bar 
will  accompany  the  weight,  p,  during  two  seconds, 
and  the  velocity  acquired  in  that  time  by  p  and  g 
will  be  4  inches  per  second,  or  twice  what  it  was 
before.  In  the  same  manner,  if  the  stage  A  be 
placed  at  9,  16,  25,  &c.  inches,  the  velocities  acquired 
in  falling  through  these  spaces  would  be  respectively 
6,  8,  10,  &c.  inches — two  inches  of  velocity  being 
acquired  in  each  second  of  the  fall.  From  this  it 
is  manifest  that  the  force  under  which  bodies  fall  is 
a  uniformly  accelerating  force — that  is,  adds  equal 


increments  of  velocity  in  equal  times.  By  means 
of  the  bur  and  the  stage  A,  we  are  thus  enabled  to 
remove  the  accelerating  force  irom  the  falling  body 
at  any  point  of  its  fall,  and  then  question  it,  as  it 
were,  as  to  the  velocity  it  has  acquired. 

AUBE,  the  name  of  a  river  and  a  department  of 
France.  The  river  A.,  a  tributary  of  the  Seine,  rises 
near  I'raley,  on  the  plateau  of  Langres;  flows  in  a 
north-west  course  by  Rouvres,  La  Ferte,  B;ir,  and 
Arcis;  and  falls  into  the  Seine  at  I'ont-sur-Seine, 
after  a  course  of  90  miles. — The  department  of  A., 
which  occupies  the  southern  part  of  the  old  province 
of  Champagne,  and  a  small  portion  of  BurgunJy,  is 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  Maruc  ;  on  the  E.  by  the 
riaute-Marne  ;  on  the  S.W.  by  the  Yonne  ;  and  on 
the  N.W.  by  the  Seine-et-Marne.  The  eastern  part 
belongs  to  the  basin  of  the  A. ;  the  western,  to  the 
basin  of  the  Seine.  Area,  2351  square  miles.  Pop. 
262,785.  The  climate  is  mild,  moist,  and  changeable; 
but  on  the  whole  healthy.  A  great  portion  of  the 
iirca  is  arable  land.  The  north-east  is  chiefly  applied 
to  pasturage;  but  the  south-east  is  far  more  fertile, 
rich  in  meadow-land  and  forest,  and  producing  grain, 
hemp,  rape,  hay,  timber,  and  wine.  In  minerals,  the 
department  possesses  little  besides  limestone,  marl, 
and  potters'  clay.  The  chief  manuf.ictuies  are 
woolleir'cloth,  cotton,  and  linen  goods,  i-iljbons  and 
stockings,  leather,  parchment,  &c.  The  sausages  and 
bacon  of  A.  have  long  been  famous.  I'roi/ca  is  the 
capital  of  the  department. 

AUBEXAS,  a  town  in  France,  in  the  department 
of  Ardeche.  It  is  picturesquely  situated  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Ardeche,  14  miles  south-west  from 
Privas,  in  the  middle  of  the  volcanic  region  of 
Vivarais.  It  looks  w  ell  from  a  distance ;  but  the 
streets,  with  the  exception  of  one  traversed  by  the 
diligence,  are  narrow  and  crooked,  the  squares  small, 
and  the  houses  very  irregularly  built.  An  old  and 
rapidly  decaying  wall,  flanked  with  towers,  girds 
the  town,  w  hich  contains  an  ancient  castle.  A.  is  the 
principal  mart  for  the  sale  of  chestnuts  and  silk  in 
the  department.  Several  important  fairs  are  also 
held  here.  It  possesses  in  addition  manufactures  of 
silk,  paper,  cotton,  coarse  cloths,  leather,  kc,  the 
machinery  of  the  mills  being  driven  by  water.  Pop. 
7410. 

AUBER,  Daniel  Franc;ois  Esprit,  a  composer 
of  operas,  was  born  at  Caen  in  Normandy,  January 
29,  1784.  His  father  was  a  printseller  in  Paris, 
and  being  desirous  that  his  son  should  devote 
himself  to  business,  he  sent  him  to  London  to  acquire 
a  knowledge  of  the  trade.  But  his  irresistible  passion 
for  music  obtained  the  upper-hand,  and  after  a  short 
stay,  he  returned  to  Paris.  Among  his  earliest  com- 
positions may  be  noticed — the  concertos  for  the 
violoncello,  ascribed  to  Laniare  the  violoricellist ;  the 
concerto  for  the  violin,  played  by  Mazas  with  great 
applause  at  the  Conservatory  of  Music,  Paris ;  and 
the  comic  opera,  Julie,  with  a  modest  accompani- 
ment for  two  violins,  two  altos,  and  a  bass.  These 
works  were  very  successful;  but  A.,  aspiring  to 
greater  things,  now  devoted  himself  to  a  deeper 
study  of  music  under  t'herubini,  and  wrote  a  mass 
for  four  voices.  His  next  work,  the  opera  Le  Scjour 
Militaire  (1813),  was  so  coldly  received  that  A. 
grew  disheartened,  and  resolved  to  abandon  the 
idea  of  reaching  eminence  as  a  musical  composer. 
However,  the  death  of  his  father  compelled  him  to 
be  dependent  on  his  own  resources  ;  and  in  1819 
appeared  Le  7'esfanient  et  lea  Biliefs-doux,  which  was 
also  unsuccessful  ;  but  in  La  Bergere  Chatelaine 
he  laid  the  foundation  of  his  subsequent  fame. 
In  all  these  early  essays,  as  well  as  in  the  opera 
of  Emma  (1821),  he  displayed  an  original  style; 
but  afterwards    he  became  an    imitator  of  Rossini, 

641 


AUBIGXE— AUBIISSON", 


and  disfip;ured  liis  melodies  with  fulse  decorations 
and  strivings  for  effect.  All  his  later  works,  except- 
ing La  Muette  de.  Portici  (Masaniello),  [jroduced  in 
18'J8,  are  written  with  an  assumed  mannerism,  but 
in  a  light  and  flowing  style,  with  many  piquant  melo- 
dies which  have  made  the  tour  of  Europe.  The 
operas  Leicester  (1822),  La  Neige  (182?.,)  La  Concert 
(I  la  Cour,  and  Leocadk  (1824),  Le  Ma<;on  (1826), 
Fiorella  (1826),  La  Fiancee  (1829),  Fra  LHavolo 
(1830),  were  followed  by  a  series  of  lighter  works: 
V Elixir  d Amour,  Le  Dieu  et  la  Bajadcre,  Les  Faux 
Montiayeurs,  &c. ;  the  later  operas,  Guxtare  ou  le  Bal 
Masqui,  Le  Lac  des  Fees,  Le  Cheval  de  Bronze,  Les 
Jliamants  de  la  Couronne,  La  Part  du  Diable,  La 
Sirene,  and  Haijdee,  exhibiting  the  same  popular 
qualities  as  their  predecessors  ;  but  their  interest  is 
evanescent,  as  they  are  deficient  in  depth  of  thought 
and  feeling.  His  later  works  are  Jcnui/  L'dl  (ISo.'i), 
and  Manon  Lescaut  (1856).  After  the  death  of  Che- 
rubini  (1842),  A.  was  appointed  director  of  the  Con- 
servatory of  Music,  Paris. 

AUBIGN;^,  Merle  d'.     Sec  Merle  d'Aubigne. 

AUBIGNE,  Theodore  Agkippa  r>\  a  famous 
French  scholar,  was  born  on  8th  February  lo.^ti, 
near  Pons  in  Saintonge.  At  an  early  period,  he 
exhibited  a  remarkable  talent  for  the  ac(iuisitioa  of 
languages.  Although  come  of  a  noble  fi'.iiiily,  he 
inherited  no  wealih  from  his  father,  and  conse- 
quently chose  the  military  profession.  In  1567,  he 
distinguished  himself  by  his  .services  to  the  Protes- 
tant cause,  and  was  subsequently  rewarded  by  Henry 
IV.,  who  made  him  vice-admiral  of  Guienne  and 
Bretagne.  His  severe  and  inflexible  character  fre- 
quently embroiled  him  with  the  court;  and  after  the 
death  of  Henry,  he  betook  himself  to  (iciieva,  where 
he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  literary  studies. 
He  died  April  29,  1630. 

His  best  known  work  is  his  Histoire  Universelle, 
1559—1601  (Amsterdam,  1616—1620),  which  had 
the  honour  of  being  burned  iu  France  by  the  common 
hangman,  as  also  his  Histoire  Secrete,  icrite  par  lui- 
mcme  (1721).  A.  was  possessed  of  a  spirit  of  biting 
satire,  as  is  proved  by  his  Co7ifession  Cutholirjue  du 
Sieur  de  Sanci/,  and  his  A  ventures  du  Baron  dc  L'ceneste. 

AUBRY  DE  MONTDIDIER,  a  French  knight  who 
lived  in  the  times  of  Charles  V.,  and,  as  tradition 
says,  was  assassinated  in  the  forest  of  Bondy  by 
Richard  de  Macaire  in  1371.  The  latter  became  sus- 
pected of  the  crime  on  account  of  the  dog  belonging 
to  the  deceased  Aubry  invariably  displaying  towards 
him  tlic  most  unappeasable  enmity.  Macaire  was 
therefore  required  by  the  king  to  fight  with  the  ani- 
mal in  a  judicial  combat,  which  was  fatal  to  the  mur- 
derer. This  tale  was  afterwards,  under  the  titles  of 
Aubry' s  Dog,  llie  Wood  of  Bondy,  The  Bog  of  Mont- 
argis,  frequently  acted,  the  '  dog' always  gaining  the 
greatest  share  of  applause  !  After  being  performed 
with  success  at  Vienna  and  Berlin,  it  was  appointed 
to  be  played  at  the  Weimar  Theatre,  of  which  Goethe 
was  the  manager ;  but  the  poet  resigned  his  office 
before  the  dog  made  his  dibut. 

AUBURN,  a  beautiful  city,  capital  of  Ca_TOga  co., 
New  York,  on  the  railroad  between  Albany  and  Buf- 
falo, 174  miles  W.  of  A.  and  152  miles  E.  of  B.  It  is 
21  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Owasco  Lake,  the  outlet  of  which 
flows  throu  gh  the  town.  Lat.  42°  53'  N. ;  Ion.  76° 
40'  W.  Ai  (burn  is  the  seat  of  a  theological  seminary, 
f minded  in  1821,  under  the  ejection  of  the  Presby- 
terians. Tlie  city  contains  12  churches,  viz.,  3  Pres- 
byterian, 1  Episcopalian,  3  Methodist,  1  Baptist,  1 
Univorsalist,  1  Second  Advent,  and  2  Roman  Catho- 
lic, the  Aubum  Academy,  6  banks,  and  6  or  7  news- 
I>ai'cr  offices.  The  Aubum  State  Prison  is  a  large 
and  costly  stone  structure,  and  the  number  of  con\icts 
sometimes  amounts  to  more  than  800,  The  Auburn 
542 


Academy  ha.s  from  75  to  100  students.  There  are 
5  pul)lic  free-schools,  all  in  a  flourishing  condition. 
Pop.  in  1860,  10,986. 

AUBUS.SON,  Pierre  i/,  grand  master  of  (he 
order  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  was  born  in  1423  of 
an  ancient  and  noble  French  family.  His  early  his- 
tory is  impcil'cclly  known,  but  he  is  said  to  have 
borne  arms,  when  very  young,  against  the  Turks  in 
the  wars  in  Hungary,  and  to  liave  distinguished 
himself  by  the  mingled  zeal  and  valour  he  di.'-played. 
Here  he  acquired  that  intense  antipathy  to  the 
'Infidels'  which  subsequently  animated  his  whole 
public  career,  and  gave  a  peculiar  bias  to  his  ambi- 
tion. Having  returned  to  France,  he  accompanied 
the  dauphin  iu  his  expedition  against  the  Swi.^s,  and 
was  instnmicntal  in  securing  their  defeat  at  the 
battle  of  St.  Jacol)  near  Basle.  His  mind,  however, 
constantly  reverted  to  the  ominous  eiicronchments 
in  the  East  of  the  dreaded  Mussulman,  and  at  last 
he  resolved  to  betake  hiuisclf  to  Rhodes,  where  he 
enrolled  himself  among  the  brotherhood  of  Christian 
knights.  Now,  his  history  emerges  into  clear  light, 
and  assumes  a  very  considerable  importance.  He 
swept  the  Levant,  and  chastised  the  pirates  who 
jjrowied  perpetually  among  the  Cireek  isles,  obtaining 
tlie  ajiprobation  and  regard  of  the  grand  master.  In 
1458,  by  his  ardour  and  address  he  succeeded  in 
forming  a  kind  of  Christian  league  between  the 
French  monarch  and  Ladislaus,  king  of  Hungary, 
against  Mohammed  If.  This  was  the  great  aim  of 
A.'s  life,  the  'idea'  which  continually  possessed  him 
— viz.,  the  necessity  of  a  vast  organization  of  all 
Christendom  to  overthiow  the  power  of  the  Turks. 
Step  by  step,  through  long  years,  he  won  liis  way  to 
supreme  power  in  his  order.  In  14  76,  he  was  elected 
(irand  Master.  It  was  a  critical  period  for  the  civ- 
ilisation an<l  religion  of  Europe.  Constantinople  liad 
recently  been  taken  and  the  Byzantine  empire  de- 
stroyed by  Mohammed  II.  Every  day  the  conf|ueror 
marched  further  west.  Thrace,  Macedonia,  Central 
Greece,  Scrvia,  Wallachia,  Bosnia,  Negropont,  Lesbos, 
and  the  islands  of  the  Adriatic,  liad  Ijeen  succes- 
sively conquered  by  him.  Proud  of  his  rajiid  glories, 
and  sustained  by  an  immense  prestige,  the  sultan 
threatened  to  dictate  terms  from  Rome  to  the  entire 
West.  Rhodes,  however,  stood  in  his  way,  the 
sentinel  isle  of  Christianity,  on  the  great  maritime 
route  between  Asia  and  Europe.  Mohammed  saw 
that  the  battle  between  the  two  faiths  nmst  begin 
here;  and  in  May  1480,  a  Turkish  army  of  100,000 
men,  commanded  by  a  Greek  renegade,  Palaologos, 
landed  in  tlie  island,  and  commenced  to  besiege  the 
town.  Two  desperate  assaults  were  made.  The 
Turks,  however,  were  compelled  to  desist,  and 
sailed  away,  leaving  9000  dead.  Mohammed  was 
enraged,  and  planned  a  second  expedition,  which 
was  interrupted  by  his  death  at  Nicomedeia  in  Asia 
Minor,  May  1481.  After  this,  A.  took  a  leading 
part  in  the  religious  diplomacy  of  the  papal  court, 
and  received  from  the  pontiff  many  honours  and 
privileges.  Jlcanwhile,  he  exerted  himself  to  im- 
prove and  strengthen  the  internal  oiganisation  of  the 
brotherhood,  enriching  the  diplomatic  code  of  his 
order  with  several  wise  statutes  and  regulations 
relative  to  the  election  of  dignitaries,  the  finances, 
&c.,  and  exciting  great  admiration  throughout 
Christendom.  In  1501,  he  was  appointed  general- 
issimo of  the  forces  of  the  German  emperor,  tke 
French  king,  and  the  pope,  against  the  Turks ;  and 
in  spite  of  his  great  age,  he  enthusiastically  entered 
on  his  duties,  and  sailed  to  attack  Mitylene  ;  but 
the  expedition  failed  on  account  of  the  discordant 
aims  which  the  various  belligerents  had  in  view. 
Broken  by  disappointment  and  vexation,  the  grand 
master  returned,  and  died  at  Rhodes  iu  July  1503, 
at  the  age  of  80, 


AUCn— AUCTION. 


AUCH,  the  capital  of  the  department  of  Gers,  in 
the  south  of  Frame,  situated  on  tlie  river  Gers,  42 
miles  west  of  Toulon^^e,  lat,  43°  38'  N.,  Ion-.  0°  3o  E 
Pop.  7942.  It  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop,  and 
possesses  a  museum  of  natural  science,  together 
with  an  old  and  beautiful  cathedral,  the  painted 
windows  of  wlii.h  are  greatly  admired.  Its  chief 
articles  of  trade  are  woollen  and  cotton  stufls,  iruits, 
wine,  and  brandy.  _ 

In  ancient  time?,  it  was  called  Elimhcris;  and 
at  a  somewhat  later  period  took  its  name  from  the 
Auscii,  whose  chief  town  it  was.  In  the  Sth  c,  it 
became  the  capital  of  Gascony,  and  later,  ot  the 
county  of  A.rmagiiac. 

AUCHE'NIA  (from  the  Gr.  auchrn,  the  neck),  a 
genus  of  runiiiiatiiig  quadrui)cds,  of  which  the  Llama 
(q.  V.)   and  the  Alpaca  (q.  v.)   are  the  best  known. 
The   genus  is   exclusively  South   American;   indeed, 
the  species  occur  only  on  the  lofty  ranges  of  the 
Andes.     They  are  nearly  allied  to  the  camels,  and 
may  be   regarded   as   their   representatives   in   the 
zoologv  of  America.     They  form,  along  with  them, 
the  family  Camdicke  (see  Camkl),  and  were  included 
by  Linnajus  in  the  genus  Camclus.     They  agree  with 
the  camels  in  certain  important  anatomical  charac- 
ters,  particularly  in  tlie  structure  of  the  stomach  ; 
and  also  resemble  them  very  much  in  general  form, 
in  the  long  neck,  small  head,  prolonged  and  movable 
upper  lip,  and  small  apertures  of  the  nostrils.     They 
differ  from  them  partly  in  dentition,  and  partly  in 
the  more  cloven  feet  and  movable  toes.     The  nails, 
also,  are  stronger  and  curved,  and  each  toe  is  sup- 
ported behind   by    a  pad   or  cushion  of  its   own ; 
by  all  which    the    feet   are    admirably   adapted    for 
the  rocky  heights  which  the  animals  inhabit.     Con- 
siderable doubt  exists  as  to  the  number  of  species 
of  A.     The  Llama  and  the  Vicugna  (q.  v.)  are  uni- 
versally admitted  to  be   distinct;   but  it  is  not  so 
certain  that  the  Alpaca  is  more  than  a  mere  variety 
of  the  llama,  or  that  the  Guanaco  (q.  v.)  or  Huanaca 
is  not  the  11a, na  in  its  wild  state,  although  the  obser- 
vation  of  M.  d'Orbigny,  who  resided   long  in  their 
native  counti  v,  that  in  no  circumstances  do  these 
animals  breed  together,  is  of  great  importance  with 
reference  to  ihis  question.     As  to  the  Ilueque  or 
Chilihueque — vhe  Chilian  sheep  of  some  old  authors 
— perhaps  too  much  dependence  has  been  jjlaced  on 
imperfect  descriptions,  and  furtlier  information  would 
seem  to  be  requisite  ere  any  place  can  be  assigned 
to  it. —The  ge.ius  A.  is  by  some  naturalists  called 
Zilama. 

AUCHTER.\RDER,  a  village  in  the  south-east 
of  Perthshire,  on  the  west  side  of  the  Scottish 
Central  Railway  Population  2520,  chiefly  employed 
in  cotton-weavHig.  The  popular  opposition  to  the 
presentee  to  tho  church  of  A.  originated  (1839)  the 
struggle  which  .Muled  in  the  secession  from  the 
Church  of  Scoiland  and  the  formation  of  the  Free 
Church  in  1S43. 

AU'CKLAND,  Bishop,  a  small  town  in  the  middle 
of  the  countv  of  Durham.  Pop.  about  4400.  It 
stands  on  an  "eminence,  140  feet  above  the  plain  of 
the  Wear.  A.  contains  the  abbey-like  palace  of  the 
Bishop  of  Durham. 

AU'CKLAND,  Lord,  Wilijam  Epkk,  an  able 
statesman  and  diplomatist,  third  son  of  Sir  Robert 
Eden,  Bart.,  of  West  Auckland,  Durham,  born  in 
1744,  educated  at  Eton  and  O.\ford,  and  called  to 
the  bar  in  17C)8.  In  1772,  he  became  Under-secre- 
tary  of  State,  and  one  of  the  directors  of  Greenwich 
Hospital ;  was  chosen  M.  P.  for  Woodstock  ;  and  in 
March  177G  appointed  a  lord  of  trade.  In  1778,  he 
was  nominated,  with  the  Earl  of  Carlisle  and 
Governor  Johnstone,  a  commissioner  to  treat  with  the 
insurgent  colonists  of  North  America,  but  without 


success.  When  the  former  was,  in  December 
1780,  named  Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ireland,  he  accom- 
panied him  as  chief  secretary,  and  remained  there 
till  April  1782.  Accredited  iii  1785  minister  pleni- 
potentiary to  the  court  of  France,  he  concluded  a 
commercial  treaty  with  that  country  in  September 
178G;  and  in  the  following  August  signed  a  conven- 
tion for  preventing  disputes  between  the  subjects  of 
the  two  crowns  in  the  East  Indies.  In  1788,  he 
went  as  ambassador  to  Spain;  and  on  his  return 
in  October  1789,  he  was  created  an  Irish  peer  as 
Baron  A.  In  1700  he  was  ambassador  to  Holland, 
and  in  May  1793  was  created  a  British  baron.  From 
1798  to  1801,  he  was  joint  Postmaster-general.  He 
died  suddenlv.  May  28,  1814.  A.  was  the  author 
of  the  Principles  'of  the  Penal  Law  (1771,  8vo); 
Four  Letters,  addressed  to  the  Earl  of  Carlisle,  on 
temporary  political  subjects  (1779);  Pemarks  on  the 
Apparent  VircuniKtaneeg  of  the  War  (179.5);  Speech 
on  the  Income-tax  (1799)  ;  Speech  in  Support  of  the 
Union  with  Ireland  (1800);  and  other  pamphlets. 

AU'CKLAND,  Earl  or,  George  Eoen,  Governor- 
general  of  India,  son  of  William  Eden,  Lord  Auck- 
hind,  born  August  25,  1784,  was  called  to  the  bar 
in  1809;  succeeded  his  father  in  1814  as  Lord  A.; 
and  in  November  1833  was  appointed,  in  Earl  Grey's 
administration,  President  of  the  Bo..rd  of  Trade 
and  Master  of  the  Mint.  In  July  following,  _  in 
Viscount  Melbourne's  first  ministry,  he  became  First 
Lord  of  the  Admiralty.  He  vacated  that  office  in 
November  of  the  same  year,  but  was  appointed  to 
it  again  in  184(i.  In  1835,  he  w^nt  out  to  India  as 
governor-general,  on  which  occasion  he  was  made  a 
Ivnight  Grand  Cross  of  the  Bath ;  and  in  1839 
advanced  a  step  in  the  peerage,  being  created  Earl 
of  A.  and  Baron  Eden.  He  returned  to  England 
in  1841,  and  in  1843  was  elected  president  of  the 
Asiatic  Society.  He  died  unmarried,  January  1, 
1849,  when  tlie  earldom  became  extinct,  and  the 
baronv  of  A.  devolved  on  his  brother,  Robert  John 
Eden,"  born  in  1804 ;  Bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells, 
1854. 

AU'CKLAND,  the  capital  of  New  Zealand,  .stand- 
ing on  the  more  northerly  island  in  lat.  30  5i/  S., 
and  long.  174°  5o'  E.  A.  was  founded  in  1840,  and 
by  1856  it  contained  7000  inhabitants.  In  1857,  the 
imports  were  £271,013,  and  the  exports  £93,454. 
Ships  inwards  were  00  of  16,420  tons;  and  outwards, 
47  of  8402.  The  native  vessels  registered  were  51, 
averaging  rather  more  than  20  tons  each.  The  tem- 
perature appears  to  bo  singularly  equable.  The 
mean  of  the  coldest  month  is  51°  F.,  and  that  of  the 
warmest  68'.  Annual  depth  of  rain  is  45^  inches; 
and  the  days  with  rain  are  100. 

AU'CKLAND  ISLANDS,  a  group  of  islands  to 
the  .south  of  New  Zealand,  being  about  the  olst 
parallel  S.,  and  the  167th  meridian  E.  The  largest 
of  them  measures  30  miles  by  15.  It  has  two  good 
harbours,  and  is  covered  with  the  richest  vegetation. 
The  A.  I.  are  valuable  chiefly  as  a  whaling  station, 
being  at  the  confluence,  as  it  were,  of  the  Pacific  and 
Southern  Oceans. 

AU'CTION  (Lat.  aiictioX  The  character  of  this 
convenient  mode  of  offering  property  for  sale  is 
correctly  indicated  by  the  name.  The  Latin  word 
audio  means  'an  increasing  or  enhnncement,' and 
an  A.  is  an  arrangement  for  increasing  the  price 
by  exciting  competition  amongst  purchasers.  What 
is"  called  a  Bxiteh  Auction,  in  which  the  usual  mode  of 
proceeding  is  reversed,  the  property  being  offered 
at  a  higher  price  than  the  seller  is  willing  to  accept, 
and  gradually  lowered  till  a  purchaser  is  found, 
is  thus  no  A.  at  all  in  the  original  and  proper 
sense  of  the  term.  The  A.  is  of  Homan  origin,  and 
is  said  to  have  been  first  introduced  for  the  purpose 

543 


AUCTIONEER— AUDE. 


of  disposing  of  spoils  taken  in  war.  Such  sales  were 
said  to  take  place  sub  /lastd  (under  the  S[)car),  from 
the  custom  of  sticking  a  spear  into  tlio  ground, 
probably  to  attract  purchasers  to  the  spot.  '  Condi- 
tions of  Sale,'  or  '  Articles  of  Roup,'  as  they  arc 
called  in  Scotland,  constitute  the  terms  on  which 
the  seller  offers  his  property,  and  form  an  intcgi'al 
part  of  the  contract  between  seller  and  purchaser. 
The  contract  is  completed  by  the  offer  or  bidding 
on  the  part  of  fne  i)urchascr,  and  the  acceptance 
by  the  seller  or  his  representative,  which  is  formally 
declared  by  the  I'all  of  the  auctioneer's  or  salesman's 
hanmicr,  the  running  of  a  sand-glass,  the  burning 
of  an  inch  ot  candle  (hence  the  term  '  sale  by  the 
candle '),  or  any  other  means  which  may  have  been 
specified  in  the  conditions  of  sale.  These  conditions 
or  articles  ought  further  to  narrate  hones'ly  and 
fully  the  character  of  the  object  or  the  nature  of 
the  right  to  be  transferred,  to  regulate  the  manner 
of  bidding,  prescribe  the  order  in  which  oficrers 
are  to  be  preferred,  and  to  name  a  person  who 
shall  be  empowered  to  determine  disputes  between 
bidders,  and  in  cases  of  doubt  to  declare  which  is 
the  purchaser.  Before  the  sale  commences,  these 
conditions,  which  are  executed  on  stamped  paper, 
are  read  over,  or  otherwise  intimated  to  intending 
purchasers.  The  comlitions,  thus  published,  cannot 
be  controlled  by  any  verbal  declaration  by  the 
auctioneer.  The  implied  conditions,  which,  in 
addition  to  those  thus  expressed,  are  binding  on 
the  seller  and  purchaser  in  all  auctions,  are:  1.  That 
the  seller  shall  not  attempt  to  raise  the  price  by 
means  of  fictitious  oflers,  but  shall  fairly  expose  his 
goods  to  the  competition  of  purchasers  ;  and  '2.  That 
the  purchasers  .shall  not  combine  to  suppress  com- 
petition. Much  doubt  has  arisen  as  to  the  lawful- 
ness of  biddings  for  the  exposcr.  The  cxposer  may 
set  a  price  below  which  the  thing  is  not  to  be  sold, 
which  is  best  and  most  openly  done  by  fixing  an 
upset  price,  or  he  may  expressly  reserve  to  himself 
a  power  to  offer.  '  But  if  the  sale  is  declared  to 
be  without  reserve,  or  at  the  pleasure  of  the  com- 
pany, the  plain  meaning  and  effect  of  this,  even  in 
England,  is  held  to  be  to  bar  all  biddings  in  behalf 
of  the  seller.'  '  In  Scotland,  the  law  condemns 
absolutely  such  interference.'  '  It  has  been  said, 
that  if  there  be  no  upset  price,  and  no  agree- 
ment to  sell  at  the  pleasure  of  the  company,  the 
owner  may  bid,  but  that  is  not  law,  or  is  at  least 
too  broadly  laid  down.'  Bell's  Coiiivicntarics,  i.  97, 
edit.  1858.  The  A.  duties  were  repealed  by  8  and 
9  Vict,  c.  15. 

AUCTIONEE'R,  the  person  who  conducts  an 
auction  (q.  v.).  The  A.  is  in  a  certain  sense  the 
agent  both  of  seller  and  purchaser,  and  by  the  fall 
of  his  hammer,  or  by  writing  the  purchaser's  name 
in  his  book,  he  binds  him  to  accept  the  article  sold 
at  the  price  indicated.  The  A.  may  also,  and  fre- 
quently does,  act  as  agent  for  absent  purchasers, 
or  for  persons  who  have  instructed  him  to  make 
biddings  for  them  during  the  sale.  In  both  cases, 
however,  the  purchaser  must  be  bond  fide,  otherwise 
the  A.  would  himself  become  a  '  puffer.'  As  to  the 
circumstances  in  which  he  may  bid  for  the  seller, 
see  Auction.  When  the  A.  declines  or  omits  to 
disclose  the  seller's  name,  he  undertakes  his  respon- 
sibilities to  the  purchasers.  To  the  seller,  agsiin, 
he  is  responsible  for  ordinary  skill,  assiduity,  and 
prudence.  Every  A.  pays  an  annual  duty  of  £10  to 
government  for  his  licence,  which  must  be  renewed 
on  the  5th  July;  though  there  are  certain  judicial 
sales  which  may  be  conducted  by  bailiffs  without 
licence  (see  19  Geo.  III.  c.  56,  s.  3,  and  later  Stamp 
Acts). 

AU'CUBA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
544 


Cornaccce  (q.  v.),  of  which  the  only  known  sijccies  is 
A.  Japoniva,  an  evergreen  shrub  resemljling  a  laurel, 
but  with  dichotomous  or  verticillate  yeJlow  branches, 
and,  as  seen  in  Europe,  always  with  pah;  green 
leaves  curiously  mottled  with  yellow.  It  is  dicecious, 
produces  its  small  iiur[)lc  flowers  in  8\immer,  and 
ripens  its  fruit,  a  small  red  drupe,  in  llarcli.  It  is 
a  native  of  China  and  Japan,  and  was  originally 
introduced  into  Britain  us  a  stove-jilant,  but  is 
found  to  be  at  least  as  hardy  as  the  common 
laurel,  and  is  now  a  very  common  ornamental  shrub, 
especially  in  the  suburbs  of  large  towns,  a  sort  of 
situation  for  which  it  is  particularly  adapted,  as  it 
is  very  little  liable  to  suffer  injury  from  smoke.  It 
is  often  called  the  Variegated  Laurel.  The  mottled 
appearance  of  the  leaf  is  said,  however,  not  to  belong 
to  the  plant  in  its  ordinary  natural  state;  but  only 
this  variety  has  yet  been  brought  to  Europe,  and  of 
it  oidy  the  female  plant. 

AUDJO'US,  Auni'is  (or,  according  to  his  native 
Syriac  name,  Udo),  the  founder  of  a  religiou.i  sect 
in  Mesopotamia,  flourished  during  the  4th  c.  Ho 
commenced  by  accusing  the  regular  cleigy  of  world- 
liness,  impure  morals,  &c.,  and  is  said  to  have 
op|)Osed  to  tl'.eir  manner  of  life  a  strict  asceticism, 
until  his  ccmduct  seemed  dangerous  to  the  welfare 
of  the  church,  when  he  was  excomnnmicaied.  His 
disciples,  who  were  pretty  numerous,  now  clung 
more  closely  to  him,  and  he  was  elected  their 
bishop.  In  338  a.  d.,  he  was  banished  to  Scythia, 
where  he  instituted  a  kind  of  rival  church,  and 
where  he  died  about  370  a.  d.  Our  knowledge  both 
of  his  character  and  opinions  is  derived  soh  ly  from 
inimical  authorities,  such  as  Augustine,  Athanasius, 
&c.,  and  is  therefore  to  be  accepted  with  caution. 
But  his  labours  amongst  the  fierce  barbarians  in  the 
north  are  acknowledged  to  have  been  beneficial, 
and  one  writer,  Epiphanius,  states  that  he  ought  to 
he  considered  sc/iismatical,  but  not  Jicrctlcnl.  But  if 
the  leading  featuie  of  his  system  was,  as  is  alleged, 
a  decided  tendency  to  anthropomorphism,  we  cannot 
see — according  to  the  i>rincipli's  ujion  which  the 
church  usually  proceeded — why  he  should  not  have 
been  so  called.  He  is  said  to  have  held  that  the 
language  of  the  Old  Testament  justifies  the  belief 
that  (ilod  has  a  sensible  form — a  doctrine  deemed 
heretical  in  all  ages  of  the  churcirs  history.  This 
particular  tenet  took  firnv  hold  on  many  minds, 
and  in  tlie  subse(|uent  century,  was  widely  spread 
through  the  monasteries  of  Egypt. 

AUDE  {Atax),  a  river  in  the  south  of  France, 
rises  in  the  east  Pyrenees,  not  far  from  Mont  Louis ; 
flows  for  some  time  parallel  to  the  canal  of  Langue- 
doc;  and  falls  into  the  Jloditerranean  6  miles  east- 
north-east  of  Narbonne,  after  a  course  of  more  than 
120  miles. 

AUDE,  a  maritime  department  in  the  south  of 
France.  It  comprises  some  old  'counties'  which  for- 
merly constituted  a  portion  of  the  province  of  Langue- 
doc."  Pop.  353,6.3.3.  Area,  438  square  miles.  The 
southern  part  of  A.  is  mountainous,  but  the  greater 
portion  of  it  belongs  to  the  valley  of  the  lower  A.  and 
the  canal  of  Languedoc.  Its  northern  boundary  is 
formed  by  the  Black  Mountains,  the  most  southerly 
offsets  of  the  Cevennes.  The  coast  is  flat,  with  no 
bays  or  roadsteads,  but  several  lagunes.  The  climate 
is  warm  but  variable.  The  mountains  are  composed 
of  granite,  while  the  soil  of  the  plains  is  chiefly 
calcareous,  and  about  the  coast — where  salt  and 
soda  are  procured — is  extremely  fertile,  producing 
cereals,  olives,  fruits,  and  wines.  A.  is  rich  in  iron 
and  coal,  and  mineral  springs.  The  woollen  and 
silk  manufactures  are  of  considerable  value.  There 
is  likewise  a  considerable  export  of  corn,  honey,  &c. 
The  chief  town  is  Carcassone. 


AUDEBERT— AUDITORY  NERVE. 


AUDEBERT,  Jean  Baptistk,  a  distinguished 
French  iiiitui'iilist,  was  born  in  1759  at  Rochefort ; 
studied  the  arts  of  design  and  painting  at  Paris;  and 
in  early  life  attained  a  degree  of  eminence  as  a 
miniature  painter.  Indulging  a  predilection  for  the 
study  of  natural  history,  he  was  much  employed  by 
naturalists  in  painting  the  more  rare  and  beautiful 
objects  in  their  collections.  In  1800,  after  having 
visited  England  and  Holland  for  the  purpose  of 
making  sketches,  he  published  at  Paris,  on  his  own 
account,  a  splendid  volume,  which  raised  him  at  once 
to  celebrity,  both  as  a  painter  and  author.  This 
work,  the  Histoire  Naturelle  des  Sbiffen,  des  Makis, 
et  dex  Galeopit/ieqiies  (Natural  History  of  Monkey's, 
Leniui-s,  and  Flying  Lemurs),  was  a  large  folio,  with 
62  coloured  plates,  remarkable  alike  for  their  truth 
and  beauty.  His  method  of  colour-printing  in  oil, 
which  was  then  novel  but  now  common,  was  to  dis- 
pose all  the  colours  on  one  plate  instead  of  using  a 
separate  plate  for  each  colour.  His  use  of  gold  and 
bronze  in  the  illustrations  and  letterpress  was  then 
also  as  new  as  it  is  attractive.  In  his  Histoire  des 
Colibri.i,  des  Oiseatut-monches^  des  Jacainars,  et  des 
Promerops  (Natural  History  of  Humming-birds, 
Jacamars,  and  Protneropses),  he  succeeded  by  the 
same  process  in  giving  to  his  plates  even  a  greater 
brilliancy  and  finish.     He  died  in  1800. 

AU'DITOR.  The  name  given  to  certain  officers 
appointed  to  examine  accounts  in  behalf  either  of 
the  giOverninent,  of  courts  of  law,  of  corporations,  or 
of  private  persons — Audit-office.  In  1785  public 
auditors  were  appointed  under  the  title  of  '  Commis- 
sioners for  Auditing  the  Public  Accounts,'  by  25  Geo. 
III.  c.  52,  by  which  the  patents  of  Lord  Sondes  and 
Lord  Mountstuart,  as  auditors  of  the  imprests, 
were  vacated,  the  sum  of  £7000  per  annum  being 
made  payable  to  each  of  them'  for  life,  in  lieu  of  a 
percentage  which  had  been  paid  them  on  the 
amount  of  expenditure  audited.  Many  subsequent 
statutes  have  been  passed  for  the  purpose  of  extend- 
ing and  defining  the  duties  of  these  commissioners, 
and  regulating  the  business  of  the  audit-office.  The 
commissioners  of  audit  are  empowered  to  call  on  all 
public  accountants  to  account  for  moneys  or  stores 
intrusted  to  them ;  and  should  they  fail  to  do  so, 
are  required  to  certify  their  names  to  the  Remem- 
brancer of  the  Exchequer,  and  the  Attorney-general 
of  England  or  Ireland,  or  the  Lord  Advocate  of  Scot- 
land, in  order  that  they  may  be  proceeded  against  as 
defaulters.  These  proceedings,  however,  may  be 
stayed  for  a  time  by  the  Lords  of  the  Treasury,  by 
whom  the  whole  arrangements  of  the  audit-office  are 
controlled,  on  the  application  of  the  accused.  The 
accounts  of  the  Ordnance,  of  the  Army  and  Navy, 
and  the  Land  Revenue,  are  now  subjected  to  exami- 
nation in  the  audit-office.  By  2  Will.  IV.  c.  99,  the 
powers  and  functions  of  the  Commissioners  of  Public 
Accounts  in  Ireland  were  transferred  to  the  Commis- 
sioners for  Great  Britain.  The  present  establish- 
ment at  the  audit-office  consists  of  a  chairman,  five 
commissioners,  a  secretary,  and  a  large  number  of 
inspectors  and  examiners.  The  patroiuige  is  in  the 
Lords  of  the  Treasury — Ai'ditor  of  tiik  Court  of 
Session,  in  Scotland,  is  an  officer  whose  duties  con- 
sist in  taxing  the  costs  of  suits  in  which  expenses 
are  found  due,  a  remit  being  made  to  him  for  that 
purpose,  either  by  a  division  of  the  court  or  a  Lord 
Ordinary.  The  auditor  returns  a  report  to  the  judge 
or  court  making  the  remit,  by  whom  decree  is  pro- 
nounced for  the  amount  of  the  taxed  account.  Objec- 
tions to  the  auditor's  report  may  be  stated  to  the 
judge  or  court.  The  nomination  of  the  auditor  is  in 
the  crown,  the  office  being  held  ad  vitain  aid  culpam. 
The  auditor  cannot  practise  before  the  court,  on  pain 
of  deprivation.  The  persons  eligible  to  the  office 
are  writers  to  the  signet,  and  sohcitors  before  the 
33 


Supreme  Courts  in  Scotland.  In  the  inferior  courts 
an  officer  with  corresponding  powers  is  usually  ap- 
pointed by  the  court  in  which  he  officiates.  "  The 
office  of  auditor  of  the  Court  of  Session  corresponds 
in  many  respects  to  that  of  the  taxing-masters  in  the 
Court  of  Chancery,  and  of  the  masters  of  the  Queen's 
Bench  and  Common  Pleas. 

AU'DITORY  NERVE.  By  anatomists,  the  A.  N. 
is  associated  with  the  facial,  and  is  the  seventh 
in  order  of  origin  from  the  brain,  counting  from 
before  backwards.  The  seventh  pair  consists  of  the 
portio  dura  or  facial,  the  portio  mollis  or  auditory, 
and  a  small  intermediate  portion.  The  portio  mollis 
apparently  commences  by  some  white  streaks  in  the 
floor  of  the  fourth  ventricle ;  it  then  runs  forward 
to  the  back  of  the  petrous  portion  of  the  temporal 
bone,  and  enters  the  internal  auditory  meatus. 
The  facial  then  leaves  it  to  pass  along  the  canal 
called  the  Aqueductus  Fallopii,  and  the  auditory 
divides  into  two  portions,  which  diverge — the  smaller 
one  posterior  for  the  semicircular  canals  and  the 
vestibule,  the  other  for  the  cochlea.  Those  entering 
the  semicircular  canals  divide  into  five  branches, 
forming  at  last  a  nervous  expansion  somewhat  analo- 
gous to  the  retina.  Figs.  1  and  2  represent  the 
A.  N.  (1)  dividing  into  its  two  portions,  the  lesser 
branch  supplying  the  semicircular  canals  (2),  the 
larger  branch  supplying  the  cochlea  (3).  Fig.  1  repre- 
sents the  semicircular  canals  of  the  left  side,  with 
their  bony  rings  round  the  membranous  labyrinth. 
In  this  figure,  the  cochlea  is  cut  in  half  longitudin- 
ally from  the  base  to  apex,  shewing  a  section  of  the 
spiral  canal,  with  the  nerve  proceeding  up  through  its 


Fig.  1. — Loft  Auditory  Nerve. 

axis.  Fig.  2  represents  the  membranous  labyrinth 
(2),  with  the  bony  framework  cut  away,  and  with 
the  cochlea  opened  so  as  to  shew  the  manner  in 
which  the  nerve  spreads  out  in  the  spiral  lamina. 

Several  theories  have  been  held  at  different  periods 
with  regard  to  the  manner  in  which  the  nerves  ter- 
minate in  the  cochlea,  and  how  sound  is  transmitted 
from  the  latter  to  the  brain.  The  latest,  and  that 
which  is  at  present  entertained  by  most  physiolo- 
gists, is  that  of  M.  Schultzc.  It  has  been  shown  by 
actual  experiment,  that  when  a  nerve  in  connection 
with  a  muscle  is  acted  upon  by  a  succession  of  very 
rapid  strokes  from  the  little  hammer  of  a  tetan- 
motor,  and  when  the  strokes  have  arrived  at  a 
certain  number  in  the  second,  a  stimulus  is  sent 
along  the  nerve  exciting  the  muscle  to  action.  It  is 
in  the  same  way  that  M.  Schultze  supposes  the 
impression  of  sound  to  be  propagated  to  the  nerves 
of  the  cochlea,  by  means  of  a  series  of  little  tetan- 
motors  called  the  teeth  of  Corti,  who  discovered  them. 
They  are  situated  in  the  spiral  lamina,  which  sepa- 
rates the  spiral  canal  in  the  interior  of  the  cochlea 

545 


AUDLEY— AUER. 


into  a  *  upper  and  lower  half  or  scala.  The  spiral 
lamina  consists  of  an  osseous  septum,  next  to  the 
central  axis  of  the  cochlea,   and  of  a  membranous 


Fig.  2. — Right  Auditory  Nerve. 

layer,  which  prolongs  the  osseous  septum  to  the 
outer  wall  of  the  cochlea,  thus  completing  the  spiral 
lamina.  This  membranous  septum  is  double,  and 
between  its  layers  there  is  a  chamber  which  contains 
the  teeth  of  Corti,  ranged  side  by  side  throughout 
the  whole  length  of  the  spiral  lamina,  and  gradually 
getting  shorter  from  base  to  apex,  like  the  strings 
of  a  harp  or  pianoforte.  The  chamber  is  filled 
up  by  a  tremulous  jelly-like  fluid.  The  diagram, 
fig.  3,  represents  a  perpendicular  section  of  thespiraj 


Fig.  3. 

a,  the  osseous  septum  jrroovcfl  for  the  passage  of  the  cochlear 
nerve  l>,  which  tenninates  by  a  free  end  inside  tlu-  clianibcr 
c,  along  the  floor  tif  which  it  lies  for  a  short  distance;  cf,  d 
are  the  two  la.yers  of  the  membranous  septum.  Lyint;  in 
contact  with  the  end  of  the  nerve  is  the  cnl.irsed  extremity 
of  a  rod  e,  which  is  connected  in  n,  flail-like  manner  by  the 
hinge/to  another  rod,  which  is  fixed  at  g. 

lamina.  When  the  waves  or  vibrations  of  sound 
strike  against  the  bones  of  the  head,  those  bones 
are  caused  to  vibrate  ;  this  vibration  is  transmitted 
through  the  head  to  the  bones  of  the  cochlea,  which 
in  turn  set  in  motion  the  tremulous  jelly  which  fills 
up  the  membranous  chamber,  c. 

AU'DLEY,  Sir  James,  one  of  the  original  knights 
of  the  Order  of  the  Garter,  founded  in  134-1:  by 
Edward  III.,  on  his  return  from  France  after  the 
victory  of  Cressy,  was  frequently  in  personal  attend- 
ance on  Edward  the  Black  Prince,  whom  he  accom- 
panied to  France  in  134(5.  He  was  so  conspicuously 
brave  at  the  battle  of  Poictiers,  that  the  prince  re- 
tained him  as  his  own  knight,  and  declared  him  to 
be  the  bravest  soldier  on  his  side.  He  conferred  on 
him  au  aniuial  revenue  of  500  marks,  which  A.  im- 
mediately gave  up  to  his  squires.  This  act  of  disin- 
terestedness becoming  known,  the  Black  Prince  con- 
ferred a  further  annual  sum  of  600  marks  upon  him. 
A.  also  accompanied  the  Black  Prince  into  Spain, 
and  in  1369  the  office  of  seneschal  of  Poitou  was 
conferred  upon  him.  He  took  part  in  the  capture  of 
546 


La-Iloche-sur  Yon  in  Poitou,  in  the  same  year,  and 
died  a  few  months  after.  Tiie  Prince  attended  his 
funeral  obsequies  at  Poictiers. 

AUDRAN,  Gerard,  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  engravers  of  the  French  school, 
was  born  at  Lyon  in  164(1.  He  belonged 
to  a  family  distinguished  for  its  excellence 
in  this  department  of  art.  After  a  three 
years'  residence  at  Rome,  where  he  studied 
under  Carlo  Maratti,  and  acquired  a  high 
reputation  by  his  engraving  of  Pope 
Clement  IX.,  he  was  recalled  to  France 
by  Colbert,  and  was  appointed  engraver 
to  his  majesty  Louis  XIV.  Hoie  he 
engraved  the  principal  work."?  of  Lebrun, 
with  whom  he  lived  on  terms  of  the 
closest  friendship.  His  raaster-piecea  are 
a  series  of  engravings  illustrating  the 
battles  of  Alexander.  He  died  at  Paris 
1703. 

AUDUBON",  John  James,  a  distinguished 
American  ornithologist,  was  born  in  Lou- 
isiana, United  States,  in  ilay  17 So,  where 
his  parents,  who  were  both  French,  had 
settled  on  a  plantation.  His  father,  who 
was  himself  an  ardent  lover  of  nature, 
early  directed  his  son's  attention  to  natural 
objects.  The  youth  conceived  a  passion 
for  the  study  of  birds;  and  a  book  of  ornithological 
specimens  determined  him  to  become  a  draughtsman. 
About  the  age  of  fourteen,  he  went  to  Paris,  and 
studied  for  some  time  under  the  celebrated  David. 
In  17'.)8  he  was  settled  on  a  farm  in  Pennsylvania 
by  his  father,  but  he  did  not  distinguish  himself 
as  an  agriculturist.  In  1810  he  sailed  down  the 
Ohio  with  his  wife  and  child,  on  a  bird-sketching 
expedition.  Tiie  following  year,  he  visited  Florida 
for  a  like  purpose;  and  for  many  years  after  he 
continued  his  ornithological  researches  among  the 
American  woods,  to  the  neglect  of  his  ordinary 
business.  The  latter  he  finally  abandoned ;  and 
in  18'i4  he  went  to  Philadelphia,  where  he  was  in- 
troduced to  Prince  Charles  Lucien  Bonaparte,  who 
so  warmly  encouraged  him  in  his  plans  that  he 
determined  on  publication.  After  two  years'  further 
exploration  of  the  forests  of  his  native  country,  he 
came  to  Europe  with  the  view  to  secure  subscribers 
for  his  work  on  Tlic  Birdii  of  America.  lie  met  with 
a  warm  reception  from  such  men  as  llerschel, 
Cuvier,  Humboldt,  Brewster,  Wilson,  and  Sir  Walter 
Scott.  The  issue  of  his  work  was  commenced  short- 
ly after,  each  bird  being  delineated  life-size.  The 
coloured  engravings  were  chiefly  executed  by  the 
late  Mr.  W.  II.  Lizars  of  Edinburgh.  The  work  was 
completed  in  87  parts,  elephant  folio,  containing  448 
plates.  While  the  work  was  in  process  of  publication 
in  this  country  (it  was  finished  in  1839),  A.  revisited 
America  three  times,  in  order  to  make  further  re- 
searches. In  1831,  he  began  the  publication  of  his 
American  Ornithological  Biography  in  Edinburgh, 
which  was  also  completed  in  1839.  In  1839,  A. 
finally  returned  to  America,  where,  in  1844,  he  pub- 
lished a  reduced  edition  of  his  works.  Assisted  by 
Dr.  Buchanan,  he  also  published  Tlie  Quadrupeds  of 
America,  and  a  Biograjjhy  of  American  Quadrupeds. 
He  died,  January  27,  1851,  in  his  71st  year. 

AU'ER,  Alois,  director  of  the  National  Printing- 
office  at  Vienna,  was  born  May  11,  1813,  at  Wels, 
in  L^pper  Austria,  and  was  trained  in  a  printing 
establishment  of  his  native  town  to  be  a  compositor, 
corrector,  and  manager.  He  thus  Avent  through  all 
the  grades  of  his  profession.  During  his  seamy 
leisure  moments,  A.  employed  himself  in  actiuiring  a 
knowledge  of  French,  Italian,  English,  and  other 
languages,  in  which  he  underwent  an  txaminatiou 


AUERBACH— AUGMENTATION. 


in  1835  and  1836,  before  the  university  of  Vienna. 
His  l.rilliant  appearance  on  this  occasion  opcnecl  up 
to  his  aml.ition  the  probabihty  of  a  professorial 
chair  In  October  1837,  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  Itahan  in  the  college  at  Linz,  »\  }.  PP^'' ,  ^"^  ";^- 
Here  he  laboured  assiduously  in  public  and  p.nate 
teaching,  and  published  a  variety  of  "^f^'l  ^;^';°°^- 
books  on  a  system  peculiar  to  himself.  In  18oJ 
e  i't  out  on  his 'travels  through  Germany, 
Switzerland,  France,  and  England,  collecting  mate- 
rials for  his  favourite  art.  On  .his  return  he^^as 
appointed,  in  1841,  to  the  offic^.v  i.ch  he  "ow  1  ol  - 
As  a  specimen  of  his  typographical  learning,  and  he 
resources  of  the  office  under  his  care,  A  has  printed 
and  published  the  Spraehalle,  or  Lours  ^W"  "^ 
COS  languages,  svith  Roman  types  (\ienna  1844 
and  thoLonPs  Prayer  in  200  languages,  :vith  then 
national  alphabets  (1847). 

\UERBVCH,     Berthold,     a     popular     (Terman 
author,  of  Jewish  extraction,  was  born  at  Nordstet- 
ten    ill  the  Wurtemberg  Black  Forest,  February  28, 
181-'        He    received   his   education    at    Carlsrulie, 
Stut"t-art,     Tlibingen,     Munich,     and     Heidelberg. 
HaviSo-   it   an   early   period   abandoned   the_  study 
of  Jewish  theology,    he    devoted   his   attention   to 
literature.     His     first    publications,     Judaism     and 
Modern  Literature  (Stuttg.  1836),  and  a  translation 
of  the  works  of  Spinoza,  with  a  critical  life  ot  Ins 
author  (5  vols.  Stuttg.    1841),  had   a   philosophical 
tendency.       In    his    Educated    Citizen    (Carlsruhe 
(1842),  and     ViUage    Tales    of    the    Black    Forest 
1843)     he    applied  himself    to   the    portraiture  of 
(real  life,  and   succeeded   well.      The  Vdlage   Jales 
were  translated  into  English,   Swedish,  and  Dutch, 
and   were    generally    admired.     One    of   his    later 
pnblicationsr  Schrift  und  Volk  (Literature  and  the 
People,  1846),  discusses  the  relation  in  which  litera- 
ture stands  to  the  mass  of  the  people. 

AU'GE\S     or     AU'GEIAS,    according     to    one 
account,  the'son  of  Helios  and  Iphiboe,  but  accord- 
in-  to  others,  of  Phorbas  and  Hermione,  was  king  of 
ElTs   and  renowned  for  his  wealth  in  oxen,  of  which 
he  fed  30U0  head  in  his  stables.     When  the   dung 
of  these  animals  had  been   allowed   to   accumulate 
for    many  vears,    Hercules    was    commissioned    by 
Eurystheiis  "to  cleanse  the   Augeaji   stables   in   one 
day    and   was   promised   as  payment   a  tenth  part 
of'  the   oxen.       Hercules    accomplished    the    task 
hy   turning   the  courses  of  the  rivers  Peneus  and 
Alpheus   through  the   masses    of    ordure.       A\  hen  I 
A.    refused   to  pay   the    stipulated    ^^ages,   a    wari 
ensued,  an.l  A.  was  slain  by  Hercules.     The  foble  of 
the  Augean  stables  oltcn  serves  as  an  allusion  in 
declamations  on  political  corruptions,  &c. 

AUGEREAU,  Pierre  Fran(,ois  Charles,  Duke 
of  Casti-hone,  marshal  and  peer  of  France,  one  of  the 
most  brilliant  and  intrepid  of  that  band  of  general 
officers  whom  Napoleon  gathered  around  himself,  was 
the  son  of  a  tradesman,  and  was  born  21st  October 
17,57  After  serving  some  time  in  the  French  carabi- 
niers  into  which  he  enlisted  at  the  age  of  seventeen, 
he  entered  the  Neapohtan  service,  in  which  he  re- 
mained until  1787,  when  he  settled  in  Naples  as  a 
fencing-master.  With  other  French  residents,  he  was 
banished  from  that  city  in  1792,  and  immediately 
volunteered  into  the  French  revohitionary  army 
intended  for  the  repulsion  of  the  Spaniards.  His 
services  were  so  conspicuous,  that  in  less  than  three 
years  he  was  made  general  of  a  division.  In  1 1 9o  he 
accompanied  the  army  to  Italy,  where  he  greatly 
distinguished  himself,  especially  in  the  field  bu 
also  in  the  council.  He  took  an  active  part  and 
eained  much  glory  in  the  battles  of  Millesimo,  Ceva 
Todi  CastiMione  (for  which  he  received  his  title), 
Pvovcredo,  Bassano,  &c.     In  1797  he  ^vas  appointed 


to  the  command  of  the  Army  of  the  Rhine  ;  but  in  a 
few  months  after,  the  Directory  not  liking  the  spirit 
he  displayed  there,  made  him  commander  of  the 
tenth  division  at  Perpignan.  This  post  he  resigned  in 
1799  when  he  was  elected  as  deputy  into  the  council 
of  the  Five  Hundred.  In  1801  he  received  the  com- 
mand of  the  army  in  Holland,  and  was  active  m 
several  engagements.  In  1804  he  was  made  a 
marshal ;  and  in  the  following  year  he  commanded 
a  division  of  the  army  which  reduced  the  Yorarlberg; 
and  was  afterwards  engaged  at  Wetzlar,  Jena, 
Evlau  :  also  in  Italy  (1809) ;  Spain  (ISlo)  ;  Berlin, 
Bavaria,  and  Saxony  (1813).  He  died  of  water  m 
the  chest,  June  11,  1810. 

A.r'GITE  (from  Gr.  auge  brilliancy),  or  PY'" 
ROXENE  (from  Gr.  pi/r,  tire,  and  :a-7iOS,  a  stranger), 
a  mineral  very  nearly"  allied  to  Hornblende  (q.  v.), 
which  has,  indeed,  by  some  mineralogists  been 
re-arded  as  a  variety  of  it,  although  the  distinction 
beuveen  them  is  undeniably  important,  as  charac- 
terisino-  two  distinct  series  of  igneous  rocks.  A. 
consist"s  of  47-56  per  cent,  of  sihca,  20—25  per  cent, 
of  Hme  and  12—19  per  cent,  of  magnesia,  the  mag- 
nesia sometimes  giving  place  in  whole  or  in  part  to 
protoxide  of  iron,  and  some  varieties  containing  a 
little  alumina,  or  a  little  protoxide  of  manganese.  Its 
specific  gravity  is  3-195- 3-525.  It  is  little  affected 
by  acids,  or  not  at  all.  It  is  usually  of  a  greenish 
colour,  often  nearly  black.     It  crystallises  in  six  or 


rt,  Common  Augite ;  h,  Green  Augite. 


ein-^t-sided     prisms     variously    modified  ;    it    often 
occurs     in     crystals,     sometimes    imbedded,    often 
in  grains  or  scales.     It   is  an  essential   component 
of  many  igneous  rocks,  particularly  of  Basalt  (q.  v.), 
Doleiite  (q.  v.),    and  A.-porphyry  (see  Porfhyry), 
from    which    chiefly    it   derives    its    importance    as 
a  mineral   species.     A.  Rock,  consisting  essentially 
of  A.    alone,    occurs    in    the    Pyrenees.     A.  is  _a 
common     mineral    in    the     trap-rocks     of    Britain 
and   other   countries.     It   is  rarely  associated  with 
quartz,  in  which  respect  it  differs  from  hornblende, 
but  very  often  with  labradorite,  olivine,  and  leucite. 
Fluorine,     which     is     generally    present    in    small 
quantity  in  hornblende,  has  never  been  detected  in 
A      The    form    of  the  crystals  is    also  different  m 
the   two   minerals,  as  well  as  their  cleavage  ;    but 
Professor  Gustav  Rose  of  Berlin  has  endeavoured  to 
shew  that  the  difference  between  A.  and  hornblende 
arises  only  from  the  different  circumstances  in  which 
crystallisation  has  taken  place,  and  that  A.  is  the 
production  of  a  comparatively  rapid,  and  hornblende 
of  a  comparatively  slow  coohng.  He  regards  some  of 
'  the  varieties  as  intermediate.     His  views  have  been 
supported  by  experiments,  and  by  a  comparison  of 
A.  with    certain    crystalline    substances    occurring 
anion"-  the  scoriie  of  foundries. — Diopside,  Sahlite, 
and    Ccccolite  are  varieties    of  \.—Diallage  (q.  v.) 
and  Bi/persfhcne  (q.  v.)  are  very  nearly  allied  to  it. 

AUGMENTATION,  in  Heraldry.  See  Her- 
aldry. 

AUGMENTA'TION,  in  Music,  is  the  reproduction 
of  a  melody,  or  principal  subject  of  a  composition, 
in  the  course  of  the  progress  of  the  piece,  in  notes  of 

547 


AUGMENTATION— AUGSBURG  CONFESSIOJf. 


greater  length  llian  those  notes  in  which  the  melody 
is  first  introduced.  The  tempo  remains  nnaltcied. 
A.  is  of  great  importance  in  the  treatment  of  tlio 
subjects,  or  themes,  for  fugues,  and  when  cleverly 
used,  produces  great  effects. 

AUGMENTATION,  Process  of,  in  Scotch  law. 
is  an  action  in  the  Court  of  Tcinds  (q.  v.)  hv  the 
minister  of  a  parish  against  the  titular,  or  bcncficinry, 
and  heritors,  for  the  purpose  of  procuring  an  increase 
to  his  stipend.  The  moderator  and  clerk  of  the 
presbytery  to  which  the  nnnister  belongs  must  also 
be  called  as  parties.  By  48  Geo.  III.  c.  1S8,  it 
is  enacted  that  no  A.  shall  be  granted  till  the 
expiration  of  15  years  from  any  A.  previous  to  the 
act,  nor  till  the  expiration  of  20  years  from  any 
A.  subsequent  to  the  act.  A  period  of  2(»  yenrs 
must  thus  elapse  between  each  augmentation.  The 
amount  of  the  A.  is  fixed,  or  modified,  as  it  is 
termed,  in  grain  or  victual  ;  the  stipend  itself 
being  paid  in  money,  according  to  the  fiars'  prices 
(q.  V.)  of  each  year.  In  ad<iition  to  the  ascertain- 
ment or  modification  of  a  suitable  stipend,  regard 
being  had  to  the  state  of  the  tcinds,  the  extent 
of  the  parish,  the  expense  of  living,  and  the  like — 
a  process  of  A.  has  tlie  further  object  in  view 
of  localling  the  stipend  so  modified — i.  e.,  of 
assigning  it  in  due  proportions  to  the  heritors  or 
other  parties  in  possession  of  the  tithes.  This  latter 
object  is  attained  by  means  of  what  is  called  a 
scheme  of  locality — i.  e.,  an  allotment  of  the  stipend 
modified  to  the  several  parties  liable  therelbr.  This 
scheme  is  prepared  at  the  instance  of  the  secoml 
junior  Lord  Ordinary  (q.  v.),  on  a  remit  frcmi  the 
Teind  Court.  The  last  conclusion  in  a  summons  of 
A.  is  for  a  suitable  sum,  or  increase  to  the  sum 
already  allowed,  for  comnunuon  elements — i.  e.,  for 
bread,  wine,  and  other  necessaries  for  celebrating 
the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper  after  the 
Presbyterian  fashion.  "When  there  is  not  a  suf- 
ficient amount  of  teind  to  bring  the  stipend  of 
the  minister  up  to  £150  per  annum,  with  £8,  6s.  8r/. 
for  communion  elements,  it  is  provided  by  50 
Geo.  III.  c.  84,  and  5  Geo.  lY.  c.  72,  that  the 
residue  shall  be  paid  by  the  Exchequer.  In 
addition  to  their  stipend,  ministers  have  right  to 
a  manse  and  glebe,  or  a  provision  of  £'5o  annually 
in  lieu  of  them.  Sec  Stipend,  Glebe,  Maxse  ; 
see  also  Parliamentary  Churches. 

AU'GSBURG,  historically  one  of  the  most  notable 
cities  in  Germany,  is  situated  in  the  angle  betn-een 
the  rivers  Wertach  and  Lech,  and  is  the  chief  city  of 
the  circle  of  Swabia  and  Neuburg,  in  the  kingdom  of 
B  varia.  Population  in  1864  was  49,3.32.  Though 
]iresenting  an  antique  and  rather  deserted  appearance, 
A.  has  numerous  fi;ie  buildings,  and  especially 
one  noble  street,  the  '  imperial'  Maximilian  Strasse, 
adorned  with  bronze  fountains.  Various  buildings 
are  associated  with  historical  events  of  world-inte- 
rest. The  industry  of  A.  is  reviving  ;  several  cotton 
and  woollen  factories  are  in  operation,  as  well  as 
manufactories  of  paper,  tobacco,  and  machinery.  Its 
gold  and  silver  wares  still  retain  their  ancient  repu- 
tation. The  once  flourishing  art  of  copper  engraving 
is  extinct ;  but  printing,  lithography,  and  bookselling 
have  taken  a  new  start.  The  AUgemeine  ZcHung^  or 
Augsburg  Gazette,  the  most  widely  circulated  paper 
in  Germany,  is  published  here.  Banking  and  stock- 
jobbing are  extensively  carried  on  ;  and  it  is  still 
the  emporium  of  the  trade  with  Italy  and  Southern 
Germany.  It  is  the  centre  of  a  system  of  railways 
connecting  it  with  Niirnbcrg  and  Leipsic,  with 
Switzerland,  Munich,  &c.  The  foundation  of  A. 
was  the  '  colony'  planted  by  the  Emperor  Augustus, 
r2B.  C,  after  the  conf|Ucst  of  the  Vindclici,  probably 
on  the  site  of  a  former  residence  of  that  people. 
548 


It  was  called  Aur/uata  Vindeliconim,  and  hence  the 
present  name.  It  became  the  capital  of  the  pro- 
vince of  Rhaetia,  was  laid  waste  by  the  Huns  in  the 
5th  c,  and  came  next  under  the  dominioi/  of  the 
Frankish  kings.  In  the  war  of  Charlemagne  with 
Thassilo  of  Bavaria,  it  was  again  destroyed.  After 
the  division  of  Charlemagne's  empire,  it  came  under 
the  Duke  of  Swabia ;  but  having  become  already 
rich  by  commerce,  was  able  to  purchase  gradually 
many  privileges,  and  finally  became,  in  1276,  a  free 
city  of  the  empire.  It  now  rose  to  greater  conse- 
r|uence  than  ever,  and  had  reached  the  siunmit  of 
its  prosperity  by  the  end  of  the  14th  c.  About  this 
time  (1868),  its  aristocratic  government  was  set  aside 
for  a  democratic,  which  lasted  for  170  years,  till  the 
aiistocracy,  favoured  by  Charles  V.,  regained  the 
ascendency.  A.  contiimed  in  great  eminence  for  its 
commerce,  manufactures,  and  art,  till  the  war  between 
Charles  V.  and  the  Protestant  league  of  Schmalkald 
(1540).  Along  with  Niirnbcrg  it  formed  the  empo- 
rium of  the  trade  between  Northern  Em-ope  and  the 
south,  and  its  merchants  were  princes  whose  ships 
were  in  all  seas.  See  Fugoer.  It  was  also  the 
centre  of  German  art  as  represented  by  the  Ilolbeins, 
Burkmair,  Altdorfer,  and  others.  Many  diets  of  the 
emjiire  were  held  in  A.,  and  the  leading  events  of  the 
Reformation  are  associated  with  its  name.  The 
discovery  of  the  road  to  India  by  the  Cape,  and  of 
America,  turned  the  commerce  of  the  world  into  new 
channels,  and  dried  up  the  sources  of  A. 's  prosperity. 
It  lost  its  freedom  with  the  abolition  of  the  German 
empire  in  1806,  and  was  taken  possession  of  by 
Bavaria. 

AU'GSBURG  CONFESSION,  the  chief  standard 
of  faith  in  the  Lutheran  ("lun-ch.  Its  history  is  the 
following.  With  a  view  to  an  amicable  arrangement 
of  the  religious  split  that  had  existed  in  Germany 
since  L517,  Charles  V.,  as  protector  of  the  church, 
had  convoked  a  diet  of  the  empire,  to  meet  at  Augs- 
burg, 8th  April  1530,  and  had  required  from  the 
Protestants  a  short  statement  of  the  doctrines  in 
which  they  departed  from  the  Catholic  Church.  The 
Elector,  John,  of  Saxony,  therefore,  in  March,  called 
on  his  Wittenberg  theologians,  with  Luther  at  their 
head,  to  draw  up  articles  of  faith,  to  lay  before  him 
at  Torgau.  TliQ  conmiissioned  doctors  took  as  a 
basis,  in  so  far  as  pure  doctrine  was  concerned, 
articles  that  had  been  agreed  to  the  previous  year  at 
conferences  held  at  Marburg  and  Schwabach,  in  the 
form  of  resolutions  of  the  Lutheran  reformers  of 
Germany  against  the  doctrines  of  Zwingli.  These  doc- 
trinal articles  supplemented,  and  with  a  ])ractical  part 
newly  added,  were  laid  before  the  Elector  at  Torgau. 
Melanchthon  then,  taking  the  Torgau  articles  as  a 
foundation,  began  in  Augsburg,  in  May,  and  with  the 
advice  of  various  Protestant  theologians,  as  well  as 
princes  and  other  secular  authorities,  composed  the 
document,  which  he  first  called  an  Aiiology,  but 
which  in  the  diet  itself  took  the  name  of  the  A.  C. 
Luther  was  not  present  in  Augsburg,  being  then 
under  the  ban  of  the  empire,  but  his  advice  was  had 
recourse  to  in  its  composition.  The  Torgau  articles 
were  in  German  ;  the  Confession  was  both  in  German 
and  Latin ;  and  Melanchthon  laboured  incessantly 
at  its  improvement  till  it  was  presented  to  the 
emperor,  June  25.  The  character  of  Melanchthon,  in 
the  absence  of  Luther,  had  led  him,  in  setting  about 
the  composition  of  the  document,  to  aim  at  main- 
taining a  spirit  of  love,  forbearance,  and  mediation, 
as  well  as  the  utmost  brevity  and  simplicity.  Its 
object,  which  only  became  gradually  apparent  after 
the  meeting  of  the  diet,  was,  in  the  first  place,  to 
give  a  collected  view  of  the  belief  of  the  Lutheran 
Protestants,  aiming  at  the  same  tin.e  at  refuting 
the  calumnies  of  the  Catholics,  and  at  laying  a 
foundation  for  measures  of  reconciliation. 


AUGSBURG  INTERIM— AUGURIES  AND  AUSPICES. 


Tlu"  lirst  part  of  the  confession  contained  -21  articles 
of  faith  and  doctrine:   1.  Of  God;   "i.  Of  Original  Sin ; 
3    Of  the   Son   of  God;  4.  Of  Justihcation ;   5.   Ot 
Preaching;  (>.  Of  New  Obedience  ;  7  and  8    Ot  the 
Church;  9.  Of  Baptism;   lo.  Of  the  Lord  s  Supper  ; 
11    Of  Confession  ;   VI.  Of  Penance  ;   13.  Ot  the  Lse 
of  Sacraments;   U.  Of  Church  Government :   1_5.  Ot 
Church  Order;   16.  Of  Secular  Government  ;l<.Ot 
Christ's   Second   Coming  to  Judgment ;   IS.   Ot  iree 
^ViU-   1".).  Of  the  Cause  of  Sin;  20.  Of    taith  and 
Good'  Works ;  21.  Of  the  Worship  of  Saints.      The 
second  and  more  practical  part,  which  is  carried  out 
at  o-reatcr  length,  contains  seven  articles  on  disputed 
points  :   22.  On  the  Two   Kinds  of  the   Sacrament ; 
23.  Of  the  Marriage  of  Priests;  24.  Of  the  Mass  ;   2o. 
Of  Confession  ;  20.  Of  Distinctions  of  Meat ;  27.  Of 
Conventual  Vows;  28.  Of  the  Authority  of  Bishops. 
This    document,   signed    by  some    six    Protestant 
princes  and  two  free  cities,  was  read  before  the  empe- 
ror and  the  diet,  2.5th  June  1530.     Melanchthon,  not 
looking  upon  the  Confession  as  binding,  began  shortly 
after  to  make  some  alterations  in  its  expressions  ;  at 
last,  in  1540,  he  published  a  Latin  edition  {Confcxsio 
Vanatx)    in  which    there   were    important    changes 
and  additions.     This  was  especially  the  case  with 
the  article  on  the   Lord's  Supper,  in  which,_with  a 
view  to  conciliation,  he  endeavoured  to  unite  the 
views  of  the  Lutherans  and  Calvinists.     This  gave 
rise   subsequently  to   much   controversy;  orthodox 
Lutheranism   repudiated  the  alterations  ot  Melanch- 
thon   and   long  continued  to  subject  his  memory  to 
great  abuse  ;  though  it  is  clear  that  Melanchthon  anu 
his  adherents  contemplated  no  substantial  departure 
in  doctrine  from  the  original  Confession.     It  is  not 
certain  that  the  form  of  the  Confession  found  in  the 
Lutheran  standards  is  identical  with   the   unaltered 
A   C.    as  the  two  original  documents— German  and 
Latin— laid   before  the   diet    have    been    lost.     The 
chief  distinctions  between  the  Orthodox  Lutherans 
and  the  reformed  churches  of  Germany  has  all  along 
been  adherence  to  the  'unaltered'  or  to  the  'altered 
Confession.      It  was  even  a  matter  of  controversy 
whether  the 'reformed' were  entitled  to  the  rights 
secured  to  the  Protestants  by  the  Religious  Peace  of 
Auo-sburg,  concluded  in  1555,  on  the  ground  of  the 
'unaltered'   Confession.— Though  the  A.  C.  is  still 
formally  adhered  to  by  the  Protestant  Churches  ot 
Germany,  it  is  confessedly  no  longer  the  expression 
of  the   belief  of  the  vast  majority  of  the  members, 
after  the  great  advances  made  by  theology,  and  the 
many  alterations  in  public  opinion  and  feeling. 

AU'GSBURG  I'NTERIM.     See  Interim. 

AU'GURIES  AND  AU'SPICES.  These  terms 
are  familiar  to  every  reader  of  Roman  history,  and 
are,  besides,  so  frequently  employed  in  English  in 
a  secondary  and  metaphorical  sense,  that  a  vague 
notion  of  their  original  meaning  is  caught  up  even 
by  those  who  know  nothing  of  classical  anti- 
quities. As,  however,  the  entire  religious  and 
political  Jife  of  the  early  Romans  was  deeply  pene- 
trated by  the  influence  of  their  sacred  superstitions, 
and  as  amongst  these  auguries  and  auspices  held  a 
prominent  place,  a  clear  perception  of  what  they  were 
is  a  matter  of  considerable  moment.  The  following 
statements  exhibit,  in  a  condensed  form,  the  sub- 
stance of  what  is  known  on  the  subject. 

Like  almost  all  primitive  nations,  the  Romans 
Ijelieved  that  every  unusual  occurrence  had  a  .super- 
natural significance,  and  contained,  hidden  in  it,  the 
will  of  Heaven  regarding  men.  To  reveal  or  inter- 
jiret  this  hidden  will  was  the  exclusive  privilege  pf 
the  augur,  who  apparently  derived  his  oflicial  desig- 
nation^i"  psirt  at  least,  from  arU,  a  bird;  while 
Roman  history  abundantly  proves  that  the  observa- 
tioa   of  the   flight  of  birds  was  a  principal  means 


adoi)ted  for  discovering  the  purpose  of  the  gods.  It 
was  not,  however,  any  one  who  could  bo  appointed 
an  augur.     The  gods  selected  their  own  interpreters 

that  is  to  say,  they  conferred  the  divine  gift  upon 

them    from    their    very    birth  ;    but   an    educational 
discipline  was  also  considered  necessary,  and  hence 
a  '  college  of  augurs '  figures  in  the  very  dawn  of 
Roman  history.     Romulus,  it  is  almost  certain,  was 
an     augur   himself.      He    is    said    to    have    been 
skilled  In   the   art   of  divination   from   his  youth ; 
and    by    '  divination '    we    must    specially    under- 
.•^tand  a'usury  ;  for  the  Romans,  with  patriotic  piety, 
held  all  'the"^  forms  of  divination  practised  in  other 
countries  to  be  useless  and  profane.   Previous  to  the 
O'-ulnian  law,    passed  in   the   year  307   b.  c,  there 
were  only  four  augurs,  who  were  selected  from  the 
patricians.       By   this   law,    however,    the    plebeians 
became  eligible  for  the  pontifical  or  augural  offices, 
and  five  were  immediately  created.     For  more  than 
two  hundred  years,  the  number  continued  the  same, 
lill  Sulla,  in  81  n.  c,  increased  it  to  fifteen.     Finally, 
in   the  first   days   of  the   Empire,  when  all   parties, 
sick  of  the  long  civil  wars,  hurried  to  throw  their 
privileges    at    the    feet    of    the    monarch    who    had 
brought  peace  into  their  homes,  the  right  of  electing 
augurs  at  his  pleasure  was  conferred   on  Augustus, 
after  which  the  number  became  indefinite. 

At  first,  the  augurs  were  elected  by  the  Coniitia 
Curiata  ;  '  but    as    the    sanction  of   the  former  was 
necessary  to  give  validity  to  the  acts  of  the  latter, 
they   could  always  '  veto' any  elections  which  were 
obnoxious  to  them ;  so  that  the  power  of  electing 
members  to  fill  up  vacancies  naturally  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  college  itself,  and  so  continued  till  103 
D.  C,  when  a  tribune  of  the  people  named  Aheiiobar- 
bus  carried  a  law  by  which   it  was  enacted  that  for 
the  future,  vacancies  in  the  augural  and    pontifical 
offices   should  not   be   filled   up   by  those  religious 
corporations  themselves,  but  by  a  majority  of  certain 
picked  tribes.    This  new  law  was  occasionally  repealed 
and  re-enacted  during  the  civil  wars  which  lasted  till 
the  time  of  Augustus.    The  scramble  for  power,  how- 
ever, during  these   political  vicissitudes,   as   well  as 
the  general  advance  of  knowledge,  had  rendered  its 
oroplietic  pretensions  ridiculous  in  the  eyes  of  edu- 
cated people.     By  Cicero's  time,  it  had  lost  its  reli- 
o-ious  character  altogether,  but  was  still  regarded  as 
Sne  of  the  highest  political  dignities,  and  coveted 
for  the  power  it  conferred. 

The  modes  of  divination  employed  by  the  augurs 
were  five  in  number — awiurhtin  ex  cn'lo.  ex  nvibits,  ex 
tripudlis,  ex  (piadnipcJibm,  ex  dirh.  The  f  ):■<(,  related 
to  the  interpretation  of  the  celestial  phenomena 
such  as  thunder  and  lightning,  was  apparently  of 
Etruscan  origin,  and  held  to  be  of  supreme  signifi- 
cance The  .secowf/ related  to  the  interpretation  ot  the 
noise  and  flight  of  birds.  It  was  not  every  bird, 
however,  that  could  be  a  sure  messenger  of  the  gods. 
Generally  speaking,  those  'consulted,' as  it  was  called, 
were  the  eagle,  vulture,  crow,  raven,  owl,  and  hen. 
The  first  two  belonged  to  the  class  of  aides,  or  birds 
whose  fic/ht  revealed  the  will  of  the  gods;  tjie  last 
four  to  the  class  of  oscinex,  whose  voice  divulged 
the  same.  These  two  modes  of  augury  were  the 
oldest  and  most  important.  Of  the  other  three,  the 
aun-urics  ex  tripudii.'^  were  taken  from  the  feeding 
of  "chickens;  the  auguries  ex  qundnipedilms,  from 
four-footed  animals— as,  for  instance,  if  a  dog,  or  wolf, 
or  hare,  ran  across  the  path  of  a  Roman,  and  startled 
him  by' any  unusual  motion,  he  mentioned  it  to  an 
augur,'  who  was  expected  to  be  able  to  advise  him 
wliat  to  do  ;  the  auguries  ex  dlris  (a  vague  kind  of 
augury),  from  any  trifiing  accidents  or  occurrences 
not'  included  in  the  previous  four— such  as  sneezing, 
stumbling,  spilling  salt  on  the  table,  &c. 

At  Rome,  the  auspices  were  taken  on  the  summit 

549 


AUGUST— AUGUSTIXE. 


of  the  Capitoline  Hill;  and  the  ground  on  which  the  i 
augur  stood  was  solemnly  set  apart  for  the  purpose. 
The  latter  then  took  a  wand,  and  marked  out  a 
portion  of  the  heavens  in  which  his  observations 
were  to  be  made.  This  imaginary  portion  was  called 
a  tcmplum  (hence  conteinplari,  to  contemplate),  and 
was  subdivided  into  right  and  left.  According  as  the 
birds  appeared  in  either  of  these  divisions  were  the 
auspices  favourable  or  unfavourable.  How  vast  the 
political  influence  and  authority  of  the  augurs  must 
have  been  is  seen  from  the  fact,  that  almost  nothing 
of  any  consequence  could  take  place  without  their 
sanction  and  approval.  The  election  of  every  im- 
portant ruler,  king,  consul,  dictator,  or  praitor,  every 
civic  officer,  every  religious  functionary,  was  invalid 
if  the  auspices  were  unfavourable.  No  general 
could  lawfully  engage  in  battle — no  public  land 
could  be  allotted — no  marriage  or  adoption,  at  least 
among  the  patricians  was  held  valid — unless  the 
auspices  were  first  taken,  while  the  Comitia  of  the 
Centuries  could  be  dispersed  at  a  moment's  notice 
by  the  veto  of  any  member  of  the  augural  college. 

We  have  employed  the  two  terms,  auguries  and 
auspices,  as  synonymous.  But  a  slight  difference  is 
perceptible  between  them  :  not  the  augurs  only,  but 
the  chief  magistrates  of  Rome  (inheriting  the  honour 
from  Romulus),  held  the  '  auspices,'  while  the  '  augu- 
ries '  were  exclusively  in  the  possession  of  the  former ; 
but  the  mode  of  divination,  and  the  end  to  be 
obtained  by  it,  seem  to  have  been  the  same  in  both 
cases. 

The  power  of  taking  the  auspices  in  war  was 
confined  to  the  commander-in-chief;  and  any  victory 
gained  by  a  legate  was  said  to  be  won  under  the 
auspices  of  his  superior,  and  the  latter  alone  Avas 
entitled  to  a  triumph.  Hence  has  originated  tlie 
vei\v  common  phrase  in  our  language,  'under  the 
auspices '  of  some  one,  which  usually  denotes  nothing 
more  than  that  the  person  alluded  to  merely  lends 
the  influence  of  his  name. 

AU'GUST,  the  sixth  month  in  the  Roman  year, 
which  began  with  March,  was  originally  styled 
Se.vfUis,  and  received  its  present  name  from  the 
Emperor  Augustus,  on  account  of  several  of  the 
most  fortunate  events  of  his  life  having  occurred 
during  this  month.  On  this  month  he  was  first 
admitted  to  the  consulate,  and  thrice  entered  the 
city  in  triumph.  On  the  same  month,  the  legions 
from  the  Janiculum  placed  themselves  under  his 
auspices,  Egypt  was  brought  under  the  authority 
of  the  Roman  people,  and  an  end  put  to  the 
civil  wars.  (See  Macrobius,  i.  12.)  As  the  fiftli 
month,  or  QuintiUs,  had  previously  been  styled 
Julius  in  honour  of  Julius  Cajsar,  a  day  was  taken 
from  February  to  make  A.  equal  with  July. 

AUGUSTA,  a  city,  seat  of  justice  of  Kennebec  co., 
Maine,  and  capital  of  the  state,  at  the  head  of  sloop 
navigation,  on  the  Kennebec  River,  43  miles  fi-om  its 
mouth.  By  railroad  it  is  60  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Port- 
land, 67  miles  S.W.  of  Bangor,  and  175  N.N.E.  of 
Boston.  Lat.  44"  19'  N. ;  Ion.  69"  50'  W.  Augusta 
has  9  or  10  churches,  4  or  5  banks,  and  a  flourishing 
female  academy.  It  contains  several  manufactories, 
and  8  or  9  hotels.  The  Portland  and  Kennebec  R.R., 
connecting  Portland  A\-ith  WaterAille,  passes  through 
Augusta.     Pop.  in  1860,  7609. 

AUGUSTA,  a  handsome  city  of  Georgia,  and  capi- 
tal of  Richmond  co.,  on  the  Savannah  River,  231  miles 
from  its  month,  120  K  N.  \V.  fi-om  Savannah,  and 
136  N.W.  from  Charleston.  Lat.  33"  28'  N. ;  Ion. 
81°  54'  W.  It  is  the  second  city  of  the  state  in  popu- 
lation and  importance.  The  Georgia  R.  R.,  of  which 
Augusta  is  the  eastern  terminus,  extends  to  Atlanta, 
and  the  South  C:u-olina  R.  R.  connects  it  with  Charles- 
ton. The  Augusta  Canal,  wliich  w^s  constructed  in 
550 


1845,  is  9  miles  in  length,  and  brings  the  waters  of 
the  Savannah  River  some  35  or  40  feet  al)o\'e  the  level 
of  the  city.  By  the  water-power  thus  furnishc<l,  fac- 
tories, machine-shops,  and  other  such  establishments, 
have  been  erected.  Pop.  in  1860,  12,493.  Among  the 
remarkable  pul)lic  buildings  are  the  city-hall,  which 
cost  $100,000,  the  Richmond  Academy,  a  masonic  hall, 
and  a  medical  college.  Augusta  also  contains  alx)ut 
14  churches,  a  hospital,  arsenal,  6  banks,  (including 
a  branch  of  the  state  bank),  and  4  or  5  newspajier 
offices.  A  line  of  steand)oats  connnunicates  -vnth 
Savannah.  A  bridge  crossing  the  river  connects  the 
city  with  Hamburg  in  South  Carolina. 

AUGUSTENBURG,  a  village  of  800  inhabitants 
in  the  centre  of  the  island  of  Alsen.  It  is  noted  for 
being  the  residence  of  the  duke  of  Holstcin-Sonder- 
burg-Augustenburg,  for  its  splendid  '  stables,'  and 
for  the  castle  belonging  to  the  ducal  family. 

AUGU'STI,  a  learned  German  theologian,  born 
in  177'2  at  Eschenbcrga,  near  Gotha.  He  studied  at 
Jena  under  the  celeljrated  Griesbach,  and  afterwards 
devoted  himself  for  some  time  to  public  teaching. 
In  1798,  he  liecame  lecturer  {privat-docnd)  in  jihilos- 
ophy,  and  in  18(t0  he  was  appointed  prolessor- 
extraordinary  of  the  same.  Three  years  after,  he 
succeeded  Ilgen  in  the  chair  of  Oriental  Literature; 
but  his  love  of  theological  studies  becoming  pre- 
dominant, he  accepted  the  offer  of  a  theological 
professorship  in  the  tniiversity  of  Breslau,  where  he 
exerted  a  wide  and  t)eneficial  influence.  In  1819  he 
was  transferred  to  Bonn,  and  made  a  director  of  the 
consistory  at  Cologne.  Other  ecclesiastical  honours 
were  conferred  on  him  during  the  course  of  his  life. 
He  died  on  the  28th  April  1841. 

In  the  early  part  of  his  career,  A.  was  a 
decided  ratioiuilist ;  but  subsequently  he  returned 
to  orthodox  Luthcranism,  more,  perhaps,  from  the 
conservative  bias  of  his  nature,  than  from  any 
profound  conviction  of  the  truth  of  the  national 
creed.  The  change,  however,  was  not  accompanied, 
as  is  usual  in  such  cases,  with  any  intense  Vjigotry. 
A.  remained  to  the  last  a  liberal-hearted  Christian. 
His  writings,  marked  by  great  learning,  industry, 
and  spirit,  are  much  esteemed  by  his  countrymen. 
The  most  important  is  his  Manual  of  Christian 
Arckteoloffi/  (Li-ip.  1836 — 1837). 

AUGUSTINE.  AuRELics  St.,  the  greatest  of  the 
Latin  fathers,  was  born  at  Tagaste,  a  town  of 
Numidia,  on  the  13th  of  November  354  a.  d.  His 
father  Patricius,  was  poor,  but  of  good  fiiniily,  and 
filled  the  office  of  magistrate.  He  continued  a  pagan 
till  advanced  in  years,  and  was  only  baptized  shortly 
before  his  death.  He  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
remarkable  for  any  elevation  of  mind ;  on  the  con- 
trary, one  may  fairly  conclude  fi-om  his  son's  state- 
ments, that  he  was  an  irascible,  kind-hearted  man, 
more  intent  on  his  son's  advancement  in  this  world 
than  in  that  which  is  to  come.  His  temper  often 
caused  great  sorrow  to  his  gentle  and  pious  wife, 
who  loved  him  faithfully,  however,  and  was  there- 
fore rewarded  with  the  secret  by  which  she  could 
charm  the  evil  spirit  out  of  him.  Patricius  was  very 
anxious  that  A.  should  become  a  fine  scholar,  as  he 
noticed  that  not  a  few  people  in  his  day  were  obtain- 
ing large  incomes  by  their  'wits.'  A.  was  accord- 
ingly sent  to  school  at  Madaura,  and  subsequently 
to  Carthage  to  complete  his  studies.  Previous  to 
this,  however,  he  had  enjoyed  the  inestimable  felicity 
of  a  religious  education  at  home.  His  mother, 
Monnica,  had  been  his  best  instructor.  Neander 
truly  says:  'Whatever  treasures  of  virtue  and 
worth  the  life  of  faith,  even  of  a  soul  not  trained 
by  scientific  culture,  can  bestow,  was  set  before 
him  in  the  example  of  his  pious  mother.' 

The  energy  and  penetration  of  intellect  exhibited 


AUGUSTINE. 


by  the  youii<^  A.  excited  the  most  flattering  hopes. 
When  lie  left  home  for  Carthage,  a  joyous,  ardent, 
and  resolute  student,  a  bright  career  of  worldly  pros- 
perity seemed  to  open  before  hiiii.  But  strong  as 
A.  was,  the  temptations  of  Carthage  were  stronger. 
His  nature,  deep,  impetuous,  and  passionate,  thirsted 
for  excitement,  lie  had  just  reached  the  age  when 
hiippiness  is  conceived  to  be  s}Tionymous  with  plea- 
sure, and  Carthage,  the  second  city  of  the  empire,  was 
rank  as  Rome  in  its  sensual  corruptions.  A.  fell. 
In  his  Caiifcanions,  he  paints  the  frightful  abj'.ss  into 
which  he  felt  himself  plunged ;  nor  does  he  seek  to 
excuse  himself;  on  the  contrary,  the  shadow  of  his 
guilt  is  thrown  forward  over  all  his  boyish  life,  and 
he  displays  even  a  morbid  zeal  and  acuteness  in 
pointing  out  what  others,  less  censorious,  might  term 
the  frivolous  errors  of  his  childhood,  but  which 
seemed  to  A.  the  parents  of  his  subsequent  vives, 
and  therefore  equally  bad  and  eciually  reprehensible. 
Before  he  had  reached  his  eighteenth  year,  his  mis- 
tress bore  him  a  son,  who  was  named  Adeodatus — 
afterwards  baptised  along  with  him  at  Milan.  The 
thing  which  appears  to  have  first  stirred  his  deeper 
being  into  life  was  a  passage  which  he  suddenly 
came  across  in  the  Hortenslus  of  Cicero,  treating  of 
the  worth  and  dignity  of  philosophy.  To  use  the 
language  of  Xeander :  '  The  conflict  now  began  in 
his  soul  which  lasted  through  eleven  years  of  his 
life.  As  the  simplicity  of  the  sacred  Scriptures 
possessed  no  attractions  for  his  taste — a  taste 
formed  by  rhetorical  studies  and  the  artificial  dis- 
cipline of  the  declamatory  schools — especially  as 
his  mind  was  now  in  the  same  tone  and  direction 
with  that  of  the  Emperor  Julian,  when  the  latter 
was  conducted  to  the  Platonic  theosophy ;  as, 
moreover,  he  found  so  many  things  in  the  doctrines 
of  the  church  which,  from  want  of  inward  experi- 
ence, could  not  be  otherwise  than  unintelligible  to 
him,  while  he  attempted  to  grasp,  by  the  under- 
standing from  without,  what  can  be  understood  only 
from  the  inner  life,  from  the  feeling  of  inward  w'ants, 
and  one's  own  inward  experiences ;  so  under  these 
circumstances,  the  delusive  pretensions  of  the  Mani- 
chfean  sect,  which,  instead  of  a  blind  belief  on  autho- 
rity, held  out  the  promise  of  clear  knowledge  and 
a  satisfactory  solution  of  all  questions  relating  to 
things  human  and  divine,  presented  the  stronger 
attractions  to  his  inexperienced  youth.'  A.  now 
became  a  professed  Manichrean.  Returning  to  his 
native  town,  he  lectured  for  a  short  time  on  '  gram- 
mar'— that  is  to  say,  on  literature.  Soon  after- 
wards, he  returned  to  Carthage,  to  pursue  his  pro- 
fession under  more  favourable  auspices.  Here  he 
wrote,  in  his  twenty-seventh  year,  his  first  work, 
Dc  Apto  ct  Pulvhro — a  treatise  on  aesthetics,  which 
has  unfortunately  been  lost.  About  the  same  time 
his  spiritual  nature  became  keener  and  more  impera- 
tive in  its  demands.  The  futile  speculations  of  the 
visionary  sect  to  which  he  had  attached  himself  now 
became  apparent.  He  had  a  series  of  interviews 
and  conversations  with  Faustus,  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated teachers  of  Manicha^ism  ;  and  these  so  utterly 
disappointed  his  expectations,  that  he  left  the  society 
in  disgust  and  sad  bewilderment,  after  having  wasted 
ten  years  in  a  fruitless  search  for  M'isdom  and 
truth. 

In  383  he  went  to  Rome,  followed  by  the  tears, 
the  prayers,  and  the  anxieties  of  his  excellent  mother, 
who  was  not,  however,  bereaved  of  hope,  for  both 
her  faith  and  her  love  were  strong.  After  a  short 
stay,  A.  left  Rome,  and  proceeded  to  Milan,  where 
he  became  a  teacher  of  rhetoric.  No  change  could 
have  been  more  fortunate.  At  this  time,  the  Bishop 
of  Milan  was  the  eloquent  and  devout  St.  Ambrose. 
An  intimacy  sprang  up  between  the  two.  A. 
often  went  to  hear  his  friend  preach.     He  was  not, 


however,  as  yet  a  Christian.  He  had  only  emeiged,  as 
it  were,  from  Maniclneism — the  region  of  night-clouds 
and  shadows — and  was  now  gazing  on  the  gray  dawn 
of  the  Platonic  philosophy,  proplietic  of  the  noon- 
tide splendours  of  Christianity  which  were  soon  to 
burst  ujjon  his  vision.  Still,  A.  did  not  afterwards 
despise  this  preliniinarj'  training ;  he  was  too  great 
and  honest  a  man  for  that.  He  confesses  that  the 
Platonic  writings  '  enkindled  in  his  mind  an  incred- 
ible ardour ; '  they  awakened  his  deeper  spiritual 
j  natm-e,  which  keenly  u]>))i'aided  him  with  his  sins. 
Once  more  he  studie<l  the  Bible,  although  from  a 
purely  Platonic  point  of  view,  and  rather  wishing  to 
find  in  it '  those  truths  which  he  had  already  made 
himself  acijuainted  with  from  the  Platonic  philo- 
j  sophy,  but  presented  in  a  difl'erent  form.'  He  began 
to  think  that  Christ  and  Paul,  liy  their  glorious  life 
and  death,  their  divine  morality,  their  great  holiness, 
and  manifold  virtues,  nmst  have  enjoyed  much  of 
that  '  highest  wisdom'  which  the  philosophers 
thought  confined  to  themselves.  For  some  time  he 
clung  to  his  Platonic  Christianity,  and  shaped  the 
doctrines  of  the  Bible  according  to  it ;  but  when  he 
found  that  it  was  weak  to  overcome  temptations, 
and  that  '  he  himself  was  continually  borne  down 
by  the  ungodly  impulses  which  he  thought  he  had 
already  subdued,'  the  necessity  of  a  living  persond 
God  and  Saviour  to  rescue  him  from  the  condemna- 
tion of  his  own  conscience,  and  impart  a  sanctifying 
vitality  to  the  abstract  truths  which  he  worshipped, 
shone  clear  through  all  the  stormy  struggles  of  his 
heart.  In  the  eight  and  ninth  books  of  his  Cou- 
fessions,  he  has  left  a  noble  though  painful  picture 
of  his  inward  life  during  this  momentous  crisis.  It  is 
sufticient  to  say,  that  the  Spirit  of  God  triumphed. 
On  the  25th  of  April  387  a.d..  A.,  along  with  his 
natural  son  Adeodatus,  of  whom  he  seems  to  have 
been  justly  fond,  was  baptised  by  Ambrose  at  Milan. 
Shortly  after,  he  set  out  on  his  return  home.  At 
Ostia,  on  the  Tiber,  his  beloved  mother,  who  had 
followed  him  to  Milan,  died  ;  her  ejTS  had  seen  the 
salvation  of  her  son,  and  she  could  depart  in  peace. 
After  her  death,  and  before  leaving  Italy  for  Ai'rica, 
A.  wrote  his  treatises,  J)e  Moribus  Ecclcxkt  Catholics 
et  de  Moribus  Maniclueorum  ;  De  Quantitate  Anhiue  ; 
and  Dc  Libero  Arbitrio.  It  is  unnecessary  to  relate 
at  any  length  the  subsequent  life  of  Augustine. 
His  character  and  principles  of  action  had  become 
fixed,  and  he  now  brought  the  whole  majesty  of 
his  intellect  to  bear  upon  the  side  of  Christianity. 
Having,  as  was  then  customary  for  converts, 
divided  his  goods  among  the  poor,  he  retired  into 
private  life,  and  composed  several  treatises — De 
Genesi  Contra  Maviclucos,  De  Jfn.iicd,  De  Mar/isfro, 
and  De  Vera  Jieliffio7ic,  which  secured  him  a  high 
reputation.  In  391,  he  was  ordained  a  priest  by 
Valerius,  Bishop  of  Hippo  ;  and  during  the  next  four 
years,  though  earnestly  engaged  in  the  woi-k  of 
preaching,  conti'ived  to  write  three  difi'erent  works. 
In  395,  he  was  made  colleague  of  Valerius.  Then 
ensued  a  period  of  hot  strife,  known  in  church  history 
as  the  Donatist  and  Pelagian  controversies.  A., 
as  may  naturally  be  supposed,  having  passed  through 
so  fierce  a  fire  of  personal  experience  on  religious 
questions,  would  be  very  jealous  both  of  what  he 
k7icw  to  be  the  truth,  and  of  what  he  only  thonijld  to 
be  the  truth.  This,  added  to  his  acute  and  pro- 
found intellect,  made  him,  in  spite  of  the  poverty 
of  his  historical  erudition,  a  mo.st  formidable  and 
relentless  antagonist.  But  this  portion  of  his 
career  will  fiill  to  be  treated  more  properly  under 
PELAGirs  and  Pklagian  Controversy  (q.  v.).  In 
397,  appeared  his  Covfcssiovcs,  in  13  books.  It  is 
a  deep,  earnest,  and  sacred  autobiography  of  one  of 
the  greatest  intellects  the  world  has  seen.  Passages 
of    it    have   no    parallel   except    in  the  Psalms   of 

551 


AUGUSTINE— AUGUSTINES. 


David.  In  413,  he  commenced  his  De  (Jivitate  Dei, 
and  finished  it  in  426.  It  is  generally  considered 
his  most  powerful  work.  Excejjtion  may  be  taken 
to  much  that  it  contains.  The  learning  is  no 
doubt  very  considerable,  but  it  is  not  accurate. 
A.  was  an  indifl'erent  scholar  :  he  had  studied 
the  Latin  authors  well ;  but  of  Greek  '  he  new 
little,  and  of  Hebrew,  nothing.'  Many  of  his 
reasonings  are  based  on  i'alse  and  untenable  pre- 
mises, and  he  erred  often  in  his  etymological  explan- 
ations ;  but  in  spite  of  these  and  other  drawbacks, 
the  final  impression  left  on  the  mind  is,  that  the 
work  is  one  of  the  most  profound  antl  lasting  monu- 
ments of  human  genius.  In  428,  A.  published  his 
Hetractationes,  in  which  he  makes  a  recension  of  all 
his  previous  writings.  It  is  a  work  of  great  candour. 
He  frankly  acknowledges  such  errors  and  mistakes 
as  he  had  discovered  himself  to  have  committed,  ex- 
plains and  modifies  numerous  statements,  and  mod- 
estly reviews  his  whole  o])inions.  His  end  was  now 
drawing  nigh.  In  429  the  Vandals,  under  the  bar- 
barian Genseric,  landed  in  Africa ;  next  year  they 
besieged  Hippo.  A.,  now  in  his  seventy-sixth  year, 
prayed  that  God  would  help  his  unhappy  church,  and 
grant  himself  a  release  out  of  this  present  evil  world. 
He  died  on  the  28th  of  Avigust  430,  in  the  third  month 
of  the  siege. 

No  mind  has  exerted  greater  influence  on  the  church 
than  that  of  Augustine.  Consistency  of  theological 
opinion  is  net  to  be  looked  for  from  him,  nor  from 
any  of  the  church  fathers.  A  larger  sphere  of  free- 
dom was  permitted  to  religious  speculations  in  those 
unfettered  days,  before  creeds  were  encircled  with 
that  traditionary  saiu'tity  they  now  possess.  Never- 
theless, we  have  little  dilliculty  in  detiMiiiining  the 
central  tenets  of  his  theological  belief.  He  held  the 
corruption  of  human  nature  through  the  I'all  of  man, 
and  the  consecjuent  slavery  of  the  human  will.  Both 
on  metaphysical  and  religious  grounds,  he  asserted  the 
doctrines  of  predestination,  from  which  he  necessarily 
deduced  the  corollary  doctrines  of  election  and 
reprobation ;  and  finally,  he  strenuously  su])ported, 
against  the  Pelagians,  not  only  these  o])inions,  but 
also  the  doctrine  of  the  perseverance  of  the  saints. 
At  the  same  time,  it  is  but  fair  to  add  that,  even  on 
such  points,  his  language  is  far  from  imiform  ;  that 
much  of  the  severity  of  his  doctrines  arose  from  the 
bitter  and  painful  remembrance  of  his  own  early 
sins,  and  from  the  profound  impression  which  the 
corrupt  state  of  society  in  his  time,  and  the  vast 
desolations  of  barbarism,  liad  made  on  his  earnest 
and  susceptible  soul ;  and  that,  in  his  desire  to  give 
glory  to  God,  he  sometimes  forgot  to  be  just  to  man. 
In  illustration  of  this  may  be  mentioned  the  fact 
(see  Neander,  Mosheim,  and  Waddington's  Church 
Histories),  that  the  maxim  which  justified  the  chas- 
tisement of  religious  errors  by  civil  penalties,  even 
to  burning,  was  established  and  confirmed  by  the 
authority  of  A.,  and  thus  transmitted  to  following 
ages.  In  his  epistle  to  Dulcitius,  a  civil  magistrate, 
who  shrank  from  putting  in  force  the  edict  of  Hono- 
rius  against  heretics,  he  uses  these  words :  '  It  is  much 
better  that  some  should  perish  by  their  own  fires, 
than  that  the  whole  body  should  burn  in  the  ever- 
lasting flames  of  Gehenna,  through  the  desert  of  their 
impious  dissension.'  In  the  opinion  of  Neander,  it 
was  to  the  somewhat  narrow  culture,  and  the  peculiar 
personal  experience  and  temperament  of  Augustine, 
that  the  doctrines  of  absolute  predestination  and  irre- 
sistible grace,  first  systematised  by  him,  owed  much 
of  that  harshness  and  one-sidedness  which  so  long 
obstructed  their  general  reception  by  the  church, 
and  which  continue  to  render  them  repulsive  to  multi- 
tudes. 

His  life  has  been  written  by  Tillemont,  and  his  en- 
tire works  have  been  repeatedly  edited.  The  Benedic- 
552 


tine  edition,  published  at  Paris  in  11  vols.  (ItJTO — 
1700),  is  the  best.  Numerous  editions  of  the  CoitjVx- 
sioncs  and  the  De  Civitate  Dei  have  also  appeared.  In 
the  '  Library  of  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Catholic  Church,' 
published  by  J.  H.  Parker,  there  are  tran.slations  into 
English  of  A.'s  Confessions,  Exposition  on  8t  Jnhti's 
Gospel,  and  on  the  Psalms,  Sermons  on  the  New  Testa- 
ment, and  Short  Treatises.  His  Sermon  on  the  Mount 
has  l)een  translated  by  Trench,  and  published  by  Par- 
ker aiid  Son. 

AUGUSTINE,  St.,  first  Archbishop  of  Canterljury, 
was  originally  a  monk  in  the  convent  of  St.  Andrew 
at  Rome.  In  590  he  was  sent,  along  with  forty  other 
monks,  by  Pope  Gregory  I.,  to  convert  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  to  Christianity,  and  establish  the  authority  of 
the  Roman  see  in  Britain.  The  missionaries  were 
kindly  received  by  Ethelbcrt,  king  of  Kent,  whoso 
wife  Bertha,  daughter  of  the  king  of  the  Parisians, 
was  a  Christian,  and  retained  a  Prankish  bishop  in  her 
suite  as  chaplain.  A  residence  was  assigned  to  them 
at  Canterl)ury,  then  called  Durovernnm,  where  they 
devoted  themselves  to  monastic  exercises  and  j>reach- 
ing.  The  conversion  and  baptism  of  the  king  con- 
tributed greatly  to  the  success  of  their  eflorts  auiong 
his  subjects,  and  it  is  recorded  that  in  one  day  A. 
baptised  lo,0O0  persons  in  the  river  Swale.  Nom- 
inal as  nnich  of  this  conversion  mu.st  have  been,  tliere 
is  abundant  testimony  to  the  fact,  that  a  marked  im- 
provement in  the  life  and  mannei-s  of  the  Anglo-Saxons 
ibllowed  the  evangelistic  labours  of  A.  and  his  com- 
panions. 

Ill  597  ho  went  to  Aries,  by  direction  of  the  pope, 
and  was  there  consecrated  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury and  Metropolitan  of  England.  On  his  return, 
he  despatched  a  presbyter  and  monk  to  Rome,  to 
inform  the  pope  of  his  success,  and  obtain  instruc- 
tion on  certain  questions.  Gregory's  advices  with 
regard  to  the  jjropagation  of  the  faith  are  admirable 
exam])les  of  that  pious  ingenuity  which  has  often 
characterised  the  missionary  policy  of  the  Church  of 
Rome.  Thus,  instead  of  destroying  the  heathen 
temples,  A.  was  recommended  to  convert  them  into 
Christian  churches,  by  washing  the  walls  with  holy 
water,  erecting  altars,  and  substituting  holy  relics 
and  symbols  for  the  images  of  the  heathen  gods. 
A.'s  subsecjuent  efibrts  to  establish  his  authority 
over  the  native  British  church  were  not  so  suc- 
cessful as  his  missionary  labours.  He  died  in  604, 
and  was  buried  in  the  churchyard  of  the  monastery 
bearing  his  name,  founded  by  King  Etliell)ert.  His 
body  was  removed  to  the  cathedral  of  Canterbury 
in  1091.  Bede's  Historia  Ecclesiastica  Genlis  Anglo- 
rum  is  the  great  authority  for  the  life  of  St.  Augustine. 
A  thoughtful  and  pleasing  sketch  of  it  will  be  found 
in  the  Rev.  Arthur  P.  Stanley's  Historical  Memorials 
of  Canterbnri/.       Lond.  1855. 

The  site  and  remains  of  St.  A.'s  monastery  were 
purchased  in  1844  by  Mr.  Beresford  Hope,  by  whom 
they  were  presented  to  the  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury in  trust,  for  the  erection  of  a  missionary  col- 
lege in  connection  with  the  Church  of  England. 
This  institution  was  incorporated  by  royal  charter 
in  1848.  The  buildings,  in  which  as  much  of  the 
ancient  structure  as  possible  has  been  preserved, 
contain  accommodations  for  about  45  students,  whose 
course  of  study  extends  over  three  years.  Twenty 
exhibitions  have  been  founded  in  connection  with  the 
college. 

AUGUSTINES,  or  AUGUSTI'NIANS.  names 
given  to  several  religious  bodies  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  Whether  St.  Augustine  ever  framed 
any  formal  rule  of  monastic  life,  is  uncertain  ;  but 
one  was  deduced  from  his  writings,  and  was  adopted 
by  as  many  as  thirty  monastic  fraternities,  of  which 
the   chief    were   the    Canons   Regular,   the    Knights 


AUGUSTULUS— AUGUSTUS. 


Templars  (q.  v.),  the  Begging  Ilennits,  the  Friars 
Preachets  or  Dominicans  (q.  v.),  and  the  Prcmon- 
stratensians  (q.  v.).  The  Canons  Rkgular  of  St. 
Augustine,  or  Austin  Canons,  appear  to  have  been 
founded  or  remodelled  about  the  middle  of  the 
11th  c.  Their  discipline  was  less  severe  than  that  of 
monks  properly  so  called,  but  more  rigid  than  that 
of  the  secular  or  parochial  clergy.  They  lived  under 
one  roof,  ha\-i!ig  a  common  dormitory  and  refectory. 
Their  habit  was  a  long  cassock,  with  a  white  rochet 
over  it,  all  covered  by  a  black  cloak  or  hood,  whence 
they  were  often  called  Black  Canons.  In  England, 
where  they  were  established  early  in  the  12th  c, 
they  had  about  ITO  houses,  the  earliest,  it  would 
seem,  being  at  Xostell,  near  Pontefract,  in  York- 
shire. In  Scotland,  they  had  about  25  houses :  the 
earliest  at  Scone  was  founded  in  1114,  and  tilled  by 
canons  from  Nostell ;  the  others  of  most  note  were  at 
Inchcolm  in  the  Firth  of  Forth,  St.  Andrews,  Holy- 
rood,  Cambuskenneth,  and  Inchaffray. 

The  Begging  IIeumits,  Hermits  of  St  Augus- 
tine, or  Austin  Friars,  were  a  much  more  austere 
order,  renouncing  all  property,  and  vowing  to  live 
by  the  voluntary  alms  of  the  faithful.  They  are 
believed  to  have  sprung  from  certain  societies  of 
recluses  who,  in  the  11th  and  12th  centuries,  ex- 
isted especially  in  Italy  witliout  any  regulative  con- 
stitution. At  the  instigation,  as  is  alleged,  of  the 
rival  fraternities  of  Dominicans  and  Franciscans, 
Pope  Innocent  IV.,  about  the  middle  of  the  13th  c, 
imposed  on  them  the  rule  of  St  Augustine,  whom 
they  claimed  as  their  foander.  In  1256,  Pope  Alex- 
ander IV.  placed  them  under  the  control  of  a  superior 
or  president  called  a  '  general.'  In  1287,  a  code  of 
rules  or  constitutions  was  compiled,  by  which  the 
order  long  continued  to  be  governed.  About  15*70, 
Friar  Thomas  of  Jesus,  a  Portuguese  brother  of  the 
order,  introduced  a  more  austere  rule,  the  disciples  of 
which  were  forbidden  to  wear  shoes,  whence  they  were 
called  dlscalceati^  or  '  barefooted  friars.' 

The  degeneracy  of  the  order  in  the  14th  c,  called 
into  existence  new  or  reformed  Augustinian  societies, 
among  which  was  that  Saxon  one  to  which  Luther 
belonged.  But  in  his  day,  even  these  had  fallen 
victims  to  the  general  corruption  of  the  priesthood, 
and  he  inflicted  serious  injury  upon  it  by  his  unspar- 
ing denunciations.  After  the  French  Revolution,  the 
order  was  wholly  suppressed  in  France,  Spain,  and 
Portugal,  and  partly  in  Italy  and  Southern  Ger- 
many. It  was  diminished  even  in  Austria  and 
Naples.  It  is  most  powerful  in  Sardinia  and  Amer- 
ica. 

The  name  of  Augustines  was  given  also  to  an 
order  of  nuns  who  claimed  descent  from  a  convent 
founded  by  St  Augustine  at  Hippo,  and  of  which  his 
sister  was  the  first  abbess.  They  were  vowed  to  the 
care  of  the  sick  and  the  service  of  hospitals.  The 
Hotel-Dieu  at  Paris  is  still  served  by  them. 

AUGUSTULUS,  Romulus,  the  iast  emperor  of 
the  western  portion  of  the  Roman  empire.  His 
name  was  Augustus,  but  the  diminutive  title  under 
which  he  is  universally  known  was  given  him  l)y  the 
Romans  on  account  of  the  essential  littleness  of  his 
character.  He  was  the  son  of  Orestes,  a  Panno- 
uian  of  birth  and  wealth,  who  rose  to  high  rank  under 
the  Emperor  Julius  Nepos,  whose  favour  he  repaid  by 
strirring  up  the  barbarian  troops  in  the  pay  of 
Rome  to  mutiny  against  him.  On  the  flight  of  the 
emperor,  Orestes  conferred  the  vacant  throne  on  his 
son  A.  (47t5  a.  d.),  retaining  all  substantial  power 
in  his  own  hands.  Orestes,  I'ailing  to  conciliate  the 
barbarians,  who  had  helped  him  against  Nepos,  with 
a  grant  of  the  third  of  the  lands  of  Italy,  they,  under 
the  command  of  Odoacer,  besieged  him  in  Pavia, 
and  capturing,  put  him  to  death.  A.  yielded  at 
once,  and  being  of  too  little  consequence  to  be  put 


to  death,  he  was  dismissed  to  a  villa  near  Naples 
with  an  annual  pension  of  OOtJO  pieces  of  gold.  Hia 
after-fate  is  unknown. 

AUGUSTUS,  Caius  Julius  C^sar  Octavianus, 
the  son  of  Octavius  and  Atia  (daughter  of  Julia, 
the  younger  sister  of  Julius  Caesar),  was  born  23d 
September  b.  c.  03.  The  Octavian  family  came  origin- 
ally from  Velitne,  in  the  country  of  the  Volsci ;  and 
the  branch  from  which  A.  descended  was  rich  and 
honourable.  Ilis  father  had  risen  to  the  rank  of 
senator  and  pra'tor,  but  died  in  the  prime  of  life, 
when  A.  was  only  four  years  old.  A.  was  carefully 
educated  in  Rome  under  the  guardianship  of  hia 
mother  and  his  step-father,  Lucius  Marcius  Philip- 
pus.  At  the  age  of  12,  A.  delivered  a  funeral 
oration  over  his  grandmother ;  at  1 6,  he  received 
the  toga  virilis.  The  talents  of  the  youth  recom- 
mended him  to  his  grand-uncle,  Julius  CtPsar,  who 
adopted  A.  as  his  son  and  heir.  At  the  time  of 
Cajsar's  assassination  (March  15,  B.  c.  44),  A.  was  a 
student  under  the  celebrated  orator  Apollodorus,  at 
ApoUonia  in  Illyricum,  where,  however,  he  had  been 
sent,  chiefly  with  a  view  to  gain  practical  instruc- 
tion in  military  aftairs.  He  returned  to  Italy,  as- 
suming the  name  of  Julius  Ctesar  Octavianus,  and  at 
his  landing  at  Brundusium,  was  welcomed  by  deji 
uties  from  the  veterans  there  assembled  ;  but  de- 
clining their  offers,  he  chose  to  enter  Rome  pri- 
vately. The  city  was  at  this  time  divided  between 
the  two  parties  of  the  republicans  and  the  friends 
of  Mark  Antony ;  but  the  latter  had,  by  adroit 
manccuvres,  gained  the  ascendency,  and  enjoyed 
almost  absolute  power.  A.  was  at  first  haughtily 
treated  by  the  consul,  who  refused  to  surrender  the 
property  of  Cjesar.  After  some  fighting,  in  which 
Antony  was  worsted,  and  had  to  fiee  across  the 
Alps,  A.,  who  had  made  himself  a  favourite  with  the 
people  and  the  army,  succeeded  in  getting  the  will 
of  Julius  Ctesar  carried  out.  He  found  an  able 
friend  and  advocate  in  Cicero,  who  had  at  first 
regarded  him  with  contempt.  The  great  orator,  w^hile 
imagining  that  he  was  labouring  in  behalf  of  the 
republic,  was  in  fact  only  an  instrument  for  raising  A. 
to  supreme  power.  When  Antony  returned  from 
Gaul  with  Lepidus,  A.  joined  them  in  establishing 
a  triumvirate.  He  obtained  Africa,  Sardinia,  and 
Sicily ;  Antony,  Gaul ;  and  Lepidus,  Spain.  Their 
power  was  soon  made  absolute  Ijy  the  massacre  of 
those  unfriendly  to  them  in  Italy,  and  by  victories 
over  the  republican  army  in  Macedonia  command- 
ed by  Brutus  and  Cassius.  After  the  battle  of 
Philippi,  won  by  A.  and  Antony,  of  which  the 
former  unjustly  claimed  all  the  credit,  whereas  it 
mainly  belonged  to  the  latter,  tlie  triumvirs  made 
a  new  division  of  the  provinces — A.  obtaining  Italy, 
and  Lepidus,  Africa.  The  Perusian  war,  excited  by 
Fulvia,  wife  of  Antony,  seemed  likely  to  lead  to  a 
contest  between  A.  and  his  rival ;  but  was  ended  by 
the  death  of  Fulvia,  and  the  subsequent  marriage 
of  Antony  with  Octavia,  sister  of  Augustus.  Shortly 
afterwards,  the  claims  of  Sextus  Pompeius  and 
Lejiidus  having  l)een  settled  by  force  and  fraud,  the 
Roman  world  was  divided  between  A.  and  Antony ; 
and  a  contest  for  supremacy  commenced  between 
them.  While  Antony  was  lost  in  luxurious  dissipa- 
tion at  the  court  of  Cleopatra,  A.  was  industriously 
striving  to  gain  the  love  and  confidence  of  the  Roman 
people,  and  to  damage  his  rival  in  public  estima- 
tion. At  length  war  was  declared  against  the  queen 
of  Egypt,  and  at  the  naval  battle  of  Actinni  (q.  v.), 
B.  c.  31,  A.  was  victorious,  and  became  sole  ruler 
of  the  whole  Roman  world.  Soon  afterwards,  An- 
tony and  Cleopatra  ended  their  lives  by  suicide. 
The  son  of  Antony  by  Fulvia,  and  Caesarion,  son  of 
Cwsar  and  Cleopatra,  were  put  to  death ;  and  in 
B.  c,  29,  after  disposing  of  several  affairs  in  Egypt, 

558 


AUGUSTUS. 


Gruece,  Syria,  and  Asia  Minor,  A.  returned  to  Rome 
in  triumph,  and  closing  the  temple  of  Janus,  pro- 
claimed universal  peace. 

Ilis  subsequent  measures  were  mild  and  prudent. 
To  insure  popular  favour,  he  abolished  the  laws  of 
the  triumvirate,  adorned  the  city  of  Rome,  and 
reformed  many  abuses.  At  the  end  of  his  seventh 
consulship  (b.  c.  27),  he  proposed  to  retire  from 
office,  in  order  that  the  old  republican  form  of 
government  might  be  rc-establishc<l,  but  he  was  ulti- 
mately induced  to  retain  his  power.  Hitherto,  since 
Caesar's  death,  the  consul  had  been  named  Octavian  ; 
but  now  the  title  of  AiKjitntm  (meaning  'sacred' 
or  '  consecrated ')  was  conferred  on  him.  In  the 
eleventh  consulship  of  A.  (b.  c.  23),  the  tribunitian 
power  was  conferred  on  him  for  life  Ijy  the  senate. 
Republican  names  and  forms  still  remained,  but  they 
were  mere  shadows.  A.  was  in  all  but  name  abso' 
lute  monarch.  In  12  b.  c,  on  the  death  of  Lepidus, 
he  had  the  high  title  of  Pontifcx  Maximus,  or  High 
Priest,  bestowed  on  him.  The  nation  surrendered 
to  him  all  the  power  and  honour  that  it  had  to 
give. 

After  a  course  of  victories  in  Asia,  Spain,  Pan- 
nonia,  Dalmatia,  Gaul,  &c.,  A.  (!)  b.  c.)  suffered  the 
T-reatest  defeat  he  had  sustained  in  the  course  of  his 


youth,  he  .spent  some  time  at  Prague,  and  there 
formeil  an  intimate  friend.^hip  with  Slaximilian,  King 
Ferdinand's  son,  afterwards  Emperor  of  Germany. 
In  1.548  he  married  Anna,  daughter  of  Chris- 
tian III.  of  Denmark,  who  was  universally  popular 
on  account  of  her  devoted  adherence  to  Lutheranism 
and  of  her  domestic  worth.  After  the  death  of 
his  brother,  Maurice,  in  l.^.'iS,  A.  succeeded  to  the 
electorate.  His  rule  is  chiefly  noticeable  as  bear- 
ing upon  the  history  of  the  newly  established  Prot- 
estant Church.  Equally  intolerant  and  inconsistent 
in  his  theology,  A.  first  used  his  utmost  influence 
in  favour  of  the  Calvinistic  doctrine  of  the  sacra- 
ments; and  then,  in  1574,  adopted  the  Lutheran 
tenets,  and  persecuted  the  Calvinists.  On  the  other 
hand,  however,  it  must  be  owned,  to  his  honour, 
that,  by  his  skilful  internal  administration,  he 
raised  his  country  f^ir  above  the  level  of  any  other  in 
(n-rmany,  introilueing  valual)le  reforms  both  in 
jurisprudence  atid  finance,  and  giving  a  decided 
impetus  to  education,  agriculture,  manufactures,  and 
commerce.'  He  even  wrote  a  book  on  the  manage' 
ment  of  orchards  and  gardens,  and  commanded  that 
every  newly-married  pair  should,  within  the  first 
year  of  their  marriage,  plant  two  fruit-trees.  The 
Dresden  Lilirarv  owes  its  origin  to  him,  as  do  also 


Ions  rule,  in  the  person  of  Quintilius  Varus,  whose    most  of  its  galleries  of  art  and  science.     His  own 


armv  was  totally  destroyed  by  the  Germans. 

This  loss  so  afflicted  A.,  that  for  some  time  he 
allowed  his  beard  and  hair  to  grow,  as  a  sign  of  deep 
mourning,  and  often  exclaimed  :  '  0  Varus,  restore 
me  my  legions ! '  From  this  time  A.  confined 
himself  to  plans  of  domestic  improvement  and 
reform,  and  so  beautified  Rome,  that  it  was  said,  '  A. 
found  the  city  built  of  bricks,  and  left  it  built  of 
marble.'  He  also  founded  cities  in  several  parts  of 
the  empire ;  and  altars  were  raised  by  the  grateful 
people  to  commemorate  his  beneficence ;  while  by  a 
decree  of  the  Senate,  the  name  Augustus  was  given 
to  the  month  Sextilis. 

Though  surrounded  thus  with  honour    and    pros- 
perity, A.  was  not  free  from  domestic  trouble.     The 
abandoned  conduct  of  his    daughter    Julia  was   the 
cause  of  sore  vexation  to  iiim.     He  had  no  son,  and 
Marcellus,  the    son    of   his    sister,    and    £'aius    and 
Lucius,   the    sons    of   his    daughter,  whom   he   had 
appointed  as  his  successors  and  heirs,  as  well  as  his 
favourite  step-son  Drusus,  all  died  early ;    while  his 
step-son  Tiberius  was  an  unamiable  character  whom 
he  could  not  love.     Age,  domestic  sorrows  and  failing 
health,  warned  him  to  seek  rest ;  and,  to  recruit  his 
strength,  he  undertook  a  journey  to   Campania  ;   but 
his  infirmity  increased,  and  he  died  at  Nola  (August 
19  A.  D.  14),  in  the  seventy-seventh  year  of  his  age. 
According  to   tradition,  shortly  before  his  death  he 
called  for  a  mirror,  arranged  his  hair  neatly,  and  said 
to   his   attendants :     '  Have  I  played  my  part  well  ? 
If  so,   applaud  me  ! '     A.  had  consummate  tact  and 
address  as  a  ruler  and  politician,  and  could  keep  his 
plans  in  secrecy  while  he  made  use  of  the  passions 
and   talents   of  others  to  forward  his  own  designs. 
The    good    and    great  measures  wliich   marked   his 
reign   were   originated  mostly   by  A.    himself.      He 
encouraged  agriculture,  patronised  the  arts  and  liter- 
ature, and  was  himself  an  author ;    Imt  only  a  few 
fragments  of  his  writings  have  been  preserved.     Hor- 
ace, Virgil,  and  all  the  most  celebrated  Latin  poets 
and  scholars,  were  his  friends.    His  was  the  AngvMan 
Age  of  literature.     His  death  threw  a  shade  of  sorrow 
over  the  whole  Roman  world ;    the  bereaved  people 
erected  temples  and  altars  to  his  memory,  and  num- 
bered him  among  the  gods. 

AUGU'STUS,    Elector    of    Saxony    (1.553—1.586), 

eon  of  Duke  Henry  the  Pious,  and  of  Katherine  of 

Mecklenburg,  was  born  July  31,  1526,   at  Freiberg, 

then  the  seat  of  his  father's  court.      While  still  a 

554 


favourite  private  pursuit  was  that  of  alchemy,  in 
which  the  Eicctress  Anna  also  took  a  part.  In  the 
January  of  1586 — the  electress  having  died  in  the 
prevous  year — A.  married  a  young  princess  of 
Anhalt,  but  died  a  month  after,  and  was  buried  in 
the  ciit.hedral  of  Freiberg.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
son.  Christian  I. 

AI'GU'STUS    II.,    FnEDERicK,    commonly    called 
the  Strong,  Elector  of   Saxony  and  king  of  Poland, 
.second  son  of  the  elector,  John   (leorge   III.,  and   of 
the    Dani.-ih    princess,    Anna    Sophia,    was    born    at 
Dresden   in    1670.      His   extraordinary  .strength  was 
developed  by  a  careful   physical  education,  and  his 
mental    faculties    more    successfully  cultivated   than 
his  morals.     From   1687  to   1689  he  travelled  over 
the  greatest  part  of  Europe,  but  was  prohibited  by 
his   father   from   visiting   Rome.     Upon    his   father's 
death  (1691),  he  went  to  Vienna,  and  there  formed 
an    intimacy   with    Joseph,    king    of    Rome,    which 
materially  influenced   his  politics.     When,  in   1694, 
he    succeeded    to    his    brother    George   as    Elector, 
instead  of  turning  his  arms  against  France,  according 
to   previous   arrangement,    he    undertook    the    com- 
mand of  the  Austro-Saxon   army  against  the   Turks 
in  Hungary.     After  the  battle  of  Olasch,  in  1696,  he 
returned  to  Vienna  as  a  candidate  for  the  throne  of 
Poland,  vacated  by  John  Sobieski.     Bidding  higher 
than  Prince  Conti  for  the  crown  (10  million  Polish 
florins),  and    adopting    the    Catholic    faith,    he   was 
elected  king  by  the  venal  nobles  ;  and  having,  by  his 
imposing  force,    awed    the   adherents   of    Conti,   he 
was  crowned  at  Cracow,  15th  September,  1697.     On 
ascending  the  throne,  he  promised  to  itgain,  for  his 
new  kingdom,  the  provinces  that  had  been  ceded  to 
Sweden ;    but  his  eflbrts  to  do  this  only  led  to  the 
defeat  of  himself  and  his  allies,  his  own  deposition 
as  king  of  Poland,  the  election  of  Stani.-laus  Lesz- 
cynski,  and  the  ignominious  peace  of  Altranstiidt  in 
1706.     So  complete  was  his  humiliation,  that  A.  was 
compelled  to  send  a  letter   of    congratulation   to   the 
new  Polish  king,  together  with  all  the  crown-jewels 
and  archives.     However,  on  receiving  intelligence  of 
the  defeat  of  Charles  XII.  at  Pultowa,  in  1709,  he 
declared  the  treaty  of  Altranstadt  annulled,  marched 
with  a  powerful  army  into  Poland,  formed  a  fresh 
alliance  with  the  czar,  and  recommenced  a  war  with 
Sweden,  which  continued  raging  with  redoubled  fury, 
till    the   death   of    Charles    XII.    at    Frederickshall, 
in  1718,  gave  a  new  aspect  to  affairs,  leading  first  to 


AUGUSTUS— AUK. 


a  truce,  and  eventnally  to  a  peace  with  Sweden. 
Meanwhile,  a  confederation,  headed  by  a  Polish 
nobleman,  had  been  formed  against  the  Saxons,  and 
repulsed  them  with  much  success,  till,  in  1716, 
through  tlie  mediation  of  the  czar,  a  compact  was 
made  between  the  Poles  and  A.,  agreeably  to  which 
the  Saxon  troops  left  the  Uingdom.  The  king  now 
found  himself  obliged  to  employ  conciliation,  and  the 
splendour  of  his  dissolute  court  soon  won  the  favour 
of  the  Polish  nobles,  who  followed  his  example  but 
too  closely.  Saxony  had  bitter  cause  to  regret  the 
union  of  the  crowns.  Its  resources  were  shame- 
fully squandered,  even  when  want  and  famine  were 
in  the  land,  on  the  adornment  of  the  capital,  on  the 
king's  mistresses,  his  illegitimate  children,  and  the 
alchemists  who  deluded  him  with  hopes  of  th.e  elixir 
of  life.  A.  supported  the  fine  arts  as  ministering 
to  luxury,  but  did  little  for  the  cause  of  science. 
Despotic  in  principle,  though  easy  in  temper ;  ambi- 
tious as  well  as  luxurious ;  reckless  alike  in  the 
pursuit  of  war  and  pleasure,  death  overtook  him  in 
the  midst  of  projected  festivities.  On  his  way  to 
the  Warsaw  diet,  gangrene  of  an  old  wound  set 
in,  and  he  died  in  February  1733,  and  was  buried 
at  Cracow.  By  his  wife — a  Protestant,  and  daughter 
of  the  Margrave  of  Brandenburg-Kulmbach — he 
left  an  only  son,  who  succeeded  to  him.  The  most 
celebrated  of  his  numerous  illegitimate  offspring — 
amounting,  it  is  affirmed,  to  somewhere  about  300 — 
was  Maurice,  Count  of  Saxony. 

AUGU'STUS  III.,  Frederick,  Elector  of  Saxony, 
and  king  of  Poland,  the  son  and  successor  of  the 
above,  was  born  in  October  1690,  and  carefully 
educated  by  his  mother  in  the  Protestant  faith.  At 
the  age  of  fifteen,  however,  he  left  her  tutelage  for 
a  tour  through  Germany,  France,  and  Italy,  where 
he  changed  his  religion,  secretly  professing  Catho- 
licism at  Bologna,  in  1712,  though  the  lact  was 
not  publicly  known  in  Saxony  till  five  years  later. 
It  is  possible  that  an  eye  to  the  crown  of  Poland, 
and  to  an  alliance  with  one  of  the  Austrian  prin- 
cesses, may  have  had  something  to  do  with  this 
step.  After  succeeding  his  father  in  the  elec- 
torate in  1733,  he  was  chosen  king  of  Poland  by 
a  part  of  the  nobility;  and  triumphing  over  the 
rival  claims  of  Stanislaus  Leszcynski,  supported 
by  Louis  XV.,  was  unanimously  proclaimed  three 
years  later.  He  inherited  his  father's  sumptuous 
tastes,  though  not  his  talents ;  and  his  love  of 
art,  cultivated  by  his  Italian  tour,  enriched  the 
gallery  of  Dresden  with  noble  paintings.  The  gov- 
ernment of  his  country  he  made  over  entirely  to 
his  prime  minister.  Count  von  Bruhl,  whose  whole 
political  system  consisted  in  complete  dependence 
upon  Russia.  In  1742,  alarmed  at  the  increased 
power  Prussia  had  obtained  by  the  conquest  of 
Silesia,  A.  formed  an  alliance  with  Maria  Theresa; 
and  by  the  secret  treaty  of  Leipsic,  contracted  to 
supply  her  with  50,000  men.  But  their  united  troops 
were  completely  routed  by  the  Prussians  in  1745  ; 
and  Frederick  II.  pushing  on  into  Saxony,  A.  had 
to  escape  from  his  cajjital,  saving  his  art-treasures, 
but  leaving  his  state-papers  in  the  hands  of  the 
conqueror.  In  1746,  the  peace  of  Dresden  restored 
him  Saxony  ;  but  the  close  of  the  year  again  saw 
him  embroiled  with  Prussia.  Joining  the  camp  at 
Pirna,  he  narrowly  escaped  being  taken  prisoner, 
and  haji  to  flee  to  Poland,  where  his  popularity, 
never  very  great,  was  much  diminished  by  his 
recent  reverses  in  Saxony,  added  to  which  the 
Empress  Catharine  of  Eussia  used  every  effort  to 
dislodge  him,  as  being  an  ally  of  France.  At  the 
conclusion  of  the  peace  of  Ilubertsburg,  A.  returned 
to  Dresden,  where  he  died  in  1763.  His  son, 
Frederick  Christian,  succeeded  him  in  the  electorate, 
and  Stanislaus  Poniatowski  became  king  of  Poland. 


I  AUK  (Alca),  a  genus  of  web-footed  birds,  the  type 
of  a  family  called  Alcadie,  which  was  in  great  part 
included  in  the  Linna;an  genus  Alca,  and  to  many 
of  the  species  of  which,  now-  ranked  in  other  genera, 
the  name  A.  is  still  popularly  extended.  The  Al- 
cadm  are  amongst  those  web-footed  birds  collectively 
called  Jh-ac/ii/pfrres  (i.  e.,  short-winged)  or  Divers 
by  Cuvier,   remarkable   for  the   shortness  of  their 


Great  and  Little  Auks. 

wings,  which  they  employ  as  fins  or  paddles  for 
swimming  under  water,  some  being  even  incapable 
of  flying;  and  for  the  position  of  their  legs,  further 
backward  than  in  other  birds,  which  makes  walking 
difficult,  and  compels  them,  when  on  land,  to  main- 
tain an  upright  attitude.  They  are  distinguished  by 
the  very  compressed  bill,  which,  in  the  true  auks,  is 
vertically  elevated,  and  so  sharp  along  the  ridge  as 
to  resemble  the  blade  of  a  knife ;  and  by  their 
entirely  palmated  feet,  destitute  of  hind  toes.  The 
auks  are  entirely  confined  to  the  seas  of  the  northern 
hemisphere — the  penguins  taking  their  place  in  the 
southern — and  are  most  abundant  in  the  colder 
regions.  All  of  them  have  a  dense  plumage,  which 
generally  exhibits  on  its  surface  a  beautifully  ])olished 
appearance  and  silvery  lustre.  Th.e  genus  Alca,  as 
restricted  by  Cuvier  and  others,  contains  only  two 
species,  distinguished  from  the  Puffins  (q.  v.),  which 
also  belong  to  this  family,  chiefly  by  the  greater 
length  of  the  bill,  and  its  being  covered  with 
feathers  as  far  as  the  nostrils.  The  b'll,  both  in 
the  auks  and  puffins,  is  transversely  and  strongly 
grooved.  But  even  the  two  know^n  species  of  the 
restricted  genus  A/ca  differ  from  one  another  in  a 
most  important  particular — the  wings  of  the  one,  the 
Great  A.,  being  so  short  that  it  is  quite  incapable  of 
flight,  like  the  penguins,  of  Avhich  it  may  be  deemed 
the  true  northern  representative,  whilst  the  other, 
the  Razor-bill,  has  comparatively  long  wings,  and 
flies  well. — The  Great  A.  (^Alca  imjKnnis)  is  as 
large  as  a  goose.  It  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  most 
northerly  shores,  and  a  very  rare  visitant  of  those  of 
the  Orkney  and  Shetland  Islands  and  the  Hebrides, 
It  is  almost  equally  rare  in  Norway  and  Sweden, 
and  has  nearly  disappeared  even  from  Iceland  and 
Greenland,  and  f'-om  localities  on  the  coasts  of 
Labrador  and  Newfoundland,  where  it  is  said  to 
have  been  formerly  frecjuent.  The  rapidity  with 
which  this  bird  moves  under  water  is  extraordinary  : 
one  of  them  has  been  pursued  by  a  six-oared  boat 
for  hours  in  vain.  Like  most  of  the  Alcadcp,  the 
Great  A.  lays  only  one  egg,  which  is  very  large, 
about  five  inches  in  length,  and  three  m  its  greatest 

555 


AULIC  COUXCIL— AURAXTIACEJ3. 


breadth.  The  egg  is  laid  on  the  bare  rock,  without 
any  attempt  at  a  nest. — The  Razor-bill,  (q.  t.)  (^4. 
Torda)  is  ihe  only  other  species  now  commonly  in- 
cluded in  the  genus  Alca. — The  name  Little  A,  is 
often  given  to  a  bird  also  called  the  Rotche  (q.  v,) 
(Mergulus  Alle,  formerly  Alca  AUe),  common  in 
arctic  regions. — The  common  puffin  is  sometimes 
called  the  Labrador  Auk. — The  northern  parts  of 
the  Pacific  Ocean  abound  in  auks  remarkable  for  a 
somewhat  quadrangular  bill,  notched  near  the  tip, 
which  form  the  genus  Phaleris.  One  of  them,  J^. 
psittacula,  is  known  as  the  Parrakeet  Auk. — All  the 
auks  feed  upon  fishes,  crustaceans  and  other  marine 
animals,  which  they  pursue  under  water,  and  for 
which  they  dive  to  great  depths. 

ATJ'LIC  COUNCIL,  (Lat.  mda,  court  or  hall),  one 
of  the  two  highest  courts  of  the  old  German  empire, 
co-ordinate  with  the  Imperial  Chamber.  It  came 
into  existence  in  1495,  and  seems  to  have  been  at 
frst  employed  principally  in  preparing  business- 
matters  regarding  the  crown-lands  and  tlie  empire 
generally,  in  order  to  expedite  the  decisions  of  the 
Imperial  Chamber.  It  soon,  however,  began  to 
assume  or  acquire  higher  functions.  After  1502, 
the  States  submitted  important  grievances  to  its 
independent  consideration  ;  but  it  did  not  receive  a 
fixed  constitution  before  1559.  In  lt)54,  it  was  for- 
mally recognised  as  the  second  of  the  two  supreme 
courts,  and  equal  in  dignity  to  the  Imperial  Chamber. 
It  was  composed  of  a  president,  a  vice-president,  a 
vice-chancellor,  and  eighteen  councillors,  who  were 
all  chosen  and  paid  by  the  emperor,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  vice-chancellor,  who  was  appointed  by 
the  Elector  of  Mainz.  Of  the  eighteen  councillors, 
six  were  Protestants,  whose  votes,  when  they  were 
unanimous,  could  not  be  set  aside  by  those  of  the 
others,  so  that  a  religious  parity  was  to  some  extent 
preserved.  The  councillors  were  divided  into  three 
classes — counts,  barons,  and  men  of  learning — all  of 
whom  were  on  a  footing  of  equality,  except  that  the 
last  mentioned  received  a  higher  salary,  and  were 
usually  advanced  into  the  ranks  of  the  nobility. 
The  Council  held  aloof  from  politics,  but  under  its 
jurisdiction  were  placed  :  1st,  All  matters  of  feu- 
dality in  which  the  emperor  was  immediately  con- 
cerned ;  2d,  All  questions  of  appeal  on  the  part  of 
the  States  from  decisions  in  favour  of  the  emperor 
in  minor  courts ;  3,  Whatever  concerned  the  impe- 
rial jurisdiction  in  Italy.  On  the  death  of  the 
emperor,  the  Council  was  dissolved,  and  had  to  be 
reconstructed  by  his  successor.  It  finally  ceased  to 
exist  on  the  extinction  of  the  old  German  empire  in 
1806. 

AUMALE,  Charles  de  Lorraine,  Due  d',  born 
1554,  was  an  ardent  partisan  of  the  League  in  the 
politico-religious  wars  which  devastated  France  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  16th  c.  The  aim  of  the  League 
was  ostensibly  to  suppress  the  Huguenots,  but  in 
reality  to  secure  the  supreme  power  to  the  Guises. 
Closely  allied  by  blood  to  this  crafty  and  ambitious 
family,  A.  from  the  very  first  entered  with  fanatical 
sympathy  into  its  schemes;  and  after  the  murder 
of  the  Duke  of  Guise  at  Blois  in  December  1588,  he 
became,  along  with  the  Duke  of  Maycnne,  the  leader 
of  the  party.  In  1589,  he  seized  Paris,  dissolved  the 
parliament,  and  imprisoned  its  members.  Shortly 
after,  he  put  himself  at  the  head  of  a  body  of 
troops  to  attack  the  town  of  Senlis,  but  was  defeated 
by  La  None,  and  compelled  to  retreat.  Always 
unfortunate  in  war,  his  presence  seemed  invariably 
to  insure  the  overthrow  of  his  friends.  He  com- 
manded a  portion  of  the  forces  of  the  League  at 
the  battles  of  Arques  and  Ivri,  where  the  Hugue- 
nots triumphed  under  their  skilful  and  sagacious 
monarch,  Henry  IV.  But  A.  was  as  obstinate  as  he 
556 


was  unlucky,  and  in  the  end  proved  himself  as  trai- 
torous as  he  was  obstinate.  He  held  out  for  the 
League  in  Amiens  until  the  po|)ulace  expelled  him, 
when  he  suddeidy  allied  himself  with  the  Spaniards 
who  had  invaded  Picardy,  refused  the  royal  pardon, 
and  delivered  over  to  the  enemy  several  places  in 
his  possession.  For  this  he  was  impeached,  con- 
demned, and  sentenced  to  be  broken  alive  on  the 
wheel.  His  property  was  confiscated,  but  he  himself 
escaped.  He  lived  in  exile  till  his  death,  which  took 
place  at  Brussels  in  1831,     He  left  no  male  posterity. 

AUMALE,  IlEXRi-ErcENE-PiiiLippE,  Lolls  d'Or- 
leans,  Dig  d',  born  at  Paris,  January  16,  1822,  is 
the  fourth  son  of  the  late  king  of  France,  Louis 
Philippe.  He  enjoyed  the  privilege — so  rare  among 
princes — of  being  educated  along  with  his  fellow- 
men,  at  the  college  of  Henri  IV.,  where  he  exhibited 
considerable  talent,  and  obtained  several  honours. 
When  16  years  of  age,  he  entered  the  army,  soon 
distinguished  himself  l)y  his  bravery,  and  passed 
rajiidly  through  the  various  grades  of  rank.  In 
1843,  he  embarked  at  Brest  for  Algeria,  where  he 
commanded  a  subdivision  of  the  French  army,  and 
performed  some  brilliant  exploits,  the  most  signal 
of  which  was  his  surprising  Abd-el-Kader,  when 
encamped  in  the  environs  of  Goudjilab.  By  this 
coup  de  main,  which  occurred  on  tlie  16th  of  May 
1813,  there  fell  into  his  hands  a  multitude  of  cattle, 
4  standards,  3000  prisoners,  and  the  correspondence 
and  treasure  of  the  Emir.  He  was,  in  consequence, 
elevated  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general,  and 
appointed  to  the  government  of  the  province  of 
Constantiiie.  In  1847  he  succeeded  Marslial  Bugeaud 
in  the  governor-generalship  of  Algeria.  While  hold- 
ing this  high  office,  he  was  exposed  to  a  series  of 
l)itter  attacks  by  the  Democratic  'oi)i)Osition '  in  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies,  but  was  ably  defended  by 
Guizot.  After  the  expulsion  of  his  lather,  he  with- 
drew from  Algeria,  having  first,  with  self-denying 
patriotism,  exhorted  the  colony  peaceably  to  obey 
the  orders  of  the  metropolis.  The  duke  now  resides 
in  England,  and  apparently  takes  no  part  in  politics. 
He  has  written  two  remarkable  articles  in  the 
Jicvue  des  Deux  Mondes — one  on  the  Zouaves, 
and  another  on  the  Chasseurs-u-picd .  He  has  also 
composed  a  Histoire  des  Condes,  and  several  other 
works, 

AUXE,  the  French  cloth-measure  corresponding 
to  the  English  ell.  Both  words  are  derived  from  the 
Lat.  ulna.  The  English  ell=l^  yard=45  inches; 
the  French  aune  itsuelle  (or  not<i'e/Z(?)=l-y  metre=475- 
inches  English.     The  old  aune  was  a  little  shorter. 

AUXOY,  Marie-Catherine-Jcmelle  de  Berne- 
TiLLE  Co.mtesse  I)',  a  celebrated  French  authoress 
of  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  She  was  born  about 
1650,  and  died  at  Paris,  January  1705.  She  com- 
posed fairy  tales,  romances,  and  historical  memoirs. 
Among  her  fairy  tales  may  be  mentioned,  TTie  Yellow 
Dwarf,  Tlie  White  Cat,  and  Cherry  and  Fair  Star. 
Many  of  these  fictions  have  been  translated  into 
English,  and  are  greedily  read  by  school-boys.  They 
have,  both  in  France  and  other  countries,  gone 
through  numerous  editions,  and  are  the  sole  monu- 
ments of  her  fame  ;  for  her  sentimental  novels,  Hip- 
polytc,  and  Comtc  de  Duglas,  have  long  ago  van- 
ished from  the  eyes  of  men  ;  while  her  historical 
memoirs  are  not  regarded  as  in  the  slightest  degree 
trustworthy. 

AURAXTIA'CE^E  (from  auraniium,  modern  Latin 
for  an  orange),  a  natural  order  of  exogenous  plants, 
consisting  of  trees  and  shrubs,  often  of  great  beauty. 
Both  leaves  and  bark  are  generally  very  smooth, 
and  all  parts  are  filled  with  little  transparent 
receptacles  of  a  fragrant  volatile  oil,  which  es- 
peciall"  abounds    in  the  leaves  and  in  the  rind  of 


AURELIA— AURICULA. 


the  fruit.  The  leaves  are  alternate,  and  always 
nrticulated  with  their  stalks,  which  are  frequently 
winjicd.  The  flowers  have  a  short,  8 — 5  toothed, 
•withering  calyx,  and  3 — 5  petals,  which  are  broad  at 
the  base,  sometimes  slightly  coherent,  and  imbri- 
cated in  bud.  The  stamens  are  equal  in  number  to 
the  petals,  or  a  multiple  of  their  number ;  the  fila- 
ments sometimes  slightly  coherent  in  one  or  more 
btindles ;  the  anthers  terminal  and  erect.  The 
stamens  and  petals  are  inserted  on  a  disk.  The 
ovary  is  free ;  there  is  one  style  with  a  thickish 
stigma.  The  fruit  (a  hesperidiwn)  is  pulpy,  with  a 
leathery  or  spongy  rind,  of  one  cell,  or  of  a  number 
of  separable  cells ;  the  seeds  attached  to  the  axis, 
with  thick  cotyledons  and  no  albumen,  not  unfrc- 
quently  containing  more  embryos  than  one. — The 
order  contains  about  one  hundred  known  species, 
natives  of  warm  climates,  and  almost  all  of  the  East 
Indies.  The  species  of  the  genus  Citrus  (([.  v.)  are 
the  best  known,  among  which  are  the  orange,  lemon, 
citron,  &c.  But  the  order  contains  many  other 
plants  producing  agreeable  fruits,  among  which  the 
-£(jle  Marmelos  (see  Jlglk) — called  Bhel,  or  Bael, 
in  India — Cookia  punctata  (the  Wampee),  Glt/cosmls 
citrifolia,  and  Triphasia  trifoliata  deserve  particular 
notice.  The  fruits,  ripe  and  unripe,  juice  and  rind, 
the  flowers,  leaves,  bark,  &c.,  of  a  number  of  species 
arc  employed  medicinally.  The  medicinal  uses  of 
uEcjle  Marmelos  have  been  already  noticed  in  the 
article  ^^cle  ;  those  of  the  species  of  Citrus  will  be 
mentioned  under  their  proper  heads.  The  leaves  of 
Bergera  K(enlgii  are  used  by  the  Hindus  as  a 
stomachic  and  tonic,  the  bark  and  roots  as  stimu- 
lants.— Fcronia  elephantum,  a  large  tree  growing  in 
most  parts  of  India,  yields  a  gum  which  closely  re- 
sembles gum-arabic,  and  is  used  for  similar  purposes. 
The  young  leaves  of  this  tree  have  a  smell  like  that 
of  anise,  and  are  used  by  the  native  practitioners  of 
India  as  a  stomachic  and  carminative. — Skviunia  (or 
Limonia)  Laureola  and  Skhnmia  Japionica  are 
remarkable  exceptions  in  this  order,  as  to  the  climate 
to  which  they  are  adapted  :  the  former  grows  on 
the  cold  and  lofty  mountains  of  the  north  of  India, 
braving  frost  and  snow;  the  latter,  a  beautiful 
shrub,  recently  introduced  into  Britain  from  Japan, 
is  perfectly  hardy  even  in  the  severest  winters ;  its 
evergreen  leaves  and  pretty  little  red  berries  remain- 
ing quite  uninjured  by  frost,  whilst  its  small  white 
flowers,  produced  early  in  summer,  have  the  fra- 
grance of  orange  blossoms. 

AURE'LIA.     See  Chrysalis. 

AURELIA'NUS,  Lucius  Domitius — also  named 
CLAUDirs  Domitius  and  Valerius — one  of  the  most 
powerful  of  the  Roman  emperors,  was  of  very 
humble  origin,  his  father  having  been  a  husbandman. 
He  was  born  about  a.d.  212,  and  enlisting  early  as 
a  common  soldier,  he  rapidly  distinguished  himself, 
and  held  the  highest  military  offices  under  Vale- 
rianus  and  Claudius  II.  On  the  death  of  Claudius 
(a.d.  27ti),  A.  was  elected  emperor  by  the  army. 
He  commenced  his  reign  by  vigorous  opposition  to 
the  barbarian  Alemanni,  or  Marcomanni,  whom  he 
expelled.  Thereafter,  he  commenced  the  erection 
of  a  new  line  of  fortified  walls  round  Rome, 
■which  Avere  not  completed  till  the  reign  of  Probus 
(a.d.  276).  Their  ruins  still  mark  the  boun- 
daries of  Rome  in  the  time  of  Aurelian.  Finding 
that  the  province  of  Dacia  (now  Wallachia)  could 
not  be  maintained  against  the  assaults  of  the 
Goths,  ho  surrendered  it,  on  certain  conditions,  and 
Ptrengthened  the  frontier  of  the  Roman  empire  by 
making  the  Danube  its  boundary.  He  next  turned 
his  attention  to  the  East,  where  the  renowned 
queen,  Zcnobia  (q.  v.),  had  extended  her  sway  from 
Syria  to  Asia  Minor  and  Egypt.     A.  defeated  her  in 


two  battles,  and  besieged  her  in  Palmyra,  from  which 
she  attempted  to  escape,  when  she  saw  defence  would 
prove  unavailing.  She  was,  however,  taken  prisoner, 
and  soon  after  the  city  surrendered,  and  was  treated 
leniently.  Shortly  after  A.  had  departed,  a  new  in- 
surrection took  ])lace.  He  returned,  in  273,  and 
gave  the  splendid  city  up  to  destruction.  A.  was 
again  called  to  the  East  by  a  rebellion  in  Egypt,  in- 
stigated by  Firmus,  a  merchant  of  great  inliuence, 
which  he  speedily  quelled.  Besides,  Tetricus,  who 
had  held  imperiol  power  in  Gaul  since  before  the 
death  of  Gallienus,  finding  himself  unable  to  wield 
it,  surrendered  it  to  Aurelian.  By  restoring  good 
discipline  in  the  army,  order  in  domestic  affairs, 
and  political  unity  to  the  Roman  dominions,  A. 
merited  the  title  awarded  to  him  by  the  senate — 
'  Restorer  of  the  Roman  Empire.'  He  fell  a  victim 
to  conspiracy  during  his  campaign  against  the  Per- 
sians (a.d.  276). 

AURE'LIUS,  Marcus.     See  Antoninus. 

AU'RICLES,  two  cavities  of  the  heart.  See 
Heart. 

AURI'CULA  {Primula  Auricula),  a  plant  of  the 
same  genus  with  the  Primrose  (q.  v.),  much  cultivated 
in  flower-gardens.  The  A.  has  long  been  a  florist's 
flower.  It  was  highly  esteemed  by  the  Romans,  and 
has,  at  least  since  the  beginning  of  the  18th  c, 
received  particular  attention  from  the  florists  of 
England  and  Holland.  It  is  one  of  those  flowers, 
the  cultivation  of  which  is  often  most  successfully 


,-  ^^  CD 


Auricula  (wild  state). 

prosecuted  in  the  little  gardens  of  operatives  near 
large  towns.  Lancashire  is  particularly  famous  for 
it. — The  A.  has  smooth,  dark-green  leaves,  scapes 
(or  leafless  stems),  and  calices,  covered  with  a  mealy 
jiowder.  A  similar  fine  meal  appears  also  on  the 
flowers,  and  adds  nuich  to  their  beauty.  The  A. 
is  a  native  of  the  Alps  and  other  mountains  of 
the  middle  and  south  of  Europe,  and  of  sub-aljiine 
situations  in  the  same  countries.  It  is  found  also 
on  the  Caucasus  and  the  mountains  of  Syria  ;  it 
grows  in  shady  and  moist  places.  In  a  wild  state, 
it  has  comparatively  small  flowers,  of  a  simple 
yellow  colour,  on  short  stalks,  forming  an  umbel 
of  generallv  six  or   seven  on   one  scape,  with   the 

557 


AURICULA— AURORA  BOREALIS. 


same  delightful  fragrance  which  aids  so  much  to 
make  it  a  favourite  flower  in  cultivation.  The 
leaves  are  used  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  Alps  as  a 
remedy  ibr  coughs. 

By  cultivation  and  art,  the  A.  has  been  brought 
to  great  beauty  and  splendour  of  colour.  Red,  pink, 
crimson,  apple-green,  and  mulberry  are  the  chief 
colours  which  the  different  varieties  exliibit.  More 
than  1200  varieties  have  been  reckoned,  and  new 
ones  are  continually  raised  from  seed.  Some  of  them 
are  entirely  of  one  colour,  others  of  two  or  more ; 
some  are  delicately  shaded,  and  some  variegated. 
The  mere  colour  of  an  A.  is  not  of  so  much  con- 
sequence, in  the  eye  of  a  florist,  as  the  form  and 
shading.  The  chief  requisites  of  a  good  A.  are  large 
flowers,  so  many  of  them  on  one  scape  as  to  give 
fulness  to  the  umbel,  the  flower-stalks  so  strong  that 
the  flowers  do  not  hang  down  ;  the  scape  itself  must 
be  so  tall,  that  the  umbel  of  flowers  may  rise  com- 
pletely above  the  leaves,  and  so  strong  as  to  bear  it 
erect ;  the  flower  must  be  nearly  round ;  the  white 
or  yellow  eye  in  its  centre  nmst  be  distinct  and  round, 
its  colour  not  mixing  with  the  ground  colour,  which, 
however,  may  mix  at  the  outer  part  with  the  green 
of  the  margin.  The  green  maigin  adds  much  to 
the  beauty  of  many  varieties.  The  mealiness  of  the 
flower  differs  much  in  dilferent  varieties. — The  A. 
blooms  in  April  and  May,  and  often  also  a  second 
time  in  the  end  of  autumn,  which  adds  to  the  charms 
of  the  flower-border,  although  it  is  to  the  first  or 
proper  flowering-season  that  the  florist  looks.  It 
succeeds  best  in  a  rich  light  soil,  ami  cultivators 
diligently  prepare  for  it  composts  of  various  kinds, 
but  in  general  consisting  chiefly  of  fresh  loamy  soil, 
and  of  well-rotted  horse  or  cow  dung,  often  with 
the  addition  of  a  little  sand.  The  finer  varieties  are 
always  cultivated  in  pots,  and  require  great  atten- 
tion. They  are  protected  from  the  severe  weather 
of  winter,  and  during  the  flowering-season,  from  wind 
and  rain.  They  ought,  however,  previous  to  flower- 
ing, to  stand  in  an  airy,  sunny  situation.  Their  deli- 
cacy forms  a  strildng  contrast  to  the  natural  hardi- 
ness of  the  plant;  but  few  sights  are  more  pleasing 
than  that  of  a  collection  of  choice  auriculas,  taste- 
fully arranged.  They  arc  propagated  by  offsets, 
generally  in  the  latter  part  of  August. — When  it  is 
proposed  to  raise  the  A.  from  seed,  care  ought  to  be 
taken  to  select  the  finest  flowers,  which  are  encour- 
aged to  ripen  their  seeds  by  exposure  to  sun  and  air, 
hand-glasses  being  placed  over  them  during  heavy 
rains.  The  seed  is  sown  either  in  autumn  or  spring, 
generally  in  boxes  placed  under  shelter,  or  in  a 
slight  hot-bed.  The  more  weakly  plants  are  tended 
with  panicular  care,  as  they  are  generally  found  to 
produce  the  finest  flowers. 

The  name  A.,  originally  Latin,  is  derived  from 
auris,  an  ear,  on  account  of  a  fiincied  resemblance  of 
the  leaves  to  the  ears  of  an  animal. 

AURICULA,  a  genus,  and  AURICU'LID.E,  a 
family  of  Gastropod  Mollusca.  They  have  a  spiral  shell, 


Auricula- 
covered  with  a  horny  epidermis,  the  first  whirl  very 
large  and  the  spire  short,  the  aperture  elongated  and 
toothed.     They  belong  to  that  section  of  Gastropods 
658 


in  which  the  sexes  are  united  in  the  individual, 
and  to  the  same  order  with  the  common  snails,  having 
respiratory  organs  adapted  for  breathing  in  air,  al- 
though some  of  them  are  capable  of  subsisting  for  a 
considerable  time  in  water.  Some  of  them  inhaljit 
fresh-water  marshes,  and  others  prefer  the  vicinity  of 
salt  water.  They  generally  belong  to  warm  climates, 
and  some  of  them  attain  a  large  size.  Auricula 
Michc,  a  native  of  the  East  Indies,  is  known  to  shell- 
collectors  by  the  name  of  Midas's  Ear. 

AURI'CULAR  CONFESSION.     See  Confession. 

AURI'CULATE,  in  Botany,  a  term  applied  to 
leaves,  stipules,  &c.,  and  signifying  that  they  have 
at  the  base  two  small  ear-like  lobes. 

AURILLAC,  a  town  of  France,  capital  of  the 
department  of  Cantal  (Auvergne).  A.  is  situated  in  a 
pleasant  valley  on  the  banks  of  the  Jourdanne,  about 
269  miles  south  from  Paris.  It  is  said  to  owe  its 
origin  to  a  Benedictine  monastery  founded  in  the 
9th  c.  l)y  St.  Geriird.  Tlie  English,  in  the  14th  and 
15th  centuries,  often  besieged  the  town,  and  it  was 
frequently  taken  and  pillaged  during  the  religious 
wars  in  France  in  the  16th  c.  The  streets  are  wide, 
but  irregular,  and  are  kept  clean  by  streams  supplied 
by  a  reservoir  above  the  town  and  by  a  canal  from 
the  Jourdanne.  The  neighbouring  quarries  supply 
slates  to  cover  the  houses.  The  principal  buildings 
of  A.  are  the  churches  of  Notre  Dame  and  St.  Gerard, 
St.  Stephen's  Castle,  tiic  theatre,  college  buildings, 
which  cotitain  a  valuable  pul)lic  library,  and  the 
corn-market.  There  is  also  a  monument  erected  to 
the  memory  of  the  French  philanthropist,  M.  de 
Montyon.  Paper,  jewellery,  lace,  copper  utensils, 
leather,  and  beer  are  the  chief  industrial  ])roducts. 
Pope  Sylvester  II.  was  born  at  A.,  and  the  infamous 
Carrier  of  the  first  French  revolution.  Pop.  about 
11,000. 

AURO'RA  (styled  Fos  by  the  Greeks),  the  god- 
dess of  the  dawn,  or  '  morning  redness,'  was  the 
daugliter  of  Hyperion  and  Theia,  and  sister  of  Helios 
and  Selene,  and  wife  of  the  Titan  Astra;us.  Zephyrus, 
Boreas,  Notus,  Hesperus  and  the  other  stars  were 
her  children.  She  was  described  as  rising  in  the 
morning  from  her  bed  in  the  ocean,  borne  along  on 
a  chariot  drawn  by  the  divine  steeds  Lam])us  and 
Phaeton,  ascending  heaven  from  the  river  Oceaims, 
where  she  lifted  with  her  '  rosy  fingers  '  the  curtain 
of  night,  and  announced  the  light  laoth  to  gods  and 
men.  Homer  frequently  describes  A.  as  the  goddess 
of  day,  and  the  tragic  writers  identified  A.  witli 
Hemera  (the  day).  She  was  represented  as  clothed 
in  a  rosy-yellow  robe,  with  a  star  shining  on  her 
forehead,  and  a  torch  in  her  right  hand.  She  had  a 
passion  for  mortal  youths,  and  carried  off  Orion, 
Cleitus,  and  Tithonus. 

AURO'RA  BOREA'LIS,  or  NORTHERN 
LIGHTS  (Ger.  JVordlicht),  the  name  given  to  the 
luminous  phenomenon  which  is  seen  towards  the 
north  of  the  heavens  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  higher 
latitudes.  During  the  winter  of  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere, the  inhabitants  of  the  arctic  zone  are  without 
the  light  of  the  sun  for  months  together,  and  their 
long  dreary  night  is  relieved  by  the  light  of  this 
beautiful  meteor,  which  occurs  with  great  frequency 
in  these  regions.  Those  who  have  explored  the 
southern  seas  have  seen  the  same  phenomenon  in  the 
direction  of  the  south  pole,  so  that  the  term  Polar 
Lights  might  be  more  appropriate  than  Northern 
Lights  to  designate  the  aurora.  The  appearance  of 
the  A.  B.  has  been  described  by  a  great  variety  of 
observers,  both  in  Northern  and  Central  Europe,  all 
of  whom  give  substantially  the  same  account  of  the 
manner  in  which  the  phenomenon  takes  place.  It  is 
briefly  as  follows  :  A  dingy  aspect  of  the  sky  in  the 
direction  of  the  north  is  generally  the  precur.-or  of 


AURORA  BOREALIS. 


the  aurora;  and  this  gradually  becomes  darker  in 
colour,  and  assumes  the  form  of  a  circular  segment 
surrounded  by  a  luminous  arch,  and  resting  at  each 
end  on  the  horizon.  This  dark  ser/inent,  as  it  is 
called,  has  the  appearance  of  a  thick  cloud,  and  is 
freciuontly  seen  as  such  in  the  fading  of  twilight  be- 
fore the  development  of  the  auroral  light.  Its  density 
must,  however,  be  A^ery  small,  as  stars  arc  sometimes 
seen  siiining  brightly  through  it.  This  dark  segment 
is  ijounded  by  a  luminous  arch  of  a  blueish-whitc 
colour,  which  varies  in  breadth  from  1  to  G  diameters 
of  the  moon,  having  the  lower  edge  sharply  defined, 
and  the  upper  edge  only  when  the  breadth  of  the 
arch  is  small.  This  arch  may  be  considered  to  be  a 
part  of  a  luminous  ring  elevated  at  a  considerable 
distance  above  the  earth's  surface,  and  having  its 
centre  corresponding  with  some  point  near  the  north 
pole.  An  observer  several  degrees  south  of  this 
auroral  ring  would  see  towarels  the  north  only  a 
small  arc  of  it,  the  larger  part  being  hid  by  the 
earth ;  to  one  situated  not  so  far  south,  it  would 
appear  as  a  1'xrpp.r  and  higher  arch ;    to  one  placed 


below  it,  it  would  be  seen  as  an  arch  passing  through 
the  zenith ;  and  to  one  situated  within  the  ring  and 
further  north,  it  would  be  found  as  an  arch  culmi- 
nating in  the  south.  On  this  supposition,  nearly  all 
the  vai'ious  positions  of  the  auroral  arch  may  be 
accounted  for.  The  centre  of  tlie  ring  corresponds 
probaVjly  with  the  magnetic  north,  which  is  at  pre- 
sent situated  in  the  island  of  Boothia  Felix.  Hence 
it  is  that  in  Greenland,  which  is  situated  to  the  east  of 
this  island,  the  auroral  airh  has  been  seen  stretching 
from  north  to  south  with  its  highest  point  in  ihe 
west.  The  luminous  arch  once  formed,  remains 
visil)le  for  several  hours,  and  is  in  a  constant  state  of 
motion.  It  rises  and  falls,  extends  towards  the  east 
and  towards  the  west,  and  breaks  sometimes  in  one 
part,  sometimes  in  another.  These  motions  become 
all  the  more  observable  when  the  arch  is  about  to 
shoot  forth  rfl_ys;  then  it  becomes  luminous  at  one 
point,  cats  in  upon  the  dark  segment,  and  a  ray  of 
similar  brightness  to  the  arch  mounts  with  the 
rapidity  of  lightning  towards  the  zenith.  The  ray 
seldom  keeps  the  same  form  for  any  length  of  time : 


Aurora  Borealis. 


btit  undergoes  continual  changes,  moving  eastward 
and  westward,  and  fluttering  like  a  ribbon  agitated 
by  the  wind.  After  some  time,  it  gradually  fades 
in  brightness,  and  at  last  gives  way  to  otlier 
rays.  When  the  aurora  attains  its  full  brightness 
and  activity,  rays  are  projected  from  every  part 
of  the  arch,  and  if  they  do  not  rise  too  high,  it 
presents  the  appearance  of  a  comb  furnished  with 
teeth.  When  the  rays  are  very  bright,  they  some- 
times assume  a  green,  sometimes  a  violet,  a  purple,  or 
a  rose  colour,  giving  to  the  whole  a  variegated  and 
brilliant  effect.  The  accom]ianying  sketch,  taken 
from  Miiller's  Kotimische  J^/ii/s/k,  of  the  A.  B. 
in  Norway,  represents  a  beautiful  aurora  of  this 
comb-shaped  character ;  tlie  etl'ect  of  colour,  how- 
ever, is  wanting  to  complste  the  picture.  When  the 
rays  darted  by  the  luminous  arch  are  numerous  and 
of  great  length,  they  culminate  in  a  point  which  is 
situated  in  the  prolongation  of  the  dipping-needle, 
somewhat  south-east  of  the  zenith.  There  they 
form  what  is  called  the  Boreal  Crown;  and  the  whole 
heavens,  towards  the  cast,  west,  and  north,  present 


the  appearance  of  a  vast  cupola  of  fire,  supported  by 
columns  of  variously  coloured  light.  When  the  rays 
are  darted  less  brilliantly,  the  crown  first  disappears, 
then,  here  and  there,  the  light  becomes  faint  and 
intermittent,  till  at  last  the  whole  phenomenou  fades 
from  the  sky. 

The  preceding  description  indicates  the  general 
features  of  the  appearance  of  the  A.  B. ;  but  several 
auroras  have  been  described  which  i)rcsented  striking 
peculiarities.  Sometimes  the  phenomenon  assumed 
the  form  of  one  or  more  cui'tains  of  light,  depending 
from  dingy  clouds,  whose  folds  were  agitated  to  and 
fro,  as  if  by  the  wind.  Sometimes  this  curtain 
seemed  to  consist  of  separate  ribbons  of  light, 
arranged  side  by  side  in  groups  of  difllerent  lengths, 
and  attaining  their  greatest  brilliancy  at  the  lower 
edges.  In  this  country  the  A.  B.  seldom  occurs  with 
the  distinctness  and  brilliancy  which  attend  it  in 
northern  latitudes,  but  the  description  just  given  por- 
trays the  type  to  which  such  appearances  of  the 
meteor  more  or  less  approximates. 

The    height   of   the   aurora   has    been    variously 

659 


AURUNGABAD— AURUXGZEnE. 


estimated.  The  first  observers  were  inclined  to  place 
the  seat  of  it  beyond  the  atmosphere;  but  this 
liypothesis  is  untenable,  as  the  aurora  does  not  seem 
to  be  affected  by  the  rotation  of  the  earth,  but 
appears  to  be  in  every  respect  a  terrestrial  pheno- 
menon. By  taking  observations  of  the  altitude  of 
the  highest'point  of  the  arch  of  the  .same  aurora  at 
different  stations,  heights  varying  from  5  to  500 
miles  have  been  calculated.  The  cause  of  these 
widely  differing  results  may  be  found  in  the  prob- 
ability that  exists  of  each  observer  seeing  a  diflcrent 
arch  of  the  aurora  for  himself,  and  he  is,  in  conse- 
quence, furnished  with  no  comparable  or  reliable 
data  for  his  calculations.  It  is  now,  however,  gene- 
rally admitted,  on  what  are  considered  to  be 
sufficient  grounds,  that  the  A.  B.  occurs  at  various 
heights,  and  that  it  is  seldom  found  beyond  ninety 
miles  above  the  surf;ice  of  the  earth.  The  distance 
of  the  stations  at  which  the  same  aurora  lias  been 
visible,  indicates  the  enormous  geographical  extent, 
and  likewise  the  great  altitude  which  the  phenomenon 
frequently  attains.  One  aurora,  for  instance — that 
which  occurred  on  the  .3d  of  September  18:i'.> — 
was  seen  in  the  Isle  of  Skyc  by  M.  de  Saussurc  ; 
at  Paris,  by  the  astronomers  of  the  Observatory ; 
at  Asti,  in  the  Sardinian  states,  by  M.  Quetelct ; 
at  Ncwhaven,  in  Connecticut,  by  Mr.  Ilerrick ; 
and  at  New  Orleans,  by  credible  observers.  On 
the  other  hand,  some  observers  of  eminence 
assert  that  the  aurora  sometimes  descends  to  the 
region  of  the  clouds,  and  appears  almost  as  a  local 
phenomenon.  A  brilliant  aurora  was  seen  by  Jlr. 
Farquharson,  the  minister  of  Alford,  in  Aberdeen- 
shire, on  the  20th  of  December,  1820,  from  eight 
to  half-past  eleven  in  the  evening,  above  a  thick 
bank  of  clouds,  which  covered  the  tops  of  the  hills 
to  the  north  of  where  he  lived,  and  which  never 
attained  an  altitude  of  more  than  2o".  The  same 
aurora  was  seen  in  the  zenith,  at  a  quarter-past 
nine,  by  Mr.  Paul,  another  minister,  at  Tullynessle, 
which  is  about  two  miles  north  of  Alford,  so  that 
the  height  of  it  could  not  have  been  quite  4000 
feet. 

The  noise  that  is  alleged  to  accompany  the 
A.  B.  in  high  latitudes  would  indicate  for  it  a 
comparatively  moderate  height.  Some  of  those  who 
have  heard  it,  compare  it  to  the  noise  that  is  pro- 
duced by  the  rolling  of  one  piece  of  silk  upon 
another ;  and  others,  to  the  sound  of  the  winil  blowing 
against  the  flame  of  a  candle.  In  Siberia,  it  has  been 
related  that  this  noise  sometimes  resembles  that 
attending  the  dischai-ge  of  fireworks;  and  that  the 
dogs  of  the  hunters,  when  overtaken  by  such  an 
aurora,  lay  themselves  with  terror  on  the  ground.* 

The  intimate  connection  between  the  A.  B.  and  the 
magnetism  of  the  earth  is  shewn  by  various  facts. 
During  the  occurrence  of  the  phenomenon,  the  mag- 
netic needle  appears  very  much  disturbed,  some- 
times deviating  several  degrees  from  its  normal 
position,  and  appearing  to  be  most  affected  when  the 
aurora  is  brightest;  and  this  oscillation  is  frequently 
perceived  far  beyond  the  district  where  the  aurora  is 
seen.  The  vertex,  likewise  of  the  luminous  arch  is 
almost  always  found  to  be  in  or  very  near  the 
magnetic  meridian,  and  the  boreal  crown  has  its 
seat  in  the  prolongation  of  the  freely  suspended 
needle.  There  seems,  moreover,  to  be  a  connection 
between  the  magnetic  poles  of  the  earth  in  regard  to 
the  aurora,  for,  so  far  as  has  been  ascertained,  the 
meteor  occurs  simultaneously  at  both.  The  origin 
of  the  A.  B.  is  as  yet  a  matter  of  conjecture.  The 
most  common  hypothesis  is,  that  it  is  an  electrical 

*  Arctic  voyagers,  such  as  P.arry  anrl  Franklin,  tkrow  donht 
on  the  existence  of  any  such  noise,  for  not  one  of  the  numer- 
ous and  brilliant  aurora  seen  by  them  was  ever  attended  with 
the  faintest  sound. 
560 


phenomenon;  and  this  is  borne  out  to  some  extent 
by  the  great  resemljlance  which  the  light  attending 
the  passage  of  electricity  through  a  nearly  vacuous 
jar  bears  to  the  luminous  appearance  of  the  aiuora. 
If  one  of  the  vacuous  tuijes  lately  invented  l)y  Mr. 
Gassiot  be  brought  into  the  neighborhood  of  a 
powerful  electrical  machine,  Ijoth  while  the  machine 
is  in  motion  and  for  some  time  after,  flashes  of  light 
pass  from  the  wire  at  the  one  end  of  the  tube  to 
that  at  the  other  extremity,  wliich  bear  a  striking 
resemblance  to  the  auroral  rays.  If  the  conditions 
necessary  for  the  production  of  the  aurora  be  similar 
to  those  holding  in  this  experiment,  it  must  be  caused 
by  the  electricity  accumidated  round  the  magnetic 
poles  discharging  itself  through  the  rare  strata  of  the 
liigher  atmosphere  ;  but  how  such  conditions  (if  ac- 
tual) occur,  is  a  question  still  in  need  of  solution. 

AURUXGABAD,  or  Tln-onc-town,  the  name  of 
at  least  four  places  in  India.  The  most  inqwrtant 
is  in  the  territory  of  the  Xizam,  situated  on  the 
Doodna,  a  tributary  of  the  Godavery.  Its  lat.  is 
19'  51'  K.,  and  long.  75°  21'  E.  It  is  one  of  the  sta- 
tions of  the  Xi/.am's  army.  In  1825,  its  population 
was  estimated  at  (;0,o(M) — a  number  supposed  to  have 
since  then  considerably  diminished.  Its  monuments 
of  fornier  grandeur  are  a  palace,  Ijuilt  by  Aurtmg/.ebe, 
and  the  mausoleum  of  Aurungzebe's  daughter.  The 
former  is  now  in  ruins ;  and  the  latter,  though  bear- 
ing some  resemblance  to  the  Taj  Mahal  of  Agra,  is 
greath'  inferior. 

AURUXGZEBE  (properly,  Aurangzib,  'Orna- 
ment of  the  Throne')  was  the  most  powerful  of  the 
Groat  Moguls,  the  last  who  ruled  with  energy  and 
effect.  He  was  born  on  the  22d  October  1(118,  and 
was  ten  years  old  when,  his  grandfatlier  dying,  his 
father,  Shah-.Tehan,  ascended  the  throne.  A.  early 
aspired  to  wield  the  rod  of  empire,  but  he  craftily 
hid   his    designs   beneath    the    cloak   of  piety.      In 


Auningzebe. — From  a  Native  Drawing 

lfi57,  his  father,  who  had  previously  promoted  him 
to  high  civil  and  military  offices  in  the  state,  in  per- 
forming the  duties  of  which  he  greatly  distinguished 
himself,  was  seized  with  an  illness  from  which  he 
was  not  expected  to  recover.  The  reins  of  power 
were  at  once  seized  by  his  eldest  son,  Dara,  who 
treated  his  brothers  very  arbitrarily — Shuja  at 
that  time  being  governor  of  Bengal,  A.  of  the  Deccan, 
and  Murad  of  Guzerat.  The  first  immediately 
took  np  arms.  A.'s  policy  was  to  let  the  two  fight 
it  out,  and  exhaust  each  other,  and  then  to  play  off 
his  third  brother  against  the  victor.  He  conferred 
with  Murad ;  assured  him  he  had  no  earthly  ambi- 
tion ;  that  the  crown  he  strivcd  for  was  a  spiritual, 


AUSCULTATION^— AUSTEN. 


and  not  a  temporal  one  ;  and  that,  for  aft'uction's  sake, 
and  with  a  view  to  promote  the  interests  of  the  true 
faith — Dara  was  liberal  in  his  religious  opinions,  and 
had  written  a  book  to  prove  that  Mohammed  and 
Brahma  agreed  in  all  essential  points — he  would 
support  his  pretensions  to  the  throne.  Murad  be- 
lieved him,  and  the  forces  of  the  two  were  joined. 
Meanwhile,  Ddra  having  overcome  Shujii's  army, 
directed  his  forces  against  his  other  two  brothers ; 
but  A.'s  plausibility  prevailed  over  Dara's  generals, 
who  deserted,  and  Dura  had  to  seek  safety  in  flight. 
I5y  this  time,  however,  Shah-Jehan  had  somewhat 
recovered.  A.  professed  the  utmost  loyalty,  but 
secretly  gave  his  son  instructions  to  take  possession 
of  Shah-Jehan's  palace,  which  was  done,  and  the 
aged  monarch  was  made  prisoner.  A.  next  seized 
and  confined  his  too  confiding  brother,  Murad  ;  and 
after  a  struggle  of  two  or  thiee  years'  duration, 
iJara  and  Shuja  also  fell  into  his  power,  and  all 
three  were  put  to  death.  The  sceptre  was  now  firmly 
within  the  grasp  of  Aurungzebe.  He  professed  not 
to  care  for  the  imperial  insignia,  but  was  ultimately 
induced  to  receive  them  on  August  2,  1678.  He,  at 
the  same  time,  assumed  the  presumptuous  title  of 
Alenigir,  '  Conqueror  of  the  World.'  He  also  took 
the  title  of  Mohi-eddin,  '  the  Reviver  of  Religion.' 
In  the  seventh  year  of  A.'s  reign,  his  father  died,  at 
a  good  old  age  ;  but  there  are  suspicions,  neverthe- 
less, that  his  death  was  hastened  by  slow  poison,  ad- 
ministered by  command  of  his  son. 

A.'s  long  reign  of  half  a  century  was  distinguished 
by  great  outward  prosperity ;  but  the  empire  was 
diseased  at  its  heart.  Everywhere  there  was  dis- 
trust ;  A.,  who  had  established  his  empire  by  fraud, 
was  naturally  enough  distrusted  by  all.  He  lacked 
confidence  in  his  statesmen,  who,  in  their  turn,  dis- 
trusted him  and  one  another.  His  sons  imitated 
him  in  his  disobedience  to  his  father,  and  the  Hin- 
dus, whom  he  treated  with  great  harshness,  excited 
the  Mahrattas  against  him  in  the  south.  Still  his 
great  abilities  sufficed  during  his  reign  not  only  to 
preserve  his  empire  intact,  but  even  to  enlarge  it 
considerably.  Discord  between  the  monarchs  of 
Bijapur  and  Golconda,  which  was  mainly  due  to 
his  policy  when  acting  as  governor  of  the  Deccan, 
enabled  him  to  add  these,  two  kingdoms  to  his 
empire.  But  the  seeds  of  decay  which  had  been 
sown  in  his  reign  bore  ample  fruit  in  the  reign  of 
his  son.  The  decadence  of  the  Mogul  empire  dates 
from  A.'s  death,  which  took  place  at  Ahmednuggur, 
on  the  21st  February  1707,  in  the  eighty-ninth  year 
of  his  age,  and  fiftieth  of  his  reign.  The  latter  years 
of  A.'s  life  were  passed  in  misery.  The  memory  of 
his  own  crimes  weighed  heavy  on  his  soul.  He  lived 
in  constant  dread  that  he  himself  would  receive  of 
the  measure  which  he  had  meted  out  to  others.  His 
court  was  remarkalile  among  Oriental  courts  for  its 
economy  and  freedom  from  ostentation.  A.'s  char- 
acter was  not  without  its  good  features,  as  instanced 
by  the  fact,  that  in  the  third  year  of  his  reign,  when 
there  was  a  great  famine  in  the  land,  he  gave  unre- 
servedly the  funds  of  his  treasury,  which  had  been 
greatly  augmented  by  his  frugality,  to  procure  food 
for  his  peo[)le. 

AUSCULTATION  (Lat.  auscJto,  to  listen),  a 
mode  of  detecting  diseases,  especially  those  of  the 
heart  and  lungs,  by  listening  to  the  sounds  produced 
in  the  cavity  of  the  chest.  This  is  done  either  by 
the  unassisted  ear  {Immediate  A.),  or  by  the  aid  of  a 
fcimple  sound-conveying  instrument,  the  stethoscope 
(q.  v.)  {Mediate  A.).  By  care  and  attention,  the 
normal  sounds  produced  by  respiration  and  the 
beating  of  the  heart  may  be  distinguished  from  the 
several  abnormal  sounds  indicating  disease.  A.  is 
classed  among  the  most  important  of  discoveries 
in  modern  medical  science.  Its  details  are  ably 
36 


explained  by  the   discoverer,   Laeunec.      See  Per- 
cussion. 

AUSO'XIUS,  Decics  Magnts,  the  most  conspi- 
cuous Roman  poet  in  the  4ih  c.  after  Christ,  was 
born  at  Burdegala  (Bordeaux),  about  309  a.  d. 
Scaliger  asserts  that  his  father,  Julius  A.,  was  the 
favourite  physician  of  the  Emperor  Valentinian,  but 
the  assertion  has  no  historic  basis,  so  far  as  we  know. 
He  was,  however,  a  man  of  considerable  importance, 
having  been  at  one  time  honorary  prefect  of  lllyri- 
cum,  and  he  appears  to  have  taken  care  that  the 
young  A.  .should  receive  an  excellent  education. 
Many  amiable  female  relatives  fostered,  and  proba- 
bly flattered  the  talents  of  the  boy.  After  finish- 
ing his  curriculum  at  Toulouse,  he  returned  to 
Bordeaux,  where,  after  practising  for  a  short  time 
at  the  bar,  he  turned  his  attention  to  literature,  and 
soon  distinguished  himself  as  a  professor  of  oratory. 
Some  years  later,  he  was  appointed  by  Valentinian 
tutor  to  his  son  Gratian  ;  afterwards  quiestor,  and, 
by  Gratian,  prefect  of  Latium,  and  subsequently 
consul  of  Gaul  (379  a.  d.).  On  the  death  of  Gratian, 
A.  retired  from  public  life  to  his  estate  at  Bordeaux, 
where  he  occupied  himself  with  literature  and  rural 
pursuits  until  the  time  of  his  death  (392  a.  d.).  The 
question  whether  or  not  A.  was  a  '  Christian,'  has 
occasioned  much  controversy,  and  remains  yet  un- 
settled. His  works  include  translations  of  Greek 
eclogues,  a  collection  of  150  epigrams,  epistles  in 
verse  and  prose,  20  so-called  idyls  and  other  de- 
scriptive pieces,  which,  though  admired  in  their  day, 
are  generally  worthless,  and  bear  all  the  marks  of 
the  corrupted  taste  prevalent  in  literature  during 
his  time.  But  though  destitute  of  every  true  poetic 
quality,  A.  occasionally  displays  a  certain  neatness 
and  grace  of  expression,  which  shew  that,  iu  a 
better  era,  he  might  have  proved  a  greater  poet. 
Besides  these,  he  also  wrote  a  panegyric  on  the  Em- 
peror Gratian,  full  of  bombastic  phrases  and  fulsome 
adulation.  Editions  of  his  writings  have  been  given 
by  Scaliger  (Levden,  1.575),  Tollius  (Amsterdam, 
1669-1671),  andSouchay  (Paris,  1730.) 

AUSTEN,  Jane,  a  novelist  of  deservedly  high 
reputation.  Her  fiithcr  was  rector  of  Steventon, 
Hampshire,  at  which  place  his  daughter  was  born, 
December  16,  1775.  Mr.  Austen,  who  was  himself 
a  gentleman  of  some  literary  attainments,  bestowed 
on  his  daughter  an  education  superior  to  that 
usually  given  to  young  ladies  in  her  sphere  of  life 
in  the  end  of  last  century.  Jane  was  distinguished 
alike  by  good  sense,  sweetness  of  disposition,  and 
personal  attractions.  Her  novels,  which  are  rather 
limited  in  subject,  are  remarkable  for  the  truthful- 
ness with  which  they  portray  the  everyday  life 
of  the  middle  classes  of  England  in  her  time,  and 
for  their  delicate,  yet  withal  distinct  discrimination 
of  the  various  shades  and  peculiarities  of  character. 
Sir  Walter  Scott  said  of  her  :  '  That  young  lady 
had  a  talent  for  describing  the  involvements, 
feelings,  and  characters  of  ordinary  life  which  is 
to  me  the  most  wonderful  I  have  ever  met  with. 
The  big  bow-wow  I  can  do  myself  like  any  one 
going ;  but  the  exquisite  touch,  which  renders 
common-place  things  and  characters  interesting  from 
the  truth  of  the  description  and  the  sentiment,  is 
denied  to  me.'  Jliss  A.'s  first  four  novels — /Sense 
and  Si  }isibiliti/.  Pride  and  Prejudice,  Mansfield  Park, 
and  Emma — were  'lublished  anonymously  between 
1811  and  1816.  y<irffiranr/er  Abbc)/  und  Persuasio7i, 
followed,  with  her  name  on  the  title-page,  in  1818, 
after  her  death,  which  took  place  at  AVinchester, 
July  24,  1817. 

AL'STEN",  William,  an  English  metal-worker 
and  designer  of  the  15th  c,  celebrated  as  the 
constructer    of    the    famous   tomb    of    Richard    de 

561 


AUSTERLITZ— AUSTRALIA. 


Beauchamp,  Earl  of  Warwick,  in  St.  Mary's  Church, 
Warwickshire.  Men  of  taste  and  judgment  have 
not  hesitated  to  put  his  works  on  an  equality  with 
those  of  Italian  artists  of  the  same  period. 

AU'STERLITZ,  a  small  town  in  Moravia,  about 
12  miles  east-south-east  from  the  town  of  Briinn, 
stands  on  the  Littawa,  and  has  a  population  of 
2400.  A.  has  a  handsome  college ;  but  it  is  cele- 
brated chiefly  as  the  place  where  Napoleon  I.,  in 
December  1805,  defeated  the  combined  forces  of 
Austria  and  Russia,  under  the  command  of  their 
respective  emperors.  After  the  capitulation  of  Mack, 
at  Ulm,  October  17,  Napoleon  had  marched  on 
•without  opposition  to  Vienna,  of  which  he  took 
possession,  November  11,  1805.  The  Russian  and 
Austrian  forces  had  retreated  to  Moravia,  and 
Napoleon  had  fixed  his  head-quarters  at  Briinn. 
Towards  this  locality  the  troops  of  Alexander 
and  Francis  marched  in  five  parallel  columns  to 
offer  battle.  The  movements  of  the  allies  wore  ill- 
conducted,  and  evidently  made  without  a  due  know- 
ledge of  the  strength  of  the  French  army,  which  was 
concealed  by  the  tactics  of  Napoleon.  It  amounted 
to  about  80,000  men ;  while  the  allied  armies 
numbered  84,000,  of  which  16,000  were  cavalry. 
The  battle  commenced  at  seven,  on  the  morning  of 
December  2,  and  the  Russian  line  was  soon  broken. 
The  left  wing  of  the  allies  suffered  severely  towards 
the  close  of  the  engagement,  and  endeavoured  to 
save  themselves  by  crossing  a  frozen  lake ;  Init 
Napoleon  ordered  his  artillery  to  play  upon  the  ice, 
which  was  broken  up,  and  about  2000  perished  in 
the  water.  According  to  Alison,  the  allies  lost 
30,000  in  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners,  and  the 
French  12,000.  Russian  and  French  accounts  make 
their  respective  losses  smaller.  The  battle  was 
followed  by  an  armistice,  the  terms  of  which  were 
dictated  by  Napoleon  ;  and  immediately  after,  on 
the  26th  of  December,  by  the  treaty  of  Presburg, 
which  determined  that  Austria  should  surrender  the 
Venetian  territories,  and  also  her  possessions  in 
.  Swabia  and  the  Tyrol. 

AU'STIN,  the  capital  of  Texas  since  1844,  and 
seat  of  justice  of  Travis  co.,  is  situated  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Colorado,  in  lat.  30°  15'  N.,  Ion.  97°  47' 
W.,  at  a  distance  of  200  miles  from  its  mouth.  In 
the  season  of  high- water — that  is,  in  the  muter — A. 
is  accessible  to  stcsmboats  fi'om  the  sea.  Population 
in  1860,  3494. 

AUSTRALA'SIA,  a  term  etymologically  equiva- 
leat  to  Soidhern  Asia,  but  according  to  usage 
different.  While  Southern  Asia  vaguely  means  the 
lower  regions  of  that  continent,  A.  definitely  indi- 
cates those  large,  or  comparatively  large,  islands 
which,  lying  between  the  Malayan  or  Indian  Archi- 
pelago and  Polyiiesia  Proper,  are  at  once  rounded 
off  in  collective  position  from  the  former,  and  dis- 
tinguished in  individual  magnitude  from  the  latter. 
The  islands  in  quesiion  are  chiefly  Papua  or  New 
Guinea,  Australia,  Tasmania,  New  Zealand,  New 
Caledonia,  New  Hebrides,  New  Ireland,  and  New 
Britain — all  to  be  again  noticed  in  their  places. 
Though  the  name  is  not  in  general  use,  yet  it  seems 
necessary,  to  a  satisfactory  system  of  geographical 
classification.  In  its  entire  extent,  A.  cannot  be 
much  loss  than  Europe. 

AUSTRA'LIA,  the  south-west  division  of  Aus- 
tralasia. By  some,  it  is  strictly  defined  to  be  an 
island — as,  indeed,  may  either  of  the  masses  of  land 
called  the  Old  and  the  New  Worlds — while  by  others 
it  is  loosely  described  as  a  continent.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  W.  by  the  Indian  Ocean  ;  on  the  N.,  by  Torres 
Sti-ait;  on  the  E.,  by  the  Pacific;  and  on  the  S.,  by 
Bass's  Strait.  It  extends  in  S.  lat.  from  10°  to  39°, 
and  in  E.  long,  from  113'  to  154^ ;  while  its  longest 
562 


dimensions,  as  incidentally  noticed  under  tlie  head 
of  America,  may  be  said  to  run  respectively  on  a 
meridian  and  a  parallel.  The  ])aialiel  in  question  is 
that  of  about  25",  nearly  the  moan  lat.  of  A. ;  and 
the  meridian  is  that  of  142"  or  143',  nearly  the  mean 
long,  of  AiLstralasia — a  meridian,  too,  which,  when 
produced  in  either  direction,  seems  to  mark  out  both 
Tasmania  and  Papua  as  geological  continuations  of 
Australia.  In  English  measure,  the  greatest  breadth 
from  north  to  south  is  upwards  of  2(»)0;  and  the 
greatest  length  fiom  east  to  west  nearly  2G00  miles. 
Of  the  resulting  rectangle  of  5,200,000  square  miles, 
A.  comprises  more  than  a  half,  perhaps  four- 
sevenths,  or,  in  all,  al)out  2,582,000  square  miles — 
half  the  area  of  Soutli  America,  as  the  next  larpcr 
continent,  or  ten  times  that  of  Borneo,  as  the  next 
smaller  island. 

In  the  mutual  relations  of  itself  and  the  ocean 
— a  point  of  vast  importance  to  so  large  a  mass 
of  land — A.  is  decidedly  inferior  to  every  one  of 
the  grand  divisions  of  the  globe.  It  is  not  indented 
by  the  sea,  as  is  North  America  on  the  east,  or  Asia 
on  the  east  and  south,  or  I^iropc  on  all  sides  but 
one.  Again,  as  to  navigable  channels  between  the 
coast  and  the  interior,  A.  is  not  to  be  compared  even 
to  Africa  with  its  Nile  and  its  Zambezi,  its  Niger 
and  its  Congo,  its  (Jandjia  and  its  Senegal,  and  its 
many  smaller  arteries  of  connnunication  besides. 

Among  the  indentations  of  the  coast,  the  Gulf  of 
Carpentaria,  on  the  north-east,  the  only  one  of 
considerable  magnitude,  does,  it  is  true,  penetrate 
inwards  about  5(m»  miles  from  Cape  York  on  the 
east,  and  about  4n0  from  Cape  Arnhem  on  the  west. 
But  this  opening,  even  if  in  itself  more  available,  is 
practically  of  little  value.  It  is  entirely  surrounded 
Ijy  tropical  regions — regions  adverse  to  colonisation, 
at  least  on  the  priiiciiilo,  now  the  only  admissible 
one,  of  free  labour.  This  fact  has  been  established 
by  experience ;  for  a  settlement  in  the  kindred 
climate  of  Port  Essington  to  the  north-west  was 
abandoned  as  hopeless  after  a  trial  of  seven  years. 
But  the  approach,  such  as  it  is,  of  this  gulf  towards 
the  interior  has  prompted  aspirations  which,  wild 
as  they  might  seem  elsewhere,  are  perhaps  less 
extravagant  than  some  of  the  sober  realities  of 
this  marvellous  land.  Assuming  the  inland  parts 
of  A.,  like  the  surface  of  the  Caspian  or  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  to  be  considerably  lower  than  the 
ocean-level,  some  have  suggested  that,  by  means  of 
a  cut  through  the  southern  shore  of  Carpentaria, 
the  central  desert  might  be  converted  into  a  great 
inland  sea,  connecting  the  comparatively  fertile 
countries  around,  not  only  with  each  other,  but 
also  with  the  rest  of  the  world.  Perhaps  all  the 
other  inlets  put  together  are  scarcely  equal  in 
size  to  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria  alone  ;  while,  strictly 
speaking,  most  of  them  are  rather  mere  bends 
in  the  coast-line  than  actual  arms  of  the  ocean. 
Of  the  secondary  inlets,  the  two  that  cut  deepest 
into  the  land  are.  the  Gulf  of  St.  Vincent  and 
Spencer  Gulf,  in  the  south.  Of  harbours,  properly 
so  called,  there  is  a  remarkable  deficiency  :  and  this 
deficiency  is  all  the  more  important  from  the 
dangerous  character  of  the  reef-girt  shores.  As  to 
fluvial  communications  between  the  coast  and  the 
interior,  they  can,  with  a  single  exception,  hardly 
be  said  to  exist  at  all.  The  interior  and  the  coast  are 
alike  unfavourable  to  the  production  and  mainte- 
nance of  regular  and  permanent  streams.  The  interior 
— comprising  the  whole  mass  within  a  border  of  not 
more  than  100  miles  in  average  width,  and  repre- 
senting, in  proportional  size,  the  plate  of  a  mirror 
with  the  scantiest  possible  breadth  of  frame  round 
it — sends,  as  a  general  rule,  hardly  any  tribute  to 
the  ocean.  So  far  from  possessing  any  reservoirs  for 
the  supply  of  rivers,  its  oniy  large  body  of  water, 


AUSTRALIA. 


the  brackisli  pool  or  salt  niaisli,  according  to  circum- 
stances, of  Lake  Torrens  (q.  v.),  is  the  landlocked 
receptacle  of  at  least  one  of  its  principal  streams. 
With  the  single  exception  of  the  Murray,  and  per- 
haps its  southern  affluents,  even  such  inland  water- 
courses as  do  conduct  their  surplus  to  the  sea,  lose 
each  a  huge  proportion  of  its  volume  through 
evaporation  and  absorption.  "With  regard  to  the 
coast  streams,  again,  the  mountains,  which  from 
the  dividing  ridge,  being,  as  already  hinted,  only 
about  lUO  miles  from  the  sea,  the  streams  are 
necessarily,  from  their  shortness,  of  comparatively 
insignificant  size.  This  is  more  peculiarly  the  case 
on  the  south — for  the  Murray,  as  flowing  from  the 
inner  slope  of  the  maritime  ridge,  is  no  exception 
to  the  general  rule.  To  the  west  of  the  Glenelg, 
which  empties  itself  into  the  Southern  Ocean, 
between  Capes  Northumberland  and  Bridgewater, 
the  coast  yields  not  a  single  river  worthy  of  the 
name  ;  while  the  entire  line  between  Streaky  Bay 
and  Cape  Arid — a  stretch  of  10°  of  long,  on  the  Great 
Australian  Bight — pours,  incredible  as  it  may  seem, 
not  a  single  drop  of  fresh  water  into  the  Southern 
Ocean. 

But  the  poverty  of  Australian  hydrography  is 
aggravated  by  the  singularities  of  its  peculiar 
rain-fall.  An  alternation  of  rainless  and  of 
rainy  periods  is  pretty  nearly  the  normal  con- 
dition of  Australian  skies.  The  rivers  undergo 
a  similar  alternation  of  drought  and  flood,  the 
one  state  being,  within  certain  limits,  almost  as 
destructive  as  the  other.  Even  in  these  inequali- 
ties there  is  great  irregularity.  During  the  period 
of  drought,  a  river  presents  a  succession  of  phases 
— a  scanty,  though  still  regular  stream ;  nearly 
stagnant  ponds  with  a  connecting  thread  of  water 
between  them ;  detached  '  water-holes  '  in  all  the 
gradations  of  a  constantly  decreasing  depth  ;  moist 
pits  that  may  yield  their  buried  treasure  to  the 
spade ;  and,  lastly,  parched  hollows  where  the 
laboiu'  of  digging  may  be  expended  in  vain.  In 
the  drought,  for  instance,  from  July  1838  to  August 
1 8.39 — during  which  '  not  a  drop  of  rain  fell  in 
Sydney' — even  the  Murray,  generally  described 
as  the  only  permanent  river  of  any  magnitude 
in  the  country,  dwindled  away  into  a  chain  of 
])Ools ;  and  a  recent  explorer  in  Western  A.  Ibund 
on  the  bed  of  a  large  river — an  afffucnt,  if  it  may 
be  so  called,  of  the  thoroughly  broiled  and  baked 
Murchison — the  indubitable  footprints,  then  3  years 
old,  of  preceding  explorers.  The  flood,  again,  varies 
as  widely,  if  not  so  definitely  and  gradually,  as  the 
drought.  To  select  what  may  be  regarded  as  an 
average  instance  from  a  list  of  the  floods  of  the 
JIawkesbury  in  New  South  Wales:  the  torrent,  at 
the  end  of  July  and  beginning  of  August  1808,  rose 
to  a  height  of  8(5  feet,  or  fully  50  above  the  edge  of 
the  bank,  destroying  the  uncut  crops  of  the  settle- 
ment, and  sweeping  away  stacks  ef  wheat  and 
great  quantities  of  stock  of  every  description. 
No  fewer  than  57  such  visitations  appear  to  have 
been  ascertained  and  recorded  within  the  historical 
period  of  70  years  since  1788,  being  distributed  in 
the  respective  numbers  of  14,  11,  17,  and  15,  between 
spring,  summer,  autumn,  and  winter,  and  that  with- 
out the  exemption  of  any  one  of  the  twelve  months 
of  the  year. 

The  rivers  of  the  east  coast — the  Brisbane, 
Richmond,  Clarence,  Macleay,  Hastings,  Manning, 
Hunter,  Hawkesbury,  and  Shoalhaven  —  are,  in 
general,  towards  their  mouths,  tidal  streams, 
flowing  between  high  banks  through  a  compara- 
tively level  region.  Some  of  those  of  Victoria 
— such  as  the  Glenelg — spring  from  a  moist  and 
undulating  tract  of  country ;  while  most  of  the 
others    rise    among    the    lofty  ranges    and   snowy 


peaks  of  the  Australian  Alps — the  coldest  section 
of  the  bordering  mountains  by  reason  both  of 
their  altitude  and  of  their  distance  from  the 
equator.  They  are  subject  to  frequent  freshets 
in  winter,  and  are  less  eccentric  than  the  other 
rivers  of  A.  in  general.  To  the  west  of  the 
Glenelg,  as  stated  above,  rivers  may  be  said  almost 
to  disappear.  South  A.  pos.sesses  only  a  few  incon- 
siderable streams,  and  a  number  of  usually  drv 
torrent-courses ;  and  as  to  the  Great  Bight,  stiJI 
further  to  the  west,  more  than  500  miles  of  the 
coast  have  been  already  characterised  as  utterly 
waterless.  To  the  west,  again,  of  Ca])e  Arid,  the 
coast  presents  only  a  few  small  lakes  and  incon- 
siderable water-courses,  but  nothing  worthy  of 
the  name  of  river.  On  the  west  side  of  A.,  the 
Swan  River  is  l)y  far  the  largest  of  the  water- 
courses. Generally  speaking,  the  whole  of  them  are 
fed  almost  solely  by  the  winter  rains,  many  of 
them,  during  the  dry  season,  either  disappearing 
through  a  great  part  of  their  course,  or  dwindling 
into  a  series  of  detached  pools.  Along  the  remainder 
of  the  west  coast,  no  rivers  worth  notice  have  yet 
been  discovered.  Nor  yet  along  the  north-west 
have  any  been  found,  excepting  a  few  small  ones 
towards  Cambridge  Gulf.  The  rivers  of  this  neigh- 
bourhood much  resemble  in  character  those  of  the 
opposite  angle  in  the  colony  of  Victoria.  They  rise 
at  no  very  great  distance  from  the  sea.  Near  their 
sources  they  are  mere  torrents;  but  in  the  lowlands 
their  generally  slow  currents  wind  through  fertile 
plains  and  valleys,  which  are  subject  to  sudden  and 
terrific  inundations.  In  North  A.  are  several  com- 
paratively considerable  rivers — the  Victoria,  the 
South  Alligator,  the  Roper,  and  the  Albert.  They 
are  wide  streams,  rising  in  the  elevated  region  of 
the  interioi",  and  traversing  a  rugged  country,  which 
is  often  flooded.  Lastly,  along  the  north-east,  the 
streams  are  distinguished  by  their  length,  a  distinction 
which  they  owe  to  their  being  parallel  with  the  coast. 
They  are  the  Mitchell,  Lynd,  Burdckon,  Mackenzie, 
Dawson,  Fitzroy,  Belyando,  kc. ;  the  whole  of  them, 
with  the  exception  of  the  two  last-named,  having 
been  discovered  by  Dr.  Leichhardt.  To  pass  from 
the  rivers  of  the  coast  to  those  of  the  interior, 
we  must  confine  ourselves  to  two  of  the  latter — 
Barcoo  or  Victoria,  and  the  Murray  with  its  numer- 
ous tributaries.  The  upper  part  of  the  Barcoo  was 
first  discovered  by  Sir  T.  Mitchell,  in  a  broken 
district,  lying  300  or  400  miles  from  the  east  coast, 
and  nearly  on  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn.  Its  broad 
reaches  might  there  have  floated  a  steamer.  Since 
then,  it  has  been  traced  by  Mr.  Gregory  through 
a  solitary  course  into  Lake  Torrens,  though,  in  point 
of  fact,  it  is  only  from  time  to  time  that  it  actually 
has  a  surplus  to  pour  into  its  receptacle.  The 
system,  again,  of  the  Murray  and  its  tributaries 
is  vastly  more  complex.  Rising  on  the  west  or 
inner  slope  of  the  Australian  Aii)s,  it  flows  to  the 
west-north-west  with  a  plentiful  stream,  which 
alone  in  the  country,  after  the  fashion  of  a  tropical 
river,  rises  and  falls  regularly  according  to  the 
season ;  and,  though  inaccessible  to  ships  of  any 
size  from  the  sea,  it  has  an  internal  navigation  of 
about  2000  miles  in  length.  On  its  left  or  southern 
side,  it  receives  several  considerable  streams,  such  as 
the  Ovens  and  the  Goulburn.  But  it  is  on  the  right 
or  northcin  side  that  the  basin  of  the  Murray  is 
most  iwculiar.  The  jiiincipal  affluents  in  this  direc- 
tion are  the  Murrr.mbidgee  and  the  Darling.  The 
Murrumbidgee,  to  which  the  Lachlan,  only  less 
'mysterious'  than  the  Darling,  contributes  such 
surplus  as  it  from  time  to  time  may  have,  forms  the 
chief  strand  of  a  complicated  net-work  of  water- 
courses. The  Darling,  after  it  has  received  all  its 
tributaries,  pursues   its   lonely    way   for  600  milea^ 

563 


AUSTRALIA. 


sending  off  branch  after  branch  to  lose  themselves  in 
landlocked  lagoons.  Nor  is  its  growth  less  curious 
than  its  lower  channel.  The  whole  of  the  interior 
drainage  of  the  maritime  ridge  of  New  South  Wales 
between  lat.  25°  and  lat.  34°,  a  stretch  of  about  H-lb 
miles,  converges  into  a  vast  basin  of  clay,  on  the  3(tth 
parallel,  where  the  Baloune,  Dumaresque,  Gwydir, 
Namoi,  Castlereagh,  Macquarie,  and  Bogan,  after 
spreading  out  in  spacious  marshes,  and  amid  com- 
plicated junctions  and  bifurcations,  unite  such 
surpluses  as  absorption  and  evaporation  may  have 
left  them  to  form  the  'mysterious'  Darling. 

Such  being  the  hydrography  of  A.,  the  investiga- 
tion of  the  interior,  so  far  as  it  has  hitherto  advanced, 
has  been  conducted  almost  entirely  by  land.  In 
1844,  Sturt  penetrated  to  the  centre  of  the  country, 
between  Spencer  Gulf  on  the  south,  and  the  Gulf  of 
Carpentaria  on  the  north,  meeting  sterility  and 
drought.  In  1847,  Leichliardt,  encouraged  by  the 
success  of  his  previous  expedition  from  Sydney  to 
Port  Essington,  started  from  Moreton  Bay  on  the 
east,  for  Western  A.,  following  a  sort  of  diagonal  of 
nearly  the  greatest  possible  length ;  and,  as  was  to 
be  dreaded,  he  must  have  failed  in  his  bold  enter- 
prise ;  for  neither  of  himself  nor  of  his  companions 
has  any  intelligence  ever  been  received.  In  1S.3C>, 
Gregory,  proceeding  from  the  north-west,  seems  to 
have  come  upon  Start's  central  desert,  at  a  distance 
of  200  or  300  miles  from  the  coast ;  and  again,  in 
1858,  the  same  traveller  made  his  way  across  the 
country  from  the  mouth  of  the  Victoria  to  the  head 
of  Spencer  Gulf 

Any  detailed  view  of  the  climate,  besides  being 
equally  difficult  and  unsatisfactory  with  respect  to 
so  vast  an  aggregate  of  latitudes  an<l  longitudes,  has 
been  rendered  comparatively  unnecessary  by  the 
incidental  allusions  to  the  subject  in  tiie  preceding 
paragraphs.  The  following  are  tabular  statements, 
extracted  from  local  publications : 

MEAN     ANNUAL     RAINFALL. 
Locality. 
Brisbane,  Queensland,   lately  ) 

Moreton  Bay,  .         .       ) 

Port  Macquarie,    New  South  / 

Wales,   .         .         .         .      f 
Sydney,  New  South  Wales, 
Port  Phillip,  Victoria  Colony, 
Lake  Alexandrina,  Mouth  of  [ 

the  Murray,    .         .         .      \ 
Adelaide,  South  Australia, 
York,  West  Australia, 

FREQUENCY  OF     RAINY    DAYS. 

Port  Sydney,  Port 

Month.               Adelaide.  Phillip.  South  Head,  Macquarie. 

January,       .4               6  13  11 

Februarv,         .4                5  12  H 

March,  "        .         5                7  13  12 

April,       .          .   10              11  12  12 

May,     .         .       10              13  12  11 

June,        .         .  11             11  12  9 

July,     ..       14              12  13  9 

August,   .         .   15              14  11  8 

September,  .11             12  11  9 

October,  .          .10              12  12  10 

November,    .         G              10  11  9 

December,        .5               7  11  9 


Latitude. 

Eainfall. 

27°   1' 

8o-92  in 

31°  25' 

70-79  " 

33°  51' 

49-00  " 

38°   IS' 

29-16  " 

35° 

17-45  " 

34°  55' 

19-90  " 

31°  53' 

25-39  " 

Whole  Year,     lu5 


120 


143 


120 


The  mean  temperature  of  Melbourne  is  59°,  being 
about  9°  higher  than  that  of  London.  The  warmest 
month  is  January,  the  mean  of  which  is  68  ;  the 
coldest  is  July,  49  -34.  The  corresponding  tempera- 
tures of  London  are  63°  and  36°- 
564 


O'eolof/i/. — The  little  that  is  yet  known  of  the 
geology  of  A.  has  been  chielly  obtained  from  occa- 
sional notes  scattered  through  the  journals  of  scien- 
titic  travellers.  So  utterly  unknown  were  the  mineral 
tieasures  of  this  continent,  that  it  was  only  compa- 
ratively lately,  and  by  the  merest  accident,  that  the 
Burra  Burra  copper-mines  were  discovered.  In  1851, 
farmers  were  turning  up  with  the  plough  the  auri- 
ferous alluvium  ;  pel)bles  of  gold-bearing  ((uartz  were 
used  for  garden-walks;  and  we  liavc  heard  of  an 
Oxford  graduate  who  ornamented  his  garden-walls 
by  building  into  them  masses  of  white  quartz  varie- 
gated with  ])ortions  of  the  unrecognised  yellow  metal. 
In  1846,  when  Count  Strelecki  submitted  to  Sir  R. 
Murchison  a  series  of  rock  and  mineral  specimens 
gathered  in  Southern  A.,  the  practised  eye  of  that 
veteran  in  geology  recognised  in  them  a  reniaikable 
resemblance  to  the  rocks  in  the  auriferous  districts 
of  the  Ural  Mountains,  which  he  had  thoroughly 
explored.  He  could  not  ascertain  that  gold  had  ever 
been  found  in  the  colony,  but  so  certain  was  he  that 
the  precious  metal  existed,  that  he  printed  and  circu- 
lated amongst  the  miners  of  Cornwall  a  paper  urging 
them  to  emigrate  to  New  South  Wales,  and  seek 
there  for  gold,  as  they  had  been  accustomed  to  seek 
for  tin  and  zinc  among  the  alluvial  del)ris  cf  their 
own  hills.  After  a  few  years,  in  the  researches  of 
Mr.  Hargreaves,  and  the  diggings  that  followed,  this 
remarkalile  prediction  was  fulfilled  to  an  extent  that 
could  not  have  been  anticipated.  This  narrative  is 
of  much  value,  as  shewing  that  geology  is  no  longer 
in  the  hands  of  empirics;  that  its  truths  have  been 
so  gathered  and  arranged  as  to  afford  bases  for  safe 
inductions;  and  that,  when  rightly  used,  this  science 
is  of  the  first  importance,  even  when  tested  by  the 
utilitarian. ^><  AoHo.''  of  the  age.  Recognising  this, 
the  colonial  governments  of  A.  have  appointed  state 
geologists,  who  have  begun  their  examination  of  the 
Australian  continent,  and  a  few  reports  on  circum- 
scribed districts  have  been  published. 

In  looking  at  the  continent  as  a  whole,  it  will 
reciuire  not  many  broad  touches  to  convey  all  that  is 
at  piesent  known.  An  immense,  roughly  quadran- 
gular and  comparatively  Hat  district  in  Central  A., 
extending  from  the  southern  shores  in  lat.  33°  8., 
where  it  forms  a  coast-line  of  somewhat  bold  cliffs, 
to  18"  S.  lat.,  and  having  for  its  eastern  and  western 
limits  124°  and  138°  E.  long.,  is  composed  of  Tertian/ 
rocks.  The  superficial  characteristics  of  this  vast 
nlmost  uni)eopled  tract  have  already  been  described. 
Nothing  more  is  known  regarding  its  structure. 
Tiiree  other  patches  of  Tertiary  rocks  exist.  The 
largest  is  a  broadish  tract,  which  forms  the  coast  of 
Western  A.  northwards  from  the  colony  of  Perth, 
as  far  as  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn.  The  second  occu- 
pies a  considerable  portion  of  the  valley  of  the 
Murray  River,  in  tliat  district  known  as  Low  er  Dar- 
ling. The  last  and  smallest  patch  covers  the 
southern  slopes  of  the  Australian  Alps,  extending 
along  the  shore  from  Wilson's  Promontory  to  Cape 
Howe. 

The  immense  central  expanse  of  Tertiary  beds 
is  surrounded  by  a  continuous  belt  of  Plutonic  and 
Metamorphic  rocks,  only  broken  on  the  southern 
shores,  where  it  forms  the  coast-line,  and  where  the 
sea  has  indented  it,  forming  a  bay  which  has  for  its 
boundaries  the  more  enduring  primitive  rocks.  The 
crystalline  belt  is,  on  its  east,  north,  and  western 
sides,  separated  from  the  sea  by  a  tract  of  land  having 
a  nearly  equal  breadth  of  100  miles  throughout 
its  course.  Tracing  this  from  its  southern  termina- 
tion in  Western  A.,  we  find  a  limited  region  of 
pala?ozoic  rocks  occupying  the  colonised  district 
around  Perth,  and  containing  valuable  coal-beds. 
Northwards,  as  already  indicated  the  coast-line 
consists  of  Tertiary  rocks.     From  their  termination 


B    LiFPlNCO 


XXSVl. 


CO     PHILAD-N 


AUSTRALIA. 


iu  lat.  23A°  S.,  the  rocks  alonf^  tlie  whole  western  and 
northern  shores  are  composed  of  Secondary  strata. 
On  the  eastern  shore  from  Cape  York  to  the  western 
l)Ouudary  of  Victoria,  the  formations  belong  to  one 
or  other  of  the  primary  series.  Through  the  whole 
extent  of  this  boundary  tract,  whether  consisting 
of  Tertiary,  Secondary,  or  Primary  strata,  numerous 
and  often  extensive  patches  of  igneous  rocks  exist 
which  have  been  erupted  during  the  Tertiary  or 
Post-tertiary  epochs. 

About  100  miles  from  the  bounding  tract  of 
palaeozoic  rocks  on  the  eastern  limits  of  A.,  and 
running  parallel  with  it,  tliere  is  an  equally  broad 
strip  of  similar  strata  extending  Irom  the  shores 
of  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria  to  Bass's  Strait.  These 
two  regions,  which  unite  together,  and  are  largely 
developed  in  the  southern  portion  of  Victoria, 
supply  the  great  store  of  Australian  mineral  wealth. 
The  veins  which  intersect  tliese  strata  were  the 
original  matrices  of  the  gold.  It  has  not,  to  any 
extent,  been  sought  for  in  this,  its  original  position, 
from  a  belief  that  the  amount  of  metal  decreases  as 
we  descend  iu  the  solid  rock.  Mr.  Selwyn,  colonial 
geologist  for  Victoria,  has,  however,  lately  reported 
iu  favour  of  quarrying  for  the  gold  in  the  solid  rock. 
The  greatest  amount  of  gold  is  found  iu  the  heaps  of 
d.ebris  or  old  alluvium  derived  from  the  denudation 
of  the  old  slaty  rocks.  The  auriferous  rocks  of 
Eastern  A.  are  Lower  Silurian,  as  shewn  by  Messrs. 
Lonsdale  and  Salter,  from  the  examination  of 
specimens  of  pentameri,  trilobites,  and  corals  from  the 
strata  which  overlie  them.  Mr.  Selwyn  has  referred 
the  Victoria  gold-bearing  strata  to  the  same  age, 
from  the  oucun-ence  in  them  of  about  GO  species 
of  Lower  Silurian  fossils,  including  trilobites,  grapto- 
lites  and  lingulie.  The  auriferous  quartzose  veins 
are  most  abundant  in  the  vicinity  of  eruptive  rocks, 
whether  granite,  porphyry,  or  greenstone. 

Messrs.  SeUvyn  and  Rosales  have  shewn  that  the 
superficial  drifts  containing  the  gold  consist  of  three 
distinct  stages.  The  lowest  or  oldest  contains  the 
remains  of  wood  and  seed-vessels  differing  little 
from  the  present  vegetation ;  among  them  the  cones 
of  Banksia,  an  cxchisively  Australian  genus,  have 
been  identifieil.  The  remains  of  animals  exhibit  also 
the  representatives  of  the  living  fauna  of  the  country. 
Gigantic  marsupials  then  existed — kangaroos,  poto- 
roos  and  wombats — representing  the  elephants,  and 
even  the  large  carnivora  of  Asia ;  but  with  the 
exception  of  the  mastodon,  of  which  one  species 
has  been  found  in  A.,  there  were,  it  would  seem,  no 
generic  forms  common  to  this  great  district  and 
the  rest  of  the  land  in  the  eastern  hemisphere.  In 
Victoria,  these  beds  of  alluvium  have  been  over- 
flowed and  even  interlaced  by  basaltic  coulees,  which 
evidently  proceeded  from  terrestrial  volcanoes,  inas- 
much as  the  vegetable  matter  beneath  them  has 
been  charred  and  destroyed  «i  situ  by  the  eruption. 

An  extensive  coal-jicid  has  been  known  for  some 
time  as  occupying  tiie  whole  of  the  great  basin  of 
the  Hunter  River  and  its  tributaries,  down  to  the 
sea-coast  at  Newcastle,  where  several  beds  crop  out 
on  the  beach.  For  more  than  12  years,  the  monopoly 
held  by  the  Australian  Agricultural  Coniiiany,  in 
the  working  of  the  coal,  has  ceased  to  exist,  and 
as  the  result,  the  trade  has  increased  enormously. 
From  Port  Hunter  the  coal  is  despatched  to  all 
parts  of  A.,  and  even  to  New  Zealand  and  California. 
Beds  belonging  to  the  carboniferous  system  have 
been  discovered  also  in  Western  A.,  near  Perth,  and 
the  coal  has  been  successfully,  though  not  so 
extensively  wrought  there. 

After  gold  and  coal,  the  next  most  important 
Australian  mineral  is  copper.  The  Burra  Burra 
mines,  in  South  A.,  were  discovered  in  1842.  The 
lode  is  17  feet  wide,  and  of  vast  extent.     The  ore 


contains  75  per  cent,  of  metal,  and  is  quarried  out 
like  stone  in  immense  masses.  Copper  has  also 
been  wrought  for  several  years  at  Bathurst,  in  New 
Soutli  Wales.  The  poorest  ores  are  here  most 
abundant,  the  rich  pyrites  existing  only  in  small 
quantity.  Traces  of  copper  have  been  noticed  iu 
Western  Australia. 

Iron  is  spread  in  great  profusion  over  all  the 
continent.  To  such  an  extent  does  it  exist  in  several 
of  the  mountains  on  the  north  coast,  that  they 
violently  atfect  the  nuignetic  nctMlle.  At  Berrima, 
in  New  South  Wales,  an  oxidulated  iron  ore,  from 
which  is  manufactured  a  good  steel,  has  been 
worked,  but  not  successfully.  lion  has  been  noticed 
in  quantity  in  both  Southern  and  Western  Australia. 

Lead  is  most  abundant  east  and  south-east  from 
Adelaide,  at  Mount  Beevor,  and  near  Cape  Jcrvis. 
The  ore  of  (Jien  Osmond  mines  near  Adelaide, 
yields  75  per  cent,  of  lead,  besides  a  proportion  of 
silver.  This  metal  is  also  wrought  at  Geraldine,  in 
Western  Australia. 

Manganese,  zinc,  quicksilver,  and  antimony  have 
been  met  with  in  South  A.,  as  also  good  specimens 
of  jasper,  chalce-dony,  and  opal. 

Zinc  and  quicksilver  are  mentioned  as  occurring 
in  Western  Australia. 

Boliviii  and  Zoolof/i/. — The  natural  history  of  A.  is 
remarkably  different  irom  that  of  any  other  quarter  of 
the  globe.  Its  trees — which  seldom  ibrni  dense  forests, 
but  are  scattered  as  in  a  lawn  or  park,  where  the 
colonist  finds  pasture  for  his  flocks  without  any  pre- 
vious clearing — are,  almost  without  exception,  of  very 
peculiar  appearance.  Among  the  largest  of  them 
are  sjiecies  of  ii'«ffl/_v/><'«  (q.  v.)  some  of  which  attain 
the  height  of  loti  or  2(_lO  feet,  rising  without  branches 
to  at  least  half  their  height,  their  stately  stems 
resembling  beautiful  columns.  Some  of  the  Eucalypti, 
ou  account  of  their  resinous  exudations,  are  known 
to  the  colonists  as  Gum-trees.  Their  leaves  are 
leathery.  It  is  indeed,  a  general  characteristic  of 
the  trees  and  shrubs  of  A.,  that  their  leaves  are  ever- 
green and  of  a  firm  texture ;  and  although  in  this  a 
beautifid  adajjtation  may  be  perceived  to  the  pre- 
vailing dryness  of  the  climate,  the  foliage  wants  the 
delicacy  and  the  liveliness  of  tints  which  in  other 
countries  form  so  nmch  the  charm  of  the  landscape. 
The  Casiiarlme  (see  C.\suarina)  or  Cassowary-trees 
(Beef-wood,  She-oak,  Swamp-oak,  &c.),  among  which 
as  among  the  Eucahipti,  are  some  of  the  largest  and 
most  useful  timber-trees,  are  still  more  singidar  in 
appearance ;  their  long,  wiry,  jointed  branchlets 
which  greatly  resemble  those  of  £(juisefa,  are  quite 
leafless,  having  only  very  small  sheaths  instead  of 
leaves.  Equally  destitute  of  Ibliage  are  the  greater 
number  of  the  Acacias  (q.  v.),  which  abound  in  the 
Australian  flora.  The  abundance  of  Proteaccw — 
which  order  includes  the  genus  Banksia,  already 
noticed  in  the  geology — connects  the  flora  of  A. 
with  that  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  to  which 
there  are  also  other  points  of  resemblance  ;  and 
although  true  heaths  do  not  appear,  their  place 
is  supplied  by  a  variety  of  heath-like  plants  of 
other  natural  orders,  and  particularly  of  the 
order  Jij>acridace(r,  of  which  some  (of  the  geinis 
A'paa-is)  now  take  their  jilace  with  heaths  among 
the  favorite  ornaments  of  our  greei>-houses.  Arau- 
carias  (q.  v.)  form  a  connecting  link  between  the 
flora  of  A.  and  that  of  Chili.  In  the  more  northern 
parts,  palms  and  otaer  tropical  productions  connect 
it  in  like  manner  with  that  of  the  south-east  of  A.sia. 
Few  of  the  trees  or  shrubs  of  A.  produce  edible 
fruits,  and  those  known  as  Tasmanian  Currants, 
Tasnianian  Cranberries,  &c.,  are  not  of  much  value. 
The  seeds  of  the  Auraucarias  are  edible,  having 
some  resemblance  to  almonds.  Almost  none  of  the 
native  vegetable  productions  of  A.  have  been  found 

505 


AUSTRALIA. 


worthy  of  the  care  of  the  gardener,  except  as  objects  | 
of  bca-uty  or  curiosity;  and  it  produces  no  plant 
which  has  yet  found  its  way,  or  seems  in  the  least 
degree  likely  to  find  its  way,"into  agriculture — unless, 
indeed,  some  of  its  pasture  plants  may  prove  to  be 
peculiarly  adapted  to  di-y  climates.  But  the  culti- 
vated plants  of  other  countries  have  been  introduced 
with  great  success  by  the  colonists,  and  their  gardens 
boast  not  only  of  the  fruits  cotnnion  in  England  and 
the  south  of  Europe,  but  of  some  of  those  of  China. 

The  Zoology  of  A.  is  particularly  characterised  by 
the  prevalence  of  Marsupial  (q.  v.)  Quadrupeds,  of 
which  comparatively  few  exist  in  any  other  part  of 
the  world.  Some  of  them  are  herbivorous,  as  the 
Kangaroos  (q.  v.),  Potoroos  (q.  v.),  and  Wombats 
(q.  v.);  some  feed  indifterently  on  roots  and 
insects,  as  the  Bandicoots  (q.  v.);  some  are  car- 
nivorous, as  the  Thylacine  (q.  v.)  and  the  Dasyure 
(q.  V.) — the  tiger  and  the  vnld  cat  of  the  colonists 
— but  all  are  'marsupial ;  that  is,  the  females  have 
a  pouch  for  the  young,  vvhit'h  are  Iwrn  in  a  much 
less  advanced  state  than  the  young  of  other  vivi- 
parous animals.  Besides  its  marsupial  quadrupeds, 
A.  has  few  others,  yet  known,  except  some  species 
of  bat;  a  kind  of  dog,  known  as  the  Dingo  (q.  v.); 
and  the  Eihidnax  (q.  v.)  and  duck-bills  (Ornit/io- 
rhynchux)  (q.  v.),  animals  which  have  been  regarded 
as  forminsr  a  connecting  link  between  quadrupeds 
and  birds,  both  upon  account  of  external  form  and 
anatomical  structure,  and  to  which  nothing  at  all 
similar  exists  in  any  other  part  of  the  world. 

Many  of  the  birds  of  A.  are  very  beautiful,  but 
they  do  not  exhibit  pecuharities  so  general  and 
striking  as  its  quadrupeds,  or  even  its  plants.  The 
Emu  (q.  V.)  may  be  regarded  as  the  Australian  repre- 
sentative of  the  Ostrich  and  Cassowary.  The  Black 
Swan  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  its  colour.  Ducks  of 
various  kinds,  falcons,  doves,  parrots,  and  many  other 
birds  of  families  well  known  elsewhere,  connect  the 
natural  history  of  this  isolated  continent  with  that 
of  tlie  other  regions  of  the  globe. — Reptiles  are 
numerous,  but  exhibit  as  a  class  no  very  marked 
peculiarities,  nor  is  there  in  any  other  department 
of  zoology  so  wide  a  dilference  from  the  rest  of  the 
world  as  in  the  Mammalia.  Among  the  fish  of  the 
Australian  shores  and  rivers  are  many  species  which 
are  not  ibund  elsewhere,  but  they  present  no  remark- 
able common  characteristic.  Among  them  are  no 
trouts,  salmon,  or  other  Salmonidcs,  which,  indeed, 
do  not  extend  into  the  southern  hemisphere.  A 
premium  has  been  offered  for  the  introduction  of 
salmon  into  one  of  the  colonies. 

As  to  the  cultivated  productions,  wool  may  be 
reckoned  the  grand  staple  of  A.  as  a  whole.  Between 
1793  and  1858 — a  period  of  only  65  years — 8  merino 
sheep  had  increased  to  16,000,000.  For  sheep-farm- 
ing, indeed,  the  country,  so  far  as  it  is  not  a  desert, 


seems  to  be  admirably  adapted.  The  colonist, 
instead  of  having,  as  in  America,  to  hew  his  way 
through  dense  forests,  with  tangled  underwood,  see3 
around  him  either  open  pastures  or  parklike  woods 
overshadowing  their  green  sward.  His  main  diffi- 
culty is  the  scarcity  of  water,  or  rather  the  possibility 
that  such  a  scarcity  may  occur.  P'requently,  in  some 
parts  of  the  country,  and  habitually  in  others,  he 
is  obliged  to  rely  on  the  '  water-holes,'  already  so 
often  mentioned,  for  those  natural  tanks  are  said  to 
keep  sweet  to  the  last ;  and  when  these  f  lil,  then  do 
his  poor  sheep,  in  whole  flocks  at  a  time,  die  of 
thirst,  or  rather,  through  the  simultaneous  parching 
of  the  grass,  of  hunger  and  thirst  combined. 

Histori/. — In  1606,  the  north  coast  was  descried 
by  the  Dutch  on  board  of  the  Lui/fcn,  and  about 
the  same  time  by  a  Spanish  expedition  sent  from 
Pern  in  16(i.j,  one  of  the  commanders  of  which  gave 
his  name  to  Torres  Straits.  It  is  probable,  how- 
ever, that  A.  had  been  long  known  to  the  Chinese. 
In  1619  and  1622  respectively,  the  west  and  south- 
west coasts  were  seen.  In  1642,  the  island,  called 
for  some  time  Van  Diemen's  Land,  but  now  Tas- 
mania, was  visited  by  Tasman,  who,  within  a 
month,  sighted  also  New  Zealand.  In  1697,  Swan 
Kiver  was  discovered  by  Vlaming.  In  1770,  Cook, 
then  on  his  first  voyage,  exj)lorcd  nearly  the 
whole  of  the  east  coast,  designating  the  same  New 
South  Wales.  In  1798,  Bass,  a  surgeon  in  the  navy, 
ascertained  the  separation  of  A.  and  Tasmania, 
by  passing  through  the  strait  that  bears  his 
name.  In  1802,  Port  Phillip  was  entered  ;  and  in 
the  same  year,  Flinders  pretty  nearly  completed  the 
general  outline  by  sailing  along  the  southern  shore. 
To  pass  from  discovery  to  colonisation :  there  was 
estabhshed,  in  1788,  the  settlement  of  New  South 
Wales,  and  from  this  all  the  other  British  Austral- 
asian settlements,  with  the  exception  of  Swan  Kiver, 
have  successively  been  planted.  Norfolk  Island, 
erected,  in  1790,  into  a  penal  settlement  for  New 
South  Wales,  has  recently  been  allotted  to  the 
descendants  of  the  mutineers  of  the  JJomifi/, 
removed  lor  this  purpose  from  Pitcairn's  Island. 
The  other  colonies,  whether  offshoots  or  not  of 
New  South  Wales,  assumed  an  independent  exist- 
ence in  the  following  order :  Tasmania,  1825 ; 
Western  A.  or  Swan  River,  1829;  South  A.,  1834; 
New  Zealand,  1841;  Victoria,  1851;  and,  lastly, 
Queensland  or  Moieton  Bay,  1859  (see  these  heads). 
Besides  these  flourishing  colonies,  a  settlement  was 
established  near  Port  Essington  in  1839,  but  was 
abandoned  in  1845,  on  account  of  the  unhealthiness 
of  the  climate.  Subjoined  is  a  summary  table  of 
statistics  for  all  the  more  important  of  these  depend- 
encies, according,  for  the  most  part,  to  the  latest  cen- 
sus retm-ns.  For  additional  information  see  Vol.  X., 
Supplement,  article  Australian  Exploeatioxs. 


New  South  Wales.. 

■Victoria 

South  Australia 

Western  Australia, 

Tasmania 

Queensland 

New  Zealand 


Total., 


Square 

Popul 

ition. 

Mile3. 

1866. 

1867. 

32.3,437 

431,412 

86,S31 

659,887 

383,328 

172,880 

978,000 

21,065 

26,215 

98,455 

678,000 

96,172 

106,259 

220,192 

2,582,070 

(Est.1869  2,050,00(1)1 

880,715 
724,427 
,164,622 
174,080 
790,494 
,198,609 
,644,678, 


30,577,625 


Lbs. 
29,714. 
51,314, 
22,633, 
? 
7,400. 
21,554, 
27,152, 


159,769,431 


2,583,044 
6,412,116 

? 

4,000 

189,248 

2,724,276 


11,912,084 


Ac.  Prod.  Pub.  P.e 
1S66.  1867. 


2,569,456 

3,449,311 

716,294 

90,531 

272,740 

669,041 

1,864,155 


9,631.528 


6,917,6.30 
9,480,800 
1,077,750 
None. 
1,018.900 
3,344,000 
5,781,194 


27,620.274 


The  native  population  of  A.  belongs  to  the  race 
or  group  of  tribes  variously  designated  as  jS'egritos, 
Austral  Negroes,  or  Kchenonesians  ('black  island- 
ers'). The  chief  members  of  the  group,  besides  the 
Australians,  are  the  Papuans  of  New  Guinea,  New 
Caledonia,  and  New  Hebrides,  and  the  natives 
of  Tasmania.  See  Ethnology,  Negritos.  The 
566 


Tasmanians  are  now  extinct,  and  the  Au.stralians 
are  rapidly  diminishing  in  number;  their  condition 
will  be  considered  under  the  head  of  each  colony. 
In  Victoria  they  .«till  number  1700  (not  ine.uded 
in  the  foregoing  table).  The  60,000  natives  of  New 
Zealand  (also  not  included  in  the  table/  belong  to 
the  Polynesians  (q.  v.). 


AUST II ASI  A— AUST 11 1  A. 


AUSTRA'SIA,  or  tlic  Kasl  Kingdom,  the  name 
given,  under  the  Merovingians,  to  the  eastern  pos- 
sessions of  the  Franks,  endjraeins  Lorrnino,  Belgium, 
and  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  and  having  their 
central  point  at  Met/,.  At  tiie  time  of  the  rise  of 
the  Frankisii  power,  these  distriets  were  of  great  im- 
portance, as  they  formed  tlio  eoiineeiion  with  tlic 
German  mother-eoinitry,  and  were  the  must  thickly 
iniiahited  bv  Franks.  "  After  the  time  of  Charles 
Jlartel,  the  "division  of  tlic  Frankish  kingdom  into 
A.  and  IS'eustria  lost  its  political  importance.  Under 
Charlemagne's  successors.  A.  merged  into  Germany 
— and  Neustria,  or  West  Frank-land,  into  France. 

AU'STRIA,  AnriinrcHY  of,  the  cradle  and  nu- 
cleus of  the  Austrian  empire,  lies  on  both  sides  of 
the  Danube,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Inn  to  Presburg, 
on  the  borders  of  Hungary,  and  emljraces  an  area  of 
about  15,000  square  miles,  with  a  population,  in  1857, 
of  2,5.'55,916.  It  now  forms  three  of  the  crown-lands, 
or  administrative  provinces  of  the  empire — viz.. 
Lower  and  Upper  Austria  (or  Austria  below,  and 
Austria  above  the  Ens),  and  the  Duchy  of  Salzburg. 
Sec  ArJSTRiA,  Empikk  of.  The  south  and  west 
portions  are  mountaino\is;  the  north  and  east  are 
more  level  and  fertile,  containing  the  great  plain  of 
Vienna,  the  Marchfcld,  &c.  Tlie  poinilation  is  mostly 
German  and  Catholic.  The  chief  towns,  besides 
Vienna,  are  Wiener-Xeustadt,  Salzburg,  Steycr, 
Linz,  and  Ischl  (q.  v.). 

AU'STRIA,  Empire  of.  TIic  Austrian  dominions 
form,  on  the  whole,  a  compact  territory,  with  a 
circumference  of  about  534 '.»  miles.  It  is  included 
between  42°— 51°  N.  lat.,  and  between  12°  and  26°  40' 
E.  long.  The  body  of  the  empire  lies  in  the  interior 
of  the  European  continent,  though,  by  means  of  the 
southern  projection  of  Dalmatia,  it  has  about  1200 
miles  of  sea-coast,  on  tlic  Adriatic.  With  the  rest 
of  its  circumference,  it  liordcrs  on  the  new  Kingdom 
of  Italy,  Switzerland,  Bavaria,  Saxony,  Prussia,  Rus- 
sia, Moldavia,  Wallachia,  Servia,  Turkey  and  Mon- 
tenegro. Austria  has  become  moulded,  since  1867, 
into  a  double  state,  consisting  of  a  German  or  '  Cis- 
Icithan'  ^Monarchy,  and  a  Marjijar  or  '  Transleithan' 
Kingdom,  the  former  commonly  knowTi  as  Austria 
Proper,  and  the  latter  as  Hungary.  Each  kingdom 
has  its  parliament,  ministry  and  government.  The 
area  and  population  of  the  pro\dnces  composing  them 
are  as  follows  :* 

Pioviuccs  of  the  Empire.  ^^""V^. ,' "  ^"P"'";^!"'! 

■  Sq.  Miles.  lu  1807. 

German  Monarchy,  .     110,000  19,692,487 

Lower  Austria,          .  7,56;j  1,752,246 

Upper  Austria,     .  .         4,576  721,597 

Salzburg,           .         .  2,734  147,018 

Styria,           .         .  .         8,567  1,096,647 

Carinthia,          .         .  3,958  343,492 

Carniola,      .         ,  .         3,811  476,698 

Coast  Distriets,  or  lUyria,     3,048  569,726 

Tj-rol  and  Vorarlhcrg,  10,980  881,296 

Bohemia,      .         .  .       19,822  5,149,486 

Moravia,  .         .         .  8,481  1,968,646 

Silesia,          .         .  .         1,964  496,730 

Galicia,     .         .         .  29,874  5,145,129 

Bukowina,    .         .  ,         3,981  492,420 

Dalmatia,          .         .  4,881  451,356 

Einrjdom  of  Hungary,  .     106,000  13,871,452 

Hungary,           .         .  68,583  10,814,206 

Croatia  and  Slavonia,  .         6,!»87  962,031 

Transylvania,   .         .  23,147  2,095,215 

Military  frontiers,  .       12,000  1,142,521 

Total,         .         .         227.234         34,706,460 

*  By  the  cession  of  its  Italian  Provincos  in  1859  and  1866, 
Austria  lost  17,346  miles  of  territory  ami  4,766,910  inhabitants, 
according  to  the  census  of  IS.^7.  But  the  natural  increase,  ac- 
cording to  the  registry  of  hirths  and  deaths,  made  the  actual 
papulation  of  the  empire  at  the  end  of  1866,  34,706,460. 


To  this  population  must  be  added  the  military  estalv 
hshment,  which,  on  a  peace-footing  in  1869,  amoimted 
to  278,470  men.  Ou  a  war-footing,  the  army  num- 
bers over  800,000. 

The  first  eleven  of  these  divisions — except  a  part 
of  lUyria — and  also  part  of  Galicia,  making  an 
extent  of  75,180  square  miles,  with  a,  population 
of  above  I'i  millions,  belonged  to  the  German  Con- 
federation prior  to  1866. 

Stirfna: — Three-fourths  of  A.  is  motintainous  or 
hilly,  "being  tiaver.sed  by  three  great  mountain-chains 
— tii'e  Alps,  Carpathians,  and  Sudetes  (q.  v.),  whose 
chief  ridges  are  of  primitive  loek.  The  Rha;tian 
and  Noric  Alps  stretch  from  Switzerland  to  the 
Danube,  and  contain  the  highest  points  of  the  Aus- 
trian territories,  the  Ortler  Spitzc  rising  to  12,779 
English  feet.  Their  height  declines  gradually  to- 
wards the  cast,  where  the  Leitha  Hills  (3000  feet), 
overlooking  the  plain  of  Vieinia,  form  the  transition 
to  the  Carpathians.  This  chain  rises  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Danube,  near  Presburg,  and  sweeping 
in  a  curve,  fir.st  east,  and  then  southward  through 
Transvlvania,  again  meets  the  Danube.  The  highest 
point  is  Butschetje  in  Transylvania,  where  a  height 
of  9528  feet  is  reached.  The  central  part,  or  Tatra 
Mountains,  are  vast  granitic  masses,  resembling  the 
Alps  in  character;  the  highest  of  these  is  the  Lom- 
nitz,  in  the  longitude  of  Cracow,  8133  feet.  The  Alps 
are  accompanied,  north  and  south,  by  parallel  ranges 
of  calcareous  mountains,  covering  whole  provinces 
with  their  ramifications.  The  Carpathians  are  lapt 
on  their  northern  side  by  sandstone  formations ; 
mountains  of  the  same  character  also  occupy  Tran- 
sylvania. Springing  from  the  north-west  bend  of 
tiie  Carpathians,  the^  Sudetes  run  through  the  north- 
east of  Moravia  and  Bohemia,  in  which  last  the 
range  is  known  as  the  Riesen-gcbirge,  or  Giant 
Mountains.  The  boundary  between  Bohemia  and 
Prussian  Silesia  passes  over  the  Schneekoppe,  the 
highest  peak  of  these  mountains,  which  is  5275  feet 
in  height.  Continuous  with  this  range,  and  begin- 
ning on  the  left  bank  of  the  Elbe,  are  the  Erzge- 
birge,  or  Ore  Mountains,  on  the  confines  of  Saxony  ; 
and  veering  round  to  nearly  .south-east,  the  range 
is  further  prolonged  in  the  Bohemian-Forest  Moun- 
tains, between  Bohemia  and  Bavaria. — The  chief 
plains  of  the  Austrian  empire  are:  the  great  plains 
of  Hungary  (the  smaller  of  these  is  in  the  west, 
between  the  offsets  of  the  Alps  and  Carpathians, 
and  is  about  4200  square  miles  in  extent ;  the  other, 
wliieh  is  in  the  cast,  and  traversed  by  the  Danube 
and  the  Theiss,  has  an  area  of  21,000  square  miles), 
and  tlie  plains  of  Galicia. 

From  the  south  point  of  Dalmatia  to  the  boundary 
of  Italy,  A.  has  a  sea-line  of  about  1000  miles,  not 
counting  the  coasts  of  the  ninnerous  islands,  the 
largest  of  which  is  Vcglia,  23  miles  by  12.  The  chief 
lakes  are:  the  Flatten  See  (about  400  square  miles), 
and  the  Neusiedler  See  (about  100  miles),  both  in 
Hungaiy.  The  first  is  na\dgable  by  steamers,  and 
both  are  rich  in  fish,  and  have  fruitful  vineyards 
around  them.  The  Alps  and  Carpathians  enclose 
numerous  mountain  lakes,  which  are  surrounded 
■with  wood  and  rock,  and  all  the  other  attributes  of 
picturesque  scenery.  The  Long  Lake  in  the  Tatra 
Mountains  lies  at  an  elevation  of  6000  feet,  llie 
most  remarkable  of  all  is  the  Zirknitz  Lake  (q.  v.)  in 
IlhTia.  Tliere  are  extensive  swamps  or  morasses  in 
Hungary.  One  connected  \vith  the  Neusiedler  See 
covers  some  80  squai-e  miles.  A  good  deal  has  been 
done  in  the  way  of  reclaiming  lands  by  draining 
morasses. 

The  leading  rivers  that  have  na\-igable  tributaries 
are:  the  Danube  (q.  v.),  which  has  a  course  of  849 
miles  -Hithin  the  Austrian  dominions,  from  Passau, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Inn,  to  Orsowa,  on  the  fi'ontiei 

567 


AUSTRIA. 


of  Wallacliia,  and  receives,  on  the  riglit,  the  Inn, 
Traun,  Ens,  Leitha,  Raab,  Drau,  and  Save ;  and,  on 
the  left,  the  March,  Waag,  Neutra,  Gran,  Theiss, 
Bega,  and  Temes :  the  VistuUi  {i\.  v.),  with  its  tribn- 
tary  the  Bug  :  the  Elbe  (q.  v.),  with  tlie  Moldau  and 
Eger ;  and  the  Dniester.  The  Illune  bounds  the  em- 
pire for  about  fourteen  miles  above  Lake  Constance. 

The  canal  system  of  Austria,  is  in  general  not  ex- 
tensive. The  Vienna  and  Neustadt  Canal,  in  Lower 
Austria,  has  a  length  of  40  miles  ;  the  Bacser  or  Franz 
Canal,  between  the  Danube  and  Theiss  in  Hungary, 
09  miles ;  and  the  Bega  Canal,  constructed  by  the 
Romans,  between  the  Bega  and  Temes,  83  miles. 
Extensive  lines  are  still  capable  of  being  opened  up, 
alfording  the  only  possible  communication  with  many 
places  now  inaccessible,  and,  at  the  same  time,  the 
means  of  rescuing  tracts  of  arable  land  from  inunda- 
tions. 

The  climate  of  A.  is  on  the  wdiole  very  favourable; 
but  from  the  extent  and  diversity  of  surface,  it  pre- 
sents great  varieties.  In  the  warmest  southern 
region  between  42° — 46°  lat.,  rice,  olives,  oranges, 
and  lemons  ripen  in  the  better  localities ;  and  w  ine 
and  maize  are  produced  everywhere.  In  the  middle, 
temperate  region  from  46" — 19°,  which  has  the 
greatest  extent  and  diversity  of  surface,  wine  and 
maize  still  thrive  in  perfection.  In  the  northern 
region,  beyond  49°,  except  in  favoured  spots,  neither 
wine  nor  maize  succeed  ;  but  grain,  fruit,  flax,  and 
hemp,  thrive  excellently.  The  mean  temperature  of 
the  year  is,  at  Trieste,  58°  F. ;  at  Vienna,  51°;  at 
Lemberg,  in  Galicia,  44°. 

The  raw  products  of  A.  are  abundant  and  various ; 
and  in  this  respect  it  is  one  of  the  most  favoured 
countries  in  Europe.  Wiiat  one  province  lacks, 
another  supplies.  Its  mineral  wealth  is  not  sur- 
passed in  any  European  country ;  it  is  only  lately 
that  Russia  has  exceeded  it  in  the  production  of  gold 
and  silver.  Mining  has  been  a  favourite  pursuit 
in  A.  for  centuries,  and  has  been  encouraged  and 
promoted  by  the  government.  Bohemia,  Hungary, 
Styria,  Carinthia,  Salzlmrg,  and  Tyrol,  take  the  first 
place  in  respect  of  mineral  produce.  Except  platina, 
none  of  the  useful  metals  is  wanting.  The  mines 
are  partly  state  property,  and  partly  owned  by 
private  individuals.  The  value  of  their  yearly  pro- 
duce was  stated  in  1851  at  119, 664,781  florins 
(£11,966,478).  Of  this,  salt  yields  53  million 
florins ;  stones  and  earths,  4()  million  ;  and  metals, 
coal,  and  other  products,  26^  million.  (In  1855,  the 
value  of  metals  and  coal  had  increased  to  37^ 
million  florins.)  Gold  is  found  chiefly  in  Hungary 
and  Transylvania,  and  in  smaller  quantity  in  Salzburg 
and  Tyrol.  The  same  countries,  along  with  Bohemia, 
yield  silver.  The  discovery  of  quicksilver  at  Idria 
(q.  V.)  first  brought  this  branch  of  mining  industry 
into  importance.  This  metal  is  now  also  Ibuud 
in  Hungary,  Transylvania,  Styria,  and  Carinthia. 
Copper  is  found  in  many  districts — tin,  in  Bohemia 
alone.  Zinc  is  got  chiefly  in  Cracow  and  Carinthia. 
The  most  productive  lead  mines  are  in  Cariutliia. 
Iron  is  found  in  almost  every  province  of  the  mon- 
ai-chy,  though  Stp-ia,  Carinthia,  and  Carniola  are 
chief  seats.  The  production,  though  great,  is  not  yet) 
equal  to  the  consumption.  Antimony  is  confined  to 
Hungary ;  arsenic  is  found  in  Salzburg  aud  Bohemia ; 
cobalt  in  Hungary,  St}Tia,  and  Bohemia ;  and  sulphur 
is  found  in  Galicia,  Bohemia,  Hungary,  Salzburg,  &c., 
though  not  enough  to  supply  home  consumption. 
Graphite  is  found  abundantly  in  Bohemia,  Moravia, 
Carinthia,  &c. 

The  useful  earths  and  building-stones  are  to  be 
had  in  great  profusion  in  the  provinces  of  Austria ; 
all  sorts  of  clay  up  to  the  finest  porcelain  earth 
(in  Mora^'ia,  Bohemia,  Hungary),  and  likewise 
nuarbk,  gj^jsum,  chalk,  &c.  Of  pVecious  and  semi- 
568 


precious  stones  ai'e  the  Hungarian  opal,  (which 
passes  in  commerce  as  oriental),  Bohemian  garnets — 
the  finest  in  Europe — cornelians,  agates,  beryl,  ame- 
thyst, jasper,  ruby,  sapphire,  topaz,  &c. 

Tlie  following  table  shows  the  principal  metals 
and  minerals  pi'oduced  in  Austria  in  1867,  and 
their  average  value  in  florins,  at  the  place  of  pro- 
duction : 


(pfund)      3,562  value  2,406,041  florins. 
3,055,643       " 


Gold, 

Silver,  "         81,378 

Quicksilver  (centner)  5,944 


|Ti 
I  Zinc, 
Copper, 
Lead  and  Lith- 
arge, 
Iron,  raw  and 

cast, 
Gra])hite, 


.591 
40,296 
47,930 

136,608 

5,705,761 
279,355 


Stone  coal,   "  108,488,390 


"  723,958 

"  33,812 

"  495,956 

"  2,377,840 

"  1,770,884 

"  16,709,039 

"  271,123 

"  17,332,283 


A.  is  peculiarly  rich  in  salt.  Rock-salt  exists  in 
immense  beds  on  both  sides  of  the  Carpathians, 
chiefly  at  Wieliczka  (q.  v.)  and  Bochnia  in  Galicia, 
and  in  the  county  of  Marmaros  in  Hungaiy,  and  iu 
TVansylvania.  The  annual  produce  of  rock-salt  is 
greatly  above  3  million  cwt.  Salt  is  also  made  at 
state  salt-works  by  evajjoi-ating  the  water  of  salt- 
springs.  Tlie  chief  works  are  those  at  Hallstadt, 
Ischl,  Hallein,  and  Hall  in  Tyrol.  From  two  to 
thi'ce  million  cwt.  are  thus  produced  annually.  A 
considerable  qiumtity  is  also  made  from  sea-water 
on  the  coasts  of  the  Adriatic.  Of  other  salts,  alum, 
sulphate  of  iron,  and  sulphate  of  copper,  are  the 
chief.  There  are  inexhaustible  deposits  of  coal  in 
the  monarchy ;  but  the\^  have  not  yet  been  rightly 
explored,  nor  are  nearly  all  that  are  known  yet 
worked.  They  are  sjjread  over  all  the  pro\inces ; 
but  the  richest  are  in  the  mountain  systems  of 
Mora\ia  and  Bohemia.  Of  recent  years,  however, 
a  great  deal  has  been  done  to  de\elop  this  jjarticnlar 
branch  of  mining.  A.  has  abundance  of  mineral 
springs,  fi'cquented  for  then-  salubrity;  1600  are 
enumerated,  some  of  them  of  European  reputation, 
as  the  sulphurous  baths  of  Baden  in  Lower  A.,  the 
saline  waters  of  Kai-lsbad,  Alai-ieubad,  and  Ofen,  &c. 

The  vegetable  productions,  as  might  be  expected 
from  the  vast  variety  in  the  soil  and  position  of  the 
different  provinces,  are  extremely  various.  Although 
three-fourths  of  the  sm-face  is  mountainous,  more 
than  five-sixths  is  productive,  being  used  either  for 
tillage,  meadows,  pastm-e,  or  forest.  Grain  of  all 
kinds  is  cultivated,  most  abundantly  in  Hungary 
aud  the  districts  south  of  it  on  the  Danube, 
as  well  as  in  Bohemia,  IMoravia,  Silesia,  aud  Ga- 
licia. 

Agriculture  is  not  yet  far  advanced  in  any 
part  of  the  emi>ire;  the  prevailing  system,  is  still 
what  is  called  the  three-field  system,  introduced 
into  Germany  by-  Charlemagne,  in  which  a  crop 
of  ^vinter  wheat  is  followed  by  one  of  simimer 
grain,  and  that  by  fallow.  In  Hungary,  the 
JNIagyar  still  adheres  to  his  primitive  modes  of 
husbandry,  but  the  German  and  Slave  ai-e  adopt- 
ing more  modern  and  rational  methods. 

Rice  is  cultivated  m  the  Banat  to  considerable 
extent,  but  not  enough  for  the  consumption  of 
the  inhabitants.  Potatoes  ai-e  raised  everywhere; 
and  especially  in  the  more  elevated  districts,  are 
often  the  principle  subsistence  of  the  ])eoi)le. 
Horticulture  is  carried  to  great  perfection  lu 
some  parts  of  the  empire,  and  particularly  in 
Bohemia,  Austria  Proper,  T\i-ol,  and  many  parts 
of  Hungary;   the  orchards  produce  a  profusion  of 


J.   5.   LI  FPU; 


xxri. 


-i   CO.    FHIIAD/ 


AUSTRIA. 


fruit.  Great  qu.iutities  of  cider  are  made  ia  Upper 
A.  and  Cariiitliia,  and  of  plum-brandy  in  Slavonia. 
In  the  province  of  Dalmatia,  oranges  and  lemons  are 
produced  to  some  extent,  but  not  sufficient  for  the 
requirements  of  the  country  ;  twice  as  mucli  olive-oil 
is  imported  as  is  raised  in  the  monarchy. 

In  the  production  of  wine,  A.  is  second  only 
to  France.  With  tlie  exception  of  Galicia,  Silesia, 
and  Upper  Austria,  the  vine  is  cultivated  in  all  the 
provinces;  but  Hungary  stands  first,  yielding  not 
only  the  finest  quality  of  wine,  but  four-fifths  the 
amount  of  the  whole  produce  of  the  empire.  The 
average  produce  of  the  whole  empire  is  estimated  at 
about  G80  million  gallons,  which  is  mostly  con- 
sumed by  the  inhabitants  themselves. 

Of  plants  used  in  manuf\ictures  and  commerce, 
the  first  place  is  held  by  fiax  and  hemp.  Flax 
is  cultivated  almost  universally ;  white  hemp  in 
Galicia,  jNIoravia,  and  in  Hungary,  &c.  Tobacco  is 
raised  in  great  quantities,  especially  in  Hungary, 
which  also  is  first  in  the  cultivation  of  rape-seed. 
Bohemia  raises  hops  of  the  first  quality,  which  are 
partly  exported ;  though  other  provinces  require 
to  import  from  abroad.  The  indigo  plant  has  been 
lately  successfully  acclimatised  in  Dalmatia.  More 
than  a  third  of  the  j)roductive  surface  is  covered 
with  wood  (75,000  square  miles),  which,  besides 
timber,  yields  a  number  of  secondary  products,  as 
tar,  potash,  charcoal,  bark,  cork,  &c. 

As  to  anhnah,  bears  arc  found  in  the  Carpathians, 
Alps,  and  Dalmatia;  wolves, jackals,  and  lynxes  in 
the  same  districtsf,  and  also  in  the  Banat,  Croatia, 
Slavonia,  and  the  Military  Frontiers.  The  marmot, 
otter,  and  beaver,  are  also  found  in  Dalmatia. 
Game  has  of  late  sensibly  diminished.  The  wild 
goat  lives  in  the  highest,  the  chamois  and  white 
Alpine  hare  in  the  middle  regions  of  the  Alps  and 
Carpathians.  More  productive  than  the  chase  are 
the  fisheries  of  the  Danube,  Theiss,  and  numerous 
streams,  lakes,  and  ponds.  The  chief  sea-fishing  is 
on  the  coast  and  among  the  inlets  of  Dalmatia. 
Leeches,  procured  chiefly  in  Hungary  and  Mora^•ia, 
form  an  ai'ticle  of  considerable  ti-ade.  For  foreign 
conunerce,  an  important  branch  of  rui'al  industry 
is  the  reai-ing  of  silk,  which  is  earned  on  extensively 
in  TjTol.  Austria  is  estimated  to  produce  at  least 
a  quarter  of  a  million  cwt.  of  silk  cocoons  yearly, 
of  which  thirty-two  thousand  cwt.  are  produced  in 
Tj-rol  alone. 

The  breeding  of  domestic  anhnah  has  not  yet 
advanced  to  what  the  home  wants  require.  In  some 
districts,  it  is  excellent;  in  others,  quite  neglected. 
Horse-breeding  is  promoted  by  what  are  called 
'  military  studs.'  Besides  a  number  of  imperial  studs, 
there  are  a  great  many  private  establishments, 
especially  in  Hungary,  for  the  same  purpose.  The 
supply  of  black  cattle  is  not  ec[ual  to  the  demand ; 
great  numbers  are  furnished  by  Hungary  and  Galicia. 
The  breeding  of  sheep,  like  that  of  horses,  has  been 
a  special  object  of  care  to  the  government.  The 
finer  wools  are  furnished  by  Moravia,  Bohemia, 
Silesia,  Lower  Austria,  and  great  part  of  Hungary 
and  Galicia.  The  great  mass  is,  however,  composed 
of  what  is  known  as  middling  and  inferior  sorts. 
Goats  are  reared  chiefly  in  Dalmatia,  and  swine  in 
Hungary.  In  18.51,  the  number  of  horses  in  the 
monarchy  was  stated  at  3,229,884  (not  including 
75,000  belonging  to  the  army);  cattle,  10,4:10,484:; 
eheep,  16,801,545;  goats,  2,275,900;  and  swine, 
7,401,300.  Nearly  three-fourths  of  the  population 
are  engaged  in  husbandry,  so  that  A.  is  decidedly 
an  agricultural  state,  though  its  capabilities  in  this 
respect  have  by  no  means  been  fully  developed.- 

The  popnlatio7i  is  very  unequally  distributed. 
The  most  populous  districts  are  those  of  the  south- 
west and   of  the   north-west.     The  Alpine   regions 


and  those  of  the  Carpathians  are  the  sparsest ;  and 
generally  the  density  diminishes  towards  the  east. 
In  1857,  Austria  contained  134  cities,  each  having  a 
population  of  more  than  10,000  inhabitants;  among 
which  were  96  containing  less  than  20,000  ea.-h,  23 
more  than  20,000,  8  more  than  50,000,  and  5  more 
than  100,000.  The  population  of  Austria  embraces 
a  greater  number  of  races,  distinct  in  origin  and 
language,  than  that  of  any  other  Euro])ean  country 
except  Russia.  The  proportions  in  this  respect 
can  only  he  given  fi-om  the  oflficial  statements 
of  1857.  The  Slaves  are  the  most  numerous 
race,  amounting  to  15,000,735,  or  about  43  per 
cent,  of  the  whole  population  in  1857.  nicy  lorn 
the  bulk  of  the  population  of  Bohemia,  ^loiavia, 
Camiola,  Dalmatia,  Croatia,  Slavonia,  the  IMilitary 
Frontiers,  the  Woiwodina,  the  north  of  Hungary, 
and  Galicia.  Tliey  are,  however,  sjilit  up  into  a 
number  of  people  or  tribes,  differhig  greatly  in 
language,  religion,  culture,  and  manners ;  so  that 
then-  seeming  preponderance  in  the  empire  is  thus 
lost.  The  chief  branches  of  the  Slavic  stem  are  the 
northern  Czechs  (the  most  numerous  of  all),  Ruth- 
enes,  and  Poles,  and  the  southern  Slo^\■ens,  Croats, 
Serbs,  and  Bulgarians.  The  Gernuins  mmiberetl 
7,877,675,  or  about  22  per  cent.  They  arc  dispersed 
over  the  empii-e,  but  predominate  most  m  the  duchy 
of  A.,  Salzburg,  TatoI,  Sti,Tia,  Carinthia,  the  west 
of  Hungary,  &c.  The  Romanic  people  (speaking 
languages  derived  from  that  of  ancient  Rome) 
amounted  to  3,224,079  or  10  per  cent.,  and  are 
divided  into  western  and  eastern.  To  the  first,  the 
Grermans  give  the  general  name  of  Welsch.  Tliey 
consist  of  Italians,  inhabiting  the  south  of  TStoI,  Is- 
tria,  and  Dalmatia;  the  Ladins  (Latins),  occupying 
some  valleys  in  TjtoI  ;  and  the  Friauls  about  Gijrtz, 
north  of  Trieste.  The  eastern  Romans  are  the  Valaks 
or  Wallachians,  st_yled  by  themselves  Rumuni,  ^vho 
are  found  in  Ti-ansylvania,  Hungary,  the  Woi^^•o- 
dina,  Bukowina,  and  ililitary  Frontiers.  Tlie  Mag- 
yars, or  Hungarians  proper,  numbered  4,866,556 
(134  per  cent.) ;  they  ai'e  located  cliiefly  in  Hun- 
gary and  Transylvania;  also  in  the  Woiwodina, 
and  a  few  in  Croatia  and  Slavonia.  Tlie  small 
remaining  portion  is  composed  cliiefly  of  Jews, 
Annenians,  and  Bohemians,  or  gi])sies ;  the  first 
iiumbei-ing  706,657;  the  second,  15,996;  and  the 
last  83,769. 

As  to  religion,  the  great  bulk  of  the  nation  is 
Roman  Catholic,  and  next  in  importance  stands 
the  Greek  Church.  In  1857,  there  were  25,058,321 
Roman  Catholics;  of  Greeks  in  union  with  the 
Church  of  Rome,  there  were  3,536,600 ;  not  in  union, 
2,921,639.  Tlie  Protestants  of  all  denominations 
numbered  3,182,480;  and  the  Jewish  jiersuasion 
claimed  1,049,871.  The  Church  of  Rome  has  ISarch- 
bishoprics,  and  76  bishoprics;  and  in  1851,  there 
was  an  army  of  40,516  secular  priests.  At  the 
accession  of  Joseph  II.,  there  were  2024  convents; 
but  at  the  end  of  the  French  war  (1810),  they  had 
been  reduced  to  800.  Since  then,  they  have  begun 
to  increase,  and  in  1849,  there  were  959. 

Education,  since  1849,  is  under  the  care  of  a 
minister  of  Public  Worship  and  Instruction.  As 
compared  with  other  German  states,  the  education 
of  A.  presents  some  peculiarities.  There  is  a  greater 
prevalence  of  establishments  where  the  pupils  both 
live  and  receive  instruction;  also  of  schools  for 
special  callings.  Instruction,  again,  whether  high  or 
low,  is  mostly  gratuitous,  or  of  ti'ifling  cost,  being 
provided  from  general  or  local  public  funds.  An- 
other peculiarity  is  the  sway  of  the  clergy,  both  in 
schools  and  universities.  The  primary  schools  are 
entirely  in  their  hands.  The  Jesuits,  banished  in 
1848,  have  been  allowed  to  return,  and  have  had 
their  schools  restored.     The  number  of  elementary 

509 


AUSTRIA. 


schools  has  increased  greatly  in  recent  times  ; 
Hungary  is  still  backward  in  this  respect.  In  1S51, 
there  were  (not  counting  Hungary)  41:,(i69  element- 
ary schools,  having  57,087  teachers,  and  educating 
3,435,978  children.  There  are  9  universities,  139 
establishments  for  giving  instruction  in  theology  (of 
which  l:il  were  Roman  Catholic),  7  technical  insti- 
tutes, and  7  surgical  schools.  There  arc  also  a  large 
number  of  establishments  where  the  pupils  are 
received  young,  and  educated  and  trained  for  special 
professions ;  I'or  the  army  and  navy,  for  the  counting- 
house,  for  the  mine  and  the  farm,  as  accoucheurs,  &c. 
There  arc  besides  a  large  numl)er  of  institutes,  &c., 
for  the  promotion  of  science  and  art.  The  total  num- 
ber of  educational  establishments  in  the  Austrian 
empire  (excludmg  Hungary)  in  1S57  was  48,615,  and 
the  numlicr  educated  3,732,862.  The  fruits  of  tliis 
extensive  educational  system  are  not  what  miglit  he 
e.Kjiected,  in  consequence  of  the  priestly  and  mon- 
arcliical  restrictions  which  hedge  it  round'.  'Hie  chief 
libraries  are,  the  Imperial  and  University  libraries  of 
Vienna. 

There  are  in  the  whole  monarch}'  362  newspapers 
and  other  periodical  prints ;  of  which  134  are  jioliticul. 
Fidly  the  half  are  in  German;  but  the  whole  are 
fettered  by  conditions  which  remler  them  (luite 
worthless  as  organs  of  public  o])inlon.  The  number 
of  books  and  pamphlets  published  in  the  Austrian 
em])ire  in  1863  was  2570. 

The  marmfatturincj  indnstry  of  A.  is  not  yet 
adequately  developed.  The  annual  value  of  "its 
manufactures— not  inchiding  small  trades— is  esti- 
mated at  1000-1200  million  ilorins,  while  that 
of  its  husbandry  may  reach  3000  million.  Bohemia 
takes  the  lead  in  this  industry ;  then  follow  Austria 
Proper,  Moravia  and  Silesia,  Hungary,  &c.  ^''icnna 
is  the  chief  seat  of  manufacture  for  articles  of  luxury ;  t 
Moravia,  Silesia,  and  Bohemia  for  linen,  woollen,  and 
glass  -wai-es ;  Styxia  and  Carinthia  for  iron  and  steel 
wares. 

The  chief  manufactured  articles  of  export  are  those 
of  silk  and  wool;  the  only  others  of  consequence 
are  linen,  twist,  glass-wares,  and  cotton  goods. 
The  yearly  value  of  nuinufacturcd  iron  is  about 
54  million  florins.  The  glass  wares  of  Bohemia  are 
of  special  excellence.  The  hemp  and  flax  industry 
is  one  of  the  oldest  and  still  most  important. 
The  value  of  the  raw  materials  is  estimated  at  S'i 
million  florins  ;  of  the  manufactured  articles,  at 
30  million.  "Woollen  goods  are  stated  at  Idii 
million.  No  branch  of  industry  has  risen  more 
rapidly  than  that  of  cotton,  which  is  estimated  to 
give  employment  to  400,000  persons,  producing  goods 
to  the  value  of  80  million  florins  annually,  deducting 
20  million  as  the  cost  of  the  raw  material.  The 
annual  value  of  the  silk  industry  is  estimated  at  60 
million  florins.  The  manufacture  of  tobacco  is  a 
state  monopoly,  and  brings  a  revenue  annually  of  26 
nnilion  florins. 

In  respect  of  commerce,  A.  is  most  unfavourably 
situated.  High  mountains  oppose  great  obstacles  on 
all  handfi  to  communication,  and  separate  the  producing 
districts  from  the  onh^  sea  that  touches  the  empire ; 
while  th  ^  chief  navigable  rivers  have  their  mouths  in 
other  countries.  Much  has  been  done  to  remedy  these 
obstacles  by  the  construction  of  highways,  railways, 
and  the  use  of  steam  on  the  rivers.  Since  1809,  a 
length  of  19,000  miles  of  highways  has  been  made." 
The  great  Alpine  roads  over  the"  Stelvio  Pa?s,  the 
Splugen,  and  the  Semcring  (q.  v.),  are  among  the 
most  remarkable  constructions  of  our  times.  The 
first  railway  opened  in  A.  extends  from  Linz  on  rhe 
Danube  north  to  Budweis  on  the  Moldau,  and  south  to 
Wells  and  Gnmnden.  It  is  worked  by  horse-power. 
The  state,  in  1841,  resolved  to  undertake  the  con- 
struction of  railwavs,  and  since  then  a  great  extent 
570 


I  has  been  laid  down.     In  1858,  2086  miles  of  railway 
were  opened  for  traffic.     The  principal  lines  are  from 
j  Vienna   to    Giiitz,  from    (iriitz   to    Cillv,  thence  to 
[Trieste;  from   Vienna   to  Stockerau,   and   thence  to 
I  Briick ;    and    from    Vienna    to    Briinn,    thence    to 
Olmiitz  and  Prague.      In  Ilungarv,  the  chief  lines 
are  from  Pesth  to  Szolnok,  and  from  Pcsth  to  Pres- 
bnrg,  via  Waitzcn,  thence  to  Tyrnau.     In  1869  Aus- 
tria possessed  a  network  of  railways  of  the  length  of 
4500  English   nnles,  constructed   at  an  expense  of 
more  than  £68,000,000. 

River  connnunication  received  a  great  impulse 
from  the  introduction  of  steam.  By  means  of  the 
Danube  Steam-company,  formed  in  1850,  and  a 
second  company  (1852)  confined  to  tug-navigation, 
passengers  and  goods  are  now  conveyed  on  the 
Danube  between  Ulm  and  Galatz,  and  on  to  Con- 
stantinople. In  1854,  the  Austrian  Danulie  Steam- 
company  had  83  steamers  i)lying  on  the  Danube,  the 
receipts  from  conveyance  of  goods  !)cing  in  that 
year  nearly  7  million  fiorins.  This  traffic  would  be 
vastly  greater  were  the  Lower  Danul)e  freed  from 
the  influence  of  Russia. 

A  great  number  of  the  political  im])eilinients  to 
commerce  have  been  removed  or  diminished.  The 
customs-boundary  that  separated  Hungary  and  the 
adjoiinng  provinces  from  the  rest  of  the  empire,  was 
done  away  in  1851,  so  that  the  whole  is  included  in 
one  customs-district,  with  the  exception  of  Dalmatia, 
which  still  forms  a  small  district  by  itself  The 
tolls  that  obstrnctcil  the  navigation  of  the  Elbe 
and  Danube,  have  also  been  removed  by  means 
of  conventions  with  the  states  through  which  they 
pass.  By  the  new  tariff",  which  came  into  partial 
operation  in  1852,  A.  has  passed  from  a  prohibitive 
to  a  protective  system.  No  article  is  admitted  duty- 
fi-ee ;  but  absolute  jirohibition  is  confined  to  articles 
of  state  monopoly  (salt,  powder,  and  tobacco). 
Goods  for  mere  transit  or  transhipment  pay  no  duty. 
But  the  foreign  commerce  of  A.  is  nothing  compared 
with  that  between  the  different  provinces.  The 
groat  centre  of  this  internal  commerce  is  Vienna ; 
other  important  markets  are  Linz,  Prague,  Lemberg, 
Brody,  Pesth,  Gratz,  &c. 

In  1857,  the  total  value  of  the  imports  of  the 
whole  Austrian  empire — of  course,  including  Lom- 
bardy  and  Venice,  since  ceded  to  Itah' — w&s,  289,- 
393,496  florins  (£28,939,349),  and  of  exports,  235,- 
679,945  florins  (£23,567,994). 

Tlie  total  value  of  imports  and  exports,  including 
bullion  and  specie  to  and  from  all  countries  in  the 
five  years,  1860-66,  was  as  follows: 


Years. 

1860,      . 
1861, 
1862,       . 
1863, 
1864,      . 
1866, 

The  chief  harbours  of  Austria  are,  on  the  coast 
of  Istria— Ti-ieste,  Rovigno,  Pu-ano,  Citta  Nuova, 
&c. ;  of  Croatia— Fiume,  Buccari,  Novi ;  of  Dalma- 
tia— Zara,  Spalatro,  Ragusa,  Cattai-o,  Curzola,  Se- 
bonica,  &c. 

The  merchant  marine  in  1857  consisted  of  9590 
vessels,  of  which  61  were  steamers,  vni\\  a  tonnage 
of  376,239;  in  1864,  it  comprised  9643  vessels 
mth  a  tonnage  of  331,287,  and  with  crews  of  33,977 
men. 

As  to  form  of  government,  A.  is  a  monarchy  here- 
ditary in  the  House  of  Ilapsburg-Lothringen.  In 
the  ciise  of  the  reigning  family  dying  out,  the  states 
of    Bohemia   and   of    Hungary   have   the    right   of 


Imports. 

Exports. 

florins. 

florins. 

257,226,000 

307,064,000 

272,278,000 

308,659,000 

263,067,000 

325,571,000 

284,807,000 

321,726,000 

272,537,000 

351,319,000 

22.5,564,761 

330,086,000 

AUSTRIA. 


choosing  a  new  king ;  but  for  the  other  crown-knds, 
the  last  sovereign  appoints  liis  own  successor.  The 
reigning  House  must  profess  the  Koman  CathoHc 
faith. 

Till  lSt8,  Hungary  and  Transylvania  had  a 
constitution  limiting  the  nioruirchy,  which  was 
absolute  for  the  rest  of  the  empire  ;  though  the 
several  provinces  had  each  its  consultative  council 
composed  of  clergy,  nobles,  and  burghers.  Since  the 
Revolution  of  1848,  and  the  subsequent  reaction,  all 
marks  of  independence  of  the  separate  pi-ovinces 
have  disap]ie;xred,  and  A.  now  forms  one  whole. 
The  imperial  constitution  granted  (octroi/lrtc)  .March 
4,  1849,  as  well  as  the  provincial  constitutions  that 
followed,  have  been  abolisliod,  and  government  has 
been  organized  in  the  most  absolute  form  by  the 
imperial  'patent'  or  charter  of  December  31,  1851. 
The  patent  guarantees  to  every  religious  body  recog- 
nised by  law  protection  in  the  observance  of  public 
ordinances,  in  the  management  of  its  own  aftairs, 
and  in  the  possession  of  buildings  and  funds  for  tlie 
purpose  of  worship  and  instruction.  The  relation  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  to  the  state  has  been 
put  upon  a  new  footing.  It  is  no  longer  under 
the  oversight  of  tlie  secular  authority,  the  p/arc- 
tnm  rer/ium  and  church-patronage  are  abolished, 
ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  for  discipline,  and  the 
independent  administration  of  churcli-propcrtv,  are 
conceded,  and  the  intercourse  of  bishops  and  of  all 
Catholics  with  Rome  left  free.  The  clergy  have  no 
longer  to  submit  to  examination  or  tests  on  the  part 
of  the  state;  they  are  nominated  by  the  state,  but 
only  with  the  concurrence  of  the  bishops;  and  with- 
out that  concurrence  they  cannot  be  deprived  of 
their  office.  Along  with  all  this,  they  have  obtained 
an  overwhelming  influence  over  education,  even  in 
the  university ;  and  by  the  concordat  signed  in  the 
early  part  of  1856,  this  influence  has  been  very 
greatly  increased.  The  patent  further  guarantees 
the  equality  in  the  eye  of  the  law  of  all  citizens, 
irrespective  of  nation,  rank,  or  religion,  and  the 
liberation  of  the  land  from  all  serfdom.  Subsequent 
patents  (e.  g.,  for  Hungary,  Croatia,  &c.,  in  1853)  have 
regulated  the  claims  between  existing  proprietors 
and  their  vassals,  and  determined  the  indemnities 
due  to  the  former  for  their  seignorial  rights. 

The  administration  of  the  empire  is  divided  at 
present  among  six  ministries — Foreign  Affairs;  Inte- 
rior ;  Worship  and  Instruction  ;  Finances  ;  Justice  ; 
Trade  ;  Industry  ;  and  Public  Works.  In  the  coun- 
cil of  ministers,  one,  named  by  tlie  emperor,  has 
the  office  of  president.  The  collective  ministry  is 
merely  the  executive  organ  of  the  emperor,  and 
responsible  to  him  alone ;  its  fimction  is  to  discuss 
measures,  legislative  and  administrative,  and  coun- 
tersign the  imperial  decrees.  There  has  existed  also 
since  1852  a  supreme  police  board,  independent  of 
the  minister  of  the  interior,  and  under  tlie  imme- 
diate direction  of  the  emperor.  Co-ordinate  with 
the  ministry,  and  without  communication  with  it, 
is  the  Council  of  the  Empire,  consisting  of  notables 
of  independent  position  named  by  the  emperor,  and 
entitled  Actual  Privy  Councillors.  They  are  con- 
sidered tlie  personal  advisers  of  the  emperor,  are 
presided  over  by  him,  or  by  one  of  themselves,  and 
consult  c*i  such  questions  of  legislation  as  the  em- 
peror sees  fit  to  lay  before  them. 

At  the  head  of  the  provincial  administrations 
stand  in  some  cases  military  and  civil  governors,  in 
others,  presidents,  &c.,  and  under  these,  whole  hosts 
of  officials  in  gradation.  Wliatever  local  elective 
bodies  exist,  have  no  real  authority,  but  arc  complete- 
ly subordinate  to  tlie  bureaucracy.  The  Austrians 
have  good  grounds  for  the  complaint,  common 
throughout  Germany,  that  they  get  too  much  govern- 
ment ;    nor  is  it  worth  while  to  describe    minutely 


institutions    that    may     be   suspended,    altered,    or 
annulled  at  the  cajirice  of  the  rulers. 

In  the  administration  of  justice,  publicity  is 
not  allowed.  In  1852,  the  practice  of  Uo^^'w 
the  accused  while  imder  examination  was  again 
introduced,  as  a  corrective  punisliment,  in  case  of 
contempt  of  court  or  otlier  refractory  behaviour. 

Finance. — The  protracted  wars  of  the  first  15  years 
of  the  19th  c.  had  so  exhausted  the  resources  of  A. 
and  shattered  her  credit,  that  paper-money,  after 
being  already  twice  reduced,  had  again  sunk  to  25  per 
cent.of  its  nominal  value;  and  even  5  percent,  loans 
could  only  be  obtained  at  a  sacrifice  of  sometimes 
more  tlian  50  per  cent.  During  the  30  years  that 
followed  the  war,  much  was  done  to  restore  the 
state  credit,  and  4  per  cent,  state  paper  was  liought 
at  par.  The  revolution  of  1848  brought  new  diffi- 
culties, from  which  the  finances  had  not  recovered, 
when  the  Crimean  war  increased  the  expenditure, 
and  the  Italian  war  must  have  added  to  it  enor- 
mously. The  following  table  sliews  the  revenue  and 
expenditure  of  A.  during  tlie  ten  vears  from  1847  to 
1857,  and  for  1867: 

Receipts.  Expentliture.  Deficiency. 

Millions  of  Florins.     Millions  of  Florins.       JJiJlions  of  Florins. 

1S47,  .  KVi  209  47 

1848,  .  122  187  (15 

1849,  .  144  289  145 

1850,  .  191  268  77 

1851,  .  217  289  72 

1852,  .  226  279  53 
lSo3,  .  237  293  56 
1854,  .  245  386  Ml 
18.55,  .  263  402  139 

1856,  .  273       335  62 

1857,  .  298  340  42 
1867,      •      414                 441                          2/ 

The  national  debt  in  1867  amounted  to  29W 
million  florins  (£290  million).  lu  1818  it  w.hs  only 
£50  million. 

The  army  of  A.,  as  already  incidentally  mentioned, 
amounts,  even  in  peace,  to  more  than  278,000  men, 
including  about  40,000  cavalry  and  1200  pieces  of 
artillery.  In  the  late  wars  of  1859  and  1S66  the 
Austrian  army  is  said  to  have  been  increased  to 
something  like  a  million  of  men.  The  navy  in  1869 
numbered  67  vessels,  carrj-ing  512  guns  and  manned 
by  10,153  men.  Of  these,  9  are  iron-clad  line-of- 
hattle  ships  and  iron-clad  frigates,  of  fi-om  2824  to 
5711  tons,  and  from  500  to  1000  horse-power;  7  are 
screw  corvettes  and  screw  frigates,  carrying  from  6 
to  46  guns.  Tliere  are  also  in  the  A.  navy  2  sailing 
frigates  of  35  guns,  and  two  corvettes  of  12  to  18 
guns,  and  several  smaller  sailing  vessels.  In  1858  the 
navy  numbered  135  vessels,  carrying  852  guns. 

History.* — The  nucleus  around  which  this  great 
empire  has  grown  was  that  part  of  the  Archduchy  of 
A.  that  lies  below  the  Ens.  In  the  age  of  Charle- 
magne, about  800,  the  defence  of  the  south-eastern 
frontier  of  Germany  against  Asiatic  hordes  gave  rise 
here  to  a  Margraviate,  called  the  Eastern  Mark 
or  boundary  of  the  empire,  or  Ostreich  (Austria), 
the  eastern  government;  which,  being  united  in  1156 
to  the  country  above  the  Ens,  was  raised  to  a  duchy. 
After  coming,  in  1282,  into  the  possession  of  the  House 
of  Ilapsburg  (q.  v.),  it  rapidly  rose  to  a  powerful 
state.  The  princes  of  that  House  extended  their 
dominion  by  marriage,  purchase,  and  otherwise,  over 
a  number  of  other  states,  and  from  1438  held  almost 
uninterruptedly  the  throne  of  the  German  empire. 
By  the  acciuisition  (1526  and  1527)  of  the  crowns  of 
Hohcmia  and  Hungary,  the  House  of  A.  rose  to  the 
rank  of  a  European  monarchy.     In  1804,  Francis 

*  As  the  history  of  A.  and  its  rulers  involves,  for  many 
centuries,  the  main  strand  of  the  thread  of  European  history, 
it  is  given  at  somewhac  more  than  the  usual  length. 

571 


AUSTRIA. 


declared  himself  hereditary  emperor  of  A.,  and,  two 
years  afterwards,  laid  down  the  title  of  Emperor  of 
Germany  and  King  of  the  Romans. 

In  the  earliest  times,  what  is  now  the  Duchy  of  A. 
was  inhabited  by  the  Taurisci,  a  Celtic  pcojjle  ;  but 
their  name  subsequently  disappeared  before  that  of 
the  Norici.  After  the  conquest  of  the  Korici  by  the 
Romans  (11  b.  c),  the  country  to  the  north  of  the 
Danube  belonged  to  the  kingdom  of  the  Marconianni 
(q.  V.) ;  on  the  south  of  the  riye^  lay  the  Roman  prov- 
inces of  Noricum  and  Pannonia,  in  which  last  was 
the  municipal  city  of  Vindobona  (Vienna).  Tyrol 
formed  part  of  Rhsetia.  All  these  boundaries  were 
swept  away  by  the  irruption  of  the  northern  peoples; 
and  the  regions  in  question  were  occujiied  in  suc- 
cession, during  the  5th  and  Oth  centuries,  by  Boii, 
Vandals,  Goths,  Iluns,  Lombards,  and  Avari.  After 
the  Lombards  had  settled  in  Italy,  the  Ens  came, 
about  5G8,  to  be  tlie  boundary  between  a  tribe  of 
German  origin  and  the  Avari,  a  people  who  had 
penetrated  thither  from  the  cast.  The  Avari  having, 
in  788,  crossed  the  Ens,  and  fallen  U])on  Ravaria, 
then  part  of  tlie  Prankish  empire,  Charlemagne 
drove  tiieni  back  (70(1)  as  far  as  the  Raab,  and  united 
the  district  from  tlie  Ens  to  that  river  witli  (icrmany, 
under  the  name  of  the  East  Mark,  Marchia  Orientalis, 
or  Austria.  He  sent  colonists,  mostly  Bavarians, 
into  the  new  province,  and  appointed  over  it  a 
margrave.  It  came  into  the  possession  of  the 
Hungarians  in  OOO,  but  was  reconquered  by  Otto  I. 
in  955,  and  reunited  with  Germany. 

As  margrave  of  the  reconquered  provinccj  the 
emperor,  in  983,  appointed  Leoi)old  of  Babenberg 
(q.  v.),  whose  dynasty  ruled  A.  for  "200  years.  Under 
Henry  Jasomirgott  (1141-1177),  the  Mark  above  the 
Ens  was  annexed  to  the  Lower  Mark,  the  united 
province  raised  to  a  duchy,  and  imjiortant  jjrivilcges 
conferred  on  the  newly  named  duke  and  his  heirs. 
This  Henry  Jasomirgott  took  part  in  tlie  second 
crusade  ;  he  also  removed  the  ducal  residence  from 
Leopold.sberg  to  Vienna,  now  first  called  a  city,  and 
began  the  building  of  the  cathedral  of  St.  Stephen. 
Under  his  successors,  numerous  additions  (Styria, 
Carniola)  were  made  to  the  possessions  of  the  House. 
Leopold  VI.  undertook  numerous  expeditions  against 
the  Hungarians  and  the  infidels,  and  is  reckoned  the 
best  of  the  Babenberg  princes.  The  line  became 
extinct  with  his  successor,  Frederic,  w  ho  fell  in  battle 
with  the  Magyars  (I'J-IG). 

Then  followed  an  interregnum  from  1246  to  1282. 
The  Emperor  Frederic  II.  at  first  treated  the  duchy 
as  a  lapsed  fief  of  the  empire ;  shortly,  claims  were 
set  up  by  Count  Hermann  of  Bavaria,  who  was 
married  to  a  niece  of  the  deceased  margrave, 
Frederic;  and  when  Hermann  died,  and  the  empire 
was  distracted  by  the  contests  between  rival 
emperors,  the  'States'  of  A.  and  Styria  chose 
Ottokar,  sou  of  the  Bohemian  king,  as  duke,  who 
made  good  his  nomination  about  1260.  Ottokar, 
refusing  to  acknowledge  Rudolf  of  Hapsburg  as  em- 
peror, was  defeated,  and  lost  his  life  and  possessions, 
in  the  battle  of  Marchfield  (1278);  and  the  emperor 
shortly  afterwards  (1282)  conferred  the  duchies  of 
A.,  Styria,  and  Carinthia  on  his  son  Albrecht. 

The  accession  of  the  Hapsburg  dynasty  with 
Albrecht  I.  (q.  v.)  was  the  foundation  of  A.'s  subse- 
quent greatness.  The  despotic  Albrecht  contended 
successfully  with  Hungarians  and  Bavarians,  but 
■while  attempting  to  subdue  the  Swiss,  he  was  mur- 
dered near  Rheinfelden  (1308)  by  his  nephew,  John 
of  Swabia,  whom  he  had  deprived  of  his  hereditary 
possessions.  Of  his  five  sons,  Frederic  was  chosen 
(1814)  by  a  party  to  the  imperial  tlirone,  but  was  de- 
feated (1322)  by  his  rival,  Ludwig  of  Bavaria.  Duke 
Lco])oId  was  defeated  at  Morgarten  (1315)  in  his 
attempt  to  reduce  the  Swiss  cantons  that  had  thrown 
572 


off  their  allegiance  to  Albrecht  I.  At  last,  by  the 
deatli  of  all  his  brothers,  Albrecht  II.  reunited  the 
Austrian  possessions,  increased  by  various  additions. 
After  his  death  (1358),  two  sons,  Rudolf  and  Albrecht 
III.,  successively  followed  in  the  Duchy  of  Austria. 
Another  son,  Leopold,  held  the  other  lands,  but  lost 
his  life  at  Sempach,  in  seeking  to  regain  the  Haps- 
burg possessions  in  Swit/.erland.  The  posterity  of 
Albert  and  Leopold  formed  the  two  lines  of  A.  and 
Styria.  During  Albrecht  III.'s  reign,  Tyrol  and 
other  districts  were  ceded  to  Austria.  After  his 
death  (1395),  the  duke<lom  was  held  by  his  son, 
Albrecht  IV.  Albrecht  V.,  who  succeeded  his  father 
in  1404,  by  marrying  the  daughter  of  the  Emperor 
Sigisniund,  succeeded  (1438)  to  the  thrones  of  Hun- 
gary and  Bohemia,  and  was  at  the  same  Ume  raised 
to  the  dignity  of  Geiinan  Em])eror,  as  Albrecht  11. 
With  his  death,  in  1439,  Bohemia  and  Hungary  were 
for  a  time  lost  to  the  House  of  A.,  as  were  also,  after 
a  bloody  struggle,  the  last  of  the  family  possessions 
in  Switzerland.  But  the  imperial  dignity  w'as  hence- 
fordi  uninterruptedly  held  by  them.  With  Ladislaw, 
Albrecht's  son.  the  Austrian  line  of  the  House  closed 
(1457),  and  their  possessions  went  to  the  Styrian 
line.  Of  this  line  was  the  Em])eror  J'rederic  III., 
who  raised  the  dignity  of  his  House  by  making  A. 
an  archduchy.  After  the  death  of  Ladislaw  and  of 
his  own  brother,  Albrecht,  Frederic  came  into  the 
undivided  possession  of  the  archduchy  (1464). 

His  son,  Maximilian  I.,  by  marrying  Maria, 
daughter  of  Charles  the  Bold,  acciuireil  (1477)  the 
Netherlands.  Becoming  emjieror  on  the  death  of 
his  father  (1493),  he  ceded  the  government  of  the 
Netherlands  to  his  son  Philip.  Under  Maximilian, 
Tyrol  fell  again  to  the  chief  branch  of  the  House  of 
A.,  several  districts  were  acciuired  from  Bavaria, 
and  fresh  claims  were  established  on  Hungary  and 
Bohemia.  The  court  of  Vienna  began  to  be  the  seat 
of  German  art  and  science.  The  marriage  of  the 
emperor's  sou  Philij)  with  Johanna  of  Spain  set  the 
House  of  Hapsburg  on  the  throne  of  Spain  and  the 
Indies.  Philip  died  in  1506;  and  on  the  death  of 
Maximilian  I.,  in  1519,  Philip's  son,  Charles  I.  of 
Spain,  was  elected  German  emperor  as  Charles  V. 
(q.  v.).  Charles  resigned  by  treaty  all  the  German 
possessions,  except  the  Netherlands,  to  his  brother, 
Ferdinand  I.  (q.  v.). 

Ferdinand  I.  had  married  the  sister  of  Lewis  II. 
of  Hungary ;  and  on  the  death  of  the  latter  in  the 
battle  of  Mohacz  (1526),  he  claimed  the  kingdoms  of 
Hungary  and  Bohemia,  along  with  Moravia,  Silesia, 
and  Lausatia.  His  claim  was  contested  by  John 
Zapolya,  who  secured  the  aid  of  Sultan  Solimau 
II. ;  and  Ferdinand,  after  contests  extending 
over  twenty  years,  had  finally  to  pay  an  annual 
tribute  of  30,000  ducats  to  Soliman  lor  possession 
of  Lower  Hungary.  Ferdinand  was  also  fain  to 
surrender  Wiirtemberg  to  Duke  Ulrich  (1534),  on 
condition  of  its  reverting  to  A.  on  the  death  of  the 
male  line.  Nevertheless,  the  possessions  of  the 
House  of  A.  (in  the  German  line)  were  at  this  time 
already  of  the  extent  of  110,000  square  miles. 
On  the  abdication  of  Charles  Y.  (155G),  Ferdinand 
succeeded  to  the  imperial  dignity  ;  he  died  1564, 
with  the  reputation  of  a  good  ruler,  though  he  w^as 
strongly  conservative  of  everything  established,  and 
introduced  the  Jesuits. 

In  the  partition  of  the  inheritance  that  took  place 
among  his  three  sons,  the  eldest,  Maximilian  II., 
received  th  imperial  crown  along  with  A.,  Hungary, 
and  Bohemia  ;  the  second,  Ferdinand,  Tyrol  and 
Upper  A. ;  the  third,  Karl,  Styria,  Carinthia,  &c. 
Maximilian  was  more  fortunate  in  Hungary  than  his 
father.  The  death  of  Soliman  before  Szigeth  (1566) 
led  to  a  truce  :  he  got  his  eldest  son,  Rodolf,  crowned 
king  of   Hungary  in    1572,    and    shortly    after,    of 


AUSTRIA. 


Bohemia,  and  also  chosen  king  of  Rome.  But  his 
attempt  to  brinij  the  crown  of  Poland  into  his  House 
failed.  Maximilian  II.  was  fond  of  peace,  tolerant 
in  relio-ion,  and  a  just  ruler.  He  died  1.57(5 ;  and  of 
his  five  .sons,  the  eldest,  Rudolf  II.,  became  emperor. 
Under  liim,  the  possessions  of  the  Archduke  Ferdi- 
nand of  Tvrol,  who  had  married  Philippine  Welscr 
(q.  v.),  tiie  beautiful  daughter  of  an  Aug.sburg 
bui^her,  reverted  to  the  other  two  lines,  Ferdinand's 
children  not  being  considered  noble.  Rudolf  II. 
adhered  to  the  old  feudal  usages,  and  was  a 
negligent  sovereign,  leaving  everything  to  his  min- 
isters and  the  Jesuits.  His  war  with  the  Porte  and 
Transylvania  brouglit  him  little  credit ;  and  the 
Protestants  of  liohemia,  oppressed  by  the  Jesuits,  ex- 
torted from  him  a  charter  of  religious  liberty.  At 
last  he  was  obhged,  in  1608,  to  cede  Hungary,  and, 
in  1611,  Bohemia  and  A.,  to  his  brother  Matthias 
(■[.  v.).  Matthias,  who  became  emperor  in  1612, 
concluded  a  20  years'  peace  with  the  Turks,  and 
ceded  (1617  and  1618)  Bohemia  and  Hungary  to  his 
cousin  Ferdinand,  son  of  the  Archduke  Karl  of  Styria, 
third  son  of  Maximilian  II.  Matthias  lived  to  see  the 
outbreak  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  (q.  v.),  and  died 
March  20,  1610. 

Bohemia  refused  to  acknowledge  his  successor, 
Ferdinand  II.  (ci-  v.,  to  whom  all  the  Austrian 
possessions  had  again  reverted,  and  chose  the 
Elector  Palatine,  Frederic  V.,  the  head  of  the 
Protestant  imion,  as  king.  The  States  of  A.  and 
the  Hungarians  were  also  refractory.  But  the 
battle  of  Prague  (1620)  sul)jccted  Bohemia  to  Ferdi- 
nand ;  who  formally  set  at>out  rooting  out  Protes- 
tantism in  that  country  and  in  Moravia,  annulled 
their  right  of  electing  their  king,  and  the  patent  of 
religious  freedom  granted  them  by  Rudolf  II.,  and 
set  up  a  Catholic  reformation  tribunal  which  drove 
thou.sands  into  exile.  The  emperor  also  .succeeded 
in  extorting  acknowledgment  of  his  sovereignty 
fi-om  the  States  of  A.,  among  which  Protestant- 
ism predominated ;  after  which  Protestantism  was 
rigorously  prohibited.  Hungary  also  was  at  last 
compelled  to  yield,  which  had  revolted  under  the 
Prince  of  Transylvania.  But  this  religious  war 
and  persecution  cost  the  House  of  A.  the  life-blood 
of  its  possessions.  Of  732  cities  in  Bohemia,  only 
130  were  left;  of  30,700  villages,  only  6000;  of 
3  million  inhabitants,  only  780,000.  Under  Ferdi- 
nand's successor,  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  III.  (1637 
— 1657),  A.  continued  to  be  a  theatre  of  war;  and 
at  the  peace  of  Westphalia  (1648),  had  to  cede  Al- 
sace to  France.  Ferdinand  III.'s  son  and  successor, 
Leopold  I.,  provoked  the  Hungarians  to  rebellion  by 
his  severity.  Tekeli  (q.  v.)  received  aid  from  the 
Porte,  and  Kiira  Mustapha  besieged  Vienna  (1683); 
which  was  rescued  only  by  an  army  of  Poles  and 
Germans  under  John  Sobieski  hastening  to  its  assist- 
ance. The  emperor's  generals  row  reduced  the 
wliolc  of  Hungary,  whicli  was  declared  a  hereditary 
kingdom  in  the  male  line  (1687).  Prince  Eugene 
compelled  the  Porte  (1699)  to  restore  the  country 
between  the  Daruil)e  and  Theiss,  and,  in  1718,  to 
cede  other  important  provinces  to  Hungary.  The 
struggle  between  Leopold  and  Louis  XIV.  of  France 
for  the  heirsiiip  to  the  king  of  Sjiain,  led  to  the  war 
of  the  Spanish  Succession  (q.  v.),  during  which  Leo- 
pold died,  May  .5,  17n5.  He  was  of  sluggish  phleg- 
matic character,  and  wholly  under  the  influence  of  the 
Jesuits. 

His  eldest  son  and  successor,  the  enlightened 
Joseph  I.  (([.  v.),  continued  the  war.  He  died  child- 
less, April  17,  1711,  and  was  .succeeded  by  his 
brother,  Karl  \'I.  The  peace  of  Utrecht  concluded 
Tinder  his  reign  (1713)  secured  to  A.  the  Netherlands, 
Milan,  Mantua,  Naples,  and  Sicily.  The  mon.nrhy 
now  embraced  190,000  square  miles,  with  29  million 


inhabitants,  and  had  a  revenue  of  14  million  florins, 
with  an  army  of  130,000  men.  Its  strength,  how- 
ever, was  .soon  much  exhausted  by  fresh  wars  with 
France  and  Spain.  At  the  peace  of  Vienna  (1737), 
Karl  VI.  had  to  give  up  Naples  and  Sicily  to  Don 
Carlos  of  Spain,  and  part  of  Milan  to  the  king  of 
Sardinia  ;  receiving  only  Parma  and  Piaceuza  in- 
stead. He  also  lost  at  the  peace  of  Belgrade  (1739) 
nearly  all  the  fruits  of  Eugene's  conquests,  giv- 
ing back  to  the  Porte  Belgrade,  Servia,  and  the 
parts  of  Wallachia  and  Bosnia  that  had  belonged  to 
Austria.  The  emperor  conceded  all  these  points 
with  the  view  of  securing  adhesion  to  the  Pragmatic 
Sanction  (q.  v.),  which  conferred  the  succession  on  his 
daughter,  Maria  Theresa. 

With  his  death  (October  20,  1740),  the  male  line 
of  the  Hajjsburgs  was  extinct,  and  Maria  Theresa, 
who  was  married  to  Franz  Stephan,  Duke  of  Lor- 
raine, assumed  the  government.  But  counter-claims 
were  raised  on  all  sides,  and  a  violent  war  arose,  in 
which  England  alone  sided  with  Maria.  Frederic 
II.  of  Prussia  conquered  Silesia.  The  Elector  of 
Bavaria  took  the  title  of  Archduke  of  A.,  was 
crowned  king  of  Bohemia  at  Linz  and  Prague,  and 
elected  emperor  as  Karl  VII.  (1742).  The  Hunga- 
rians alone  stood  by  their  heroic  queen ;  who,  at  the 
peace  of  Breslan  (1742),  was  forced  to  yield  Silesia 
to  Prussia.  Frederic  renewed  the  war  by  coming 
to  the  assistance  of  the  emperor ;  but  Karl  dying 
(1745),  Maria  Theresa's  husband  was  elected  Ger- 
man emperor  as  Franz  I.  A  second  treaty  of 
peace  (1745)  secured  Silesia  anew  to  Prussia  ;  and  at 
the  peace  of  Aix-la-chapelle  (1748),  A.  had  to  cede 
Parma,  Piacenza,  and  (iuastalla  to  Don  Philip  of 
Spain,  and  several  districts  of  Milan  to  Sardinia. 
These  sacrifices  secured  the  existence  of  the  Austrian 
monarchy ;  but  Maria  Theresa  wished  to  recover 
Silesia,  and  with  this  view,  entered  into  alliance  with 
France,  Russia,  Saxony,  and  Sweden ;  but  after  a 
bloody  Seven  Years'  War  (q.  v.),  Prussia  retained 
Sdesia,  and  A.  had  spent  her  blood  and  treasure  in 
vain.  At  this  time,  paper-money  fii'st  appeared  in 
A.,  under  the  name  of  state-bonds.  At  Franz's 
death  (1765),  his  son,  Joseph  II.,  became  German 
emperor,  and  joint-regent  with  his  mother  of  the 
hereditary  states.  Collateral  branches  of  the  House 
of  A.  were  planted  by  the  younger  sons  of  Maria 
Theresa,  the  Archduke  Leopold  in  Tuscany,  and  the 
Archduke  Ferdinand,  who  married  the  heiress  of 
Este  (see  Modena).  In  the  first  partition  of  Poland 
(1772),  A.  acquired  Galicia  and  Lodomeriu,  and  the 
Bukowina  was  ceded  by  the  Poi'te  in  1777.  At  the 
death  of  the  empress  in  1780,  the  monarchy  had  an 
extent  of  234,000  square  miles,  with  a  pop.  of  24 
millions,  and  a  debt  of  160  million  florins.  The 
administration  of  Maria  Theresa  was  distinguished 
by  unwonted  unity  and  vigour,  both  in  home  and 
foreign  relations. 

Her  successor,  Joseph  II.,  was  an  active  reformer 
in  the  spirit  of  the  enlightened  dcs]30tism  of  the 
times ;  though  often  rash  and  violent  in  his  mode  of 
proceeding.  He  introduced  economy  into  every 
department,  remodelled  the  censorship  of  the  press, 
granted  liberties  and  rights  to  Protestants,  abolished 
900  convents,  and  revised  the  school-system.  His 
protective  system  of  duties,  though  exhibiting  his 
narrowness  as  a  statesman,  gave  a  start  to  native 
manufactures.  But  his  reforming  zeal  and  passion 
for  uniformity  excited  opposition ;  the  Netherlands 
rose  in  insurrection,  and  other  disturbances  broke 
out,  which  hastened  his  end  (1790).  He  was  suc- 
ceeded in  the  govermuent  by  his  brother,  the  Grand 
Duke  of  Tuscany — a.s  German  emperor,  Leopold  II. 
— who  succeeded  in  pacifying  the  Netherlands  and 
Hungary.  Peace  was  concluded  with  Prussia  .and 
Turkcv"  (1790).       The    fate    of    his    sister,    Marie 

573 


AUSTRIA. 


Antoinette,  and  her  liusl)an(l,  Louis  XVI.,  led  Leo- 
pold to  an  alliance,  with  Pnissia ;  but  he  died  (Mareli 
1,  1792)  before  the  war  with  France  broke  out.  The 
war  was  declared  by  France  on  hi.s  son  Franz  11 ,  the 
same  year  (see  France).  By  the  treaty  of  Canipo 
Formio  (q.  v.),  1797,  A.  lost  Lombardy  and  the  Nether- 
lands, receiving  in  lieu  the  Venetian  territory ;  two 
years  later,  at  the  second  partition  of  Poland,  it  was 
augmented  by  West  Galioia.  Franz,  in  alliance  with 
Russia,  renewed  the  war  with  France  in  1799,  which 
was  ended  by  tlve  peace  of  Luneville.  It  is  needless 
to  follow  all  the  alterations  of  boundary  that  the 
Austrian  dominions  underwent  during  these  wars. 
The  most  serious  was  at  the  peace  of  Vienna  (18t)9), 
which  cost  A.  42,000  square  miles  of  territory,  and  11 
million  florins  of  her  revenue.  It  was  in  lS<i4,  when 
Napoleon  had  been  proclaimed  Emperor  of  France, 
that  Franz  declared  himself  hereditary  Emperor  of 
Austria,  uniting  all  his  dominions  in  one  empire. 
On  the  establishment  of  the  Confederation  of  the 
Rhine,  he  laid  down  the  dignity  of  German  emperor, 
which  his  family  had  held  for  nearly  five  hundred 
years,  and  now  took  the  title  of  Franz  I.,  Emperor  of 
Austria. 

The  humiliating  peace  of  Vienna  was  followed 
(1809)  by  the  marriage  of  Napoleon  with  the  Arch- 
duchess JIaria  Louisa;  and  in  March  1812,  Napoleon 
and  Franz  entered  into  alliance  against  Ru.ssia.  But 
when  the  Russian  campaign  of  1812  had  broken 
the  power  of  the  French  emperor,  his  fathei'-in.-law 
declared  war  on  him  (August  1813),  and  joined  the 
alliance  of  England,  Russia,  Prussia,  and  Sweden. 
The  active  part  wliich  the  Emperor  Franz  now  took 
in  the  downfall  of  Napoleon,  his  consenting  to  the 
banishment  of  his  son-in-law  to  Ellia,  and  the 
firmness  with  which  he  signed  the  declaration  of 
outlawry  against  him  on  his  return  to  France,  and 
contributed  to  his  final  overthrow,  thus  deciding  the 
fortunes  of  his  own  daughter  and  her  son — all  fur- 
nished grounds  of  claim  to  that  full  indemnity  for 
her  losses  which  A.  obtained  at  the  close  of  the 
war.  In  the  remodelling  of  the  map  of  Europe  that 
took  place  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna  (181."j),  32,000 
square  miles  were  added  to  the  253,000  possessed 
by  A.  after  the  last  partition  of  Poland,  besides  the 
advantages  she  gained  in  point  of  compactness,  and 
facilities  for  trade,  especially  Ijy  the  ac(iuisition  of 
Venice  and  Dalinatia.  Ferdinand,  the  emperor's 
uncle,  was  also  restored  to  the  grand  duchy  of 
Tuscany,  of  which  he  had  been  dispossessed  by  Na- 
poleon. 

Since  that  time,  A.  has  exerted  a  powerful  influ- 
ence in  European  politics  generallj',  and  more  es- 
l)ecially  in  the  German  Confederation ;  and  that  in- 
tiuence  has  been  uniformly  hostile  to  constitutional- 
ism (see  Metterxich).  When  the  Polish  revolu- 
tion broke  out,  a  strict  neutrality  was  assumed  ;  but 
a  Polish  corps  that  was  driven  into  the  Austrian 
territoi-ies,  was  disarmed,  and  sent  into  Hungary, 
while  a  Russian  division  that  had  taken  refuge  on 
Austrian  soil,  was  let  go,  and  equipped  with  the 
Polish  weapons. 

The  death  of  Franz  I.  (March  2,  1832)  made  little 
alteration  in  the  policy  of  A. ;  Ferdinand  I.  trod  in 
his  father's  footsteps.  The  political  alliance  with 
Russia  and  Prussia  was  drawn  closer  by  a  personal 
conference  of  the  emperor  with  Nicholas  I.  and  Fred- 
eric William  III.  at  Teplitz,  October  1833.  The 
wonted  calm  was  interrupted  in  1840  by  the  war 
against  Ibrahim  Pacha  in  Syria,  in  which  A.  took  part 
in  union  with  England.  An  attempt  at  insurrection  in 
Italy  in  1844  was  a  complete  failure. 

But  under  this  long-continued  peace  and  superficial 
calm,  the  internal  condition  of  the  empire  was  com- 
ing to  a  crisis.  The  stifling  bureaucratic  system  of 
government  and  police  supervision,  had  produced 
674 


only  irritation  and  discontent,  and  was  ])Owerless  to 
compress  the  fermentation.  The  opposition  in  the 
several  nationalities  became  stronger  and  stronger, 
and  the  tactics  of  playing  these  nationalities  off 
against  one  another,  no  longer  succeeded.  The 
Polish  insurrection,  which  led  to  the  incorporation 
of  Cracow  with  the  monarchy  (November  184(5),  had 
turned  into  a  frightfid  rising  of  the  peasantry  in 
Galicia  against  the  nobles.  This  enabled  the  govern- 
ment to  overpower  the  political  rising  ;  Ijut  the 
success  only  increased  the  danger  of  tlie  crisis,  by 
encouraging  it  to  proceed  in  the  old  reckless  way. 
In  the  meantime  the  opposition  to  Austrian  rule  in 
Italy,  Hungary,  and  Bohemia,  was  becoming  uncon- 
trollal)le,  and  even  the  states  of  Lower  Austria 
insisted  on  some  control  in  the  management  of  the 
state.  The  revolutionary  movement  was  already  in 
full  .swing  in  Italy,  when  the  tail  of  Louis-Philippe 
(February  24,  1848)  shook  Europe  to  its  foundations. 
A  host  of  petitions  and  addresses  was  followed, 
March  13,  by  a  popular  movement  in  Vienna,  to 
which  the  government  and  military,  after  a  feeble 
resistance,  succumbed.  Mettcrnich  resigned,  the 
arming  of  the  citizens  and  freedom  of  the  press  were 
granted,  and  the  emperor  promised  to  convoke  a 
consultative  assembly  from  all  parts  of  the  empire. 
At  the  .same  time,  the  opposition  in  Hungary  had 
carried  their  demand  for  an  independent  ministry 
responsible  to  the  national  diet,  and  the  emperor  was 
not  in  a  position  to  withstand  it.  The  22d  of  March 
saw  the  insurrection  break  out  at  Milan,  and  Ra- 
detzky,  the  military  commander,  forced  to  retire  on 
Verona.  Venice  rose  at  the  same  time,  and  drove 
out  the  Austrians. 

While  the  revolution  was  thus  victorious  in  the 
provinces,  the  central  authority  was  in  a  state  of 
dissolution.  The  authority  passed  into  the  hands  of 
the  national  guards  and  the  students'  legion  (the 
Aula).  A  rising  of  the  people  (May  15),  in  support 
of  the  Central  Committee,  formed  from  the  national 
guards,  which  the  government  had  attempted  to 
dissolve,  compelled  its  continuance,  and  also  a  re- 
vision of  the  electoral  law,  so  as  to  convert  the 
new  diet  into  a  constituent  assembly.  These  pro- 
ceedings led  to  the  flight  of  the  court  to  Innsbruck 
(May  17).  An  unsuccessful  attempt  of  the  govern- 
ment to  break  the  pow^r  of  the  "  Aula,"  resulted  in 
the  appointment  of  a  Committee  of  Safety,  to  whose 
influence  the  government  had  to  submit.  A  Slavic 
insurrection  broke  out  in  Prague  after  Easter,  which 
was  repressed  with  bloody  severity  by  Prince  Win- 
dischgriitz.  While  the  emperor  was  thus  lingering  at 
Innsbruck,  leaving  Vienna  in  the  power  of  the  popu- 
lace, and  the  Hungarians  were  pursuing  an  independ- 
ent course,  it  was  in  Italy  that  the  power  of  A.  began 
to  recover  itself. 

Radetzky  had  at  first  been  reduced  to  the  main- 
taining of  a  defensive  position  at  Verona,  against 
Charles  Albert  of  Sardinia,  who  had  declared  war 
on  A.  at  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution,  and  the 
forces  that  came  to  his  aid  from  Tuscany,  Rome, 
and  Naples ;  and  the  foreign  policy  of  A.  was  in 
such  a  state  of  discouragement,  that  negotiations 
were  entered  into  under  the  mediation  of  Great 
Britain,  offering  the  Lombards  independence  on 
moderate  conditions.  But  in  June,  Radetzky  took 
up  the  offensive,  reduced  in  succession  Vicenza, 
Padua,  and  other  cities,  and  then  turning  against 
the  chief  Sardinian  force,  defeated  it  at  Custozza 
(25th  July),  and  drove  it  from  the  field.  The  fruits 
of  the  victory  were  the  dissolution  of  Charles  Albert's 
army,  and  a  truce  which  again  delivered  Lombardy  to 
Austria. 

In  the  meantime,  the  government  at  Vienna  was 
more  powerless  than  ever.  The  emperor  remained 
at  Innsbruck,   and  the  constituent  dijt  was  opened, 


AUSTRIA. 


July  22,  by  the  Archduke  John,  as  his  representa- 
tive. But  a  new  crisis  wfis  ripeninj;  in  Hungary. 
The  Croats,  under  their  Ban,  ;Ieliachich  (q.  v.), 
opi)osed  tlie  predominance  uf  the  Magyars,  and 
refused  obedience  to  the  Hungarian  government, 
which,  under  the  Batthyanyi-Kossuth  ministry,  was 
pursuing  a  policy  almost  iiidei)i'iuk'nt  of  Austria. 
Jellachich's  resistance  was  oliicially  Wndcmned  by 
the  emperor,  and  he  was  threatened  with  deposition  ; 
but,  as  subsequently  appeared,  his  conduct  was 
secretly  approved  by  the  court.  The  Archduke 
Palatitie,  Stephen,  now  left  Hungary,  after  a  last 
attemj)!  at  conciliation  ;  and  the  emperor,  who  had 
returned  to  Vienna  after  repeated  imitations,  named 
Count  I.amlierg  commissioner,  with  the  supreme 
command  in  Hungary.  Laml)erg,  however,  was 
murdered  on  the  bridge  of  Pesth  (September  28). 
The  Hungarian  parliament  was  now  dissolved,  and 
the  conmiand  given  to  Jellachich.  But  the  jjarlia- 
ment  continued  its  sittings,  and  ai)pointed  Kossuth 
president  of  the  committee  of  defence.  When  the 
imperial  troops  now  began  to  march  against  Hungary, 
a  frightful  insurrection  In-oke  out  in  Vienna  (October 
6),  which  was  attributed  to  Hungarian  instigation. 
The  arsenal  was  stormed,  and  the  war-minister, 
Latour,  murdered  ;  the  court  fled  to  Olmiitz,  a 
committee  of  safety  was  appointed,  the  armed 
populace  organised,  and  the  Polish  general,  Bem, 
put  at  the  head  of  military  affliirs ;  while  tlie  diet 
wavered  between  loyalty  and  revolution.  In  the 
meantime,  the  militarj'  forces  had  withdra^\ii,  and 
joined  Jellachich,  in  order  to  prevent  the  Hungarians 
coming  to  the  aid  of  the  Viennese.  Windischgriitz 
now  approached  with  an  army,  and  declared  Vienna 
in  a  state  of  siege.  The  attack  began  on  the  23d  of 
October,  and  alter  a  resistance  of  8  days,  Vienna  sur- 
rendered. 

Revere  measures  were  then  taken ;  and  a  number 
of  leaders,  among  others,  Robert  Blum  (q.  v.),  were 
condemned  and  sliot.  The  diet  now  met  at  Kremsir, 
and  a  new  ministry  was  formed,  into  which  Prince 
Schwarzenlierg,  Count  Stadion,  Bach,  Bruck,  and 
others  entered.  But  the  vigorous  policy  thought  to 
be  necessary  for  the  restoration,  and  advocated  by  the 
Archduchess  Sophia,  was  not  responded  to  by  the  easy 
nature  of  Ferdinand  I.  Accordingly,  the  emperor  ab- 
dicated, December  2,  as  did  also  the  Archduke  Franz 
Karl,  and  the  latter's  son,  Franz  Joseph  (q.  v.),  was 
declared  emperor. 

In  winter,  Windischgriitz  entered  Hungary,  and  be- 
gan the  Hungarian  war.  After  the  encounters  at  Raab 
and  Babolna,  Ofen  was  besieged  (January  1849),  and 
the  Hungarians  retired  beyond  the  Theiss,  and  had 
time  to  organise  them.selves  under  such  able  leaders 
as  Giirgei  and  Klapka,  and  to  i)repare  for  the  struggle 
of  the  following  summer. 

In  the  meantime,  important  events  took  place 
elst'where.  In  Marcli  (21 — 23),  Radetzky  made  his 
rapid  and  decisive  campaign,  which,  by  the  victory 
of  Novara,  led  to  the  abdication  of  Charles  Albert, 
and  an  indemnification  for  war  expenses  from  Sar- 
dinia of  1.5  million  lire.  Witli  the  surrender  of  Ven- 
ice, which  took  place  in  August,  the  subjugation  of 
Italy  was  complete. 

At  Kremsir,  the  diet  proving  intractable,  was  dis- 
solved, March  4,  1849  ;  and  a  constitution  was  grant- 
ed {octroi/tri),  with  two  elective  chambers,  responsi- 
ble ministers,  and  other  constitutional  provisions.  In 
the  National  Assembly  at  Frankinrt,  A.  opposed  the 
project  of  a  confederated  state  under  the  leadership 
of  Prussia,  and  managed  to  thwart  the  conferring  of 
the  empire  of  Germany  on  the  Prussian  king  '^March 
1849). 

In  Hungary,  the  Magyars,  though  the  Germans 
and  Slaves  within  the  country  itself  were  hostile  to 
them,    began    the    campaign   with    decided    success. 


Bem  conquered  Transylvania  in  spite  of  Russian  aid ; 
and  the  rest  of  the  Hungarian  army  advancing 
westward  in  spring,  were  successful  against  the  im- 
perial forces  at  Szolnok  and  Waitzen.  Windisch- 
griitz was  replaced  in  the  command  by  Wclden,  but 
the  imi)erial  cause  was  not  improved.  Kossuth's 
hopes  rising,  he  j)roclaimed  the  depo.^ition  of  the 
House  of  Hapsburg,  and  virtually  made  Hungary  a 
republic.  By  May,  Pesth  and  Ofen  were  again  in 
the  hands  of  the  Magyars  ;  and  although  General 
Welden  was  recalled,  and  the  conimand  given  to 
Ilaynau,  there  was  little  prospect  of  success  against 
the  Magyars,  if  a  treaty  with  the  czar  had  not 
brought  the  aid  of  a  Russian  army  under  Paske- 
witsch.  The  Austrians  still  suffered  several  reverses, 
and  the  Hungarians  ])erformed  splendid  feats  of 
arms,  such  as  Giirgei's  victory  at  Waitzen,  and 
Klapka's  sally  from  Komorn ;  but  from  June,  the 
war  on  the  whole  began  to  be  more  favourable  to 
A.,  whose  forces  were  well  managed  by  Haynau  and 
Jellachich ;  and  the  intervention  of  the  Russians 
brought  an  irresistible  weight  of  juimbers  against 
the  Magyars.  After  the  afliiirs  of  Szegedin  and 
Debreezin,  Haynau's  engagements  on  the  Theiss, 
and  the  raising  of  the  siege  of  Temeswar,  it  was  in 
vain  that  Kossuth  transferred  the  dictatorship  to 
Giirgei.  Gorgei,  whether  from  treachery,  as  the 
other  Magyar  leaders  maintain,  or  from  necessity,  as 
he  himself  avers,  laid  down  his  arms  to  the  Russians 
at  Vilagos  (August  13).  The  surrender  of  Komorn, 
in  September,  completed  the  sulyugation  of  Hungary, 
which  was  treated  as  a  conquered  country,  and  the 
officers  taken  in  Arad  were  dealt  with  by  Haynau 
with  a  bloodthirsty  rigour. 

A.  was  now  free  to  attend  to  polities,  internal 
and  external,  and  the  spirit  of  the  restoration 
soon  shewed  itself  One  important  fruit  of  the 
revolution  has  been  retained — the  liberation  of  the 
soil  from  the  burdens  and  trammels  of  feudalism. 
All  other  liberal  concessions  very  soon  disappeared. 
For  a  time,  the  forms  of  the  constitution  of  March 
1849  were  retained ;  but  the  rigorous  military 
government  and  the  surveillance  exercised  over  the 
press,  shewed  the  tendency  of  things.  The  funda- 
mental principles  of  the  constitution  turned  out  to 
the  profit  only  of  the  Catholic  Church,  which  got 
rid  of  the  placetum  regium.  In  the  beginning 
of  1851,  Schmerling  and  Bruck,  the  liberal  element 
of  the  ministry,  retired ;  and  in  August  appeared 
a  number  of  imperial  decrees  rendering  the  minis- 
ters accountable  to  the  emperor  alone.  At  last, 
January  1,  1852,  it  was  announced  that  the  con- 
stitution and  the  fundamental  rights  were  abolished, 
trial  by  jury  set  aside,  the  old  press  law  revived, 
&c.  This  was  followed  by  still  greater  concessions 
of  influence  to  the  clergy.  The  emperor  did  not 
conceal  his  predilection  for  absolute  military  govern- 
ment. All  this  was  not  effected  without  manifesta- 
tions of  discontent.  The  fires  of  revolution  were 
still  smouldering  in  Hungary  and  Italy ;  and  in 
Lombardy,  though  still  under  strict  military  law,  a 
tumult  broke  out,  February  1853,  in  which  a  number 
of  officers  and  soldiers  were  stabbed.  The  finances, 
too,  notwithstanding  vigorous  measures  for  improving 
the  material  resources  of  the  country,  continued  in  a 
bad  state,  so  that  incessant  loans  were  required  to 
cover  the  current  deficit. 

On  the  confused  arena  of  German  politics,  the 
struggle  for  ascendency  was  kejjt  up  between  A. 
and  Pru.ssia.  In  October  1850,  the  two  powers  were 
armed  and  ready  to  come  to  blows ;  but  the  bold 
and  determined  policy  of  Schwarzenberg  prevailed, 
and  Prussia  gave  way.  The  points  in  dispute  it 
might  be  difficult  for  any  but  a  German  to  under- 
stand, even  if  it  were  worth  trying.  See  Ger- 
many, Hesse-Cassel.     The  result  was  that  Prussia's 

575 


AUTEUIL— AUTO  DA  FE. 


scheme  of  a  union  was  given  up,  and  also  A.'s 
admission  with  all"  her  territories  into  the  German 
Confederation  ;  and  since  1851,  tlie  old  diet  has  been 
restored.  After  the  death  of  Schwartzenberg,  the 
reign  policy  of  A.  became  more  conciliatory,  and 
her  interference  in  German  affairs  less  dictatorial ; 
and  Prussia  and  A.  were  after  December,  1852,  more 
friendly,  on  the  whole,  until  the  breaking  out  of 
hostilities  in  1866,  though  the  late  war  in  Italy  gave 
rise  to  considerable  ill-feeling  between  the  two  powers. 
In  February,  1853,  a  commercial  treaty  was  concluded, 
which  was  of  the  utmost  consequence  to  the  pros- 
])crity  of  A.,  as  remo^^ng  a  great  j)art  of  the  obstruc- 
tions to  her  commerce  vnth  the  rest  of  Germany. 

In  1853,  a  difference  took  place  between  A.  and 
Turkey,  which  formed,  as  it  were,  a  prelude  to  the 
war  in  the  Crimea.  In  the  quarrel  between  the 
Montenegrines  and  the  Porte,  A.  took  the  part  of 
the  Montenegrines;  she  had  also  complaints  as  to 
the  infringement  of  rights  possessed  by  her  on  the 
Adriatic  coast,  and  regarding  the  treatment  of  Chris- 
tians in  Turkey.  The  threatening  mission  of  Count 
Leiningen,  February  1853,  procured  redress  of  these 
grievances.  As  if  following  up  this  movement,  Russia 
came  forward  as  the  special  protector  of  the  Greek 
Christians  of  the  Ottoman  empire,  and  made  demands 
on  the  Porte  which  were  held  inconsistent  with  his 
sovereign  rights.  It  was  the  interest  of  A.,  as  well 
as  of  the  rest  of  Europe,  to  maintain  the  integrity  of 
the  Ottoman  empire ;  but  although  she  united  with 
England  and  France  in  endeavouring  to  settle  the 
question  by  negotiation,  when  the  war  broke  out,  her 
peculiar  relations  to  Russia  led  her  to  remain  neutral 
during  the  contest. 

The  conduct  of  A.  in  Italy,  especially  since  1849, 
has  been  such  as  to  make  that  country  '  a  standing 
menace  to  Europe.'     The  government  of  A.  in  that 
portion  of  Italy  of  which  she  obtained  possession  by 
the  treaty  of   1815,  was  far  from  satisfactory;    but 
what  was  chiefly  complained  of  by  the  other  powers 
was  her  interference  in  the  affairs  of  the  independent 
states  of  the  peninsula.     By  means  of  secret  treaties 
(copies  of  which  were  laid  before  the  British  Houses 
of  Parliament  this  year,  1859)  A.   obtained  a  most 
undue   intiuence    in    Parma,    Tuscany,    Modena,    the 
States  of  the  Church,'  and  in  the  kingdom  of  the  Two 
Sicilies.     That  influence  was  of  course  exercised  in 
the  interests  of  despotism,  and  in  opposition  to  the 
welfare   of    the  people,   whose   wishes    their  rulers, 
backed  by  Austrian  troops,  were  enabled  to  set  at  de- 
fiance.    The  position  of  A.  in  Italy  was  canvassed  at 
the  meetings  which  followed  the  signing  of  the  treaty 
of  peace  at  Paris  in  1856,  but  nothing  resulted  from 
the   discussions.      Sardinia  seeing   herself   gradually 
environed    bv,    and   afraid   to   fall   a   victim   to   the 
prevailing   Austrianism,    after  all    remonstrances   of 
a    peaceful    kind    had    failed,    began    to   arm.      A. 
demanded  her  immediate   disarmament,  on  pain  of 
war ;    but   Sardinia,    whose   army  was   swelled   with 
volunteers  from   every  part   of   the   peninsula,    and 
who  had  previously  entered  into  a  treaty,  offensive 
and  defensive,  with  France,  refused.     A.  accordingly 
commenced  hostilities  by  crossing  the  Ticino  on  the 
29th  of  April  1859.     On  the  3d  May,  France,  as  the 
ally  of  Sardinia,  formally  declared  war  against  A.  ; 
but  in  anticipation  of  what  was  to  follow,  she  had 
several    days    before   despatched    troops    into   Pied- 
mont.     The  Austrian  troops  were  l:)eaten   in   every 
engagement  that  followed,   and   so   effectually,    that 
on    the    6th    July,    the    emperor,    who    latterly   had 
taken  the  chief  command  of  his  army,  was  fain  to 
conclude  an   armistice  with  the  Emperor  Napoleon, 
who  also  commanded  in  person.     On  the  ISth  of  the 
same  month,  the  two  potentates  met  at  Villafranca, 
and   agreed   to  come  to   terms   of  peace,  the   chief 
conditions    of   which   were    to    be    the    cession    of 
576 


Lombardy  to  Sardinia,  while  Venetia  was  still 
retained  by  Austria.  The  formal  treaty  was  con- 
cluded at  Zurich  in  October.  See  Italy,  Lombakdy, 
&c.  In  1 866,  a  short  and  bloody  war  occurred  1  letwecn 
A.  on  the  one  hand,  and  Italy  and  PruKsiii  on  the 
other,  which  resulted  in  the  cession  of  Venice  to  Italy, 
for  details  of  which  see  Vol.  X.,  Article  Germany. 
AUTEUIL,  a  village  with  5734  inhaliitants,  at  the 
entrance  of  the  Bois  de  Boulogne,  about  three  miles 
from  Paris,  but  enclosed  within  the  fortidcations  of 
the  city,  is  known  as  the  residence  of  famous  literary 
men.  Here  lived  Boileau,  iloliere — whom  Andrieux 
introduced  in  his  JfoUbrc  avcc  srx  Amis,  on,  le  Souper 
d  Anteuil — and  the  gifted  widow  of  Hclvetius,  whose 
parties  even  Bonaparte  often  frequented  in  1798  and 
1799.  This  lad}'  was  buried  in  her  ovm  garden  at 
Auteuil.  In  the  church  is  a  monument  of  the  Chan- 
cellor d'Aguesseau. 

AUTHE'NTIC  (Gr.)  is  a  term  applied  to  any 
•RTiting  or  document,  the  contents  of  which  may  be' 
dejiended  upon  for  their  truth  or  accuracy.  It  is 
frc([uently  employed  as  synom-mous  with  gmuine, 
though  a  distinction  has  been  drawn,  especially  by 
bil)lical  critics,  between  the  two  words.  Authenticity, 
it  is  said,  refers  to  the  statements  made  by  an  author  ; 
(/cnuinnneas  to  the  authorship  itself.  Thus,  we  speak 
of  a  Hintory  of  Emjland  as  A.,  when  the  narrative 
is  admitted  to  be  correct ;  and  we  say  of  such  and 
such  a  gospel  or  epistle  that  it  is  genuine,  when  we 
are  convinced  that  it  is  the  composition  of  the  writer 
to  whom  it  is  attributed.  See  Bishop  Watson's 
Apolof/y  .for  the  Bible,  and  Dean  Trench's  Study  of 
Words.  This  distinction,  however,  appears  to  be 
artificial  rather  than  real ;  that  is,  it  does  not  inhere 
in  the  original  signification  of  the  ^vords. 

AUTO,  entering  into  many  compound  Scientific 
terms  of  Greek  extraction,  is  the  Greek  pronoun  self. 
In  some  compound.*,  it  denotes  the  agent  or  subject, 
as  in  autocrat,  automaton,  autonomy ;  in  others,  the 
object,  as  in  autobiography,  autocritic,  autodidadie ; 
in  others,  again,  a  mere  reference  to  the  subject,  as 
in  autochthonoris.  This  variation  in  the  grammatical 
relation  of  A.  sometimes  occasions  ambiguity  in  the 
meaning  of  the  compound.  Thus,  aidograph  means 
both  a  machine  that  writes  of  itself,  and  also  a 
writing  done  with  the  person's  own  hand  ;  autocracy, 
both  the  mastery  over  one's  self,  and  the  sole  rule  or 
absolute  authority  over  a  people  or  state. 

AUTO'CRACy  (Gr.  self-mastery,  or  .tolc  mastery) 
signifies  that  form  of  government  in  which  the  sov- 
ereign unites  in  himself  the  legislative  and  the  execu- 
tive powers  of  the  state,  and  thus  rules  uncontrolled. 
Such  a  sovereign  is  therefore  called  an  aiitocrat. 
Nearly  all  eastern  governments  are  of  this  form. 
Among  European  rulei-s,  the  Emperor  of  Russia  alone 
bears  the  title  of  Autocrat,  thus  signifying  his  consti- 
tutional al)soluteness. — Kant  used  the  word  J.,  in 
philosophy,  to  denote  the  mastery  of  the  reason  over 
the  rebellious  propensities. 

AU'TO  DA  F£  (Port.  Act  of  Faith)  was  the 
name  given  to  the  procession  or  ceremony  that 
used  to  take  place  in  Spain  and  Portugal  at  the 
execution  of  heretics  condemned  to  death  by  the 
inquisition.  It  was  generally  held  on  a  Sunday  be- 
tween Whitsunday  and  Advent,  very  often  on  All- 
saints  Day.  At  "  dawn,  the  dismal  tolling  of  the 
great  bell  of  the  high  church  gave  the  signal  to 
begin  the  drama  of  "the  day;  for  as  such  it  _  was 
looked  upon  by  the  people,  who  thronged  to  it  in 
troops,  believing  that  they  did  a  good  work  in 
merely  looking  on.  Men  of  the  highest  rank 
reckoned  it  prudent  to  give  their  countenance  to 
the  '  holy '  tribunal  at  these  processions,  and  even 
grandees  of  Castile  did  not  disdain  to  make  them- 
selves familiars  of  the  inquisition.      The  procession 


AUTOGRAril— AUTOMATON. 


was  1(m1  by  the  Dominicans,  carrying  tlie  flag  of  tlie 
inquisition  ;  next  followed  the  penitents,  on  whom 
only  penance  had  been  hiid ;  behind  them,  and 
separated  by  a  groat  cross  which  was  borne  before, 
cnnic  those' coiulemned  to  death — barefoot,  chid  in 
the  saiibenito,  and  with  a  pointed  cap  on  the  head  ; 
then,  elligies  of  the  fugitives;  and  lastly,  the  bones 
of  dead  culprits  in  black  collins  i)ainted  with  llaines 
and  hellish  symbols.  The  frightful  train  was  closed 
by  the  army  of  priests  and  monks.  The  procession 
went  through  the  principal  streets  to  the  church, 
where,  after  a  sermon  on  the  true  faith,  the  sentence 
was  announced.  In  the  meantime,  the  accused  stood 
before  a  crueilix  with  extinguished  torches  in  their 
luinds.  After  the  sentence  liad  been  read  to  them,  an 
oiriccr  of  the  inquisition  gave  each  of  the  condemned 
a  blow  on  the  breast  with  his  hand,  as  a  sign  that 
they  were  given  over  by  that  tribunal  to  the  secular 
power ;  on  which  a  secular  officer  took  them  in 
charge,  had  them  fettered,  and  taken  to  prison.  A 
few  hours  afterwards,  they  were  brought  to  the 
place  of  execution.  If  they  yet,  at  the  last,  made 
profession  of  the  Catholic  faith,  they  were  so  far 
favoured  as  to  be  first  strangled;  otherwise,  they 
were  burned  alive,  and  with  them  the  effigies  and 
bones  of  liie  fugitive  and  dead  culprits.  As  a  rule, 
the  king,  along  with  his  whole  court,  had  to  exalt 
by  liis  presence  the  solemnity  of  the  horrid  transac- 
tion. The  most  splendid  Auto  da  Fe  took  place  at 
Madrid,  under  Charles  II.,  in  KiSn;  the  last  was 
held  as  recently  as  towards  the  middle  of  last 
century. 

AU'TOGRAPn  (Gr.)  is  a  term  applied  to  what  is 
WM-itten  with  the  person's  own  hand,  and  not  by  an 
amanuensis.  In  relation  to  manuscripts,  it  is  used 
in  opposition  to  a  copy.  The  collection  of  autographs 
has,  espeeiiiily  in  recent  times,  become  an  object  of 
eager  pursuit,  and  consequently  they  form  a  branch 
of  literary  trade.  Their  value  is  determined  by  the 
interest  felt  in  the  writer,  the  scarcity  of  such  relics 
of  him,  and  the  contents  of  the  writing.  Besides 
portraits  of  famous  persons,  we  wish,  particularly  in 
the  case  of  distinguished  contemporaries,  to  pos- 
sess a  specimen  of  their  handwriting,  or  at  least 
their  signature,  as  the  peculiarity  of  the  style — the 
physiognomy  of  the  hand  writing  —  completes  our 
Knowledge  of  their  personality.  Lithography  is 
particularly  serviceable  in  this  matter,  not  only  by 
supplying  fac-similes  for  biographical  and  historical 
works  and  for  portraits,  but  also  by  multiplying 
impressions  of  collected  autographs,  such  as  have 
appeared  in  England  by  Smith,  in  Holland  by 
Nathan,  and  in  Germany  by  Dorow.  But  deserving 
mention  before  all  others  are  the  hographic  dcs 
Hwitmcs  Cilcbres  (3  vols.  Par.  1828 — 18ab),  to  which 

Signature  of  Kichard  TIT.  (Ricardus  Kex). 
From  tlio  i'aston  Letters. 

.1  supplement  appeared  in  1830  ;  and  the  Autociraphen- 
Priuhtiilbnm  zur  "itK)  jarir/cu  G'edac/itnissf'cur  dcs 
l^'e■'t/uli.schcn  Fricdrnssclilusses  {l'o\.  Leip.  18-18).  We 
possess  an  uninterrupted  succession  of  the  roval 
autograjjhs  of  England  from  King  Richard  II.  down- 
wards. Fac-similes  are  to  be  found  in  Autographs 
of  Royal,  Koblc,  Learned,  and  Jiemarkable  Person- 
ages, Conspicuous  in  English  History,  from  the  lieign 
of  Richard  II.  to  that  of  Charles  I/.,  by  John  Gough 
S'ichols  (fol.  Lond.  182y)-  The  preface  to  the  work 
contains  some  interesting  notices. 
87 


AUTO'LYCUS,  a  Greek  astronomer  and  mathe- 
matician of  Pitane  in  /Eolia,  about  330  n.c,  wrote 
on  the  Revolving  Sphere,  and  on  the  Rising  and 
Setting  of  the  Fixed  Stars.  Both  works,  printed 
in  Dasypodius's  J'ropositiones  Doctrime  Spherictr 
(Strasb.  1572),  contain,  for  the  most  part,  oidy  such 
jiiopositions  of  s])herical  astronomy  as  can  be  solved 
by  means  of  a  globe  ;  and,  instead  of  presu])posing 
the  knowletlge  of  spherical  trigonometry,  they  seem 
rather  to  prove  that  A.  himself  was  unacquainted 
with  it. 

AUTO'MATON  is  derived  from  two  Greek  words 
signifying  self-movement,  and  is  usually  applied  to 
machinery  constructed  to  represent  human  or  animal 
actions.  The  construction  of  automata  has  occupied 
the  attention  of  mankind  from  very  early  ages. 
Archytas  of  Tarentum  is  reported,  so  long  ago  as  400 
B.C.,  to  have  tuade  a  pigeon  that  could  fiy.  Albertus 
Magnus  and  Roger  Bacon,  in  the  13th  c,  are  said — 
but  there  is  some  dubiety  about  the  matter — to  have 
made  respectively  a  porter  to  open  the  door,  and  a 
speaking  head  ;  while  Regiomontanus,  in  the  15th  c, 
is  declared  to  have  been  successful  in  imparting  life- 
like motion  to  a  fiy.  In  France,  in  the  beginning 
of  the  I8th  c,  many  persons  busied  themselves  in 
the  construction  of  automata ;  and  among  other 
things,  a  pantomime,  in  five  acts,  was  represented  by 
actors  moved  by  machinery.  An  automatic  carriage 
group,  made  by  M.  Camus  for  the  amusement  of 
Louis  XIV.,  is  stated  to  have  been  very  perfect;  but 
it  is  doubtful  whether  it  was  so  complete  as  it  is 
represented  to  have  been.  The  most  perfect  A. 
about  which  there  is  absolute  certainty,  was  one 
constructed  by  M.  Yaucanson,  and  exhibited  in 
Paris  in  1738.  It  represented  a  flute-player,  which 
placed  its  lips  against  the  instrument,  and  produced 
the  notes  with  its  fingers  in  precisely  the  same  man- 
ner as  a  human  being  does.  In  1741,  M.  Yaucanson 
made  a  flageolet-player,  who  with  one  hand  beat  a 
tambourine  ;  and  in  the  same  year  he  jModuced  a 
duck.  This  was  a  most  ingenious  contrivance,  the 
mechanical  duck  being  made  to  conduct  itself  in 
every  respect  like  its  animated  pattern.  It  swam, 
dived,  ate,  drank,  dressed  its  wings,  &c.,  as  naturally 
as  its  live  companions  ;  and,  most  wonderful  of  all, 
by  means  of  a  solution  in  the  stomach,  it  was  actu- 
ally made  to  digest  its  food!  Maelzcl  made  a 
trumpeter,  which,  about  1809,  was  exhibited  in 
Vienna,  and  played  the  Austrian  and  French  cavalry 
marches  with  much  skill.  An  A.,  produced  by  M. 
Droz,  drew  likenesses  of  public  characters  ;  and,  some 
years  ago,  Mr.  Faber  contrived  a  figure,  exhibited  in 
various  places,  Edinburgh  among  others,  which,  by 
means  of  certain  keys,  was  made  to  articulate  simple 
words  and  sentences  very  intelligibly,  but  the  effect 
was  not  pleasant.  The  inventor  first  mentally  divided 
the  word  or  sentence  into  its  distinct  sounds — as  a 
phonographcr  would  do  in  writing — and  having 
determined  the  sounds,  pressed  one  after  the  other 
the  keys  which  admitted  the  air  into  the  various 
compartments  contaiiung  the  mechanism  constructed 
to  imitate  them.  The  chess-player  of  Kempelen  was 
long  regarded  as  the  most  wonderful  of  automata. 
It  represented  a  Turk  of  the  natural  size,  dressed  in 
the  national  costume,  and  seated  behind  a  box 
resembling  a  chest  of  drawers  in  shape.  Before  the 
game  connnenced,  the  artist  opened  several  doors  in 
the  chest,  which  revealed  a  large  number  of  pulleys, 
wheels,  cylinders,  springs,  &c.  The  chessmen  were 
produced  from  a  long  drawer,  as  was  also  a  cushion 
for  the  figure  to  rest  its  arms  upon.  The  A.  not  being 
able  to  speak,  signified  when  the  queen  of  his  anta- 
gonist was  in  danger  by  two  nods,  and  when  the 
king  was  in  check  by  three.  The  A.  succeeded  in 
beating  most  of  the  players  with  whom  it  engaged  ; 
but  it  turned  out  afterwards  that  a  crippled  Russian 

677 


AUTONOMY— AVA. 


officer — a  vciy  celebrated  cliess-player — was  con- 
cealed ill  the  interior  of  the  figure.  The  figure  is 
said  to  have  been  constructed  for  the  purpose  of 
cflecting  the  officer's  escape  out  of  Kussia,  where  his 
life  was  forfeited.  So  far  as  the  mental  process 
was  concerned,  the  chess-player  was  not,  therefore, 
an  A. ;  but  groat  ingenuity  was  evinced  in  its  move- 
ment of  the  pieces  (see  Chambers'' s  Journal,  vol. 
xii.,  p.  06).  In  184.5,  Mr.  John  Clark  of  Bridge- 
water  exhibited  an  A.  Latin  Vosificr,  Avhich  he 
himself  described  as  a  practical  illustration  of  the 
law  of  evolution.  '  The  machine,' he  said, 'contains 
letters  in  alphabetical  arrangement ;  out  of  these, 
through  the  medium  of  numbers,  rendered  tangible 
by  being  expressed  by  indentures  on  wheel-work,  the 
instruDient  selects  such  as  are  requisite  to  form  the 
verse  conceived  ;  the  components  of  words  suited  to 
form  hexameters  being  alone  previously  calculated, 
the  harmonious  comljinatimi  of  which  will  be  found 
to  be  ])ractically  interminable.'  An  automatic  group, 
consisting  of  a  child,  monkey,  hare,  and  goat,  was 
exhibited  in  this  country  in  ISotJ,  the  motions  of  the 
animals  being  very  peifect.  M.  Iloudin,  the  cele- 
brated conjuror,  is  the  inventor  of  some  striking 
automata.  Automata  have  also  been  constructed  to 
play  on  the  piano,  and  to  set  up  type.  The  latter 
are  very  ingenious  machines,  but  hitherto  they  have 
not  been  successful  enough  to  warrant  their  general 
introduction.  They  are,  however,  in  use  in  some 
printing-offices  in  London.  One  practical  difficulty 
they  have  not  yet  overcome,  is  the  spacing  out  of 
the  lines;  that  has  to  be  done  by  the  hunum  hand. 
See  Uulton^s  3Iai/ieinatical  liccreations :  J/inioirs  of 
Robert  Houdin.     Lond.  ISoO.     Chapman  and  Hall. 

AUTO'NOMY  (Gr.  self-legislation)  is  the  arrange- 
ment by  which  the  citizens  of  a  state  manage  their 
own  legislation  and  government ;  and  this  evidently 
may,  with  certain  restrictions,  be  the  case  also  within 
limited  bodies  of  the  same  people,  such  as  parishes, 
corporations,  religious  sects.  The  term  A.  is  used  to 
designate  the  characteristic  of  the  political  condition 
of  ancient  Greece,  where  every  city  or  town  com- 
munity claimed  the  right  of  independent  sovereign 
action.  The  idea  of  two  or  more  town  communities 
sinking  their  individual  independence,  and  forming 
the  larger  aggregate  unity  which  we  understand  by 
a  state,  seems  to  have  been  intolerable  to  the  Greek 
mind. 

AUTUN  (Bibracte,  Augustodunum),  a  town  in 
France,  department  of  the  Saone-et-Loire,  in  the 
Burgundian  district  of  Autunois.  Pop.  9348.  It  is 
situated  on  the  river  Aroux,  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop, 
and  has  a  fine  cathedral.  Cloth,  carpets,  leather, 
stockings,  and  paper  are  manufactured  in  the 
place. — The  ancient  Bibracte  was  the  chief  city 
of  the  .iildui,  and  had  a  much  frequented  Druid 
school ;  and  at  a  later  period,  under  the  Romans, 
when  it  got  the  name  of  Augustodunum,  it  was  no 
less  famous  for  its  school  of  rhetoric.  A.  was  pil- 
laged by  the  Saracens  in  72.5,  and  nearly  destroyed 
by  the  Normans  in  888.  There  still  exist  at  A.  many 
ruins  of  Roman  temples,  gates,  triumphal  arches,  and 
other  antiquities.  At  the  Council  of  A.  (1094),  King 
Philip  I.  was  excommunicated  for  divorcing  his 
queen,  Bertha. 

AUVERGNE,  a  southern  central  district  of 
France,  was  before  the  revolution  a  separate  pro- 
vince, composing  almost  exclusively  the  modern 
departments  of  Cantal  and  Puy-de-D6me.  Between 
the  Allier  and  the  upper  course  of  the  Dordogne 
and  the  Lot,  A.  rises  into  a  highland  region,  having 
Bourbonnais,  Limousin,  and  Rouergue,  as  terraces 
of  descent  into  the  western  plains,  while  on  the  east 
it  joins  the  Cevennes  and  the  southern  highlands. 
Not  only  do  the  cone  and  dome-like  shapes  of  the 
678 


sunmiits  betray  a  volcanic  ibrmation,  but  also  the 
great  masses  of  basalt  and  trachyte  that  break 
through  the  crust  of  granite  and  gneiss,  render  it 
probable  that  this  was  a  chief  focus  of  plutotiic 
action.  Among  the  summits  that  have  apparently 
been  at  one  time  volcanoes,  the  most  remarkable 
are  Cantal  (G093),  Mont-d'Or  (0188),  Puy-de-D(Jme 
(4800),  and  Pariou ;  the  latter,  adjoining  Puy-dc- 
l)6me,  is  basin-shaped  on  the  top,  and  one  of  the 
finest  specimens  of  an  ancient  and  extinct  volcano  : 
all  are  now  covered  with  verdure.  A.  falls  r.aturally 
into  two  divisions — Upper  A.,  to  tiie  south,  and 
Lower  A.,  to  the  north  ;  in  which  last  the  \allcy  of 
Limagne,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Allier,  is  distin- 
guished for  extraordinary  fertility.  The  climate  is 
colder  in  the  mountainous  di^tricts  tlnm  the  southern 
position,  with  a  less  elevation,  would  had  us  to 
expect,  and  is  remarkable  for  furious  winds  and 
violent  thunder-storms ;  but  in  the  deep  valleys  the 
heat  of  summer  is  often  oppressive.  The  lava- 
covered  plateaus  arc  desert,  but  the  pulverised 
volcanic  earths  that  cover  the  slopes  and  valleys 
form  a  rich  and  fruitful  soil,  as  is  shewn  by  the 
cro]>s  of  grain,  garden  produce,  fine  i'ruits,  wine, 
abundance  of  clie.'^tnuts  in  the  south,  and  of  walnuts 
in  the  north,  as  well  as  by  extensive  thriving  forests, 
along  with  flax  and  hemp  fields  and  meadow-lands, 
in  the  poorer  districts.  Agriculture  is  in  a  rather 
neglected  condition;  but  the  breeding  of  cattle, 
especially  of  mules,  is  well  managed.  A.  produces 
iron,  lead,  copper,  antimony,  and  coal,  and  is  rich  iu 
mineral  s|n'ings. 

The  Auvergnese  arc  a  highland  people,  rude  in 
their  manners,  poor,  ignorant,  at  the  same  time 
hoi.  est  and  kind,  though  not  free  from  the  propen- 
sity to  revenge.  They  live  by  cattle-keeping  and 
agriculture,  and  by  going  to  Paris  as  labourers. 
Domestic  manufactures,  therefore,  remain  confined 
to  weaving,  tanning,  and  paper-making.  A.  has, 
however,  produced  distinguished  men.  It  was  the 
native  jilaee  of  statesmen  and  warriors  of  the  15th 
and  10th  centuries;  and  also  of  the  Arnauld  (q.  v.) 
family,  so  distinguished  in  the  history  of  Port 
Royal  and  of  Jansenism.  In  more  recent  times, 
Lafayette  and  Polignac  may  be  named.  Chief  towns, 
Clermont  and  Aurillac  (q.  v.).  The  country  derived 
its  name  from  the  Averni,  who  long  defended  their 
fastnesses  against  Cassar,  as  later  against  the  Goth-s, 
Burgundians.  and  Franks,  with  whom  they  at  last 
coalesced. 

AUXILIARY  SCREW.  See  Screw-propeller. 

AUXILIARY  VERBS.  See  YEnns,  Conjuga- 
tion. 

A'VA,  in  1819  made  the  capital  of  the  Burman 
empire  (which  it  had  been  twice  before,  in  1364 
and  1701),  is  situated  in  lat.  21°  51'  N.,  and 
long.  95^  58'  E.  It  stands  on  a  well-watered  and 
fertile  plain,  on  the  south-east  bank  of  the  river 
Irawaddy,  here  about  4u0i>  feet  broad.  The  liver, 
at  this  point,  receives  two  affluents,  and  these 
being  joined  by  a  canal,  the  whole  city  is  rendered 
circumnavigable.  The  name  is  a  corruption,  made 
by  the  Hindus  and  Malays,  of  Aengwa  or  Aen-ua, 
meaning yi".s7t-/)0H(/,  given  it  from  being  built  where 
there  were  formerly  seven  lisli-ponds,  of  which 
five  still  remain  ;  biit  in  native  official  documents, 
the  name  of  Ratnapura,  or  the  City  of  Pearls,  is 
used.  The  city,  which  is  or  was  5i  miles  in  circum- 
ference, is  surrounded  by  a  wall  15  feet  high,  and 
10  feet  thick,  with  a  bank  of  earth  on  the  inside, 
and  a  ditch  on  the  outside,  and  has  21  gates. 
Pop.  in  1820,  30,000,  but  now  much  less,  on  ac- 
count of  the  seat  of  government  having  1  een  trans- 
ferred to  Monchobo  after  the  earthquak'j  of  1839, 
which  destroyed  nearly  all  the  important  buildings. 


AYA— AVEBURY. 


A'YA,  AUYA,  YAVA,  or  KA\'A  {Macropiper 
methysticum),  a  j)l;\nt  of  tlie  iiiitiiriil  order  PiperacecB 
(q.  V.)  possessiiif^  narcotic  properties.  Until  recently, 
it  was  ranked  in  tlie  fjeinis  P'iper  (rei)per).  It  is  a 
slinibhy  plant,  with  lieart-sliaped,  acuminate  leaves, 
and  very  short,  solitary,  axillary  spiUes  of  flowers. 
It  is  a  native  of  many  of  the  .South-sea  islands, 
where  the  inhabitant.*!  intoxicate  themselves  with 
a  fermented  liquor  prepared  from  its  root  or  (more 
accurately)  rhizome.  The  rhizome  is  thick,  woody, 
nijrged,  and  aronnitie.  A  tincture  of  it  is  useful  in 
chronic  rheumatism.  Tlie  intoxicating  liquor  is 
prepared  by  macerating  it  in  water.  The  savage 
Tahitians  were  accustomed  to  prepare  it  in  a  very 
odious  manner  ;  much  as  the  Indians  of  the  Andes 
prepare  Chica  or  Maize  beer — cliewing  the  root, 
depositing  it  in  a  bowl,  straining  through  cocoa-nut 
husk,  and  mixing  with  water  or  cocoa-nut  milk,  after 
which  fermentation  speedily  ensues.  The  taste  is 
unpleasant  to  those  unaccustomed  to  it,  and  has  been 
likened  to  that  of  rhubarb  and  magnesia.  The 
intoxication  is  not  like  that  produced  by  ardent 
spirits,  but  rather  a  stupofacation  like  that  caused 
by  opium.  It  is  succeeded  by  a  copious  perspira- 
tion. The  habitual  use  of  ava  causes  a  whitish 
scurf  on  the  skin,  which,  among  the  heathen 
Tahitians,  was  reckoned  a  badge  of  nobility,  the 
common  people  not  having  the  means  of  indul- 
gence requisite  to  produce  it  — The  leaf  of  the  ava 
plant  is  in  some  places  used  wilh  the  betel-nut, 
instead  of  that  of  the  betel-pepper. 

A'YALANCHES  are  masses  of  snow  or  ice  that 
Slide  or  roll  down  the  declivities  of  high  mountains, 
and  often  occasion  great  devastation.  They  have 
various  names,  according  to  their  nature.  Drift  or 
powder  avalanches  {Staiib  Lavincn)  consist  of  snow, 
which,  loose  and  dry  from  strong  frost,  once  set  in 
motion  by  the  wind,  accunmlates  in  its  descent,  and 
ctJines  suddenly  into  the  valley  in  an  overwhelming 
dust-cloud.  A.  of  this  kind  occur  chiefly  in  winter, 
and  are  dangerous  on  account  of  their  suddenness 
suil'ocating  men  and  animals,  and  overturning 
houses  by  the  compression  of  the  air  which  they 
cause.  Another  kind  of  avalanches  resembles  a  land- 
slip. Wiien  the  snow  begins  to  melt  in  spring,  the 
soil  beneath  becomes  loose  and  slippery ;  and  the 
snow  slides  down  the  declivity  by  its  own  weight, 
carrying  with  it  soil,  trees,  and  rocks.  The  great- 
est danger  is  where  elevated  tracts  of  moderate 
declivity  are  separated  from  the  valleys  by  precipi- 
tous walls  of  rock;  the  softened  snow  of  spring 
beginning  to  roll  or  sHde  on  these  slopes,  is  hurled 
over  the  precipices  with  fearful  force  into  the  valleys. 
The  very  wind  caused  prostrates  ibrests  and  houses. 
Ice  A.  are  those  that  are  seen  and  heaid  in  sum- 
mer thundering  down  the  steeps,  e.  g.,  of  the  Jungfrau. 
They  consist  of  masses  of  ice  that  detach  themselves 
from  the  glaciers  in  the  upper  regions.  They  are 
most  common  in  July,  August,  and  September. 

AVA'XTURINE,  a  variety  of  quartz,  remarkable 
for  the  brilliancy  with  which  it  reflects  light,  which 
is  supposed  to  result  from  small  particles  of  mica 
enclosed  iu  it.  It  is  of  a  yellow,  red,  or  brown  colour. 
It  is  used  in  jewelry,  but  is  not  so  much  valued  as 
amethyst  or  Cairngorm  stone.  It  is  found  iu  India, 
Spain,  and  Scotland. 

AVA'RI,  a  tribe  of  eastern  origin,  made  their 
appearance  100  years  later  than  the  Bulgarians, 
in  the  countries  about  the  Don,  the  Caspian 
Sea,  and  the  Volga.  One  part  of  them  remained 
at  the  Caucasus,  another  part  pressed  forward 
(about  553  A.n,)  to  the  Danube,  and  settled  in 
Dacia.  Here  tiiey  served  in  Justinian's  army, 
and  assisted  the  Lombards  to  overturn  the  king- 
dom of  the  Gepidie  ;    and,   about  the    end  of  the 


Gth  c,  under  the  mighty  Khan  Bajan,  they  con- 
quered Panuonia.  Later,  they  made  themselves 
masters  of  Dalmatia ;  made  devastating  incursions 
into  Germany,  as  lar  as  Thuringia  ;  and  into  Italy, 
where  they  warred  with  the  Franks  and  Lombards, 
and  extended  their  dominion  over  the  Slaves  living 
on,  and  northwai-ds  from,  the  Danube,  as  well  a.s 
over  the  Bulgarians  as  far  as  the  Black  Sea.  These 
nations  at  last  rose  against  them,  and,  in  (140  a.d., 
drove  them  out  of  Dalmatia.  Confined  to  Pannonia, 
they  were  subdued  by  Charlemagne,  and  well-nigh 
extirpated  by  the  Moravians,  so  that,  after  827, 
they  disappeared  from  history.  They  usually  sur- 
roimded  tlieir  settlements  with  fortifications  of 
stakes  driven  into  the  giound,  and  earth,  of  which 
traces,  under  the  name  of  Avarian  Rings,  arc  yet 
found  in  the  countries  formerly  occupied  by  them. 
The  results  of  the  most  recent  criticism  shew  that,  in 
all  probability,  the  A.  belonged  to  the  same  great 
Turanian  stock  as  the  Huns,  and  that  their  original 
residence  was  the  land  lying  east  of  the  Tobol,  in 
Siberia. 

AVA'ST,  one  of  the  peculiar  terms  employed  on 
shipboard.  It  is  a  command  to  stop  or  cease  in  any 
operation  going  forward — such  as,    '  avast  heaving.' 

AYATA'R  principally  signifies,  in  Sanscrit,  a 
descent,  but  is  specially  applied  to  the  descent  of 
a  Hindu  deity  upon  the  earth  in  a  manifest  shape, 
either  for  beneficent  or  for  retributive  ends.  It  is 
thus  almost  synonymous  in  its  signification  with  the 
Christian  term  Incarnation.  The  word  is  sometimes 
rhetorically  employed  in  English  literature.  The 
avatars  of  Yishnu  (q.  v.)  are  the  most  famous  in 
Hindu  mythology. 

AVA'TCHA,  a  mountain  and  bay  of  Kamstchatka. 
The  bay  is  on  the  east  coast,  being  by  far  the  best 
harbour  of  the  whole  peninsula,  and  containing  the 
capital  city  of  Petropaulowsk  (q.  v.).  The  mountain, 
9055  feet  in  height,  is  about  20  miles  to  the  north, 
and  not  far  from  the  sea,  in  lat.  52°  15'  N.,  and  long. 
'158"  51)'  E.  It  is  a  volcano  with  two  craters — one  at 
the  summit,  and  the  other  rather  more  than  half- 
way up,  on  the  seaward  side. 

A'VEBURY,  A'BURY,  or  A'BIRY,  a  small  village 
of  AViltshire,  situated  in  N.  lat.  51°  25',  and  W.  long. 
1°  5(t',  25  miles  north  of  Salisbury,  and  C  west-by- 
north  of  Marlborough.  It  is  a  place  of  no  importance 
in  itself,  having  a  population  of  751  ;  but  is  renuirk- 
able  as  the  site  of  the  largest  so-called  Druidical 
temple  in  Europe — in  I'act,  occupying  the  most  of  the 
sacred  enclosures  itself — and  as  having  iu  its  neigli- 
bourhood  several  renuirkable  barrows  and  cromlechs 
of  remote  antiquity. 

What  is  called  the  temple  occupies  a  flat  area 
of  ground  on  the  south  of  the  Kennct,  a  diniitiu- 
tive  tributary  of  the  Thames.  It  consists,  or  rather 
consisted,  of  a  hundred  large  blocks  of  stone, 
placed  on  end  in  a  circular  form,  around  a  level 
area  of  about  470  yards  in  diameter,  bounded  by 
a  deep  ditch  and  a  high  embankment  forming  the 
enclosure.  There  are  also  the  remains  of  two  small 
circles  of  stones  within  the  enclosure,  sujiposed  to 
be  inner  temples.  Of  these,  one  consisted  of  two 
concentric  circles  of  43  upright  stones,  having  a 
single  stone  near  the  centre;  the  other,  a  similar 
double  circle  of  45  stones,  to  the  north-west  of 
the  former,  with  three  large  and  high  blocks  in 
the  centre.  The  stones  that  remain  of  this  ancient 
work  are  not  of  uniform  size  ;  they  measure  from 
5  to  20  feet  in  height  above  the  ground,  and  from 
3  to  12  in  breadth  and  thickness. 

The  embankment,  which  is  broken  down  in  several 
places,  had  originally  two  entrances  to  the  temple, 
eastward  and  westward,  from  which  issue  two 
long   walks,  bending   lound  to  the  southward,  each 

67& 


AVEIRO— AVERAGE. 


furnislied  with  a  range  of  blocks  on  either  side  similar 
to  those  of  the  temple  itself.  These  avenues  are 
each  upwards  of  a  mile  in  length,  the  width 
var}'ing  from  56  to  35  feet.  That  which  issues  to 
the  east,  or  rather  south-east,  after  turning  south- 
ward, bends  near  its  extremity  to  the  south-east 
again,  and  closes  on  a  knoll  called  Overton  Hill  in 
two  concentric  oval  ranges  of  blocks.  That  which 
issues  to  the  west,  also  bends  to  the  t^outh,  and  then 
to  south-west,  ending  in  a  point  with  a  single  block. 

Of  the  surrounding  anticniitics,  that  which  appears 
most  closely  connected  with  the  temple  is  a  large 
barrow,,  or  lofty  conical  mound,  called  Silbury 
Hill,  lying  due  south  of  it,  at  a  distance  of  three- 
quarters  of  a  mile.  It  is  situated  nearly  midway 
between  the  two  avenues,  iu  the  line  of  the  ancient 
Roman  road  between  London  and  Bath.  Close  to 
the  base,  it  measures  2027  feet  in  circumference  ; 
the  sloping  height  is  SKI  feet;  the  jierpendicular 
height,  170  feet ;  the  diameter  of  the  level  area  nt 
the  top,  120  feet;  the  space  covered  by  the  whole 
work,  over  5  acres.  What  proves  the  structure  to 
liave  been  more  ancient  than  the  time  of  the 
RoTnans,  if  such  proof  were  necessary,  is,  that  the 
Roman  road,  as  it  comes  from  the  west,  is  straight  for 
several  miles  till  it  reaches  Hilbury,  when  it  bends 
round  it  to  the  south,  and  again  proceeds  in  a  direct 
line  to  .Marlborough. 

About  a  mile  north  of  A.  there  are  remains  of  a 
large  crondcch,  the  stones  of  which  have  been  over- 
turned; and  about  3  miles  cast  there  is  another, 
which  has  two  upright  blocks  standing  apart,  with  a 
larger  one  surmoiniting  tluni.  In  the  neighbour- 
hood, all  round  the  Marlborough  Downs,  there  are 
remains  of  eartiiworks  and  u]iiight  stones,  and  the 
piles  of  other  antiquities  now  nearly  obliterated. 

Very  little  was  known  of  A.  temple  and  the 
antiquities  in  its  vicinity  till  the  year  1740,  when 
Dr.  Stukeley,  a  somewhat  fanciful  antiquary,  pub- 
lished his  work,  Stonchcnrie  and  Abnrii,  Tvo 
Temples  restored  to  the  British  Druids ;  although 
Aubrey,  an  ardent  student  of  antiquarian  lore, 
had  written  an  account  of  them  in  1603,  by 
command  of  Charles  II.,  the  manuscript  of  which 
still  exists.  None  of  the  earlier  topograjihers  or 
antiquaries  appear  to  have  left  any  description 
of  them.  When  Sir  Richard  Hoare,  in  collecting 
materials  for  liis  Ancient  Wiltshire,  made  his  ex- 
amination of  them  in  1S12,  72  years  after  the 
appearance  of  Stukcley's  work,  and  10-4  after  the  first 
survey  by  Aubrey,  a  great  number  of  the  stones  had 
disappeared,  and  in  many  places  it  was  difficult  to 
trace  out  even  the  plan  of  the  works.  In  1849,  in 
order  to  satisfy  the  curiosity  of  the  lovers  of 
antiquity  as  to  the  nature  and  intention  of  the 
great  barrow,  Silbury  Hill,  a  tunnel  was  cut  to  its 
centre,  but  nothing  was  discovered  to  throw  light  on 
the  subject.  Some  modern  archaeologists  altogether 
reject  tlie  conclusions  of  Stukeley  and  his  followers, 
and  call  for  proof  of  any  connection  between  the 
Druids  and  the  stone-circles  which  it  has  been  the 
fashion  for  the  last  century  to  call  Druidical. 

AVE'IRO,  a  maritime  town  of  Portugal,  in  the 
province  of  Beira,  between  Oporto  and  Coimbra, 
situated  in  an  unhealthy  locality  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Vouga,  which  forms  a  wide  but  shallow  harbour,  is 
the  see  of  a  bishop,  has  5000  inhabitants,  and  trade 
in  oil,  wine,  oysters,  sardines,  and  other  fish,  oranges, 
and  sea-salt. 

AVELLI'NO  (anciently,  Ahellinum),  chief  town 
of  the  province  of  Principato-Ultra,  Naples.  It  is 
on  the  high  road  from  Naples  to  Bari,  at  the  foot  cf 
Monte  Vergine,  on  which  is  the  famous  monastery 
founded  by  S.  Guglielmo  da  Vercelli,  on  the  ruins 
of  a  temple  of  Cybele,  iu  1119.  Pop.  23,000.  A. 
aSO 


suflercd  greatly  from  earthquakes  in  1C04,  1731, 
and  1805.  It  has  manufactures  of  woollens,  paper, 
macaroni,  and  considerable  trade  in  corn  and  hazel- 
nuts. The  nuces  Avellaiice  were  famous  even  in 
Pliny's  time.  Between  A.  and  Benevento  is  tlic 
Val  de  Gargano,  where  the  Samnites  defeated  the 
Romans  in  433  a.u.c. 

AVE  MARIA,  also  ANGE'LICA  SALUTA'- 
TIO,  or  the  Angelic  Salutation,  arc  names  given  by 
the  Roman  Catholics  to  a  very  common  form  of 
address  to  the  Virgin  Mary.  Are  Maria  are  the  first 
two  words  of  the  prayer,  in  Latin,  wliich  is  taken 
from  the  angel  Gabriel's  salutation  (Luke  i.  28): 
'  Hail,  Mary,  highly  favoured,  the  Lord  is  with  thee; 
blessed  art  thou  among  women,  and  blessed  is  the 
fruit  of  thy  womb.'  In  this  form,  according  to  an 
ordir.ance  of  Gregory  I.,  the  invocation  was  at  first 
said  by  the  priests  during  mass,  on  the  fourth  Sun- 
day after  Advent.  With  the  extended  wort-hip  of 
the  Virgin  since  the  16th  c,  the  A.  M.  appears  as 
a  lay-])rayer  of  nearly  equal  use  with  the  Pater 
Noster,  and  was  sanctioned  as  such  at  the  end  of 
the  12th  c.  Accordingly,  not  only  did  Urban  IV. 
(1261)  add  the  conohiding  words,  Jesut  Christus, 
Atttcn,  but  since  the  first  half  of  the  KUh  c.,  the 
prayer  1)egan  to  receive,  more  and  more  commonly, 
as  an  addition  to  the  old  formula,  what  constitutes 
the  conclusion  of  the  modern  form:  'Holy  Mary, 
motlier  of  God,  pray  for  us  sinners,  now  and 
at  the  hour  of  our  death.  Amen,'  An  edict  of 
John  XXII.  (1320)  ordains  that  every  Catholic  shall, 
morning,  noon,  and  evening,  at  the  warning  of  the 
bells,  repeat  three  aves.  This  ringing  of  bells 
as  a  summons  to  morning,  mid-day,  and  evening 
pravers,  is  retained  in  some  Protestant  countries,  and 
is  still  called  the  Ave  Maria,  or  Angelus  Domini. 
The  aves  are  i-eckoned  by  the  sinall  beads  of  the 
rosary,  which  are  hence  called  Ave  Marias,  while 
the  large  beads  are  devoted  to  the  Pater  Noster. 
150  Ave  Marias  form — after  the  150  Psalms — a 
Psalterium  Mariw,  and  are  thought  to  possess  high 
propitiatory  power. 

AVE'NA.     See  Oat. 

AVENGER  OF   BLOOD.     See   Blood,  Avenger 

OF. 

A'VENS.     See  Geum. 

AVENTI'NUS,  Johannes  Thui^mayer,  a  scholar 
and  historian,  born  at  Abensberg,  Bavaria,  where 
his  father  was  a  publican,  in  1476.  Having  studied 
at  Ingolstadt,  he  went  to  Paris,  where  he  took  the 
degree  of  M.  A.  He  afterwards  taught  Greek  and 
mathematics  at  Cracow,  and  poetry  and  eloquence  at 
Vienna.  In  1512,  the  Duke  of  Baverfa  called  him 
to  Munich,  and  entrusted  him  with  the  education 
of  his  sons.  Here  A.  wrote  his  esteemed  Histori/  of 
Bavaria  (Annalcs  Boiorum),  a  work  which  occupied 
him  si.xteen  years.  This  work  was  not  published 
until  twenty  years  after  his  death,  which  took  place 
ill  1534,  and  then  only  with  large  portions,  more  true 
than  pleasant,  about  the  Romish  Church,  exci-sed. 
These,  however,  were  all  restored  in  Cisner's  edition 
of  1580.     A.  wrote  several  other  learned  works. 

AVERAGE.  If  any  number  of  unequal  quanti- 
ties are  given,  another  quantity  may  be  found  of  a 
mean  or  intermediate  magnitude,  some  of  the  given 
quantities  being  greater,  and  others  less,  than  the 
one  found,  which  is  called  the  average.  The  exact 
relation  is  this :  that  the  sum  of  the  excesses  of  the 
greater  above  the  A.  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the 
defects  of  the  less  below  it.  If  there  are,  say,  7 
vessels  unequally  filled  with  sand,  and  if  we  take 
handfuls  from  the  greater,  and  add  these  to  the  less, 
until  the  sand  is  equally  distributed,  then  any  one 
of  the  equalised  measures  of  sand  is  the  A.  of  the 
7  unequal   measures.     If  the  quantities  of  sand  in 


AVERAGE— A  VERSA. 


the  several  vessels  are  stated  in  mniibers,  as  5,  In, 
12,  8,  11,  14,  3  ounces,  tlie  A.  is  found  by  adding 
together  the  numbers,  and  dividing  by  how  many 
there  arc  of  them — viz.,  7.  The  sum  being  C;i, 
this,  divided  by  7,  gives  9  ounces  as  the  average. 
Tile  system  of  averaging  is  a  very  important  and 
time-saving  one.  By  averages,  tlie  farmer  calculates 
tlie  value  of  his  crops  ;  the  grazier,  the  value  of  his 
cattle ;  and  the  forester,  the  value  of  his  trees. 
Reflection,  however,  requites  to  be  exercised  in  strili- 
ing  averages ;  otherwise,  serious  errors  may  be  com- 
mitted. If  a  farmer,  for  instance,  has  thiee  lots  of 
cattle,  the  first  of  which  he  averages  at  £'J5  a  head, 
the  second  at  .£15,  and  the  third  at  .£9,  it  might  be 
tliouglit  that  the  A.  of  the  whole  stock  made  up  of 
the  three  lots  would    be  got  by   taking  the   mean 

of  .£J5,    £15,  and  fj)— viz,  -^y-— =£16^.     But 

this  would  be  correct  otily  if  there  were  an  equal 
number  of  cattle  iu  each  of  the  lots.  To  get  the  realA. 
in  case  of  the  lots  being  unequal,  he  must  multiply  the 
A.  of  each  lot  by  the  number  of  cattle  in  it,  add  the 
three  products  together,  and  divide  by  the  whole  num- 
ber of  cattle  in  all  three  lots  taken  together.  If  we 
suppose  9  head  in  the  first  lot,  '2t>  in  the  second,  and 
,.    •      .1        1  •   J    .T.       i      •    25x9---t5x20+9xl5      „ 

15  in  the  third,  the   A.  is „    n,^.,, =£15. 

'  y+20  +  io 

A'VERAGE  (in  Marit.  Law).  A  rule  was  estab- 
lished by  the  Rhodian  law  (q.  v.),  and  has  prevailed 
in  every  maritime  nation,  that  where  a  loss  has  been 
sustained,  or  expense  incurred,  for  the  general  safety 
of  the  ship  and  cargo,  a  contribution  should  be  made, 
in  proportion  to  their  respective  interests,  by  the 
owners  of  tiie  ship,  freight,  and  goods  on  board  ;  or, 
in  modern  times,  by  the  insurers  of  these.  To  this 
contribution  the  name  of  General  A.  is  given.  The 
apparel,  jewels,  and  other  personal  property  of  the 
passengers,  not  carried  for  purposes  of  traffic,  and 
the  seamen's  wages  and  provisions,  are  not  liable 
for  any  share  in  this  contribution.  Goods  (hrown 
overboard  are  now  estimated  at  the  price  they  would 
have  yielded  at  the  port  of  delivery  at  the  time, 
freight,  duties,  &c.,  being  deducted.  See  Jettiso.v. 
Partieidar  A.,  again,  is  the  loss  of  an  anchor,  the 
starting  of  a  plank,  the  leaking  of  a  cask,  the  loss  of 
goods  washc(i  from  the  deck,  or  the  like,  where  tlie 
common  safety  was  not  in  question,  and  where  there 
is,  consequently,  no  contribution.  To  losses  of  this 
description,  the  term  A.,  though  generally,  is  incor- 
rectly applied.  Pettij  Averafjes  are  the  duties  of 
anchorage,  pilotage,  &c.  If  tjiese  occur  in  the  ordi- 
nary course  of  the  voyage,  they  are  not  loss,  but 
simply  part  of  the  expense  necessarily  incurred. 
But  if  they,  iiave  been  incurred  in  extraordinary 
circumstances,  and  for  the  purpose  of  avoiding 
impending  dinger,  t!iey  arc  a  lo.^s  which  is  included 
in  the  general  A.,  and  covered  by  the  contribution. 
A.  ])ond  is  a  deed  which  parties  liable  to  a  general 
A.  arc  in  the  habit  of  executing,  by  which  they 
empower  an  arbiter  to  value  the  property  lost,  and 
lix  the  proportion  which  shall  be  borne  by  each 
proprietor. 

AVEUDUPOrS.     See  AvoiRnrrois. 

AVE'RXUS,  in  Gr  Aornos^  or  '  without  birds,' 
called  now  Lugo  d'Averno,  is  a  snuUI,  nearly  circular 
lake  in  Campania,  Italy,  situated  between  Cuina\ 
Puteoli.  and  Baia?.  It  is  about  a  mile  and  a  half  in 
circumference,  and  occupies  the  crater  of  an  extinct 
volcano.  It  is  in  some  places  as  deep  as  ISO  feet, 
and  is  almost  completely  shut  in  by  steep  and 
wooded  heights.  The  sulpliureous  aiul  mephiiic 
vapours  arising  from  the  lalce  were  believed  in 
ancient  times  to  kill  the  birds  that  Hew  over  it; 
hence,  according  to  some,  its  Greek  appellation. 
Ow^ng  to  its  gloomy  and  awful  aspect,  it  became 
the  centre  of  almost  all  the  fables  of  the  ancients 


respecting  the  world  of  shades.  Here  was  located 
Homer's  Nekyia,  or  entrance  to  the  under  world ; 
here  the  Cimmerians  arc  said  to  have  dwelt — a 
people  who  lived  in  deep  caverns,  without  ever 
coming  into  the  light  of  day,  exitlored  metals,  and 
imparted  Stygian  oracles ;  here  also  were  placed  the 
grove  of  Hecate  and  the  giotto  of  the  Cumean  Sibyl. 
Agrippa  caused  the  dense  woods  to  be  thinned,  by 
wliich  the  place  lost  much  of  its  wildness  ;  and  by 
his  orders  Cocceius  constructed  the  famous  tunnel 
through  the  mountain  to  Cuniic,  a  work  of  eom[)ara- 
tive  ease,  considering  that  the  hills  round  about  arc 
composed  of  volcanic  tufa.  The  lake  was  also  con- 
nected in  ancient  times  with  the  Gulf  of  Baije. 

AVERRHO'A.     Sec  Carambola. 

AVERRHO'ES,  properly,  Ibn  Roshd,  or  more 
fully,  Abid-Walid  5Iohammed-lbn,  Ahmed -Ibn, 
Mohammed-Ibn-Roshd,  the  most  famous  of  the 
Arabian  philosophers,  was  born  at  Cordova,  in 
Spain,  in  1149.  His  f:\ther,  who  was  chief  judge 
and  mufti,  instructed  him  in  Mohammedan  juris- 
prudence. In  theology  and  philosophy,  he  had 
Thophail  for  his  teacher ;  and  in  medicine,  Ibn 
Zohr,  the  elder.  His  talents  and  ae(}uirement3 
niade  him  be  appointed  successor  to  his  father,  and 
afterwards  chief  judge  in  the  province  of  Mauritania. 
Being  accused,  out  of  envy,  of  a  departure  from 
the  orthodox  doctrines  of  Mohammedanism,  he  was 
dismissed  from  his  office,  and  condemned  by  the 
ecclesiastical  tribunal  of  Marocco  to  recant  his  here- 
tical opinions,  and  do  penance.  After  this,  he  returned 
to  his  native  place,  and  lived  in  great  poverty,  until 
the  Calif  Almansor  reinstated  him  in  liis  offices,  on 
which  he  went  back  to  Marocco,  where  he  died  in 
1198  or  12(»6.  A.  regarded  Aristotle  as  the  greatest 
of  all  philosophers.  He  translated  and  illustrated 
Aristotle's  writings  with  great  penetration;  but  the 
influence  of  the  Alexandrine  view  laid  down  in  the 
commentaries  of  Ammonius,  Thcmistius,  and  otliers, 
is  easily  seen  in  his  works,  as  in  those  of  most  of  the 
Arabian  philosophers.  In  opposition  to  the  Arabian 
orthodox  school,  especially  against  Algazali,  A.  stood 
forth  on  the  side  of  reason  as  the  defender  of  philo- 
sophy. The  Arabians  called  him,  by  way  of  eminence, 
the  Expositor  (of  Aristotle),  and  his  ^yriac  transla- 
tion of  Aristotle  was  held  in  the  highest  esteem 
among  them.  His  writings  are  known  to  us  only 
through  Latin  translations  (Ven.  1489).  His  Com- 
mentaries on  Aristotle  appeared  in  an  edition  of 
that  philosopher's  works  (11  vols.  Ven.  1560).  He 
also  wrote  a  sort  of  medical  system,  which,  under 
the  name  i){  Collifrei  (a  corruption  of  the  Arabic  title 
Kulliijat — i.  c,  'The  Total'  system),  was  translated 
into  Latin,  and  repeatedly  printed  (Ven.  1482  and 
1514).  The  jihilosophy  of  A.  attiiined  to  importance 
in  the  Cliristian  Church  as  early  as  the  loth  c, 
althotigh  his  pantheistic  doctrine  of  the  unity  of  the 
active  principle  in  the  universe  was  often  repudiated 
as  an  error,  and  astrology  was  characterised  as 
Averrhoism. 

AVE'RSA,  a  town  in  the  province  of  Terra  di 
Lavoro  (Campania),  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  is 
situated  between  Naples  and  Capua,  in  a  beautiful 
district  rich  in  oranges  and  wine.  It  is  well  built, 
with  IS, '89  inhabitants;  has  a  cathedral,  and  a 
number  of  monasteries,  in  one  of  which,  Andrew  of 
Hungary,  the  Darnley  of  Neapolitan  history,  was 
murdered  with  the  connivance  of  his  wife,  the  beauti- 
ful but  guilty  Joanna,  queen  of  Naples ;  an  excel- 
lent asylum  for  the  Insane,  establi.^ied  by  Murat ; 
and  a  foundling  hospital.  A.  was  built  in  1029  by 
the  Normans  on  a  territory  ceded  to  them  by  Duke 
Scrgius  of  Naples,  to  be  held  in  fief.  About  two 
miles  from  A.,  are  still  to  be  seen  a  few  ruins  of  the 
Oscan   city  of  Atella,  famous   as  the  birthplace  of 

•   681 


AYES— AVILA. 


the  satirical  farces  so  popular  on  the  Roman 
stage. 

A'VES.     See  Binns. 

AVEYRON,  a  river  and  department  in  the  south 
of  France.  The  river  rises  near  Severae-le-Chateau  ; 
flows,  for  the  most  part,  in  a  westerly  direction 
through  the  department  of  the  same  name;  and, 
after  a  course  of  90  miles,  fulls  into  the  Tarn — a 
feeder  of  the  Garonne — below  Montauhan.  It 
touches  in  its  course  the  towns  of  Rliodez,  Yille- 
Iranche,  and  Negrepelisse.— The  department  of  A. 
has  an  area  of  3402  square  miles,  and  is  one  of  the 
most  mountainous  parts  of  France.  Situated  between 
the  highlands  of  Auvergne  and  the  Cevennes,  it 
slopes  like  a  terrace  south-west  to  the  Garonne,  to 
the  basin  of  whicli  the  department  ))olongs.  The 
principal  rivers  flow  through  the  di'pnrtmcnt  from  east 
to  west;  and  between  these,  several  ramified  oll'scts 
from  the  chain  of  the  Cevennes  traverse  the  country. 
The  climate  is  healthy,  but  cold  and  raw,  especially 
in  the  north  and  east.  North  of  the  Lot,  oidy  rye 
and  oats  are  grown  ;  in  the  rest  of  the  valleys,  other 
hinds  of  grain  also  thrive,  as  well  as  fruit,  chestnuts, 
potatoes,  and  trutll(>s.  A  third  part  of  the  laud  is 
unfit  for  cidtivation,  but  affords  excellent  pas- 
ture for  the  numerous  herds  of  cattle,  goals,  and 
sheep,  which,  along  with  the  breeding  of  swine,  form 
the  principal  resources  of  the  mountaineers.  18,ot)() 
cwt.  of  cheese  is  sold  yearly  under  the  name  of 
Roquefort  cheese.  The  mineral  wealth  of  the  depart- 
ment is  considerable.  Coal,  iron,  lead,  zinc,  copper, 
vitriol,  alum,  and  antimony  are  found  in  a!)undancc, 
the  mining,  preparing,  and  sale  of  which  foiui  a 
principal  means  of  support  to  the  ;'i'.)(),02.5  inhabitants. 
Besides  these,  the  principal  employments  are  paper- 
making,  cotton-spinning,  tanning,  llie  manufacture 
of  woollen  cloth  and  carpets,  &c.  The  seat  of  the 
depaitmental  courts  is  Rhodez,  which  is  also  a 
bishop's  see. 

A'YIARY,  a  place  for  keeping  birds.  The  arrange- 
ments of  an  A.  depend  upon  tiie  hal)its  of  its  inmates, 
the  cliuiates  suited  to  them,  and  other  circumstances. 
A  l)ird-cage  is  a  domestic  a\iary.  Aviaries  on  the 
largest  scale  are  to  be  seen  in  zoological  gardens. 

AVICE'NNA,  properly,  Ibn  Sina,  or  more  fully, 
Abu  Ali  Al-IIossein  Uui  Abdallah  Ibn  Sina,  a  famous 
Arabian  philosopher  and  physician,  whose  authority 
for  many  centuries  passed  for  indisputable,  was  born 
980,  at  Charmatain,  a  village  near  Bokliara,  where  lie 
received  a  very  learned  education.  lie  studied  with 
special  fondness  mathematics,  astronomy,  philosophy, 
and  medicine.  He  was  physician  to  several  of  the 
Samanide  and  Dileniite  sovereigns,  and  also  for 
some  time  vizir  in  Ilamadan,  but  afterwards  retired 
to  Ispahan,  and  died  during  a  journey  of  the  Emir 
Ala-ed-Daula  to  Hamadan,  in  1037.  He  left  a 
multitude  of  writings,  among  which  his  system  of 
medicine,  Kanun  fi  l-Tihb,  acquired  the  greatest 
reputation.  It  is  distinguished  less  by  originality 
than  by  an  intelligible  arrangement  and  judicious 
selection  from  the  writings  of  the  Greek  physicians, 
at  a  time  when  the  knowledge  of  Greek  was  not 
widely  spread.  A.  himself  knew  the  Greek  writers 
only  through  Arabic  translations.  The  Arabic  text 
of  the  Kanun,  and  of  several  of  his  philosophical 
writings,  among  which  those  on  metaphysics  espe- 
cially attracted  the  attention  of  the  schoolmen, 
appeared  at  Rome,  1.593,  in  2  vols.  Tlic  Kanunww?. 
translated  into  Latin  by  Gerardus  Cremonensis,  and 
repeatedly  printed  (Yen.  1595,  2  vols.).  His  philo- 
sophical writings  have  also  appeared  several  times 
in  Latin  translations  (Yen.  1490,  ir)23,  15G4). 

AYICE'NNIA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Avicennece  or  j\fi;oporacca\  an  order  very  nearly 
allied  to  Verbenacete  (q.  v.),  and   almost   exclusively 


confined  to  the  southern  hemisphere.  The  genus  A. 
consists  of  trees  or  large  shrubs  resembling  man- 
groves, and,  like  them,  growing  in  salt-swamps. 
Their  creeping  roots,  often  curving  for  tlie  s])ace  of 
six  feet  above  the  mud  before  tiiey  stick  into  it,  and 
the  naked  asparagus-like  suckers  which  they  throw 
up,  have  a  singular  appearance.  A.  tmnnitoxa,  the 
White  Mangrove  of  Brazil,  has  cordate  ovate  leaves, 
downy  beneath.  Its  bark  is  much  used  for  tanning. 
A  green  resinous  substance  exuding  froin  A.  rcsini- 
fcra  is  eaten  by  the  New  Zealanders. — The  genus  ia 
named  in  honour  of  the  Arabian  physician  Aviccnna. 

AVI'CULA.     See  Bkaul  Oystku. 

AYIGNON  {Avenio  Cavarirm),  a  city  of  Provence, 
in  the  south  of  France,  capital  of  the  department  of 
Yaucluse,  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhone, 
which  is  here  crossed  by  a  long  bridge.  The  popu- 
lation in  1861,  38,081  ;  the  streets  are  narrow  and 
crooked.  There  is  a  multitude  of  churches  and  reli- 
gious establishments,  among  which  the  cathedial  on 
the  Rocher  des  Bons  and  the  church  of  the  Fran- 
ciscans, as  well  as  the  old  papal  palace  and  the 
tower  Glaciere,  are  distinguished.  The  Dominican 
convent  now  serves  as  a  cannon-foundry.  Tiie  city  is 
the  see  of  an  archbisliop,  has  a  museum  and  pictui-c- 
gallery,  and  sev(^ral  other  valuable  instittitions.  The 
university,  founded  in  1303,  wasabolished  in  1794.  A. 
has  manufactures  of  sillc,  silk-dyeing,  tanning,  iron- 
founding,  kc,  and  is  famous  for  its  garden  jiroduce, 
its  fruit,  wine,  honey,  &c.  The  comitry  about  A. 
is  delightful,  and  extremely  fruitful  in  corn,  wine, 
olives,  oranges,  and  lemons. — In  A.,  Petrarch  spent 
several  years ;  it  was  here  he  saw  Laura,  whose 
monument  is  to  be  found  in  the  Franciscan  church. 
Yaucluse,  which  he  lias  immortalised,  lies  aliout 
thrie  leagues  from  Avignon.  A.  was  the  capital 
of  the  ancient  Cavares,  and  presents  majiy  remains 
of  the  times  of  the  Romans.  In  the  middle  age.s, 
it  formed,  with  the  surrounding  district,  a  county, 
which  the  popes,  who  had  already  received  the 
county  of  Venaissin  as  a  gift  from  King  Piiilip  III., 
bought  in  1348  from  Joanna,  queen  of  Naples  and 
Countess  of  Provence.  The  pope  governed  both 
counties  through  a  vice-legate,  and  continued  in  the 
possession  of  them  till  1791),  when,  after  several 
stormy  and  bloody  scenes,  the  city  with  its  district 
was  united  witli  Fiance.  At  the  peace  of  Tolentir.o 
(1797),  the  pope  formally  resigned  A.  and  Yenaissin. 
A.  is  celebrated  in  ecclesiastical  history  as  being, 
for  a  time,  the  residence  of  the  popes.  By  order  of 
Philip  lY.  of  France,  Pope  Clement  V.  and  six  of 
his  successors  from  1309  to  1377,  were  obliged  to 
reside  there.  It  was  afterwards  the  Vesideiice  of 
more  than  one  anti-pope.  Two  ecclesiastical  coun- 
cils were  also  held  at  A.  (1320  and  1337):  the  first 
took  into  consideration  the  relation  of  the  clergy  to 
the  laity;  the  other,  the  bad  training  of  the  clergy. 

A'YILA,  a  town  of  Spain,  capital  of  the  province 
of  A.,  in  Old  Castile,  53  miles  north-west  of  Madrid; 
pop.  5000.  The  Spaniards  declare  that  its  original 
name  was  Abula,  and  please  themselves  and  amuse 
strangers  with  the  belief  that  it  was  built  by 
Iler.culcs  IGtJO  r.c.  It  is  the  birthplace  of  two 
highly  remarkable  persons — the  firs-t  was  the  learned 
Alfonso  Tostado  de  Madrigal,  who  died  in  1455,  and 
whose  doctrines  (according  to  his  biographer)  were 
so  enlightened  that  they  caused  the  blind  to  see, 
tliougli,  in  the  opinion  of  Don  Quixote,  he  was  more 
voluminous  than  luminous;  the  second  is  'Our 
Seraphic  Mother,  tlie  Holy  Teresa,  Spouse  of  J(\sus,' 
born  March  28,  1515;  she  was  made  the  lady- 
patroness  of  Spain  by  Philip  III.,  and  shares  the 
honours  of  worship  with  St.  James.  A.  is  the  see  of 
a  bishop,  with  a  beautiful  cathedral,  and  was  at  one 
time  one  of  the  richest  and  most  flourishing  cities  of 


AVILA  Y  ZUNIGA— AVOIRDUPOIS. 


Spain.  The  university,  which  had  been  founded  in 
1482,  and  enhirged  in  HV.'.S,  was  abolislied  in  1807. 
It  was  at  A.  that  the  nobles  of  Ohl  Castile  assembled 
in  ICA')  to  depose  King  Henry  IV.,  and  raise  his  | 
brother  Alfonso  to  the  throne  of  Leon  and  Castile. 
At  A.,  also,  was  held  the  meeting  of  the  so-called 
Third  Estate,  or  of  the  Holy  League,  in  1.520,  under 
the  leadership  of  Ju;in  I'adilla,  to  which  nearly  all 
the  cities  of  Castile  sent  representatives. 

AVIL.A.  Y  ZUXir.A,  Don  Luiz  dk,  a  Spanish 
general,  diplomatist,  and  historian,  born  at  Placencia, 
in  Estremadura,  enjoyed  the  favour  and  confidence 
of  Charles  V.,  who  intrusted  him  with  embassies  to 
the  popes  Paul  IV.  and  Pius  IV.,  and  made  him 
grand  master  of  the  order  of  Alcantara.  He  accom- 
panied the  emperor  on  his  expeditions  to  Africa  and 
against  the  princes  of  the  league  of  Schniali<ald,  and 
wrote  an  account  of  the  war  which  goes  under  that 
name,  partial,  indeed,  but  able  and  spirited.  The 
Commcntariot  dc  la  O'ucrra  dc  Aleinanna  hccfia 
por  Carlos  V.  en  1540  y  1547,  liavc  been  publi.«hed 
repeatedly  (first,  Yen.  1548),  and  translated  into 
several  languages. — Avila,  Gil  Gonzalkz  dk,  born 
at  Avila,  in  Old  Castile,  in  1550,  and  died  in  1658, 
was  a  Jesuit  and  canon  of  Salamanca;  also  royal 
historiographer  for  Castile  and  the  Indies.  He  com- 
posed a  great  number  of  historical  works,  of  which 
the  following  may  be  mentioned  as  containing  many 
valuable  facts:  llistoria  de  la  Vida  y  IJechos  del 
lien  Don  Henrique  III.  de  Caxtilla  (Madr.  1C38)  ; 
Histoiia  de  la  Vida  y  Jlec/ios  del  Monarca  D. 
•  Filipc  III.  (in  Mcndoza's  Monarquia  de  Espaha 
3  vols.  5Iadr.  1770);  Historia  de  Salamanea  (Sa.\a.m. 
160G);  and  the  Tcatro  Ecclesiastico  de  la  priinitiva 
Iglcsia  de  las  Indias  Occidentales  (2  vols.  Madr.  1649- 
1656). 

AYI'Z,  an  order  of  knight- 
hood in  Portugal,  instituted 
by  Sancho,  the  first  king  of 
Portugal,  in  imitation  of  the 
order  of  Calatrava,  and  having, 
like  it,  for  its  object  the  sub- 
jection of  the  Moors.  By  the 
present  usage,  the  king  of 
Portugal,  who  is  grand  master 
of  all  of  them,  wears  decor- 
ations of  the  first  three  orders 
of  Portugal,  those  of  Christ, 
St.  James,  and  Aviz  united  in 
one  medal,  divided  into  three 
equal  spaces. 
Badge  of  Order  of  Aviz.  AVO'CA,  or  OYO'CA  (Celt, 
meeting  of  the  waters),  a  small 
river  in  the  south-east  of  Wicklow  county,  formed 
by  the  union  of  two  streams,  lising  in  the  hills  of 
the  centre  of  the  county.  The  A.  runs  through  a 
very  picturesque  vale  only  a  quarter  of  a  mile 
broad,  with  wooded  banks  300  to  600  feet  high, 
and,  after  a  course  of  nine  miles,  reaches  the  sea 
at  Arklow.  A.  Yale  is  celebrated  in  Moore's  Irish 
Melodies. 

AVOCA'DO  PEAK,  or  ALLIGATOR  PEAR 
{Perse'a  ffratissimn),  a  fruit-tree  of  the  natural 
order  Zauracece  (([.  v.),  a  native  of  the  warm 
regions  of  America.  It  attains  the  height  of  30 — 7o 
feet,  and  is  a  slender  tree  with  a  dome-like  top. 
The  leaves  resemble  those  of  the  laurel.  The  flowers 
small,  and  are  produced  towards  the  extremities  of 
the  branches.  The  fruit  is  a  drupe,  but  in  size  and 
shape  resembles  a  large  pear ;  is  usually  of  a  brown 
colour,  and  has  a  soft  green  or  yellowish  pulp,  not 
very  sweet,  but  of  a  delicate  flavour,  which  dissolves 
like  butter  on  the  tongue,  and  is  believed  to  consist 


in  some  of  the  French  colonies.  It  is  much  esteemed 
in  the  West  Indies,  and  often  eaten  with  sugar  and 
lime-juice  or  wine,  or  with  spices. 

AYOCE'T,  or  AYOSE'T  (liecnrvirostra),  a  genus 
of  birds,  which,  although  having  the  feet  webbed 
nearly  to  the  end  of  the  toes,  is  usually  ranked 
among  the  OralUe  or  Grallatorcs,  upon  account  of 
the  length  of  the  legs,  the  half-naked  thighs,  the 
long,  slender,  elastic  bill,  and  the  general  agreement 
in  habits  with  snipes.  They  are  distinguished  from 
all  other  birds,  except  a  few  species  of  humming- 
bird, by  the  strong  upward  curvature  of  the  bill, 
which  is  much  like  a  thin  piece  of  elastic  whalebone, 
and  most  probably  a  delicate  organ  of  touch,  adapted 
for  seeking  food  in  mud,  as  their  webbed  feet  are 
for  walking  upon  it,  and  their  long  legs  for  wading 
in  the  fens  and  marshes  which  they  frequent.  They 
are  birds  of  powerful  wing.  They  are  not  mnch 
addicted  to  swimming.      They    scoop  through  the 


Avocet. 

mud  with  the  bill,  first  to  one  side,  and  then  to  the 
other,  in  quest  of  worms  and  other  small  animals ; 
although  Audubon  has  also  observed  the  American 
A.  taking  insects  which  were  swimming  on  the 
surface  of  the  water,  and  expertly  catching  them  in 
the  air,  running  after  them  with  partially  expanded 
wings. —The  Common  A.  (R.  Avocetta),  the  body  of 
which  is  about  as  large  as  that  of  a  lapwing,  is  found 
in  the  fenny  districts'of  England,  where,  however,  it 
is  much  more  rare  than  it  once  was,  and  is  a  native 
also  of  the  continents  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa, 
occurring  even  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. — Other 
species  are  natives  of  North  America,  India,  and 
New  Holland. — The  American  A.  (/v".  Americayia) 
has  the  bill  less  recurved  thai'  the  Common  A.,  but 
its  habits  appear  to  be  very  similar. 

AYOI'DANCE,  in  English  ecclesiastical  law,  the 
term  by  which  the  vacancy  of  a  benefice,  or  the 
fact  of  its  being  roi/l  of  an  inc'unbent,  is  signified. 
A.  is  opposed  to  plenarly,  or  fuluess.    Sec  Bi^nkfice. 

AYOIRDUPOFS,  or  AYERDUPOI'S,  is  the 
name  given  to  the  system  of  weights  and  measures 
applied  in  I'.ngland  to  all  goods  except  the  precious 
metals,  precious  stones,  and  med'cines.  The  word  is 
generally  said  to  be  derived  i'vcm  the  French  avoir 
du  poit,  to  have  w  eight ;  but  the  middle-age  Latin 
word  averia  or  arcra,  used  fot  goods  in  general, 
or  the  middle-age  Latin  averare,  ind  French  averer, 
meaning  to  verify,  seem  to  offer  more  probable 
etymologies. 

The  grain  is  the  foundation  of  the  A.  system,  as 
well  as  of  the  Troy  and  Apothecaries'.  A  cubic 
inch  of  water  weighs  252-458  grains.  Of  the  grains 
so  determined,  7000  make  a  pound  A.,  and  5760  a 
pound  Tiuy.  See  Weights  and  Measurks. — The 
A.  pound  is  divided  into  16  ounce,  ar'd  *he  ounce 
into    16  drams.     A  dram,  thereforer  contains  27''i3» 


principally  of  a  fixed  oil.     It  is  called  vegetable  butter  \  grains,  and  an  ounce  437^  grains. 


683 


AVON— AXEL. 


TABLK     OF     AVOIRDUPOIS 

27"|32  grains  .  are  1  dram, 
16  drains  or  draclims  "  1  ounce, 
16  ounces         .  " 

28  pounds  .        " 

4  ciuartcrs     .  " 

20  hundredweight        " 


WEIGHT. 

1  dr. 

1  oz. 
1  pound,  1  lb. 

1  quarter,  1  qr. 

1  hundredweight,  1  cwt. 
1  ton,  1  ton. 

A  cubic  foot  of  water  -weighs  OOT-U  ounces  A., 
or  nearly  1000  ounces,  which  gives  an  easy  rule  for 
determining  the  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  any  sub- 
stance from  its  specific  gravity.  A.  is  the  weight 
used  in  the  United  States  of  North  America,  where, 
however,  in  many  places,  the  cwt.  contains  only 
100  lb.,  and  the  ton,  2000  lb. 

A'VOX,  a  word  of  British  or  Celtic  origin,  niean- 
inf  'river'  or  'stream,'  which  seems  allied  to  Aa 
(q.  v.),  the  name  of  so  many  continental  rivers.  It  is 
the  name  of  several  of  the  smaller  British  rivers.  Of 
these  may  be  noticed  :  1.  The  Upper  or  Warwick- 
shire A.,  "which  rises  in  north-west  Northampton- 
shire, runs  south-west  through  Warwickshire  and 
Worcestershire,  passing  Kugby,  Warwick,  Stratford, 
and  Evesham,  and  joining  the  Severn  at  Tewkes- 
bury. It  has  a  course  of  lUO  miles,  and  receives 
several  tributaries.  2.  The  Lower,  or  Bristol,  or 
West  A.,  which  rises  in  north-west  WiUshire, 
and  runs  70  or  80  miles,  first  south  in  Wiltshire, 
and  then  west  and  north-west  between  Glou- 
cestershire and  Somersetshire.  It  traverses  an 
oolitic  basin,  passing  Bradford,  Bath,  and  Bristol, 
and  empties  itself  into  the  Bristol  channel.  It  is 
navigal)le  for  large  vessels  up  to  Bristol.  It  runs 
generally  between  deep  banks  in  a  rich  valley.  A 
canal  through  the  middle  of  Wiltshire  connects  it 
with  the  Thames.  3.  The  Wiltshire  and  Hampshire, 
or  East  A.,  which  rises  in  the  middle  of  Wiltshire, 
and  runs  south  70  miles  through  WiUshire  and 
Hampshire,  passing  Amesbury,  Salisbury,  and  Ring- 
wood,  and  entering  the  English  Channel  at  Christ- 
church.  It  is  navigable  up  to  Salisbury.  It  abounds 
iu  the  small  delicate  loach.  In  Wales  two  rivers 
named  A. — one  rising  in  Monmouthshire,  the  other  in 
Glamorganshire — fall  into  Swansea  Bay.  In  Scot- 
land there  are  several  of  the  same  name,  aflBuents  of 
the  Spey,  Annan,  Clyde,  and  Forth. 

AWE,  Loch,  a  lake  in  the  centre  of  Argyleshire, 
extending  in  a  direction  north-cast  and  south-west 
about  24  miles,  with  an  average  breadth  of  from 
half  a  mile  to  2+  miles.  It  rarely  freezes,  and  its 
surface  is  108  feet  above  the  sea.  The  country 
around  consists  of  mica  slate.  The  scenery  is  most 
striking  at  the  north-east  end  of  the  lake,  where  the 
water  is  studded  with  numerous  wooded  islets, 
overshadowed  by  towering  and  rugged  mountains, 
prominent  among  which  rises  the  dark  and  rocky 
ridge  of  Ben  Cruachan,  3669  feet  high,  and  14  miles 
in  circuit.  Of  the  islands,  the  most  noted  are  Fraoch- 
eilean,  containing  the  remains  of  a  castle  granted  to 
Gilbert  M'Naughton  in  12C7  by  Alexander  III. ;  and 
Innis-ail  (Isle  of  Beauty),  on  wliich  are  the  ruins  of 
a  Cistercian  convent  and  chapel.  On  a  small  rocky 
peninsula,  in  the  north  end  of  the  lake,  stands 
Kilchurn  Castle  (Caesteal  Chaoil-chuirn),  once  a 
fortress  of  great  strength,  built  about  1440  by  Sir 
Colin  Campbell  of  Glenorchy,  and  garrisoned,  as  late 
as  1745,  by  the  king's  troops.  The  waters  of  the 
lake  are  carried  off  at  its  north-west  end  by  the 
river  Awe,  which,  after  a  course  of  7  miles,  enters 
the  sea  at  Bunawe  on  Loch  Etive.  The  magnificent 
'Pass  of  Awe,'  through  which  the  road  runs  beneath 
the  shoulder  of  Ben  Cruachan,  was  the  scene  of  a 
conflict,  in  1308,  between  Robert  the  Bruce  and  the 
M'Dougalls  of  Lorn,  in  wliich  that  clan  was  all  but 
exienniuated.  At  the  north-cast  end  of  the  loch,  it 
584 


I  receives  the  waters  of  the  Orchy  and  Strae,  flowing 
through  glens  of  their  own  names.  Loch  A.  abounds 
in  fine  fish,  esi)ecially  trout  and  salmon ;  and  the 
small  village  of  Claddich,  on  the  east  side  of  the 
Loch,  due  north  of  luverary,  is  the  general  resort  of 
anglers. 

A-WEA'THER,  is  a  term  denoting  the  position 
of  the  helm  when  jammed  close  to  the  weather-side 
of  a  ship;  it  is  the  reverse  of  a-lcc. 

A-WEI'dll,  as  applied  to  the  position  of  an 
anchor,  when  just  loosened  from  the  ground,  and 
hanging  vertically  in  the  water,  is  nearly  equivalent 
to  a-irip. 

AWN  {Arhfa),  in  the  flowers  of  Grasses,  a 
solitary  pointed  bristle,  growing  either  from  a  glume 
or  a  palea.  The  flowers  of  some  grasses  arc  entirely 
awnh'ss ;  in  many,  the  glumes  alone  are  auned 
(or  aristafc),  or  only  one  of  them  ;  in  others,  the 
glumes  are  awnless,  and  the  palcic,  or  one  palea, 
awncd.  The  awn  is  often  terminal,  and  appears  as 
a  prolongation  of  the  midrib  of  the  glume  or  j)alea; 
from  which,  however,  it  sometimes  separates  below 
the  point,  and  is  then  said  to  be  on  the  back  of  it, 
or  dorsal ;  sometimes  it  is  jointed  at  the  base,  and 
finally  separates  at  the  joisit ;  sometimes  it  is  knec- 
lient  or  geniculate;  sometimes  it  is  twisted,  and 
liable  to  twist  and  untwist  hygromctrically ;  some- 
times it  is  rough,  or  even  serrate,  at  the  edges,  as  in 
barley  ;  sometimes  it  is  feathery,  as  in  feather-grass 
(Stipa),  which  also  is  remarkable  for  the  great 
length  of  its  awn.  The  characters  of  genera  and 
species  arc  often  derived  from  it,  but  it  is  not  always 
invariable,  evin  in  the  same  species,  and  the  culti- 
vated varieties  of  wheat  and  oats  difi'er  much  in 
being  more  or  less  bearded.  There  appears  to  be  a 
tendency  to  the  diminution  or  disappearance  of  the 
awn  through  cultivation. 

AXE,  the  name  of  two  small  rivers  in  the  south- 
west of  England.  One  rises  in  the  Mendip  Hills, 
north  of  Somerset,  runs  first  south-west,  and  then 
north-east,  through  a  carboniferous  limestone,  trias, 
and  diluvial  basin,  past  Wells  and  Axbridge,  into 
the  Bristol  Channel.  The  other  rises  in  west  Dorset, 
and  flows  21  miles  south  and  south-west,  through 
east  Devonshire,  in  an  oolitic  and  trias  basin,  past 
Axminster  into  the  English  Channel.  A.  is  only  an- 
other form  of  Exe.      See  Aa. 

A'XEL,  or  A'BSALON,  Archbishop  of  Lund,  in 
Denmark,  and  also  minister  and  general  of  King 
Waldemar  I.,  wns  born  in  1128,  and  died  12<i].  He 
was  descended  of  a  distinguished  family,  and,  in  his 
youth,  studied  at  Paris.  A.  distinguished  liimself 
as  well  by  wisdom  and  uprightness  in  peace,  as  by 
valour  and  address  in  war.  The  Wendish  jiirates 
were  not  only  driven  from  the  coasts  of  Denmaik, 
but  attacked  in  their  own  settlements,  and  stibdued. 
He  defeated  the  Pomeranian  prince,  Bogislav,  and 
made  him  dependent  on  Denmark.  In  the  wise 
legislation  of  Waldemar  and  of  his  son,  he  took  a 
great  part.  He  favoured  and  promoted  learning 
and  art,  and  to  his  eiicouragenient  we  owe  the  first 
connected  history  of  Denmark  by  Saxo  Grammaticus. 
By  building  a  fortified  castle  for  defence  against  the 
pirates,  he  laid  the  foundation  of  the  future  great 
city  of  Copenhagen,  which  was  then  an  insignificant 
village,  iidiabited  only  by  fishermen.  Owing  to 
this  origin,  Copenhagen  has  sometimes  pot  tl;e  name 
of  Axelstadt.  A.  lies  buried  in  tlie  church  of  Soroe, 
where  he  had  fotuided  a  monastery.  Tl.c  relics 
found  when  his  grave  was  opened  in  1827,  the  chief 
of  which  were  a  bishop's  staff  and  ring,  arc  described 
in  the  latest  complete  biography  of  A.  by  Estrup, 
translated  into  German  by  Mohnike  in  lllgen's 
ZeiUchrift  fur  lUatorische  ilicolof/ie  {'2,  vols.  Leip. 
1832). 


AXESTON'E— AXIS. 


A'XESTONE,  ii  inineriil,  {generally  regarded  as  a 
variety  of  Nephrite  (q.  v.)  It  is  of  a  groenisli  colour, 
is  moi'C  or  less  translucent,  hard,  tough,  and  not 
easily  broken.  It  occurs  ia  primitive  rocks,  always 
massive,  and  is  found  in  Saxony,  in  GnH'uland, 
and  in  New  Zealand  and  other  islands  of  the 
Southern  Pacific.  It  derives  its  name  from  the  use 
to  which  it  is  put  by  the  natives  of  these  islands  for 
making  their  hatchets.  They  also  make  ear-drops 
of  it. 
.  A'XIIOLME  ISLE  (A.  Sax.  holme,  a  river-isle),  a 
low  level  tract  in  the  north  of  Nottinghaiiishiie,  sur- 
rounded by  rivers — the  Trent  on  the  east ;  Don,  north 
and  west ;  Torne  and  Idle,  on  the  west ;  and  Vicar- 
dyke,  between  the  Trent  and  Idle  on  the  south.  This 
district,  18  miles  from  north  to  south,  and  o  on  an 
average  east  and  west,  was  anciently  a  forest,  but 
afterwards  became  a  marsh.  The  marsh  was  drained 
into  the  Trent  in  I6:M  by  Vermuyden,  a  Dutchman, 
after  5  years'  labour,  and  at  the  cost  of  £5(),(i()(). 
The  reclaimed  land  became  very  fertile  under  Dutch 
.'.iid  Frvnch  Protestant  settlers,  and  after  much  liti- 
gation, it  was,  in  IG'.il,  divided,  the  original  inhab- 
itants receiving  10,,53'2  acres,  and  the  settlers  28(58. 
On  the  land  are  raised  abundant  crops  of  wheat,  oats, 
rye,  pease,  beans,  clover,  flax,  rape,  hemp,  potatoes, 
and  onions.  Peat  and  turf  fuel  abound,  and  valua- 
ble gypsum  beds  occur.  The  water  is  brackish,  too 
hard  for  washing,  and  curdles  milk  when  boiled  with 
it.  A.  I.  includes  seven  parishes,  w'ith  a  population 
of  about  14,000.  There  are  two  small  towns,  Crowle 
and  Epworth. 

A'XIL  (a-rilla),  in  Botany,  the  angle  between  the 
upper  side  of  a  leaf  and  the  stem  or  branch  from 
which  it  grows.  Buds  usually  grow  in  the  axils  of 
leaves,  although  they  are  not  always  actually  devel- 
oped ;  but  a  bud  may  be  made  to  appear  in  such  a 
situation,  and  to  form  a  new  shoot  or  branch,  by 
artificial  means,  which  direct  the  strength  of  the 
plant  more  particularly  to  that  quarter,  as  cutting 
ov^r  the  main  stem,  wounding  it  above  the  place 
where  the  new  branch  is  desired,  &c.  Flowers  or 
flower-stalks  {pcdundcx)  growing  from  the  axils  of 
leaves  arc  called  axillary. 

AXIXOMAXCY  (Gr.  axine,  an  axe,  and  manteia, 
divination),  a  mode  of  divination  much  practised  by 
the  ancient  Greeks,  particularly  with  the  view  of 
discovering  the  perpetrators  of  great  crimes.  An 
axe  was  poised  upon  a  stake,  and  was  supposed  to 
move  so  as  to  indicate  the  guilty  person  ;  or  the  names 
of  suspected  persons  being  pronounced,  the  motion 
of  the  axe  at  a  particular  name  was  accepted  as 
a  sign  of  guilt.  Another  method  of  A.  was  by 
watching  the  movements  of  an  agate  placed  upon 
a  red-hot  axe.  This  is  only  one  of  a  nndtitude  of 
analogous  modes  of  divination  practised  in  all  ages 
and  among  all  nations.     See  Divi.nation,  and   I)i- 

TINlNG-UOl). 

A'XIOM,  a  Greek  word  meaning  a  dcmavd  or 
anKionpt'on,  is  commonly  used  to  signify  a  general 
proposition,  which  the  understanding  recognises  as 
true,  as  soon  as  the  import  of  the  words  conveying 
it  is  apprehended.  Such  a  propo.sition  is  therefore 
known  directly,  and  does  not  need  to  be  deduced 
from  any  other.  Of  this  kind,  for  example,  are  all 
propositions  whose  predicate  is  a  property  essential 
to  our  notion  of  the  subject.  Every  rational  science 
riMpiircs  such  fundamental  propositions,  from  which 
all  the  truths  composing  it  are  derived  ;  the  whole 
of  geometry,  for  instance,  rests  on,  comparatively, 
a  very  few  axioms.  Whether  there  is,  for  the 
whole  of  hunum  knowledge,  any  single,  absolutely 
first  A.,  from  which  all  else  that  is  known  may  be 
deduced,  is  a  question  that  has  given  rise  to  much 


disputation ;  but  the  fact,  that  human  knowledge 
may  have  various  starting-points,  answers  it  in  the 
negative.  Mathematicians  use  the  word  A.  to  de- 
note those  propositions  which  they  must  assume  as 
known  from  some  other  source  than  dediu-tivc  rea- 
soning, and  em[)loy  in  proving  all  the  other  truths 
of  the  science.  The  i-igour  of  method  retjuires  that 
no  more  be  assumed  than  are  absolutely  necessary. 
Every  self-evident  proposition,  therefore,  is  not  an 
A.  in  this  sense,  though,  of  coinse,  it  is  desirable 
that  every  A.  be  self-evident ;  thu.s,  Euclid  rests  the 
whole  of  geometry  on  fifteen  assumptions,  but  he 
proves  j)ropositions  that  are  at  least  as  self-evident 
as  some  that  he  takes  for  granted.  That  'any  two 
sides  of  a  triangle  are  greater  than  the  third,'  is 
as  self  evident  as  that  'all  right  angles  arc  equal 
to  one  another,'  and  much  more  so  than  his  assump- 
tion about  parallels,  which,  it  has  been  ri-nuirked,  is 
neither  self-evident  nor  even  easily  made  evident.  See 
Parallki.s.  Euclid's  assumptions  are  divided  into 
three  'postulates'  or  demands,  and  twelve  'common 
notions' — tiie  term  A.  is  of  later  introduction.  The 
distinction  between  axioms  and  postulates  is  usually 
stated  in  this  way  :  an  A.  is  'a  theorem  granted  with- 
out demonstration;'  a  postidate  is  'a  problem 
granted  without  construction  ' — as,  to  draw  a  straight 
line  between  two  given  points. 

AXIS,  in  Geometry. — The  A.  of  a  curved  line  is 
formed  by  a  right  line  dividing  the  curve  into  two 
symmetrical  parts,  so  that  the  part  on  one  side 
exactly  corresponds  with  that  on  the  oilier;  as  in 
the  parabola,  the  ellipse,  and  the  hyperbola.  The 
A.  of  any  geometrical  solid  is  the  right  line  which 
passes  througii  the  centre  of  all  the  corresponding 
parallel  sections  of  it:  in  this  sense,  we  speak  of  the 
A,  of  a  cylinder,  a  globe,  or  a  spheroid.  By  the  A. 
of  rotation,  we  understand  the  right  line  around 
which  a  body  revolves. — In  physical  science,  the  A. 
of  a  lens  is  the  right  line  passing  through  it  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  be  perpendicular  to  both  sides  of  it; 
and  the  A.  of  a  telescope  is  a  right  line  whicii  passes 
through  the  centres  of  all  the  glasses  in  the  tube. 
The  A.  of  the  ct/e  is  the  rigiit  line  passing  through 
the  centres  of  the  pupil  and  the  crystalline  lens. 

A'XIS,  in  Botany,  a  term  applied  to  the  central 
part  both  above  and  below  ground,  around  which 
the  whole  plant  is  regarded  as  arranged.  The  stem 
is  called  the  ascending  A  ;  the  root,  the  descending 
axis.  The  opposite  tendencies  of  growth  a])[)ear  as 
soon  as  a  seed  begins  to  germinate,  in  tlie  radicle 
and  plumule  ;  the  former  of  which  is  the  descending 
A.,  and  the  latter  the  ascending  A. ;  the  former  de- 
scending deeper  into  the  soil,  the  latter  ascending 
towards  the  air  and  light.  That  part  of  the  stem 
around  which  the  flowers  are  arranged  is  called  the 
floral  A.  ;  and,  in  describing  some  kinds  of  inflores- 
cence, the  terms,  primary  floral  A.,  secondary  floral 
A.,  &c.,  arc  occasionally  employed. 

A'XIS  {Cervus  Axis),  a  species  of  deer,  abundant 
on  the  banks  of  the  Ganges,  but  found  througliout 
India  and  in  many  islands  of  the  Eastcni  Archipelago. 
It  was  known  to  the  ancients  iiy  the  name  Axis. 
One  of  its  Indian  names  is  Chitti-i-,  and  by  British 
sportsmen  in  India  it  is  generally  called  the  Sfiotted 
Ilog-deer.  By  some  naturalists,  it  has  been  made 
the  type  of  a  genus  of  Cervidie,  called  Axis.  The  A. 
has  a  great  resemblance  in  size  and  colouring  to  the 
European  fallow-deer  ;  it  is  generally  of  a  i  ich  fawn 
colour,  beautifully  spotted  with  white,  nearly  bhick 
along  the  back,  the  under  parts  snow-white.  The 
horns,  however,  differ  very  much  from  those  of 
the  fallow-deer,  being  slender,  sharp-pointed,  little 
branched,  and  not  at  all  palmated.  The  female  has 
no  horns.     The  A.   frequents  thick  jungles   in   the 

■       585 


AXMINSTER— AYALA. 


vicinity  of  water,  and  feeds  during  the  night.  It  is 
commonly  found  in  lierds  of  15  or  20,  of  which  3  or 
4  arc  niLdes.  Its  sense  of  smell  is  remarkably  acute, 
and  it  is  generally  very  shy  and  timid,  so  that  sports- 
men find  it  dilficult  to  get  within  shot.  The  nudes, 
however,  sometimes  exhibit  great  courage  in  defence 
of  the  young.  It  is  very  easily  domesticated,  is  very 
gentle  in  its  manners,  has  been  frequently  imported 
into  Europe,  and  breeds  freely  in  the  parks  in  which 
it  is  kept  at  a  few  noblemen's  and  gentlemen's  seats 
in  Britain  and  France. 

A'XMINSTER,  a  small  town  in  east  Devonshire, 
on  the  side  of  a  little  hill  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Axe.  Pop.  (1861)  about  2900.  A.  was  once  fiimous 
for  the  manufacture  of  Turkey  and  Persian  carpets, 
which  were  little  inferior  to  those  imported.  Two 
celebrated  geologists  have  been  connceted  with  A. : 
Dr.  Bnckland  was  brought  up  here,  and  Dr.  Cony- 
bearc  was  lord  of  the  manor,  and  vicar. 

A'XMOUTII,  a  village  at  the  mouth  of  the  Axe, 
east  Devonshire.  A  mile  east  of  A.  occurred,  in 
1839,  a  landslip;  an  area  20ti  feet  wide,  for  three- 
quarters  of  a  mile  parallel  to  the  shore,  having  sunk 
250  feet  below  the  sea,  with  a  great  noise.  Tlic 
chasm  thus  fortiied  became  a  lagoon,  while  the 
neighbouring  sea-bed  rose  40  feet.  Rather  more 
than  a  mile  i'lirthcr  east,  occurred  another  but  smaller 
landslip  in  1840.  The  district  around  consists  of 
greensand  strata. 

A'XOLOTL  {Amblyt^toma  maculahmi),  a  remark- 
able Batrachian,  apparently  a  permanent  larva  of 
the  Amblystoma  type  of  Salamanders,  found  iii  the 
Mexican  Lakes.  Other  species  reproduce  in  the  larval 
condition  (/I.  mnvortiuni) ,  hut  ujidergo  a  metamor- 
phosis, while  others  are  transformed  while  yet  snuvll. 
In  the  A.  the  gills  remain  during  life,  and  the  lungs 
are  never  sufiicicntly  developed  to  maintain  respiration 
by  themselves.     It  is  in  general  form  very  like  a  fish ; 


\ 
) 


Axolotl. 


has  a  large  and  broad  head  ;  and  tapers  into  a  long 
compressed  tail,  which  has  a  thin  membranous  fin 
both  on  its  upper  and  its  lower  side.  It  has  four 
legs,  with  toes  not  webbed  ;  and  on  each  side  of 
the  neck  the  gills  form  three  long  branched  or 
feathered  processes,  which  give  it  a  very  lemark- 
able  appearance.  It  is  brown,  and  mottled  \\ith 
small  black  spots.  AVhen  full  grown,  it  is  8  or  9 
inches  in  length.  It  is  esteemed  a  great  delicacy 
in  Mexico,  and  is  there  constantly  brought  to  the 
market. 

AXUM,  once  the  capital  of  the  Ethiopian  king- 
dom of  the  same  name,  is  situated  in  the  modern 
Abyssinian  province  of  Tigre,  west  from  Adowa, 
Lat.  14"  7'  N.  ;  long.  39°  27'  E.  It  now  lies  in 
ruins,  among  which  stands  the  principal  church 
of  Abyssinia,  buik  in  1657.  The  former  greatness 
586 


of  the  city  is  testified  by  yet  remaining  structures 
cut  in  granite,  some  of  which  have  insctijitions. 
From  these  it  ajipears  that  tlie  Axuinite  empire 
extended  over  Abyssinia,  and  even  over  Yemen 
and  Saba  in  Arabia,  and  possessed  the  command 
of  tiie  Red  Sea.  It  acquired  political  importance 
from  the  circumstance,  that  it  i'ormed  on  tlie  south 
a  boundary  to  the  ■norld-embracing  power  of  Rome, 
as  well  as  to  that  of  Parthia,  which  then  extended 
as  far  as  Arabia.  The  Byzantine  emperors  even  paid 
an  annual  tribute  to  the  sovereign.s  of  Axum.  This 
country  was  also  the  furthest  point  southward  that 
Grecian  civilization  reached;  tliiongh  the  mi'dium 
of  Egypt,  Greek  philosophy  sjireail  into  A.  and  the 
Greek  language  became  the  language  of  the  court 
and  of  the  priests.  Under  King  Aizanes,  who,  in  a 
still  rcmiiiiiing  inscription,  appears  as  a  hcaihcn, 
Cliristianity  was  introduced  into  the  country  from 
Egypt  by  the  two  apostles  Frumentius  and  yEdesius, 
who  were  followed  by  mnny  priests  from  the  same 
quarter.  The  new  doctrine  soon  spread  over  the 
whole  country  ;  Frumentius  was  made  the  first 
Bishop  of  A.;  and  Freniona  was  built  in  lionour  of 
him.  The  stone  chiu'ches,  many  of  them  very  impos- 
ing, yet  scattered  over  the  whole  of  Abyssinia,  owe 
their  architecture  to  Egyptian  prie.-ts,  and  arose  at 
that  period,  as  well  as  the  most  celebratcil  Abyssinian 
convents  and  hermitages.  The  Axuniite  empire 
carried  on,  through  Adulc,  an  active  connuerce  with 
Arabia  and  India  ;  it  formed  the  outermost  bulwark 
of  Christianity  ;  and,  as  such,  particularly  from  about 
the  (ith  c,  it  iriterl'ered  in  behalf  of  llie  Christians 
in  Arabia,  and  became  the  natin-al  enemy  of  Moham- 
medanism. The  contests  in  which  it  soon  became 
involved  witli  that  power  caused  its  fall,  as  the  kings 
gradually  lost  their  possessions  in  Arabin,  and  the 
whole  coast  on  the  Red  Sea  and  Gulf  of  Aden.  The 
outlets  for  commerce  were  thus  cut  off,  and  the 
empire  was  at  the  same  time  so  weakened  by  con- 
stant wars,  that  internal  disorders  brought  on  its 
complete  dissolution. 

AYACU'CHO,  a  town  in  a  department  of  the 
same  name  in  South  Peru.  Here,  on  the  9th  Decem- 
ber, 1824,  the  combined  forces  of  Peru  and  Colombia 
— the  latter  then  comprising  Ecuador,  New  Granada, 
and  Yenezuela — totally  defeated  the  last  Spanish 
army  that  was  ever  seen  on  the  new  continent. 

AYA'LA,  Pero  Lopez  pe,  called  El  Viejo,  to  dis- 
tinguish him  from  his  son  of  the  same  name,  was 
born  at  Mercia  in  1332,  of  one  of  tlie  first  families  of 
the  Castilian  nobility.  He  stood  high  in  the  regard 
of  several  kings  of  Castile,  and  filled  the  first  olHces 
of  the  state,  latterly,  that  of  high-chancellor  and 
high-chamberlain  of  Castile.  At  the  baitle  of  Xajira, 
in  1367,  he  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  English,  then 
in  league  with  Peter  the  Cruel,  and  confined  for  some 
time  in  an  English  dungeon;  and  agairi  in  1385, 
by  the  Portuguese,  at  the  battle  of  Aljubarota.  He 
died  at  Calahorra  in  1407.  A.  has  acquired  a 
name,  not  only  as  a  statesman,  but  as  a  writer, 
especially  as  a  historian  and  poet.  His  best  known 
work  is  his  C'nJnicas  de  los  Reyes  de  Cad'dla  D. 
Pedro,  D.  Enrique  II.,  D.  Juan  /.,  D.  Enrhpie  III. 
(2  vols.  Madr.  1779-80 — the  older  editions  of  1495 
and  1591  ai'e  imperfect).  He  was  the  first  among 
the  Spaniards  to  give  up  the  usual  simple  narrative 
of  events  in  the  order  of  time,  and  to  seek  to  give 
a  more  rational  representation  of  them  according  to 
the  rules  of  historic  art.  It  is  only  in  recent  times 
that  the  poetical  works  of  A.  have  been  discovered ; 
the  most  remarkable  of  which  is  the  Lihrod'  Rbnado 
de  Palacio.  This  '  Book  in  Rhyme  on  Court-life,'  as 
its  singular  title  may  be  translated,  was  begun  during 
the  poet's  first  cnptivity  in  England,  and  is  composed 
in  the  old  national   form   of  rhvming  Alexandrine 


AYE-AYE— AYMAR. 


stanzas  of  lour  lints ;  the  contoiits  are  satirical  and 
didactic.  A.  appears  also  in  liis  poetical  works  as  a 
repveseutative  of  that  transition  epoch  of  Spanish 
national  literature,  when  it  was  pas.^ng  from  a  pop- 
ular original  literature  to  one  of  a  more  artificial 
imitative  character. 

AYE-AYE  {Chciromys  Madagascariensis),  a  quad- 
ruped about  the  size  of  a  hare,  a  native  of  Mula- 
gascar,  which  was  at  first  placed  by  naturalists 
among  Squirrels,  and  was  ranked  by  Cuvier  along 
with  them  in  the  order  of  Kodcnts  {Jiodentia),  al- 
though Sonnerat,  who  discovered  it,  pointed  out  its 
affinity  also  to  the  Makis  or  Lemurs,  to  which 
family  it  is  now  pretty  generally  referred.  The 
principal  reason  for  placing  the  A.  among  the  Rodents 
lias  been  found  in  the  conformation  of  its  teeth ;  but 


Aye-uyo. 

tHe  other  characters  of  the  animal  agree  generally 
witii  those  of  the  Lemurs,  and  its  habits  resemble 
theirs.  The  A.  has  large  broad  cars,  large  round 
eyes,  long  brownish  gray  hair,  and  a  large  bushy 
tail,  which  it  does  not  carry  over  its  back  as  squirrels 
do.  It  is  very  active  during  the  night,  but  sleeps 
during  the  day.  In  confinement,  it  will  subsist  on 
boiled  rice  and  fruits.  It  seems  to  be  able  to  make 
as  good  use  of  its  front  teeth  for  gnawing  as  any 
of  the  Roilents  (Giuiwers).  Mr.  Ellis  mentions  one 
which  ate  its  way  through  a  barrel,  and  made  its 
escape.  lie  thinks  it  probable  that  there  are  more 
than  one  species. 

AYESIIAII,  the  favourite  wife  of  Mahommcd, 
was  born  at  Medina  in  (lliJ  or  Gil  a.d.  She  was 
only  nine  years  of  age  when  she  married  the 
Prophet.  Her  father's  name  was  Abdullah,  but  ho 
was  surnamcd  Abu-Bekr,  '  fiithcr  of  the  virgin,'  in 
consor[uence,  it  is  said,  of  his  dtmghter  being  the 
oidy  one  of  Mohammed's  wives  who  was  a  virgin. 
Although  A.  bore  no  children  to  Mohammed,  she 
was  so  tenderly  beloved  by  him,  that  he  was  wont 
to  say  that  she  would  be  the  first  of  his  wives  to 
whom  the  gates  of  Paradise  would  be  opened.  It 
is  stated  liy  .Mohammedan  historians,  that  to  the 
charms  of  her  beauty  she  added  a  knowledge  of 
matheniatics,  rhetoric,  and  music.  But  this  state- 
ment is  improbable.  She  was  accused  of  adultery, 
but  Mohammed  having  produced  a  revelation  from 
Heaven  to  the  effect  that  she  was  innocent,  pun- 
ished her  accusers,  and  made  it  an  article  of  i'aith 
for  all  time,  that  whoever  shall  not  believe  in  her 
purity  should  endure  the  pains  a  hell  for  ever.  In 
his  last  illness,  Mohammed,  by  his  request,  was  car- 
ried to  her  house,  and  expired  in  her  arms.  After 
the  Prophet's  death,  A.  look   an  active  part  in  the 


l)lot  which  deprived  Kalif  Othman  of  his  power  auJ 
life,  and  headed  a  force  to  resist  the  accession  of  AH. 
After  some  partial  success,  however,  the  troops  under 
her  were  effectually  defeated  by  Ali,  and  she  was 
taken  prisoner.  Ali  spared  her  life,  and  allowed  her 
to  reside  in  any  town  in  Araljia  she  chose,  ])rovided 
she  did  not  interfere  with  state  atVairs.  She  died  at 
.Medina  (077  a.d.).  In  spite  of  her  political  adver- 
sities, A.  was  highly  venerated  by  all  true  Mussul- 
mans, and  named  the  Prophetess,  and  the  Mother  of 
Believers.  She  was  consulted  ou  divers  points  of  the 
Koran,  and  her  interpretations  were  held  to  be 
binding.  They  have  been  collected  in  the  Sunna 
(q.  v.). 

AY'LESBUPvY,  a  town  in  the  centre  of  Buck- 
inghamshire, on  a  rivulet  which  Cows  into  the  Thames, 
an  east  branch  of  the  Thames.  It  lies  high  aliove 
the  vale  in  which  the  rivulet  runs,  which  often 
causes  a  scarcity  of  water  in  the  town.  Pop.  (1861) 
27,090.  A.  returns  two  members  to  parliament.  It 
is  chiclly  an  agricultural  town,  but  the  inhabitants 
also  engage  in  straw-plait,  lace,  and  silk  manufac- 
tures. Many  ducks  are  reared  for  the  London 
Christmas  market.  A.  is  a  very  ancient  town, 
having  been  taken  from  the  Britons  by  the  Saxons 
iu  571. 

AY'LESFOPD,  a  village  near  the  centre  of  Kent, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Medway,  3i  miles  north- 
east of  Maidstone.  Remarkable  ancient  remains 
occur  here.  On  a  hill-slope  a  mile  and  a  half  to  the 
north-east,  there  still  stands  a  celebrated  ancient 
cromlech,  or  burying-plaee,  called  Kits  Coify  House 
— a  small  truncated  jiyramidal  chamber,  open  in  front, 
and  formed  of  four  largo  rude  Kentish  rag  blocks, 
three  of  which  are  uprights,  with  a  slight  slope  in- 
wards, and  the  fourth  laid  on  them.  Of  the  side- 
stone.s,  one  is  7  by  7 A-  feet,  2  feet  thick,  and  8^  tons 
in  weight ;  the  second  is  8  by  8^  feet,  weighing  8 
tons;  and  the  third  is  smaller  and  more  irregular  in 
form.  The  capstone  is  12  by  9^  feet,  2^  feet  thick, 
and  weighs  lOtV  tons.  This  cromlech  seems  to  have 
been  the  centre  of  a  group  of  ancient  monuments 
connected  by  a  long  stone  avenue  with  another 
group,  7  miles  to  the  south-east.  In  this  district  also 
occur,  on  the  brow  of  the  chalk-hills  ou  both  sides 
of  the  Medway,  large  circular  sepulchral  pits,  open- 
ing at  the  bottom  into  one  or  more  chambers.  Some 
of  these  pits  are  covered  with  flat  stones,  and  filled 
with  flints.  At  A.  the  Britons  defeated  the  Saxons 
in  455,  and  drove  them  from  the  iMand;  but  early 
in  the  7th  c.  the  Saxons  were  victorious  hero. 

AY'LOFFE,  Sir  JosEPir,  an  English  antiquary 
of  celebrity,  born  about  1708  in  the  jiarish  of  Fram- 
field,  Sussex.  In  1731  he  was  elected  a  Fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society,  and  in  the  following  year,  a. 
Fellow  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries.  He  was  one 
of  the  first  council  of  this  Society,  after  it  received 
its  charter  of  incorporation  in  1751  ;  and  he  was 
made  vice-president  some  years  after.  When  the 
new  State-Paper  Office  was  established  in  17i">3,  he 
was  made  one  of  the  commissioners  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  state  papers.  In  1772,  he  published  a 
valuable  work  on  the  national  records.  He  also 
wrote  several  useful  papers  for  the  publications  of 
the  Society  of  Antiiiuaries;  and  projected,  and  was 
engaged  in  the  execution  of  the  work,  afterwards 
continued  by  Gough,  and  known  as  Cough's  Sepul- 
chral Monuments,  at  the  time  of  his  death  in  1781. 

AYMAR,  .Taques,  a  celebrated  French  professor 
of  the  ai  t  of  divination.  A.  was  the  son  of  a  peasant 
of  Daupliine,  aiul  \»as  born  at  St.  Veran  in  September 
1(')(;2.  He  was  brought  up  as  a  mason,  but  he  for- 
sook that  trade  for  the  divining-rod,  which  he  used 
at  first  to  point  out  springs,  hidden  treasures,  &c. 

587 


AYMOX— AYRSHIRE. 


In  1092,  a  murder  and  robbery  was  committed  at 
Lyon,  and  A.  and  bis  rod  were  called  into  requisition 
to  detect  tbe  ciiininals.  In  some  way  or  otber,  he 
succeeded  in  discovering  one  of  the  guilty  parties. 
A.'s  fame  having  been  spread  by  this  incident,  he 
!was  called  to  Paris  to  exhibit  his  art  before  the 
Prince  de  Conde ;  but  unfortunately  for  his  reputa- 
tion, his  power  of  divination  utterly  failed  liini ;  and 
being  forced  to  confess  himself  an  impcster,  he  was 
sent  back  in  disgrace  to  his  original  obscurity. 

AYMOX,  tlie  surname  of  four  brothers,  called 
respectively  Alard,  Richard,  Guiscard,  and  Renaud, 
sons  of  Aymon  or  Haiinon,  fount  of  Dordogne, 
who  figure  among  the  most  illustrious  heroes  of 
the  chivahic  poetiy  of  the  middle  ages;  but  their 
historic  existence  must  be  considered  problematical, 
as  the  deeds  attributed  to  them  possess  in  so  large  a 
measure  a  miraculous  character.  What  basis  of  fact 
may  underlie  the  fanciful  accretions  of  mythology, 
it  is  now  impossiljle  to  detei'inino.  Their  career 
belongs  to  the  cycle  of  marvels  of  which  Charle- 
magne is  the  central  point,  and  their  adventures 
furnished  rich  material  to  the  romantic  narratives 
of  Italy  in  the  15th  and  10th  centuries  and, 
in  fact,  were  the  exclusive  subject  of  some  of 
these.  A  novel,  entitled  Zcs  Quafre  Fih  Apnon, 
by  Huon  de  Villeneuve,  a  J'rench  poet  of  the 
age  of  riiilippe  Auguste,  details  very  minutely 
their  exploits.  Finally,  Ariosto  conferred  a  poeti- 
cal immortality  on  the  family  by  the  publication 
of  his  Roland,  in  which  Renaiid,  the  bravest  of 
the  four  brothers,  plays  conlinually  the  most  dis- 
tinguislied  part.  The  traditions  concerning  them 
are  not  uniform  or  consistent.  8ome  have  a 
Provincial  origin  ;  but  the  author  or  autiiors  of  the 
popular  German  book  which  Tieck  has  edited  and 
published,  entitled  Tlie  Beantifid  and  Entcrtaininri 
History  of  tlie  Fonr  Urothcrx  Ai/iium,  and  of  their 
Horxe  Bayard,  with  the  Deeds  and  Heroic  Feats  that 
they  accomplished  against  the  Parjaiis,  in  the  Time 
of  Charlciaaffue,  teem  to  have  diawn  from  a 
different  source.  The  most  probable  hypothesis, 
therefore,  is,  that  the  varieties  of  these  poetic  legends 
are  due  to  the  fancy  and  national  predilections  of 
the  particular  authors,  and  that  there  originally 
existed  a  single  tradition,  out  of  which  the  whole 
sprang. 

AYR,  the  county  town  of  Ayrshire,  is  situated  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  river  Ayr,  about  the  middle  of 
the  coast  of  Ayrshire,  40  miles  south-south-west  of 
Glasgow  by  rail.  It  lies  in  a  coal  district.  A.  is  a 
clean  and  jiandsome  town,  and  its  principal  streets 
are  well  built.  To  the  south,  between  the  town  and 
the  race-course,  numerous  elegant  villas  have  recently 
sprung  up.  The  spire  of  the  Assembly-rooms  is  217 
feet,  and  the  Wallace  Tower,  113  feet  high.  The 
river  is  here  spanned  by  three  bridges — the  'Auld 
Brig'  and  'New  Brig'  of  Burns,  and  one  built 
long  after,  to  permit  the  Glasgow  and  South- 
western Railway  to  be  carried  on  uninterruptedly 
into  Carrick.  These  connect  the  town  with  Newton- 
upon-Ayr.  A.  harbour  is  formed  by  the  estuary 
of  the  river,  and  is  protected  on  each  side  by 
a  pier.  There  is  a  bar  at  its  mouth,  with  a  depth 
only  of  sixteen  feet  at  spring-tides,  which  pre- 
vents the  entrance  of  vessels  above  200  tons.  The 
coasting-trade  is  considerable.  The  chief  expoit 
is  coal,  60,(,0r)  to  70,000  tons  yearly  being  sent 
to  Ireland  from  the  Newton-upon-Ayr  collieries. 
Formerly,  much  wine  was  imported  from  France. 
At  an  early  date,  A.  was  a  coinmercial  and  military 
place  of  some  importance.  William  the  Lion  made 
it  a  royal  burgh  aliout  1202.  During  the  Scottish 
wars  of  indi'pendence,  it  formed  a  regular  centre  of 
military  operations,  and,  while  in  possession  of  an 
588 


English  garrison,  it  was  the  scene  of  Wallace's  first 
exploits.  The  principal  objects  of  interest  near  A. 
are  connected  with  the  memory  of  Robert  Burns. 
See  Alloway  Kirk.  Poj).  in  1861,  municipal 
burgh,  10,000;  parliamentary  burgh,  including  New- 
ton-upon-Ayr,  19,6.59.  A.  unites  with  Cani])belton, 
Irvine,  Inverary,  and  Oban,  in  sending  a  member  to 
parliament.  In  1857,  custom  duties,  £4930;  value 
of  exports,  £7100  ;  registered  shipping,  35  vessels, 
or  3919  tons. 

AY'RSIIIRE,  an  extensive  maritime  county  in 
the  south-west  of  Scotland,  bounded,  N.,  by  Renfrew- 
shire; W.,  by  the  Firth  of  Clyde  and  the  North 
Channel;  S.,  by  Wigton  and  Kirkcudbright;  E. 
and  N.  E.  by  Dumfiies  and  Lanark.  Its  greatest 
length  is  78  miles;  its  greatest  breadth,  20 — 
.average  14-i;  estimated  area,  1016  square  miles, 
^t  is  the  seventh  in  size  of  the  Scottish  counties. 
The  general  aspect  of  the  county  is  undulating  and 
hilly,  the  land  attaining  no  great  elevation,  except 
a  small  portion  in  the  north,  and  some  consider- 
able tracts  in  the  south  and  south-east,  which 
arc  mountainous.  None  of  the  eminenees  exceed 
2t)00  feet.  A.  contains  a  great  number  of  lakes 
and  small  streams,  the  latter  rising  near  the 
inland  boundary  of  the  county.  The  chief  rivers 
— only  20  to  35  miles  long — are  the  Ayr,  with 
its  tributary  the  Lugar,  and  the  Boon,  which  flow 
across  the  centre  of  the  county;  the  Garnock  and 
Ir\  ine  in  the  north  ;  and  the  Girvan  and  Stinchar 
in  the  south.  A.  to  the  south  of  the  Girvan  consists 
of  Lower  Silurian  rocks,  and  to  the  north  of  that 
river,  of  patches  of  Devonian,  carboniferous,  and 
trap  rocks.  It  is  rich  in  valuable  minerals,  espe- 
cially coal,  ironstone,  limestone,  and  freestone. 
The  other  minerals  have  been  long  wrought,  but 
it  is  only  of  late  years  that  the  working  of  iron- 
stone has  been  established — and  is  now  carried  on 
on  a  large  scale  in  the  north  of  the  county.  On  the 
banks  of  the  Ayr,  is  found  an  excellent  species 
of  whetstone,  called  Water-of-Ayr  Stone.  The 
climate  of  A.  is  mild  and  healthy,  but  moist.  The 
soil  along  the  coast  is  light  and  sandy,  interspersed 
with  deep  loam  ;  the  most  fertile  districts  are  in  the 
centre  of  the  county,  where  clay  predominates.  On 
the  east  side  are  extensive  mosses  and  moorlands. 
The  three  ancient  divisions  of  the  county  are — 
Carrick,  south  of  the  Doon,  mostly  wild  and  hilly; 
Kyle,  between  the  Doon  and  the  Irvine,  containing 
much  rich  level  lan<l,  but  towards  the  coast  the  soil 
is  light,  and,  though  well  cultivated,  is  less  produc- 
tive: and  Cunningham,  comyirising  all  the  country 
north  of  the  Irvine,  mostly  fertile.  The  character- 
istics of  these  districts  are  rudely  indicated  in  the 
old  country  riiymc : 

Kyle  for  a  man  ; 

Carrick  for  a  coo  ; 

Cum  iiiL'hain  for  loutter  and  cheese  ; 

Aud  Galloway  for  woo. 

Agriculture  in  A.  till  about  1800,  was  very  back- 
ward; but  since  that  time,  especially  of  late  years, 
extraordinary  progress  has  been  made  in  furrow- 
draining,  improved  rotation,  and  road-making; 
while  the  condition  of  the  peasants  has  been  much 
improved.  About  259,900  acres  are  in  crop,  held 
by  3300  persons,  the  farms  being  generally  small, 
Dairy-husbandry  is  carried  to  high,  perfection  in 
Ayrshire,  the  breed  of  milch  cows,  of  which  it  rears 
a  greater  number  than  any  other  Scotch  county, 
being  noted  as  the  finest  in  the  kingdom  ior  the 
quantity  and  quality  of  their  milk.  The  Dunlop 
ciieese,  so  called  from  tlie  parish  of  that  name,  is 
almost  as  celebrated  as  Stilton.  The  breed  of  horses 
is  also  excellent.  Manufactures,  especially  woollen 
and  cotton,  are  carried  on  to  au  important  extent. 


AYRER— AYUNTAMIEXTO. 


The  imislia  nianufucturers  of  (ilasgow  and  Paislev 
employ  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  female 
population,  whose  needlework  is  celebrated.  Of 
the  niinor  manufactures,  the  most  characteristic  is 
that  of  snuft'-boxes,  which  is  extensively  carried 
on  at  old  Cumnock  and  Maucldine.  Kilmarnock 
'cowls'  or  nij^ht-caps  used  to  be  famous  all  over 
Scotland,  but  they  have  now  disap])eared.  Ironworks 
exist  at  Muirkirk.  There  are  considerable  willow- 
plantations  for  hoops  and  baskets.  Pop  in  1861,  199,- 
6tJ3 ;  inhabited  houses,  25,868  ;  day-schools,  about  325, 
with  29,504  scholars;  places  of  worship  almut  200,  niost- 
\y  of  the  Established,  and  of  the  Free  Church.  Ayrshire 
county  returns  one  member  to  parliament.  The  chief 
towns,  besides  Ayr,  are  Kilmarnock,  Girvan,  May- 
bole,  Dairy,  Kilwiiming,  Beith,  Irvine,  Stewarton, 
Ardrossan,  Saltcoats,  Troon,  Maucldine,  Galston, 
Ncwmilns,  Kilbirnie,  and  Largs.  Of  anticjuities,  the 
most  interestihg  are  the  ruins  of  Crossraguel  Abbey, 
near  Kirkoswald,  and  of  the  castles  of  Turnberry,  the 
family  seat  of  Robert  the  Bruce,  Dunure,  Loch  Boon, 
Dean,  Auchiideck,  Bundonald,  &c.  ;  also  the  ruins 
of  Alloway  Kirk.  There  are  also  relics  of  early 
times  in  the  form  of  cairns  and  encampments. 

A.  was  inliabited,  in  the  time  of  Agricola,  by  the 
Damnii,  with  whom  were  afterwards  mixed  the 
Scots  Irom  the  opposite  coast  of  Kintyre.  In  the 
8th  c,  the  Northumbrian  Saxons  seized  the  territory  ; 
and  afterwards  came  the  Normans,  whose  traces 
still  exist  in  local  names.  During  the  religious 
persecutions  of  the  Stuarts,  A.  was  a  stronghold  of 
the  Covenanters. 

AYRER,  J.\coi!,  next  to  Hans  Sachs  the  most 
prolific  and  important  (Jerman  dramatic  writer  of 
the  16th  c.  His  history  is  involved  in  obscurity  ; 
but  it  is  known  that  he  was  a  citizen  of  Niirnberg 
in  1594,  and  a  procurator  in  the  courts  of  law.  It 
was  not  till  after  his  death,  in  1605,  that  a  collection 
of  his  pieces  was  published,  consisting  of  66  trage- 
dies, comedies,  and  carnival  plays  (Xiirnb.  1618).  A. 
has  the  same  garrulous  })readth  of  dialogue  as  Hans 
Sachs,  but  is  inferior  to  him  in  wit  and  humour. 

AY'TON,  Sir  Rodkrt,  a  Scottish  poet  and  favour- 
ite courtier  in  the  reign  of  James  VI.  He  was  a 
younger  son  of  Andrew  Ayton  of  Kinaldie,  Fifeshire, 
where  he  was  born  in  1570.  He  was  enrolled  as  a 
student  in  St.  Leonard's  College,  St.  Andrews,  in  1584, 
and  look  his  degree  of  M.A.  in  1588.  For  purposes 
of  study,  he  next  visited  France,  from  whence  he 
addressed,  in  16i)3,  an  elegant  panegyric,  in  Latin 
verse,  to  King  James,  on  his  accession  to  the  throne 
of  England.  This  poem  appears  to  have  been  the 
making  of  A.'s  fortune,  for  we  find  him  afterwards 
appointed,  successively,  one  of  the  gentlemen  of 
the  bedchamber,  private  secretary  to  the  queen,  and 
master  of  requests.  Subsequently,  he  held  the 
appointment  of  secretary  to  the  queen  of  Charles  I. 
King  James  employed  him  to  convey  copies  of  one 
of  his  works,  conjectured  to  be  his  Apology  for 
the  Oath  of  Allegiance,  to  the  German  courts.  A. 
was  on  terms  of  fannliarity  with  all  the  most 
eminent  men  of  his  time — poets,  wits,  and  philoso- 
phers ali!<e — among  others,  llobbes  and  Ben  Jonson. 
He  was  himself  a  poet  of  considerable  merit ;  but, 
unfortunately,  a  large  number  of  his  effusions  being 
comi)limentary  verses  to  his  friends,  are  characterised 
by  conceit  and  extravagant  flattery.  He  was  one 
of  the  first  Scotsmen  who  wrote  in  English  with 
any  degree  of  elegance  and  purity.  His  verses  on 
general  topics  '  are  conceived  in  a  refined  and  tender 
strain  of  fancy,  that  renunds  us  more  of  the  fiiiry 
strains  of  Ilerrick  than  anything  else.'  Burns  had 
a  great  admiration  of  some  of  A.'s  pieces,  two  or 
three  of  which  he  paraphrased.  A.  is  also  said  to 
liave  written  verses  in  Greek  and  French,  as  well 


as  in  English  and  Latin.  Several  of  ids  Latin  i);)emis 
are  preserved  in  the  work  called  Dclu-iic  Poilarum 
Scotorwii,  printed  at  Amsterdam  in  1637.  A.  died  in 
Whitehall  Palace,  March  1638. 

AY'TOUN,  William  Epmontstoune,  was  a  native 
of  Edinburgh,  having  been  born  there  in  1813.  He 
received  his  education  at  the  metropolitan  university, 
and  was  called  to  tlie  Scottish  bar  in  lS4t).  In 
1845,  he  was  appointed  Regius  Professor  of  Rhetoric 
and  Bellcs-Lettres  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh; 
and  after  the  formation  of  the  Derby  administra- 
tion, in  1852,  he  was  promoted  to  the  shrievalty 
of  Orkney  and  Shetland.  He  married  a  daughter 
of  the  late  Professor  Wilson.  During  his  last  20 
years,  Professor  A.  wielded  an  indefatigalde  pen. 
The  earliest  work  of  his  with  which  we  are  ac- 
quainted is  entitled  T/ie  Life  and  Tiincn  of  Ricliard  /., 
])ublished  in  1840 — a  stibject  well  treated,  and 
singularly  in  consonance  with  his  chivalrous  and 
romance-loving  nature.  Despite  Ids  minstrel  ten- 
dencies, he  was  a  master  of  caricature  and  parody ; 
and  many  of  the  most  successful  of  the  Bon  Gaultier 
Ballads  are  understood  to  be  from  his  pen.  In 
1849,  he  published  the  7,rt//s  of  the  Scottish  Cavaliers 
and  other  Poems,  whicli  established  his  reputation  as 
a  poet  of  the  school  of  Sir  Walter  Scott,  and  which 
has  run  through  eleven  editions.  His  subsequent 
writings  are — Firmilian,  a  Spasmodic  Tragedi/,  pub- 
lished in  1854;  Bothwell,  a  narrative  poem  of 
considerable  length,  in  the  measure  and  manner 
of  Scott,  and  which  has,  since  its  publication  in  1856, 
to  a  considerable  extent  l)een  recast  and  improved. 
Ilis  edition  of  the  Scottish  Ballade,  in  '.i  vols.,  appeared 
in  1858.  In  the  ensuing  year,  he,  in  conjunction 
with  his  friend  Mr.  Theodore  Martin,  issued  trans- 
lations of  various  nunor  poems  of  Goethe,  in  one 
volume.  He  was  for  many  years  one  of  the  most 
frequent  and  brilliant  contributors  to  Blackwood's 
ATagazirie.  Professor  Aytoun  was  successful  in  quite 
opposite  departments  of  literature — he  was  distin- 
guished as  a  poet  and  humorist.  His  poems  exhibit 
a  ballad-like  simplicity,  and  a  fiery  flow  of  narration 
— the  special  merits  of  the  poetical  school  in  which 
he  graduated  ;  wliile  his  tales — the  best  known  and 
appreciated  of  which  are  The  Glenmutchkin  Railway, 
and  How  I  became  a  Yeoman — possess  a  certain  ro- 
bust humour  and  farcical  abandonment,  and  are  related 
to  the  ^v^itings  of  the  great  masters  of  humour  much 
in  the  degree  that  the  '  screaming  farce '  is  related  to 
genteel  comedy.  His  poetical  powers  appear  in 
their  greatest  perfection  in  the  Lays  of  the  Scottish 
Cavaliers;  the  special  merits  of  his  humour  arc 
best  exhibited  in  How  I  became  a  Yeoman.  He  also 
acquired  some  reputation  as  a  critic,  and  wielded, 
\vith  considerable  dexterity  a-od  force,  to  the  terror 
of  a  later  generation,  the  knout  of  the  dreaded  Chris- 
tojiher  North  of  the  '  Noctes.'  He  died  August  4, 
1865. 

AYUNTAMIE'NTO  is  the  name  given  in  Spain 
to  the  councils  or  governing  bodies  of  towns.  Sprung 
from  the  institutions  of  the  Romans,  and  firmly 
established  during  the  long  struggles  with  the  Moors, 
the  aytintanneiitos  acquired  great  influence  and 
political  power,  the  more  so  that  the  nobility  were 
not  excluded  from  them.  Although  this  importance 
was  impaired  through  the  insurrection  of  Juan  de 
Padilla  in  1521;  and  at  a  later  ])eriod,  under  the 
Bourbons,  the  last  shadow  of  municipal  freedom  was 
lost ;  the  remembrance  of  it  continued  to  be  cherished 
by  the  people.  Accordingly,  the  cortes  of  Cadiz,  in 
1812,  took  up  the  leading  features  of  the  former 
system,  adapting  them,  by  more  democratic  modi- 
fications, to  the  requirements  of  the  time.  On 
the  return  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  the  ayuntamientos 
were  abolished  ;    they  were  again  restored  by  the 

589 


AZALEA— AZEGLIO. 


eortes,  in  1823;  and  after  the  invasion  by  France, 
once  more  set  aside.  During  the  civil  war,  various 
))ropos;ils  were  made  regarding  tlie  ayuntamientos ; 
but  at  last  the  arrangements  of  1812  were  confirmed 
by  the  constitution  of  1837.  According  to  that 
statute,  the  A.,  with  the  alcalde  as  president,  is 
appointed  by  the  free  choice  of  the  people,  and  is 
entitled  to  exercise  the  highest  functions  within  the 
circle  of  its  jurisdiction.  The  government  can 
provisionally  annul  its  acts,  but  must  afterwards 
procure  the" ratification  of  the  cortes,  by  which  alone 
an  A.  can  be  dis.-olved.  The  ayuntamientos  are 
empowered  to  make  up  the  lists  of  electors  and 
jurors,  to  organise  the  national  guards,  to  command 
the  police  within  their  own  bounds,  to  direct  the 
apportionment  and  raising  of  taxes,  and  to  manage 
the  funds  of  the  commune.  In  1840,  a  bill  was 
brought  into  the  cortes,  formed  on  the  model  of 
the  French  law,  proposing  to  deprive  the  ayunta- 
mientos of  all  political  power,  and  restrict  their 
functions  to  purely  municipal  matters,  and  also  to 
limit  the  franchise  to  the  most  highly  taxed.  But 
the  insurrection  which  this  step  excited,  and  which 
ended  in  the  expulsion  of  the  queen,  Maria  Christina, 
prevented  the  object  from  being  carried  out.  At 
last,  in  184-1,  a  law,  similar  to  that  proposed  in  1840, 
was,  through  the  intriguing  of  Christina,  supported 
by  French  infiucnce,  adopted  by  the  cortes,  then 
composed  of  moderados;  and  this  law,  with  little 
alteration,  continues  in  force  to  the  present  day. 

AZA'LEA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the 
natural  order  Ericecv,  and  distinguished  from 
Rhododendron  (q.  v.)  chiefly  by  the  flowers  having 
five  stamens  instead  of  ten.  Most  of  the  species  of 
A.   also    differ   from  the   rhododendrons  in  having 


Azalea  Indicr.. 

thin  deciduous  leaves.  Some  botanists  unite  the 
genus  A.  to  Rhododendron.  One  of  the  species  best 
deserving  of  notice  is  A.  Poniica,  a  shrub  from 
three  to  five  feet  high,  a  native  of  the  countries 
around  the  Black  Sea,  with  large  obovate  or  oblongo- 
lancoolate  shining  leaves  and  umbellate  yellow 
flowers,  which  are  externally  covered  with  glutinous 
hairy  glands,  and  are  very  fragrant.  It  may  be 
regarded  as,  like  many  of  the  other  Ericem  (heaths, 
&c.),  a  social  plant ;  and  its  golden  flowers  give  great 
590 


brilliancy  to  the  landscape  in  many  part.s  of  the 
Crimea,  the  south-east  of  Poland,  the  Caucasus,  &c. 
It  covers  many  mountain  slopes,  but  does  not 
ascend  to  great  elevations,  giving  place  to  the  more 
alpine  Jihododcndron  Pontknm.  It  is  common  in 
gardens  and  shrubberies  in  Britain,  and  varies  with 
orange,  red,  and  almost  white  flowers.  The  whole 
plant  is  narcotic  and  poisonous,  and  tlie  honey  col- 
lected by  bees  from  its  flowers,  which  very  much 
abound  in  honey,  is  said  to  cause  stupefaction  and 
delirium,  as  happened  toXenophon's  soldiers  in  their 
famous  retreat  in  Asia. — North  America  abounds 
in  azaleas  as  well  as  in  rhododendrons,  and  some  of 
the  species  have  been  long  cultivated  in  Britain,  par- 
ticularly A.  nudifJora  and  A.  riscosa,  which,  with  A. 
J'onfira,  have  become  the  parents  of  many  hybrids. 
Both  have  nearly  white  flowers,  very  beautiful,  and 
of  delicious  fragrance.  A.  7'ixcof:a  has  the  flowers 
covered  with  glutinous  hairs  like  A.  Poiitica;  but 
the  flowers  of  A.  nudifora  arc  nearly  destitute  of 
them.  Both  species  abound  from  Canada  to  the 
southern  parts  of  the  United  States.  They  are 
taller  shrubs  than  A.  Pontica.  Upon  account  of 
its  sweet  smell,  A.  midi/Iora  is  called  in  America 
the  Upright  Honeysuckle.  A.  calciididacca,  a 
native  of  the  southern  parts  of  the  United  States, 
is  described  as  frequently  clothing  the  mountains 
with  a  robe  of  living  scailet. — India  and  China 
produce  several  species  of  A.,  of  which  one  of  the 
finest  is  A.  Indica,  well  known  in  Britain  as  a 
greenhouse  shrub.  Its  flowei'S  exhibit  great  bril- 
liancy of  colours.  Many  hybrids  exist  between  the 
more  hardy  species  and  this.  Another  extremely 
beautiful  species  is  A.  ledifolla,  an  evergreen,  which 
has  been  introduced  into  I5ritain  from  China. 

A  dinunutive,  procumbent,  evergreen  shrub,  a 
native  of  alpine  regions  in  Europe  and  North 
America,  ]ileniil'ul  on  high  mountains  in  Scotland, 
was  long  known  as  A.  proounhciis,  but  is  now  called 
Lolscloiria pronti/ibens.  The  flowers  aic  small  and 
rose-coloured.  The  whole  appearance  of  the  plant 
widely  dificrs  from  that  of  the  geiuis  Azalea. 

AZE'GLIO,  Ma'ssimo  Marqiiis  n',  famous  as  an 
arti§t,  a  publicist,  a  romance-writer,  and  a  states- 
man, was  the  descendant  of  an  ancient  and  noble 
family  at  riedmont.  He  was  born  in  18(tl  at  Turin, 
where  his  father  held  a  high  military  position.  In  his 
fifteenth  year,  A.  followed  his  father  to  Rome, 
where  he  had  been  appointed  ambassador,  and  there 
contracted  a  love  lor  the  fine  arts  ;  but  his  study  of 
music  and  painting  was  cut  short  by  his  father  ]iro- 
curing  him  an  appointment  in  a  Piedmoutese  cavalry- 
regiment.  Here  A.  devoted  his  leisure  with  such 
intensity  to  scientific  pursuits,  that  he  bi  ought  on 
an  illness  which  forced  him  to  (put  the  service.  A 
journey  to  Rome,  from  which  Ive  retnriu'd  to  Turin  in 
1820,  restored  his  health,  but  deepened  his  passion  for 
painting.  After  some  difficulty,  he  got  his  father's 
permission  to  devote  himself  entirely  to  this  art. 
A  year  had  hardly  elapsed  ere  A.  had  made  himself 
a  name  in  Rome  as  an  artist.  In  liindscnpe-painting 
he  soon  attained  complete  artistic  skill.  After  a 
residence  of  eight  years  at  Rome,  during  which 
he  had  pursued  the  study  of  history  along  with 
painting,  he  returned  to  Turin.  On  the  death  of 
his  fatlier  in  1830,  he  went  to  Milan,  where  painting 
was  then  flourishing.  In  Milan  he  made  the  friend- 
ship of  Alexander  Manzoni,  whose  daughter  he 
married.  A.  now  began  to  make  himself  favourably 
known  also  in  literature,  his  novels,  Ettore  Fiera- 
'mmco  (1833),  and  Niccolo  di  Lapi  (1841),  having 
(lone  much  to  fan  the  national  spirit  of  the  Italians. 
The  political  aftairs  of  Italy  soon  occupied  him 
exclusively;  he  traversed  the  provinces,  cities,  and 
villages,  seeking  to  stir  up  the  spirit  of  patriotism, 
and  to  conciliate  the  unhappy   party   divisions,  and 


AZERBIJAN'— AZINTOCRT. 


was  everywhere  received  with  rejoicing  and  accla- 
mation. A.  never  belonged  to  a  secret  political 
society,  but  opposed  coiis[)iracies  as  niischievoiis, 
and  exhorted  the  impatient  to  moderation.  While 
iu  Florence,  he  wrote  his  famous  jiiccc,  Ih'(jli  nlHmi 
Casi  di  Romagna,  in  wliich  he  lashed  the  miser- 
able pa(ial  government,  denounced  tlie  vain  attempts 
at  insurrection,  and  proved  to  the  Italian  princes 
the  necessity  of  a  national  policy.  After  the  elec- 
tion of  Pills  IX.  as  pope,  A.  returned  to  Rome, 
and  to  his  intiucnce  was  ascribed  the  reforms 
with  which  Pius  began  his  government.  He  was 
intenselv  active  at  this  time,  and  wrote  much  on 
public  questions.  (The  whole  of  his  political  writ- 
ings, collected  in  one  volume,  appeared  at  Turin, 
1851.)  When  Charles  All)ert,  after  the  rising  of 
Lombardy,  crossed  the  Ticino,  A.  left  Rome  with 
the  papal  troops  destined  to  support  the  Italian 
contest.  In  the  battle  of  Vicenza,  where  he  com- 
manded a  legion,  he  was  severely  wounded  in  the 
leg  while  fighting  at  the  head  of  his  troops. 
Scarcely  was  he  recovered,  when  with  his  pen  he 
courageously  opposed  the  Republican  party,  now 
intoxicated  "with  victory.  On  the  opening  of  the 
Sardinian  parliament,  he  was  chosen  a  member  of 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  After  the  unfortunate 
event  of  the  battle  of  Novara,  the  young  king, 
Victor  Emanuel  II.,  appointed  him  (184y)  presi- 
dent of  the  cabinet,  an  office  which  he  undertook 
solely  out  of  love  to  his  king  and  country.  His 
influence  in  this  high  position  was  most  beneficial, 
Sardinia  owing  much  of  the  prosperity^  and  proud 
national  position  she  now  enjoys  to  his  foresight 
and  sagacity.  At  the  close  of  "the  late  war  (1859), 
when  several  important  towns  in  the  States  of  the 
Church  declared  for  Piedmont,  A.  was  appointed 
{pro  tempore)  General  and  Commissioner  Extraor- 
dinary, purely  military,  for  the  Roman  States.  On 
his  retirement,  he  issued  a  proclamation  to  the 
people,  which  greatly  tended  to  strengthen  their 
resolution  by  its  noble  yet  temperate  advice. 

AZERBIJA'X,  or  ADERBAIJA'N,  the  ancient 
Med' a  Alropatcne,  is  the  most  northerly  province 
of  Persiii.  It  is  situated  between  lat.  Stt^  and  40^  N., 
Ion"-.  4-1'  and  48°  40'  E. ;  bounded  on  the  S.  by 
Pei-sian  Kurdistan  and  Irak,  E.  by  Ghilan,  N.E.  and 
N.  by  the  Russian  Territory,  and  W.  by  Turkish 
Kurdistan.  It  has  an  area  of  about  30,000  square 
miles,  and  a  population  of  2,000,000.  The  surface 
of  A.  is  very  mountainous,  many  of  the  ranges 
lising  from  7000  to  9000  feet  in  height.  The  peak 
of  Savalan  (an  extinct  volcano)  reaches  an  eleva- 
tion of  i;>,()00  feet.  Mount  Ararat  rises  on  the 
north-west  border.  The  chief  rivers  of  A.  are  the 
Aras  or  Araxcs,  the  Kara  Su,  and  the  Kizil-Uzen. 
The  salt  lake  Urumiyah  or  Urumieyeh  (q.  v.),  the 
largest  in  Persia,  is  situated  on  the  western  border 
of  the  province.  The  climate  of  A.  is  not  unhealthy, 
but  it  is  subject  to  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold. 
The  transition  from  cold  to  heat  is  very  rapid. 
In  the  mountainous  districts,  the  hail-storms 
are  occasiouallv  so  violent  as  to  kill  cattle.  The 
principal  products  of  A.  are  rice,  barley,  wheat, 
maize,  flax,  hemp,  cotton,  tobacco,  lionc)',  and 
saffron  ;  camels,  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep  are  also 
reared ;  velvet,  silks,  stuff,  carpets,  woollens,  and 
leather  are  the  most  important  articles  of  manu- 
facture, and  a  little  is  done  in  hardware.  Lead, 
iron,  copper,  sulphur,  saltjietre,  and  salt,  are  found 
in  the  juovince.  The  capital  of  A.  is  Tabriz,  with 
a  populaticm  of  about  30,000.  It  has  suffered 
greatly  from  earthquakes.  The  other  towns  of 
note  are  Urumiyah,  on  the  lake  of  that  name; 
Maragha,  famous  as  the  place  where  Nasir  I'ddin, 
the  astronomer,  fixed  his  observatory  ;  Miana,  Khoi, 
Selmas,  and  Ardebil. 


AZIMGHU'R,  or  AZIM'S  FORT,  a  r.ame  prima- 
rily applied  to  a  town  in  India,  and  thence  extended 
to  its  distiict.  1.  The  town  is  in  lat.  2t;"  N.,  and 
long.  83^  14'  E.  From  Calcutta  it  is  448  miles  to 
the  north-west ;  from  Remires,  81  to  the  north ; 
from  Allaiiabad,  109  to  the  north-east;  and  from 
Lucknow,  171  to  the  south-east.  It  is  situated  on 
the  north-eastern  Tons,  a  con.^^iderable  offset  of  the 
Gogra,  which  is  here  crossed  by  a  bridge  of  boats, 
and  which  is  navigable  downwards,  a  disKince  of  40 
miles,  to  its  confluence  with  the  Sinjoo.  The  town 
is  estimated  to  contain  about  14,(ittii  inhabitant.'^, 
besides  the  troops  in  garrison.  During  the  mutiny 
of  1857,  A.,  was,  so  far,  a  creditable  exception  to 
the  general  rule  of  ruthless  cruelty  among  the 
insurgents.  Thc^  sepoys  did  indeed  mutiny,  actu- 
ated, apparentlv,  by  a  wish  to  appropriate  a  pa.ssing 
treasure  of  7  'lacs  of  rupees,  or  £7n,(ioo  sterhng. 
But,  having  fornuHl  a  square  round  their  oflaccrs, 
and  sworn  to  protect  them,  they  brought  carriages 
for  them  and  their  families,  and  escorted  the  whole 
ten  miles  towards  Ghazeepore. — 2.  The  district 
stretches  in  X.  lat.  between  25°  36'  and  26°  24', 
and  in  E.  long,  between  82^  45'  and  84°  12'.  Its 
area  is  said  to  be  2520  square  miles;  and  its 
population  to  be  1,313,950.  These  two  estimates 
can  scarcely  be  both  correct,  yielding  as  they  do,  an 
average  of  521  inhabitants  to  a  square  mile — a  very 
improbable  average,  more  particularly  as  populous 
towns  are  unknown.  The  district  is  low  and 
remarkably  level.  The  soil  is  fertile,  excepting 
that  a  few  tracts  are  irreclaimably  barren  from 
being  impregnated  with  soda,  nitre,  and  other 
saline  substances.  There  aie  tolerably  extensive 
manufactures— the  silk  looms  being  3122,  and  the 
cotton  ones,  10,560.  Connected  with  the  latter  is 
the  curious  fact,  that  scarcely  any  cotton-wool  is 
produced  on  the  spot. 

A'ZIMUTH.  The  A.  of  a  heavenly  body  is  the 
angle  measured  along  the  horizon  between  the  north 
or  south  point,  and  the  point  where  a  circle,  passing 
through  the  zenith  and  the  body,  cuts  the  horizon. 
The  word  comes  from  the  Arabic,  and  is  said  to 
be  derived  from  a  word  signifying  a  ((uarter  of 
the  heavens.  It  is  usual  to  measure  the  A.  west- 
ward from  the  point  most  remote  from  the  elevated 
pole,  beginning  at  0°,  and  returning  to  it  at  360°. 
Thus,  in  northern  latitudes,  where  the  north  pole  is 
elevated,  the  A.  is  measured  from  the  south  point,  so 
that  the  east  point,  for  instance,  has  an  A.  of  270°. 
See  Armillauy  Sphere.  A.  circles  are  those  which 
extend  from  zenith  to  nadir,  cutting  the  horizon  at 
right  angles,  or  those  in  which  all  the  points  have 
the  same  azimuth. 

A'ZIXCOURT,  or  AGINCOURT,  a  village  in 
the  department  of  Pas-de-Calais,  France,  celebrated 
for  a  bloody  battle  between  the  English  and 
French,  October  25,  1415.  The  interiuil  distrac- 
tions of  France  under  the  imbecile  Charles  VI. 
(q.  V.)  had  encouraged  England  to  attempt  to  niakc 
good  her  ancient  claims  on  France.  Henry  V.  of 
England  had  landed  at  Harfleur,  had  taken  that 
fortress,  and  wished  to  march  through  Picardie  to 
Calais,  in  order  to  go  into  winter-iiuarters.  The 
Dauphin  advanced  against  him  with  a  powerful 
force.  A  great  number  of  the  nobility  accompanied 
him  ;  and  so  great  was  their  confidence,  that  the 
offered  aid  of  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  and  of  the 
city  of  Paris  was  rejected.  Henry  hastened  to  the 
Somme,  but  was  followed  by  the  French,  who 
opposed  his  passage ;  he  at  last  managed  to  cross 
with  his  army  at  St.  Quentin.  Greatly  weakened 
in  numbers,  and  sufferingly  extremely  from  want 
of  provisions,  Henry  offered  to  purchase  peace  by 
leparatiou  of  injuries.     But  the  French  would  not 

591 


AZORES— AZOTUS. 


hear  of  a  treaty,  as  tlicy  entertained  the  hope  of 
completely  annihilating  the  English  army.  They 
had,  in  fact,  intercepted  the  English  march  to 
Calais,  by  getting  possession  of  the  high  road  behind 
the  little  river  Tcrnoise,  near  the  village  of  A.  and 
Framecoiirt.  The  invading  army,  theieforo,  still 
(accordhig  to  French  accounts)  14,000  strong,  of 
whom  21)00  were  men-at-arms — though  no  English 
writer  makes  it  moie  than  10,000 — prepared  for  an 
engagement  by  posting  themselves  between  two 
woods,  in  a  single  line  of  battle,  with  the  archers 
on  the  wings.  The  French,  to  the  number  of  50,oOo, 
under  the  command  of  the  Constable,  D'Albret, 
were  drawn  np  in  two  lines,  the  nien-at-arnis,  of 
whom  only  "JOOO  were  mounted,  being  in  the  lirst. 
The  English  were  the  lirst  to  begin  the  onset. 
The  French  cavalry  rushed  forward  to  meet  them, 
but  were  received  with  such  a  storm  of  arrows 
that  they  took  to  flight,  threw  themselves  upon  the 
first  line,  and  put  it  into  disorder.  On  this,  the 
hght-arnied  English  archers  took  to  their  bill- 
hooks and  hatchets,  broke  into  the  ranks  of  the 
nien-at-avms  that  fought  on  foot,  whose  heavy 
armour  and  close  array  rendered  them  almost  in- 
capable of  resistance,  and  made  the  greatest  havoc 
among  them.  This  being  followed  by  a  charge  of 
the  English  horsemen,  the  first  line  took  to  Uight, 
the  second  was  unable  to  arrest  the  victors,  and  the 
whole  French  army  was  soon  completely  dispersed. 
The  victory  was  decided.  For  a  moment,  Henry 
believed  that  the  rallying  masses  weie  going  to 
renew  the  fight ;  and  hearing  also  that  a  troop  of 
armed  peasants  were  plundering  his  baggage,  he  gave 
orders  to  .slay  all  the  prisoners  taken.  The  order 
was  already  executed  when  he  discovered  the  ground- 
lessness of  his  alarm.  As  many  as  10,000  French- 
men were  slain,  among  whom  were  the  Constable 
and  six  dukes  and  princes,  the  Duke  of  Brabant, 
the  Count  of  Nevcrs,  the  Duke  of  Alen^on,  the 
Duke  of  Bar  and  his  two  brothers.  Five  princes, 
among  them  the  Dukes  of  Orleans  and  Bourbon, 
were  taken  prisoners.  The  English  lost  ICOO  killed, 
including  the  Duke  of  York,  the  king's  great-uncle, 
whom  the  Duke  of  Alen^on  slew.  Alen^on  had 
even  struck  the  crown  from  King  Henry's  head, 
when  he  was  surrounded  by  all  present,  and  fell 
with  many  woiuids.  Hcmry,  however,  was  too  w'eak 
to  pursue  his  advantage,  and  therefore  continued  his 
march  to  Calais,  where  he  embarked  for  England. 

AZO'RES,  a  cluster  of  islands  in  the  Atlantic, 
800  miles  due  west  of  the  southern  half  of  Portugal, 
ranging  in  N.  lat.  between  36°  5.5'  and  39°  44',  and 
in  W.  long,  between  25°  lo'  and  31°  16'.  In  the 
first  half  of  the  loth  c,  the  A.  were  discovered  by 
the  Portuguese,  or  rather,  it  has  been  said,  appro- 
priated by  them,  after  having  been  revealed  to  them 
by  a  Flemish  navigator,  Joshua  Vandcrbcrg  of 
Bruges.  They  were  at  that  time  uninhabited — a 
fact  which,  so  far  as  it  goes,  seems  adverse  to  any 
notion  that  America  could  have  been  colonised  from 
Europe  in  this  direction.  Their  saUent  position, 
however,  may  soon  be  turned  to  account,  for  the 
A.  have  recently  been  suggested  as  a  resting-place 
for  an  intercontinental  telegraph — and  that  in  con- 
nection with  the  Bermudas,  which  are  precisely  as 
far  to  the  east  of  South  Carolina  as  the  A.  them- 
selves are  to  the  west  of  Portugal.  The  Portuguese 
colonists  called  the  whole  group  A.,  from  rtfor  or 
azor,  a  hawk ;  and  they  named  two  individual 
islands  Corvo  and  St.  Jorgo,  from  Corvos  Marines 
and  St.  Jorsi,  which,  according  to  the  maps  of  the 
14th  c,  had  been  previously  seen  in  the  western 
ocean.  Without  reckoning  mere  rocks,  the  islands 
are  nine  in  number.  Taken  from  east  to  west,  they 
are  as  follow :  St.  Mary,  St.  Michael,  Terceira, 
Graciosa,  St.  Jorgo,  Pico,  Fayal,  Flores,  and  Corvo. 
692 


The  area  of  the  group  is  estimated  at  '700  square 
miles;  whilst  its  population  343,572,  yielding  an 
average  of  nearly  500  to  a  square  mile.  In  the 
order  of  population  and  importance,  the  islands 
stand  thus:  St.  Michael,  Terceira,  Pico,  Fayal,  St. 
Jorgo,  Flores,  Graeiosn,  St.  Mary,  and  Corvo.  The 
A.  are  still  a  dependency  of  Portugal.  Their  capital 
is  Angra,  in  Terceira ;  but  I'onta  Delgada  and 
Kibeira  Grande,  both  in  St.  Michael,  are  larger 
towns. 

As  may  be  presumed  from  the  density  of  the 
population,  the  soil  is  fertile,  and  the  climate  healthy. 
The  islands  are  also  well  watered.  The  exports  arc 
oranges,  wine,  brandy,  grain,  pulse,  pork,  beef, 
cheese,  and  coarse  linens ;  and  the  imports  are 
woollens,  cottons,  hardware,  iron,  glass,  cordage, 
pitch,  tar,  staves,  tindjcr,  oil,  fish,  rum,  coflec,  sugar, 
salt,  and  tea.  Perhaps  the  greatest  want  of  the  group 
is  a  good  harbour.  The  A.  are  of  volcanic  origin — 
a  fact  from  which  may  probably  be  inferred  their 
identity  with  the  Isles  of  Brazil  or  of  Fire  in  the 
maps  above  mentioned,  of  the  14th  c.  Though  most 
of  the  volcanoes  themselves  appear  to  be  extinct, 
yet  the  islands  contain  hot  springs,  and  are  subject 
to  violent  earthquakes.  The  coasts  are  generally 
steep  and  rugged,  while  the  interior  jiarts  abound  in 
ravines  and  mountains.  The  mountains  range  from 
1861)  feet  to  7613 — the  latter  being  the  height  of  the 
lava-covered  Ja€a^•  which  gives  name  to  Pico. 

AZO'TE  (Gr.  a,  depriver  of,  and  zoe,  life)  is  the 
name  given  by  French  chemists  to  Nitrogen  (q.  v.). 

A'ZOTISED  BODIES  are  those  substances  which 
contain  azote  or  nitrogen  as  one  of  their  consti- 
tuents, and  which  form  part  of  the  living  struc- 
ture of  a  plant  or  animal,  or  are  produced  during 
its  natural  decay.  The  principal  members  of  the 
grotip  are  albumen^  present  in  white  of  eggs,  and  the 
juices  of  plants  and  animals  ;  rflobidi)ie,  or  crystalline, 
a  variety  of  albumen  found  in  the  lens  of  the  eye; 
vitelline,  atiother  variety  of  albumen,  composing  the 
greater  bulk  of  the  yolk  of  the  egg ;  paralbwnen,  a 
third  vaiiety  of  albumen  found  in  the  animal 
system  during  certain  diseases  ;  fibrine,  which  occurs 
largely  in  the  seeds  of  cereals  and  in  animal  muscle ; 
caseine  (or  cheese  matter),  present  in  all  milk  ;  legu- 
mine,  a  variety  of  caseine  found  in  pease,  beans, 
and  leguminous  seeds  in  general ;  (jelative,  which 
is  present  in  the  skin,  bones,  and  other  parts  of 
animals;  chondrinc,  a  variety  of  gelatine  obtainable 
from  the  cornea  of  the  eye  and  the  permanent 
cartilages ;  ininglass,  another  variety  of  gelatine 
manufactured  from  the  inner  membrane  of  the 
floating  bladder  of  sturgeons  and  other  fishes;  glue 
and  size,  which  are  secondary  forms  of  gelatine ; 
iirea,  uric  arit?,  and  hippuric  acid,  which  arc  present 
in  the  urine  of  the  higher  animals ;  kreatine  and 
kreatinine,  occurring  in  the  juice  of  flesh  ;  several 
forms  of  urinary  calcnli,  which  are  fotnid  as  stones 
in  the  bladder;  and  the  very  large  and  important 
class  of  alkaloids,  including  strychnine,  morphine, 
quinine,  itc.  The  principal  members  of  the  series 
of  A.  B.  will  be  considered  under  their  special  head- 
ings ;  and  the  use  of  several  of  them  as  articles  of 
diet  will  come  into  notice  under  Food. 

AZO'TUS,  the  Ashdod  of  the  Old  Testament 
(now  Esdud),  a  village  on  the  Mediterranean,  21 
miles  south  of  Jaffa.  Lat.  31°  45'  N.,  long.  34° 
37'  E.  It  was  formerly  one  of  the  chief  cities  of 
the  Philistines,  strongly  fortified,  and  the  scene  of 
numerous  contests  between  that  race  and  the  Jews. 
Into  this  city  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant  was  brought 
by  the  Philistines,  and  placed  in  the  temple  of  their 
god  Dagon,  whose  image  fell  in  pieces  before 
it.  In  the  8th  c.  B.C.,  the  town  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  Assyrians  ;  and  in  the  following  century  was 


AZOV— AZURITE. 


capture  J  bv  the  Egvpiians,  after  a  20  years"  blockade 
and  siege.  In  the  wars  between  Alexander  Balas 
and  Demetrius,  A.  waa  destroyed  by  fire.  It  was 
afterwards  rebuilt  by  the  Romans,  but  never  re- 
gained its  enrly  importance.  It  has  now  a  popula- 
lion  of  about  30<>,  and  the  sea  is  gradually  receding 
from  its  harbour. 

A'ZOV.  or  A'SOW,  a  fortress  and  port-town  in  the 
south  of  Russia,  situated  on  the  Don,  about  20  miles 
from  its  mouth.  The  sand  and  mud  deposited  by 
the  river  have  choked  up  the  pwrt,  so  that  the  trade 
and  shipping  of  the  place  have  dwindled  away,  and 
the  3tXiO  inhabitants  now  depend  mostly  on  fishing. 
A.  was  anciently  a  Greek  colony,  under  the  name  of 
Tanais,  and  carried  on  extensive  commerce  with  the 
northern  peoples.  In  number  of  inhabitants  and  in 
wealth  it  often  rivalled  Panticapaeum  (now  Kertch;.. 
In  the  13th  c.  it  was  taken  possession  of  by  the 
Genoese,  who  called  it  Tana.  They  were  driven 
out  of  it  by  Tiniur  (Tamerlane)  in  1392.  In  1471, 
it  was  taken  by  the  Turks,  and  since  then  has  borne 
the  name  of  A.,  the  Turks  calling  the  town  and  the 
neighbouring  sea  Asak.  After  an  obstinate  struggle, 
at  which  Peter  the  Great,  then  beginning  his  career, 
was  present,  it  was  captured  by  the  Russians  about 
the  end  of  the  ITih  c.  It  more  than  once  fell  again 
under  the  dominion  of  the  Turks,  but  at  last,  in 
1774,  remained  in  the  undisturbed  possession  of 
Russia.  It  was  bombarded  and  destroyed  by  an 
allied  English  and  French  squadron  in  1855. 

AZOV,  Sea  of,  named  after  the  town,  is  a  large 
gulf  of  the  Bl:ick  Sea,  formed  by  the  peninsula  of 
Crimea,  or  rather  an  inland  lake  connected  with  the 
Black  Soa  by  the  long  narrow  strait  of  Kafta.  The 
Siwash  or  Putrid  Sea  is  the  western  portion  of  the 
Sea  of  A.  cut  off  by  the  long  narrow  slip  of  low  sandy 
laud  called  the  Tongue  of  Arabat.  The  entrance  to 
the  Putrid  Sea  is  by  the  narrow  strait  of  Genitschi  at 
the  north  of  the  Tongue.  The  Putrid  Sea  is  little  but 
a  succession  of  swamps.  The  ancient  name  of  the 
Sea  of  A.  was  Pains  Maeotis.  It  gets  the  name  of 
Balik-Denghis,  or  Fish-sea,  from  the  Turks  and  Ta- 
tars, from  its  abundance  offish.  The  water  is  almost 
fresh.  The  whole  sea  is  shallow,  and  occupies  an 
area  of  about  14,CmjO  square  miles.  During  the 
Crimean  war.  an  expedition,  having  on  board  16,5<'0 
English.  French,  and  Turks,  was  sent  to  this  sea  in 
May  1855,  which  devastated  the  ports,  and  cut  off 
supplies  intended  for  Sebastopol. 

AZTEC  CHI  LDREN.  In  the  year  1S53,  there 
were  brought  over  to  this  country  from  America 
two  diminutive  children,  a  boy  and  a  girl,  said  to  be 
aged  respectively  17  and  11,  and  who  were  repre- 
sented as  descendants  of  the  ancient  Aztecs.  The 
height  of  each  was  under  3  feet.  Their  figure  was 
slender  and  not  ill-proportioned ;  that  w  hich  was 
chiefly  remarkable  being  their  features.  While  the 
forehead  and  thin  receded,  the  nose  was  so  singu- 
larly prominent  as  to  suggest  the  idea  of  the  face 
of  a  bird.  Vet,  with  dark  lively  eyes,  an  olive 
complexion,  and  glossy  long  black  hair,  and  a  great 
fund  of  good-nature,  they  were  far  from  unpleasing. 
They  spoke  no  intelligible  language,  but  understood 
a  few  words  of  English,  and  seemed  to  have  a  taste 
for  music.  Shewn  to  the  public  as  curiosities,  they 
were  usually  exhibited  on  a  large  table,  on  which 
they  ran  about  amusing  themselves.  Their  exhibitor 
told  a  very  incredible  story  of  how  they  had  been 
obtained  from  the  ancient  city  of  Iximaga,  where 
thev  were  reverenced  as  gods.  A  certain  Senor 
■  38 


i  Velasquez,  in  company  with  a  C;inadian  and  Ameri- 
I  can,   penetrated    into    this    ancient    city  of  Central 
;  America,  where  they  made  the  acquaintance  of  one 
I  of  the  guardian  priests  of  those  under-sized  deities, 
who  was  so  charmed  with  the  accounts  of  the  outer 
I  world,  that  he   resolved   to   steal   the   gods   of  1.13 
j  people,  and  escape  with  the  strangers.     One  after 
I  the   other — the   Canadian,  the    American,  and   the 
priest — were   overtaken   by  disaster,  and  Velasqi.ez 
alone  was  left  to  tell  the  wondrous  tale,  with  iio  at- 
testation but   such  as  the  children  thennselves  fur- 
nished.     Professor    Owen    considered   them    mere 
dwarfs,  and  other  authorities  held  a  similar  opinion. 
Belonging  probably  to  so;ne  Indian  tribe,  they  were 
doubtless  monstrosities  ;  and  this  becoming  apparent, 
interest  in  them  ceased. 

I      AZTECS.*     The  name  of  the  dominant  tribe  in 

Mexico  at  the  time  of  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards. 

See  Mexico,  Axtiqcities  or. 

i      AZr  XI.    DoMEStco    Aldeeto,    a     distinguished 

jurist,  born    at    Sassari,  in  the  island  of    Sardinia. 

August  3,  1749.     He  early  applied  himself  to  the 

study  of  law,  devoting  himself,  particularly  to  the 

maritime  relationships  of  nations.     He  became  judge 

of  the  Tribunal  of  Commerce  at  Xizza  or  Nice  ;  and 

'  in    1795,  after  that    city   had   been   taken   by   the 

French,  he  pubFished  a  work  in  which  he  endeavoured 

to  reduce   maritime   laws   to   fixed   principles,  and 

which,  being  recast,  was  pubUshed  at  Paris  in  ISOo 

]  under    the    title   of   JJroit  Maritime  de   VEttropt. 

I  The    work   was   sufficiently  anti-British  in  tone  to 

secure   its   author   the   favourable   consideration  of 

Xapoleon's  ministry,  by  whom  he  was  appointed  one 

of  the  commissioners  for  compiling  the  new  com- 

1  mercial  code,  the  maritime   portion   being  allotted 

:  to  him.     Genoa  having   been   annexed  to  France, 

A.,  in  1S07,  was  appointed  president  of  the  Court  of 

Appeal  there,  where  he  remained  ugiU  the  fall  of 

Xapolcon.      Among   other  things,  A.  published  an 

Essai  sur  mistoire  Giographique  Politique  et  Morale 

■  de   la   Sardaigne,  and    a    Dictionary  of  MereaniHe 

■  Jurisprudence,  and  some  controversial  brochures. 
;  For  some  time  after  he  had  withdrawn  from  Genoa, 
I  he  resided  at  Nice,  and  afterwards  in  his  native 
'  island,   where  he  was    appointed,  by  King  Charles 

Felix,  judge  of  the  consulate  of  Cagliari,  and 
librarian  to  the  university  of  that  city.  He  died  in 
January  1S27. 

i      AZ  URE,  a    French    word    technie.'.lly    used    in 
'  Heraldry  to  signify  blue.     In   engraving  arms,  it  is 
always  represented  by  horizontal  lines. 

A'ZFRIXE  (Leucisnis!  carulem),  a  fish  of  the  same 
i  genus  with  the  roach,  chub,  ic,  and  most  nearly 
resembling  the  Red-oye(q.  v.) or  Rudd  (L.  eryihroph- 
thalmus),  from  which,  however,  it  is  readily  distin- 
guished by  the  slate-blue  colour  of  the  back,  and  the 
whiteness  of  the  abdomen  and  fins.     It  is  a  fresh- 
water  fish,  and  was  first  described  by  VarrcU  from 
S{)ecimens   received   from    Lancashire,   where   it    is 
called  the  Blue  Roach,  but  it  is  also  an  inhabitant  of 
some  of  the  lakes  of  Switzerland. 
I      AZURITE,  a   name   which   has    been    given   to 
'  the  mineral  more  commonly  called  Lazulite  (q.  v.), 
i  and   to   which,   along    with  Lapis  Lazuli  (q.  v.)  or 
Azure-xione.  mineral  turquoise  (see  TrRQroiSE),  &c., 
the  generic  name,  Aztire  Sfmr,  is  sometimes  given. 
— The  name  A.  is    also    given  by  mineralogists  to 
an  ore  of  copper,  generally  known  as  Blue  Copper 
(see   Copper),  nearly  allied  to  Malachite  (q.  v.),  and 
J  remarkable  for  its  beautiful  azure  colour, 

59a 


B 


THE  second  letter  in  tlio  ITobrcw 

^'vll'^WW  'i'P'"i'^<'t'^  derived  from  it,  belongs 
\  ^  1  L^^  to  tlic  order  of  laln;ils,  and  is  of 
tlu'  kind  called  medial  or  fiat.  See 
Letters,  ALriiADET.  Its  name  in 
Hebrew  is  bct/i,  signifying?  '  house,' 
probiibly  because  its  original  liiero- 
gly[)hic  or  picture  form  was  an  out- 
line of  a  house  or  tent.  In  the 
corresponding  words  of  sister- 
languages,  we  find  b  very  generally  rephieed  by  some 
one  of  the  other  labial  letters  [p,f(ph),v]\  these 
substitutions,  however,  take  place  not  by  chance  or 
caprice,  but  according  to  ascertained  laws.  See 
Philology,  Compauative,  and  Guimm's  Law.  The 
following  are  some  examples  of  the  interchange  of  b 
with  other  letters  :  Corresponding  to  Eng.  bear  arc 
Sanse.  W/(v',  Lat.  fcrrc,  Gr.  plicrchi:  Eng.  be,  Sansc. 
h/iu,  Lat.  j!o  ancl  fui,  Gr.  p/iuo  :  Eng.  bore,  Lat. 
forare  :  Eng.  of  und  ojf,  Gr.  apo,  Lat.  ab  :  Eng.  wife, 
plural  v'ii'c.^,  Gcr.  wcib,  Old  H.  Ger.  wip :  Eng.  web, 
wcare,  weft :  Gr.  episcopox,  Eng.  bishop,  Fr.  eveqiie. 
In  several  Latin  words,  b  arose  out  of  t<  (pronounced 
like  V  or  }o).  Thus,  the  original  form  of  bellum,  war, 
was  (luellum  or  di'cUum  ;  of  bonu.i,  dronu.i ;  and  the 
d  being  dropped  (as  we  drop  the  sound  of  A;  in  knee), 
the  V  became  hardened  into  b.  Similarly,  bis,  twice, 
is  for  dids.  A  remarkable  interchange  sometimes 
takes  place  between  b  and  m,  as  in  Sanse.  mri,  to  die ; 
Lat.  inert-,  death  ;  and  Gr.  brot.os,  mortal. 

The  Greeks  pronounced  their  b  (/3)  like  a  ?',  for 
they  spelled  VirgiUus,  e.  g.  Birgilios ;  and  this  con- 
tinues to  be  the  case  in  modern  Greek.  In  Latin, 
during  the  classical  ages  at  least,  the  letter  was  pro- 
nounced as  it  is  in  English,  French,  &c.  But  in  the 
time  of  the  later  emperors  (beginning  with  the  3d  c. 
of  our  era),  6  was  softened  down  in  the  popular 
language  at  least,  to  a  slovenly  sound  like  v ;  for  in 
inscriptions  of  this  period,  such  spellings  as  verva  for 
verba,  miravili  for  mirahili,  are  quite  common.  The 
distinction  between  the  two  sounds  being  once  lost 
sight  of,  the  letter  6  was  frequently  substituted  for 
V — as  berba  for  verba,  bivns  for  virus.  This  softening 
of  b  into  V  in  the  middle-age  Latin,  has  left  traces  in 
the  modern  Italian  and  French;  as  Lat.  habere,  Ital. 
avere,  Fr.  avoir  ;  Lat.  tabula,  Ital.  tavola.  A  Spaniard, 
on  the  contrary,  has  a  tendency  to  u.se  h  instead  of 
V ;  thus  he  pronounces  vivere  like  bibere,  and  Jovis 
as  if  written  Jobis. 

B,  in  Music,  is  the  seventh  degree  of  the  diatonic 
scale  of  C,  and  the  twelfth  degree  of  the  diatonic- 
chromatic  scale.  In  liarmony,  it  is  called  the  major 
seventh.  According  to  the  tempered  system  of 
tuning,  the  ratio  of  B,  to  the  fundamental  note  C,  is 
y*ij.  In  the  ancient  diatonic  scale,  B  was  never  used 
as  a  key-note,  as  its  fifth,  F,  was  imperfect.  In  the 
German  notation,  B  is  called  H,  while  B  flat  is 
called  simply  B.  B  flat  is  half  a  tone  lower  than  B, 
and  in  harmony  is  called  the  flat  seventh.  As  a 
harmonic  arising  from  C,  B  fliit,  as  produced  by 
nature,  is  considerably  flatter  than  in  the  tempered 
system  of  tuning. 

BA'AL,  a  Hebrew    word    signifying   lord,  owner, 
594 


or  master,  and  applied  as  a  general  title  of  honour 
to  many  diflcrent  gods.  In  llosea  ii.  10,  it  is  men- 
tioned as  a  name  which  had  been  given  to  Jehovah 
himself;  but  when  n^ed  with  the  definite  article, 
it  specially  designated  the  principal  male  deity  of 
the  Pluenicians  and  Carthaginians,  as  Baaltis  or 
Astarte  was  the  jirincijial  female  deity.  In  connec- 
tion with  Babylon  and  Assyria,  the  same  deity 
is  spoken  of  under  the  name  of  Bel  or  Belus. 
Originally,  B.  was  the  god  of  the  sun,  the  ruler 
and  vivifier  of  nature,  and  Astarte  the  goddess  of 
the  moon.  In  the  later  .star-worship  of  the  western 
Asiatic  nations,  B.  was  the  name  of  Jupiter,  the 
])lanet  of  fate,  or,  as  some  suj)pose,  of  Saturn. 
The  proper  Flurnician  name  of  IJ.,  however,  was 
Melkart,  Melkrat,  or  Melchrat,  which  is  usually 
su{)posed  to  mean  '  king  of  the  city  ' — i.  e..  Tyre  ; 
but.  others  consider  it  a  contraction  of  two  words 
signifying  '  king  of  the  earth ; '    while  the  learned 


Fig.  1.— Baal,  or  Jlelkart. 

From  a  copper  coin  of  Cossyra  in  the  liritisli  Musenm. 

(Twice  the  size  "of  the  original.) 

Selden  is  of  opinion  that  it  is  equivalent  to  'strong 
king.'  B.  was  perhaps  the  same  pod  as  the 
Phoenician  Moloch.  The  Greeks  confounded  B.  or 
Melkart  with  their  own  Hercules  ;  and,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  distinction,  termed  him  the  Tyrian  Hercules. 
From  the  earliest  foundation 
of  Tyre,  he  seems  to  have  been 
the  tutelar  god  of  that  cilv, 
and  his  worship  apparently 
extended  thence  until  it  was 
prevalent  in  all  the  towns  of 
the  Phoenicia:!  confederation, 
and  was  established  in  their 
remotest  colonies,  such  as 
Malta,  Carthage,  and  Cadiz. 
It  also  overspread  the  neigh- 
bouring countries  of  Assyria 
and  Egypt.  Each  country  or 
locality  had  its  B.  or  chief 
god.  According  to  Scrip- 
ture, the  temples  of  this 
idol  (at  least  in  Phoenicia 
and  Assyria)  were  built  on 
the  tops  of  hills,  or  still 
more  frequently  in  solemn 
groves,  and  sometimes  altars 


In  a  warlike  aspect,  with 
four  less,  reiireseutii'g 
tlie  pervadincc  energy 
imdrapiJity  of  the  sun. 


B  A  ALBEK— B  AB  ATAG. 


were  erected  to  him  on  the  roofs  of  houses.  His 
priests  were  numerous.  Incense  was  the  most  fre- 
quent offering  presented  to  him,  but  wc  also  read 
of  sacriticcs  of  bullocks,  and  even  of  children. 
In  1  Kinjis,  chap,  xviii.,  wc  read  th^t  the  priests  of 
B.  danced  about  the  altar  during  the  saciifice,  and 
barbarousl}'  cut  and  mangled  themselves,  if  their  god 
did  not  speedily  answer  their  prayers. 

The  word  B.  enters  into  the  composition  of 
many  Hebrew,  Chaldee,  Pha-nician,  and  Cartha- 
ginian names,  such  as  Jezebel,  Hasdrubal  ('  Help 
of  Baal'),  Hannibal  ('Grace  of  Baal'),  Ethbaal 
('With  Baal'),  Baal-bec  (' Tity  of  Baal').  The 
word  is  also  fre(|uciitly  found  in  conjunction  with 
some  epithet,  and  in  such  cases  appears  to  have 
denoted  a  different  deity,  though  it  is  not  impos- 
sible that  it  may  have  been  the  same  person  re- 
garded in  another  aspect,  and  as  exercising  merely 
a  different  function.  Thus,  we  have  Baal-Berith, 
'  the  Covenant  Lord,'  who  was  especially  worship- 
ped by  the  people  of  Shechem  ;  Baal-Pcor,  the 
Priapus  of  tlie  Moabitcs  and  Midiauites ;  and 
Beelzebub,  or  Baalzcbub  (the  Fly-god),  the  idol  of 
the  Philistines  at  Ekron,  where  he  had  a  temple. — 
The  Celtic  deity  Beal  is  usually  identitied  with  Baal. 
See  Beltein. 

BAA'LBEIv,  the  name  of  a  ruined  city  in  the 
ancient  Ccele-Syria,  siginfies  the  '  City  of  Baal,' 
the  Sun-god,  and  was  by  tlic  Greeks,  during  the 
Scleucide  dynasty,  converted  into  Heliopolis.  Lat. 
3-1°  r  3(i''  N.,  loiig.  30^  ir  E.  It  is  situated  in  the 
plain  of  Buka'a,  'at  the  northern  extremity  of  a  low 
range  of  bleak  hills,  about  one  mile  from  the  base 
of  Antilebanon,'  in  a  well-watered  and  delightful 
locality,  rather  more  than  40  miles  north-west  of 
Damascus.  It  was  once  the  most  magnificent  of 
Syrian  cities,  full  of  palaces,  fountains,  and  beautiful 


Ruins  of  Baalbek. 

monuments.  It  is  now  only  famous  for  the  splendour 
of  its  ruins,  of  which  three  deserve  special  notice. 
The  most  imposing  is  that  of  the  great  Temple  of  the 
Sun,  which  was  a  rectangular  building,  290  feet  by 
1G1»,  having  its  roof  supported  by  a  peristyle  of 
54  Corinthian  columns,  '  I'J  at  each  side,  and  10  at 
each  end.'  Of  those,  six  are  yet  standing.  The 
circumference  of  tlic.-e  columns  is  about  22  feet, 
and  the  length  of  the  shaft  58  ;  with  pedestal,  capi- 
tal, and  eutabXiture,  they  measure  about  8'j  feet  in 
height.  The  approach  to  this  temple  was  through 
two  spacious  courts,  surrounded  on  all  sides  with 
porticos  and  other  buildings.  Except  the  eolunnis 
mentioned,  little  of  the  great  temple,  or  of  the  build- 
ings in  front  of  it,  is  left  standing,  but  the  ground  is 
covered  with  their  ruins.  The  vast  size  of  the  stones 
used  in  the  substructions  is  remarkable,  some  of 
them  being  60  feet  long  and  12  thick.     South  iron] 


the  great  temple  is  a  smaller  one,  known  as  the 
Temple  of  Jupiter.  It  is  similar  in  form,  having  its 
peristyle  and  the  walls  of  its  cella  still  mostly 
standing.  Its  dimensions  are  227  feet  in  length, 
by  117  feet  in  breadth,  being  thus  larger  than  the 
Parthenon  at  Athens.  Both  temples,  as  well  as  the 
surrounding  structures,  are  built  of  limestone,  in  a 
richly  decorated  somewhat  fantastic  Corinthian 
style.  Besides  these,  there  stands  at  the  distance 
of  300  yards  from  the  others  a  circular  building, 
supported  on  6  granite  columns  ;  style,  mixed  Ionic 
and  Corinthian.  It  was  once  used  as  a  Christian 
churclt. 

The  early  history  of  B.  is  involved  in  darkness; 
but  it  is  certain  that,  from  the  most  distant  times, 
it  had  been  a  chief  seat  of  sun-worship,  as  its  name 
implies.  Julius  Caesar  made  it  a  Roman  colony,  and 
under  Augustus  it  was  occupied  by  a  Roman  garri- 
son. B.  had  an  oracle  held  in  such  high  esteem  that 
in  the  2d  c.  A.n.,  it  was  consulted  by  the  Emperor 
Trajan  prior  to  his  entrance  on  his  second  Parthian 
campaign.  To  test  the  prescience  of  the  oracle, 
Trajan  sent  to  it  a  blank  piece  of  paper,  which  was 
returned  to  him  blank.  This  gave  him  a  high  opinion 
of  its  powers,  and  he  consulted  it  in  all  sei-iousness  a 
second  time.  The  response  was  some  dead  twigs 
from  a  vine,  wrapped  up  iu  cloth.  Trajan's  decease 
some  two  years  afterwards,  and  the  transmission  of 
his  bones  to  Rome,  was  deemed  a  sufficient  interpre- 
tation of  the  symbolical  utterance,  and  confirmed 
the  celebrity  of  the  oracle.  Antoninus  Pius  (138 — 
161  A.n.)  built  the  great  temple,  which  the  legend 
current  among  the  modern  inhabitants  counts  a 
work  of  Solomon.  This  temple  is  said  to  have 
contained  a  golden  statue  of  Apollo,  or  of  Zeus, 
which  on  certain  annual  festivals  the  chief  citizens 
of  Heliopolis  bore  about  on  their  shoulders.  When 
Christianity,  under  Constantine,  became  the  domi- 
nant rehgion,  the  temple  became  a  Christian  church. 
In  the  wars  that  followed  the  taking  of  the  city 
by  the  Arabs,  who  sacked  it  in  748  a.d.,  the  temple 
was  turned  into  a  fortress,  the  battlements  of  which 
are  yet  visible.  The  city  was  completely  pillaged 
by  Timur  Bey,  or  Beg,  in  1400  a.d.  Both  city  and 
temple  continued  to  fall  more  and  more  into  decay 
under  the  misery  and  misrule  to  which  Syria  has 
been  subject  ever  since.  Many  of  the  magnificent 
[lillars  were  overturned  by  the  pachas  of  Damascus 
merely  for  the  sake  of  the  iron  with  which  the  stones 
were  bound  together.  What  the  Arabs,  Tatars,  and 
Turks  had  spared,  was  destroyed  by  a  terrible  earth- 
([uaJve  in  1759.  B.  is  now  an  insignificant  village, 
with  a  population  of  some  few  hundreds.  See 
Wood  and  Dawkins's  lluhis  of  Baalbcc  (Lond. 
1757);  Cassas,  Voi/ai/c  Pittarei^quede  la  <Sy(7'e(1709)  ; 
Murray's  Handbook  for  Travellcru  in  Syria  and 
Palestine  (1858). 

BA'BA,  a  Turkish  word  signifying  /V/CAf)-,  originat- 
ing, like  our  word  papa,  in  the  first  eilbrts  of  children 
to  speak.  In  Persia  and  Turkey,  it  is  prefixed  as 
a  title  of  honour  to  the  names  of  ecclesiastics  of 
distinction,  especially  of  such  as  devote  themselves 
to  an  ascetic  life  ;  it  is  often  affixed  in  courtesy,  also, 
to  the  names  of  other  persons,  as  Ali-Baba. 

BA'BA,  Cape,  a  bold  rocky  headland  near  the 
western  extrendty  of  Anatolia — the  Lectum  of  the 
Greeks— in  lat.  39°  29'  N.,  long.  26°  4'  E.,  about  12 
miles  from  the  northern  extremity  of  Mitylene, 
the  ancient  Lesbos.  On  a  shelving  point  of  the 
cape  stands  the  town  of  Baba,  with  a  population  of 
about  4000,  who  do  some  trade  in  cutlery  of  a  supe- 
rior quality.  Tiie  once  large  and  prosperous,  but 
now  utterly  ruined  city  of  Assos,  mentioned  by  St. 
Paul,  is  in  the  vicinity. 

BABATA'G,  or  BA'BA  DAG,  a  city  with  10,000 

595 


BABBAGE— BABER. 


inhabitants,  in  the  sandjak  of  Silistria,  in  the  north- 
eastern part  of  European  Turkey.  It  is  situated 
in  a  marshy  district ;  has  a  bi;;h  school  and  five 
mosques,  of  which  that  built  by  Bajazet  I.  is  the 
finest.  It  \va^  Bajazet  that  founded  the  city,  which 
he  peopled  with  Tatars,  and  named  after  a  saint, 
whose  monument,  on  a  hill  near  by,  is  resorted  to 
as  a  place  of  pilgrimage.  Through  the  port  of 
Kara-Kerman,  lying  a  short  way  to  the  south,  the 
inhabitants  of  B.  carry  on  a  considerable  commerce 
with  the  Black  Sea. 

BA'BBAGE,  Charles,  born  in  1790,  entered 
early  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  ho  took 
his  degree  of  B.A.  in  1814.  In  1828,  he  waselected 
Professor  of  Mathematics  in  his  own  university,  an 
office  which  he  filled  for  eleven  years.  B.  unites, 
in  the  most  happy  combination,  powers  of  inven- 
tion and  obser\'ation  with  thorough  scientific 
culture.  Among  his  writings,  we  notice  first  his 
extremely  correct  and  well-arranged  Tallies  of 
Logaritlnns  (Lond.  1834).  He  was  the  first  to 
make  the  method  of  constructing  such  tables  the 
object  of  earnest  study.  The  difficulty  of  securing 
accuracy  in  getting  up  tables  on  a  large  scale,  led 
liim  to  the  idea  of  commiiting  the  execution  of  the 
work  to  a  machine.  Being  commissioned  by  the 
government  to  superintend  the  construction  of  sucl' 
a  machine,  before  beginning  the  work,  he  visited  a 
great  many  manufuetories  and  nnichinc  establish- 
ments, both  in  Britnin  and  on  the  continent,  in  order 
to  become  acquainted  with  all  the  resources  of 
mechanical  art,  and  thus  be  in  a  position  to  make 
a  combined  use  of  them  in  his  great  undertaking. 
This  survey  aflordcd  him  tlie  necessary  information 
for  his  al)le  work,  On  the  Economii  of  Mannfacturcs 
atid  Alacliincri/  (Lond.  18;J'J) — a  book  which  has  run 
through  several  editions,  and  l)een  translated  into 
several  languages — in  which  all  mechanical  processes 
are  classified  from  the  most  scientific  point  of  view, 
and  the  moat  interesting  examples  of  the  more 
important  kinds  of  manufacture  are  described. 
Besides  his  Comparative  View  of  the  Different 
Life-assurance  Societies,  his  Differential  and  Integral 
Calculus,  his  Decline  of  Science  (I8;5n),  A  Kiidlt 
Bridgewater  Treatise,  and  I'lie  Exposition  of  1851 
(1851),  B.  has  contributed  a  number  of  very  interest- 
ing papers  to  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Societies 
of  London  and  Edinburgh.  In  1864  he  published 
Passages  from  the  Life  of  a  Philosojiher.  B.'s  cal- 
culating machine,  from  some  cause,  was  never  com- 
pleted.    See  Calculating  Machines. 

BA'BEL,  Tower  of.  For  an  account  of  this 
building,  and  the  confusion  of  tongues  which  it 
brought  about,  see  the  lltli  chapter  of  Genesis. 
The  distinction  of  being  a  remnant  of  the  Tower  of 
B.  has  been  claimed  for  three  different  masses : 
1st,  for  Nimrud's  Tower  at  Akkerkuf ;  2d,  the  Mujel- 
libe,  950  yards  east  of  the  Euphrates,  and  five  miles 
above  the  modern  town  of  Hilhih  ;  od,  the  Birs 
Nimrud,  to  the  west  of  that  river,  and  about  six 
miles  to  the  south-west  of  Hillah — the  whole 
situated  in  Babylonia  (q.  v.).  The  last  of  these  has 
the  majority  of  opinions  in  its  favour.  Every  one, 
it  is  said,  who  has  seen  the  Birs  Nimrud,  feels  at 
once  that,  of  the  ruined  mounds  in  this  region,  there 
is  not  one  which  so  nearly  corresponds  Avith  his 
previous  notions  of  the  Tower  of  Babel.  According 
to  Mr.  Rich,  it  is  of  an  oblong  form,  the  total  cir- 
cumference being  762  yards.  At  the  eastern  side 
it  is  cloven  by  a  deep  furrow,  and  is  not  more  than 
50  or  60  feet  high  ;  but  on  the  western  side  it  rises 
in  a  conical  figure  to  the  elevation  of  198  feet;  and 
on  its  summit  is  a  solid  pile  of  brick  37  feet  high  by 
28  in  breadth,  diminishing  in  thickness  to  the  top, 
which  is  broken  and  irregular,  and  rent  bv  a  large 
596 


fissure  extending  through  a  third  of  its  height.  It 
is  perforated  by  small  square  holes,  disposed  in 
rhomboids.  The  fire-I)urnt  bricks  of  which  it  is  built 
have  inscriptions  on  them  ;  and  so  excellent  is  the 
cement,  which  appears  to  be  lime-mortar,  that  it  is 
nearly  impossible  to  extra('t  a  brick  whole.  The 
other  parts  of  the  summit  of  this  liill  are  occupied  by 
immense  fragments  of  brickwork,  of  no  determinate 
figure,  tumbled  together,  and  converted  into  solid 
vitrified  masses,  as  if  they  luld  undergone  the  action 
of  the  fiercest  fire,  or  had  been  blown  up  with  gun' 
powder,  tiie  layers  of  brick  being  perfectly  discern- 
ible. These  ruins  stand  on  a  prodigious  mound, 
the  whole  of  which  is  itself  in  ruins,  channelled  by 
the  weather,  and  strewed  with  fragments  of  black 
stone,  sandstone,  and  marble.  Sir  R.  K.  Porter  has 
shewn  that  the  intense  vitrifying  heat  to  which  the 
summit  lias  been  evidently  subjected,  must  have 
been  the  result  of  fire  operating  from  above,  and  was 
probably  ])roduccd  by  lightning.  This  is  a  curious 
circumstance,  taken  in  connection  with  the  ancient 
tradition  that  the  Tower  of  B.  was  rent  and  over- 
thrown by  fire  from  heaven.  Porter  thinks  that 
the  works  of  the  Babylonish  kings,  especially  the 
stupendous  tem])le  of  Belus,  which  was  erected  on 
the  site  of  the  old  Tower,  concealed  for  a  while  the 
marks  of  the  original  devastation  ;  and  that  now  the 
destruction  of  time  and  of  nuin  have  reduced  it  to 
nearly  the  same  condition  in  which  it  appeared  after 
the  confusion. 

BAB-EL-MA'NDEB  (i.e.,  'the  Gate  of  Tears') 
is  the  name  of  the  strait  between  Arabia  and 
the  continent  of  Africa,  by  which  the  Red  Sea  is 
connected  with  the  (Julf  of  Aden  and  the  Indian 
Ocean.  The  Arabian  ])eninsula  here  throws  out 
a  cai)e,  bearing  the  same  name  as  the  strait,  rising 
to  the  height  of  865  feet.  About  20  miles  distant 
from  this  cape  stands  the  wall-like  coast  of  Africa, 
rising  in  Ras  Scjan  to  the  height  of  380  feet.  AVithin 
the  straits,  but  nearer  to  Arabia,  lies  the  bare  rocky 
island  of  Peiim  (q.  v.),  now  occupied  by  the  English 
as  a  fort ;  the  strait  on  the  east  side  of  this  island 
is  called  the  Little  Strait,  and  that  on  the  west  the 
Great  Strait.  The  depth  of  the  former  varies  from 
8  to  12  fathoms;  that  of  the  latter  reaches  185 
fathoms.  The  first  is  usually  chosen  by  vessels  on 
account  of  its  affording  good  anchorage.  Close  to 
the  African  coast  lie  eight  small  islands,  called  the 
Eight  Brothers.  The  currents  in  these  straits  arc 
generally  very  strong,  and  are  extremely  dangerous 
for  small  vessels.  The  name  B.  is  supposed  to  have 
originated  in  the  frequent  disasters  occurring  in  the 
strait. 

BA'BER,  or  BA'BUR  (Zohir-Eddin  Mohammed), 
the  first  of  the  Great  Moguls  in  India,  a  descendant 
of  Timur,  was  born  in  1483.  He  was  barely  12  years 
of  age  when  he  succeeded  his  father,  Omar  Sheikh 
Mirza,  in  the  sovereignty  of  the  countries  lying 
between  Samarkand  and  the  Indus.  With  a  view 
to  the  conquest  of  India,  although  constantly  con- 
tending with  revolts  in  his  own  dominions,  he  made 
himself  master,  by  fraud  and  force,  of  the  provinces 
of  Kashgar,  Kundez,  Kandahar,  and  Cabul.  Having 
thus  opened  the  way  to  India,  he  made  two  or  three 
rapid  incursions  into  Hindustan;  and  finally  taking 
advantage  of  the  feeble  government  of  Ibrahim 
Lodi,  about  the  end  of  1525,  he  crossed  the  Attock 
(the  Cabul  branch  of  the  Indus),  quickly  defeated 
some  bodies  of  troops  that  opposed  him  in  the 
Punjab ;  and  at  last,  in  April  1526,  on  the  plain 
of  Panipat,  not  far  from  Delhi,  encountered  and 
fought  a  decisive  battle  with  his  enemy,  whose  army 
was  far  superior  in  numbers.  The  100,000  men  and 
1000  elephants  of  Sultan  Ibrahim  were  dispersed ; 
Ibrahim  himself  fled;    and  B.  made  his  entry  into 


BABEUr— BABOON'. 


Delhi.  In  the  following  month,  Agra,  the  second 
city  of  the  empire,  surrendered.  B.'s  enjovnient  of 
empire  in  India  was  short;  he  died  in  loBt'i,  having 
had  to  contend  during  the  five  years  of  his  reign 
with  numerous  conspiracies  and  revolts.  To  the 
talents  of  a  general  and  statesman,  wliich  he  mani- 
fested in  his  conquests,  liis  improvements  of  public 
road.s,  measuring  of  lands,  adjustment  of  ta.xation, 
postal  arrangements,  &c.,  B.  united  a  taste  for 
science  and  art.  He  wrote,  in  the  Tatar  language, 
the  history  of  his  own  life  and  con(|uests,  which  was 
translated  into  Persian  by  Abdid  Kachini,  and,  more 
recently,  from  the  Persian  into  English.  B.  was 
succeeded  on  the  throne  of  Delhi  by  the  eldest  of 
his  four  sons,  Ilumayun,  and  was  the  "founder  of  the 
B.  or  Great  Mogul  dynasty. 

BABEUF,  Fran(;ois    Nokl,  generally  known   by 
the   name  of  'Caius  Gracchus,' which  he  adixed   to 
his  political  articles,  was  born  in  170-1:  at  St.  Quentin, 
in  the,  de[)artment  of  Aisiie,  France.     On  the  break- 
ing out  of  the    Revolution   in    1789,  he  became  a 
fanatical  advocate  of  tlie  popular  demands.     During 
the    Reign    of    Terror    lie    took    up    a    position    of 
hostility  to  Robespierre  and  the  Terrorists.     In  his 
journal,    established    at     Paris    in     July    1794,  and 
termed    The   Tribune   of    the   People,  he    preached 
the   sovereignty  of  the    masses,    and  defended  the 
absurdest  consequences  flowing  from  that    political 
doctrine.     He  was  in  favour  of  a  new  distribution 
of  the  land,  of  the  abolition  of  every  political  order, 
and  the  e(|niility  of  all  individuals,  wise  and  foolish! 
His  violent  language  caused  him  to   be  imprisoned. 
On  his  release,  he  attached  himself  to  the   members 
of  the  extreme  Jacobin   party,  which  hud  just   been 
overthrown.     A  secret  conspiracy  was  formed,  the 
aim  of  which  was  the  destruction  of  the  Directory, 
and  the  complete  re-establishment  of  the  democratic 
constitution    of   1793,   which    had    been    suspended 
during  the  Reign  of  Terror.    The  plot  was  discovered 
througii  the  treachery  of  one  of  the  members.     B. 
and    other    chiefs  were  seized,  imprisoned,  and  ulti- 
mately brought  to  trial.     B.  defended  him.sclf  with 
the    courage    of    a    fanatic,    and    overwhelmed    his 
judges  with  abuse.     He  was  of  cotu-se  condemned  to 
death,   and   was   guillotined  on    the    following   day. 
May  '2-1,  1797.      B.  was  a  weak-headed  enthusiast^ 
without    talent  or    culture;    but  abler  men    in    tlie 
conspiracy    made     use     of     his    furiously    resolute 
character  to  secure  the  ends  they  had  in  view. 


BA'BINGTOX,  A.ntoxy,  an  English  gentleman 
of  the  county  of  Derby,  head  of  a  conspiracy  in 
favour  of  Mary  Stuart' of  Scotland.  The  rivalry 
between  Queen  Mary  and  Queen  Elizabeth  of 
England  was  at  the  same  time  a  contest  between 
Catholicism  and  Protestantism.  Accordingly,  the 
various  i)lots  for  rescuing  Mary  from  the  power  of 
her  enemy  wore  the  same  character,  and  liaye  been 
misrepresented  and  judged  of  according  to  the 
ecclesiastical  prejudices  of  cacli  historian.  B., 
young,  rich,  a  zealous  Catholic,  and  on  that  account 
already  an  enthusiastic  admirer  of  the  unfortunate 
Mary,  was  induced,  through  the  agents  of  a  deter- 
mined conspirator,  Morgan,  who  had  been  arrested 
in  France  at  the  insiunce  of  the  English  court,  to 
put  himself  at  the  head  of  a  plot  that  had  for  its 
object  the  murder  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  the 
rescue  of  Mary.  The  execution  of  the  murder  Wiis 
undertaken  by  one  Savage,  in  wiiich  he  was  to  be 
as.sisted  by  a  number  of  the  Catholic  nobility,  as 
circumstances  might  require.  The  dav  of  action 
was  fixed  for  the  24th  of  August  loSG.  B.  re- 
served the  deliverance  of  Mary  for  his  own  sliare, 
entered  into  correspondence  with  her,  and  received 
letters  purporting  to  be  from  her  in  return,  ajiprov- 
ing  of  the  assassination  of  Elizabeth.     The  secretary. 


Walsingham,  not  only  had  all  the  threads  of  the 
plot  in  his  hand,  but  contributed,  through  his  einis- 
sarie.'!,  to  spur  on  the  conspirators  to  the  execution 
of  their  jilans.  When  the  right  moment  was  come, 
B.  and  his  accomplices  were  arrested,  and  con- 
demned. B.  made  no  denial,  acknoivledged  the 
letters  to  Mary  to  be  his,  and,  September  'id,  1.58r>, 
k.id  his  head  on  the  block.  Savage,  Barnwell, 
Bollard,  Abington,  Tichbnrne,  and  Tilnec,  had  a  like 
fate.  Mary  Stuart  herself  had,  four  months  later,  to 
ascend  the  bloody  scaflbld  ;  and  her  condenmation 
was  justified  chiefly  on  the  ground  of  tlio.se  letters 
received  by  Babington.  Maiy,  however,  denied  to  the 
last  moment  that  the  letters  were  written  by  her  hand, 
or  with  her  knowledge  ;  and  her  friends  constantly 
maintained  that  they  wa're  the  work  of  Walsingham 
himself,  in  order  that  the  unhappy  queen  might  be 
got  rid  of  with  a  show  of  justice.  The  rest  of 
Walsingham's  conduct  in  this  affair,  as  well  as  the 
way  in  which  he  was  in  the  habit  of  sujiporting 
Elizabath's  views  in  general,  give  at  least  a  high  de- 
gree of  probability  to  the  accusation. 

BABOO'X  {C>/nofephahix),a.  genus  of  the  Monkey 
family,  or  Simiadw  (see  Mo.VKfn),  and  distinguished 
from  all  the  rest  of  that  family  by  the  very  elongated 
muzzle,  which    terminates    abruptly,  and  is   pierced 
with  nostrils  at  the  end  like  that  of  a  dog.      The 
face  has,  indeed,  a  general  resemblance  to  the  face 
of  a   dog.      The  dentition    agrees  with  that  of  the 
other  apes  or  monkeys  of  the  Old  World,  to   which 
the    baboons  are    entirely  confined,  being   only  dis- 
tinguished by  the  remarkable  strength  ofthe  canine 
teeth.     Baboons,  like  almost  all  the    Monkey  familv 
in    the   Old  World,  have    callosities    upon    the   but- 
tocks ;  and,  like  the  greater  part  of  them,  thev  have 
cheek-pouches.     The   tail   of    some    of  the   .species 
is  of  considerable    length,  that  of  others  is  a  mere 
tubercle,  with  an  erect  tuft  of  hairs.     The   physiog- 
nomy   of    all    baboons    is    repulsive,    and    indicates 
the  fierceness    which    strongly  characterises     them, 
and  in  which  they  differ  from  monkeys  in  general; 
some  of  the  larger  ones  are  dreaded  by  the  inhabit- 
ants   of    the    countries    in   which    they  are    found  ; 
the    danger    to   be    apprehended   from"   them    beini: 
increased  by  the  numbers  in  which  they  usually  herd 
together.     Their  fore  and  hind  legs  are  so   propor- 
tioned,   that  they  walk    easily,   and  run    swiftly   on 
the  ground ;    but,  like  all   otlier  quadrumanous  ani- 
mals, they  climb  trees  and   rocks  with  great  agility. 
Their  hair  is   long,  forming  a  sort  of  mane   on  tlie 
upper    parts.     All  of  them  are  very  susceptible    of 
cold,  and  they  seldom  live  long  when  removed  from 
their  native  tropical  countries.     They  feed  chiefly  on 
fruits  and  roots  :  some  of  them  inhabit  bnrrenand 
stony   places  where    scorpions    abound,   which  they 
seize,    adroitly    deprive    of  the    sting,    and    devour. 
They  are  very  cunning,  mischievous,  and  revenseful; 
troops  of  them    sometimes    enter   a    plantation,  not 
merely  to  plunder,  but  apparently  to  amuse  them- 
selves by  destroying  w^hatever  they  can  find  ;  tliey 
seem,  however,  always   to   have  some   appointed  to 
keep  watch,  and   they  make  off  with   great  rapidity 
on  the  first  signal  of  alarm.     When  plundering,  they 
cram  their  check-pouehes  before  they  begin  to  eat, 
The.se  cheek-pouches  are  very  capacious:  a  B.,  kept 
in    confinement,  has    been    seen  to  put  eight  c<:'j:< 
into  them  at  once,  and  then  to  lake  out  the  eggs  one 
by  one,  to  break   them  at  the   end,  and  delibei-ately 
to   suck    their    contents.     The    larger   baboons    ar'o 
sometimes    hunted    by   dogs    where   they  have    not 
trees  to  take  refuge  in ;    but  a  single  dog,  however 
powerful,  cannot  safely  attack  them  ;  a  baboon  will 
seize  a  dog  by  the   hind  legs,  and   whirl  him   roui:d 
and  round  till  he  is  stupified.     Baboons  are  not  so 
easily    domesticated    as    many  kinds    of    monkev ; 
!  however,  they  are  not  quite  incapable  of    it  when 

597 


BABRIUS— BABYLON. 


taken  TOiiiig.  Ilitppy  Jerry,'  a  mandrill  or  rib-nose 
B.,  wliicli  was  long  a  great  olyect  of  attraction  at 
Exeter  Change,  usv-d  to  sit  with  great  gravity  in  an 
arni-ehair,  awaiting  orders,  which  he  ol)cycd  witli 
slownes.s  and  composure.  lie  smoked  tobacco,  but 
did  not  seem  much  to  relish  it,  and  was  rather 
induced  to  do  it  by  a  bribe  of  gin  and  water,  for 
which  his  fonilness  was  un(iuestioiiab!e. 

As  examples  of  baboons  with  tails  of  considerable 
length,  may  be  mentioned  the  Cachma,  or  ]'ig-l'iK-e<l 
B.,  also  called  the  Ursine  H.  (C. pnrcarinn),  a  native  of 
South  Africa;  and  the  Dog-faced  B.  (C  Ilamadri/as). 
a  native  of  Arabia,  Persia,  and  the  mountains  of 
Abyssinia.  The  latter  species,  perhaps  the  only  one 
known  to  the  ancients,  is  often  sculptured  on  the 
ancient  monmnents  of  Egypt,  and  it  is  supposed  to 
have  been  the  sjjecies  of  monkey  to  which  divine 
honoiu's  were  paid.  Its  body  was  frequently 
embalmed,  and  B.  mummies  are  still  found. — Tlie 
Chachma  is  one  of  the  laigest  of  the  baboons,  about 
the  size  of  an  English  mastift",  and  very  much 
stronger :  it  is  common  on  tiic  mountains  of  the 
Cape  Colony,  and  in  troops  would  ije  very  formid- 
able, but  that  they  usually  scamper  out  of  the  way, 
instead  of  attacking  travellers,  unless  tliev  are  pro- 
voked. It  is  of  a  dark  brown  colour,  with  long 
.shaggy  hair.  The  tail  is  rather  more  than  half  the 
length  of  the  body,  and  is  terminated  by  a  tult  of 
long  black  hair. 

TIic  short-tailed,  or  almost  tail-less  baboons,  far 
exceed  their  longcr-taiied  congeners  in  ugliness. 
Only  two  species  are  certainly  known — the  Mandrill 
<ir  Kib-nose  B.  (('.  Mormon),  and  the  Drill  ((!'.  Uncd- 
phans),  both   natives   of   Guinea.     The    mandrill    is 


Mandrill  or  Rib-nose  Baboon. 

the  largest,  fiercest,  and  most  powerful  of  the  whole 
genus.  The  colours  of  its  fur  arc  very  fine,  of  a 
light  olive  brown  above,  and  silvery  gray  beneath ; 
but  besides  other  things  unpleasant  to  the  sight,  its 
face  is  peculiarly  hideous  ;  the  cheek-bones  in  the 
adult  males  being  enormously  swollen,  so  that  the 
cheeks  are  protuberant  to  the  size  of  a  man's  fist 
upon  each  side,  and  ribl)cd  with  blue,  scarlet  and 
purple.  In  their  native  forests,  mandrills  generally 
live  in  large  troops,  and  are  said  to  put  to  flight 
every  other  wild  beast. 

BA'BEICS,  a  Greek  fabulist,  who  lived  about  the 
close  of  the  Alexandrian  age,  or  the  beginning  of  the 
succeeding  Roman-sophistic  period,  made  a  consider- 
able collection  of  jEsopian  fables  (see  ^sop),  which 
he  turned  into  verse,  in  a  natural  and  popular 
style.  Several  versions  and  transformations  of  these 
were  made  during  the  middle  ages,  and  have  come 
down  to  us  under  the  name  of  ^i.'sof/s  Fahha. 
Bentley,  who,  in  his  Dh-acrtatio  dc  Brahio,  was  the 
first  to  recognise  iu  these  fables  of  vEsop  the 
original  work  of  B.,  endeavoured  to  restore  portions 
598 


of  the  verses,  and  pointed  out  other  fragments 
of  the  genuine  B.  in  other  quarters.  A  few  fables 
were  added  from  manviscri[its  by  Euria,  Korais,  and 
Schneider,  and  all  that  was  known  at  the  lime  was 
collected  by  Knoche  (Halle,  1SS5).  At  last,  in  1842, 
a  Greek  of  the  name  of  Minoides  Minas,  employed  by 
the  Erench  government  to  explore  the  convents  of 
the  East,  discovered  a  manuscript  with  l'j:i  hitherto 
unknown  fables  of  B.,  a  cojiy  of  which  he  made  and 
brought  to  Paris,  where  they  were  jniblished  in 
IS44.  The  best  edition  is  that  bv  Lachinann  (Berl. 
1845). 

BA'BYLOX,  BABYLO'NIA.  Babylonia  was  the 
name  given  in  ancient  times  to  the  flat  coimtry 
about  the  lower  course  of  the  Euphrates,  called  in 
modern  times  Irak-Arabi.  In  the  Old  Testament, 
it  is  called  Shinar,  Babel,  and  also  'land  of  the 
Chaldecs ; '  and  by  the  later  Greek  and  Roman 
writers,  occasionally  (^haldtva.  Its  ]iroper  ))ound- 
aries  were  :  on  the  X.,  towards  Meso[)Otanda,  the 
Euphrates  and  the  Jlcdian  Wall,  which  extended 
from  the  jimction  of  the  Ch.abiu'  with  the  Euphrates 
to  the  Tigris ;  on  the  E.,  towards  Assyria  and 
Susiana,  the  Tigris;  on  the  S.,  the  Gulf  of  Persia; 
anfl  on  the  W.,  the  desert  of  Arabia.  During 
the  wider  extension  of  the  Babylonian  dominion, 
the  name  comprehended  also  Assyria  and  Meso- 
potamia. The  country  i'orms  a  perfect  plain,  which 
is  a  continuation  of  that  of  Assyiia.  The  two 
rivers,  En|)hrates  and  Tigris,  here  approach  each 
other  most  nearly,  until  their  blended  water.s  fall 
into  the  Persian  Gulf.  The  country  was  once 
protected  from  flooding  by  n\mierous  canals  and 
emljaidiments,  and  several  artificial  lakes,  which 
are  now  mostly  in  ruin.  The  most  important  canal 
was  that  now  known  as  Nahr-el-.Melik,  which  is 
undoubtedly  the  ancient  royal  canal  that  joined 
the  two  great  rivers.  It  was  kept  in  rcjiair  by  the 
Roman  emperors,  and  was  serviceable  as  late  as  the 
7tli  c,  till  the  Mohammedans  took  po.sscssion  of  the 
country.  The  soil,  naturally  fertile,  was  rendered 
more  so  by  the  garden-like  way  in  which  it  was 
cultivated,  and  yielded  abundant  crops,  especially  of 
wheat,  barley,  and  dates.  The  want  of  stone  and 
wood  was  more  severely  felt  than  in  Assyria.  The 
only  building  material  was  brick,  for  which  the  .soil 
afibrded  abundance  of  clay.  The  bricks  were  either 
dried  in  the  sun  or  burnt,  and  were  very  durable, 
resisting,  in  the  ruins,  the  eflects  of  the  weather  to 
this  day.  Mineral  bitumen,  springing  up  everywhere 
in  abundance  served  as  mortar.  In  this  favoured 
plain,  the  Innnan  race  attained  early  a  state  of  social 
and  political  organisation,  the  oldest,  indeed,  that 
antiquity  gives  us  any  account  of. 

The  Bal)ylonians  belonffcd  to  tlie  Aramaic  liraneh 
of  the  Semitic  stock,  as  Sir  Henry  Rawliuson,  by  his 
discoveiics  among  the  cuneiform  inscriptions,  has 
now  made  clear;  and  to  them  the  Assyrians  o«e 
their  origin.  The  ilosaic  accounts  give,  as  the 
founder  of  the  kingdom,  Nimrod,  the  Cushito, 
which,  from  the  construction  of  the  whole  gene- 
alogy, seems  to  point  to  an  immigration  from  the 
south.  Later  Greek  writers  make  the  god  Baal 
or  Bel  the  founder.  Although  there  were  regular 
astronomical  observations,  and  imperial  annals  ex- 
tending back  to  iniio  years  before  Alexander 
the  Groat,  and  long  lists  of  dynasties  from  Berosus, 
the  national  sacred  historian  of  B.,  and  the  old 
chroniclers,  have  been  handed  down,  the  whole 
history  of  B.  is  doubtful  and  dark.  To  an  ancient 
native  dynasty  of  8b  kings,  succeed  two  Median 
dynasties  of  8  and  11  kings,  which  are  followed 
by  a  Chaldaic  dynasty  of  49  kings,  and  an  Arabian 
of  9  ;  and  lastly,  by  Queen  Semiramis.  This  much 
is  evident,  that  the  kingdom  of  Assyria,  which 
was    at  first  an  oftVhoot  from  B.,  gradually  gained 


.^ 


.c^\- 


\  i 


''"^^**f. 


sf^^sm 


\     ? 


Nf'A 


Vol.  I.,  payc  598. 


DOGFACED     BABOON    (C,/tincri,halii.s  !/,n„ailr;;as). 


BABYLON. 


the  supremacy,  and  reduced  the  mother-state  to 
subjection. 

In  the  history  of  B.  we  find  frequent  mention 
made  of  the  Chaldeans.  This  term  is  used  in 
various  senses  :  as  denoting  the  inhabitants  of 
Chaldwa  Proper,  -which  formed  the  southern  portion 
of  B. ;  as  svnonymous  with  Babylonians  or  subjects 
of  their  empire  ;  and,  lastly,  as  the  name  of  a 
priestly  caste.  With  respect  to  their  origin,  various 
opinions  are  held  by  modern  writers.  Some  main- 
tain that  tliey  may  be  identified  with  the  Kurds 
or  Carducliian  mountaineers,  who  are  supposed 
to  have  left  the  mountainous  region  between 
Assyria  and  the  Euxine,  and  to  have  invaded 
and  conquered  the  plain  country.  By  this  theory, 
the  connection  with  the  Persian  Magi  is  readily 
explained.  Others,  again,  as  Rawlinson,  think  that 
the  tide  of  immigration  set  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion, and  that  the  Phoenicians  and  Chaldaeans  both 
originally  came  from  Elam  or  Susiana.  A  third 
opinion  is,  that  they  were  a  considerable  tribe  origi- 
nally settled  in  B.,  which  gradually  became  the 
ruling  race. 

Xo  legends  hare  yet  been  found  among  the 
cuneiform  inscriptions  by  which  we  may  ascer- 
tain the  date  of  the  commencement  of  the  early 
Chaldcean  empire,  which  preceded  the  Assyrian,  but 
probably  the  traditional  date  (2234  B.C.)  is  historic. 
An  imperfect  list  of  26  kings  has  been  deciphered 
from  various  legends ;  but  as  the  interval  to  fill  up 
is  more  than  seven  centuries,  we  must  wait  for 
further  discoveries  before  a  successful  attempt  can 
be  made  at  arranging  the  chronology  of  this  remote 
period.  Bricks  have  been  found  bearing  the  inscrip- 
tion of  Kediir-iiuipula,  who  is  conjectured  to  be  the 
Chedor-laonier  of  Scripture,  and  to  have  lived  in 
the  early  part  of  the  2(ith  c.  B.C.  This  king's  ex- 
pedition seems  to  have  been  one  of  the  migratory 
movements,  in  which,  as  stated  above,  the  Phoenicians 
and  Chaldffiaiis  bore  a  part,  for  the  distance  from 
Elam  to  Syria  is  too  great  to  allow  us  to  beheve  that 
the  incursion  was  merely  for  the  sake  of  plunder. 
In  these  ancient  Chaldsan  legends,  Assyria  is  not 
once  mentioned ;  and  the  only  notice  we  have  that 
Assyria  was  subject  to  B.,  is  ibund  on  the  cylinder 
of  Tiglath-piloser  I.,  where  it  is  recorded  that  an 
Assyrian  temple  had  been  originally  built  by  a  son 
of  Jsmi-daf/on,  the  fifth  king  of  the  early  Chaldaean 
dynasty,  whose  date  is  about  1861  B.C. 

At  the  close  of  the  Chaldtean  period  (1273  b.c).  the 
empire  was  transferred  from  the  mother-country  to 
its  oftshoot  Assyria;  and  from  this  date  till  747,  the 
position  of  the  former  state  is  very  subordinate. 

The  history  of  the  period  between  747  and  625  is 
in  many  points  uncertain.  One  point,  iiowcver, 
has  been  clearly  ascertained  from  the  inscriptions — 
that  B.  was  by  no  means  a  submissive  vassal,  but 
that,  on  one  occasion  at  least,  a  Babylonian  monarch 
invaded  Assyria,  defeated  the  opposing  forces,  and 
insulted  the  capital.  The  name  of  Merodach-Baladan 
occurs  both  in  Scripture  and  in  the  Assyrian  inscrip- 
tions. From  the  former,  we  know  that  this  king  sent 
a  message  to  Hezekiah,  king  of  Judah,  ostensibly  to 
inquire  about  his  recovery,  probably  with  a  view  to 
an  alliance  against  Assyria  ;  and  from  the  latter,  that 
Merodach  was  expelled  by  Sargon,  king  of  Assyria, 
that  he  made  a  I'resh  attempt  to  recover  his  throne, 
and  was  finally  dethroned  by  Seiinaclierib.  An 
inscription  of  this  last-named  monarch,  which  de- 
scribes the  punishment  inflicted  on  the  revolted  pro- 
vince, also  records  that  ho  had  recovered  certain  gods 
which  had  been  taken  from  Kineveh  418  years  before 
by  a  Babylonian  monarch.  The  complete  subjection 
of  B.  to  Assyria  at  this  time  (6S0  B.C.)  is  jjroved 
also  from  the  Scripture  account,  which  states  that 
Esarhaddou,  son  of  Sennacherib,  reigned  in  Babylon. 


About  fifty  years  afterwards,  Nabopolassar,  governor 
of  B.  for  the  Assyrian  king,  proved  faithless  to  his 
trust,  and  entered  into  an  alliance  with  the  Median 
king,  Cyaxares,  for  the  overthrow  of  the  ruling  state. 
See  Assyria.  This  undertaking  was  successful,  and 
B.  now  (625  B.C.)  became,  though  it  was  but  for  a 
short  time,  an  independent  and  conquering  power. 
The  son  of  Xabopolassar,  Nebuchadnezzar  II.  (or, 
as  he  is  called  in  the  Persian  cuneiform  inscriptions, 
Xabuchudratshara),  next  defeated  the  Egyptian 
king,  Xecho,  at  Cercessium  (Karchemish).  on  the 
Euphrates  (604  B.C.),  and  thus  annihilated  the 
Egyptian  dominion  in  Asia.  He  then  subdued 
Jehoiakim,  king  of  Judah  ;  and  in  consequence  of 
repeated  revolts,  destroyed  Jerusalem,  and  put  an 
end  to  the  kingdom  of  Judah  under  Zedekiah  (588 
B.c.\  carrying  the  inhabitants  captive  to  Babylon. 
The  Pha?nicians  submitted  to  him  voluntarily,  with 
the  exception  of  Tyre,  which  underwent  an  ohsti;.ate 
siege  without  yielding.  After  a  fortunate  expediiion 
against  Egypt,  X'ebuchadnezzar  turned  his  attention 
to  the  adornment  of  his  capital ;  and  we  may  believe 
that  a  considerable  part  of  those  buildings,  usually 
ascribed  to  a  very  early  period,  and  especially  to 
Semiramis,  belong  to  him.  The  great  embankment 
at  Bagdad,  usually  ascribed  to  the  califs,  has  been 
proved  by  Rawlinson  to  date  from  this  monarch. 
After  his  death  (562  B.C.),  the  Xeo-Babylonian  em- 
pire fell  to  pieces  as  suddenly  as  it  had  sprung  up, 
and  under  X'abonedus  (Xabunita,  in  the  cuneiform 
inscriptions,  and  in  Herodotus,  Labynetos),  who  had 
entered  into  an  alliance  with  Cra^sus  of  Lydia, 
against  Persia,  it  came  under  the  dominion  of  Cyrus 
(539  B.C.)  The  Belshazzar  of  Scripture  is  thought 
to  be  the  son  of  Labynetos,  to  whom  was  confided 
the  defence  of  B.,  while  the  elder  prince  held 
Borsippa.  After  the  fall  of  B.,  Labynetos  submitted 
to  Cyrus,  and  was  treated  with  kindness.  As  a 
Persian  province,  however,  B.  made  many  attempts 
to  assert  its  freedom.  Thus,  in  the  great  inscription 
of  Behistun  (q.  v.),  Darius  I.  relates,  that  after  his 
accession  to  the  throne  at  B.,  a  certain  Xuditabira 
gave  himself  out  for  Xabuchudratshara,  the  son  of 
Xabunita,  and  gained   over  the  whole  people  ;  that 

I  he  (Darius)  had  defeated  him  in  battle,  but  that  it 
had  been  necessary  to  besiege  the  rebellious  city,  in 
the  course  of  which  siege  the  rebel  had  met  his 
death.  From  this  time  B.  appears  on  the  Persian 
monuments  as  a  Persian  satrapy,  under  the  name  of 

I  Babirus. 

With  the  overthrow  of  the  Persian  monarchy,  B. 
came  under  the  sliort-lived  dominion  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  who  died  in  that  city  (323  n.c.)  Seleucus 
I.,  to  whom  it  had  been  promised  at  the  conference 
of  Triparadisus,  contested  and  won  the  possession 
of  it  from  Antigonus  (312  B.C.)  About  140  b.c, 
it  was  taken  from  the  Syrian  monarchs  by  the  Par- 
thians.  It  came  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans  only 
temporarily,  first  under  Trajan  (114  a.d.),  under 
Septimus  Severus(199  a.d.),  and  again,  under  Julian 
(363  A  n.)  AVhen,  in  65ii,  the  successors  of  Mo- 
hammed put  an  end  to  the  new  Persian  monarchy 
of  the  Sassanidcs,  the  province  of  B.,  where  Bagdad 
was  built  (762 — 766),  became  the  seat  of  the  caUfs 
till  1258.  Since  1638,  when  the  Turks,  for  the  sec- 
ond time,  took  it  I'rom  the  Persians,  it  has  been 
\inder  the  dominion  of  Turkey,  divided  into  the 
pachalics  of  Bagdad  and  Basra. 

The  civilisation  of  the  ancient  Babylonians  was 
of  a  rather  high  stamp,  much  lii<e  that  of  the 
Assyrians.  The  government  was  despotic,  of  a 
kind  to  suit  a  crowded,  luxurious,  and  eileminate 
population.  In  the  accounts  of  Herodotus,  we  see 
traces  of  administration  by  satraps.  Justice  is  said 
to  have  been  dispensed  by  three  great  courts  of 
law.     Arts  and  commerce  were  highly  fiourislnng — • 

599 


BABYLO>f. 


The  last  was  carried  on  by  caravans  with  Bactria, 
Persia,  and  Media,  <  perhaps  as  far  as  India,  and 
by  shipping  on  the  Persian  Gulf  with  Arabia. 
The  coninierce  has  indeed  remained  much  in  the 
same  position  down  to  the  most  recent  times.  In 
the  Kitli  c,  the  English  carried  on  trafKc  with  this 
country  ;  in  modern  times,  Bagdad  liolds  the  place 
of  the  ancient  B.  and  Ctesiplion.  B.  was  famous 
for  its  dyes,  its  cloths,  and  embroideries,  especially 
for  the  manufacture  of  rich  carpets  with  inwoven 
figures  of  strange  animals  and  arabescjues,  such 
as  we  yet  see  on  the  Nineveh  sculptures.  Com- 
merce gave  rise  to  the  invention  of  measures  and 
weights;  and  the  general  prosperity  was  such,  that 
B.  and  Assyria  together  were  able  to  pay  to  Persia, 
in  the  time  of  Darius  Ilystaspes,  a  yearly  tribute  of 
1000  talents  (upwards  of  £280,000) — a  sum  consider- 
ably greater  than  that  contributed  by  any  other 
province.  This,  however,  reveals  also  the  national 
character  of  the  Bubylonians,  who  were  notorious 
for  their  eii'eminacy,  luxury,  and  licentiousness. 
Their  religion  was  nearly  allied  to  that  of  the 
Phreiiicians.  The  essential  part  of  it  was  the 
worship  of  the  powers  of  nature,  as  they  are 
manifested  in  the  larger  heavenly  bodies  and  in 
the  fertility  of  the  earth.  At  the  head  of  tiieir 
system  of  belief  stood  Baal  (see  Baal),  reverenced 
through  the  whole  of  Mesopotamia  and  Canaan, 
who  represented,  in  a  general  way,  the  power  of 
nature,  without  having  any  moral  significance,  and 
was  specially  identified  with  the  sun.  Along  with 
him  stood,  as  ieminine  complement,  the  goddess 
Baaltis,  the  receptive  Earth,  with  whose  worship 
all  manner  of  licentious  rites  were  associated.  She 
makes  her  appearance  principally  as  Molyta  or 
or  Mylitta — i.  e.,  '  the  causer  of  generation.'  How 
nearly  she  is  related  to  Ashtaroth  (among  the 
Greeks,  Astarte),  whose  functions  are  so  similar, 
it  is  not  easy  to  determine.  Education  and  re- 
ligion were  in  the  hands  of  the  caste  of  the 
Chaldees,  which  was  not,  however,  hereditary, 
but  was  drawn  from  the  body  of  the  people, 
since  even  the  foreign  prophet  Daniel  was  taken 
into  the  number.  They  occupied  themselves  at 
the  same  time  with  astronomy  and  astrology,  and 
licpt  records,  from  the  earliest  times,  of  their  as- 
tronomicnl  observations,  associating  with  them  the 
chronicles  of  their  kings.  All  this  they  did  in  a 
strictly  collegiate  capacity,  for  we  always  find  the 
collective  name,  '  the  Chaldees,'  and  never  the 
name  of  an  individual.  Their  scientific  acquire- 
ments n.ust  have  been  considerable.  See  Ideler 
On  the  Astronomy  of  tlie  Chuldcecuis  ( in  the 
Transactions  of  the  Berlin  Academy,  Ilistorico- 
philological  class,  1814 — 1815).  Beyond  engraved 
cylinders  and  stones,  we  have  no  considerable 
monuments  of  the  state  of  the  representative 
arts  among  them,  and  cannot,  therefore,  satisfiic- 
torily  judge  of  it.  Their  architecture,  on  the  con- 
trary, according  to  the  testimony  of  the  ancients, 
and  the  ruins  still  remaining,  deserves  to  be  ranked 
high. 

Apart  from  canals,  bridges,  embankments,  and 
sluices,  the  interest  on  the  subject  of  Babylonian 
architecture  is  concentrated  in  the  ruins  of  the 
capital,  Babylon.  The  accounts  that  we  find  in 
the  ancients  of  the  origin,  the  greatness,  and  the 
structure  of  the  city,  are  exceedingly  confused.  Tiie 
god  Belus  is  named  as  its  founder,  and  also  Queen 
Semiramis ;  how  we  are  to  understand  the  two 
statements  is  not  explained.  Semiramis,  according 
to  the  account  of  Diodorus,  employed  on  it  two 
millions  of  workmen,  collected  from  all  parts  of 
her  dominions.  With  the  capital  of  the  older 
kingdom,  the  accounts  of  the  ancients  known  to 
us  have,  for  the  most  part,  nothing  to  do  ;  they 
600 


are  all  to  be  referred  to  the  resuscitated  and  adorned 
residence  of  Nebuchadnezzar.  Herodotus  gives  a 
description  of  the  city,  apparently  from  his  own 
observation.  It  stood  on  both  sides  of  the  river, 
in  the  form  of  a  square,  the  length  of  whose  sides 
is  variously  given  ;  by  Herodotus  it  is  stated  at  120 
stadia,  making  the  whole  circumference  Go  miles.  It 
must  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  walls,  like 
those  of  most  oriental  towns,  enclosed  rather  popu- 
lous districts  than  cities,  so  that  the  whole  mass  of 
the  population  might  easily  find  shelter  within 
the  space  enclosed.  It  was  surrounded  by  a  wall 
200  cubits  high,  and  50  cubits  thick,  and  furnished 
with  IdO  brazen  gates — the  last  number  is  raised 
by  Diodorus  to  250.  The  city  was  built  with 
extreme  regularity,  with  broad  straight  streets 
crossing  one  another  at  right  angles;  and  the  two 
parts  were  connected  by  a  roofed  bridge  built  of 
hewn  stones,  fastened  together  with  iron  clamps. 
Of  this  bridge,  not  a  trace  has  yet  been  discovered. 
The  western  part  of  the  city  is  imdoubtedly  the 
older,  belonging  to  the  early  and  j)roperly  Baby- 
lonish dynasty.  Here  stood,  in  the  middle  of  the 
city,  as  it  is  described,  the  famous  tenqjle  of  Bchis 
or  Baal,  called  by  the  Aral)s,  Birs  Niinrud.  See 
Babkl,  Tower  of.  The  next  important  point  on 
the  west  side  is  the  mass  of  ruins  called  MujeUibe, 
which  was  probably  the  royal  citadel  of  the 
old  Babylonian  monarchy.  On  the  cast  side  of 
the  river  stood  the  buildings  of  the  Neo-Baby- 
lonian  period,  among  which  the  '  Hanging  Gar- 
dens'  of  Semiramis  arc  to  be  singled  out  as  one 
of  the  wonders  of  the  world.  Of  these  gardens, 
Diodorus  has  left  us  a  detailed  descri|)tion.  Their 
ruins  may  be  recognized  in  the  moimd  called 
El-Kasr.  The  city  suffered  greatly  from  the  Persian 
con([uest.  When  it  revolted  under  Dai-ius  I.,  and, 
after  a  siege  of  two  years,  was  recaptured  through 
the  ingenuity  of  Zopyrus,  the  outiT  walls  were 
demolished.  Xerxes  j)lundered  the  temple  of  Belus, 
which  had  been  hitherto  spared,  and  Herodotus 
found  it  empty.  Although  the  Persian  kings  made 
B.  their  residence,  nothing  was  done  for  the  resto- 
ration of  the  city;  and  Alexander  the  Great,  \\ho, 
on  his  cnti-ance,  in  8.31  n.c,  had  promised  the  in- 
habitants to  rebuild  the  ruined  temple,  was  unable 
even  to  clear  away  the  rubbish,  although  he  em- 
ployed 10,000  workmen  lor  two  months.  After 
ins  death  in  the  palace  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  and 
the  foundation  of  Seleucia  on  the  Tigris  by  Seleucus 
Nicator,  B.  went  rapidly  to  decay.  This  was  partly 
owing  to  the  new  city's  being  built  of  the  materials 
of  the  old,  and  partly  to  the  want  of  durable  mate- 
rials for  monumental  buildings.  Stones  of  any  size 
had  to  be  brought  from  the  mountains  of  Armenia  ; 
their  place  was  mostly  supplied  by  burned  brick. 
As  early  as  the  time  of  Pausanias,  there  was  little 
to  be  seen  but  the  ruins  of  the  walls.  The  older 
Arabian  geographers  know,  indeed,  of  a  village, 
Baljil,  but  speak  more  of  the  great  masses  of  ruins. 
Since  the  time  of  Delia  Yalle,  who  erroneously 
looked  upon  the  ruin  Mujellibe  as  the  tower  of 
Belus  (in  which  he  is  followed  by  Renncl,  the  site 
of  B.  has  been  the  object  of  many  travels  and 
researches.  The  greater  number  of  the  explorers, 
among  whom  Kich  is  the  most  distinguished,  con- 
sider the  town  of  Hillah,  with  7000  inhabitants, 
as  the  representative  of  the  ancient  Babylon.  The 
great  masses  of  ruins,  from  which  we  must  not, 
with  Rennel,  exclude  the  Birs  Xinin'id,  embrace, 
indeed,  an  enormous  extent,  but  agree  perfectly 
with  the  accounts  of  the  ancients  in  being  arranged 
in  the  form  of  a  square.  Recently,  Rawlinson  has 
transferred  the  site  of  B.  to  Niffcr ;  but  before 
anything  can  be  determined,  researches  must  be 
made  on  the  spot,  which  could  hardly  fai\  to  lead 


BABYLOXISII  CAPTIVITY— BACCHUS. 


at  the  same  time  to  valuable  results,  like  those  of 
Botta  and  Layard  in  Assyria,  and  increase  the  col- 
lectiou  of  cuncit'orni  inscriptions,  which  are  yet  only 
fra.!:;nu'nt;iry.  See  Ilich's  jfemoirs  on  the  liuifi.t  of 
Babi/lo/i  (',',d  0(1.,  Loud.  1818),  and  his  Fcrxonnl  Nar- 
rative of  a  Jounici/  to  England  fnj  Buxmrah,  Jinr/dad, 
the  liuinx  of  Uabjilon  (Lond.  IS'iti);  Mignau's  Tiavels 
in  Chaldaa  (Lond.  1820);  Fraser's  Travels  in  Koor- 
distan,  Jifcxnpotanria  (Lond.  18-K)) ;  Wellsted's  IVavels 
to  the  (Jity  of  the  Califs  (Lond.  1840);  Yaux's 
Nineveh  and  Perscpo'.is  (Lond.  1850);  Rawlinson's 
Herodotus  (Lond.  1858). 

BABYLO'XISH  CAl'TI'YITY.  Li  the  despotic 
policy  of  the  East  in  ancient  tinios,  it  was  a  rule  to 
remove  the  rich  and  leading  inhabitants  of  a  con- 
quered province  to  a  distant  part  of  the  empire, 
where  they  wore  separated  by  nationality,  language, 
customs,  and  religion  from  the  great  l)ody  of  the 
population,  and  thus  rendered  politically  harmless; 
while  the  people  that  remained  behind  were  by  this 
means  dejjrived  of  influential  leaders.  The  inhabit- 
ants of  Jndea  underwent  ottcner  than  once  a  depoi- 
tation  of  this  kind,  after  they  came  into  contlict 
with  the  powerful  kingdom  of  Assyria.  Thus,  the 
kingdom  of  Israel  was  put  an  end  to  under  King 
Hosea  (7'i'2  b.c),  by  the  Assyrian  monarch  Salmanas- 
sai",  who,  after  taking  the  capital,  Samaria,  carried 
the  principal  inhabitants  into  captivity  in  Assyria, 
and  brought  stranger  tribes  into  the  land  of  Israel  in 
their  stead;  these,  with  the  Israelites  that  remained, 
formed  afterwards  the  mixed  nation  of  the  Samari- 
tans. The  most  reinaricable  exile,  however,  befell 
the  tribe  of  Judah  under  Nebuchadnezzar.  Zedekiah, 
king  of  Judah,  warned  in  vain  by  the  prophet  Jere- 
miah, allied  himself  with  the  king  of  Egypt  against 
the  sovereignty  of  Babylon.  Nebuchadnezzar  soon 
appeared  with  a  powerful  army  before  Jerusalem, 
which  he  took  (588  li.c).  King  Zedekiah  had  his  eyes 
put  out,  and  he  and  the  principal  part  of  ihc  inha- 
bitants were  carried  captive  to  Babylon.  It  is  this 
Captivity,  the  duration  of  which  is  usually  reckoned 
at  70  years,  although,  strictly  speaking,  it  lasted 
only  5G  years,  that  is  called,  by  way  of  distinction, 
'the  Babylonish  Captivity.'  The  situation  of  the 
exiles  ^^as  in  other  itspects  tolerable.  Most  of  them 
settled  down,  and  acquired  property,  and  even  riches  ; 
many  were  called  to  court,  and  even  raised  to  high 
offices  in  the  state.  They  were  allowed  fo  retain 
their  organisation  by  families,  and  lived  by  them- 
selves essentially  according  to  the  Mosaic  law. 
They  had  also  their  own  chief,  and  were  allowed 
the  free  exercise  of  their  religion.  Xor  did  thev 
want  consolation  and  encouragement ;  ior  Ezekiel 
raised  among  them  his  powerful  prophetic  voice, 
and  the  idea  of  the  Messiah  became  more  clearly 
developed.  When  Cyrus  overthrew  the  Babylonian 
empire  (533  B.C.),  he  allowed  the  Jews  to  return 
to  their  own  country.  Oidy  the  tribes  of  Judah, 
Benjamin,  and  Levi,  availed  themselves  of  this 
permission,  the  other  ten  tribes  disa])pear  from 
history  after  the  Captivity.  It  is  prol)al)le  that 
they  had  ])ecome  so  mingled  with  the  Babylonians, 
a  people  of  kindred  origin,  that  they  had  ceased  to 
rememlier  the  country  of  their  race.  Vain  attempts 
have,  in  recent  times,  been  made  to  discover  the  ten 
lost  tribes.  Some  learned  men  have  sought  for  them 
in  China  and  India,  while  others  have  declared  the 
Afgiians  to  be  their  descendants,  and  even  the  North 
American  Indians.  A  more  probable  conjecture, 
perhaps,  is,  that  they  were  the  ancestors  of  the  Nes- 
torians  in  the  mountains  of  Kurdistan. 

BABYROU'SSA  {Sus  Bahijroussa),  a  species  of 
Hog  (q.  V.)  inhabiting  the  forests  of  Java  and 
the  Molucca  Islands,  remarkable  for  the  extraordi- 
nary tusks  of  the  upper  jaw,  which  rise  like  horns 


through  the  bone  and   integuments,  are  long,  some- 
what slender,  and  curved  backwards  ;  their  use  being 


Babyroussa. 

probably  similar  to  that  of  horns.  The  animal  is 
sometinies  called  the  Horned  Hog.  Its  limbs  are 
much  more  slender  than  those  of  the  common  hog. 

BACCHKiLIO'XE,  a  river  of  Northern  Italy, 
having  its  source  in  the  Alps,  and  its  outlet  in  the 
Adriatic.  It  passes  through  the  town  of  Vicenza, 
where  it  is  crossed  by  a  line  bridge  of  nine  arches; 
flows  through  the  plain  of  I'adua,  and  enters  the 
Adriatic  aliout  3  miles  south  of  Chioggia.  Its  whole 
course  is  about  !)()  miles,  and  it  is  navigable  by  large 
boats  from  Vicenza  to  the  sea. 

BA'CCHUS,  the  god  of  wine  (called  in  Greek 
Bakchos.  Dionysos,  and  also,  especially  in  the 
Mvsteries,  lakchos),  was  the  son  of  Zeus  and  Semele, 
the  daughter  of  Cadmus.  Before  his  birth,  Semele 
fell  a  victim  to  the  insidious  counsels  of  the  jealous 
Here,  who  induced  her  to  petition  Zeus  to  visit 
her  in  his  proper  form  and  majesty — i.  e.,  attended 
with  thunder  and  lightning.  The  mother  was  of 
course  consumed,  but  the  six-nionths-old  B.  was 
saved  by  being  enclosed  for  some  time  in  the  thigh 
of  Zeus.  He  was  first  consigned  to  the  care  of  Ino, 
the  sister  of  Semele,  and  her  husband  Athamas; 
but  when  Ino  and  Athamus  were  driven  mad  by 
Here,  Zeus  caused  him  (o  be  carried  to  Nysa,  in 
Thrace,   and  given    in  charge  to   the    Nymphs.     It 


-:^&^d'£lL 


Bacchus. 

was  here  that  B.  taught  the  cultivation  of  the  vine, 
and  prepared  intoxicating  di'ink  from  the  grapes. 
In  order  to  impart  his  discovery  to  mankind, 
or,  as  some  say,  because  Here  smote  him  with 
madness,  he  wandered  through  many  countries 
attended  by  the  Nymphs,  who  were  crowned 
with  ivy  and  vine-leaves,  and  bore  in  their  hands 
the  thi/rsus,  a  ])ole  bound  roimd  with  leaves  and 
fruit.  This  expedition,  according  to  a  later  form 
of  the  myth,  extended  to  Bactria  and  Media,  to 
Egypt  and  India,  where  B.  is  said  to  have  erected 
pillars  as  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  world. 
Wherever  he  came  in  his  wide  progress,  there  is  a 
Nysa  to  be  found.     The  worship  of  the  god,  which 

601 


BACCHUS. 


came  orifiiiially  from  the  East,  and  was  iiitiodiR-ed 
into  Greece  by  Melan)pus,  was  thus  spread  over 
nearly  the  wliole  of  the  then  known  earth,  and  at 
the  same  time  the  niytli  of  U.  was  variously  modified 
among  the  different  peoples,  so  that  it  has  become 
one  of  the  most  perplexed  and  diiricnlt.  B.  was, 
besides,  the  protector  of  fruit-trees,  and  of  fruits  in 
general.  His  worship  being  thus  extensively  spreail, 
and  his  festivals  being  held  with  music  and  song,  he 
naturally  received  a  great  many  surnames;  for 
example,  he  was  called  Lemeos,  from  the  wine-vat 
{lenos);  I5romius,  from  shouting  (//ro/Mo.s) ;  Euios  (in 
Latin,  FJvius),  from  the  exclamation  Enoi,  kc.  The 
iTiythical  march  or  expedition  above  spoken  of,  was 
suggested  to  the  fancy  by  the  Bacchanalian  festivals, 
at  which  Bacchantes  roved  al)Outiu  feigned  madness, 
and  iniide  midnight  processions  to  the  mountains  by 
torch-light.  B.  met  with  nnich  0])position  on  his 
expeditions,  many  refusing  to  acknowledge  his  divi- 
nity. Thus,  Lycurgns,  king  of  the  Edones,  opposed 
him,  and  also  Pcnthens  of  Thebes,  who  was  on 
that  account  torn  to  pieces  by  his  own  mother  and 
her  sisters.  The  daughters  of  Mynias  (((.  v.),  who 
refased  to  celebrate  his  festivals,  weie  i>unished  by 
liim  with  madness  and  metamorphosis.  As  he  was 
crossing  to  Naxos,  the  TyiM-henian  sailors  wished  to 
carry  him  off  to  Italy,  and,  with  this  view,  botir.d 
him;  but  the  chains  fell  off,  vines  and  ivy  entwined 
the  ship,  and  held  it  fast  in  the  middle  of  the  sea. 
B.  changed  himself  into  a  lion,  and  the  sailors  from 
terror  leaped  into  the  sea,  where  they  were  trans- 
formed into  dolphins.  Those,  on  the  contrary,  who 
received  him  with  hospitality  and  reverence,  were 
rewarded;  such  as  Midas  ((j.  v.).  Hi  general,  the 
character  of  B.  is  mild.  In  works  of  art,  his  type  is 
that  of  a  youth  inclining  to  eifeminacy.  His  pecu- 
liar ornament  is  the  fillet.  The  long  blond  hair  is 
bound  up  in  a  knot  behind,  and  only  a  few  locks 
fall  down  on  both  sides  over  the  shoulders;  the  hair 
is  surrounded  by  a  twig  of  vine  or  of  ivy.  His  figure 
is  neither  stout  nor  slim.  He  is  usually  represented 
quite  naked  ;  sometimes  with  a  wide  robe  negligently 
thrown  over,  which  either  covers  a  part  of  the 
shoulders  and  thighs,  or,  though  more  rarely, 
enwraps  a  greater  part  of  the  body.  Frequently, 
a  deer-skin  hangs  across  the  breatt ;  at  times,  he 
wears  shoes,  more  rarely  buskins.  From  this,  the 
properly  Grecian  B.,  the  bearded  or  Indian  B.  is 
completely  distinct.  This  last  appears  in  a  more 
dignified,  lofty,  regal  form ;  he  is  clad  in  a  tunic 
reaching  to  the  feet,  over  which  he  wears  a  wide  and 
splendid  mantle.  As  a  warrior,  he  wears  a  short 
tunic  girded  round  the  waist,  with  buskins  on  the 
feet;  a  panther's  skin  serves  him  for  a  shield.  In 
addition,  he  is  to  be  seen  at  times  with  horns.  After 
the  institution  of  the  Eleusinian  Mysteries,  the  ser- 
vice of  B.  was  conjoined  with  these;  accordingly 
Pindar  makes  him  the  companion  of  Denieter.  As 
the  followers  of  Orpheus  held  him  to  be  also  Apollo, 
be  is  associated  with  the  Delphic  oracle. 

The  worship  of  B.  consisted  in  noisy  rites.  Thebes, 
in  Ba?otia,  held  to  be  the  birthplace  of  the  god,  was 
considered  the  chief  seat  of  those  rites  in  Greece.  In 
Athens,  the  worship  of  the  Lena>an  B.  was  the  most 
ancient,  and  may  be  traced  back  to  ante-historic 
times.  The  chief  ofi'erings  made  to  him  were  goats 
and  oxen ;  the  last,  because  he  himself  was  con- 
ceived and  represented  under  the  form  of  an  ox. 
The  Bacchic  festivals  deserving  special  notice  are — 
1.  The  Attic  Dionysia,  of  which  the  minor,  or  country 
Dionvsia,  were  celebrated  in  the  country  in  the 
month  Poseideon,  at  the  time  of  the  grape-gathering. 
Among  the  characteristic  annisements  of  the  occa- 
sion were  the  Askolia,  which  consisted  in  smearing 
full  wine-skins  (askoi)  with  oil,  on  which  the  young 
peasants  attempted  to  leap  with  one  foot,  and  by 
602 


their  freriuent  falls  produced  merriment.  There 
were  also  dramatic  entertainments.  This  festival 
was  i)robably  held  at  the  api)roach  of  the  winc- 
harvcst,  and  that  of  the  Haloa  at  its  clo.se.  These 
were  followed,  in  the  month  Gamelion,  by  the 
festival  of  the  Lena-a,  which  was  peculiar  to  the 
city  of  Athens.  The  festivities  on  the  occasion, 
besides  theatrical  representations,  consisted  in  a  great 
banquet,  for  which  the  state  providi'd  the  Uicat,  and 
in  a  procession  through  the  city,  attended  with  the 
jesting  and  raillery  usual  at  Bacchic  ceremonies. 
Alter  the  Lenica  came  the  Anthesteria,  on  the  llth, 
rjth,  and  ISlh  of  the  month  Anthesterion,  when  the 
new  wine  was  first  drunk.  On  the  second  day  of 
this  festival,  the  chief  solemnity  consisteil  in  a  great 
public  dinner,  at  which  the  guests,  crowned  with 
flowers,  and  to  the  nnisic  of  trumpets,  entered  into 
regular  coi;tests  in  drinking,  and  in  a  jirivate  sacri- 
fice for  tho  prosperity  of  the  state  oll'ered  liy  the 
'  king  archo.rs  wife,'  who  was  at  the  same  time 
symbclically  married  to  the  god.  On  the  third  day, 
a  sacrifice  wa.3  ofiered  to  the  t'hthonian  Hermes  and 
to  the  souls  of  the  dead.  Last  came  the  Great 
Dionysia,  whic'i  were  celebrated  in  the  month 
Elaphebolion,  and  at  which  new  comedies  and 
tragedies  were  represented.  2.  The  Triateric  Dio- 
nysia, whieli  were  celebrated  every  third  year  in 
the  middle  of  wintev.  The  performers  were  women 
and  girls  (called  iii  Greek,  Mwiimlcs ;  in  Latin, 
Biicclue  or  ]}ucchantii\,  and  the  orgies  were  held  at 
night,  on  the  mountainc,  with  blazing  torches  and 
the  wildest  enthusiasm.  This  mystic  solemnity  came 
from  Thrace,  and  its  institution  is  referred  to 
Orpheus.  When  it  was  adopted  in  (Jrecce,  cannot 
be  exactly  determined.  It  is  earliest  met  with  in 
Bceotia,  particularly  at  Thebes,  where  the  Cithajron 
was  the  scene  of  celebration.  An  iu:portant  place  in 
coiniection  with  it  is  also  Parnassus,  on  the  highest 
summit  of  which  the  women  cf  A»;ica  and  Delphi 
celebrated  nocturnal  orgies  in  honour  of  T?.  and 
Apollo.    The  MaMiadcs  or  Bacchantes  were  clad  on  the 


Bacchant. 

occasion  in  fawn-skins,  swung  aliout  the  '  thyrsus,' 
nuide  a  great  noise  with  clapping  of  hands,  and  danced 
wildly  with  streaming  hair.  In  this  ecstatic  solem- 
nity, the  god  himself  was  represented  by  the  victim 
sacred  to  him,  the  ox,  which  the  Ma'nades  in  their 
fury  tore  to  pieces.  In  the  most  ancient  times,  even 
human  sacrifices  were  not  uncommon.  Descriiitions 
of  these  wild  and  terrible  rites  arc  not  unfreiiuent 
in  the  poets.  S.  Tlie  Bacclianalia  of  later  times,  the 
foundation  of  which  was  laid  in  Athens,  during  the 


BACCIO  BELLA  PORTA— BACH. 


Pcloponnesian  war,  by  the  introduction  of  foreign 
rites.  From  Greece  they  were  carried  to  Italy.  As 
early  as  4y6  n.c,  the  Greek  worship  of  B.  was 
introduced  at  Rome  along  with  that  of  Ceres ; 
and  Ceres,  Liber,  and  Libera  were  worshipped  in  a 
common  temple.  Li  honour  of  these  deities,  the 
Libeialia  were  celebrated  on  the  17th  of  March,  and 
were  of  a  yet  simpler  and  ruder  kind  than  the  great 
Dionysia  of  Alliens.  Afterwards,  however,  these 
rites  degenerated,  and  came  to  be  celebrated  with  a 
licentiousness  that  threatened  the  destruction  of 
morality  and  of  societj-  itself.  They  were  made  the 
ocdsion  of  the  most  unnatural  excesses.  At  first, 
only  women  took  part  in  these  mysterious  Bacchic 
rites,  but  latterly  men  also  were  admitted.  When 
the  evil  had  reached  its  greatest  height,  the 
government  (180  n.c.)  instituted  an  inquiry  into  it, 
and  rooted  out  the  Bacchanalia  with  the  greatest 
severity.  This  was  the  occasion  of  the  well-known 
Senatus  Cooisullwn  de  Bacchanalibus.  Mention  of 
them,  however,  still  occurs  at  a  later  period  under 
the  emperors. — Wild,  excessive  revels  are  still  called 
Bacchanalia. 

BA'CCIO  DELLA  PORTA,  better  known  by 
the  name  of  Era  Bartolomeo  di  San  Marco,  one  of 
the  most  distingu'.slied  masters  of  the  Elorentine 
school  of  painting,  was  born  at  Savignano,  in 
Tuscany,  in  1409.  His  first  teacher  was  Cosimo 
Roselli ;  l)ut  he  owed  his  higher  cultivation  to  the 
study  of  the  works  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci.  His 
subjects  arc  mostly  religious,  and  by  far  the  greater 
part  of  his  pieces  belong  to  the  later  years  of 
his  life.  He  was  a  warm  adherent  of  that  bold 
reformer  of  church  and  state,  Savonarola  (q.  v.)  after 
whose  tragical  end  he,  1500,  took  the  habit  of  the 
cloister,  and  lor  a  considerable  time  renounced  art. 
The  visit  of  the  young  Raphael  to  Florence  in 
1504  seems  to  have  been  instrumental  in  stimulating 
him  to  return  to  it.  'He  imparted  to  Raphael  his 
knowledge  of  colouring,  and  acquired  from  him 
a  more  perfect  knowledge  of  j)erspective.  The  two 
remained  constant  friends — B.,  on  one  occasion, 
finishing  certain  of  Raphael's  unfinished  works, 
Rapliael  performing  a  like  kindness  for  him  at 
another  time.  B.  died  at  Florence,  1517.  The 
greater  number  of  his  works  are  to  be  seen  at 
Florence,  in  the  gallery  of  the  Pitti  Palace. 

BACH,  Alexander,  an  Austrian  statesman,  was 
born  January  4,  1813,  at  Loosdorf,  in  Lower  Austria, 
where  his  father  held  a  judicial  office.  The  young 
B.  received  a  careful  education.  At  the  age  of  24, 
he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  Doctor  of  Laws, 
and  then  entered  the  imperial  service,  in  which  he 
remained  about  nine  years.  During  this  period  also 
he  travelled  over  tlie  greater  part  of  Europe  and 
some  of  the  countries  of  Asia.  He  was  on  terms  of 
friendship  with  the  members  of  the  opposition  of 
Lower  Austria,  and  belonged  to  that  circle  of  young 
men  who  well  understood  the  failings  of  the  old 
system,  and  the  inevitability  of  a  change  in  the 
organisation  of  Austria.  He  took  an  active  part  in 
founding  the  .luridico-political  Reading  Club,  and 
courageously  defended  it  against  the  police.  On  the 
occurrence  of  the  events  of  March  1848,  B.  took  a 
distinguisiied  place  as  a  mediator.  He  formed  part 
of  the  Provisiom,l  Conmiittee  of  the  Commons,  and 
was  also  chosen  in  April,  by  the  states  of  Lower 
Austria,  one  of  their  representatives  in  the  Central 
Commission  of  the  Provincial  States  of  Austria. 

In  this,  the  outset  of  his  political  career,  B. 
already  shewed  a  leaning  to  those  views  which  he 
afterwards  manifested  as  minister.  He  advocated 
the  centralisation  of  the  Austrian  monarchy,  and 
declared  himself  against  the  independence  of  Hun- 
gary,   as  well  as  against  the  entry  of  the  German 


provinces  of  Austria  into  the  German  confederation- 
Bui  he  also  desired  an  extension  of  the  basis  of  the 
states,  and  of  their  parliamentary  intluence  in  the 
direction  of  public  affairs.  During  the  occurrences 
of  the  15th  of  May  1848,  B.  kept  away  from  Vienna. 
When,  after  these  occurrences,  the  old  liberal  opposi' 
tion  came  to  the  helm,  B.  undertook  the  ministry  of 
justice.  He  now  entered  with  talent  and  energy 
into  the  remodelling  of  the  whole  system  of  Austrian 
law.  On  the  other  hand,  the  i)art  he  took  in  the 
assembly  brought  upon  him  the  hatred  of  the  'left,' 
and  of  the  democratic  party  generally.  The  opposi- 
tion was  parlicidarly  bitter  on  the  question  of  re- 
moving the  burdens  from  peasant  proprietors,  on 
which  B.  maintained  the  principle  of  compensation, 
and  wislu'd  a  part  of  that  compensation  to  be  made 
good  by  those  who  had  hitherto  borne  the  burdens 
in  question.  His  policy,  also,  with  regard  to  Hun- 
garian affairs  met  with  violent  opposition  from  the 
'  left.'  In  the  events  of  the  0th  of  October  1848,  B. 
would  have  fallen  a  victim  to  popular  fury,  like  the 
war-minister  Latour,  had  he  not  found  an  opportunity 
of  withdrawing  from  pursuit.  On  the  formation  of 
the  Schwartzenberg-Stadion  ministry,  he  again  took 
the  portfolio  of  justice,  and  participated  in  the  meas- 
ures regarding  Hungary  and  all  the  other  important 
ste[)S  taken  by  that  ministry.  On  the  withdrawal  of 
Stadion  in  May  1849.  B.  took  his  j)lace  at  the  head 
of  the  ministry  of  the  interior,  wiiicli  office  he  con- 
tinued in  1859  to  retain.  Among  his  most  important 
labours  in  this  department  are  llie  constitutions  for 
the  different  crown-lands,  as  well  as  the  organisation 
of  their  political  administration.  His  political  op- 
ponents allow  him  to  possess  cleverness,  energy,  and 
activity. 

BACH,  JoHANN  Sebastian,  a  celebrated  musi- 
cian, born  at  Eisenach,  L'jiper  Saxony,  in  March 
1085.  When  he  was  ten  years  old,  his  father,  who 
was  a  musician  at  Eisenach,  died,  and  B.  sought  the 
protection  of  an  elder  brother,  who,  dying  soon  after, 
he  was  again  left  destitute,  and,  to  earn  a  livelihood, 
entered  the  choir  of  St.  Michael's  Luneburg,  as  a 
soprano  singer.  In  1703  he  became  court-musician 
at  Weimar,  and,  the  following  year,  organist  to  a 
new  church  at  Arnstadt.  His  reputation  in  this 
capacity  soon  spread,  and  in  1708  he  was  appointed 
court-organist  at  Weimar,  by  the  reigning  duke. 
While  holding  this  office,  he  laljoured  assiduously  to 
make  himself  master  of  every  branch  of  music.  In 
1717,  he  was  made  director  of  concerts,  and  six  years 
afterwards,  director  of  music,  and  cantor  to  St. 
Thomas's  School,  Leipsic,  an  appointment  which  he 
held  to  hjs  death.  About  ten  years  later,  the  hono- 
rary distinctions  of  Kapellmeister  to  the  Duke  of 
Weissenfels,  and  court  composer  to  the  king  of 
Poland,  were  conferred  upon  him.  B.,  who  had  a 
son  in  the  service  of  Frederick  the  Great,  received  a 
pressing  request  to  visit  Potsdam  on  the  occasion  of 
a  concert  tliere.  He  went,  and  acquitted  himself 
greatly  to  the  satisfaction  of  that  monarch,  some  of 
whose  music  he  played  at  first  sight.  B.'s  clo.se 
studies  affected  his  eyes,  and  an  operation  designed 
to  benefit  them,  left  him  totally  blind,  and  hastened 
his  death,  which  took  place  in  July  1750.  With  the 
exception  of  Handel,  B.  had  no  rival  as  an  organist; 
and  his  compositions  for  tl-.e  organ  have  a  deservedly 
high  reputation.  They  are  too  elaborate,  however, 
ever  to  become  very  popular,  though  his  fame  as  a 
composer  is  sure  to  advance  with  the  progress  of 
scientific  musical  culture.  Tlie  highly  educated 
musician  will  best  appreciate  the  grandeur  of  some 
of  his  works.  In  1^50,  a  Bach  Society  for  the  study 
and  practice  of  his  compositions  was  formed  in 
London,  and  since  that  time  some  of  them  have 
been  publicly  performed  in  tiiis  country.  Thiee  of 
his  sous  were  also  musicians  of  some  note.     One  of 

603 


BACHARACH— BACHELOR. 


iheni,    Johann   Christian,   held   the  appointment  of 
music-preceptor  to  Queen  Charlotte. 

BA'CIlARACn,  a  small  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia, 
romantically  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine, 
2'li  miles  above  Coblenz.  It  has  a  population  of 
1900,  with  a  brisk  trade,  and  a  good  deal  of  commerce 
by  river-ciaft.  It  is  said  to  have  deiived  its  name 
from  Baccbu-i  (Bacchl  ara),  and  the  vine  is  still  largely 
cultivated  in  the  neighbourhood — the  wine  produced 
being  of  a  superior  quality.  B.  is  noteworthy  also 
as  the  place  where  Blucher  crossed  the  Rhine,  on 
January  1,  1814. 

BA'CHELOR  (Fr.  bachelicr,  Lat.  baccalaurcux^ 
or,  as  it  is  A'ariously  written  in  old  docunuuits, 
baccalarcns,  bacularinx,  and  bacillariux).  This 
word,  which  first  makes  its  appearance  in  middle- 
age  Latin,  is  of  very  uncertain  etymology,  and  its 
primary  nicMning  is  consequently  involved  in 
obscuritv.  The  usual  derivation,  from  barra  Inurea, 
a  laurel  berry,  gives  us  little  help;  but  the  Spanish 
bacJiilli)\  wiiich  means  at  once  a  babbler  and  a 
master  of  arts,  taken  in  conjunction  with  the  Por- 
tuguese baeharcl  and  bacillo,  a  shoot  or  twig  of  the 
vine  (from  the  Latin  bacuhis  or  baculuin,  a  stick  or 
shoot),  and  the  French  bacheldte,  a  damsel,  seem  to 
point  to  its  original  and  generic  meaning,  which 
probiil)ly  was  a  ji^rxon  xhootiuf),  or prolriidinff  from 
one.  star/e  of  his  career  into  another  more  advanced. 
'With  this  general  signification,  all  the  .special 
meanings  of  the  word  given  by  Ducnngc  seem  to 
have  some  analogy.  1.  It  was  used,  he  says,  to 
indicate  a  person  who  cultivated  ceitain  portions 
of  churcli-lands  called  baccalaria — which  he  sup- 
poses to  have  been  a  corruption  of  vasxelcrta — a  feu 
belonging  to  an  inferior  vassal,  or  to  one  who  had 
not  attained  to  a  full  feudal  recognition.  2.  It 
indicated  ecclesiastics  of  a  lower  dignity  than  the 
other  members  of  a  religious  brotherhood — i.  e., 
monks  who  were  still  in  the  first  stage  of  monk- 
hood. 3.  It  was  used  by  later  writers  to  indicate 
persons  in  the  first  or  probationary  stage  of  knight- 
hood ;  i.  e.,  not  esquires  simply,  but  knights  who, 
from  ]iovcrty  and  the  insufficient  number  of  their 
retaineis — from  their  possessing,  perhaps,  only  the 
baccalaria  above  referred  to — or,  from  nonage,  had 
not  yet  raised  their  banners  in  the  field  {leve  banniere). 
4.  It  was  adopted  to  indicate  the  first  grade  or 
step  in  the  career  of  university  life.  As  an  academi- 
cal title,  it  was  first  introduced  by  Pope  Gregory 
IX.  in  the  ICth  c,  into  the  university  of  Paris,  to 
denote  a  candidate  who  had  undergone  his  first 
academical  trials,  and  was  authorised  to  give  lec- 
tures, but  was  not  yet  admitted  to  the  rank  of  an 
independent  master  or  doctor.  At  a  later  period,  it 
was  introduced  into  the  other  faculties  as  the  lowest 
aeadeniicul  lionour,  and  adopted  by  the  other  univer- 
sities of  Ivarope.  See  Dkuuees,  I'xivkrsity.  5. 
It  came  to  be  used  in  its  popular  meaning  of  an  un- 
married man,  who  was  thus  regarded  as  a  candidate 
or  probationer  for  matrimony. 

The  legislation  of  almost  every  country,  at  some 
period  of  its  history,  has  imposed  penalties  on  male 
celibates  or  bachelors,  on  the  principle  th;it  every 
citizen  is  bound  to  rear  up  legitimate  children  to  the 
state.  By  the  Jews,  the  coiuuiand,  'Be  fruitful  and 
multiply,'  was  interpreted  strictly,  and  every  Hebrew 
regarded  marriage  as  a  duty.  In  S[)arta,  where  the 
interests  of  the  individual  were  entirely  sunk  in  those 
of  the  state,  criminal  proceedings  were  authorised 
by  the  laws  of  Lycurgus  not  only  against  those 
who  neglected  to  marry,  but  against  those  who,  from 
marrying  late  in  life,  or  any  other  cause,  formed 
such  alliances  as  rendered  the  procreation  of  healthy 
children  uidikely.  By  the  laws  of  Solon,  celibacy 
was  also  treated  as  a  crime,  though  the  practice  of 
604 


interfering  with  the  feelings  of  the  individual  in  this 
respect  early  fell  into  desuetude  at  Athens.  At  Rome, 
penalties  and  disal)ilities  were  im[)Osed  on  unnuirried 
men  from  an  eaily  i)eriod,  and  latterly  on  uinmirried 
women  also.  In  the  allotment  of  the  Campanian 
lands,  Julius  Casar  gave  poitions  only  to  those  who 
had  three  or  more  children  ;  and  in  later  times  we 
have  the  jua  trv'ni  (tjuntuor  ct  (jumf/uc)  liberorum. 
The  most  important  provisions  on  this  subject  are 
contaiiied  in  the  law  (cjr  rather  the  la«s,  i'or  it 
consisted  of  an  act  and  an  amended  act)  called 
Lex  Julia  et  Papia  Poppa-a,  the  first  portion  of  which 
belongs  probably  to  IS  u.c.,  and  the  second  portion 
to  9  A.D.  In  addition  to  various  other  ]irovisions 
regarding  marriage,  this  law  imposed  penalties  on 
those  who  lived  in  a  state  of  celibacy  after  a  certain 
age.  No  unmarried  person  could  take  a  legacy, 
whether  of  a  portion  or  of  the  whole  possessions 
of  a  deceased  person,  unless  he  complied  with  the 
law — i.  e.,  got  married  within  a  hundred  days 
from  the  test.-itor's  death.  Widow.s  were  at  first 
allowed  a  year  from  their  husbands'  death,  and 
divorced  women  six  months  from  the  time  of  the 
divorce,  before  they  came  within  the  penalties 
of  the  law ;  and  these  periods  were  afterwards 
extended  to  two  years,  and  a  year  and  six  months, 
respectively.  The  original  provisions  of  the  law 
did  not  apply  to  men  beyond  sixty,  or  women 
above  fifty,  but  they  were  extendcfl  to  them  by 
subsequent  enactments,  and  made  perpetual  even 
in  case  of  their  marrying.  The  Sc7iafits  consultuni 
jiassed  in  the  time  of  Claudius,  however,  again 
exempted  men  alcove  sixty  who  married  wives  under 
fifty,  as  from  their  unions  it  was  supposed  there  was 
a  fair  ))rospect  of  issue.  Childless  married  ptM-sons, 
moreover,  from  the  ages  of  twenty-five  to  sixty  in 
males,  and  twenty  to  fifty  in  females,  were  sul  ject 
to  the  penalties  of  the  lex,  to  the  extent  of  losing 
one-half  of  any  inheritance  or  legacy  which  might  be 
bequeathed  to  them.  The  Lex  Papia  also  contained 
a  provision  by  which  a  candidate  who  had  several 
childien  was  pcrferred  to  one  who  had  fewer  ;  and 
various  other  premiums  on  fruitfidness  were  held  out 
both  at  Rome  and  in  the  provinces. 

In  Britai:i,  there  are  numerous  instances  of  addi- 
tional or  higher  taxes  being  imposed  on  bachelors 
and  widowers,  but  apparently  more  with  a  view  to 
the  revenue  than  with  any  other  object.  Of  this,  6 
and  7  Will.  III.  c.  0,  which  was  passed  in  160.5,  and 
which  granted  to  his  majesty  certain  rates  and  duties 
upon  nuirriages,  births,  and  burials,  and  upon  bache- 
lors and  widowers  for  five  years,  '  for  carrying  on 
the  war  against  France  with  vigour,'  is  an  instance  ; 
and  another,  probably,  may  be  found  in  the  higher 
charge  for  the  servants  of  bachelors,  first  imposed  by 
Mr.  Pitt  in  178.5,  and  continued  to  the  present 
time.  By  52  Geo.  III.  c.  93,  unmarried  daughters 
of  persons  alive  are  exempted  from  the  tax  upon 
hair-powder  ;  and  in  the  income-tax  of  1798,  deduc- 
tions were  made  on  account  of  children,  5  per  cent, 
being  allowed  to  a  person  who  had  a  family,  and 
whoso  income  w:is  above  £60,  and  under  £400  a 
year,  corresponding  deductions  being  made  in 
other  cases.  Much  might  be  said  in  favour  of  such 
distinctions,  on  the  ground  of  expediency,  as  they 
enable  the  government  to  impose  a  higher  taxa- 
tion, by  lessening  the  burden  on  those  members  of 
the  comnmnity  who  are  most  likely  to  complain  ; 
but  their  recognition  in  practice  would,  no  doubt, 
be  regarded  as  impossible  by  the  financiers  of  our 
day,  who  have  hitherto  failed  to  distinguish  between 
income  derived  from  realised  j)roperty  and  from 
personal  labour. 

BACHELOR,  KxiGiiT,  the  lowest  grade  of 
knighthood,  now  very  frequently  conferred  not 
only    on    military    and     naval     officers,     but   upon 


BACIOCCIII— BACKGAM.MO'Sr. 


civilians  who  l):ive  in  any  way  merited  tlie  favour 
of  the  poveroiirii.  Tlie  person  who  is  to  receive  the 
honour  of  kniuhthood  kneels  down  before  the  sove- 
reign, who  touches  him  on  the  shoulder  witii  a  naked 
sword,  sayintr,  in  French:  '  >S'o/.v  chcralier  <ih  vom  dc 
JJicu^  (Be  a  knight  in  tio<rs  name),  and  then  adds  : 
'Rise,  Sir  A.  15.'  The  ceremony  of  degradation,  in 
former  times,  was  more  lemarkable.  It  was  eftected 
by  ungirding  the  belt  of  the  knight,  taking  off  iiis 
sword,  and  breaking  it,  and  hewing  olY  the  gilded 
spurs,  which  were  the  peculiar  emblems  of  knight- 
liood,  with  a  hatchet.  In  ancient  times,  carls 
used  to  confer  the  honor  of  knighthood,  ))ut  the 
l)rivilcge  is  now  confined  to  the  sovereign  and  to  the 
lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland.  In  1859  there  were  fn 
all  about  330  Biitish  knights-bachelors. 

BACIO'CCHT,  Marik-Axne-Ei.isa  Bonaparte, 
the  eldest  sister  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  was  born 
at  Ajaccio,  Corsica,  in  1777.  When  that  island 
was  occupied  by  the  English,  she,  with  her  family, 
emigrated  to  Marseille.  Here  she  married,  at  the 
age  of  20,  a  countryman  of  her  own.  Captain 
Baciocchi.  The  elevation  of  Kapoleon  raised  her 
also  to  rank  and  power;  and  in  1806,  the  princi- 
pality of  Massa  and  Cai'rara  was  intrusted  to  her 
administration,  which  was,  on  the  whole,  a  bene- 
ficial one  for  the  peoijlc.  In  1809,  she  was  made 
Grand  Duchess  of  Tuscany,  and  appointed  as 
administrator  over  that  country  in  Napoleon's 
name.  Here  the  arbitrary  measures  of  her  brother, 
which  she  had  to  carry  out,  and  her  own  self- 
will  and  harshness,  rendered  her  anything  but 
popular.  Her  husband  took  no  part  in  the  govern- 
ment. When  the  allies  entered  Tuscany  in  1S14, 
she  of  course  had  to  leave  Florence.  She  died,  at 
Bologna,  of  nervous  fever,  in  1820. 

BACK,  in  maritime  language,  has  many  techni- 
cal applications.  To  back  mi  aiiclior,  is  to  support 
the  large  anchor  by  a  smaller  one,  in  order  to 
jirevent  it  from  loosening  and  coining  home  in  bad 
ground.  To  back  and  Jill,  is  a  mode  of  tacking  when 
the  tide  is  with  a  vessel,  but  the  wind  against  her. 
To  back  the  sails,  is  so  to  arrange  them  as  to  make 
the  ship  move  astern  or  backwards;  it  is  done 
when  the  tide  or  current  is  with  the  ship,  and  light 
winds  against  her;  and  the  manceuvre  is  useful  to 
avoid  collisions  in  narrow  chaniuls,  to  bring  the 
ship  into  a  particular  position  during  naval  engage- 
ments, or  to  keep  ships  well  asunder  when  crowded 
in  convoy.  To  back  the  inaintop-sail,  and  anala- 
gous  operations  to  other  sails,  is  so  to  arrange  a 
sail  that  the  speed  of  the  ship's  progress  may  be 
checked. 

BACK,  Siu  George,  a  well-known  traveller  in 
the  polar  I'egions,  was  born  at  Stockport  in  179(5. 
He  entered  early  on  a  naval  career,  and  accompa- 
nied Franklin  and  Rieliardson  in  their  expedition 
to  the  north  coast  of  America.  He  volunteered  to 
the  government  to  go  in  search  of  Captain  Ross, 
who  was  supposed  to  have  been  lost  in  his  attempt 
to  discover  the  North-west  Passage  ;  and  his  oft'cr 
having  been  accepted,  he  left  London,  February  17, 
1833,  and  on  the  2Sth  of  June,  started  from 
Norwayhouse,  a  station  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Com-  , 
paiiy,  on  his  journey  to  the  north.  After  passing 
a  teirible  winter  with  his  companions  at  Slave 
Lake,  he  discovered,  in  1834,  Artillery  Lake,  and 
the  Great  Fish  River,  or  Back's  River,  which  he 
follow-ed  to  the  Frozen  Ocean.  Being  liindered 
by  the  ice  from  proceeding  along  the  coast  as  far 
as  Cape  Turn-again,  he  returned  by  the  river;  but 
although  he  had  received  news  of  the  return  of 
Captain  Ross,  he  continued  his  explorations  in 
the  North  Sea,  and  did  not  return  to  England 
until    1835,    when   he    was   raised   to    the    rank   of 


post-captain  for  his  services.  In  1836  and  183',  he 
further  ex{)lored  the  arctic  shores  in  the  interests 
of  geography — the  Geographical  Society,  in  tlio 
latter  year,  bestowing  its  gold  medal  upon  him. 
Two  years  afterwards,  he  was  knighted,  and  he 
has  since  had  a  lucrativ(>  Treasury  apiiointment. 
Accounts  of  his  two  expeditions,  written  by  himself, 
have  been  published. 

BACKERGU'NGE,  a  town  of  Bengal,  situated 
on  Backergunge  Creek,  an  offset  from  the  Ganges, 
in  lat.  22°  33'  N.,  and  long.  90°  22'  E. — 125  miles  to 
the  east  of  Calcutta.  Till  supplanted  by  Burrisol. 
which  is  12  miles  to  the  north,  it  was  the  capital  of 
the  district  of  the  same  name. 

BACKERGU'NGE,  the  district  named  from  the 
foregoing  town.  It  extends  in  N.  lat.  from  22"  2' 
to  23'  13',  and  in  E.  long,  from  89°  49'  to  91°, 
containing  3794  square  miles,  and  733,800  inhabit- 
ants, or  about  193  inhabitants  to  a  square  mile. 
Like  the  rest  of  the  great  delta  of  Bengal,  B, 
is  of  alluvial  formation  and  level  surface,  being 
watered  at  once  by  the  lower  streams  of  the  Ganges 
and  the  Brahmaputra,  and  also  by  the  various 
branches  or  oft'sets  which  interlace  together  those 
mighty  rivers.  In  consequence  of  the  great  number 
of  water-courses,  which  at  once  cool  the  atmosphere 
and  drain  the  soil,  the  country  is  fertile,  and  the 
temperature  is  said  never  to  rise  above  88°  in  the 
shade.  From  the  same  cause,  the  district  is  inde- 
pendent of  regular  roads  for  intercourse  and  com- 
munication. In  the  season  of  high-water,  as  may 
be  expected,  inundations  are  conniion.  To  guard 
against  them,  the  houses  aie  built  on  mounds; 
while  the  corresponding  excavations,  like  the  natural 
'water-holes'  of  Australia,  serve  as  tanks  against 
the  effects  of  the  dry  season.  As  is  often  the  case 
in  alluvial  regions,  land-sli[is  are  frequent,  and  also 
the  opening  of  new  channels  for  the  streams.  The 
productions  are  rice,  sugar,  cotton,  jmlse,  mustard, 
cocoa-nut,  betel  nut,  mango,  guava,  plantains,  limes, 
pine-apples,  ginger,  and  turmeric.  Jiuffaloes  are 
said  to  be  generally  used  instead  of  oxen,  of  which 
the  domestic  breed  is  small  and  poor. 

BACKGA'MMON  is  the  modern  name  of  a  game 
of  considerable  antiquity  in  England,  where  it  was 
formerly  known  by  the  appellation  of  'the  tables.* 
The  words  back-gammon  have  been  ascribed  to  the 
Welsh  tongue,  in  which  they  are  said  to  signify 
little  ba'tle ;  but  Strutt  with  greater  plausibility, 
traces  the  term  to  the  Saxon  ^  bnc  and  (/amen — that 
is,  back-game — so  denominated  bccaus-e  the  perform- 
ance consists  in  the  two  players  bringing  their  men 
back  from  their  antagonist's  tables  into  their  own ; 
or  because  the  pieces  are  sometimes  taken  up  and 
obliged  to  go  back — that  is,  re-enter  at  the  table 
they  came  from.'  Whatever  be  the  etymology  of 
the  term,  the  game  has  been  long  established  in  the 
country  ;  and  as  a  fireside  amusement  of  a  decorous 
nature,  is  a  favourite  among  clergymen,  squires, 
farmers,  and  retired  professional  persons. 

B.  is  played  with  an  apparatus  consisting  of  a 
board  or  tallies,  men  or  pieces,  dice,  and  dice-boxes. 
The  introduction  of  dice  into  the  game,  and  their 
constant  use  in  determining  moves,  makes  B. 
essentially  a  game  of  chance,  and  therefore  brings 
two  players  of  umqual  talents  nearer  a  level 
than  other  diversions  in  which  skill  is  the  sole 
or  preduminant  cleuient.  The  B.  board  consists 
of  two  parts  or  lables,  generally  united  by  a  hinge 
in  the  middle,  by  \shiih  they  can  be  shut  up  as 
a  box.  Each  table  possesses  twelve  points,  si-; 
at  each  end.  These  points  are  colored  while 
and  black  alternately  ;  but  this  variation  of  colour 
has  no  reference  to  the  game,  and  is  only  done 
to  make  the  points  more  easily  counted.     The  game 

606 


BACKIIUYSEN— BACOX. 


is  pluycd  by  two  partic?,  aiul  with  30  pieces  or 
iiioii ;  each  party  has  15  men,  one  set  of  1.5  being 
L!ack,  and  tlie  otlier  wliite.  In  beginning  tiie 
game,  the  men  arc  ])laced  on  certain  points  on 
t!ie  tables,  as  shown  in  the  following  fignre.  The 
game  is  played  with  two  dice  and  two  dice-boxes. 
The  dice  are  common  to  both  ;  but  each  party 
uses  his  own  dice-box,  and  the  throws  are  alternate. 
Each  die  is  a  perfect  cu))o,  marked  on  its  sides  with 
dots  from  1  to  d.  Tlie  1  is  called  are ;  the  2,  deuce; 
the  3,  tre  or  trolx  ;  the  4,  (jwifre ;  the  5,  cinque  ;  and 
tlie  0,  fiize.  At  every  throw,  the  two  dice  arc 
employed ;  consequently,  a  person  may  throw  from 
1  U|)  to  12 — that  is,  two  aces  up  to  two  sizes.  If 
a  player  throw  doublets,  or  both  dice  of  one  imtnber, 
double  the  number  of  dots  is  reckoncil ;  thus,  by 
a  tlirow  of  two  aces,  the  player  docs  not  count 
2,  but  4.  Those  nundjcrs  thrown  or  accidentally 
turned  up  by  the  dice,  bear  a  reference  to  the  points 
on  the  tables.  In  order  to  understand  this  connec- 
tion between  the  dice  and  the  men,  the  learner  must 
observe  how  the  men  arc  placed  on  the  points,  and 
the  rules  by  which  their  shifting  from  one  to  another 
is  governed. 


The  Backgammon  Table. 

The  tables  are  here  spread  out  as  if  two  partners 
■were  seated,  and  about  to  begin  to  play.  The  party 
owning  the  \\hite  men  is  seated  at  W,  and  the  party 
owning  the  black  men  at  B.  We  shall  call  one 
party  White,  and  another  Black.  White  counts 
round  from  the  ace-point  of  Black,  and  Black 
counts  round  from  the  ace-point  of  White.  These 
ace-points  arc  respectively  seen  to  have  two  men 
uiKin  them  in  opposite  corners  of  the  same  table. 
The  grand  oliject  of  the  game  is  for  each  party 
to  get  all  his  men  played  round  into  the  table 
containing  the  aces,  removing  them  from  point 
to  point  agreeable  to  the  throws  of  the  dice.  In 
throwing,  the  number  upon  each  die  turned  up 
may  be  reckoned  by  itself,  or  collectively,  with  the 
number  on  the  other  die.  Thus,  if  quatre  be  thrown 
by  one  die,  and  size  by  the  other,  a  man  can  be 
iidvanced  4  points,  and  another  6  points;  or  one 
man  can  be  advanced  10  points,  always  providing 
th;\t  a  point  is  open  to  suit  this  movemerit  to  it. 
Xo  point  can  be  moved  to  if  covered  by  two  men 
belonging  to  the  adversary.  If  covered  by  only 
one  man,  which  is  called  a  blot,  then  that  man  can 
l>e  hit,  and  lie  removed  from  the  point,  and  placed 
o:i  the  bar  between  the  tables,  his  jjlacc  being  taken 
1  y  the  man  who  has  won  it.  The  removal  of  a  man 
to  the  bars  throws  a  plaver  considerably  behind 
606 


in  the  game,  because  the  man  must  remain  out 
of  the  play  till  the  dice  turn  up  a  ntnnber  corre- 
sponding to  one  open  point  on  the  adversary's  table. 
j  Being  fortunate  to  get  an  open  point  by  this  means, 
the  man  must  be  entered  and  wrought  round  from 
j  thence,  as  in  the  case  of  others  in  the  set  to  which 
he  belongs.  The  frequent  occurrence  of  tiiis  liitting 
I  of  a  blot  gives  an  adversary  a  great  advantage,  and 
j  allows  him  to  win  the  gammon.  There  are  t«o 
kinds  of  \ictory — winning  the  hit,  and  winning 
the  gammon.  The  party  who  has  played  all  his 
men  round  into  his  own  table,  and  by  fortunate 
throws  of  the  dice  has  borne  or  played  the  men 
off  the  points  first,  wins  the  hit.  The  g.immon  may 
be  explained  as  follows:  When  you  liave  got  all 
your  men  lound  to  your  own  table,  covering  every 
point,  and  your  adversary  has  a  man  out,  then  you 
are  enabled  to  bear  or  lift  your  men  away.  If  you 
can  bear  all  away,  so  as  to  clear  your  table  V)efore 
the  adversary  gets  his  man  placed  by  a  throw  on 
your  table,  you  win  the  gammon.  If  the  adversary 
lias  been  able  to  bear  one  before  you  liave  borne 
all  your  men,  it  reduces  the  victory  to  a  hit.  Two 
hits  are  reckoned  etpial  to  one  gammon  in  playing 
matches.  To  \\\\\  two  games  out  of  three  is  called 
winning  the  rub,  as  at  whist. 

BA'CKIirVSEN',  Linoirn,  one  of  the  most 
faTnoiis  painters  of  the  Dutch  .--chool,  a  master 
in  marine  painting,  was  >)orn  at  Kmden  in  KiIJl. 
His  parents  intended  him  for  a  commeicial  career  ; 
but  he  iiad  not  been  long  in  a  mercantile  oHicc 
in  Amsterdan),  to  Avhich  he  had  been  sent  at  the 
age  of  18,  before  he  resolved  to  devote  himself  to 
l)ainting,  and  with  that  object  received  instruction 
i'rom  Evendingen,  and  attained,  in  a  short  time, 
extraordinary  skill  and  readiness  in  execution.  Ho 
was  a  close  ."tudent  of  nature  ;  so  much  so,  that  on 
the  approach  of  a  storm  he  often  put  to  sea  in  a 
boat,  in  order  to  watch  and  sketch  its  effects,  which 
he  transferred  to  canvas  immediately  on  his  return 
home.  His  most  famous  picture  is  the  sea-piece 
in  the  gallery  at  Paris,  which  he  was  commissioned 
to  paint  by  the  magistrates  of  Amsterdam,  and 
which  was,  in  1(50.5,  sent  as  a  present  to  Louis 
XIV.  In  all  his  pictures,  the  utmost  truthfulness 
])re vails,  at  the  same  lime  that  they  embody  all  the 
poetry  of  the  sea.  His  colouring  is  also  excellent. 
After  ho  was  71  years  old,  he  began  etching  on 
copper.  He  also  made  attempts  in  poetry,  and 
ga^•e  lessons  in  writing,  an  art  which  he  did  much 
to  promote.     He  died,  after  long  illness,  in  1TII',1. 

BACK-STAYS  are  long  ropes  which  extend  from 
the  topmast-heads  down  to  the  sides  of  a  .ship, 
where  they  are  fastened  in  such  a  way  as  to  assist 
the  shrouds  in  supporting  the  masts.  Piflierent 
kinds  are  distinguished  as  after-B.,  Ireast-B.,  and 
travclling-stans.  One  rope  generally  forms  a  pair  of 
B. ;  being  looped  in  the  nuddle  to  pass  over  the 
mast-head. 

BACOX  (from  a  root  in  the  Teutonic  languages 
which  seems  to  be  allied  to  the  Lat.  vaeca  [in  mid. 
Lat.  bacea].,  a  cow,  and  to  have  signified  an  animal 
in  general;  bac/ie,  in  Ger.,  signifies  among  hunters 
a  wild  sow ;  bake,  in  Dutch,  a  swine  in  general) 
is  the  cured  sides  of  a  pig ;  while  bacon-hams 
are  the  hind-legs  cured.  The  mode  of  curing  will 
be  described  under  H.v.vs;  and  their  properties 
as  articles  of  food,  under  Pork. 

BACOX  BEETLE.     See  Dermestes. 

BACOX,  Sir  Xicholas,  the  father  of  lord 
Bacon,  was  born  in  1510,  at  Chiselhurst,  in  Kent, 
lie  received  an  excellent  education  ;  and  being 
gifted  by  nature  v.iih  sound  and  practical  abilities, 
he  quicl.l}'  prospered  in  the  legal  profession,  to 
which   he   attached   himself.      At   the   age    of  27, 


BACO^. 


he  was  appointed  solicitor  to  the  Court  of  Aug- 
mentations ;  two  years  later,  on  the  dissohuion  of 
the  monasteries  by  Uenry  VIII.,  he  had  the  courage 
to  present  to  tliat  irascible  monarch  a  reasonable 
project  for  ai)[)lying  the  wealtii  which  had  been 
'rescued'  from  tlie  church.  It  was  this:  that 
Henry  shoukl  employ  a  portion  of  it  in  fomulii'.g 
a  college  for  the  study  of  politics  and  dijiloniacy. 
Unfortunately,  the  king  had  already  squandered  it 
away  in  presents,  and  was  unable  to  comply  with 
the  wise  suggestion  of  the  young  lawyer ;  but  pro- 
bably he  rcmeiiibercd  his  good  sense,  for,  in  154(), 
Hcin-y  advanced  hiui  to  the  office  of  Attorney  of 
the  Court  of  Wards,  which  li,c  retained  during  the 
reign  of  Edward  YI. ;  but  his  Protestantism  neces- 
sarily caused  him  to  be  deprived  of  all  public 
honours  and  emoluments  after  the  subsequent 
Catholic  succession.  On  the  death  of  Mary,  how- 
ever, he  was  made  a  member  of  the  Protestant  part 
of  the  Privy  Council,  by  (^ueen  Elizabeth ;  and 
in  ISOS,  received  at  her  hands  the  Great  Seal.  In 
the  beginning  of  1559,  he  opened  pailiameiit  with 
a  judicious  speech  on  the  difficult  subject  of  a 
national  religion.  He  was  also  president  of  that 
assembly  of  ecclesiastical  disputants  which  met  in 
Westminister  two  months  later,  to  discuss  the 
points  of  controversy  between  Protestants  and 
Catholics.  In  15G4,  he  suft'ered  a  temporary  eclipse 
of  royal  favour,  on  account  of  the  too  patriotic 
character  of  his  religion  ;  but  through  the  persever- 
ing elVorts  of  his  old  and  constant  friend,  Sir  William 
Cecil,  he  was  at  length  restored  to  the  sunshine  in 
which  he  had  been  accustomed  to  bask.  Elizabeth 
even  went  the  length  of  paying  him  a  visit  in  1577, 
at  his  magnificent  mansion  of  Gorhambury,  in 
Hertfordshire.  He  died  on  the  20th  of  February 
1579.  Sir  Nicholas  was  one  of  those  solid  and 
stately  Englishmen  to  whose  sagacity,  high  principle, 
and  firm  demeanour  his  country  owed  its  safety  in 
that  critical  period  when  Elizabeth  mounted  the 
throne. 

BA'CON,  FuANCLs,  Lord  YERfLAM,  Viscount 
St.  Alhans,  born  in  London,  January  22,  1561, 
was  the  son  of  Sir  Nicholas  Bacon  (q.  v.).  His 
mother  was  the  learned  Anne  Cooke.  In  early 
childhood,  he  manifested  superior  powers,  and  an 
ardent  love  of  knowledge  ;  his  intelligence  was  so 
precocious,  and  his  sedateness  so  remarkable,  that 
the  queen  took  pleasure  in  calling  him  her  '  young 
Lord  Keeper.'  At  the  age  of  thirteen,  he  was  sent 
to  the  university  of  Cambridge,  which  he  quitted, 
after  a  residence  of  three  years,  with  a  low  opinion 
of  the  course  of  study  pursued  there,  and,  as  well,  of 
the  Aristotelian  philosophy.  On  leaving  the  univer- 
sity, he  went  to  Paris,  in  the  suite  of  Sir  Amias 
Paulet,  the  English  ambassador,  and  there  occupied 
himself  chiefly  with  statistics  and  diplomacy,  the 
result  of  his  studies  and  observation  being  a  work, 
afterwards  ])ublished.  Of  the  Stale  of  Europe.  Tiie 
sudden  death  of  his  father,  about  tlie  end  of  1579, 
recalled  him  in  1580  to  England,  where,  after  failing 
to  procure  from  the  government  a  provision  which 
would  cnalilo  him  to  devote  himself  to  science  and 
literature,  he  betook  himself  for  several  years  to  the 
study  of  law.  Ilis  professional  progress  was  at  first 
very  slow,  and,  contrary  to  what  might  have  been 
expected,  it  was  long  before  he  could  obtain  promo- 
tion in  the  puljlic  service.  This  want  of  success 
was  chiefly  owing  to  the  hostility  of  his  uncle,  the 
queen's  first  minister.  Lord  Burleigh  (see  Cecil),  who 
regarded  him  as  a  dangerous  rival  to  his  own  son. 
To  Lord  Burleigh  and  his  son,  B.,  in  the  hope  of  ad- 
vancement, had  paid  court  till  it  was  clear  no  favour 
was  to  be  expected  from  them,  when  he  betook  him- 
self to  their  rival,  the  Earl  of  P^ssex,  whose  friendship 
he  speedily  won.     But  the  earl's  influence  could  not 


counteract  the  continued  opposition  of  the  Cecils, 
through  whom  he  was  defeated,  in  1594,  in  an 
attempt  to  obtain  for  B,  the  then  vacant  office  of 
attorney-general.  What  he  could  do  lor  his  friend, 
however,  he  did,  for  shortly  alter  this  disappoint- 
ment he  presented  him  with  an  est;ite  at  Twickenham 
worth  £2000  a  year.  It  is  ])aiid'ul  to  relate  that  B. 
repaid  the  generous  friendship  of  his  patron  with 
flagrant  ingratitude.  When  Essex  was  subseqiiently 
brought  to  trial  for  a  conspiracy  against  the  queen, 
B-  came  forward  as  his  accuser  with  tongue  and  pen ; 
he  uiMieees.sarily  appeared  as  counsel  against  the 
friend  who  had  so  largely  obliged  and  confided  in 
him,  and  used  all  his  great  talents  and  ingenuity  as 
a  pleader  to  magiufy  his  crimes  and  secure  their 
punishment.  B.  was  straitened  at  the  time  in  his 
circumstances,  through  his  extravagant  mode  of  life, 
and,  moreover,  was  anxious  to  conciliate  the  court, 
whose  anger  he  had  provoked  by  having  espoused  the 
popular  cause  on  his  first  entering  parliament  as  mem- 
ber for  Middlesex  in  1595.  Bet  whatever  the  temp- 
tation was,  it  caimot  affect  our  opinion  of  conduct  so 
mean  and  inmioral.  It  remains  to  be  stated,  that, 
after  the  earl's  execution,  he  wrote,  at  the  request 
of  the  queen,  A  Declaratioii  of  the  Practices  and 
Treasons  Attempted  and  Commit  ted  bi/  Robert  Earl  of 
Essex,  which  was  printed  by  authority. 

In  1590,  B.  obtained  the  post  of  Counsel  Extra- 
ordinary to  the  Queen,  and  a  lew  years  afterwards, 
he  entered  parliament  as  member  for  Middlesi'x.  It 
was  not,  however,  till  the  reign  of  James  I.  that  he 
made  rapid  progress.  He  was  knighted  in  UiO-S,  and 
in  the  following  year  was  appointed  salaried  counsel 
to  the  crown;  by  1613,  he  had  advanced  to  the 
office  of  Attorney-general,  in  which  he  uncon- 
ditionally subserved  the  purposes  of  the  court. 
His  conduct  as  attorney,  in  attempting  to  extort  by 
the  rack  a  confession  of  treason  from  an  old  clergy- 
man of  the  name  of  Peacham,  has  met  with  univer- 
sal and  deserved  condemnation.  He  did  not,  how- 
ever, cringe  to  the  king  and  the  royal  favourite, 
Yilliers,  except  to  good  purpose.  In  1617,  he  was 
appointed  Keeper  of  the  Great  Seal,  and  in  1619 
attained  the  dignity  of  the  Lord  Chancellorship,  with 
the  title  of  Lord  Yerulam.  In  the  year  following,  he 
was  created  Viscount  St.  Albans. 

Having  attained  the  highest  honours  of  the 
state  by  truckling  to  the  king  and  his  favourite, 
B.  proceeded  to  abuse  his  judicial  functions  to 
increase  his  revenues,  which,  great  as  they  were, 
were  unequal  to  his  extravagance.  Though  his 
official  income  was  great,  and  his  means  had  beca 
enlarged  by  a  marriage  with  the  daughter  of  a 
wealthy  alderman,  he  could  only  support  his  style 
of  life  by  contracting  debt  and  accepting  bribes  from 
suitors.  Nor  was  money  his  only  motive  to  false 
judgments;  he  more  than  once  polluted  the  stream 
of  justice,  to  maintain  the  fiivour  of  Buckingham. 
By  1721,  the  state  of  the  courts  had  become  so  scan- 
dalous as  to  call  for  a  parliamentary  inqinry,  which 
resulted  in  his  being  convicted,  on  his  own  written 
confession,  of  twenty-three  acts  of  corruption.  In 
consequence,  he  was  condemned  to  pay  a  fine  of 
£110,(100,  and  to  be  confined  in  the  Tower  during 
the  king's  pleasure ;  he  was  banished  for  life  from 
the  court,  and  declared  unfit  to  hold  any  office  of 
state,  or  to  sit  in  parliament.  The  fine,  however, 
was  remitted;  the  inqirisonment  lasted  only  two 
days  ;  he  was  allowed  again  to  appear  at  court,  and, 
indeed,  was  summoned  to  .sit  in  the  very  next  par- 
liament. Age,  however,  failing  health,  and  jierhaps 
shame,  prevented  him  from  appearing.  Banished 
from  public  life,  he  henceforth  devoted  himself  to 
literature  and  science,  enjoying  from  the  government 
a  pension  of  £12(I0,  and  an  annual  income,  in  all,  of 
£2500.     His  tnodc  of  life  still,  however,   continued 

607 


BACON. 


to  be  so  prodigal  and  ostentations  that,  at  his  death, 
in  1620,  his  debts  amounted  to  upwards  of  £'22,0O(). 
The  immediate  occasion  of  his  death  (as  related  by 
Aubrey,  wlio  probably  got  it  from  Hobbes,  who  was 
B.'s  intimate  Irieud)  was  cold  caught  in  maiiing  an 
experiment  to  test  the  power  of  snow  to  preserve 
flesli.  lie  died  in  the  house  of  the  Earl  of  Annidel, 
to  which  be  had  been  removed  witli  tlie  fatal  ciiill 
upon  him  which  he  had  caught  in  the  course  of  the 
experiment. 

Wliile,  on  the  whole,  the  public  life  of  Lord  B. 
is  marked  by  meanne.>-s  and  dishonour,  Ids  literary 
and  scientific  works  are  everywhere  irradiated  by 
the  powerful  liglit  of  an  intellect  wiiich  towered 
over  those  of  other  men.  The  first  edition  of  his 
£ssa>/s  appeared  in  1S9T  ;  his  two  books  of  the 
Advancement  of  Learning  in  1005;  his  Wisdom  of 
the  Ancients — in  Latin — in  1010;  a  third  edition 
of  his  £ssai/s,  greatly  extended,  in  1012;  his  two 
books  of  tlie  JVovnin  Orrianum,  or  second  part  of 
the  Instawatio  Magna,  designed  to  consist  of  .six 
parts — also  in  Latin — in  102o;  liis  Historij  of  the 
Reign  of  Henry  VII.,  in  1022;  his  nine  ])Ooks,  Dc 
Augmentis  Scieniiarinn — a  Latin  translation  and 
extension  of  his  Adva)uc7/ient  of  Learning — in  1023. 
Besides  these,  he  wrote  several  minor  works,  which 
need  not  here  be  specially  mentioned.  It  is  enough 
to  say  that  his  writings  embrace  almost  all  subjects, 
from  jurisprudence — which  he  treated  not  as  a 
mere  lawyer,  but  as  a  legislator  and  pliilosopher — to 
morality  and  medicine.  The  Srrtnones  Fidrlcs  is  a 
treasury  of  the  deepest  knowledge  of  human  rela- 
tions, conveyed  in  a  gorgeous  and  energetic  style. 
Almost  the  oidy  science  with  which  he  was  unac- 
quainted was  that  of  mathematics.  Thus  singularly 
gifted  and  accomplished,  he  appeared  at  a  time  when 
science,  from  a  variety  of  causes,  started  on  that 
progress  which  has  never  since  been  arrested.  If  it 
is  now  a  (luestion  how  far  he  contributed  by  his 
genius  to  that  progi-ess  at  its  connMicement,  it  is 
a  fact  that  he  was  long  vulgarly  regarded  by  his 
countrymen  as  *he  father  of  Inductive  Philosophy 
— as  having  been  the  inventor  and  first  teacher 
of  the  method  of  interrogating  nature  by  obser- 
vation and  experiment  and  inductive  reasoning. 
Nor  arc  his  writings  wanting  in  materials  quali- 
fied ex  facie  to  support  his  title  to  that  eminence. 
His  claim  to  the  distinction,  however,  has  of  late 
been  the  subject  of  much  controversy,  the  result 
of  which  is  that  it  has  been  generally  disallowed. 
But  if  it  be  true  that  he  had  a  somewhat  vague 
and  imperfect  apprehension  of  the  philosophy  of 
induction,  overestimated  the  province  of  observa- 
tion, and  undervalued  the  use  of  deduction  and 
hypothesis,  and  that  even  his  classification  of  the 
sciences  in  the  I)e  Augmentis,  on  which  his  reputa- 
tion long  turned,  has  been  properly  superseded  by 
the  superior  and  better-reasoned  classification  of  M. 
Comte  ;  still  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  he  was 
one  of  the  first  that  was  aware  of  the  true  character 
of  the  positive  philosophy,  and  who  understood  its 
conditions,  and  foresaw  its  final  supremacy  ;  and  as 
for  his  classification,  that  it  was  a  marvellous  effort 
of  reason  at  a  time  when  the  sciences  were  in  their 
infancy,  and  many  of  them  were  yet  unborn.  Also, 
it  nmst  be  said,  that  if  B.  cannot  be  claimed  by  the 
physicists  as  the  fiithcr  of  their  science,  and  they 
must  look  rather  to  Galileo,  yet  he  may  fairly  be 
claimed  in  that  character  by  the  students  of  man  and 
society  ;  for  he  was  the  first  to  aim  at  the  exten- 
sion of  the  methods  of  positive  philosophy  to  moral 
and  social  conceptions.  If  recent  criticisms  have 
dethroned  him  from  the  position  which  for  centuries 
he  occupied  in  relation  to  the  physical  sciences,  by 
shewing  that  neither  his  doctrines,  experiments,  nor 
writings  have  materiahy  afiected  their  course,  it  is 
608 


oidy  to  leave  him  free  to  be  j)laced  in  a  position  no 
less  dignified  in  relation  to  human  and  social  phi- 
losophy. 

As  a  writer,  B.  presents  us  in  combination  an 
intellect  at  once  one  of  the  most  capacious  and  pro- 
found that  ever  appeared  among  men — on(>  of  the 
most  penetrating,  one  of  tlie  most  far-reaching — and 
an  imagination  almost  equally  reuuirkable.  In  no 
other  writer  is  so  nnich  profound  thought  to  be 
foimd  expressed  in  such  splendid  eloquence.  'If,' 
says  Ilallam  {Literature  of  Europe,  iii.  218),  'we 
com[)are  what  may  be  found  in  the  sixth,  seventh, 
and  eighth  books  I)e  Augmentis,  in  the  Essays,  the 
History  of  Henry  VII.,  and  the  various  short 
treatises  contained  in  his  works  on  moral  and 
political  wisdom  and  on  human  nature,  i'rom  expe- 
rience of  which  all  such  wi.-dom  is  drawn,  with  the 
Rhetoric,  Ethics,  and  Politics  of  Aristotle,  or  with  the 
historians  most  celebrated  for  their  deep  insight  into 
civil  society  and  hutnan  eharactei — with  Thucydides, 
Tacitus,  Philip  de  Comities,  Machiavel,  Davila,  Hume 
— we  shall,  I  think,  find  that  one  man  may  almost 
be  coni]iared  with  all  of  tliese  togrther.' 

The  collected  works  and  life  of  Lord  B.  were 
published  by  Mallet  in  5  vols.  (Lond.  1705);  a  good 
edition  is  that  of  Montague  (10  vols.,  Lond.  1825 — 
18o4);  but  the  best,  it  is  generally  admitted,  is  the 
last  (5  vols.,  edited  by  Messrs  Spedding,  Ellis,  and 
Heath,  Lond.  1858).  Montague's  edition  gave  occa- 
sion to  an  able  review  of  B.'s  character  by  Lord 
Macaulay,  to  be  found  among  his  /7.wni/.s.  The  Encyclo- 
padias  Britannica  and  Mctropolittma  contain  valu- 
able papers  on  his  writings,  on  which  also  t>ir  John 
Ilerschel's  Preliminary  Discourse  in  Lardners 
EncyclojHcdia  may  be  consulted. 

BA'CON,  RocER,  an  English  monk,  who,  through 
the  force  of  his  intellect,  raised  himself  iar  above 
his  age,  made  wonderfid  discoveries  in  several 
sciences,  and  contributed  much  to  extend  the  then 
scanty  knowledge  of  nature.  He  was  descended 
of  a  respectable  family,  and  born  at  Ilchester, 
in  the  county  of  Somerset,  1214.  He  studied 
at  Oxford,  and  then  at  Paris,  where  he  received 
the  degree  of  Doctor  in  theology ;  and  soon  after 
his  return  home,  he  entered  the  order  of  the 
Franciscans,  and  settled  at  Oxford.  Physics  seems 
to  have  been  at  that  time  the  chief  object  of 
his  labours ;  and  liberal  friends  of  science  supplied 
him  with  the  means  of  pursuing  his  researches.  In 
exploring  the  secrets  of  nature,  he  made  discoveries 
and  invented  applications  which  were  looked  upon 
by  the  ignorant  as  the  work  of  hellish  magic. 
This  prejudice  was  encouraged  by  the  jealousy 
and  hate  with  which  his  brother  monks  regarded 
his  superiority.  Besides,  he  loudly  denounced  the 
ignorance  and  immorality  of  the  clergy,  especially 
of  the  monks,  and  even  wrote  a  letter  to  the 
pope,  in  which  he  represented  to  him  the  necessity 
of  clerical  reform.  Out  of  revenge,  an  accusation 
was  brought  against  him  at  the  papal  court,  and 
the  pope  interdicted  him  from  teaching  in  the 
university.  He  was  shortly  after  imprisoned, 
forbidden  all  human  intercourse,  and  hardly  allowed 
suflScient  food.  Among  the  few  clear-sighted  men 
who  admired  Bacon's  genius,  and  pitied  his  misfor- 
tunes, was  the  cardinal-bishop  of  Sabina,  at  that 
time  papal  legate  in  England.  He  desired  to  see 
Bacon's  writings,  but  the  interdiction  of  the  Fran- 
ciscans prevented  a  compliance  with  his  wish.  On 
his  ascent  to  the  papal  throne  as  Clement  IV.,  B. 
wrote  to  him,  expressing  his  readiness  to  furnish  him 
with  whatever  he  desired,  and  Clement  in  reply 
repeated  his  request  to  see  B.'s  works,  in  defiance  of 
the  Franciscan  prohibition.  B.  accordingly  drew 
up  his  Opus  Majus  (edited  by  Jebb,  1733),  which  he 
sent,   along  with  two  other  works,  it  is  said,  to  the 


BACOX— BACTRIS. 


pope,  by  liis  favourite  pupil,  John  of  London,  and  in 
which  he  represented  the  necessity  of  a  reformation 
in  the  sciences  through  a  diligent  study  of  the 
languages  and  of  nature.  How  Clement  received 
tliem  is  not  very  well  known  ;  but  they  could  only 
have  reached  him  about  the  time  he  was  seized  with 
his  last  illness.     J'or  ten  years  after  Clement's  death, 

B.  was  free  from  open  persecution  at  least.  But  in 
1278,  under  Nicolas  III.,  the  general  of  the  Francis- 
can order,  Jerome  of  Esculo,  declaied  himself  against 

C,  forbade  the  reading  of  his  books,  and  issued  an 
order  for  his  imprisonment,  which  was  sanctioned 
by  the  pope.  This  new  imprisonment  lasted  ten 
years.  When  Jerome  of  Esculo  became  pope,  under 
the  name  of  Nicolas  IV.,  B.  sent  him  a  Treatise  on 
the  Means  of  ivarding  off  the  Infirmities  of  Old  Age 
(Lat.  Oxf.  1590;  Eng.",  by  Brown,  1683),  with  a 
view  to  convince  him  of  the  harmlessness  and  utility 
of  his  labours,  but  in  vain.  What  the  pope  refused 
to  the  representations  of  the  old  philosopher,  was 
yielded  to  the  intercession  of  several  influential  Eng- 
lish nol)leinen,  and  B.  at  last  recovered  his  freedom. 
He  returned  to  Oxford,  wrote  a  compendium  of  the- 
ology, and  shortly  after  died — according  to  some,  in 
12U2,  to  others,  in  1294-. 

B.,  although  an  extraordinary  genius,  could  not 
rid  himself  of  all  the  prejudices  of  his  times.  He 
believed  in  the  philosopher's  stone  and  in  astrology. 
His  chief  invention  is  the  magnifying-glass.  There 
are  also  in  his  writings  other  new  and  ingenious 
views  on  optics ;  for  example,  on  refraction,  on  the 
apparent  magnitude  of  objects,  on  the  great  increase 
in  the  size  of  the  sun  and  moon  in  the  horizon.  On 
other  subjects,  again,  he  fell  into  the  greatest  errors. 
He  made  several  chemical  discoveries  which  were 
wonders  at  that  time.  He  knew,  for  instance,  that 
with  sulphur,  saltpetre,  and  charcoal,  we  may  imi- 
tate lightning,  and  produce  explosions.  Mathematics, 
applied'to  observation,  he  considered  to  be  the  only 
means  of  arriving  at  a  knowledge  of  nature.  He 
studied  several  languages,  and  wrote  Latin  with 
great  elegance  and  clearness.  Deserving  of  honour- 
able mention  are  his  discoveries  of  the  errors  that 
prevailed  in  the  calendar,  and  his  proposals  and  data 
for  remedying  them,  in  which  he  came  very  near  the 
truth.  He  prepared  a  rectified  calendar,  of  which  a 
copy  is  preserved  in  the  Oxford  library.  On  account 
of  his  extensive  knowledge,  he  received  the  name  of 
'  Doctor  mirabilis.'  Several  of  his  works  have  never 
been  printed,  and  are  preserved  among  the  Cottouian 
manuscripts  in  the  British  Museum  ;  some  are  to  be 
found  in  French  libraries. 

BA'CON,  John,  a  distinguished  statuary,  was  born 
in  London,  174(),  and  died  there  August  7,  1799. 
He  was  at  first  a  painter  on  porcelain,  and  only 
began  to  work  in  marble  at  the  age  of  23  ;  yet  in 
1769  he  received  the  first  prize  from  the  Boyal 
Academy,  of  which  he  was  soon  after  made  a  mem- 
ber. His  statue  of  Mars  first  established  his  fame. 
Among  his  principal  works  are,  two  busts  of  George 
III.,  one  in  Christ  Church  College  at  Oxford,  the 
other  in  the  university  library  at  Gottingen ;  the 
monuments  of  Lord  Chatham  iii  Westminster  Abbey 
and  in  Guildhall;  the  statues  of  Howard  and  of 
Samuel  Johnson  in  St.  Paul's,  and  that  of  Blackstone 
at  Oxford.  B.  was  deficient  in  imagination,  and  had 
no  refined  perception  of  beauty. 

BACSA'NYI,  Janos  (pronounced  Bat-shan-yi),  a 
Hungarian  writer  and  poet,  was  )>orn  May  11,  1;63, 
at  Tapolcza,  in  the  circle  of  Szalader.  After  study- 
ing at  A'essprim,  Oedenburg,  and  Pesth,  he  became 
tutor  to  the  son  of  (ieiieral  Orczy,  and  while  thus 
employed,  published  his  first  work,  The  Valour  of 
the  Magyars  (Pesth,  1785).  He  received  the  same 
year  an  appointment  in  the  finance  department  at 
39 


Kaschau,  and  there,  in  conjunction  with  Baroti  and 
Pazinczy,  he  began  the  Magyar  Mmenm  (Kaschau 
and  Pesth,  1788—1792).  In'  1793,  in  consequence 
of  a  liberal  poem,  he  was  deprived  of  his  oHice,  and 
in  1794,  having  taken  part  in  the  conspiracy  of  Bishop 
Martinovich,  he  was  carried  to  Spielberg,  where  he 
was  confined  till  179(").  After  recovering  his  freedom, 
he  assisted  in  editing  the  Magyar  Minerra,  then 
came  to  Vienna,  where  he  held  an  oflSce  in  the  bank, 
and  married  (1805)  the  German  poetess,  Gabrielle 
Baumgarten — an  unhappy  match.  When  the  French 
entered  Vienna  in  18u9,  B.  translated  Napoleon's 
proclamation  to  the  Hungarians,  on  which  account 
he  found  himself  afterwards  obliged  to  take  refuge 
in  Paris.  After  the  peace  of  Paris,  he  was  given 
up,  and  had  Linz  assigned  him  as  a  compulsory  resi- 
dence, but  was  allowed  to  receive  his  French  pension 
till  his  death.  He  died  at  Linz,  May  12,  1845:  the 
Hungarian  Academy  had  in  1843  again  elected  the 
octogenarian  a  corresponding  member.  In  the  lat- 
ter part  of  his  life,  B.,  besides  other  works,  published 
his  Collected  Poems  (Pesth,  1827  ;  Ofen,  1«35).  We 
are  also  indebted  to  him  fqr  the  collected  edition  of 
the  poetical  works  of  Anyos  (Vienna,  1798)  and  of 
Faludi  (Pesth,  1824). 

BA'CTRTA,  the  ancient  name  of  the  imperfectly 
known  land  lying  between  the  western  part  of  the 
Hindu  Kush  mountains,  and  the  river  Oxus  (Amu, 
or  Gihon),  which  separated  it  from  Sogdiana  on 
the  north  and  north-east.  Its  boundaries  in  early 
times  cannot  he  precisely  ascertained,  but  it  is  gen- 
erally considered  to  have  been  identical  with  the 
modern  Balkh  (q.  v.).  B.  is  supposed  to  have  been 
the  seat  of  the  parent-people  from  which  the  Aryan 
(q.  v.)  or  Indo-European  family  of  nations  branched 
off.  The  ancient  Bactrians  of  historic  times  were 
akin  to  the  Modes  and  Persians,  and  used  the  Zend 
language.  B.  was  originally  the  centre  of  a  power- 
ful kingdom,  which  extended  itself  over  the  east  of 
Persia,  but  we  have  almost  no  record  of  its  early 
greatness  ;  we  only  know  that  Ninus,  the  Assyrian 
king,  in  spite  of  his  vast  army,  found  much  difficulty 
in  conquering  it,  and  that  when  Arbaces  besieged 
the  last  Assyrian  king,  Sardanapalus,  in  his  me- 
tropolis, he  was  assisted  by  a  large  force  of  Bactri- 
ans. It  is  believed  that  the  ancient  Persian  religion 
was  first  developed  in  Bactra  or  Zariaspa,  the  capital 
of  B.,  which  was  the  head-quarters  of  the  Magi 
till  the  land  was  overrun  by  the  Arabs,  and  a  centre- 
point  of  the  inland  trade  of  Asia.  The  modern 
town  of  Balkh  (q.  v.)  is  built  upon  its  site.  Alexan- 
der, on  his  return  from  Persia,  left  in  B.  a  colony 
of  14,000  Greeks,  who  here  extended  civilisation. 
After  the  death  of  Alexander,  B.  was  annexed  to 
the  kingdom  of  Syria;  but  was  raised  to  independ- 
ence by  its  governor,  Diodotns  I.,  who  founded  the 
Greek  kingdom  of  New  B.  about  256  n.  c.  The  his- 
tory of  this  kingdom  was  formerly  little  known,  but 
has  been  recently  elucidated  by  numerous  Grieco- 
Bactrian  coins  found  in  the  topes  or  burial-places  of 
Afghanistan.  These  coins  give  the  names  of  a  series 
of  kings,  and  bear  indications  of  the  political  circum- 
stances of  the  Greek  kingdom  of  B.  On  those  of 
Eucratides,  a  monarch  who  flourished  in.  the  age  of 
Mithridates,  there  are  found,  beside  the  Greek  char- 
acters, others  which  have  been  proved  to  belong  to 
a  dialect  of  the  Sanscrit,  and  have  been  very  happily 
deciphered  by  Mr.  Piinsep. 

BA'CTRIS,  a  genus  of  Palms,  of  which  nearly 
fifty  species  are  known,  all  American.  The  leaves 
of  some  are  pinnate,  those  of  others  entire.  They 
are  generally  small  palms,  some  of  them  very  small, 
and  with  slender  stems ;  that  of  £.  tenuis  is  not 
thicker  than  a  goose-quill.  Some  are  spiny,  and 
form  thickets  not  easily  traversed. .   B.  acanthocarpa 

609 


BACTRITE5— BADEN. 


is  called  Tucum,  near  Baliia,  and  from  it  an 
extremely  tough  thread  is  obtained,  which  is  used 
for  making  nets.  B.  Maroja,  the  Maraja'  palm, 
produces  large  clusters  of  fruit,  resembling  small 
grapes,  with  a  thin  pulp  of  an  agreeable  subacid 
flavour. 

EAGTRI'TES,  a  genus  of  fossil  Ammonitidce,  with 
a  straight  shell,  and  indented  but  not  ramified  septa. 
Five  species  have  been  described,  all  from  Devonian 
strata. 

BA'CULITES,  a  genus  of  the  family  of  ^wwoni- 
tidcp,  differing  from  the  true  Ammonitea 
(q.  V.)  in  the  perfectly  straight  form  of 
the  shell,  which  tapers  to  a  point,  and  is 
either  round  or  compressed.  The  species, 
like  the  other  Ammonitidae,  are  all  fossil. 
B.  are  characteristic  of  the  upper  chalk,  and 
appear  to  have  existed  only  towards  the 
expiry  of  the  period  over  which  the  exist- 
ence of  the  Ammonitidie  extended. 

BADA'GRY,  a  seaport  town  on  the  Gold 
Coast  of  Upper  Guinea.  Top.  10,000.  At 
one  time  it  carried  on  a  large  trade  in 
slaves  with  the  Portuguese,  who  here  es- 
tablished several  factories.  B.  lias  a  mon- 
arch, who  is  subject  to  the  king  of  Katunga. 
It  was  from  this  place  that  Lander  and 
Clappertnn  started  ou  their  expeditious  to 
explore  the  African  interior. 
Baculite.  BADA.TO'Z,  called  by  the  Romans 
Pax  Augusta,  and  by  the  Moors  Bele- 
daix,  i.e.  'Land  of  Health,'  is  the  capital  of  the 
Spanish  province  of  Estremadura.  It  is  situated 
about  five  miles  from  the  borders  of  Portugal,  in  a 
fruitful  district  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Guadiana, 
which  is  here  crossed  by  a  stone-bridge  of  28 
arches.  It  numbers  12,000  inhabitants,  is  the 
residence  of  a  captain-general,  and  the  sec  of  a 
bisliop,  has  a  cannon-foundry,  and  an  old  cathe- 
dral with  a  splendid  organ,  and  paintings  by 
Mateo  Cerezo  and  Morales,  who  was  born  at  B. ; 
a  brisk  traffic,  chiefly  contraband,  is  carried  on  with 
Portugal.  Its  chief  articles  of  manufacture  are 
soap,  coarse  woollens,  leather,  and  delft-ware.  As 
one  of  the  keys  of  I'ortugal,  B.  has  often  been 
a  place  of  importance  in  war.  It  was  besieged  in 
vain  by  the  Portuguese  in  IbCO,  and  again  by  the 
allies,  in  the  Spanish  War  of  Succession,  in  1*705. 
During  the  French  war,  B.  was  besieged  by  the 
French  in  1808  and  in  1800,  and  again  in  1811, 
V  hen  it  surrendered,  March  11,  to  Soult.  It  was 
thrice  besieged  by  the  English  under  Wellington : 
first  on  April  17,  1811,  after  the  conquest  of  Olivenza, 
on  which  occasion,  the  approach  of  Soult  to  its  re- 
lief caused  the  siege  to  be  raised  on  the  14th  of  May  ; 
the  second  time,  after  the  battles  of  Fuentes  d'Onor 
and  Albuera,  the  city  was  invested  from  May  27 
to  June  10,  1811,  but  still  in  vain.  The  third  invest- 
ment, March  17,  1812,  ended  in  the  taking  of  the 
city  by  storm,  on  the  night  of  April  6,  after  a  mur- 
derous contest,  and  a  loss  during  the  twenty  days' 
.siege,  of  72  officers  and  9G:5  men  killed,  and  806 
officers  and  3483  men  wound(Ml.  The  garrison  and 
their  commander,  General  Pliilippon,  became  prison- 
ers of  war. 

BADAKHSHA'X,  or  BUDUKHSHA'N,  a  terri- 
tory of  Central  Asia,  lying  between  3G°  and  38° 
N.  lat.,  and  69°  and  73°  E.  long.  B.  occupies  the 
western  declivity  of  the  great  mountain-chain 
of  Bolor-Tagh  (q.  v.),  and  includes  several  of  the 
valleys  through  which  the  head  streams  of  the 
river  Oxus  (q.  v.)  flow.  The  territory  is  subject  to 
the  ruler  of  Kunduz.  It  is  bounded  on  the  W.  by 
Kunduz,  on  the  S.  by  Chitral,  on  the  E.  by  the 
plateau  of  Pamir,  and  on  the  N.  by  Bokhara.  B.  is 
610 


for  the  most  part  mountainous.  The  mountains  are 
generally  baie  and  barren  ;  but  the  slopes  of  some 
of  them  are  rendered  productive  by  the  terrace 
system  of  cultivation.  Gold  is  found  in  considerable 
quantities  in  the  tributaries  of  the  Oxus,  the  prin- 
cipal of  which  is  the  Kokcha.  B.  has  several  ruby 
mines,  and  is  famous  for  its  production  of  lapis-lazuli. 
Iron  is  also  found,  which  the  inhabitants  smelt  with 
much  more  skill  than  most  eastern  peoples  do. 
The  country  is  marked  by  great  variety  of  climate. 
Among  the  principal  indigenous  trees  are  the 
willow,  the  pistachio,  and  almond-trees,  which  grow 
on  the  lower  slopes  ;  and  the  archa  or  dwarf  fir  in 
the  higher  regions;  but  poplar  and  fruit  trees 
are  giown  in  the  vicinity  of  villages,  and  the  mul- 
berry-tree, for  food  to  the  silk-worm,  is  largely 
cultivated  in  the  valley  of  the  Oxus.  The  chief 
domestic  animals  are  horses,  sheep,  and  cattle, 
which  find  rich  pasture  on  the  plains  ;  asses,  hogs, 
and  the  yak  (q.  v.),  which  in  the  more  mountain 
ous  districts  is  the  most  important  animal  of  all. 
It  yields  richer  milk,  but  in  less  quantities  than  the 
cow  ;  and  as  a  beast  of  burden,  if  not  so  strong,  it 
is  more  sagacious  and  sure-footed  than  the  horse. 
Among  the  wild  animals  are  lions,  wolves,  foxes, 
&c.,  while  deer,  hares,  pheasants,  and  other  game 
abound;  eagles  and  ravens  are  also  met  with.  The 
population  of  B.  consists  of  Tadjihs  and  Moham- 
medans, who  speak  the  Persian  langunge.  B.  is 
little  known  to  Europeans.  About  the  beginning  of 
the  lOth  c.  it  was  conquered  by  Baber,  the  founder 
of  the  Mogul  empire.  After  the  fall  of  that  empire, 
B.  became  sulyect  to  Cabul.  In  1823,  the  Uzbccks, 
under  Murad  Beg,  del'eated  the  tribes  of  B.  in  a 
pitched  battle;  and  two  years  after,  their  subjuga- 
tion was  completed.  Their  conquerors  have  treated 
them  most  harshly,  demolishing  their  towns,  and 
either  selling  them  as  slaves,  or  carrying  them  off  to 
people  the  unhealthy  swamps  of  Kunduz. 

BA'DDERLOCKS,  or  HEX'WARE  {Alaria  escn- 
lenta),  a  sea-weed  (see  Alg^,  where  a  figure  of  it  is 
given),  of  the  sub-order  Furacere,  growing  on  rocks 
in  deep  water  on  the  shores  of  Britain,  Iceland,  and 
the  northern  parts  of  Europe.  It  has  a  stem  4 — 8 
inches  long,  pinnated  with  a  few  short  leaflets,  which 
contain  the  seeds,  and  a  membranous  olive-green 
frond  of  2 — 12  feet  long,  with  a  stout  mid-rib.  The 
frond  being  stripped  off,  the  mid-rib  forms  an  article 
of  food  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  sea-coasts  of  Iceland, 
Denmark,  Scotland,  Ireland,  &c.  The  thinner  part 
of  the  frond  is  also  sometimes  eaten. 

BA'DEX,  TnK  Grand  Drcnr  of,  is  situated  at 
the  south-western  extremity  of  the  German  Con- 
federation. With  an  area  of  5900  square  miles,  it 
runs  in  the  direction  of  the  valley  of  the  Upper 
Rhine  and  of  the  Black  Forest,  from  the  southern 
bend  of  the  Main  at  Wcrtheim  to  the  Bodenscc  or 
Lake  of  Constance,  and  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by 
Bavaria  and  Hesse-Darmstadt  ;  on  the  E.  by 
Hohenzollern,  Wurtemberg,  Bavaria ;  and  on  the 
W.  and  S.  by  the  Rhine,  which  separates  it  from 
Rhenish  Bavaria,  France  and  Switzerland.  Since  1864 
it  is  di^ded  politically  into  eleven  circles,  viz. :  Con- 
stance, Villingen,  Waldshut,  Frihourg,  Loerrach, 
Offenbonrg,  Baden,  Carlsruhe,  ISIanheim,  Heidel- 
berg, Mosbach:  these  ai-e  again  divided  into  79  dis- 
tricts. 

Surface  and  Hijdrography. — Physically,  B.  falls 
into  two  divisions — the  western  plain,  lying  along 
the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  and  the  eastern  high- 
lands; the  plain  occupying  about  a  fifth  of  the 
whole  duchy,  and  the  hilly  part,  four-fifths.  Of  the 
mountain-ranges,  the  Schwarzwald,  or  Black  Forest, 
is  the  most  prominent.  See  Black  Forest.  For  a 
distance  of  96  miles,  it  belongs  almost  exclusively  to 


BADEN. 


I'ack'ii.  It  terminates  in  abrupt  declivities  towards 
the  w<>st,  and  on  the  east  descends  by  degrees  into 
the  plateau  of  the  Neckar  in  Wiirteniherg.  It 
decreases  in  lieight  from  south  to  north,  its  mean 
elevation  being  from  about  4000  to  2700  feet, 
and  is  cut  up  into  sections  by  numerous  deep  and 
wildly  romantic  valleys.  The  most  remarkable 
summits  are  Feldberg  and  Ijelchen  in  the  south. 
The  less  elevated  part  of  the  mountainous  division 
of  B.,  which  lies  to  the  north  of  the  Murg, 
receives  the  general  name  of  the  Neckar  highlands, 
as  far  as  to  its  intersection  by  the  Neckar  valley, 
on  the  north  side  of  which  the  Odenwald  begins. 
South,  in  the  old  circle  of  the  '  Lake,'  rise  the 
extensive  plateaus  of  the  German  Jura.  This  table- 
land is  known  by  the  local  name  of  the  Randen. 
In  the  plain  of  the  'Upper  Rhine'  between  Alt- 
brcisach  and  Endingen,  stands  the  small  isolated 
basaltic  group  of  the  Kaiserstidil,  or  Emperor's 
Seat,  rising  to  the  height  of  lloo  feet,  and  overlook- 
ing the  Rhine. 

Being  drained  by  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube, 
B.  belongs  to  the  basins  of  two  opposite  seas ; 
the  sources  of  t!ie  Danube,  however,  drain  only 
about  o3()  square  miles  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
'Circle  of  tlie  Lake.'  Eogiuning  with  the  Bodcnsee, 
which  projects  three  arms  or  bays  on  the  north- 
west into  B.,  the  Rhine,  in  its  tumultuous  cour.se, 
forms  the  south  boundary,  interrupted,  however, 
by  several  encroachments  of  the  Swiss  tetritories 
upon  its  north  bank.  From  Basel  to  below  Man- 
heim,  the  stream  is  the  only  and  natural  boundary. 
The  chief  tributaries  of  the  Rhine,  on  the  B.  side, 
are  the  Neckar,  the  Kinzig,  the  Murg,  the  Elz,  the 
Trcisam,  and  the  Pfinz.  On  the  north-east  the 
Baden  territories  are  bounded  by  the  Main,  which 
there  receives  the  Tauber.  Except  a  part  of  the 
Bodcnsee,  B.  has  no  lake  of  importance.  In  the 
Scliwarzwald,  however,  there  are  the  following 
sheets  of  water  which  go  by  the  name  of  lakes: 
Mummelsee,  Wildsee,  Fcldsce,  Titisee,  and  the 
Nonneinnattweiher,  with  a  floating  island. 

Climate. — As  the  difference  between  the  highest 
and  lowest  points  of  B. — Feldberg,  which  rises  to  a 
height  of  4S!i2feet,  and  Manheim — amounts  to  some- 
thing like  4500  feet,  there  is  naturally  a  great 
variety  of  climate,  especially  in  respect  of  tempera- 
ture. The  mean  temperature  of  the  plains  may  be 
stated  at  50°,  and  that  of  the  highlands  at  44° 
Fahr.,  so  that  the  Rhine  valley  of  B.  is  one  of  the 
warmest  and  most  fruitful  districts,  not  only  of 
(Jermany,  but  of  Europe ;  the  land  yielding  often, 
in  the  case  of  maize,  a  return  of  more  than  three 
hundredfold.  Walnuts,  cherries,  apples,  and  pears 
grow  in  abundance,  while  the  western  terraces  of 
the  Schwarzwald  are  decked  with  vines.  On  these 
charming  declivities,  the  walnut  thrives  at  a  height 
of  1340  feet,  the  grape  at  1450  feet;  other  kinds 
of  fruit  arc  cultivated  in  the  higher  regions  to 
an  elevation  of  more  than  2000  feet.  The  wild 
cherry  is  found  even  as  high  as  2G00  feet;  the 
cereals  being  i)rofitab!y  cultivated  to  at  least  an 
e((ual  height.  Oats  rise  as  high  even  as  3G0(i  feet, 
above  which  lie  tlie  exclusively  pastoral  distiicts. 

About  two-thirds  of  the  population  are  engaged 
in  the  cultivation  of  the  land,  which,  as  may  be 
inferred  from  the  description,  yields  rich  returns. 
An  area  of  about  2100  square  miles  is  occupied 
wi:h  fields  and  gardens,  growing  wheat,  oats,  rye, 
barley,  maize,  potatoes  pulse,  and  vegetables  of 
8.11  sorts.  Tobacco,  hemp,  rape,  opium,  &c.,  yield  a 
l;irge  revenue.  Meadow  land  and  pasturage  occupy 
about  a  fifth  of  the  surface.  An  important  branch  of 
cultivation  is  also  the  production  of  chestimts,  wal- 
nuts, almonds,  &c.  The  quantity  of  wine  produced 
yearly  is,  on  an  average,  14  million  gallons.     About 


1T90  square  miles  are  under  wood.  The  Scliwarz- 
wald  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  pine-forests  of 
(iermany.  There  whole  tracts  may  be  seen  of  pines 
of  the  height  of  from  Ido  to  180  feet,  which  are 
exported  to  the  Netherlands  for  ship-building.  The 
rearing  of  cattle  is  cariied  on  to  a  large  extent. 
The  .several  kinds  of  stock  may  amount  to  the 
following  numbers:  horses,  73,200;  asses,  700; 
cattle,  481,000;  sheep,  189,000;  goats,  22,100; 
swine,  480,000  ;  making  a  total  of  1,24(;,000  head  ot 
animals,  and  representing  a  large  amount  of  wealth. 
Honey  is  also  an  important  product,  more  than 
14,000  bee-hives  being  kept  in  the  duchy.  Various 
societies  exist  for  improving  the  breed  of  horses  and 
perfecting  agriculture. 

Mitierals. — The  mineral  wealth  of  the  country 
does  not  seem  to  be  valued  yet  as  it  deserves,  if  wo 
may  judge  from  the  extent  of  mining  operations 
carried  on;  but  the  activity  of  the  Mining  Society  at 
Carlsruhe  is  yearly  bringing  this  department  of  the 
national  industry  more  and  more  into  a  fitting 
condition.  Iron,  lead,  silver,  copper,  and  salt  are 
among  tiie  chief  productions ;  gold  is  extracted  from 
the  sands  of  tlie  Rhine,  near  AVittenweier,  and 
cobalt,  sulphur,  marble,  and  several  kinds  of  precious 
stones  are  found.  B.  is  rich  in  mineral  springs ; 
as  many  as  60  are  enumerated,  some  sul[)hureous, 
some  chalybeate,  and  some  acidulous.  Hence  there 
are  a  great  number  of  umch  frequented  watering- 
places,  as  Baden-Baden,  Badenweiler,  Griesbach, 
Petersthal,  &c. 

Manufacture!^,  (kc. — The  increasing  activity  in  the 
various  branches  of  industrial  art  is  testified  by 
the  existence  of  300  manufacturing  establishments, 
with  more  than  9000  hands,  and  a  yearly  produce 
of  14  million  florins  (£1,666,666).  The  industrial 
activity  extends  chiefly  to  the  following  articles: 
ribbons  and  cotton  fabrics,  mostly  at  St.  Blasia ; 
toys  and  trinkets,  and  tobacco,  which  occupies  the 
first  place ;  chicory,  paper,  cloth,  leather,  beer, 
wooden  clocks,  and  articles  of  straw  ;  the  last  two 
are  characteristic  of  the  Schwarzwald  districts,  and 
known  all  over  the  world.  The  chief  articles  of 
export  are  wine  and  timlier,  which  last  is  sent  almost 
exelusivelv  to  the  Netherlands,  and  brings  in  a  sum 
of  at  least  3  million  florins  (£250,000).  The  prin- 
cipal iniports  are  colonial  goods,  fruits,  drugs,  horses, 
wool,  cotton,  silk-goods,  iron,  steel,  and  articles  of 
luxury.  Money  is  reckoned  in  guldens  or  florins  of 
24  tothe  mark  of  silver,  a  florin  being  equal  to  20(/. 
sterling.  Weights  and  measures  are  divided  accord- 
ing to  the  decimal  system. 

Population,  Iteligion,  Education. — The  population 
of  B.,  in  1867,  amounted  to  1,434,970,  being  an  in- 
crease of  only  about  200  as  compared  with  1864. 
With  the  exception  of  Jews,  the  inhabitants  are 
exclusively  German.  'Ilie  dominant  church  is  the 
Roman  Githolic,  wliose  adherents  in  1864  nuni- 
ba-ed  933,476,  or  about  two-thirds  of  the  whole 
population.  Pi-otestants  numbered  472,258  ;  Dis- 
senters and  Mennonites,  2554  ;  and  Jews,  25,26.H. 
The  school-system  of  B.  is  excellent ;  it  oilers  the 
means  of  instruction  to  every  individual ;  and  a 
multitude  of  [niblic  institutions,  such  as  libraries, 
museums,  and  collections  of  all  sorts,  are  significant 
indications  of  the  higher  elements  of  culture. 

Govcrmncut. — The  sovereignty  of  the  grand  duchy, 
which  is  strictly  indivisible  and  inalienable,  is  here- 
ditary in  the  eldest  of  the  male  line,  and,  failing 
(hat, "of  the  female.  The  heir-apparent  is  styled 
Hereditary  Grand  Duke,  and  the  other  sons  and 
daughters  are  called  Margraves  and  Margravines. 
The  sovereign  is  bound  down  by  a  parliamentary 
constitution.  The  parliament,  which  meets  regularly 
every  two  )-ears,  consists  of  two  chambers.  The 
first  chamber  consists  of  the  princes  of  the  grand- 
ill 


BADEN— BADEN-BADEN". 


ducal  liou.-fo,  the  lioads  of  tlie  seignorial  families 
(-even  jiriiices  and  three  counts),  and  of  the  nobility 
— oa  whom,  when  they  possess  hereditary  property, 
under  feudal  tenure,  to  the  value  of  300,000  florins, 
the  king  confers  the  rank  of  the  high  nobility — the 
Catholic  bishop  and  the  protestant  prelate,  two 
representatives  of  the  universities,  and  eight  mem- 
bers chosen  by  the  grand  duke,  without  regard  to 
rank  or  birth.  The  second  chamber  consists  of  63 
representatives  chosen  for  eight  years,  22  for  the 
cities,  and  41  for  the  country  districts,  giving  one 
representative  for  about  22,770  inhabitants.^  As 
to  the  franchise,  less  regard  has  been  paid  in 
B.  than  elsewhere  to  the  property  qualification  ; 
every  settled  citizen  and  all  state  officials  may  take 
part  in  the  nomination  of  electors,  and  may  become 
electors ;  only  representatives  must  either  pay  tax 
on  a  capital  of  10,000  florins,  or  be  in  possession  of 
an  ecclesiastical  or  secular  office  bringing  in  at  least 
1500  florins.  The  highest  deliberative  and  executive 
body  in  the  country  is  the  council  of  state.  The 
grand  duke  is  its  president,  and  it  is  divided  into  the 
ministries  of  foreign  affairs,  of  justice,  of  the  interior, 
of  war,  and  of  finance.  The  expenditure,  according 
to  the  ordinary  estimates  for  the  united  years  of 
1868 — 69,  was  33,884,933  florins;  the  estimated  net 
receipts  for  the  same  years  being  28,898,998  florins, 
leaving  an  access  of  income  of  4,985,935  florins. 
The  total  receipts  of  these  years  are  given  at 
33,884,933  florins,  the  expense  of  collection,  admin- 
istration, &c.,  being  9,756,608  florins,  leaving  a 
net  balance  of  28,898,998  florins.  There  is  a  par- 
ticular budget  dealing  -with  the  finances  of  the 
post-office,  railways,  and  baths.  26^  millions  of 
florins  were  added  to  the  pi;blic  debt  of  the  country 
by  the  events  of  1848  and  1849.  The  total  state- 
debt,  including  that  on  railways,  amounted  in  1864 
to  103,750,973  florins  (£8,648,000).  Military  ser- 
vice is  obligatory  on  all,  with  the  exception  of  the 
high  nobility;  and  B.  furnishes  to  the  eighth  divi- 
sion of  the  army  of  the  German  Confederation  a  con- 
tingent of  10,400  men,  with  a  reserve  of  3333.  The 
effective  war-strength  of  the  army  in  1867  Avas 
14,9)9;  peace,  7908.  There  exists  three  orders  of 
Lnighthood,  besides  a  medal  for  military  service, 
and  other  decorations  of  merit.  The  capital  and 
residence  of  the  sovereign,  is  Carlsruhe  ;  the  capitals 
of  the  lour  '  circles,'  are  (-onstanz,  Freiburg,  Carlsruhe 
(formerly  Rastadt),  and  Manheim. 

Bistort/. — The  original  inhabitants  of  B.  were 
Alemanni.  These  fell  under  the  dominion  of  the 
Franks,  the  conquerors  of  Gaul,  and  submitted  at 
the  same  time  to  the  Christian  leligion.  Under 
their  duke,  Gottfried,  they  made  repeated  attempts 
to  regain  their  independence,  but  in  vain ;  and  the 
dukedom  of  the  Alemanni  was  abolished  in  748  l)y 
Pepin  the  Little.  In  the  lithe,  a  Duke  Berthold, 
said  to  have  been  a  descendant  of  the  Alemannian 
Gottfried,  built  the  castle  of  Ziihringen  in  Breisgau, 
and  with  him  begins  the  unbroken  line  of  the 
princes  of  the  House  of  Ziihringen.  A  descendant  of 
his  second  son  took  the  title  of  Margrave  of  B.,  and 
became  the  ancestor  of  the  still  flourishing  House  of 
Baden.  He  died  in  1130.  The  history  of  this  House 
presents,  for  long,  little  else  but  a  succession  of 
partitions  of  the  territories  among  brothers,  to  be 
again  and  again  reunited  by  one  or  other  of  the 
collateral  branches  becoming  extinct.  The  prosperity 
of  the  country  was  thus  greatly  retarded.  The 
present  capital,  Carlsruhe,  was  built  in  1715  by  the 
reigning  coimt,  Charles  III.  It  is  to  his  grandson, 
Charles  Frederic,  who  succeeded  in  1746,  that  B. 
owes  considerable  accessions  of  territory  and  political 
importance.  By  favouring  the  policy  of  Napoleon, 
and  joining  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  he 
doubled  his  possessions  in  extent  and  population, 
612 


and  acquired  successively  the  dignity  of  elector  and 
the  title  of  grand  duke.  In  ISll  he  was  succeeded 
by  his  grandson,  Charles  Ludwig  Fiederic,  who,  five 
years  before,  had  married  Stephanie  Louise  Adrienne 
Napoleone,  an  adopted  daughter  of  Napoleon.  After 
the  battle  of  Leipsic,  Charles  Ludwig  seceded  I'rom 
the  (Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  and  (1815)  joined 
the  German  Confederation,  in  which  B.  holds  the 
seventh  rank. 

The  original  constitutions  or  '  states'  of  the  sepa- 
rate territories  composing  the  grand  duchy  having 
mostly  become  extinct,  the  Giand  Duke  Charles 
granted  (1818)  the  charter  which  forms  the  basis  of 
the  present  constitution.  Charles  was  succeeded  in 
the  same  year  by  his  uncle  Ludwig,  who  was  inclined 
to  absolutism,  and  had  to  contend  at  first  with  a 
powerful  opposition,  which-  led  him  frequently  to 
dissolve  the  Chambers.  He  succeeded,  in  1825,  in 
carrying  t-hrough  an  alteration  of  the  constitution, 
extending  the  duration  of  the  parliaments;  after 
which  the  government  and  the  Chan  bers  acted 
more  harmoniously.  Ludwig  dying  childless  (1830), 
was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Leopold.  The  known 
lil)eral  tendencies  of  this  prince  promised  at  first 
a  new  life  to  constitutional  government;  but  the 
tide  of  reaction,  become  strong  since  the  fall  of 
Warsaw,  soon  seized  the  government,  and  the  act 
establishing  the  freedom  of  the  i)ress,  Avhich  in  1831 
had  been  hailed  with  delight  by  B.  and  the  whole 
of  Germany,  was,  in  1832,  declared  impracticable 
and  abrogated.  A  fluctuating  contest  between  a 
reactionary  government  and  a  growing  opposition 
was  cai-ried  on  till  1846,  when  the  constitutional 
Bekk  was  made  minister  of  the  interior,  and 
liberalism  thus  placed  at  the  helm.  The  first  effect 
was  to  calm  the  jiublic  mind,  and  to  cause  a  split 
between  the  liberals  and  the  radicals.  The  ninth  par- 
liament met  (December  1847)  under  the  most  friendly 
and  pr07nising  auspices;  when  the  French  revolution 
(February  1848),  the  vibrations  of  which  were  first 
i'elt  by  B.,  suddenly  called  the  radical  party  into  the 
most  violent  activity.  Not  satisfied  with  a  multitude 
of  liberal  measures  passed  by  tlie  legislature,  the 
revolutionary  leaders,  Ilecker  and  Struve  (q.  v.), 
aimed  at  establishing  a  republic,  and  stirred  up 
an  insurrection.  The  troops  having  sided  with  the 
insurgents,  the  grand  duke  fled,  and  a  Constituent 
Assembly  was  called  (May  1849).  The  duke  had 
recourse  to  Prussian  aid,  and  after  several  battles, 
was  reinstated  on  hi.-!  throne  (July  1849).  The 
restoration  was  followed  by  some  thirty  executions, 
consisting  chiefly  of  soldiers  that  had  borne  arms 
against  the  government,  and  of  a  few  political  leaders. 
Upon  the  whole,  the  reactionary  tendency  has  been 
less  marked  in  B.  than  in  most  other  German  states, 
and  many  valuable  reforms  effected  in  1848  have 
been  retained. 

BA'DEN,  a  town  and  fashionable  watering-place 
in  the  canton  of  Aargau,  Switzerland,  is  situated  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Limmat.  It  has  a  population  of 
2840.  It  is  of  ancient  date,  being  known  to  the 
Romans  as  57(erwfe  Helvetica;.  The  ten  perature  of 
the  baths  is  as  high  as  117°  Fahrenheit.  B.,  from 
the  loth  to  the  beginning  of  the  18th  c,  was  the 
seat  of  the  Swiss  diet. 

BA'DEX-BADEN,  a  town  in  the  grand  duchy  of 
Baden,  situated  in  a  pleasant  valley  at  the  base  of 
the  Black  Forest.  It  contains  about  6500  inhabit- 
ants ;  but  its  visitors  during  the  season,  which  is 
at  its  height  in  July  and  August,  are  often  double 
the  number  of  the  settled  population.  It  is  chiefly 
celebrated  for  its  medicinal  springs,  which  were 
known  in  the  time  of  the  Romans.  B.  having  been 
a  fashionable  place  of  resort  so  early  as  the  days 
of    Antoninus     and     AureUus,     numerous     Roman 


BADEN  BEI  WIEN— BADGE. 


antiquiueshavc  been  fout.d  in  the  neighbourhood 
and  are  preserved  in  a  nuiseuni  here.  Tht  e  are 
Lver'l  spring,  of  a  saline  cl.aracter  varyu.g  >n 
empcratm^e  From  117"  to  154"  F.  These  springs 
are  impregnated  with  iron,  nn.gnes.a,  and  nne,  wuh 
Z^Jic  and  carbonic  acid,  and  are  -^P--  jj -^  '^ 
mended  in  chronic  cutaneous  diseases,  g  ut  rlieu- 
7XZ  &c.  The  chief  spring  (Ursprung)  discharges 
h.  vcntv-four  hours  about  4200  cubic  ieet  ot  water. 
Tiie  gaming-tables  of  B.  arc  the  most  renowned  m 
Eurotie.  , 

B  \'DE\  BEI  WIEN  (i.  e.,  '  Baden  near  \  lenna  ), 
a  miich-frequented  watering-place  of  Lower  Austria 
about  fifteen   miles  S.S.W.  of  Vienna.     It  was  the 
Aauce  Pannonue  or    Cetlrm  oi  the  Romans   and  i. 
still  famous  for  its  warm  "'^"'^'■'^l^P':"'^^' ?! ''':;/[" 
frequented    during   the    season    by    lo.n    12,000    to 
15,000    persons   chiefly  from    the    Austnai,  capital. 
The   temperature   varies   from  90°  to  ijbout  99     K 
The  baths  are  frequented  by  persons  ot  both  sexes, 
who,  in    the    bath,   promenade  ar.n  m  arm.     Many 
of  the  Austrian   nobility  have    palaces   here,      lie 
favourite  walk  in  the  neighbourhood  is   along   the 
romantic  valley,  the  Helenenthal.     Pop.  about  4000. 
BADENOCII    a   Highland  district  in   the   south- 
east' part    of   Inverness-shire,   30  miles  long  by   15 
broad     bounded    by   the    districts    ot     Athole    and 
Braenar,   and    by  the  Monadhlcah  Mountains,   and 
traversed  by  the  river  Spey.      It  is  much  covered 
with  forest,  and  is  chiefly  composed  of  gneiss  rock, 
with  a  little  granite.     It  was  formerly  the  propertv 
of  Alexander,  the  '  Wolf  of  Badenoch,'  and  son  ot 
Robert  II     and  afterwards  came  into  the  possession 
of  the  great  family  of  the  Comyns,  who  lof  these 
vast   possessions  in  the   wars  ot  Bruce  and   Baliol. 
The  ruins  of  the  vast  fortresses  of  the  Comyns  are 
still  visible  in  the  district. 

B\DGE,    the    term    by    which,  in     general,    all 
honorary  decorations    and    special  cogn/^^fces    are 
known.      Badges  are  either  conierred  by  the  state 
or  soverei-n,  or  assumed  by  the  individual  for  pur- 
poses of  distinction,  the  former  class  having    ve.-y 
frequently  had  their  origin  in  the  latter.     Ot  badges 
conferred  by  public  authority,   for    the    purpose   of 
inciting  to  exertion,  and  gratifying  honourable  ambi- 
tion, numerous  instances  are  to  be  met  with  in  every 
part  of  the  world.    The  garter  of  the  English  knight, 
the   golden  fleece  of  the  Spanish   grandee,  and   the 
button  of  the  Chinese  mandarin,  will  occur  as  tami- 
liar  examples.     To  the  same  class   belong  not  only 
the  stars  and  crosses  with  which   princes  and  other 
persons  of  rank  are  adorned  in  this  country,  and  to 
a  tar  greater  extent  on  the  continent,  but  the  medal 
of   the    private    soldier,   and    even    those    not    less 
honourable    decorations  which  are    now   frequently 
conierred  by  private  societies  for  acts  of  voluntary 
daring,  such  as  the    me.lal    given    by  the  Humane 
Society  for    saving   from    drowning.     Amongst  the 
ancients,  one  of  the  most  u^ual  c.:.ble,ns  o    authority 
was  a  gold  ring,  whieh  was  worn  generally  on  the 
fourth  tinger.      A  ring  of  this  description  was  the 
mark    of    senatorial    and  magisterial    dignity     anU 
latlcrlv  of  kniglithood  at  Rome ;  iron  rings,  during 
the  earlier  period,  at  all  events,  having  been  nsedby 
private  citizens.     The  right  of  wearing  a  gold  ring 
;m,s    anrndi    aurei)  was  gradually  extended,  till    at 
iencth  Justinian  conferred  it  on  all  the  citizens  of 
the    empire.     In    the    early  times  of    the  republic, 
when  ambassadors  were  sent  to  foreign  states,  they 
were    furnished    with    gold    rings,  which   they  wore 
during  their  mission  as  badges  of  authority.     I'rom 
an  early  period,  every  freeman  in  Greece  aj.pears  to 
have  used  a  rin-,  though  the  custom,  not  being  men- 
tioned bv  Homer,  can  scarcely  have  belonge<l  to  the 
earliest  period  of  the  history  of  that  people,  and  is 


commonly  supposed  to  have  been  of  Asiatic  origin, 
Rin-'S  are  often  mentioned  in  Scripture  as  badges  oi 
authority  both  amongst  the  Jews  and  other  oriental 
nations.     We  read  of  Pharaoh  taking   otf  his    ring 
and  putting  it  on  Joseph's  hand,  as  a  token  of  the 
power  which  he  committed  to  him  (Gen.  xh.  42); 
and  still  earlier  (Gen.  xxxviii.  18),  Judah  left  his  sig- 
net with  Tamar  as  a  pledge.     In  the  New  Testament, 
rings  are  spoken  of  rather  as  marks  of  wealth  and 
luxury  than  as  badges  of  otlicial  rank ;  e.  g.,  James 
ii    2   and  Luke  xv.  22,  where,  on  the  return  of  the 
prodi-al  son,  the  lather  ordered  that  a  ring  should 
I  be  put  on  his  finger.     As  to  the  workmanship  and 
I  materials  of    ancient    rings,    see  Ring,  teiGNKX   &c. 
Of  badges  assumed  for  the  purpose  ot    distinction, 
none  are  more  famous  than  the  white  and  red  roses 
of  York  and  Lancaster.    Henry  VII.  combined  these 
two  emblems,  first   carrying   a  rose  per  pale,  white 
and    red,  and  afterwards    placing     the    white    rose 
within    the    red    one.      One   of    Queen    Ehzabeth  s 
bad-cs  was  a  golden  falcon  perched  on  the  stump  ot 
a  tree  between  two  growing  branches  of  white  and 
red  roses,  a  B.  which  is  said  to  have  t)een  given  to 
her   mother,  Anne   Bolevn,  by    Henry    V  III.     ihe 
bear  and  ragged  staff,  which  still  exists  as  a  sign  m 
London,  was  the  B  of  the  great  Earl  of  Warwick. 
The   white   hart    and    silver    sicaji,  which  are    tre- 
quently   met  with  as  signs  to  inns    have  a  similar 
oiio-in    the  first  having  been  the  B.  of  Richard  11., 
and  the  second  having    belonged  to  the  House  ot 
Lancaster.      The   garb  and  sickle,  the   B,    ot   the 


Garb  and  Sickle. 

Hungerfords,  is  another  very  beautiful  and  le^ 
common  example  of  the  same  class  of  badges. 
Difterent  countries  have  also 
distinctive  badges,  generally 
connected  with  the  historv 
either  of  the  actual  ruling  or  of 
some  former  dynasty.  Of  these, 
the/e«r  de  Us  of  France  (repre- 
sented in  the  accompanying 
engraving  of  the  seal  of  Louis 
VII.),  and  the  other  badges,  for 
which  it  from  time  to  time 
makes  way— viz.,  the  cap  of 
liberty  anil  other  emblems  of 
republicanism,  the  eagles  of  the 
Empire,  borrowed  from  Rome,  .     ,     „ 

and  the  bees  and  other  insignia  which  the  Bonaparte 
family  have  assumed,  may  all  be  taken  as  exainples. 
B.'ofEnalaml—Thc  present  B.  of  England  is  a 
rose  White  and  red,  ensigned  with  the  royal  crown. 
The  initials  V.  R.,  ensigned  with  a  crown,  which  are 
uhed  on  military  accoutrements,  is  also  a  species  ot 
national  badge.  .        ,     .  ,  i 

B.  of  Scotland  is  a  thistle  ensigned  with  a  royal 

crown.  .       ,  .    J  „, 

B  of  Ireland.— \Te]a.nA  has  two  national  badges 
—the  golden  harp  and  the  trefoil,  both  of  which  are 
carried'' ensigned  with  the  royal  crown. 

613 


Fleur  de  lis  of  Louis 
VIL 


BADGE— BADGEU. 


The  three  badges  of  England,  Scotland,  and  Ire- 
land, carried  conjoined,  may  be  been  under  any 
representation  of  the  royal  arms. 

i).  of  Wales  is  a  dragon  jjas-sanl,  wings  elevated, 
gulc^,  on  a  mount  vert. 

B.  of  Ulster  is  on  a  shield  or  canton,  oi\  a  sinister 
hand  erect  and  apaumec,  yu.  This  B.,  ■which  is 
jjopularly  known  as  '  the  bloody  hand,'  is  borne  in 
the  paternal  coats  of  English  baronets. 

B.  of  Nova  Scotia,  which  is  borne  by  the  Nova 
Scotia  baronets,  is,  or,  a  saltire  azure,  thereon  an 
escutcheon  of  the  arms  of  Scotland,  and  ensigned 
wiih  an  imperial  crown,  the  motto  being  Fajc  mentis 
hoHCstce  gloria. 

One  of  the  oldest  and  most  celebrated  badges  in 
existence  is  the  so-called  jewel  of  King  Alfred.     For 


Alfred's  Jewel. 

An  ornament  of  ^old,  apparently  intended  to  hantr  round 
the  neck,  found  in  Allielney,  and  now  in  tlie  Ashmolean 
Museum,  Oxford.  The  insciii)tion  on  the  .'^ide  Leva  repre- 
sented, around  the  female  fifrure  hoklins;  flowers,  is  'Aclfred 
me  haot  gewerean' (Alfred  had  mo  wroufrht).  On  the 
other  side  is  a  flower.  The  workmanship  is  in  a  good  style. 

the  badges  of  the  different  orders  of  knighthood,  see 
their  respective  titles. 

BA'DGER  {3/eles),  a  genus  of  quadrupeds  of  the 
Bear  family  or  Vrsidie  (see  Bear),  and  included  by 
Linnceiis  in  the  genus  Ursus  or  Bear,  but  forming  a 
Bort  of  connecting-link  between  this  family  and 
the  Ifustelidce  or  Weasel  and  Otter  family.  To  the 
Skunks  (q.  v.),  which  are  ranked  in  that  family,  the 
badgers  have  a  particularly  strong  resemblance,  and 
their  dentition  and  habits  are  almost  the  same. 
The  dentition  of  badgers  differs  from  that  of  bears 
chiefly  in  the  large  size  of  the  tuberculous  molar 
teeth  at  the  bottom  of  each  jaw,  shewing  a  still 
greater  adaptation  to  vegetable  food.  Badger.s,  like 
the  rest  oi^  the  fjimily  to  which  they  belong,  are 
plantigrade,  i.  e.,  they  walk  on  the  whole  sole  of  the 
foot,  and  not  merely  on  the  fore  part  of  it.  The 
body  is  thus  brought  nearer  to  the  ground  than  it 
otherwise  would  be  from  their  length  of  limb.  The 
head  is  long,  with  a  pointed  muzzle,  the  tail  short, 
the  skin  very  thick  and  tough,  the  hair  long.  The 
gait  is  slow,  the  habits  nocturnal  and  solitary. 
"There  are  five  toes  on  each,  both  of  the  fore  and 
614 


hind  feet,  and  the  feet  are  peculiarly  adapted  for 
digging  and  burrowing.  A  peculiar  characteristic 
of  the  badgers,  not  found  in  any  other  quadrupeds  of 
the  same  family,  is  the  possession  of  a  bag.  beneath 
the  tail,  for  the  secretion  of  a  peculiar  substance, 
of  a  disagreeable  odour,  which  is  supposed  to  be 
of  use  in  directing  the  sexes  to  each  other  in  their 
solitary  wanderings. — The  common  B.  (J/.  Taxua 
or  21.  vulr/aris)  is  the  only  quadruped  of  the  Bear 
family  now  found  in  the  British  islands.  It  is 
widely  diffused  over  Europe  and  the  middle   parts 


Badger. 

of  Asia.  It  is  grayish  brown  above,  and  blnck 
beneath ;  the  head  white,  with  a  longitudinal  black 
band  on  each  side ;  the  body  long,  but  robust,  in 
size  about  equal  to  that  of  a  small  fox,  the  hair 
coarse  and  reaching  to  the  groinid  as  the  animal 
walks.  The  average  length  is  2  feet  0  inches,  and 
the  height  at  the  shoulder  11  inches.  It  haunts 
the  gloomy  recesses  of  woods,  or  thick  coppices  on 
the  sides  of  hills,  and  digs  for  itself  '  a  deep  and 
well-formed  domicile,  consisting  of  more  than  one 
apartment,  the  single  entrance  to  which  is  by  a 
deep,  oblique,  and  even  tortuous  excavation.'  The 
innermost  chamber  is  circular,  and  hned  with  grass 
and  hay.  The  B.  makes  use  of  its  nose  in  digging, 
scrapes  with  the  fore-paws,  flinging  the  earth  as  far 
back  by  them  as  possible,  and  when  the  accumu- 
lation is  considerable,  pushes  it  away  by  means  of 
the  hind-feet.  The  B.  is  extremely  cleanly  in  its 
habits.  It  is  one  of  the  most  perfectly  omnivorous 
of  animals,  in  a  wild  state  as  well  as  in  confine- 
ment ;  fruits,  roots,  beech-mast,  eggs,  yoimg  birds, 
small  quadi'upeds,  frogs,  snails,  worms,  and  insects, 
equally  constitute  its  natural  food.  It  has  been 
known  to  visit  a  garden  for  strawberries.  It  is 
also  fond  of  honey,  and  of  the  larvae  of  wasps  and 
wild  bees,  for  the  sake  of  which  it  digs  up  their 
nests,  its  hide  being  impervious  to  their  stings. 
It  is  often  caught  by  placing  a  sack  in  the  mouth 
of  its  hole,  when  it  is  out  at  night;  dogs  are 
then  sent  into  the  woods  to  alarm  it,  upon  which 
it  fices  to  its  hole.  Dogs  sent  into  the  hole 
are  often  foiled  by  earth  which  the  B.  throws 
back  upon  them,  to  block  up  their  way,  nor  is  it 
easy  for  a  dog  to  contend  with  it,  owing  to  its  great 
strength,  and  particularly  the  strength  of  its  jaws. 
A  barbarous  sjiort  was  formerly,  and  to  some  ex- 
tent still  is  practised,  called  B.-baiting,  or  drawing  tlie 
badger.  A  badger  kept  in  a  barrel  was  assailed  by 
dog's,  and  at  last,  yielding  to  superior  numbers,  was 
dragged  out.  upon  which  it  was  released,  and  allowed 
to  go  back  to  its  den,  to  recover  itself,  and  be  baited 
again,  which  happened  several  times  daily,  when 
the  B.  was  kept  as  an  attraction  to  a  public  house 
of  the  lowest  sort.  The  verb  to  badger.,  expressive 
of  persevering  annoyance  by  numerous   assailants, 


BADIA-Y-LEBLICII— BAEZA. 


wa3   oripinallv    employed    vilh    reference    to    the 
pr  fetkc  of  B  -baiting.     The  flesh  of  the  B.   is  b:.u1 
?o  be  very  agreeable,   partieuhuly    vh.n    eured   ui 
tSe  for  no^f  hams.     It  is  mneh  used  in   China.     Ihe 
B    is  easily   domesticated  ^^du.n   taken   yo»"g;  " "^ 
becomes  very  familiar.     In  Scotland  and  the  north 
'riS-d,a  B.is  still  called  a  ^^ro^^.^^f^ 
Saxoi^  name  ;  and  in   some   parts  of  England  it    s 
termed  a  Gro,,  from  which  some  derive  greyhound^ 
_Thc    Balysaur    of    India,    also    called    the    Sand 
Bear     and    Indian   B.     (M.    <T,««m)    very    much 
resembles  the  common   B.,  but  ,s  tal  cr,  and  has  a 
uore  hog-hke  muzzle,  and  a  longer  tail.     Its  habits 
md  its  food  are   similar   to  those   of  the  connnon 
B    andlhen  attached,  it  defends   itself  .ith  gre.t 
vi-our      It  is  chiefly  found  in  hilly  districts.— Ihe 
American  B.  {M.  Labnulorlca)  ^yas  at  hrst  suppos^ 
to  be  a  mere  variety  of  the   European   B.    but   has 
proyed    to  be    very    distinct,    so   that    i     has   been 
regarded  by  some  naturalists  as  ^vorthy  o    a  separatee 
gc"  us   {7\uidea),   and    is   sometimes   called    Jaxel. 
Its  tee  h  are  more  adapted  than  those  of  the  B. 
forearnivorons  snbsisteWe,  and  it  chiefly  preys  on 
small  animals,  such   as   marmots,    ^yh,ch  it   pursue 
into  their  hole's  in  the  sandy  plains  near  the  Missom 
and  the  Rocky  Mountains.     It  is  in  that  region  that 
i  abounds,  oVer   a  considerable   range  ot  latitude 
but  it  is   not   kno^yn  to   exist  in  Eabrador,  so  that 
its  specific  name  is  perhaps  the  perpetuation  of  an 
error.     In    its    pursuit    of  the    smaller    quadruped 
upon  which  it  preys,  it  enlarges  their  burro^ys,  and 
renders   some    parts    of    the    plains    dangerou.    to 
persons    on    horseback.        Its    preyading    colour    is 
hoary  -rev  in  winter,  yellowish  brown  in  sunmier,  and 
the  under  parts  geneVally  yellowish   -l^^^^  ;  a  white 
stripe  runs  iVom   the  nose  oyer  the  forehead  to  the 
neck      The  hair  becomes  not  only  very  long  but 
woolly   in  winter.— The  burrowing  powers  ot    this 
animal    are    extraordinary.       It    sometimes    makes 
burrows   six    or   seven   feet   deep,    running    under 
ground  to  a  length  of  30  feet. 

B  VDI'A-Y-LEBLICH,  Domingo,  known   also   by 
the  name  Ali-Bei-el-Abbassi,  one  of  the  niost  enter- 
prising of  modern  travellers,  was  born  at  Barcelona, 
April    1     1767.     He   studied   the  Arabic  language, 
and    also    physical    science     and    mathematics   at 
Valentia.     Possessed  of  a  lively  and  restless  spirit, 
he  forn.ed  the   project  of  visiting  Africa   ""d  Asia, 
under  the  disguise  of  a  Mussulman,  both  for  the  pur- 
pcse  of  avoiding  the  suspicions  of  the   natives  when 
Visiting   those    places  forbidden  to  Christians,  and 
also  for  giving   greater  Iclat  to  his  adventures.     In 
pursuance  of  this  scheme,  therefore,  he  resigned  an 
oflice  under  government  in  the  year  1797,  and  went 
to   Madrid,  to  make   proposals   pt    a    scentiec  and 
mercantile   tour  of  exploration  m   Afnciu     Having 
gained   promises   of  support  from    Don  Godoi,   the 
Prince  of  Peace,  he  betook  himself  for  a  short  time 
to   London,  to   study  commerce   and   pohtics.     He 
also    spared    no     labour    to    make    himself  familiar 
witli    the    manners     and    customs    of    the    people 
he   was    about   to   visit;     and    in  his    anxiety    to 
escape    detection,   he   even   ventured    to    undergo 
the   severe    ordeal   of  circumcision.     In    IboJ,    he 
sailed  for  Africa,   where    he    represented     himseli, 
under  the  name  Ali-Bei,  as   a  descendant  from  the 
Abbasides.     His  (act    and    talents    gained  for   bun 
such  esteem  that  i>e  was  invited  to  the  court  of 
the  Emperor  of  Fez  and  Marocco.      After   a   two 
Years'  residence  in  Marocco,  he  set  out  on  a  pilgrim- 
i^Q  to   Mecca  in    1805,  and   alter  sojourning  some 
time  in  Tripoli,   Cyprus,  and  Egypt    arrue.    a      ho 
holy  place  in  1807,  being  the  hrst  Christian  that  had 
visited   it   since   the   institution   of  Islam       bubse- 
queutly,  he  visited  Jerusalem  and  the  chief  places  m 
Palestine   and   Syria,    and   in   the  autumn  of  1807 


arrived   at   Constantinople,  whence   he   had  soon  to 
flee   the  reality  of  his   Mohammedanism   being  siis- 
nec'ted      After  his  return  to  Spain,   he  was  made 
Intendant  of  Segovia  and  Prefect  of  Cordova ;  but 
the  easy  way  in  wliich  he  shelved  his  patriotism,  and 
submitted  to   the   French   conquerors,   was  fatal  to 
his  prospects,  for,  on  the  expulsion  of  the  latter,  he 
was  eompelled  to    leave   the  country.     He  went  to 
Paris   where,  in    1814,  he   published   ii"  account  ot 
Ins  travels   under   the   title    Vo>,ar,es   ^  ^^J'f "  1" 
Afrinne  et  en  Ask  pendant  les  Annees  1803  a  1807. 
His  work  was  translated  into  most  ot  the  European 
languages.     Four  years  after  the  publication,  B.  set 
ort-'^on'-another  journey  to   the  East,  but   died  s.i^- 
denly  at  Aleppo  on  the  3nth  of  August,  181»-     T^e 
Paclia  of  Damascus   seized  his   papers,  so  that   hia 
second    enterprise    has    been   without   results    for 
Europe. 

BAEL  or  BHEL.     See  Akgle. 

B  \E'XA,  a  town  in  the  province  of  Cordova  Spain, 

i  of  about  l-i,000  inhabitants.     It  is  situated  about  24 

'  miles  south-south-cast  from  Cordova    on  the   river 

Marbella,  and  carries  on  a  considerable  export  and 

inland  trade,   chiefly  in  grain  and   oil.       B.    was  a 

Roman  town  ;  and  a  Roman  sepulchre  was  discovered 

here  in  1833.  ,     ,   r. 

B\ER    Karl   Ernst  Yon,  a    distinguished  luis- 
sian^laturalist,   was    born    February    17,    1792,  _m 
Esthonia.     During  1810-1814,  he  studied  medieine 
at   the    university    of  Dorpat,    but   convinced     hat 
Russia  as  it  then    was  presented  very   few   ad  an- 
tages  for  the   acquisition  of    scientific   knowledge, 
he  went  to  Germany  in  1814,  where  he  studied  coni- 
parative    anatomy   under    DoUinger    in    ^^  urzburg 
He  alJo  made  the  acquaintance  of  Professor  ^ees  of 
Esenbeck,  who  exercised   a  considerable  influence 
over  him.     In  1817,  he  went  to  Konigsberg,  whe.e 
two    years    after,  he   was   appointed  professor   of 
zoology,  and  charged  with  the   organisa  ion  of  the 
zoological  museum.     In  1834,  he  was  called  to  St 
Petersburg,  ^vhere  he  continues  to    be  one   ot  the 
most    important    mend.ers    of    the    Academy,   and 
has  obtained  several   honorary   distinctions       As  a 
naturalist,   he   has  specially   occupied    l"";^/^ ;\' f 
the    difficult   subject   of    embryology;    ^"d   to       s 
laborious  investigations  vve  owe  several  most  valu- 
able discoveries  in  regard  to  the  development  ot 
organic   bodies.      Beginning   with  ^'^  .fl^f%:f^ 
l,e    still    further    elucidated    ^h'S    subject    m     hs 
History  of  Animal  Borlopmen    (K^^'SS^^JvJ;^ 
—1837)   and  m.storij  of  the  Development  of  Fishes 
(L  ip    i835).     After' his  return  to  St^.  P?!-^^^^"f?; 
he     made    the    polar    reg  ons   t^e   objects   of    h.s 
study.       Setting   out    1837),  by  order  of  t  >e  czar, 
froiJ  St.  Petersburg  on  his  voyage  of  exph).-tion^ 
ho  examined  carefully  the  northern  shores  ot  Kuss  a 
Vom  A    hangel  to  Nova  Zembla,  and  subsequently 
pllished  a  minute  description  »    these  and  o^^  the 
peculiar  animals  and  i>lants,  partly  in  the   f<^'>"'"''' 
TrAcadenne  de  St.  Feter.bonr,,  -^  Partlv  in    1 
IJulletins     Scicntifi<]ues    de    VAcademie.      In    18^b 
appeS  his  RefliLn.  on  the  Russian  En^p^re  and 
the  Neighbouring  Countries  oj  Asia. 

B\E'ZA  a  hand.some  old  town  of  Spain,  in  the 
province  of  Jaen,  from  the  capital  city  of  which  it  is 
rovU22  miles 'distant  in  a  north-cast  direction 
Pop  about  10  (H)0.  It  was  here  that  the  younger 
sSL  n  te  1  Asdrubal  with  immense  loss  taking 
1  ?0  S  a.  iards  prisoners.  It  was  a  flourishing  city 
in'de  he  Moors,  several  of  whose  caliphs  and 
in.  resided  here,  but  it  never  fairly  recovered  its 
sack  by  St.  Ferdinand  in  the  13th  c.  Gaspar 
Becerra',  the  celebrated  sculptor,  was  born  here  in 
r7ot     but  B.  is  chiefly  proud  of  being  the  birthplace 


BAFFA— BAGDAD. 


of  the  11,0(M)  virgins,  usually  named  of  Cologne.  Its 
principal  buildings  are  the  university,  the  old  monas- 
tery of  St.  PliiUp  d.e  Ncri,  and  the  cathedral.  Cloth, 
leather,  and  soup  are  the  chief  manufactures. 

BATFA,  the  Paphox  of  ancient  times,  a  seaport 
town  on  the  south-west  coast  of  the  island  of 
Cyprus.  It  has  now  fallen  much  into  decay,  and 
has  but  a  small  population,  who  trade  in  cotton, 
silk,  and  grain  ;  but  under  the  Venetian  rule,  it  was 
a  place  of  considerable  importance.  The  present 
town  occupies  the  site  of  New  Paphos,  which, 
under  the  Romans,  was  a  beautiful  city,  full  of 
tine  temples  and  other  public  buildings.  The  Old 
Paphos,  famous  as  the  place  where  Venus  landed 
immediately  after  her  birth  from  the  foam,  and  as 
her  favourite  residence,  stood  a  little  to  the  south- 
east. A  hundred  altars  were  here  erected  to  her 
name,  to  which  numei'ous  worshippers,  male  and 
female,  from  New  Paphos,  trooped  annually  to  pay 
their  devotions.  An  earthquake  in  the  time  of 
Augustus  destroyed  the  Roman  Paphos,  but  it  was 
rebuilt  soon  afterwards.  The  Roman  deputy-gover- 
nor, Sergius  Paulus,  was  here  converted  by  St.  Paul. 

BATFIN'S  BAY,  a  gulf,  or  rather  sea,  on  the 
north-east  coast  of  North  America,  extending 
between  that  Continent  and  Greeidand.  Lat.  68' 
to  78°  N.,  and  long.  51°  to  80°  E.  It  is  about  8()i) 
miles  long,  with  an  average  breadth  of  280.  Its 
greatest  depth  is  6890  feet.  The  tides  do  not 
rise  more  tlian  10  feet.  The  currents  are  gener- 
ally towards  the  south,  though  recent  investiga- 
tions woidd  seem  to  shew  that  on  the  east 
side  of  Davis'  Strait  and  B.  B.  a  current  from 
Spitzbcrgen  flows  northwards  round  Ca[)e  Farewell. 
The  shores  are  for  the  most  part  lofty  ami  precipi- 
tous, backed  by  ranges  of  snow-clad  mountains.  The 
prevailing  rocks  are  granite  and  gneiss  ;  the  princi- 
pal animals  inhabiting  the  coasts  are,  on  land,  bears, 
black  foxes,  and  hares;  in  the  sea,  the  black  whale, 
walrus,  and  seal,  gulls,  ducks,  and  other  sea-fowls. 
The  south  shore  of  Whale  Sound  on  the  east  coast 
in  lat.  77°  'iO'  N.  was  found  by  Captain  Inglefield 
in  1852  to  be  inhabited.  There  are  Danish  settle- 
ments on  Disco  and  Whale  Islands.  B.  B.  communi- 
cates with  the  Atlantic  Ocean  by  Davis'  Strait ;  and 
with  the  Arctic  Ocean  by  Smith  Sound  on  the  north, 
and  Lancaster  Sound  on  the  west.  Wellington 
Strait,  which  forms  the  north-west  outlet  of  Lan- 
caster Sound,  was  entered  in  1852  by  Sir  E.  Belcher. 
B.  B.  was  first  explored  in  1616  by  WMUiam  Baffin, 
after  whom  it  was  called,  and  who  was  pilot  of 
the  expedition,  which  was  connuanded  by  Bylot. 
Baffin's  title  to  this  honour  seems  to  have  been  most 
faithfully  earned;  and  the  accuracy  of  his  observa- 
tions and  descriptions  has  been  confirmed  by  subse- 
quent navigators.  Whale  and  seal  fishing  are  pro- 
secuted to  a  large  extent  in  B.  B.,  which,  on  account 
of  ice,  is  only  navigable  for  some  two  months  in 
summer. 

BAGASSE,  CA'NE-STRAW,  or  CA'NE- 
TRASII,  is  the  refuse  matter  obtained  during  the 
expression  of  the  saccharine  juice  from  the  sugar- 
cane. In  the  manufacture  of  sugar  (q.  v.),  the 
sugar-canes,  in  lengths  of  3  to  4  feet,  are  passed 
between  heavy  rollers,  which  only  partly  squeeze 
out  the  juice,  and  yield  the  bruised  canes,  or  B., 
still  retaining  a  large  percentage  (usually  about  18) 
of  sugar. — The  only  use  to  which  the  B.  is  put  is  as 
fuel  in  the  heating  of  the  boilers  and  pans  in  the 
sugar-manufactory.  The  improved  apparatus  intro- 
duced of  late  years  has  done  much  to  save  the  large 
amount  of  sugar  wasted  in  the  B.  and  in  other  parts 
of  the  process,  which  at  one  time  amounted  to  not 
less  than  one-half  of  the  entire  quantity  of  sugar  in 
the  sugar-cane. 
616 


BAGATE'LLE  (Fr.  signifying  primarily  any 
trifle),  the  name  of  a  game  somewhat  resembling 
billiards.  A  bagatelle-table  is  usually  about  7  feet 
long  and  21  inches  broad;  it  is  lined  with  cloth,  and 
a  game  is  performed  on  it  with  balls  and  a  cue 
or  mace.  The  balls  are  snuUl  ivory  spheres,  and 
the  sport  consists  in  striking  one  or  more  into 
holes  at  one  end  of  the  board.  To  perform 
this  and  other  feats,  some  skill  and  experience 
are  required,  and  the  sport  is  far  from  unamus- 
ing  in  a  cheerful  parlour  circle.  Of  late  years, 
bagatelle-tables  have  become  very  common  in  the 
houses  of  the  middle  classes  of  society;  they  possess 
the  recommendation  of  being  purchasable  at  a  small 
expense. 

BAGDA'D,  the  name  of  a  town  and  pachalic 
in  the  south-cast  of  Asiatic  Turkey.  The  pachalic 
extends  from  lat.  30°  to  38°  N.,  and  from  long.  40°  to 
48°  E.  ;  and  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  pachali«;8 
of  Diarbekir  and  Van  ;  on  the  W.  and  S.,  by  Syria 
and  Arabia;  and  on  the  E.,  by  Persia;  while  at  its 
south-east  extremity  lies  the  Persian  Gulf.  Extreme 
length,  550  miles;  breadth,  3.50.  Pop.  l,3(H),()0tl. 
It  is  watered  by  the  rivers  Euphrates  and  Tigris, 
which  unite  their  streams  at  the  town  of  Korna,  in 
lat  31°  N.,  and  long.  47"  E.  The  pachalic  of  B.  is 
usually  divided  into  three  parts.  1.  That  east  of 
the  Tigris,  comprehending  the  districts  of  Khuzistan 
(anciently,  Susiana)  and  Iinrd/stan  (part  of  ancient 
Assyria),  the  former  of  which  is  rich  in  grain  and 
fruit.  2.  That  west  of  the  Euphrates,  a  sterile 
waste,  losing  itself  at  last  in  the  great  Syro-Arabian 
desert.  3.  That  i)etweeii  the  two  rivers,  the 
northern  portion  of  which  is  known  under  the 
name  of  Algesirah.,  or  '  the  Island '  (anciently, 
Mesopotamia),  and  the  southern  under  that  of 
Irak-Arabi  (anciently.  Babylonia  and  Chaldcea). 
The  last  of  these  divisions,  though  now  a  barren 
wilderness,  was  in  ancient  times  luxuriantly  fertile, 
the  seat  of  mighty  cm|)ires,  and  inhabited  by  indus- 
trious populations.  The  barbarous  misgovcrnment 
and  wretched  incapacity  of  the  Turks  have  reduced 
it  to  its  present  condition.  The  pachalic  produces,  in 
the  better-cultivated  districts,  crops  of  rice,  wheat, 
maize,  barley,  with  some  hemp,  flax,  tobacco,  &c., 
while  dates  are  brought  to  great  perfection.  The 
chief  wild  animals  are  lions — not  numerous — 
hyffinas,  jackals,  wolves,  gazelles,  ostriches  ;  the  chief 
domestic  ones  are  horses,  asses,  mules,  buffaloes, 
camels,  and  dromedaries.  The  iidiabitants  are 
composed  of  Turkomans,  Armenians,  Turks,  Jews, 
Arabs,  and  Kurds  ;  the  last  tw  o  of  which  races  are 
notorious  for  their  open  and  audacious  depredations, 
their  mutual  wars,  and  their  utter  contempt  for 
the  authority  attempted  to  be  exercised  over  them. 
Principal  cities — Bagdad,  Bassora,  and  Mosul.  For 
a  description  of  the  cities  which  in  ancient  times 
adorned  this  region,  see  Assyria,  Badylonia, 
Nineveh,  Babylox,  Ctesiphon,  Seleucia,  &c. 

BAGDA'D,  the  capital  of  the  pachalic  of  the 
same  name,  is  situated  on  both  banks  of  the 
Tigris,  in  lat.  33°  20'  N.,  and  long.  44°  23'  E.  Pop. 
estimated  at  65,000.  The  city  is  surrounded 
by  a  brick-wall  5  miles  in  circumference  ;  the  two 
parts  are  connected  by  a  bridge  of  boats,  and  the 
communication  is  guarded  by  a  citadel.  It  has  an 
extremely  picturesque  appearance  from  the  out- 
side, being  encircled  and  interspersed  with  groves 
of  date-trees,  through  which  one  may  catch  the 
gleam  of  domes  and  minarets ;  but  it  does  not 
improve  on  closer  inspection.  The  streets  are 
narrow,  crooked,  unpaved,  and  dirty,  full  of  ruts, 
and  strewed  with  dead  carcasses,  which,  however, 
are  for  the  most  part  removed  by  Jogs,  tlie  only 
public  scavengers  iu  the  east.     The  exterior  of  .Uie 


BAGGAGE— BAGLIVI. 


individual  houses  corresponds  witli  the  repulsive 
aspect  of  the  streets.  Tliey  have,  in  fjeneral,  no 
windows  towards  the  front,  and  arc  built  of  oUl 
bricii;  but  their  interior  is  often  very  gorpieously 
decorated.  The  vaulted  ceilings,  rich  mouldings, 
inlaid  mirrors,  and  massive  gilding,  bring  bac-4v  to 
the  recollection  of  the  traveller  '  tlie  golden  time 
of  good  llarun  Al-Raschid.'  B.  contains  upwards 
of  loo  mosques.  Tiiese,  together  with  the  khans, 
bazaars,  and  tlic  palace  of  the  governor,  are  the 
only  noticeable  buildings  in  the  city.  The  domes 
and  minarets  are  said  to  be  finer  than  tiiose  of 
Constantinople,  and  are  beautifully  painted.  The 
bazaars  exhibit  the  produce  of  both  Turkish  and 
European  markets;  but  commerce  has  greatly 
decreased  since  I'er.-ia  began  to  trade  with  Europe 
by  way  of  Ti-ebizoude  ou  the  north,  and  by  the 
Persian  (iulf  on  the  soutli.  Nevertheless,  though  no 
longer  the  chief  emporium  of  merchandise  between 
East  and  West  Asia,  as  in  the  middle  ages  of 
European  history,  and  though  Kurds  and  Arabs  lurk 
on  all  the  roads  that  lead  from  the  city  to  waylay 
and  rol)  travellers  and  caravans,  B.  still  carries  on  a 
considerable  traffic  with  Aleppo  and  Damascus,  and 
has  manul'acturcs  of  red  and  yellow  leather,  silks, 
and  cotton  stuffs.  Of  the  65,000  inhabitants,  four- 
fifths  are  Turks  and  Arabs;  the  remainder  are 
Jews,  Armenians,  Hindus,  Afghans,  and  Egyptians. 
lu  summer,  the  heat  is  oppressive;  rain  does  not 
fall  on  more  than  twenty  or  thirty  days  throughout 
the  whole  year;  but  when  the  snows  melt  on  the 
Armenian  hills,  tlie  Tigris  becomes  a  majestic,  and 
often  a  destructive  river.'  In  1831,  an  inundation 
destroyed  one  half  of  the  town,  and  several  thou- 
sand lives.  The  plague  visits  it  periodically — once 
every  ten  years.  In  1831,  4000  people  perished 
daily  for  several  days  from  its  ravages!  These 
calamities,  added  to  the  blind  stupidity  of  Turkish 
misrule,  which  depresses  all  native  effort  by  a 
system  of  rapacious  taxation,  are  gradually  accoiu- 
plishing  the  ruin  of  this  once  flourishing  and  I'amous 
city. 

B.  was  founded  by  the  Abbaside  calif  Ahnansur, 
702 — 7tit5  A.D.  It  was  built  out  of  the  ruins  of 
Ctesiphon  and  Seleucia.  In  the  9th  c,  it  was 
greatly  enlarged  by  Ilarun  Al-Raschid,  who  erected 
numerous  edifices  on  the  east  side  of  the  Tigris,  and 
connected  its  two  banks  by  a  bridge  of  boats.  The 
palace,  built  for  himself  and  the  tomb  of  his 
favourite  wife,  Zobeide,  are  said  to  have  been  of 
extraordinary  splendour.  A  hundred  years  later, 
B.  was  ravaged  by  the  Turks.  In  1253,  the  grand- 
son of  (icnghis  Khan,  Hulaku,  put  an  end  to  the 
old  califate ;  but  the  descendants  of  this  Tatar 
conqueror  were  expelled  by  Timur,  who  took  the 
city  in  1393.  After  several  vicissitudes,  it  remained 
in  the  possession  of  a  Turkoman  chief,  whose 
dynasty  governed  until  1470.  In  the  beginning  of 
the  Kith  e..  Shah  Ismael,  the  fouuder  of  the  Suffide 
dynasty  in  Persia,  made  himself  master  of  it ;  since 
which  period  it  has  repeatedly  been  a  bone  of 
contentiou  between  Turks  and  Persians.  After  a 
memorably  obstinate  siege,  it  was  conquered  by 
the  sultan,  Miu'ad  IV.,  in  1638.  Nadir  Shah  vainly 
essayed  to  retake  it  in  the  ISth  c.,  and  ever  since 
it  has  been  under  the  sway  of  the  Porte. 

BA'(i(jAGE,  in  the  marching  arrangements  of 
the  British  army,  is  placed  under  strict  rules,  in 
order  that  the  accuniidation  of  weight  may  not 
iiupede  the  movement  of  the  troops ;  and  rules 
of  an  analogous  kind  are  enforced  in  troop-ships, 
when  soldiers  are  on  a  voyage.  The  term  itself  is 
made  to  apply  chiefly  to  articles  of  clothing,  and  to 
small  personal  effects.  A  private  soldier  is  allowed 
to  carry  nothing  except  that  which  his  knapsack 
and  other  accoutrements  can   hold ;  but  those  who 


are  married  with  their  officers'  consent — a  small 
number  in  every  regiment — are  allowed  one  small 
chest  each  of  definite  size,  which  may  be  carried  oa 
a  march,  but  at  the  men's  own  expense.  Staff- 
sergeauts  and  pay-sergeants  have  similar  permis- 
sion. The  B.  wagons  are  not  expected  to  receive 
packages  weighing  more  than  400  lbs.  each,  or  as 
much  as  four  men  can  lift.  Officers'  B.  is,  of  course, 
nuich  more  considerable  in  amount  than  that  of 
the  non-commissioned  officers  and  privates.  On 
board  troop-ships,  the  weight  to  be  carried  for  each 
person  is  strictly  defined — from  18  cwt.  for  a  field- 
officer,  down  to  1  cwt.  for  a  married  private  soldier, 
with  his  wife  and  children.  In  encampments, 
whether  permanent  or  temporary,  and  in  armies  on 
field-service,  the  utmost  care  is  taken  to  preserve 
the  B.  from  the  enemy,  by  surrounding  it  as  much 
as  possible  with  defensive  troops. 

BA'GGESEN,  Jens,  a  well  known  Danish  poet, 
but  who  also  has  a  jjlace  in  German  literature,  was 
born  at  Korsor,  in  the  island  of  Zealand,  February 
15,  17(i4.  He  first  obtained  a  reiMitation  by  hia 
Comic  Talcs  (1785),  the  opera  Holijcr  Danske  (1790), 
as  well  as  by  his  odes  and  songs.  Through  the  kind 
assistance  of  the  Prince  of  Augnstenberg,  he  waa 
enabled,  in  1789,  to  make  a  tour  through  Germany, 
Switzerland,  and  France.  In  1811,  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  Danish  language  and  litcratme  at  Kiel; 
in  1814,  he  removed  to  Copenhagen,  where  he 
became  involved  in  an  unseemly  strife  with  Ohlcn- 
schlager,  and  in  1820  he  left  his  native  country 
altogether.  Some  years  later,  a  home  sickness 
seized  him,  and  he  set  out  on  his  return,  but  died 
at  Hamburg,  October  3,  1826.  B.'s  natiu-e  was  a 
curious  compound  of  pride  and  humility,  love  and 
hate,  sensiti\eness,  and  reflective  power,  free  think- 
ing and  faith;  and  these  conflicting  qualities  also 
appear  in  his  poems,  which  possess  an  unfinished 
and  inharmonious  character.  In  1803  appeared  at 
Hamburg  a  collection  of  his  German  poems;  in 
18t)6,  he  published  an  idyllic  epic,  entitled  Par- 
thenais  oder  Alpetircine,  in  twelve  cantos,  and 
written  in  hexameters,  which  greatly  increased  hia 
reputation.  It  contains  single  passages  of  great 
beauty.  B.  possessed  no  lyrical  talent,  in  spite  of 
his  warm-hearted  and  enthusiastic  character.  Only 
a  very  few  of  his  songs  exhibit  that  simplicity  and 
tenderness  which  are  the  essential  requisites  of  song- 
writing;  and,  besides,  they  are  almost  all  destitute 
of  originality.  Klopstock  was  the  model  whom 
he  had  in  view  in  the  composition  of  his  odes ;  but 
he  was  far  from  reaching  the  level  of  his  master. 
The  sphere  in  which  he  shone  most  conspicuously 
was  the  serio-comic.  His  'humorous  epic '(as  he 
called  it)  of  Adata  and  Eve,  published  shortly  after 
his  death,  is  a  singular  mixture  of  humour,  pathos, 
levity,  and  earnestness.  He  left  in  manuscript  a 
poem  of  a  similar  character,  on  the  subject  of 
Faust.  His  Poetical  \Vorks  in  the  German  Lan- 
fiuage  (Leip.  1836,  5  vols.)  have  been  published  by 
his  son,  who  has  prefixed  to  them  an  excellent 
biography. 

BAGLI'VI,  George,  a  celebrated  Italian  physi" 
cian,  born  at  Ragusa  in  September  1069.  The  inci- 
dents of  his  life  are  almost  entirely  confined  to  hia 
professional  career.  Originally  descended  from  an 
Armenian  family,  he  took  the  name  of  his  adoptive 
father,  who  was  a  wealthy  physician  of  Lucca,  and 
who  bestowed  ou  him  an  excellent  education.  He 
studied  at  Salerno,  Padua,  and  Bologna,  and  after- 
wards visited  the  principal  hospitals  of  Italy.  In 
1692  he,  went  to  Rome,  where  he  enjoyed  the  ana- 
tomical prelections  of  his  friend  Malpighi.  Shortly 
after,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  anatomy  at  the 
college    of  La   Sapienza,  Rome,  where   he    died    in 

617 


BAGNARA— BAGRATION. 


170G.  Ilis  great  discovery  in  medical  gcicncc  is  the 
system  of  'solidisiii,'  as  it  is  callcMl.  Prcvioua  to 
tiie  time  of  B.  physicians  had  held  the  doctrine 
of  Hippocrates  in  reference  to  the  primary  seat  of 
diseases — viz.,  that  it  is  in  the  fluids.  B.  came 
to  the  conclusion  that  this  was  erroneous,  and  that 
the  real  seat  of  disease  is  in  the  solids.  His  reasons 
are,  on  the  whole,  sound,  and  the  doctrine  is  now 
ail  but  universally  prevalent,  though  it  is  admitted 
that  cases  do  occur  in  which  the  fluids  appear  to 
have  been  flrst  affected.  He  puldishcd  several 
treatises  of  great  merit,  in  which  his  then  novel 
views  were  explained.  B.  was  very  honest  and 
independent  in  his  judgment,  and  used  to  warn  his 
profession  against  a  blind  adherence  to  mcf  e  dogmas 
on  matters  wliicli  were  but  imperfectly  known. 

BAGNA'RA,  a  seaport  town  of  Naples  on  the 
Gulf  of  Gicja,  10  miles  N.  E.  of  Reggio.  Excellent 
wine  is  produced  iu  the  neiglibourhood.     Pop.  5718. 

BAGNERES,  the  name  of  two  towns  in  the 
Pyrenees,  France,  both  well  known  as  watering 
places. — B.  dk  BKioURE  on  the  Adour,  in  the 
department  of  tlie  High  Pyrenees,  is  situated  at 
the  base  of  Montalivet,  and  at  tl\e  entrance  to 
the  romantic  valley  of  Campan.  Besides  its  exten- 
sive bathing  houses,  it  has  a  college,  a  theatre,  a 
Pyrenean  museum,  a  trades-hall,  and  contains 
C659  inhabitants.  By  the  Romans,  it  was  known 
as  Viciis  Atpiciisis,  or  Afjucc  Birjerronmu.  It  was 
destroyed  by  tiie  (ioths,  but  the  fame  of  its  waters 
survived,  and  is  now  so  great  tliat  it  is  visited 
by  6000  or  COnO  strangers  yearly.  The  tepid, 
warm,  and  liot  saline  springs  arc  numerous,  and  are 
recommended  ior  cutaneous  and  nervous  diseases. 
Woollens,  linens,  and  bareges  are  manufactured 
liere.  B.  mo  Liichon — the  Aqwe  Comevannii  of 
the  Romans — is  situated  in  the  department  of 
Upper  Garonne,  and  in  a  pleasant  valley  watered 
by  the  Pique.  Its  cold,  tepid,  and  hot  sulphurous 
waters  are  recommended  in  rheumatism,  gout,  cuta- 
neous diseases,  and  paralysis.     It  has  a  pop.  of  2600. 

BAGNES,  the  convict-prisons  of  France.  In 
ancient  times,  tlie  severest  punishment,  next  to 
death,  was  that  of  the  galleys  (q.  v.).  In  1748,  these 
were  abolished,  and  the  convicts  were  employed 
in  hard  labour  in  arsenals  and  oliier  public  works ; 
and  the  prisons  in  which  they  were  lodged  were 
called  bacpicit,  IVom  the  Italian,  harino,  literally,  a 
bath — a  name  supposed  to  have  originated  in  the 
fact,  that  the  slave  prisons  at  Constantinople  con- 
tained baths,  or  because  they  stood  near  the  baths 
of  the  seniglio.  The  constituent  Assembly  of 
1701  and  170'2  mitigated  the  sufferings  of  convicts, 
and  substituted  for  the  detested  name  (falires 
that  of  travaux  publics,  to  which  succeeded  the 
travaux  forces  of  tiie  Code  Napoleon.  The  prac- 
tice of  branding  criminals  with  a  hot  iron  was  not 
abolished  till  1832.  The  existing  institutions  of 
this  class  are  at  Toulon,  Brest,  and  Rochefort, 
at  which  the  number  of  convicts,  in  1850,  was 
respectively  3873,  2831,  and  986.  In  these  estab- 
lishments, the  labour  of  the  convicts  is  turned  to 
profitable  account,  and  the  various  handicrafts  are 
taught  in  the  prison  under  the  direction  of  overseers. 
The  industrious  and  clever  are  enabled  to  earn 
small  wages,  and  good  behaviour  is  rewarded  with 
a  gradual  relaxation  of  restraint.  Formerly  the 
punishment  of  the  galleys  was  inflicted  for  com- 
paratively slight  offences,  such  as  removing  land- 
marks, begging,  poiichiiig,  &c.,  but  now  hard  labour 
iu  the  B.  is  reserved  exclusively  for  such  as  commit 
crimes  which  seriously  menace  the  public  peace 
and  personal  safety.  The  number  of  these,  how- 
ever, is  not  less  than  51.  Of  7689  convicts 
(formats)  in  1850,  S070  were  condemned  to  5 — 10 
618 


years;  2289  to  11 — 20  years;  282  to  20 — 30; 
41  to  30 — 40;  23  to  40—50;  9  to  above  50;  aiid 
1965  for  life.  The  principal  crime  was  thelt,  for 
which  4750  had  been  condennicd  ;  for  murder,  1027. 
The  greater  proportion  of  the  criminals,  viz.  4595, 
were  from  the  rural  districts;  from  towns,  2452; 
foreigners,  G13;  most  of  them  were  of  tlie  ago 
between  20  and  40;  and  3902  were  unable  to  read 
or  write.  The  most  numerous  class  were  husband- 
men, threshers,  gardeners,  1278  ;  next,  day-labourers, 
and  fcrrassicrs  (navvies?)  1078.  Tiie  numlier  of 
pardons  to  convicts  in  1848  was  90;  in  1849,  52.  In 
1852  the  imperial  government  decreed  the  sup- 
pression of  the  B.,  and  substituted  in  their  place 
deportation  to  Guiana.  But  in  case  any  of  the 
prisoners  then  in  the  B.  might  have  considered 
deportation  a  greater  punishment  than  what  they 
were  condemned  to,  it  was  resolved  to  give  them 
the  ciioice  of  remaining  in  prison  or  of  being  trans- 
ported:  30(10  ehose  transportation. 

BAGNES-LE-CIIABLE,  a  parish  and  village  in 
the  canton  of  Valais,  Switzerland,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Dranse.  The  parish  occuiiies  the  whole  valley 
of  the  Biigne.  Pop.  9000.  The  valley  was  twice 
inundated  during  the  16th  c;  again  in  1818,  when 
400  cottages  were  swept  away,  and  34  lives  lost. 

BA'GPIPE,  a  wind  instrument,  which,  up  to  the 
18lh  c,  was  common  almost  in  every  count'-y  in 
Europe,  and  still  continues  in  use  among  the 
country  people  in  Poland,  Italy,  Fieily,  the  .'^outh 
of  France,  Scotland,  &c.;  but  being  far  from  a 
sweet-toned  instrument,  and  limited  in  its  range  of 
notes,  it  I'as  fallen  into  disuse  wherever  there 
is  any  pretension  to  musical  refinement.  It  con- 
sists of  a  leathern  bag,  which  the  player  inflates 
liy  blowing  with  his  moutli  through  a  tube.  The 
music  proceeds  from  three  or  four  pipes,  whose 
moulh-|iieces  are  inserted  into  the  bag;  the  wind 
being  forced  out  by  pressing  the  bag  under  the 
arm.  One  of  the  pipes,  the  chanter,  is  a  kind  of 
oboe  with  eight  holes,  and  is  similarly  handled  ;  the 
otliers,  called  c/rowc.',  sound  each  only  one  continuous 
low  note.  It  is  certain  that  the  bag])ipe  was  iu  use 
among  the  Hebrews  and  Greeks,  and  there  are  ])lenty 
of  proofs  that  iu  Germany  and  elsewhere  iu  Euiope 
it  was  among  the  most  f'a\or'te  instruments  in  the 
15th  c. 

Though  , alien  generally  into  disuse,  the  B,  is 
still  a  popular  instrument  in  tlie  Highlands  of 
Scotland,  and  wherever  there  are  gatherings  of 
Highlanders,  and  even  of  Lowland  Scotch,  in 
England  and  other  countries.  Pipers  in  proper 
costume  are  also  attached  to  the  Highland  regi- 
ments, and  in  some  instances  pipers  are  retained 
by  Scottish  noblemen  to  play  on  festive  occiisions. 
Skill  in  playing  the  B.  is  promoted  by  various 
Highland  societies,  which,  at  periodical  competi- 
tions, give  prizes  to  the  best  players  of  pibrochs 
(q.  v.),  reels;  and  other  airs. 

BAGRATION,  Peter,  Prince,  a  distinguished 
Russian  general,  descended  from  the  noble  family  of 
the  Bagradites  of  Georgia  and  Armenia,  was  born  in 
175G.  He  entered  the  Russian  serviec  in  1783,  and 
was  trained  under  Suwarrow.  In  1788  he  was 
engaged  at  the  storming  of  Oczakow  ;  fought  in  1792 
and  1794  against  the  Poles;  in  1709,  iti  Italy 
and  Switzerland  ;  and  distinguished  himself  ir.  the 
Austro-Russian  war  of  1805  against  the  French, 
especially  in  the  sanguinary  engagement  of  Novem- 
ber 16  of  thiit  year,  when,  with  a  small  body  of 
troops,  he  bravely  stood  during  six  hours  opposed 
to  the  superior  forces  under  Murat,  and  thus  enabled 
the  Russian  general  Kutusow,  to  reach  Znaym  w  ith 
the  main  army.  Subsequently,  Prince  B.  wns 
engaged   in   the   battles    of   Austerlitz,  Ejdau,    and 


BAGSriOT  BEDS— BAIIAR. 


FriccUaud,  and  took  a  part  in  the  Kussian  campaign 
against  the  Turks,  csi)ccially  in  the  battle  of  Sili.stria, 
18(19.  In  the  campaign  of  1812,  he  commanded  tlie 
second  Russian  army  of  the  west,  and  had  tlie  mis- 
fortune to  fail  in  his  attack  on  Davonst  near  Molii- 
lew ;  but  succeeded  in  forming  a  junction  with  the 
west  arnly  at  Smolensk.  lie  was,  however,  mortally 
wounded  in  the  battle  of  Mosuisk,  and  died  October 
7,  1812. 

BA'GSIIOT  BEDS,  the  lowest  series  of  strata 
in  the  Middle  Eocene  formation  of  Britain.  The 
name  is  derived  from  Bagshot  Heath  in  Surrey, 
where  they  were  first  examined;  but,  as  they  are 
more  fully  develoi)ed  and  better  seen  in  the  Isle  of 
"Wight,  the  rocks  there  are  now  considered  the 
typical  representatives  of  the  series.  The  strata  are 
arranged  into  four  groups:  1.  The  Ujipcr  B.  B., 
compo.'^ed  of  yellow  and  white  sands  with  ferru- 
ginous stains,  generally  nnfossilifeious,  though  a 
remarkable  exception  exists  at  WhiteclifT  Bay,  Isle 
of  Wight,  where  a  bed  contains  a  large  number  of 
very  friable  shells.  2.  The  Bar(o7i  beds,  consisting 
of  coloured  clays  iaterstratified  with  sand  and 
loam.  They  are  rich  in  fossils,  chielly  the  shells  of 
moUusca,  but  contain  also  the  remains  of  a  li-^h  and 
several  rejjtik's.  Here,  too,  the  Nunmiulite  (q.  v.), 
so  characteristic  of  the  Tertiary  ibrmation,  makes 
its  first  appearance  in  a  descending  order.  This 
genus  dies  out  with  the  Kunivinlites  variolaris,  the 
small  species  found  in  these  beds.  3.  The  Brack- 
lesham  beds,  so  called  from  their  extensive  devel- 
opment at  Braeklesham  Bay,  near  Chichester  in 
Sussex,  are  composed  of  marly  clays  and  white 
sands,  cajjped  by  a  l)ed  of  flint-pebble  conglomer- 
ate, and  resting  on  dark  carbonaceous  clays.  This 
is  the  most  highly  fossilifcrous  group  in  tlie  series. 
Two  species  of  plants  have  been  noticed.  The 
remains  of  6  reptiles  and  21  fishes  have  been 
desciibed,  besides  a  long  list  of  mollusca,  amongst 
which  is  the  magnificent  Ceritlduin  (q.  v.)  (/ifjmi- 
tcutn,  so  conspicuous  in  the  Valcaire  (/rossicr  of 
Paris,  where  it  is  sometimes  two  feet  in  length. 
The  prevalence  of  genera  now  only  known  as  inha- 
bitants of  tropical  or  sub-troi)ical  seas,  such  as 
volutes  and  cowries,  together  with  their  companion 
lunulites  and  corals,  makes  it  highly  prol)abIe  that 
a  warm  climate  jirevailed  during  the  deposition  of 
these  stiata.  4.  The  Lower  B.  B.,  consisting  of 
alternations  of  variously  coloured  sands  with  gray, 
chocolate-coloured,  or  white  pipe-clays.  The  white 
clays  contain  the  only  fossil  organisms  found  in  this 
group — beautifully  preserved  leaves  spread  out  in 
the  layers  of  the  clay. 

The  series  rests  on  the  true  London  clay.  Its 
maximum  thickness  is  about  1200  I'eet. 

BA'GUL,  or  BHA'GUL,  a  small  state  in  North- 
west India,  on  the  south  or  left  bank  of  the  Sutlej. 
It  contains  about  loO  square  miles,  and  40,000  in- 
habitants, yielding  the  high  average  of  400  inhabi- 
tants to  a  square  mile.  Its  lat.  is  about  81°  N., 
and  long.  77"  E.  The  surface  is  generally  moimtain- 
ous,  presenting  two  summits,  Bahadurgarh  and 
Bara  Devi,  respectively  0233  and  7003  feet  above  the 
sea-level.  AVith  a  revenue  of  about  £5000,  B.  has 
nearly  3000  men  under  arms. 

BAIIA'MAS,  or  LUCAY'OS,  a  chain  of  islands 
stretching  in  a  north-west  direction  from  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  north  coast  of  Ilayti  to  that  of 
the  east  coast  of  Florida.  From  Florida  they  are 
separated  by  the  channel  through  which  flows  the 
Gulf  Stream  (q.  v.);  and  from  Cuba,  by  the  Old 
Bahama  Channel.  These  are  the  principal  passages 
between  the  open  ocean  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
The  chain  extends  in  N.  lat.  from  20°  55' to  27°  31', 
and  iu  AV.  long,  from  72°  40'  to  70°  5',  having  au  entire  | 


length  from  north-west  to  south-east  of  about  550 
miles  ;  and  it  rests  mainly  on  two  shoals — the  Great 
Bank  to  the  south,  and  the  Little  B.ink  to  the  north. 
The  islands  are  perhaps  500  in  number.  To  take 
no  account  of  coral  rocks,  or  of  sandy  shelves,  the 
chief  members  of  the  group,  if  reckoned  from  tlic 
north-west,  are  these:  Great  Bahama;  Abaco; 
Eleiitliera ;  New  Providence;  Andros ;  (iuanahani 
or  Cat  Island,  or  San  Salvador ;  Watling's  Island ; 
Kxuma  ;  Long  Island  ;  Crooked  Islands;  Jlaricuana; 
Inagua;   Little  Inagua;   Caicos;  Turk's  Island. 

The  estimated  area  is  2921  square  miles  ;  and,  in 
1861,  the  population  was  officially  stated  to  be 
35,487 — about  one-fourth  white,  the  balance  coloured. 
The  islands  generally  are  of  reef-like  shape,  long, 
narrow,  and  low — so  much  so,  that  in  some  of  the 
smaller  islands  crops  are  frequently  damaged  by  the 
spray  of  the  sea.  Witli  very  little  appearance  of 
soil,  they  derive  considerable  fertility  from  the  ten- 
dency of  the  porous  rock  to  retain  moisture.  Besides 
excellent  pasturage,  they  yield  Guinea  corn,  maize, 
cotton,  pine-api)les,  lemons,  oranges,  pimento,  and  a 
species  of  cinnamon.  In  the  larger  islands,  too, 
there  is  excellent  timber,  both  tor  ship-building  and 
for  cabinet-work.  Some  of  the  more  southerly  links 
of  the  chain  depend  chiefly  on  their  salt-jians.  During 
the  summer,  the  temperature  ranges  irom  73°  to 
93°  F. ;  but  in  the  winter  the  climate  is  so  delight- 
fully tcmpeiate,  as  to  be  generally  prescrilied  in  the 
United  States  for  pulmonary  complaints.  The  animal 
fall  of  rain  is  from  43  to  45  inches,  being  heaviest 
in  October,  November,  and  December,  but  pretty 
equally  distributed  over  the  other  months.  Hurri- 
canes are  not  unknown,  for  three  severe  ones  have 
been  recorded  within  the  last  sixty  years. 

The  B.  were  Columbus's  earliest  discovery.  But 
the  precise  spot  of  his  first  landing  has  not  been 
ascertained.  Guanahani  or  Cat  Island  has  generally 
been  believed  to  be  the  San  Salvador  of  Columbus ; 
but  recent  investigations  appear  to  have  transi'erred 
the  honour  to  Watling's  Island,  situated  a  little 
further  to  the  east.  The  B.  having  been  depopulated, 
but  not  again  colonised,  by  the  Spaniards,  were 
occupied  by  the  English  in  1629 — to  whom,  after 
various  vicissitudes  of  fortune  in  the  wars  with 
Spain  and  France,  they  were  ultimately  secured  by 
the  treaty  of  1783.  Nassau,  in  New  Providence,  is 
the  scat  of  government.  Politically,  however,  the 
group  has  been  recently  subdivided.  The  more 
southerly  islands,  particularly  Turk's  Island  and  the 
Caicos,  have,  at  their  own  solicitation,  been  sepa- 
rated from  the  B.,  and  erected  into  a  dependency  of 
Jamaica. 

BAHA'P>,  a  district  in  the  presidency  of  Bengal, 
so  called  from  a  town  of  the  same  name.  It  extends 
in  N.  lat.  from  24°  12'  to  25°  22',  and  in  E.  long,  from 
83°  25'  to  86°  6'.  It  contains  5694  square  miles,  and 
2,500,000  inhabitants,  yielding  an  average  of  439 
inhabitants  to  a  square  mile.  It  is  bounded  on 
the  N.  by  Patna ;  on  the  E.  and  N.  E.,  by  Monghir ; 
on  the  S.,  by  Ramghur  and  Palamow ;  on  the 
W.,  by  Mirzapore  ;  and  on  the  N.  E.,  by  Shaha- 
bad.  Its  towns  are:  Gayah,  the  chief  place  ;  Bahar, 
now  in  ruins ;  Shergotty,  Dandnagar,  Urwal,  Juha- 
nabad,  Aurungabad,  Rajagriha,  and  Ilolasganz.  The 
roads,  in  general,  are  said  to  be  worse  than  those  of 
almost  any  country  professing  to  be  civilised ;  but 
roads  and  bridges  can  neither  be  well  made  nor 
thoroughly  repaired,  where,  during  nearly  half  the 
year,  the  surface  of  the  country  is  inundated,  and 
torn  by  innumerable  torrents.  In  the  dry  season, 
the  beds  of  the  rivers  present  only  detached  pools. 
Among  the  minerals,  the  most  important  are  coal  and 
mica.  The  latter,  nearly  as  pellucid  as  glass,  is  some- 
times found  in  blocks,  yielding  plates  of  36  inches 
by   18.       Potatoes,   cabbages,    cauliflower,    lettuces, 

619 


BAniA— BAI.E. 


turnips,  &c.,  have  been  introduced  from  Europe,  and 
succeed  well.  Of  indigenous  productions,  the  most 
considerable  are  rice,  pulse,  sugar,  cotton,  indigo,  and 
tobacco.  The  district  is  largely  engaged  in  the 
manufacturing  of  muslins,  silks,  carpets,  blankets, 
tents,  tapes,  threads,  ropes,  paper,  glass,  cutlery, 
jewellery,  leather,  ink,  soap,  and  pottery.  Ardent 
spirits,  too,  are  extensively  distilled  from  the  flowers 
of  the  Basaia  /af /folia  (q.  v.).  Before  the  days  even 
of  Moslem  domination,  15.  appears  to  have  been  the 
centre  of  a  Hindu  empire,  which  native  accounts 
describe  as  of  jnatchless  splendour,  and  of  fabulous 
duration. 

BAHI'A,  capital  of  the  Brazilian  province  of  the 
same  name.  It  is  otherwise  called  San  Salvador — 
the  nioie  usual  term  being  taken  from  Ba/iia  de 
Ihdos-os-Santos,  or  Bri)/  of  All  Saints,  on  which  it 
is  situated,  in  lat.  13°  i'  S.,  and  long.  38°  3'i'  W.  B. 
contains  about  125,000  inhabitants,  pretty  equally 
divided  between  whites,  blacks,  and  mulattocs. 
The  number  of  vessels  entering  the  port  of  B.  in 
1858  was  1084,  with  a  tonnage  of  220,478,  while 
the  number  clearing  out  was  999,  with  a  tonnage  of 
226,158.  The  shipping  trade  for  the  last  two  or 
three  years  has  been  on  the  decline.  The  value  of 
imports  for  home  consumption  into  B.,  in  1857,  was 
£2,325,152;  and  the  value  of  exports  in  the  same 
year,  £1,984,819.  The  chief  exports  of  B.  are  sugar, 
cotton,  coffee,  tobacco,  rice,  rum,  dye-stuft's,  fancy 
woods,  cocoa-inits,  horns,  hides,  and  bullion;  and  it 
imports  manufactured  goods,  provisions,  flour,  salt, 
iron,  glass,  and  wines.  B.  is  the  oldest  city  in  Brazil, 
having  been  founded  by  the  flrst  cnptain-general  of 
the  country,  and  was  for  a  long  time  the  capital  of 
the  whole  colony. 

BAIII'A,  a  province  of  Brazil,  about  the  middle 
of  the  coast,  taking  its  name  from  its  chief  city.  It 
extends  in  S.  lat.  from  10°  to  10°,  and  in  W.  long. 
from  37°  to  44'.  Its  length  is  480  miles;  and  its 
breadth  about  half  as  much.  Its  population  in 
1856  was  1,100,000.  In  addition  to  the  usual  pro- 
ductions of  the  tropical  regions,  it  yields  salt  and 
Brazil-wood.  The  interior  contains  lofty  sierras ; 
but  the  maritime  districts  are  fertile,  being  well 
watered  by  the  Itapicuru,  Contas,  and  other  rivers. 
Besides  the  streams,  that  flow  through  B.,  the  San 
Francisco,  a  vastly  larger  river,  forms  about  half  of 
the  inland  boundary,  dividing  this  province  from 
that  of  Pernambuco. 

BAHI'A  HO'NDA,  a  harbour  on  the  north  coast 
of  Cuba,  GO  miles  west-south-west  of  Havana, 
protected  by  a  fort,  and  nmch  resorted  to  by 
privateers  and  slavert-. 

BAHKA'SA,  or  BEHNE'SEII,  a  town  of  Central 
Egypt,  on  the  Bahr  Yousef  (Joseph's  Canal).  It  is 
noteworthy  as  the  site  of  the  ancient  Oxj/ri/nc/iu.i, 
celebrated  for  its  numerous  monasteries,  the  ruins  of 
which  are  still  to  be  seen. 

BAHR,  an  Arabic  word  signifying  a  large  body 
of  water,  is  applied  both  to  lakes  and  rivers. — Baiir- 
el-Ariad  (the  White  River),  and  Bahr-el-Azrak 
(the  Blue  River),  are  the  chief  branches  of  the 
Nile  (q.  v.). — Bahr-Assal  is  Lake  Assal  (q.  v.). — 
Bahr-Bela-Ma  (the  Sea  without  Water),  a  long, 
deep  valley  in  the  desert,  west  from  Cairo.  It  is 
completely  barren,  but  has  the  appearance  of  having 
been  once  a  water-course. 

BAIIR,  JoH.  Christian  Felix,  an  eminent 
German  philologer  and  critic,  was  born,  1798,  at 
Darmstadt.  He  was  educated  at  the  Heidelberg 
gymnasium  and  university,  where  he  gained  the 
favour  and  friendship  of  Creuzer,  whose  symbolic 
.system  of  interpretation  in  mythological  matters  he 
himself  pursued  at  a  later  period.  He  was  elected 
620 


a  professor  in  182C).  Previous  to  this,  he  had 
occupied  himself  chiefly  with  the  elucidation  and 
criticism  of  Plutarch,  the  result  of  which  was  an 
annotated  edition  of  Alcibiadcfi  (Ileid.  1822),  and  of 
Philopocmcn,  Flaminius,  Pyrrlnis  (Leip.  1820).  At 
the  same  time,  he  collected  and  publisln.'d  the  frag- 
ments of  Ctesias.  But  a  great  interest  wa:^  excited 
by  his  Jlision/  of  Roman  Literaticrc  (1828),  which  is 
noted  for  its  clearness  and  conipiehcnsiveness.  'f  hree 
sujjplement.s  to  this  work  have  also  appeared  :  7'he 
Christian  Poc/s  and  JJistorians  of  Home  {li}?>V>),  The 
ChriMian'Roman  Theologrj  (1837),  and  the  Jlistori/ 
of  Roman  Literature  in  the  Carlovingian  J'criod 
(184(i).  One  of  his  most  important  works  is  his 
version  of  Herodotus  (1832 — 1835).  In  1835,  he 
published  his  JJe  Univcrsitatc  ConstantinojioU  Q/iinto 
Swculo  Conditd.  He  has  likewise  contributed  nu- 
merous articles  to  Jahn's  Jahrhuvhcr  far  I'hilologie, 
and  other  works. 

BAIIRDT,  Karl  Friedricii,  a  German  theo- 
logian of  the  extreme  sceptical  school,  was  born, 
1741,  at  Bischofswerda,  in  Saxony,  and  studied  at 
Leipsic,  where  he  soon  displayed  extraordinary 
talents  and  some  restlessness  of  disposition.  His 
early  theological  writings  betrayed  the  sceptical 
tendencies  which  were  afterwards  more  fully  de- 
veloped. On  account  of  his  immoral  conduct,  how- 
ever, he  was,  in  1708,  coinpcllcd  to  leave  Leipsic, 
where  he  had  been  a  popular  preacher.  In  Erfurt, 
his  next  residence,  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
Philo.sophy  and  Hebrew  Antiquities,  and  wrote 
Letters  on  a  Si/xtematic  77icolof/i/,  and  Aspirations 
of  a  Mule  J'atriot,  two  works  whose  heterodoxy 
involved  him  in  controversies,  and  made  his  position 
untenal)le.  In  1771,  he  went  to  Giessen,  where  he 
delivered  theological  lectures,  and  preached  with 
approbation.  His  translation  of  the  New  Testament 
was  regarded  as  so  dangerous,  that  the  author  was 
deprived  of  the  privilege  of  teaching.  His  creed, 
in  fact,  was  simple  Deis^m,  and  one  of  the  chief 
points  in  his  theology  was  his  rejection  of  miracles. 
Even  the  immortality  of  the  soul  was  not  ]iositively 
maintained  in  his  works.  Ultimately,  after  attempt- 
ing to  establish  various  institutions,  he  was  reduced 
to  the  position  of  a  tavern-keeper;  and  as  he  still 
persevered  in  his  attacks  on  orthodoxy,  he  was 
imprisoned  for  one  year  at  Magdeburg,  where  he 
wrote  an  autobiography.  Among  his  other  works 
are — The  Rcliffious  Edict  (a  satire  on  (he  Prussian 
religious  edict  of  1788),  and  Tlie  German  Union. 
He  died  at  Halle,  April  23,  1792. 

BAHREI'N  ISLANDS,  or  AVAL  ISLANDS, 
a  group  of  islands  lying  in  the  Persian  (iulf.  The 
most  important  of  these  is  Bahrein,  or  Aval,  about 
27  miles  long,  and  10  broad.  It  is  hilly  in  the 
centre,  but  the  soil  generally  is  fertile,  and  produces 
dates,  figs,  and  other  eastern  iruit,  besides  wheat 
and  barley.  Bahrein  is  badly  cultivated.  Spring- 
water  is  plentiful  in  the  interior,  but  on  the  coast 
it  can  only  be  procured  from  the  bottom  of  the 
sea.  where  it  springs  up  quite  fresh,  and  is  biought 
up  by  divers  in  skins.  Manama,  the  capital,  in  lat. 
20°  12'  N.,  and  long.  50°  39'  E.,  has  a  good  harbour 
on  the  north,  but  a  safer  though  smaller  one  on  the 
south.  The  B.  I.  are  chiefly  remarkable  for  their 
pearl-tishcrics,  which  were  known  in  ancient  times, 
and  which  employ,  during  the  season,  from  2000  to 
3(X)0  boats,  each  manned  with  from  8  to  20  men. 
The  annual  value  of  the  pearls  is  estiniiited  at  from 
£200,000  to  £300,000.  Tortoise-shell,  shark-fins, 
and  dates  are  also  articles  of  export.  The  island.s, 
which  have  been  subject  to  a  good  many  political 
changes,  are  now  inhabited  by  Arabs.  Pop.  60,000. 
BAI'yl^],  a  small  town  of  antiquity,  on  the  coast 
of  Campania,  10  miles  west    of  Naples,  where  the 


BAIKAL— BAIL. 


present  castle  of  Baja  stiinds.  "When  the  Roman 
euipiie  was  in  its  greatest  splendour,  the  beauty 
of  its  situation,  the  fineness  of  the  surrounding 
scenery,  and  the  excellence  of  its  mineral  springs, 
made  B.  such  a  favourite  resort  of  the  Roniun 
nobles,  that  for  want  of  space  for  their  baths  and 
villas  they  encroached  oti  the  sea.  Julius  Ca\sar, 
I'iso,  Ponij)ey,  ilaiius,  Julia  Jlainnirea,  and  others, 
liad  country-houses  at  Baia3.  Horace  preferred  B. 
to  all  other  places  in  the  world.  Seneca  warned 
every  one  who  desired  to  maintain  dominion  over 
his  passions,  to  avoid  this  waterinj^-place.  Cicero 
thought  it  necessary  to  excuse  himself  for  under- 
taking the  defence  of  Marcus  Cwlius,  a  man  who 
liad  often  visited  B.,  for  B.  was  considered  by 
the  stricter  moralists  of  those  times  as  the  abode 
of  voluptuousness  and  luxury,  and  a  den  of  vice. 
The  ruins,  still  standing  on  the  desolate  coast,  or 
rising  from  the  sea,  are  now  the  only  evidence  of 
the  former  magnihcence  of  B.,  whose  po[)ulation, 
duelling  in  moan  hovels,  only  amounts  to  8i)0. 
The  ruins  of  three  supposed  temples — one  of  Venus, 
one  of  Mercury,  and  one  of  Diana  Lucifera — as  well 
as  the  remains  of  a  few  ilurnue,  or  warm  baths, 
still  attract  the  attention  of  archfcologists.  The 
harbour,  one  of  the  largest  belonging  to  the  Romans, 
is  now  much  destroyed.  The  surrounding  country 
is  covered  with  the  ruins  of  Roman  villas,  sepul- 
chral monuments,  and  other  buildings. 

BAI'KAL  (in  Turkish,  Bei-kul,  that  is,  Rich 
Lake)  is,  after  the  Caspian  Sea  and  the  Sea  of  Aral, 
the  largest  fresh-water  lake  of  Asia.  It  is  situated 
in  the  south  of  Siberia,  in  the  government  of 
Irkutsk,  near  the  great  military  road  between 
Moscow,  Kiachta,  and  the  mines  of  Nertschinsk. 
Lat.  51°  20'  to  55°  30'  N.,  long.  103°  to  110°  E. 
It  somewhat  resembles  the  sickle  in  shape,  and 
varies  considerably  in  breadth.  Between  the  mouths 
of  the  Selenga  and  the  Buguldcicha,  it  is  only 
19  miles  across.  Its  length  is  about  400  miles, 
and  its  average  breadth  is  45  miles ;  the  estimated 
area,  14,000  square  miles.  The  Baikal  Moun- 
tains, a  spur  of  the  Altai,  enclose  the  lake,  which 
is  fed  by  numerous  streams,  the  chief  of  which 
are  the  Selenga  and  Bargusin.  Its  outlet  is 
by  the  Lower  Angara,  a  chief  tributary  of  the 
Yenisei ;  but  the  river  is  inconsiderable  in  size 
compared  with  those  which  flow  into  the  lake.  It 
has  several  islands,  tlie  largest  of  which,  Olkon, 
has  a  length  of  30  miles.  B.,  which  forms  an 
important  link  in  the  chain  of  communication 
between  Russia  and  China,  has  two  commercial 
j)orts,  and  of  recent  years,  steam-boats  have  given  a 
considerable  impetus  to  its  trade.  Its  sturgeon  and 
seal  fisheries  are  valuable,  and  large  cpiantitics  of  a 
fish  resembling  the  herring  are  also  caught  in  it.  A 
peculiar  fish,  called  the  golomynka  {CaUio7iiji)iu-s 
Baicalensis),  which  is  almost  one  mass  of  fat,  yield- 
ing beautiful  train-oil,  was  at  one  time  caught  in 
immense  numbers,  but  it  is  now  much  scarcer. 
The  surface  of  the  lake  is  frozen  from  November 
to  April,  but  the  traflic  is  carried  on  over  the  ice. 
Besides  the  Russians  settled  on  the  banks  of  the 
Selenga  and  Angara,  the  shores  of  Lake  B.  are  also 
inhabited  by  tribes  of  the  Burates  and  Tunguses. 

BAIL,  is  a  technical  term  in  the  practice  of  the 
law  both  in  England  and  Scotland,  with  this  difTcr- 
cnce,  that,  in  England,  it  is  used  both  in  civil  and 
criminal  procedure,  whereas  in  Scotland  it  is  applied 
exclusively  to  the  latter.  By  B.  is  understood 
the  security  given  by  sufficient  sureties  for  the 
appearance  in  court  on  a  day,  and  at  a  place  certain, 
of  a  person  arrested  or  imprisoned,  and  who,  in 
consequence  of  such  security  or  B.,  is  iu  the  mean- 
time set  at  liberty.     Such  security,  however,  involves 


the  assumption  of  the  custody  of  the  arretted  or 
imprisoned  party  by  his  B.,  the  meaning  of  the  rule 
being  that  the  party  arrested  or  imprisoned  is 
delivered  into  the  hands  of  those  who  bind  them- 
selves for  his  forthcoming,  in  order  that  lie  may 
be  protected  from  prison  until  he  has  to  make 
his  personal  ajjpearance ;  and,  in  this  sense,  it 
differed  from  the  ol<l  term,  maiiiprize,  now  obsolete, 
and  which  signified  a  mere  security  without  any 
other  or  corresponding  guarantee,  as  in  the  case  of 
bail.  A  technical  and  necessary  distinction  is  taken 
in  law-books  between  what  is  called  common  B.,  or 
B.  to  render  to  prison,  and  special  B.,  or  B.  to  the 
act/071 ;  but  for  general  information,  the  following 
statement  of  the  law  may  suffice. 

In  civil  process,  the  sureties  give  their  bail-bond 
to  the  sherirt"  himself  for  the  appearance  of  the 
defendant,  according  to  the  exigency  of  the  case, 
and  for  r.othing  else.  It  does  not  appear  that  any 
particular  or  limited  number  of  sureties  is  to  be 
taken  ;  but  it  would  seem  that  the  sheriff'  cannot 
insist  on  more  than  two,  provided  they  have  both 
sufficient  property  within  the  county  to  answer  the 
penalty  ;  but  if  more  than  two  be  tendered,  it  is 
not  necessary  that  each  should  be  worth  the  full 
amount.  On  the  other  hand,  the  bail-bond  will  be 
good  though  there  be  only  one  surety ;  but  in 
accepting  such  security  it  would  seem  that  the 
sheriff  does  so  at  his  own  risk.  If  there  is  reason- 
able ground  for  believing  the  sureties  to  be  sufficient, 
the  sheriff  has  no  discretion,  but  is  bound  to  accept 
the  B.  ;  and  if  he  refuses  to  do  so,  he  is  liable  to  an 
action. 

The  necessity  of  B.,  however,  may  be  avoided 
by  the  defendant  availing  himself  of  the  provisions 
of  the  43  Geo.  III.  c.  4(i,  extended  by  the  7  and  8 
Geo.  IV.  c.  71,  by  which  it  is  enacted  that  the 
arrcste<l  or  imprisoned  party  may  obtain  his  imme- 
diate discharge  by  depositing  with  the  sheriff  the 
sum  demanded  by  the  plaintiff,  together  with  £10 
towards  the  costs,  the  same  to  remain  in  court  to 
abide  the  event  of  the  suit.  The  7  and  8  Geo.  IV., 
however,  contains  a  proviso  that  it  shall  be  lawful 
for  a  defendant  who  has  made  such  deposit  in  pav- 
raent,  at  anytime  in  the  progress  of  Ihe  cause,  before 
issue  joined,  or  final  or  interlocutory  judgment,  to 
receive  out  of  court  the  sum  so  deposited  and  paid, 
upon  putting  in  and  perfecting  special  B.,  and 
paying  such  costs  as  the  court  shall  direct ;  and,  by 
another  enactment  of  the  same  statute,  provision  is 
made  for  the  case  where  a  defendant  who  has  put 
in  B.,  afterwards  elects  to  deposit  the  plaintiff's 
demand,  and  to  pay  the  costs  to  abide  the  event  of 
the  action. 

As  to  those  who  may  or  may  not  be  B.,  it  would 
appear,  from  the  natnre  of  the  security  undertaken, 
that  persons  privileged  from  arrest  cannot  be  B., 
because  the  engagement  on  the  part  of  the  B.  being, 
in  default  of  the  principal  party,  to  pay  the  debt  or 
damages  and  costs,  the  plaintiff  is  entitled  to  require 
the  security  of  persons  who  arc  amenable  to  the 
ordinary  process  of  the  courts.  Therefore,  peers, 
members  of  parliament,  ambassadors,  and  other 
privileged  persons,  cannot  become  bail ;  nor,  gener- 
ally, can  attorneys  or  those  employed  in  executing 
the  process.  But  persons  who  are  not  in  such  a 
position,  but  who  are  either  housekeepers  or  free- 
holders, may  be  taken  as  bail.  The  jiossession  of 
leasehold  property  is  not  enough,  unless  the  party  is 
also  a  housekeeper  ;  but  the  real  owner  of  a  freehold 
estate,  however  small  it  may  be,  situated  within  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  court,  and  provided  he  can  other- 
wise make  up  the  amount  required,  is  qualified, 
though  he  be  only  a  lodger,  or  merely  an  occupant 
by  sufferance  in  the  house  of  another.  Again,  to 
constitute   a   '  housekeeper,'  within  the  meaning  of 

621 


BAIL  COURT— BAILEY. 


the  rule,  the  house  must  bo  within  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  court,  and  such  a  paity  must  he  the  bond-fide 
tenant  of  the  house  in  his  own  ri^ht,  enjoying  its 
benefits,  and  hearing  its  burdens.  A  person,  there- 
fore, in  lodgings  in  England,  but  with  a  bouse  in 
Scotland,  is  not  admissible  as  B.  ;  and  Buch  B. 
must  strictly  in  this  sense  be  a  housekeeper,  for 
'  householder '  seems  not  to  be  sufficient.  See  Lush's 
Practice  by  Stephen. 

Besides  these  arrangements  of  the  common  law 
with  regard  to  B.,  we  may  mention  two  other  forms 
of  it — namely,  B.  in  Error,  and  B.  in  Attachment. 
The  former  is  regulated  by  the  Common  Law  Pro- 
cedure Act  (1852),  15  and'lG  Vict.  c.  7tj,  by  section 
151  of  which  it  is  provided  that  proceedings  in  error 
shall  not  stay  or  delay  execution  on  a  judgment, 
unless  the  person  alleging  or  pleading  such  error 
shall  be  bound,  along  with  two  suflicient  sureties,  in 
double  the  sum  recovered  by  the  judgment,  in  order 
to  prosecute  the  proceedings  in  error  with  eftect, 
and  make  payment  of  the  costs,  in  the  event  of  the 
judgment  being  affirmed,  or  the  proceedings  in  error 
being  discontinued.  B.  in  attachment,  again,  signi- 
fies the  sureties  required  for  a  party  arrested  upon 
a  writ  of  attachment,  and  brought  up  before  a  judge 
in  order  to  obtain  his  discharge  from  custody,  the 
sureties  undertaking  that  he  shall  appear  and 
answer  such  interrogatories  as  may  be  required  of 
him.  This,  however,  only  applies  to  attachment  in 
the  case  of  contempt  of  court;  for  it  would  appear 
that  an  attachment  for  the  non-payment  of  money, 
or  the  non-perlormanee  of  an  awai d,  is  not  bailable. 
In  the  Court  of  Cliancery,  also,  there  are  rules  for 
accepting  B.  ;  as,  for  instance,  for  a  defendant  against 
whom  attachment  has  issued  for  his  contempt  in 
not  making  appearance  to  the  plaintiff's  suit ;  but 
an  attachment  for  non-performance  of  a  decree  in 
Chancery  is  not  a  bailable  process. 

In  criminal  procedure,  the  subject  of  B  is  at 
present  regnlated  by  11  and  12  Vict.  c.  42, 
which  provid^'S  that  if  the  justice  or  justices,  before 
whom  a  prisoner  is  brought,  shall  be  of  opinion  that 
the  evidence  against  the  prisoner  be  sufficient,  or 
even  if  it  raise  a  strong  or  probable  presumption  of 
his  guilt,  they  shall  either  commit  him  to  prison,  or 
admit  him  to  B. — that  is,  allow  him  to  be  discharged 
on  entering  into  a  recognizance — with  some  sufficient 
surety  or  sureties — to  appear  and  surrender  himself 
to  custody,  to  take  his  trial  on  such  indictment  as 
may  be  found  against  him,  in  respect  of  the  charge 
in  question,  at  the  next  assizes  or  sessions  of  the 
peace.  The  crime  of  treason,  however,  is  not  a 
bailable  offence,  except  by  order  of  a  Secretai'y  of 
State,  or  by  the  Court  of  Queen's  Bench,  or  by  a 
Judge  thereof  in  vacation.  But  Justices  are  bound 
to  admit  to  B.  in  all  cases  of  misdemeanour,  except- 
ing in  the  case  of  a  misdemeanour  in  receiving 
property  stolen  or  obtained  by  false  pretences,  or  in 
the  case  of  any  misdemeanour  for  the  prosecution  of 
which  the  costs  may  be  allowed  out  of  the  county 
rate,  as  to  all  which  misdemeanours,  as  well  as  in  all 
felonies — treason  excepted — justices  and  magistrates 
have  a  discretionary  power  either  to  admit  to  B. 
or  to  commit  to  prison.  The  Court  of  Queen's 
Bench  exercises  a  paramount  jurisdiction  and  con- 
trol over  this  department  of  criminal  practice  ;  but 
it  is  not  usual  for  that  court  or  for  justices  or 
magistrates  to  admit  to  B.,  in  any  case  of  felony, 
except  under  circumstances  of  a  special  and  favour- 
able kind. 

In  Scotland,  the  term  B.,  as  we  have  mentioned, 
is  only  used  in  the  proceedings  in  the  criminal 
courts ;  and  there  the  general  distinction  is  taken 
between  offences  that  are  capital  and  not  capital, 
the  former  not  being  bailable  except  by  order  of  the 
High  Court  of  Justiciary,  who  exercise  a  power  in 
622 


this  respect  analogous  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Court  of  Queen's  Bench ;  offences  that  are  not 
capital  being  bailable  by  magistrates,  sheriffs,  or 
other  competent  judges.  In  the  civil  process  of  the 
Scotch  courts,  the  term  corresponding  to  B.  is 
Caution  (q.  v.). 

BAIL  COURT  is  the  name  given  to  a  new  and 
supplementary  tribunal  at  Westminster,  called  into 
existence  by  the  11  Geo.  IV.  and  1  Will.  IV.  c.  70, 
by  which,  after  providing  for  the  appointment  of  an 
additional  puisne  judge  in  each  of  the  three  courts 
of  common  law,  it  is  made  lawful  for  any  one  of  the 
judges  of  either  of  these  courts,  when  occasion  shall 
so  require,  where  the  other  judges  of  the  same  court 
are  sitting  in  banc  (see  Banc),  to  sit  apart  from 
them  for  the  business  of  adding  and  j\istifying 
special  bail,  discharging  insolvent  debtors,  adminis- 
tering oaths,  receiving  declarations  required  by 
statute,  hearing  and  deciding  u|)on  matters  in 
motion,  and  making  rules  and  orders  in  causes  and 
business  depending  in  the  court  to  which  such  judge 
shall  belong,  in  the  same  numncr  and  with  the  same 
force  and  validity  as  nuiy  be  done  by  the  court 
sitting  in  banc. 

This  statute  has  been  hitherto  acted  on  only  by 
the  Court  of  Queen's  Bench,  wherein  one  of  the 
judges  sits  from  time  to  time  in  the  B.  C.  for  the 
purpo.^es  above  specified.  It  may  be  remarked  that 
a  rule  of  the  B.  C.  cannot  be  reopened  in  the  full 
court  after  the  term  in  which  it  is  made,  even 
though  the  judge  who  pronounced  it  sanctions  the 
application;  and  a  judge  sitting  apart,  under  the 
authority  of  the  statute,  has  equal  authority  with 
the  full  court  to  reverse  the  decision  of  a  judge 
sitting  at  chambers.     See  Lush's  Fracticehy  Stephen. 

BAILEE'.     See  Bailmknt. 

B.\rLEY,  derived  through  the  French  bailie,  from 
the  middle  age  Latin  Bai.lium,  which  is  a  corruption 
of  the  Lat.  va'lum,  a  rampart.  The  B.  was  the 
whole  space  enclosed  within  the  external  walls  of  a 
castle,  with  the  exception  of  that  covered  by  the 
keep.  This  space  was  variously  disposed  of,  and, 
of  course,  differed  greatly  in  extent.  Sometimes  it 
consisted  of  several  courts,  which  were  divided  from 
each  other  by  embattled  walls,  so  as  to  form  a  series 
of  fortifications.  When  these  courts  were  two  in 
number,  they  were  known  as  the  outer  and  inner 
bailey.  The'  entrance  to  the  B.  was  generally  by  a 
drawbridge  over  the  ditch,  and  through  a  strong 
machicolated  and  embattled  gate.  The  B.  was  often 
of  great  extent,  containing  the  barracks  for  the 
soldiers,  lodgings  for  workmen  and  artificers,  maga- 
zines, wells,  chapels,  and  sometimes  even  a  monas- 
tery. In  towns,  the  B.  had  even  a  wider  significa- 
tion, and  was  often  retained  after  the  castle  or  keep 
had  long  disappeared,  as  iu  the  case  of  the  Old  B. 
in  London,  and  the  B.  iu  Oxford. 

BAILEY,  Philip  James,  a  distinguished  living 
poet,  was  born  at  Basiord,  in  the  county  of  Not- 
tingham, in  the  year  1816.  His  early  education 
was  conducted  in  his  native  town,  and  afterwarda 
he  became  a  student  at  the  university  of  Glasgow. 
He  was  called  to  the  Enghsh  bar  in  1840,  but 
never  practised.  The  first  edition  of  Fesfvs,  the 
poem  by  which  he  is  best  known,  was  publi-lied  in 
1839,  and  has  iu  subsequent  editions  received  a  large 
amount  of  new  matter.  It  attracted  considerable 
notice  in  England,  and  was  in  America  assailed  by 
a  perfect  tornado  of  applause.  While  the  enthusiasm 
lasted,  Mr.  B.  was  in  certain  quarters  mentioned  in 
the  same  breath  w^ith  Shakspeare,  Milton,  and 
Goethe.  This  injudicious  admiration  was,  however, 
certain  to  cool  down,  and  to  prove  more  prejudicial 
to  the  real  interests  of  the  author  than  unmerited 


BAILIE— BAILIWICK. 


censure  itself;  consequently,  in  literary  journals,  , 
Fentus  is  frequently  mentioned  with  a  contempt  ] 
which  it  is  far  from  deserving.  It  is  a  wonderiul 
work,  when  the  age  of  the  author  at  the  period  of  its 
production  is  taken  into  account.  It  was  com- 
menced before  the  author  had  reached  his  'IWh 
year  and  completed  in  three  years.  Fcstua  errs  from 
excess  of  boldness.  Mr  B.  speaks  of  universes  as 
other  poets  speak  of  butter-cups.  He  has  the  entree 
to  the  highest  heaven  and  to  the  regions  of  penal 
fire.  He  is  on  terms  of  perfect  fannharit^y  wi'h 
Eternity.  He  lavs  his  scenes  in  the  '  Centre,'  '  Llse- 
where,'  'Evcrvwhere,'  'Nowhere.'  Despite  its 
extravagance,  Fcstus  is  full  of  poetical  thought  and 
felicitoiis  expression,  and  has  occasional  dashes  of 
grim  humour  in  it,  not  unworthy  of  Goethe's  mock- 
ing fiend  himself.  The  faults  of  the  poem  are  as 
great  as  the  beauties;  there  is  no  congruity  or 
proportion  in  it,  and  you  lay  it  down  with  a  sense 
of  admiration  qualified  with  disgust.  In  ISrsO,  Mr 
B.  published  the  A>t(/el  World,  which  possesses  all 
the  faults  and  all  the  beauties  of  the  former  work 
on  a  reduced  scale.  If  the  reader's  admiration  is 
less,  his  disgust  is  less.  The  Anr/cl  TKor/J  is  now 
incorporated  with  the  larger  work.  Mr  B.'s  sub- 
sequent writings  have  been  the  ili/stic,  and  the  Af/e, 
a  colloquial  satire.  The  first  production  is  in  the 
writer's  early  style,  with  all  the  beauties  deleted. 
The  second  "is  an  attempt  in  a  new  field.  But 
whatever  measure  of  success  may  attend  MrB.  in 
'  Elsewhere  '  and  '  Nowhere,'  complete  failure  awaits 
him  when  he  deals  with  niankhid  and  the  ordinary 
affairs  and  follies  of  earth. 

BAI'LIE,  a  Scotch  term,  with  several  legal  appli- 
cations.    It  ehieflv,  however,  and  popularly,  signifies 
a  superior   ofliccr'or  magistrate  of  a  municipal   cor- 
poration in  Scotland,  with   judicial    authority  within 
the    citv  or  burgh.     In  royal   burghs,  the  office  is  in 
some    respects    analogous   to    that    of  Alderman  m 
England.       The    chief  magistrate  of  a  Scotch    cor- 
poration, called    the    Provost  (q.  v.),  and    often    one 
or  more  of  the  baiHes,  are,  in  virtue  of  their  office, 
in   the   commission   of  the   peace ;    and   by   the    6 
Geo.  IV.  c.  22,  bailies   are   exempted   from    serving 
on  juries.     There   are   also    BaUien  of  Hegallfy  and 
Barony,    who   are    appointed    by    the    Superior   or 
over-lord  of  the   manor  (q.  v.),  with   limited  powers 
fixed  by  the    20   Geo.    II.    c.  43.     There  is  a  B.  lor 
the  Sanctuary  or  Abbey  of  Ilolyrood,  appointed  by 
the    Duke  of   Hamilton"  as   hereditary    keeper,    and 
having  jurisdiction  within  the  precincts.    Sec  Abbey, 
Sanctuary.       The   word    B.    was   also   formerly    a 
term  in   the    practice  of  Scotch    conveyancing,  and 
signified  an  officer   who   represented  the   seller,  and 
who,  as  such,  gave  seisiii  or  sasiue  (q.  v.),  or  delivery 
of  the   lands   sold   to  the  buyer  or   his   attorney  ; 
but  by  the  changes   and   simplifications   effected  by 
recent   legislation,    the   office   of    B.   in   this   sense 
may  be   said   to  be   virtually  abolished ;    indeed,  by 
the    21    and    22   Vict.  c.  76,  s.  1,  called    The   Titles 
to  Land  Act,  seisin   itself,  as   a  separate   and   inde- 
pendent   documentary    title,  is    declared    to   be_  un- 
necessary, and  registration  of  the  conveyance  of  the 
estate  held  to  be  sufficient. 

BAILIFF  in  English,  Bailie  in  Scotch,  Bailli 
in  French,  and  Balio  in  Ital.,  are  terms  having  a 
common  origin — namely,  the  nuddle  Latin  hall'ivus, 
which  is  again  connected  with  the  older  form, 
hagalus,  or  haj^dm.  Through  all  the  changes  of 
application  they  have  undergone  in  the  course  of 
history,  they  have  continued  to  agree  in  denoting  an 
overseer  of  some  kind— an  officer  exercising  superin- 
tendence on  behalf  of  some  superior  authority.  At 
the  Greek  imperial  court  in  Constantinople,  the  chief 
tutor  of  the  imperial   children   was   called   Bajulos. 


The  same  title  seems  also  to  have  been  given  in 
Constantinople  to  the  superintendent  of  the  foreign 
merchants,  who  was  appointed  by  the  Venetians, 
and  it  may  possibly  be  for  this  reason  that  the 
title  Balio  'came  at  length  to  be  applied  also  to  the 
Venetian  ambassadors  themselves.  The  title  Bal- 
livus  was  introduced  bv  the  Knights  of  St.  John  into 
the  south  and  west  of  Europe,  as  the  eight  members 
of  their  chapter  were  called  Ballivi  conrcninales, 
whence  also  the  name  Ballei,  given  to  the  circles 
into  which  the  possessions  of  the  order  were  divided. 
In  France,  the  roval  Baillis  were  at  one  time  com- 
manders of  the  'troops,  administrators  of  the  royal 
domains,  and  judges  each  in  his  district.  In  later 
times,  the  royal  Baillis  were  deprived  of  the  two 
latter  offices,  and  were  consequently  then  called 
Baillis  d'Epce  onlv.  Proprietors  of  estates,  also, 
possessing  supreme  jurisdiction,  appointed  Bailhs  to 
superintend  these  courts  of  justice.  As  very  little 
knowledge  was  required  for  these  situations,  and  as 
thev  mif^it  be  purchased,  they  were  held  in  little 
esti'mation  ;  and  in  latter  times,  the  BaiUis  became 
standing  characters  on  the  stage,  held  up  to  ridicule 
on  account  of  their  ignorance  and  their  al)surd  pre- 
tensions, as  well  as  for  cheating  and  injustice.  In 
EnMaiid,  the  name  B.  was  introduced  in  the  reign 
of  ^William  I.,  to  designate  the  superintendents  of 
counties,  which  were  called  Ballivic. 

BAI'LIFF,    in   English    law,    is   a    legal    officer, 
and   may  be  described   as  the   keeper,  protector,  or 
superintendent    of    some     duty    or    charge     legally 
imposed    on    him.       As    officers    of  the  law,  bailiffs 
put    in    force    arresting    process,    and    they  perform 
other  duties  within  the  county  or  bailiwick  required 
of    them    by    the    sheriil",    who    is    their    immediate 
official   superior.     In   this   sense   bailiffs   are   either 
bailiff's   of  hundreds,  or    hound   bailiffs.     The    duty 
of   the    former    is    to    collect   fines,  summon  juries, 
attend  the  judges   and  justices  at  the  assizes  and 
quarter-sessions,  and   execute    writs   and   processes 
in    the    several    hundreds.       Bound  bailiffs,    again, 
are    officers    usually  joined   by   the    sheriffs    with 
the   bailiffs  of  hundreds,  and    employed   on  account 
of  their  adroitness  and    dexterity.     They  arc  called 
bound    bailiffs,   because    the    sheriff,    being   civilly 
responsible    for    their    official    misdemeanours,    they 
are    annually  bound  in  an    obligation,  with    sureties, 
for   the   due    execution  of  their   office.      There  are 
also  special   bailiff's,  who   arc   officers   appointedby 
the    sheriff  on    t"lie    application    of  the    party  suing 
out   the    process   to  be   executed ;    and    whenever  a 
party  thus  chooses  his  own  officers,  he  is  considered 
to  discharge   the    sheriff  from    all    responsibility  for 
what   is   done   bv  him.      There   is,  besides,  another 
exceptional  class  "of  bailiffs,  called  bailiffs  ombcrhes, 
honours,  manors,  and  other  lordships  and  franchises, 
whose    appointments,  duties,  and  responsibilities  are 
re"-ulated  by  the  7  Vict.  c.  10.     The  county  courts 
likewise   have    bailiffs   for   the    execution   of    their 
process,  as  to  whom  see  9  and  10  Vict.  c.  95,  12  and 
13  Vict.  c.  101,  13  and  U  Vict.  c.  01,  and  19  and  20 
Viet.  c.  108.  , 

The  sheriff  himself  is  the  Quecji's  B.,  and,  as  such, 
it  is  his  business  to  ju-eserye  the  rights  of  the 
Crown  within  his  bailiwick.  He  must  seize  to  the 
soverei"-n's  use  all  lauds  devolved  to  the  Crown  by 
attainder  or  escheat  ;  must  levy  all  fines  and  for- 
feitures ;  and  must  sei/.e  and  keep  all  waifs  (q,  v.), 
wrecks,  estrays  (q.  v.),  and  the  like,  unless  they  be 
granted  to  some  subject. 

BAI'LIFF,  HIGH.     See  High  Bailiff. 
BAI'LIWICK   legally  means   the   county  or    dis- 
trict within    which  the    sheriifs  bailiffs    may  execute 
their    office.     Blackstone    says    that    this    word  was 
introduced   by  the   princes   of  the   Norman    line  in 

623 


BAILLEUL— BAILLIE. 


imitation  of  the  French,  whose  teiritoi'V  was  divided 
into  bailiwiek.s,  as  that  of  England  into  counties. 

BAILLKUL,  a  t-own  of  France,  department  of  the 
Nord,  with  manufactures  of  woollens,  cottons,  lace, 
hats,  beet-root,  sufrar,  &c. — the  cheese  of  its  reiy:h- 
bourhood  being  also  celebrated.        Population  6000. 

BAI'LLIE,  Joanna,  a  modern  poetess  of  distin- 
guished merit,  was  born  in  1762  at  Bothwell,  in 
Lanarkshire,  Scotland.  Her  father  was  a  Presby- 
terian clergyman.  She  received  a  superior  educa- 
tion, and  soon  began  to  manifest  those  talents  which 
subsequently  excited  the  admiration  of  the  public. 
Her  career  was  a  singularly  happy  one,  but  devoid 
of  all  striking  incident.  At  an  early  period,  she 
went  to  reside  in  London,  where  her  brother, 
Matthew  Baillie,  had  established  himself  as  a  phy- 
sician. Here  she  remained  till  her  death,  which 
occurred  on  tlie  2;^d  of  February,  1851,  when  she 
had  attained  the  venerable  age  of  cighty-uinc.  No 
authoress  ever  enjoyed  a  larger  share  of  the  esteem 
and  atfection  of  her  literary  contemporaries.  Ail 
vied  in  shewing  her  a  courteous  respect,  and  even 
America  sent  its  votaries  to  her  little  shrine  at 
Hanipstead.  Her  greatest  achievement  is  undoubt- 
edly the  FlaifS  on  the  Paxslo7>K,  which,  though 
erroneous  in  conception,  are  full  of  noble  and 
impressive  j)oetry,  and  often  characterised  by  intense 
dramatic  power.  The  principle  upon  which  Miss 
B.  proceeded  in  the  construction  of  those  works, 
was  to  take  a  single  passion  as  the  subject  of  a 
play,  and  to  cxhiliit  its  influence  on  an  individual 
supposed  to  be  actuated  by  nothing  else.  In  point 
of  fact,  such  persons  do  not  exist  in  society  ;  men 
are  swayed  by  a  variety  of  conflicting  emotions ; 
and  even  when  any  one  of  these  becomes  domi- 
nant, it  does  not  wholly  destroy  the  rest,  otherwise 
the  victim  of  a  ruling  passion  would  lapse  into 
a  monomaniac.  The  leading  personages  of  Miss 
B's  plays  are,  therefore,  rather  impersonations  of 
certain  elements  of  human  nature,  than  genuine 
human  beings.  They  are  vivid  poetical  studies  in 
psychology;  not  minors  held  up  to  nature,  like  the 
brilliant  and  variegated  creations  of  Shakspearc. 
Still,  there  are  scenes,  in  her  tragedies  especially, 
where  the  interest  of  the  reader  is  intensely  excited 
by  the  great  art  shewn  in  the  minute  delineation 
of  a  particular  passion,  and  where  he  is  forced  to 
forget  the  artificial  theory  of  the  authoress.  The 
first  volume  of  the  Plaijs  of  the  Passions  appeared 
in  1798,  and  met  with  remarkable  success.  Four 
years  afterwards,  she  published  a  second  volume  ;  in 
1804,  Miscellaneous  Plays  ;  in  1812,  the  third  volume 
of  her  Plays  of  the  Passions  ;  and  in  1836,  three 
volumes  of  dramatic  poetry.  The  most  popular  as 
well  as  the  most  powerful  of  her  works  is  the 
tragedy  of  De  Movtfort.  It  was  brought  upon  the 
stage  in  Loudon,  Kemblc  acting  for  eleven  nights 
the  character  of  the  hero.  Many  of  Miss  B's  nnnor 
pieces  are  very  sweet,  simple,  and  beautiful ;  and 
are  marked  by  a  sprightly  grace  of  versification,  and 
a  playful  serenity  of  spirit,  which  pleasantly  remind 
cue  of  the  personal  character  of  the  authoress  herself. 

BAI'LLIE,  Matthew,  M.D.,  a  distinguished 
physician  and  anatomist,  was  born  on  the  27th 
October  1761,  in  the  Manse  of  Shotts,  Lanarkshire, 
Scotland.  His  father  was  descended  from  the  family 
of  Baillie  of  Jerviswood,  so  noted  in  the  history 
of  Scotland  during  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  ;  his 
mother  was  a  sister  of  the  two  celebrated  anato- 
mists, William  and  John  Hunter;  and  one  of  his 
sisters  was  Joanna  Baillie,  the  poetess.  Talent  seems 
to  have  been  both  hereditary  and  abundant  in  the 
family.  On  account  of  his  abilities,  his  father  was 
appointed  professor  of  divinity  in  the  university 
of  Glasgow,  where  young  B.  went  through  the 
624 


usuid  curriculum,  and  afterwards  proceeded  to 
Balliol  College,  Oxford,  as  an  exhibitioner  on  the 
Snell  foundation.  In  17 SO,  lie  commenced  hia 
anatomical  studies  in  London  under  the  care  of  his 
uncle,  and  was  frequently  emj)loyed  as  demonstra- 
tor to  the  latter  in  his  theatre  at  Great  Windmill 
Street.  His  success  in  this  capacity  was  so  great, 
that  on  the  death  of  Dr.  Hunter,  in  1783,  he  was 
found  qualified  to  become  his  successor.  In  1784,  he 
began  to  lecture,  and  acquiied  a  high  reputation  aa 
a  vigorous  and  lucid  expositor  of  the  science  of 
anatomy.  In  171K5,  he  published  a  small  work 
entitled.  The  Morbid  Anri/oiny  of  some  of  the  most 
Important  Pm-ts  of  the  Ihiinan  Body.  It  made  an 
era  in  medical  science.  In  addition  to  the  infor- 
Tnation  formerly  scattered  through  the  writings  of 
Bonnetus,  Lieutaud,  Montagni,  and  others,  it  con- 
tained a  m\dtitude  of  ingenious  observations  made 
by  his  uncle  and  himself,  and  greatly  enhanced  our 
knowledge  of  the  changes  produced  on  the  human 
frame  by  disease.  It  had  a  remarkable  influence  on 
the  study  of  medicine,  and  excited  in  a  greater 
measure,  perhaps  than  any  other  book,  a  spirit  of 
careful  induction  among  professional  men.  In  170'.), 
Dr.  B.  relinquished  his  anatomical  lectureship,  and 
in  1800,  his  appointment  as  physician  to  St.  George's 
Hospital,  which  he  had  held  for  thirteen  years.  He 
now  devoted  himself  exclusively  to  his  duties  as  a 
medical  practitioner,  and  by  liis  honourable  assiduity 
succeeded  in  realising  a  largo  fortune.  In  one  of 
his  busiest  years,  when  he  had  scarcely  time  to 
take  a  single  meal,  his  professional  income  is  said  to 
have  reached  £l(i,0()0.  In  181(i,  he  was  appointed 
physician  to  the  king,  and  offered  a  baronetcy, 
which,  however,  he  declined.  At  last,  worn  out 
with  incessant  labour,  he  died  on  the  23d  September 
1823. 

BAI'LLIE,  Robert,  one  of  the  most  eminent, 
and  perhaps  the  most  moderate  of  all  the  Scottish 
Presbyterian  clergy  during  the  time  of  the  civil 
war,  was  born  at  Glasgow  in  1590,  and  educated 
at  the  university  of  that  city.  In  1022,  he  received 
episcopal  ordination — episcopacy  being  then  nomin- 
ally the  established  religion  of  the  country — from 
Archbishop  Law,  and  was  shortly  after  presented  to 
the  parish  church  of  Kilwinning.  At  first  a  main- 
tainer  of  the  doctrine  of  p;issive  obedience,  he  seems 
to  have  changed  his  opinions  on  this  point  some  time 
during  1630 — 1G36.  In  1G38,  he  sat  in  the  famous 
General  Assembly  of  the  Kirk  of  Scotland  which  met 
in  Glasgow  to  protest  against  epi-scopacy  being  thrust 
on  an  unwilling  people,  but  conducted  himself  with 
greater  prudence  and  temperance  than  was  quite 
agreeable  to  his  excited  brethren.  However,  he 
soon  threw  himself  eagerly  into  the  national  cause. 
In  1640,  he  was  selected  by  the  Scottish  leaders, 
on  account  of  his  pamphlet  against  Laud's  party, 
as  a  proper  person  to  go  to  London,  along  with 
other  commissioners,  to  prepare  charges  against 
Archbishop  Laud,  whose  rash  and  tyrannical 
measures  were  alleged  to  have  been  the  origin  of 
the  recent  hostilities  against  the  sovereign.  On  his 
return  to  Scotland  in  1642,  he  was  appointed  joint- 
professor  of  divinity  at  Glasgow,  along  with  Mr. 
David  Dickson,  an  "equally  distinguished,  but  less 
moderate  divine.  In  1643,  he  was  again  sent  to 
London  as  a  delegate  to  the  Westminster  Assembly 
of  Divines,  where  he  conducted  himself  in  an 
\mobtrusive  manner,  but  cordially  concurred  in  the 
doctrines  which  were  drawn  up.  It  is  curious  to 
notice,  in  connection  with  this  incident  of  his  career, 
that  though  Mr.  B.  had  himself  experienced  the 
injustice  of  intolerance,  like  almost  every  other 
theologian  of  his  age,  he  vehemently  discarded  the 
principle  of  toleration,  and  asserted  the  divine  right 
of  presbytery   with  as  much  emphasis  as  Laud  did 


BAILLIE— CAILY. 


the  divine  right  of  cpiscoijacy.  After  the  execu- 
tion of  Charles  I.,  in  1040,  B.  was  chosen  by 
the  chmeh  to  proceed  to  Holland,  and  to  invite 
Ciiarli'S  II.  to  accept  the  Covenant  and  crown  of 
Scotland.  Though  it  was  not  easy  to  deal  with 
one  of  Charles's  slippery  character,  B.  is  admitted 
to  have  borne  himself  in  the  matter  with  great 
prudence  and  dignity.  After  the  Restoration,  he 
was  made  Trincipal  of  Glasgow  University,  lie  died 
July  liJU'i.  His  Letters  are  a  valuable  contribution 
to  our  knowledge  of  the  times. 

BAILLIE,   Robert,  of  Jcrviswood,  happily    de- 
scribed as   the  Scottish   Sydney,  was   a   native    of 
Lanarkshire,   and    distinguished   himself  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  reign   of  ('hiirles   II.   by  his  bold 
opposition  to  the  tyrannical  misgovermncnt  of  the 
Duke  of  Lauderdale.     Having  on  a  certain  occasion 
(June  l(J7t'))  rescued  a  relative,  the  Rev.  Mr.  Kirkton, 
from  the  clutches  of  Archliishop  Sharpe's  jirincipal 
informer,    a    wretched    profligate    of   the    name    of 
Carstaiis,  who  pretended  that  he  had  a  warrant  for 
the  apprehension  of  the   clergyman,  but   refused  to 
shew  it,  B.  was  actually  prosecuted  for  interfering 
to  prevent  the  illegal  capture  of  his  friend.    For  this 
purpose,   an    ante-dated   warrant   was    furnished   to 
Carstairs,  signed    by  nine  of  the    councillors.     The 
Marquis   of  A  thole    afterwards  admitted  to  Bishop 
Burnet  that  he  was  one   of  the  nine  who  lent  their 
names   to  this   infamous   document.     The  case  was 
therefore    made    out    to    be    a   tumult    against    the 
government.     B.  was   fined  in  6000  merks  (£318). 
He  refused  to  pay,  and  was  sent   to  prison ;  l)ut  so 
strong  was  the  indignation    of  the  Scottish  gentry, 
that  he  was  released  at  the   end  of  four  months,  in 
consideration  of  payment  of  one-half  of  his  fine  to 
Carstairs.     In  1083,  B.  took  a  prominent  part  in  a 
scheme  of  emigration  to  South  Carolina,  as  ho  saw 
no  other  refuge  from  the  degrading  tyranny  of  the 
government.     About  the    same    time,    however,   he 
entered  into  correspondence  with   the  heads  of  the 
new  Puritan  party  in   London,  whose   leaders  were 
Russell,  Sydney,  and  the  Duke  of  Monmouth,   and 
subsequently  repaired  to   that  city  to  concert  mea- 
sures for  a  vigorous  insurrection  against  the  govern- 
ment, not,  however,  so  far  as  he  was  concerned,  with 
a  view  to  revolution,  but  as  the  only  means  of  secur- 
ing  adequate   reforms.     On   the    discovery    of  the 
Ryeho\ise  Plot,  B.  was  arrested,  and  sent  down  to 
Scotland.     Accused  of  conspiring  against  the  king's 
life,  and  of  being  hostile  to  monarchical  government, 
B.  was  tried  at  Edinburgh,  and  condemned  to  death 
upon  evidence  at  once  insignificant  and  illegal.     His 
bearing  both  on  his  trial  and  during  his  imprison- 
ment  was   such,    that    his    cousin.    Bishop    Burnet, 
declared  'it  looked  like  a  reviving  of  the  spirit  of  the 
noblest  of  the  old  Greeks  or  Romans,  or  rather  of 
the  primitive  Christians  and  first  martyrs  ; '  and  the 
celebrated  Dr.  Owen  speaks  of  him  as  a  '  great  spirit,' 
'  a  person  of  the  greatest  abilities  I  almost  ever  met 
with.'     The  sentence  was  carried  into  execution  on 
the  24th  December  1G84.     It  is  to  be  regretted  that 
so   few  opportunities  were  afforded  B.  of  achieving 
anything  really  great,  for  he  seems  from  all  accounts 
to  "have  possessed  a  remarkable  strength  of  character 
and  noble  fearlessness  of  S[)irit. 

BAILLY,  Jean  Sylvain,  a  distinguished  French 
savant.  President  of  the  National  Assembly  of  1780, 
and  Mayor  of  Paris,  was  born  in  that  city,  Septem- 
ber 15,  1736.  Originally  intended  by  his  father 
for  an  artist,  he  first  turned  aside  into  literature, 
until,  becoming  acquainted  with  Lacaille,  he  was 
fortunately  induced  to  study  astronomy,  which 
proved  to  be  the  true  sphere  of  hisgenius.  In  1763, 
B.  presented  to  the  Academie  des  Sciences  his  Lunar 
Observations;  in  1766,  appeared  his  L'ssoij  on  the 
40 


Satellites  of  Jupiter,  with  Tables  of  their  Motions ;  and 
in    1771,  a  treatise  on  the   light  of  these  sateUitea, 
remarkable   for  the    profundity   of  its  astronomical 
views,  and  which   classed   him  at   once   among  the 
greatest  astronomers    of  his   time.       His  historico- 
scientific    works,    especially    his    Jlistnr;/  of  Imlian 
Astronomji,  are  full  of  learning  and  ingenious  disqui- 
sition, and  written   with  great  elegance.     In    1777, 
he  published  his  Letters  on  the  Origin  of  the  Sciences  ; 
and  in  1700,  his  Atlantis  of  Plato.     In  1784,  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Academic  Frai^aise  ;  and 
in  the  following  year,  of  the  Academic  des  Inscrip- 
tions.    The  elofi'cs  which  he  wrote  about  this  period 
for   the    Academie    des    Sciences    on    Charles    V., 
Moliere,  Corneille,    Lacaille,     Leibnitz,    Cook,    and 
(Jresset,  were  very  highly  praised.     Fontenelle  was 
the  only  Frenchman  before  him  who   had  enjoyed 
the  honour  of  being  a  member  of  the  three  academies 
at    once.     The  revolution    interrupted   his    peaceful 
studies.     During  the  earlier  jiart  of  it,  he  occupied  a 
very  prominent  ])Osition.     Elected  President  of  the 
National    Assemblv,   June   17,  1789,   and  Mayor  of 
Paris  on  the  15th  of  July,  he   conducted  himself  in 
these  capacities  with  great  integrity  and   purity  of 
purpose  ;   but  at  last  lost  his  popularity  by  allowing 
the  National  Guard  to  fire  on  the  masses  who  were 
assembled  in  the  Champ   de  Mars,  on  the   17th  of 
July  1791,  to  demand  the  dethronement  of  the  king. 
He"  now    threw    up    his    mayoralty,    considering    it 
impossible    to    satisfy  either    party,   withdrew  alto- 
gether from  public  affairs,  and  went  to   live  first  at 
Nantes,  and  afterwards  with  his  friend  Laplace  at 
Melun.     Here  he  was  seized  by  the  Jacobin  soldiery, 
and  brought  to  Paris,  where  he  was  accused  of  being 
a  royalist  conspirator,  condemned  and  executed  with 
the    usual    Jacobin    preliminary    cf    savage    insult, 
November     11,    1793.      Among     his    papers    were 
found,  and    afterwards    published,  an    Essay   on  the 
Origin  of  Fables  and  Ancient  Kelujions  (1799),  and 
Memoirs  of  the  devolution  by  an  Eye-icitness  (1804). 
There  cannot  be  two  opinions  regarding  the  merit  of 
B.'s  style,  but  his  historico-astronomical  speculations 
are  now  considered  fantastic. 

BAI'LY,    Edward    Hodges,    R.  A.,    an    eminent 
English   sculptor,  bom   at    Bristol,  :March  10,  1788. 
His  taste  for  art  was  developed  at  an  early  period. 
When   onlv    sixteen,  he    commenced   business  as   a 
wax  -  modeller,    and     obtained     considerable    repii- 
tation   in   his   native   city   for   the   fidelity    of    his 
likenesses.     In  1807,  he  went  to   London  with  an 
introduction  to  Flaxman,  who  was  struck  with  the 
ability  displayed  in  certain  designs  which  the  youth 
had    brought"  with    him,  and    immediately  took    him 
into  his  stiidio.     B.  rapidly  became  a  favourite  with 
his  master.     In  1809,  he  gained  the  silver  medal  at 
the  Society  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  and  the  silver  and 
gold  medals  at  the  Royal   Academy.      Ills   works 
during  this  part  of  his  career  were  chiefly,  if  not 
altogether,    classical    figures.       They    exliiWl;   great 
care  in  execution,  and  are  simple  and  pure  in  con- 
ception ;  but  it  was  not  till  his  twenty -sixth  year  that 
the   full  power  and    originality  of  has  genius  mani- 
fested itself  in  his  celebrated  'Eve  at  the  Fountain,' 
a  figure  of  exquisite  grace  and  loveliness.     His  next 
works  were,  '  Hercules  casting  Lycus   into  the  Sea,' 
'Apollo   Discharging    his    Arrows,'    and    'Maternal 
Love.'     George  IV.  also  employed,  him,  along,  with 
other  artists,  to  execute  the  sculpture  in  front  of 
Buckingham  Palace,  the  figures  on  the  marble  arch, 
and  the  'Triumph   of  Britannia,'  as  also  the  bassi- 
rclievi  that  surround  the  throne-room.  Besides  these, 
B.  has  executed  a  great  number  of  busts  and  statues 
of  distinguished  contemporaries,  such  as  Telford  the 
engineer.  Earl  Grey  (14  feet  high),  and  Sir  Astley 
Cooper.     The  statue  of  Nelson,  in  Trafalgar  Square, 
is  hkewise  the  worJi  of  his  hands.    His  '  Eve  listening 

62a. 


BAILY— BAIRD. 


to  tlic  Voice,'  the  '  Sleeping  Nyiiiiili,'  '  (iirl  preparing 
lor  the  Bath,'  and  'The  (irnccs  Seated,'  are  aniong 
his  finest  efforts.     He  died  May  22,  1867. 

BAI'LY,  Francis,  an  eminent  English  astronomer, 
was  born  at  Newbury,  Berks,  in  1774,  and  died  in 
London  in  1844.  In  the  midst  of  active  business  as 
a  London  stockbroker,  he  hiid  tlie  foundation  of  his 
scientific  fame,  and  during  the  years  of  life  usually 
devoted  to  repose,  underwent  labours  and  rendered 
services  to  astronomy,  which  entitle  him  to  be  j 
I'egarded  as  one  of  the  most  remarkable  men  of  his 
time.  Among  the  chief  of  these  services  were  his 
share  in  the  foundation  of  the  Astronomical  Society, 
and  in  the  improvement  of  the  Nautical  Almanac, 
his  laborious  repetition  of  Cavendish's  pendulum 
experiments,  and  the  production  of  the  Astrono- 
mical Society's  Star-catalogue.  The  latter,  says  his 
biographer,  Sir  J.  Herschcl,  'put  (he  astronomical 
world  in  possession  of  a  power,  which  may  be  said, 
without  exaggeration,  to  have  changed  the  face  of 
sidereal  astronomy.'  lu  addition  to  several  stand- 
ard works  on  Life-annuities,  &c.  (1808 — 1813),  and 
an  immense  mass  of  contributions  to  the  Memoirs  of 
the  Astronomical  Society,  he  wrote  a  valuable  Life 
of  Flam  steed  (1835),  which  gave  rise  to  much  hot 
discussion  on  the  subject  of  that  eminent  man's 
connection  with  Newton. 

BAINI,  Giuseppe,  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
scientific  musicians  of  modern  times,  was  born  in 
Rome  on  the  21st  October  1775.  In  1795,  when 
still  only  a  pupil  in  the  Seminario  Romano,  he  was 
admitted  among  the  singers  in  the  Papal  Chapel,  on 
account  of  his  fine  voice  and  his  musical  acquire- 
ments. Having  been  initiated  by  G.  Zannaconi  into 
the  art  of  composition,  lie  soon  gained  distinction 
by  his  compositions.  The  severe  gravity  and  pro- 
found science  of  these  contrasted  strongly  with  the 
careless  style  and  shallow  dilettantism  of  the  modern 
Italian  masters.  B.  has  secured  for  himself  a  pro- 
minent place  in  musical  literatvn-e,  less,  however, 
by  his  compositions  than  by  his  historical  researches, 
which  he  found  both  encouragement  and  opportu- 
nity to  make,  when  he  was  appointed  director  of 
the  papal  concerts  in  1804,  and  general  director  of 
the  choir  in  1814.  His  principal  work  is  his  Memoric 
Storico-critiche  della  Vila  e  delle  Opere  di  Giov. 
Pierluigi  da  Palestrina,  &c.  ("2  vols.  Rome,  1828). 
It  is  a  valuable  work,  although  disfigured  by  pre- 
judices. The  German  edition  of  B.'s  work,  additions 
and  explanations  by  Kandler,  published  by  Kiesc- 
wetter  (Leip.  1834),  is  especially  deserving  of  notice, 
as  very  soon  after  its  first  publication  it  became  a 
rare  book  on  iiccount  of  the  small  number  originally 
published.  Winterfeld  published  an  addition  of  the 
same  work  with  critical  remarks  (Brtslau,  1832). 
B.  died  on  the  10th  of  May  1844. 

.  BAIRAKTA'R,  or,  more  correctly,  Bairak-dar, 
.signifying  Standard-bearer,  is  the  title  of  the  ener- 
getic Grand  Vizier  Mustapha.  He  was  born  iu  1755, 
and  was  the  son  of  poor  parents.  He  entered  the 
militai-y  service  at  an  early  age,  and  soon  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  valour.  When  he  was  Pacha 
of  Rutschuk  in  1806,  he  fought  not  without  success 
against  the  Russian  army,  which  had  advanced  into 
Moldavia  and  Wallachia,  and  had  taken  Bucharest. 
After  the  revolt  of  the  janizaries  in  1807,  by  which 
Selim  III.  (q.  v.)  was  deposed  from  the  throne, 
in  favour  of  Mustapha  IV.,  B.  at  first  con- 
cealed his  attachment  to  the  deposed  monarch,  and 
inarched  with  his  troops  apparently  against  the 
revolted  Servians ;  but  as  soon  as  he  reached 
Adrianople,  he  compelled  the  grand  vizier  to  return 
with  him  to  Constantinople,  in  order  to  restore  the 
throne  to  Sultan  Selim.  On  their  return,  they  found 
this  prince  murdered,  and  his  dead  body  lying 
.626 


in  the  first  court  of  the  seraglio.  Filled  with  rage 
at  this  sight,  B  caused  all  tho.-e  to  be  executed  wlio 
had  had  any  share  in  the  murder.  Ho  deposed 
Mustapha  IV.,  and  proclaimed  the  brother  of  this 
prince,  Mahmoud  II.,  sultan  on  the  28th  July  1808. 
B.  was  now  appointed  grand  vizier.  In  the  exercise 
of  this  olfice,  he  de|JOsed  the  grand  mufti,  th('  leader 
of  the  janizaries,  and  all  the  ulemas  who  had  taken 
any  part  in  the  last  revolution ;  while  at  the  same 
time  he  was  carefid  to  secure  the  traniiuillity  of  the 
capital,  and  strengthened  the  regular  army.  His 
chief  object  was  the  annihilation  of  the  janizaries  ; 
but,  like  the  unfortunate  Selim,  he  also  fell  a  victim 
to  these  fierce  bands  of  soldiery,  who  resisted  every- 
thing like  military  discipline.  Favoured  by  the 
fanatical  people,  the  janizaries  rebelled,  and,  with 
the  support  of  the  fleet,  attacked  the  seraglio 
on  the  15th  November  1808,  and  demanded  the 
restor.ition  of  Mustapha  IV.  B.  defended  him- 
self bravely;  but  when  he  saw  that  the  flames 
threatened  to  destroy  the  palace,  and  that  he  was 
in  danger  of  falling  alive  into  his  enemies'  hands,  he 
strangled  Mustapha,  threw  his  head  to  the  besiegers, 
and  then  blew  liimself  up. 

BAIRD,  Sir  David,  Bart.,  a  general  in  the  British 
army,  was  born  0th  December  1757,  at  Newbyth, 
Scotland.  He  entered  the  service  in  1772  as  an 
ensign  in  the  2d  Foot,  was  promoted  to  a  lieutenancy 
in  1778,  and  immediately  after  obtained  a  comi)any 
in  the  73d,  a  Highland  regiment  just  raised  by  Lord 
Macleod,  with  which  he  sailed  to  India.  In  the 
course  of  a  few  months,  the  young  officer  was  plunged 
amid  the  jierils  of  a  sudden  and  sanguinary  war. 
The  English  had  excited  the  hostility  of  Ilydcr  Ali 
by  a  gross  breach  of  faith  ;  and  in  the  July  of  1780, 
the  latter  burst  into  the  Carnatic  at  the  head  of 
100,000  men,  disciplined  and  commanded  by  French 
officers.  On  the  loth  of  September,  a  j>ortion  of  the 
English  army  fell  into  an  ambuscade  at  Pcrambou- 
cum,  and  was  cut  to  pieces.  Among  the  few  who 
remained  alive  to  be  taken  prisoners  was  Baird, 
whose  heroism  had  actually  startled  the  JVench 
officers  who  were  opposed  to  him.  He  was  thrown 
into  a  dungeon  at  Seringapatam,  where  he  endured 
a  captivity  of  four  years,  that  must  have  been  pecu- 
liarly galling  to  a  spirit  so  fierce,  restless,  and  resolute 
as  his.  Released  in  July  1784,  he  obtained  the 
majority  of  the  71st  in  178'.t,  and  in  the  October  of  the 
same  year  visited  England.  In  1791,  he  returned,  a 
lieutenant-colonel,  and  took  partin  several  imj)Oi'tant 
sieges,  attacks,  and  skirmishes;  in  1795,  he  received 
a  colonelcy;  in  1798,  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
major-general;  and  in  1799  memorably  signalised 
himself  at  the  victorious  assault  of  Seringapatam. 
He  led  the  storming-party,  having  obtained  that 
perilous  honour  at  his  own  urgent  request,  Colonel 
Wellcslcy  (afterwards  Duke  of  Wellington)  com- 
manding the  reserve.  In  requital  of  his  brilliant 
services,  he  was  presented  by  the  army,  through  the 
commander-in-chief,  Genei-al  Harris,  with  the  state- 
sword  of  Tippoo  Saib,  and  also  with  a  dress-sword 
fiom  the  field-officers  who  served  under  him  at  the 
assault.  His  merit  was  likewise  acknowledged  by 
the  home  government.  In  the  following  year,  he 
was  appointed  to  the  command  of  an  expedition 
against  Batavia,  but  which  was  afterwards  sent  to 
Egypt.  On  his  return  to  India,  he  found  that  the 
star  of  Wellesley  was  in  the  ascendant ;  and  B.,  who 
had  already  complained  of  the  preference  given  to 
that  officer,  and  who  was,  besides,  of  opinion  that  his 
own  merits  were  constantly  overlooked,  ap])lied  for 
leave  of  absence,  and  sailed  for  Europe  in  1803.  He 
was  received  at  court  with  great  distinction,  knighted 
in  June  1804,  and  made  a  K.C.B.  in  the  following 
August.  In  1805,  he  commanded  an  expedition 
against  the  Dutch  settlements  at  the  Cape  of  Good 


BAIREUTH— BAJUS. 


Hope,  which  was  successful ;  in  1807,  lie  commanded 
a  division  at  the  siege  of  Copenhagen  ;  and  in  1808, 
was  sent  to  Spain  with  an  aimy  of  1i>,0(mi  men,  to 
assist  Sir  John  Moore.  He  distingui.<hed  himself  in 
the  battle  of  Corunna,  January  li),  l.'O;).  Moore 
having  been  killed  in  the  action.  Sir  David  succeeded 
to  the  chief  conmiand,  and  had  the  honour  of  com- 
municating intelligence  of  the  victory  to  government. 
On  this  occiision,  he  received,  for  the  fourth  time  in 
his  life,  the  thanks  of  parliament,  and  was  created  a 
baronet.  After  this  period,  he  retired  from  active 
service.  In  IS  10,  he  married  Miss  I'restor.  Campbell, 
a  Perthshire  lady,  by  whom  he  left  no  issue.  He 
died,  August  18,  IS'J'.i. 

BAIREUTH,  a  city,  with  a  population  of  18,044, 
capital  of  the  province  of  Upper  Fiancouia,  Bavaria, 
and  formerly  the  cajiital  of  the  principality  of  the 
same  name.  B.  is  beautifu.ly  situated  on  the  Red 
Mayn,  about  126  miles  due  north  from  ilunich.  Its 
streets  are  broad  and  well  paved,  and  are  inter- 
spersed with  groves,  promenades,  fine  gardens,  and 
public  fountains.  Its  piincipal  buildings  are  the 
old  palace,  now  the  residence  of  the  provincinl 
governor ;  the  new  palace,  containing  a  gallery  of 
paintings ;  the  mint,  opera-house,  riding-school, 
infirmary,  and  town-hall.  Its  chief  articles  of 
industry  are  leather,  cottons,  woollens,  linen,  tobacco, 
pai'chment,  and  porcelain.  Jean  Paul  Ricliter  died 
liere  in  November  1825,  and  a  monument  has  been 
erected  to  his  memory. 

BA'JA,  an  important  market-town  of  Hungary, 
in  the  circle  of  Bacs,  on  the  banks  of  the  Danube, 
and  celebrated  throughout  Austria  for  its  annual 
swine-fair.  Grain  and  wine,  in  large  quantities,  are 
produced  in  its  neighbourhood.     Pop.  14,500. 

BA'JAN.     See  Bejan. 

BAJAZE'T,  orBAJASI'D  (pronounced  Bayaze't)  I., 
Sultan  of  the  Turks,  was  born  in  1347.  In  13S9, 
he  succeeded  his  father,  Murad  I.,  who  fell  in  battle 
near  Kossova,  fighting  against  the  Servians.  Imme- 
diately on  ascending  the  throne,  he  inaugurated  his 
rule,  after  the  fashion  of  eastern  kings,  by  strangling 
his  younger  brother  Yacub,  lest  he  should  dispute 
the  succession.  In  three  years,  he  conquered  Bul- 
garia, a  part  of  Servia,  Macedonia,  and  Thessaly  ; 
he  also  subdued  most  of  the  states  of  Asia  Minor. 
From  the  rapidity  with  which  these  extraordinary 
conquests  were  effected,  he  received  the  name  of 
Ilderim — that  is,  liightning.  He  even  blockaded 
Constantinople  itself  for  ten  years,  thinking  to  subdue 
it  by  famine.  To  rescue  this  city.  King  Sigismund 
of  Hungary  (afterwards  Emperor  of  Germany)  as- 
sembled a  large  army,  in  which  there  were  2000 
French  nobles  under  the  command  of  the  Duke  of 
Nivey.  With  this  army.  King  Sigismund  attacked 
the  city  of  Nikopolis,  in  Bulgaria,  situated  on  the 
Danube.  B.  hastened  to  meet  him,  and  gained  a 
decisive  victory  over  the  allied  Hungarians,  Poles, 
and  French,  on  the  28th  September  1.S96.  Sigismund 
escaped  captivity  only  by  a  speedy  flight  in  disguise  ; 
but  the  greater  part  of  the  French,  through  whose 
impetuosity  the  battle  was  lost,  were  taken  pri- 
soners, and  were  neaily  all  executed.  B.  would  now 
have  entirely  destroyed  the  (ireek  empire,  if  he  had 
not  been  prevented  by  Timur  (([.  v.),  who  attacked 
his  possessions  in  Asia  Minor,  and  completely  de- 
feated him  on  the  16th  June  llOl,  near  Angora,  the 
ca[)ital  of  what  was  anciently  called  Galatia,  on  the 
very  spot  where  Pompey  had  formerly  overthrown 
Mitiiriihites.  B.  himself  fell  into  the  "hands  of  the 
conqueror,  who  treated  him  with  great  generosity. 
The  story  that  he  was  carried  about  iniprisoned  in  a 
cage  is  without  any  historical  foundation.  B.  died 
in  14' !3,  in  the  camp  of  Timur.  He  was  succeeded 
in  the    government    bv  his    son    Soliman  I.      B.  was 


honourably  distinguished  by  his  efforts  to  impiove  the 
administration  of  justice.  During  the  14  years  of 
his  reign,  he  built  a  large  nmnbcr  of  mosques,  among 
others,  one  at  Adriano|)le,  and  a  second  at  Broussa, 
which  two  cities  were  then  the  ordinary  residences 
of  the  Ottoman  princes. 

BAJAZET  II.,  son  of  the  Sultan  Mohammed  II., 
the  conqueror  of  Constantinople,  was  born  in  1447, 
and  ascended  the  Ottoman  throne  after  his  father's 
death  in  1481.  His  reign,  which  lasted  32  years, 
was  a  succession  of  uninterrupted  wars  against  Hun- 
gary, Poland,  Venice,  Egypt,  and  Persia,  which  were 
carried  on  with  various  success  and  without  any 
events  of  striking  importance,  yet  which  served  on 
the  whole  to  establish  the  Ottoman  power.  The  last 
years  of  his  reign  were  much  disturbed  by  disputes 
between  his  sons  about  the  succession  to  the  throne. 
Influenced  by  the  preference  shewn  by  the  janiza- 
ries for  his  younger  son  Selim,  B.  abdicated  in  his 
favour,  but  died  before  he  could  reach  the  place  of 
his  voluntary  exile,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Adri- 
ano|)le,  in  the  year  1513.  B.  was  a  friend  to  the 
dervishes,  at  the  same  time  liberal  and  fond  of  pomp 
ai'.d  splendour.  Many  of  the  inost  beautiful  mosques 
in  Constantinople  and  Adrianople  were  built  by  him, 
and  fitted  up  in  a  style  of  the  greatest  magnificence. 

BA'JIMONT'S  ROLL,  the  name  given  to  a 
valuation,  according  to  which  the  ecclesiastical 
benefices  of  Scotland  were  taxed,  from  the  end  of 
the  loth  c.  to  the  Reformation.  It  took  its  name 
from  an  Italian  chuichnian,  Benemund  or  Baianiund 
de  Yicci,  who  was  sent  from  Rome  by  the  pope  about 
the  year  1270,  to  collect  tlie  tithe,  or  tenth  part  of  all 
the  chinch  livings  in  Scotland,  for  an  expedition  to 
the  Holy  Land.  Hitherto,  the  Scotch  clergy  had 
been  taxed  according  to  a  conventional  valuation, 
called  the  Antiqua  Taxatlo.  But  Baianiund  set  this 
aside  ;  and,  in  spite  of  their  reclamations,  assessed 
the  benefices  at  their  actual  yearly  worth,  or  verus 
valor.  Although  more  than  once  leferred  to  as  an 
authoritative  document  in  statutes  of  tlie  15th  c,  no 
complete  copy  of  B.  R.,  in  its  original  shape,  is  now 
known  to  exist.  A  contemporary  manuscript  of  so 
much  of  the  Roll  as  applies  to  the  archdeaconry  of 
Lothian,  or  that  portion  of  the  diocese  of  St.  Andrews 
which  lies  to  the  south  of  the  Forth  (comprehending 
the  countries  of  Berwick,  Haddington,  Edinburgh, 
Linlithgow,  and  part  of  Stirlingshire),  is  preserved 
at  Duiiiam.  The  real  value  of  the  benefices  in  this 
district,  as  set  down  in  B.  R.,  exceeds  the  conven- 
tional value  in  the  Antiqua  Taxatio  in  the  proportion 
of  420  to  286.  A  copy  of  B.  R.,  as  it  ap|)eais  to  have 
existed  in  the  reign  of  King  James  V.  (1513 — 1542), 
is  preserved  in  the  Advocates'  Library  at  Edinburgh, 
in  a  hand  of  the  beginning  of  the  17th  e.  It  is  full 
of  inaccuracies;  and  it  omits  all  livings  of  less  than 
40  mnrks  a  year.  Of  the  Antiqua  Taxatio,  which 
was  superseded  by  B.  R.,  there  are  good  copies  in 
the  handwriting  of  the  13th  c,  so  far  as  concerns 
the  benefices  in  the  four  dioceses  of  St.  Andrews, 
Brechin,  Aberdeen,  and  Moray. 

BAJO'CCO,  or  BAIOTCO  (pi.  Bajocchi),  is  a 
copper  coin  in  the  Papal  States,  value  nearly  a  half- 
penny. It  is  1-lOOth  of  the  scudo,  which  is  equal 
to  4s.  ?,\d.  In  the  island  of  Sicily,  the  Neapolitan 
ffi-niw,  the  1-luOth  part  of  the  ducato  (=3s.  4J.),  i« 
also  called  a  bajocco. 

BA'JUS,  Michael  (properly,  De  Bay),  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  theologians  of  the  Catholic 
Church  in  the  liith  c,  was  born  in  1513  at  Mclun. 
He  studied  at  Louvain,  and  became  professor  of 
theology  there  in  1550.  He  was  present  at  the 
Council  of  Trent  in  1563,  and  also  in  1564.  He 
was   the   founder   of  a   svstem  of  theologv,    based 

'627 


BAJZA— BAKEWELL. 


directly  on  tlie  Bible  and  the  wiitings  of  the 
Fatliers,  and  Bettitifj  aside  the  scdioliistic  method. 
He  liiid  studied  much  the  writings  of  St.  Augustine, 
and  therefore  confined  himself  closely  within  the 
circle  of  ideas  held  by  tliis  Father  of  the  church, 
whose  doctrines  of  the  entire  inability  of  the  human 
will  to  do  good,  and  the  absence  of  merit  in  all 
good  works,  B.  defended  against  the  Jesuitg.  The 
assertions  that  the  human  will,  so  long  as  it  is  left 
to  its  own  freedom,  can  do  nothing  but  sin,  and  that 
even  the  mother  of  our  Lord  was  not  free  from 
original  and  actual  sin,  togetlier  with  other  such 
doctrines,  drew  on  him  tlie  accusation  of  heresy. 
Seventy-six  of  his  pro|)Ositions  were  condemned  by 
a  papal  bull.  B.  submitted,  but  nevertheless  did 
not  give  up  hia  doctrines,  and,  in  consequence,  the 
persecutions  to  which  he  was  subji-eted  did  not 
cease,  lie  died  December  16,  15S9,  having  earned 
the  reputation  of  great  learning,  i)ure  manners,  and 
singular  modesty.  lie  may  be  regarded  as  the 
predecessor  of  the  Jansenists,  who  inherited  his 
Augustiniun  views,  which  were  at  that  time  t(>rmed 
13ajanism.  His  writir.gs,  mostly  of  a  polemical 
nature,  were  published  by  Gerberon  (2  vols. 
Cologne,  1090). 

BAJ'ZA,  Anton,  a  Hungarian  poet  and  prose- 
writer,  was  born  January  31,  1804,  at  f^zucsi,  in 
Hertes.  His  Poems  (2  vols.  183;')),  which  were  pub- 
lished in  Pesth,  earned  for  him  a  ))lace  among  the 
best  Hungarian  lyric  i)oets.  In  the  Kiitixi/icn  U/at- 
tern,  to  Avhicli  he  contril)uted  from  ISol — 1830,  the 
Athenaum,  and  the  Fi(jyelmez'6  (Observer),  to  which 
he  contributed  from  1837 — 1843,  in  conmion  with 
many  of  the  best  literary  writers  of  the  day,  he 
exercised  a  beneficial  influence  on  the  rising  litera- 
ture of  Hungary  by  his  severe  criticism,  and  his 
solid  and  tlieoretically  correct  essays.  He  likewise 
materially  aided  tlie  Hungarian  stnge,  then  in  its 
infancy,  by  the  publication  of  the  Auslandinchcn 
Biiltne  (Foreign  Dramas,  Pesth,  lS3i>),  and  also  by 
his  exertions  as  director  of  the  National  Theatre, 
opened  in  Pesth  on  August  22,  1837.  At  the  same 
time,  he  had  begun  to  occupy  himself  with  historical 
studies,  and  enriched  the  literature  of  Hungary, 
very  poor  in  this  respect,  with  a  Tiirfireti  Koniji'tdr 
(Historical  Library,  6  vols.,  Pesth,  1843 — 1845), 
which  contained  translations  from  many  excellent 
foreign  historical  works.  He  also  publislied  a  com- 
pilation from  the  German,  Uj  Plutarch  (Tlie  Modern 
Plutarch,  Pesth,  1845 — 1847).  His  VihUjtdrtlret 
(Universal  History,  Pesth,  1847)  is  a  rather  unskilful 
compilation  from  Schlosser,  Heeren,  Rotteck,  and 
other  German  historians.  After  March  1848,  Kos- 
suth appointed  him  editor  of  his  half-official  organ, 
the  Kossuth  Hirlapja  (.luly  till  December  1848),  in 
conducting  which,  however,  he  displayed  no  great 
editorial  talent.  B.  was  made  a  member  of  the 
Hungarian  Academy  in  183'2. 

BA'KER,  Sir  RiCHARn,  author  of  the  Chronicle 
of  the  Kings  of  England,  a  book  long  esteemed  and 
quoted  on  all  matters  of  English  history  by  tlie 
country  gentry.  Addison  makes  his  model  squire.  Sir 
Roger  de  Coverley,  refer  to  it  frequently.  Notwith- 
standing its  reputation,  however,  among  that  class, 
the  book  had  no  lack  of  errors,  and  is  now  all  but 
forgotten.  Its  author  was  born  in  Kent,  or,  accord- 
ing to  other  accounts,  in  Oxfordshire,  about  the 
year  1568.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford  Univer- 
sity, and  in  1603  was  made  a  knight.  About  1620 
he  married  and  settled  in  Oxfordshire,  of  which 
country  he  was  made  high  sheriff;  but  he  was  soon 
after  thrown  into  the  Fleet  Prison  for  debt  which 
his  wife's  family  had  contracted,  but  for  which  he 
had  become  responsible.  Here  he  wrote  his  Chronicle, 
first  published  in  1641,  besides  several  pious  works 
628 


of  less  note.     He  died  in  j)rison,  in  great  poverty,  iu 
1645. 

BA'KERIES,  Akmv.  Foreign  armie.i  have  gener- 
ally the  means  of  obtaining  soft  or  loaf  bread;  but 
British  ticiops,  on  active  service,  are  more  fre(|uently 
confined  to  biscuit — much  to  their  own  dissatisfac- 
tion. The  F'rench,  ever  since  the  time  of  Louis 
XIV.,  have  been  accustomed  to  take  portable  oven.s 
with  their  armies  ;  those  now  used  will  each  bake 
450  rations  at  once.  Outside  Sebastopol,  in  the 
winter  of  1854,  the  British  soldiers  sometimes  will- 
ingly exchanged  with  the  Fieiicli  three  or  four 
pounds  of  iiiscuit  for  one  pouml  of  soft  liread.  From 
the  attention  now  jiaid  to  the  wellbeing  of  the 
soldiers,  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that 
improvements  will  gradually  be  intioduced  into  our 
military  system  in  this  matter;  the  army-surgeons 
and  the  commissariat  strongly  recommend  a  more 
liberal  policy.  The  French  depend  more  on  bread 
and  less  on  meat  than  the  English  ;  and  this  may 
partly  account  for  the  difl'crence.  The  French 
soldiers  are  taught  to  construct  field-ovens,  and  to 
bake  their  bread  in  caniji,  while  government  B.  are 
established  all  over  F'rance,  ent-irely  conducted  by 
soldiers.  Among  other  lessons  afforded  by  the 
siege  of  Sebastopol,  was  one  relating  to  an  improved 
supply  of  army-bread.  Two  screw-steamers,  the 
J]riiiscr  and  the  Ahnvdnnce,  were  sent  out  to  Bala- 
klava,  one  provided  with  machinery  for  grinding 
corn,  and  the  other  with  maciiinery  and  ovens  for 
making  and  baking  bread.  In  each  case,  llie  ship 
and  the  machinery  were  propelled  by  the  same 
steam-engine.  "When  quietly  anchored  in  tlie  har- 
bour, the  mill  ground  24,ni)()  lbs.  of  flour  per  day 
— better  in  quality,  and  cheaper  than  could  have 
been  obtained  by  contract.  The  bakery  ship  Ahnnd- 
ance,  had  four  ovens  of  14  bushels'  capacity  each;  it 
baked  in  excellent  manner  OnOO  loaves  of  3  lbs. 
each  per  day,  which  loaves  were  sent  up  to  the 
siege-army  as  foon  as  cooleil.  The  ships  and 
machinery  were  sold  when  the  war  was  over — a 
proceeding  which  the  comnii.ssariat  officers  nnicli 
regretted  ;  but  the  experience  thence  obtained  will 
not  be  lost.  The  improved  arrangements  suggested 
for  the  meat-rations  will  be  noticed  under  Cookkry, 
Army. 

B.V'KEWELL,  a  small  but  very  ancient  town  in 
Derbyshire,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Wye,  near  its 
confluence  with  the  Derwent,  and  24  miles  north- 
north-west  of  Derby.  It  lies  on  the  slope  of  a  hill 
in  the  midst  of  very  beautiful  scenery,  in  a  carboni- 
ferous limestone  tract,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  black 
marble  quarries,  and  of  coal  and  lead  mines.  Its 
chalybeate  springs  and  warm  baths  arc  much 
resorted  to.  The  celebrated  Arkwright  first  estab- 
lished cotton-mills  here.  On  the  opposite  bank  of 
the  Wye  are  the  traces  of  a  castle  built  by  Edward 
the  Elder  in  924.  B.  is  now  the  property  of  the 
Duke  of  Rutland,  whose  seat  is  Iladdon  Hall,  two 
miles  from  the  town.  B.  is  a  centre  for  visiting  the 
fine  scenery  of  North  Derbyshire  and  the  Peak;  and 
the  streams  in  tlie  vicinity  are  much  resorted  to  by 
anglers.  It  contains  a  spacious  cruciform  church, 
founded  in  Saxon  times,  and  shewing  specimens  of 
ecclesiastical  Gothic  architecture  of  three  different 
periods.  Three  miles  from  B.  stands  Chatsworth 
House,  the  splendid  mansion  of  the  Duke  of  Devon- 
shire.    Pop.  (1861)  11,254. 

BA'KEWELL,  Robkrt,  a  celebrated  agricul- 
turist, was  born  in  1720  at  Dishley,  in  the  county 
of  Leicester,  and  died  in  1795.  He  does  not 
appear  to  have  written  anything,  even  upon  the 
subjects  with  which  he  was  so  well  acquainted, 
so  that  his  fame  rests  entirely  upon  his  successful 
cflbrts  to  improve    the    breed  of  domestic   animals. 


BAKIITEG  AN— BALAAM. 


His  reputation  was  so  great  as  a  breeder  of  sheep, 
that  he  is  said  to  liave  received  the  fabulous  sum  of 
4(tO  guineas  for  one  season  of  a  ram.  Tlie  long- 
horned  breed  of  cattle  which  he  introduced  is  still 
known  as  the  Dishley  or  New  Leicestershire  breed. 
His  horses  were  also  famous,  and  almost  as  profitable 
to  him  as  his  sheep.  One  of  his  objects  was  to  pro- 
duce a  breed  of  animals  that  would  fatten  on  the 
smallest  quantity  of  food. 

BAKHTEGA'N,  a  salt-lake  of  Persia,  province 
of  Farsistan,  from  which  remarkably  tine  salt  is 
obtained.  Its  size  is  variously  stated — some  writers 
making  it  60  miles  in  length,  with  an  average 
breadth  of  8  miles;  others,  only  TO  miles  iu  circum- 
ference. 

BA'KINO  is  the  mode  of  cooking  i"ood  in  an  air- 
tight chamber  or  oven.  The  term  is  also  a[)plied  in 
the  manufacture  of  bricks  (q.  v.),  porcelain  (q.  v.), 
&c.  The  B.  of  bread  will  be  treated  under  Brf.ad. 
The  oven  attached  to  kitchen-grates  for  cooking  is 
simplv  an  iron  chamber,  with  flues  for  conveying  the 
heated  gases  of  the  fire  round  it.  In  B.,  strictly  so 
called,  llie  oven  is  kept  close,  so  that  the  steam  and 
aroma  arising  from  the  enclosed  substances  are  con- 
fined ;  but  by  opening  ventilators  a  current  of  air  is 
produced,  and  then  these  ovens  may  be  used  for 
what  is  called  oven-roast  big.  The  rank  taste  that 
often  characterises  baked  dishes  is  thus  avoided. 
Ovens  are  now  often  heated  by  water,  or  by  steam, 
and  also  by  gas.  Meat  for  B.  is  placed  iu  a  dish,  from 
the  bottom  of  which  it  is  raised  on  a  wire  frame  or 
trivet.  In  M.  Soyer's  Baking-dish,  a  wire  frame 
rests  on  the  edge  of  the  dish,  and  on  this  potatoes 
are  laid  ;  a  trivet,  rising  above  the  frame,  supports 
the  meat;  while  the  bottom  of  the  dish  contains 
a  Yorkshire  pudding  ;  the  dripping  thus  falls  upon 
the  potatoes  and  pudding  below. 

B.,  although  a  convenient  mode  of  cooking,  is  not 
considered  quite  so  good  as  roasting  (q.  v.).  The 
practice  of  having  recourse  to  the  baker's  oven,  saves 
both  trouble  and  expense  in  heating,  and  is  a  matter 
of  necessity  with  those  who  have  not  means  of  cook- 
ing at  home ;  but  it  has  this  chief  objection,  that 
every  dish  becomes  impregnated  with  the  steam  and 
odours  of  all  the  rest.  Soyer  pronounces  it  to  be 
semi-barbarous. 

BAKO'NY  WALD  (Forest  of  Bakony),  a  densely 
wooded  mountain-range  of  Hungary,  south  of  the 
Danube,  dividing  the  great  and  little  Hungarian 
plains.  Immense  herds  of  swine  are  annually  driven 
hither  to  feed  upon  the  mast  of  the  forest.  The 
keepers  of  these  swine  furnish  those  notorious 
robbers  who  play  so  important  a  part  in  the  ballads 
of  the  Hungarian  people,  and  in  the  imagination  of 
travellers.  The  saintly  King  Stephen  founded  a 
cloister  in  the  forest  1030  a.  d.  Only  in  recent 
times  has  this  dangerous  territory  been  thoroughly 
explored.  The  hills  have  an  average  height  of  2(tO() 
feet,  with  quarries  of  valuable  marble,  iu  which  a 
considerable  export  trade  is  done. 

BA'KSHISH.  The  ordinary  meaning  of  this 
word  in  Persian  is  a  present ;  but  in  the  East,  in 
modern  times,  it  has  acquired  the  s|)ecial  signifi- 
cation of  gratuity  (Ger.  Trinkf/chl),  which,  however, 
the  orientals  do  not  quietly  wait  to  receive,  but 
demand  loudly,  and  even  insolently.  Every  travel- 
ler, whether  in  Turkey  or  in  Egypt,  in  Asia  Minor  or 
in  Syria,  if  he  receives  the  smallest  service  from  any 
one,  is  immediately  reminded  by  the  cry  of  'Bak- 
sliish.  Bakshish,'  to  pay  for  the  courtesy  by  a  gift  of 
money.  Even  when  the  ambassadors  to  the  Supreme 
1  orte  obtain  an  audience  from  the  sultan,  or  from 
•tny  of  th.e  high  dignitaries,  they  are  obliged,  by  the 
prompt  gift  of  a  B.,  to  avoid  a  peremptory  demand 


for  it  on  the  part  of  the  door-keepers  and  other 
servants.  By  degrees,  the  B.  has  been  fixed  by 
custom  at  ciTtaiu  sums. 

BAKTSIII-SERAI'  (the  'City  of  the  Gardens'), 
the  residence  of  the  ancient  princes  or  khans  of  the 
Crimea,  stands  in  a  deep  limestone  valley,  not  far 
from  the  present  capital,  Simferopol.  Tlie  city  is 
kept  in  excellent  repair,  and  has  a  population  of 
1'2,770,  consisting  almost  exclusively  of  renniants  of 
the  old  Tatar  inhabitants.  It  thus  presents  a 
striking  contrast  to  the  modern  towns  of  the 
Crimea,  and  is  one  of  the  most  singular  in  Europe. 
The  palace  of  the  ancient  khans  has  been  completely 
restored  by  the  Russian  government  in  the  oriental 
style.  It  consists  of  a  great  labyrinth  of  building.s, 
courts,  and  gardens,  and  is  situated  about  the  middle 
of  the  town,  dividing  it  into  two  parts.  The  chief 
manufactures  of  the  place  consist  of  articles  of 
copper,  Turkish  saddles,  and  silk. 

BAKU',  a  seaport  town  of  the  Apsheron  penin- 
s-ula,  in  the  Caspian  Sea.  It  is  under  the  dominion 
of  Russia,  and  contains  5413  inhabitants.  The 
whole  soil  around  B.  is  impregnated  with  naphtha, 
which  forms  an  important  branch  of  its  industry. 
Some  of  the  fountains  ignite  spontaneously,  and  this 
natural  phenomenon  has  caused  B.  to  be  esteemed  as 
a  holy  city  by  the  Parsees  or  lire-worshippers,  many 
of  whom  resort  to  it  from  very  long  distances. 
Modern  travellers  have  found  there  some  of  the 
sepoys  pensioned  by  the  Indian  government.  B. 
has  several  fine  mosques  and  bazaars,  and  besides  ita 
trade  in  naphtha,  it  exports  cotton,  silk,  opium, 
saffron,  and  salt. 

The  Arabian,  Masudi  (q.  v.),  is  the  first  who 
mentions  B.,  about  943,  and  he  gives  an  account  of 
a  great  volcanic  mountain  in  its  vicinity,  which  is 
now  extinct.  B.  was  ceded  by  the  Persians  to  the 
Russians  in  1813.  The  peninsula  on  which  it  is 
built  is  notable  for  its  volcanoes.  In  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  B.  there  is  a  remarkable  spring  of  white 
mineral  oil,  and  in  calm  weather  the  people  often 
amuse  themselves  by  pouring  tuns  of  it  into  the 
Caspian,  and  then  setting  fire  to  it,  the  effect  being 
that  the  whole  sea  appears  as  if  in  flames. 

BA'LA  BEDS,  a  local  deposit,  occurring  in  the 
neigliboui-hood  of  Bala,  in  North  Wales,  and  forming 
a  group  in  the  Lower  Silurian  of  Murchison.  They 
consist  of  a  few  beds,  rarely  more  than  20  feet  in 
thickness.  The  beds  are  chiefly  composed  of  hard 
crystalline  limestone,  alternating  with  softer  argil- 
laceous bands,  which  decompose  more  freely,  and 
leave  the  limestone  like  a  cornice  moulding,  afford- 
ing a  characteristic  by  which,  at  a  considerable  dis- 
tance, the  B.  B.  can  be  distinguished  from  the  rocks 
of  hard  gritty  slate  above  and  below.  Trilobites  and 
Cystideai  arc  the  predominant  fossils  of  the  group. 
Calcareous  beds,  containing  similar  fossils,  have  been 
noticed  in  the  Silurian  district  of  the  south-east  of 
Ireland,  and  referred  to  this  group. 

BA'L.\AM,  the  name  of  a  prophet  who  figures 
piominently  in  the  early  history  of  the  Israelites. 
He  is  first  mentioned  in  Numbers  xxii.  5,  where 
Balak,  king  of  the  Moabites,  alarmed  at  the  irrup- 
tion of  the  chosen  people  into  his  territories,  is 
represented  as  sending  messengers  to  Pethor,  in 
Mesopotamia,  the  dwelling-place  of  the  seer,  to 
beseech  him  to  come  and  curse  the  invaders.  The 
narrative  is,  of  course,  familiar  to  every  one,  and  it 
is  therefoie  unnecessary  to  recount  it ;  but  it  is 
marked  by  two  peculiarities,  which  have  excited 
much  speculation  and  controversy.  The  first  is, 
the  admittedly  prophetical  character  of  B.,  who 
was  a  Gentile  ;  the  second  is,  the  curious  miracle  iu 
the  case  of  his  ass.     With  regard  to  the  supernatural 

629 


BAL^ENA— BALANCE. 


powers  attributed  to  B.  the  most  prevalent  hypothe- 
sis i.s,  that  he  was  the  last  relic  of  the  patriiirchul 
afje,  during  which  coniinuniou  with  God  was  not  for- 
mally restricted  to  one  race,  but  difl'used  more  or 
less  anioi.g  all  the  Semitic  people-.  Some,  again, 
suppose  that  his  knowledge  of  God,  from  whom 
he  apparently  received  miraculous  commuiucations, 
was  derived  from  traditions  of  the  primitive  faith 
scattered  over  Mesopotamia  by  Abraham,  Jacob, 
Laban,  &c. ;  though  Ilengstenberg  conceives  that  he 
had  been  led  to  renounce  idolatry  by  hearing  of  the 
miracles  which  attended  the  exodus  of  the  Israelites, 
anticipating,  as  a  reward  for  his  change  of  worship, 
a  further  insight  into  futurity,  and  a  greater  power 
over  nature.  B.  has  ever  been  considered  a  type 
of  those  men  who  prostitute  their  powers  and  hold 
the  truth  in  unrighteousness,  receiving  the  wages 
thereof. 

BALyE'XA.     See  Wiialk. 

BALJ^NOTTERA.     See  Rorqual. 

BALAKLA'VA,  a  small  port  in  the  south-west  of 
the  Crimea,  separated  by  a  rocky  peninsula  from  the 
harbour  of  Sebastopol,  from  which  the  direct  dis- 
tance is  about  »i  miles.  Population  in  1849,  1(107. 
The  harbour,  which  affords  secure  anchorage  for  the 
largest  ships,  is  perfectly  landlocked,  the  entrance 
being  so  narrow  as  scarcely  to  admit  more  than  one 
vessel  at  a  time.  To  the  east,  overlooking  tlie  bay 
from  a  rocky  eminence,  are  the  ruins  of  a  Genoese 
Ibrtress.  The  foundation  of  the  work  is  excavated 
into  numerous  chambers  and  galleries.  It  is  the 
Sgmbolon  Linien  of  Strabo ;  and  the  present  name 
is  supposed  by  Dr.  Clarke  to  be  a  corruption  of  the 
Genoese  Bella-chiava,  or  Fair  Haven.  Tliis  was  long 
the  seat  of  a  Greek  colony  ;  in  the  1 1th  c.,  it  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  (icnoese  ;  about  the  end  of  the 
15th,  they  were  expelled  by  the  Turks;  and  on  the 
conquest  of  the  Crimea  by  Catharine  II.  of  Russia, 
it  was  made  a  miliuiry  station  for  a  regiment  of 
Greeks  and  Albanians.  In  1854,  a  few  days  after 
the  battle  of  Alma,  the  town  was  occupied  by  the 
British  army  under  Loid  Raglan,  and  the  harbour 
formed,  during  the  ensuing  campaign,  the  head- 
quarters of  the  fleet,  and  the  basis  of  operation  of 
the  army.  Here  ensued  those  scenes  of  mismanage- 
ment and  confusion  that  have  rendered  B.  a  sy- 
nonym for  chaos,  and  the  recital  of  which,  with  the 
resulting  privations  and  miser}'  of  the  soldiers, 
stirred  so  terribly  the  heart  of  England  in  the  winter 
of  1854 — 1855.  A  terrible  hurricane  on  November 
14,  1854,  in  which  nine  vessels  were  totally  destroy- 
ed, and  several  others  seriously  injured,  tended  greatly 
to  increase  the  confusion  which  incai)acity  and  di- 
vided responsibility  first  occasioned  at  Balaklava. 
Soldiers,  six  miles  distant,  were  dying  for  want  of 
food,  clothing,  and  medicine,  which  were  hidden 
hopelessly  beyond  reach  in  store-rooms  at  B.,  or 
stowed  away  in  the  holds  of  ships  that  were  not 
permitted  to  enter  the  harbour.  Transport  vessels, 
ibr  which  the  countiy  was  paying  enormous  sums  of 
money  daily,  were  kept  lying  idle  in  port  with  their 
most  anxiously  awaited  cargoes  (for  lack  of  which 
the  troops  were  perishing  by  hundreds)  unladen, 
while  poor  nmtilated  and  dying  soldiers  lay 
miserably  exposed  on  the  heights  for  want  of 
ships  to  convey  them  to  the  hospitals  at  Scutari. 
The  rebuilding  of  the  greater  part  of  the  town,  the 
formation  of  a  line  of  railway  between  B.  and  the 
camp,  and  certain  official  investigations  in  1855, 
completely  remedied  this  disgraceful  state  of  things. 
The  25th  of  October  1864  was  signalised,  on  the 
heights  between  the  town  and  the  Tchernaya,  by 
those  unparalleled  cavalry  charges,  the  lecord  of 
which  is  among  the  saddest  but  proudest  memories 
of  the  British  army.  A  detailed  account  of  the 
630 


events  connected  with  Balaklava  is  given  in  the 
Pictorial  Historic  of  the  Russian  War,  published  by 
\V.  and  R.  Chambers. 

BA'LANCE  (of  doubtful  derivation),  an  instru- 
ment for  ascertaining  the  weight  of  bodies  in  grains, 
ounces,  pounds,  or  any  other  units  of  weight.  The 
ordiiuiry  B.  consists  of  a  lever  called  a  beam, 
whose  ]ioint  of  support  is  in  the  middle  of  its 
lenjrth,  and  having  dishes  or  scales  suspended  from 
either  extremity.  As  it  is  of  importance  that  the 
beam  should  move  easily  round  its  point  of  support, 
it  rests  on  polished  agate  or  steel  planes,  by  means 
of  knife-edges  of  tempered  steel,  whicii  project 
transversely  from  its  sides,  and  serve  as  the  axis  of 
rotation.  By  this  arrangement,  the  surface  of 
contact  is  reduced  to  a  mere  line,  and  the  friction  of 
the  axis  of  the  beam  on  its  stipport  almost  entirely 
obviated.  The  scales  are  hung  l)y  means  of  chains 
attached  to  steel  hooks,  which  rest  also  on  knife- 
edges,  but  turned  ujjwards  instead  of  downwards,  as 
in  the  first  case.  The  essential  requirements  of  a  B. 
of  this  description  are:  1st,  That  the  l)eam  shall 
remain  in  a  horizontal  position  when  no  weights  are 
in  either  scale ;  and  2d,  That  the  beam  shall  be 
a  lever  of  ecjual  arms,  or  have  the  distances  betweea 
the  central  knife-edge  and  those  at  either  end 
exactly  the  same.  To  insure  the  first  of  these  con- 
ditions, it  is  necessary  that  the  centre  of  gravity  of 
the  beam  lie  vertically  below  the  point  of  support, 
when  the  beam  is  hoiizontal.  When  such  is  the 
case,  the  centre  of  gravity  at  which  the  weight 
of  the  beam  may  l)e  considered  to  act,  oscillates 
as  in  a  pendulum  round  the  point  of  support,  atid 
always  conns  to  rest  right  under  that  point,  thus 
restoiing  to  the  beam  its  horizontal  position  when  it 
has  been  tilted  out  of  it.  If  the  centre  of  gravity 
were  above  the  point  of  support,  the  beam  would 
topple  over  ;  and  if  it  coincided  with  that  ])oint, 
there  being  no  restoring  force,  the  beam  would 
occupy  indifferently  any  position  into  which  it  was 
thrown,  the  B.  in  both  cases  being  useless.  That  a 
B.  possesses  the  second  of  the  above  conditions, 
is  ascertained  by  putting  weights  into  the  scales 
which  keep  the  beam  hoiizontal,  and  then  trans- 
posing them,  when,  if  it  still  renuiin  so,  the  lengths 
of  the  arms  are  equal.  Should  the  arms  be  of 
different  lengths,  a  less  weight  at  the  end  of  the 
longer  arm  will  balance  a  larger  weight  at  the  end 
of  the  shorter  arm  (see  Lkvkr);  but  when  trans- 
posed, the  larger  weight  having  the  longer  arm,  and 
the  smaller  weight  the  shorter,  the  beam  can  no 
longer  remain  horizontal,  but  will  incline  towards  the 
larger  weight.  A  balance  with  unequal  aims  is  called 
a  false  B.,  as  distinguished  fiom  an  equal-armed  or 
just  balance.  When  weighing  with  a  false  B.,  it  is 
usual  to  weigh  a  l:>ody  in  both  scales,  and  take 
the  arithmetical  mean — that  is,  half  the  sum  of 
the  apparent  weights  for  the  true  weight.  This 
is  near  enough  to  the  truth  when  the  apparent 
weights  differ  little  from  each  other  ;  but  when  it  is 
otherwise,  the  geometrical  mean  (q.  v.),  must  be 
taken,  which  gives  the  exact  weight  in  all  cases. 

Although  the  preceding  conditions  are  of  essential 
importance,  they  do  not  supply  all  that  we  look  for 
in  a  good  balance.  It  is  necessary,  in  addition,  that 
the  beam  should  turn  visibly  from  its  horizontal 
position,  when  there  is  a  slight  excess  of  w  eight  in 
the  one  scale  as  compared  with  the  other.  This 
tendency  is  termed  nensibi/iti/,  and  depends  upon  the 
weight  of  the  beam,  the  position  of  its  centre  of 
gravity,  and  the  length  of  its  arms.  Let  ABD  (fig.  1) 
represent  the  beam  of  a  balance,  C  the  point  of 
suspension,  G  the  centre  of  gravity,  and  ACB  the 
straight  line  joining  the  knife-edges,  which  may  be 
taken  as  the  skeleton  lever  oV  tiie  balance.  We 
shall  here  confine  our  attention  to  that  construction 


BALANCE. 


where  the  three  knife-edges  are  in  a  line,  because 
it  is  the  most  simple,  and  at  the  same  time  the  most 
desiraJjle.  Wc  niay,  without  altering  the  principles 
of    equilibrium,  consider  the  beam  reduced  to  the 

A -. 


lever  AB,  and  embody  its  weight  in  a  heavy  point 
or  small  ball  at  the  centre  of  gravity,  G,  connected 
with  C  by  the  rigid  arm  CG.  The  scales  (repre- 
sented suuill  iu  the  fig.  for  the  sake  of  sjiace),  with 
the  ef|Uiil  weights  in  them  being  at  an  equal  distance 
from  C,  have  their  centre  of  gravity  in  that  point; 
and  their  combined  pressure  acting  there  is  met 
directly  by  the  supporting  plnne,  so  that  they  have 
no  iDtluence  in  determining  any  particular  position 
of  the  beam.  If  a  small  weight,  p,  therefore,  l>e  put 
into  the  scale  at  B,  the  position  of  the  beam  is  deter- 
mined by  its  rotating  tendency  (moment)  round  C, 
and  the  counter-rotating  tendency  of  the  weight  of 
the  beam,  W,  acting  at  G.  The  question  of  sensi- 
bility is  thus  reduced  to  the  action  of  the  crooked 
lever  GCB,  with  p  acting  at  one  end,  and  W  at  the 
other.  The  relations  of  the  arms  and  forces  of  a 
crooked  lever  will  be  found  under  Lever.  It  is  only 
necessary  here  to  state,  that  the  moment  of  the 
weight  acting  at  the  end  of  a  crool:ed  lever,  increases 
with  its  size,  the  length  of  its  arm,  and  the  small- 
ness  of  the  angle  which  that  arm  makes  with  the 
horizontal  line  passing  through  the  fulcrum.  Let  us 
suppose  that,  under  the  effect  of  the  opposing 
moments,  the  beam,  as  represented  by  the  line  AB, 
takes  up  the  position  marked  by  the  dotted  lines. 
If,  now,  we  were  l-o  lengthen  CB',  and  keep  CG'  as  it 
is,  CG'  would  rise  nearer  to  the  horizontal 
line,  and  CB'  fall  further  from  it,  before  equi- 
librium would  be  restored  ;  and  the  inclination 
of  CB',  or  the  beam  to  the  horizontal  line, thus 
being  greater,  the  sensibility  of  the  bahmce 
would  be  increased.  Consequently,  t/ip  longer 
the  arms  of  aB.  are,  all  other  thincfs  being  the 
same,  the  greater  will  be  its  sensibility.  But 
the  same  object  would  be  reached  by  keeping 
CB'  its  original  length,  and  shortening  CG', 
or  bringing  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  beam 
nearer  to  the  point  of  support.  The  weight  of 
the  balance  then  having  a  shorter  arm,  the 
point  G',  for  tlie  same  reason  aa  before, 
would  need  to  lise  higher,  and  B'  sink  lower, 
before  A'B'  would  find  its  position  of  rest. 
Here,  also,  the  nearer  the  centre  of  gravity  of 
the  beam  is  to  the  point  of  snpport,  the  greater 
■will  be  the  sensibility  of  the  balance.  If  now, 
however,  we  keep  the  length  of  the  arms 
CG',  CB'  constant,  but  diminish  the  weight 

acting   at  G',  while  p  acting  at  B'  remains     

the  same,  it  is  manifest,  that  to  make  up  the 
deficiency  in  the  weiglit   W,  the  two  arms 
will  turn  to  the   left,   as    in  the    preceding 
cases,  so  as  to  give  W   a  longer,  and  p  a  shorter 
effective  arm.     The   smaller,    therefore,    the    weight 
acting  at  G,  or  the  smaller  the  loeight  of  the   beam, 
the  greater  will  be  the  sensibility  of  the  balance. 

In  the  construction  of  the  B.,  it  is  a  matter 
of  importance  to  have  the  sensibility  independent 
of  the    araouut  of   weight    in    the    scales,   so  that, 


when  heavily  loaded,  a  small  weight  will  produce 
the  same  inclination  as  when  not  loaded  at  all. 
This  condition  is  implemented,  as  we  have  already 
shewn,  when  the  three  knife-edges  are  kept  in  the 
same  straight  line.  If  the  line  joining  the  two 
terminal  knife-edges  lie  below  the  point  of  sus- 
pension, then  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  equal 
weights  corresponding  with  the  middle  of  that 
line,  will,  upon  the  turning  of  the  beam,  be  Ibrced 
from  below  that  point,  and  will  accordingly  have 
a  tendency  to  resume  its  former  position.  The 
equal  weights  thus  counteract  to  some  extent  the 
effect  of  the  additional  weight,  in  causing  the  beam 
to  incline,  and  their  influence  in  this  way  will  be  all 
the  greater  as  they  themselves  increase.  When  a 
B.  is  too  heavily  loaded  for  its  strength,  the  three 
knife-edges,  although  previously  in  a  line,  do  not 
retain  that  position,  for  the  arms  of  the  beam  yield- 
ing to  the  pressure,  cause  the  terminal  knife-edgea 
to  sink  below  the  one  in  the  middle,  and  the  knife- 
edges  themselves  losing  their  shape  under  the  pres- 
sure, the  sensibility  is  considerably  diminished. 

When  a  B.  is  very  sensible,  the  beam  keeps  oscil- 
lating for  a  considerable  time  from  one  side  to  the 
other  of  the  position  in  which  it  finally  settles. 
Although  such  an  instrument  may  be  useful  for  phy- 
sical and  chemical  experiments,  it  is  not  serviceable 
for  the  purposes  of  ordinary  life,  where  minute 
quantities  of  the  substance  to  be  weighed  are  of 
little  value,  and  where  time,  and  consequently 
rapidity  of  indication,  are  matters  of  importance. 
The  sensibility  of  a  B.  must,  therefore,  be  adjusted 
to  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  designed ;  sensible 
balances  being  employed  for  weighing  finer,  and  less 
sensible,  or  stable  balances,  for  weighing  coarser 
materials.  The  stability,  or  the  tendency  of  the  beam 
to  come  quickly  to  rest,  depends  on  requirements 
nearly  the  opposite  of  those  which  conduce  to  sen- 
sibility. In  the  construction  treated  of  above,  the 
stability  increases  with  the  moment  of  the  weight  of 
the  beam  acting  at  G  round  C,  so  that  it  thus 
increases  with  the  weight  of  the  beam,  and  the 
distance  of  the  centre  of  gravity  from  the  point  of 
suspension.  The  stability  is  also  increased,  as  already 


Fig.   2. 

shewn,  by  having  the  line   joining  the  scale  knife- 
edges  below  the  point  of  support. 

Fig.  '2  is  the  representation  of  a  common  form 
of  the  delicate  balances  employed  in  physical  and 
chemical  researches.  The  beam  is  constructed  so  as 
to  combine  lightness  with  strength,  and  rests  by  a 
fine  knife-edge  on  an  agate  plane.     It  is  surmounted 

631 


BALANCE  AND  BALANCE-SPRING. 


by  a  weight  moving  on  a  screw,  po  that  the  sensi- 
bility may  be  increusod  or  diiiiuiished,  according  as 
the  weight  is  raised  or  depresse(i.  In  order  that 
the  knife-edge  may  not  become  blunted  by  constant 
contact  with  the  supporting  plane,  a  cross-bar,  with 
two  ]irojrctiiig  i)ins,  is  made  to  lilt  the  beam  from  the 
plane,  and  sustain  its  weight  when  the  balance  is 
not  in  play.  Tlie  beam  is  divided  by  lines  marlied 
upon  it  into  ten  equal  parts,  an<l  a  small  weight 
made  of  fine  wire  bent  into  the  form  of  a  fork,  called 
a  rider,  is  made  to  slide  along  to  any  of  the  divisions. 
If  the  rider  be,  for  instance,  ^a  ^^  'i  K''^''i,  and  if, 
after  the  weight  of  a  body  is  very  nearly  ascertained, 
it  brings  the  beam,  when  j)laced  at  the  first  division 
next  the  centre,  exactly  to  its  horizontal  position, 
an  additional  weight  of  jIj  of  a  grain  will  be 
indicated.  The  use  of  inconveniently  small  weights 
is,  by  this  arrangement,  to  a  large  extent  obviated. 
As  the  beam  takes  some  time  before  it  comes  to 
rest,  it  would  be  tedious  to  wait  in  each  case  till 
it  did  so,  and  for  this  reason  a  long  jioiiited  index 
is  fixed  to  the  beam  below  the  point  of  suspension, 
the  lower  extremity  of  which  moves  backward 
and  forward  on  a  graduated  ivory  scale,  so  that 
when  the  index  moves  to  equal  distances  on 
either  side  of  the  zero  point,  wo  arc  quite  certain, 
without  waiting  till  it  finally  settles,  that  the  beam 
will  bo  horizontal.  The  same  is  seen  in  ordinary 
balances,  oidy  the  tongue  or  index  is  above  the 
beam  ;  and  according  to  its  deviation  on  each  side  of 
the  fork  or  cheeks  by  whicli  the  whole  is  suspended, 
is  the  future  position  of  the  beam  ascertained.  The 
finer  balances  are  never  loaded  to  more  than  a 
pound  in  each  scale,  and  when  so  charged,  will 
deflect  with  ^jin  of  a  grain  of  additional  weight  in 
one  of  the  scales,  or  will  turn,  as  it  is  technically 
called,  with  m^ViJij  of  the  load.  The  finest 
balances  turn  with  yoTiJjijyjj  of  the  load,  and  some 
have  been  constructed  wliich  tm-ned  with  much  less. 
Even  with  the  best  achievements  of  nuclianical  skill, 
no  B.  can  be  made  whose  arms  are  absolutely  equal; 
and  to  remedy  this  defect,  the  method  of  double- 
weighing  is  resorted  to,  when  the  utmost  accm-acy  is 
demanded.  This  consists  in  placing  the  body  to  be 
■weighed  into  one  scale,  and  sand,  or  the  like,  into 
the  other,  until  exact  equilibrium  is  obtained,  then 
removing  the  body,  and  putting  weights  or  another 
body  in  its  place,  which  exactly  counterbalance  the 
sand.  Both  being  thus  weighed  in  precisely  similar 
ci'^cumstances,  must  weigh  precisely  the  same. 

The  Roman  B.,  or  Steelyard  (Ger.  Sclinellwage),  is 


Fig.  3 

teiore  portable  than  the  ordinary  balance.  It  consists 
of  a  lever  (fig.  3),  AB,  moving  round  a  knife-edge  or 
point  at  C.  The  body  to  be  weighed,  W,  is  put  into 
the  scale  which  hangs  from  A;  and  a  movable 
weight,  P,  is  made  to  slide  along  the  longer  arm,  until 
the  lever,  AB,  remains  horizontal.  The  weight  of 
W  is  then  read  off  from  the  division  at  which  P 
rests.  If  the  lever  lie  horizontal  when  unloaded,  then 
equal  weights  at  equal  distances  from  C  will  balance 
632 


each  other,  so  that  when  W  is  balanced  by  P  at  a 
distance  from  C  equal  to  AC,  the  two  are  of  equal 
weight;  but  if  equilibrium  take  place  when  P,  say, 
is  ten  times  as  far  from  C  as  A  is,  then  W  will  be 
ten  times  the  weight  of  P;  and  the  same  holds  far 
any  intermediate  point  at  which  P  may  stand,  \V 
weighing  as  many  times  P  as  P's  arm  is  a  nmltiple 
of  W's  arm.  To  weigh  a  body  of  10  lbs.  by  the 
ordinary  B.,  a  counterweight  of  10  lbs.  is  necessary, 
making  a  total  load  of  20  lbs.  ;  but  in  the  case  just 
su|)po.sed,  1  lb.  balances  10,  making  a  total  load  of 
oidy  1  1  lbs.  The  steelyard  has,  therefore,  this 
advantage  over  the  common  li.,  that  the  load  on  the 
fulcrum,  and  conseqiuMitly  the  friction,  is  less.  On 
the  other  hand,  however,  there  is  this  disadvantage, 
that  the  arms  of  the  steelyard  bend  uneciually  under 
the  strain  of  great  weights,  which  in  a  B.  with  equal 
arms  cannot,  to  the  same  extent,  take  place.  As 
the  steelyard  is  ordinarily  made,  the  longer  arm  pre- 
ponderates when  the  lever  is  unloaded,  so  that  the 
graduation  of  the  longer  arm  begins  at  a  point 
i)etween  A  ami  C,  and  not  at  C.  The  Donixh  B. 
differs  from  the  ordinary  steelyard  in  having  the 
weight  fixed  to  the  extremity  of  the  lever,  and  the 
fulcrum  movable. 

The  Bent  Lever  B.  (Fr.  peson,  Ger.  Zeigcrwage\ 
shewn  in  fig.  4,  is  a 
lever  of  imef|ual  arms, 
A,  (^,  B,  moving  romid 
the  pivot  C,  having  a 
scale,  Q,  attached  to 
the  shorter  arm  AC, 
and  a  fixed  weight, 
W,  to  the  longer  arm 
CB.  The  longer  arm 
ends  in  a  pointer  mov- 
ing in  front  of  a  fixed 
graduated  arc.  When 
a  body  is  j)ut  into  the 
scale,  the  pointer  rises 
from  the  bottom  or 
zero  point  of  the  arc,  and  rests  opposite  the  mark 
corresponding  to  the  weight  of  it.  The  higher  the 
weight  W  rises,  the  longer  becomes  its  cfj'ertirc  arm, 
and  the  greater  must  be  the  weight  it  balances. 
The  arc  is  generally  graduated  experimentally,  the 
geometrical  graduation  being  somewhat  complicated. 

For  other  weighing  apparatus,  see  Spuing-bal- 
ance;  Weighing-Machines. 

BA'LANCE  AND  B  A' LANCE-SPRING.  The 
balance  of  a  watch  is  a  wheel  finely  ])oised  on 
its  axis;  the  pivot-holes  on  which  it  turns  being 
frequently — in  chronometers  and  clocks,  as  well 
as  in  watches — jewelled,  or  made  of  small  rubies, 
diamonds,  &c.,  for  the  sake  of  durability.  The 
natural  effect  of  an  impulse  given  to  such  a  wheel 
would  be  a  com])lete  rotation  on  its  axis.  This 
however,  is  convertible,  by  the  escapement  ((],  v.), 
and  by  the  balance-spring,  into  a  vibratory  motion. 
The  balance-spring  is  held  to  be  a  crowning  inven- 
tion in  the  mechanism  of  the  watch ;  and  the 
honour  of  its  first  suggestion  has  been  claimed 
for  no  less  than  three  very  eminent  men — fur  Dr, 
Hooke,  an  Englishman;  for  Abbe  Ilautefeuille,  a 
Frenchntan ;  and  for  Iliiygens,  the  Dutch  astron- 
omer. The  honour,  however,  undoubtedly  belongs 
to  Ilooke, 

The  balance-spring  consists  of  a  coil  of  steel- 
wire,  so  delicately  manufactured  that  4()00  of 
them  scarcely  weigh  more  than  one  ounce,  though 
often  costing  more  than  £1000.  In  its  applica- 
tion to  the  balance  of  a  watch,  one  of  the  extre- 
nuties  (e,  fig.  1)  of  the  spring  is  fastened  to  a 
point  independent  of  the  balance,  whde  the  other 
is  attached  near  its  axis.  When  the  balance  is 
at    rest,    the    spring    is    inclined    neither    way     this 


BALANCE  OF  POWER— BALANCE  OF  TRADE. 


position  heiiig  callod  tlie  point  of  rest;  but  when 
the  impulse  is  givuu  to  the  balance  by  the  crown- 
wliccl  of  the  cscapcniont,  the  bal- 
;ince  moves  round  just  so  far  as 
the  impulse  given  is  able  to  ovei- 
eonie  tlie  elastic  resistance  of  the 
spi  iiijr.  When  that  resistance  V)e- 
coiiies  e(iu:il  to  the  impulse  given, 
the  balance  stops  for  a  moment, 
and  then  is  driven  back  by  the 
elastic  recoil  of  the  spring,  and 
continues  thus  to  vibrate  so  long  as 
the  iinpnlso  is  repeated  or  the  watch  is  in  motion. 

The  recoil  of  the  spring  is  sufficient  to  drive  back 
the  balance  to  a  distance  nearly  double  the  length 
of  its  iirst  motion;  this  is,  therefore,  called  the  long 
arc  of  viljration.  But  when  the  motion  of  the 
balance  is  free,  with  a  certain  length  of  spring,  the 
long  arc  of  vibration  is  made  in  less  tmie  than  the 
short  one,  to  which  the  impulse  is  given  :  with  a 
sprin"-  of  greater  length  this  relation  is  reversed ; 
whence  it  was  concluded  by  Le  Roy  and  Bertlioud 
that  equalitv  of  time,  or  inocfironixm,  in  imequal 
vibrations,  could  be  more  easily  obtained  by  length- 
ening the  spring  than  by  tapering  it.  In  England, 
where  time-keepers  have  been  brought  to  their  great- 
est perfection,  it  is  considered  that  isochronism  is 
most  easily  attainable 
bv  using  the  cylin- 
diical  helical  spring 
(.t,  fig.  2),  which  is 
applied  to  all  marine 
chronometers. 

An  improvement 
in  watches,  or  rather 
in  ehionometers,  in- 
vented by  Mr.  Dent 
of  London,  consists 
in  coating  the  balance  and  balance-spring  with  gold 
by  the  eiectro-metallurgic  process,  by  which  means 
they  are  secured  from  rust. 

B A' LANCE  OF  POWER,   an  expression  used  in 
diplomacy  for    that    state    of  matters    in  which  no 
one   of   the  European    states  is  permitted    to  have 
such    a    preponderance    as    to    endanger   the    mde- 
pendonee  of  the  others.     This  idea  is  not,  as  some 
say,  confined   to   modern  times.     The  Greek  states 
acted  upon   it   bv  a  kind   of  instinct  of  self-preser- 
vation,  though  it  was   not  directly  formulated.     It 
has,    however,  become    more    distinctly  avowed    as 
a  motive  of  political  conduct,  and  more  systematical- 
ly acted  upon,  since  the  time  of  Charles  V.,  whose 
overgrown  power  and  ambitious  designs  awakened 
the  other  European  powers  to  the  danger  of  such 
overwhehuiug    preponderance    in    one    state.      The 
motive  of  preserving  the   B.   of  P.   came    first  dis- 
tinctly into  the   foreground   in   those   unions  which 
Engla'nd,    Holland,   and  Austria    repeatedly   formed 
against   the    menacing   schemes   of  Louis   XIV.    for 
acquiring    the    dominion    of    all    Europe.     It    was 
the   same  cause  that  broke  up  the  most  dangerous 
(for  Louis)  of  these  coalitions;  for  in  the  war  of  the 
Spanish  Succession,  when  the  Hapsburg  pretender 
to    the    Spanish    throne    became,    by  the    death   of 
Joseph    I.,  sovereign    of  Austria    and    Emperor    of 
Germany,    and    the    power    which,    in    the    hands 
of    Chailes    V.,    had    menaced    the    equilibrium    of 
Europe,    was    thus    likely   to   be    again    wielded  liy 
one    man,    England    witfidrew    from    the    coalition, 
mid  thus  saved    Louis    from  a    decided   overthrow. 
The  agirressions  of  Napoleon   called  all  the  powers 
of  Euwpe  to  arms  against   him   in  the  name  of  the 
B.  of  P.  ;  and  in  readjusting  the  map  of  Europe,  the 
B.   of  P.  was  often  invoked  to  cover  the  jealousy 
which   resisted   not  a  few  claims   to  restitution  of 
territory.     For  some  time,  the  B.  of  P.  in  Europe 


has  been  embodied,  as  it  were,  in  a  pcnUirchy  or 
permanent  congress  of  the  five  great  powers,  who 
mutually  watch  one  another's  movements.  This 
mutuarjealousy  among  the  leading  powers  on  the 
score  of  extension  of  boundaries,  is  tlie  great  .safe- 
guard of  the  smaller  states,  and  is  the  only  thing 
That  prevents  their  absorption  by.  their  powerful 
r.eighbours.  It  was  the  dread  of  a  coalition  against 
hint  among  the  other  powers,  which  he  was  not 
then  prepared  to  resist,  that  made  tlie  Emperor  of 
Russia  agree  to  the  treaty  of  1841  ;  this  treaty  m 
some  degree  moderated  that  influence  in  Turkey 
which  by'^private  treaties  with  the  sultan  he  had  con- 
trived to  raise  to  a  virtual  protectorate.  The  re- 
newed attempt  of  Russia  to  extend  her  dominion,  if 
not  territorially,  at  least  politically,  over  Turkey, 
gave  rise  (18.54),  after  a  lapse  of  40  years,  to  another 
war  on  behalf  of  the  Balance  of  Power. 

BA'LANCE  OF  TRADE.  In  the  'mercantile 
system  '  of  political  economy,  which  looks  ujion  the 
possession  of  gold  as  the  grand  aim,  it  not  unnatural- 
ly came  to  be  a  maxim  that  a  nation  becomes  richer 
just  in  proportion  as  the  money-value  of  its  exports 
exceeds  that  of  its  imports;  the  excess,  it  was 
thought,  being  paid  in  gold,  is  just  so  much  added 
to  the  national  wealth.  Now,  the  difference  between 
the  monev-value  of  the  exports  and  imports  ot  a 
state  is  called  the  '  balance  of  its  trade  ; '  and  by  the 
adherents  of  the  mercantile  system,  this  balance  was 
said  to  be  '  in  firvour'  of  the  country  or  '  against  it, 
according  as  the  exports  or  the  imports  showed  the 
excess. 

But  this  view  of  the  matter  rests  on  a  twofold 
error;     for,    in   the   first    place,    the    increase    ot 
national    wealth    is   by  no    means   to   be   identified 
with    the    immediate  "influx    of  hard    cash ;    nor    is 
"•old  the  highest   expression   of  national  wealth,  but 
only    a    mc'Jins    of    turning    real    wealth    and    the 
foculty  of  labor  to  account.     Further,  the  assump- 
tion  that   excess  of  exports   represents   excess  of 
income,  is  completely  false.     It  takes  exports  for 
income    (because   payment    is    received    for    them) 
imports  for  expenditure  (because  they  must  be  paid 
for),   while    it    would    be  more  consistent   with  the 
truth  to  say  that  exports  are  identical  with  expen- 
diture, and  imports  with   income;    so    that    wealth 
increases   in  proportion  as  the  value  of  the  imports 
(what  is  received)  exceeds  that  of  the  exports  (what 
is  given  awav);  and  that  whether  the.se  exports  and 
imports  consist  solely  of  goods  or  partly  of  money. 
It  may  sometimes  be   desiralile   to  get   payment  ot 
exports  in  gold— that  is,  to  import  bullion.     But  the 
case   in   which  this  will   be    beneficial  to   the  mer- 
chant seeking  his  own  profit  in  the  transaction,  will 
l)e  that  in   which    it  will  be  beneficial  to  the  com- 
munity.    In  the   majority    of  cases,   however,    the 
individual  merchant  finds  it  his  be.st  poHcy  to  lay 
out   the   money  due   to   him   in  a  foreign  country 
in  purchasing  the   wares   of  that  country  as  return- 
value.     The   far-sighted  Venetians  early  recognized 
the  truth   of  the  iirinciple   in  a  national   point  of 
view;    ibr,  bv   a   law   of  127-2,   they   laid  a   tax   of 
one-fourth     the    value    on    the    importation    of    all 
coined  gold  and  silver.     The  mercantile  system  of 
political    economy,    on    the    contrary,    consistently 
following  up  the  notion  of  the  B.  of  T.,  enacted 
laws    prohibiting    importation    of  foreign    manufac- 
tures, or   imposing   high  duties  upon  them,  and   giv- 
ing premiums  and  other  protective  encouragements 
for   exportation;    as    if   it    were  possible  to  go   on 
exchanging  always  for  gold    only— ever    exporting 
"■oods  and   goods  alone,  and  never  importing  any. 
If  this  could  be,  and   if  it  were  true   that   a  nation 
with   the    B.  of  T.    constantly    in    its    fiivour    must 
become  richer,  while,  with   that  balance  against  it, 
it   must   become    poorer,    England,    whose    official 

633 


BILANUS— BALBI. 


returns  liave  for  many  years  exhibited  a  large  excess 
of  exports  over  imports,  must  have  liad  at  this 
time  about  500  million  pounds  in  precious  metals, 
while  in  reality  the  amount  does  not  exceed  perhaps 
60  millions.  The  truth  is,  that  no  s.ife  conclusion 
can  bi.'  drawn  from  the  B.  of  T.  exhibited  in  official 
statements ;  from  the  way  in  which  they  are  ar- 
rived at,  a  great  part  of  the  facts  of  the  cases  :ire 
necessarily  left  out.  Almost  all  nations  exhibit 
favourable  balances,  and  how  could  that  be  pos- 
sible, if  the  whole  affair  were  not  deceptive  ?  In 
the  regular  legitimate  commerce  between  two  na- 
tions, both  actually  guin,  though  the  gain  may  not 
be  exhibitable  in  the  foini  of  a  money-balance.  If 
the  gains  of  nations  from  commerce  consisted  of 
differences  between  the  amoimt  of  exports  and  of 
imports  to  be  compensated  by  balances  in  money, 
nearly  all  nations  would  be  yearly  receiving  acces- 
sions of  gold  and  silver,  the  united  amount  of  which 
would  exceed,  by  more  th:in  ten  times,  the  produce 
of  all  the  mines  in  the  world. 

BA'LANUS,  a  genus  of  Cirrhopoda  (q.  t.)  ;  the 
type  of  a  family,  including  all  tho.>e  cirrhopods 
which  are  destitute  of  a  flexible  stidk,  and  of  which 
the  shell  is  .symmetrical.  These  characters  at  once 
distinguish  them  from  Barnacles  (q.  v.).  In  tiie 
genus  B.,  the  base  is  usually  formed  of  a  thin 
calcareous  plate,  the  sides  of  six  valves ;  and  four 
small  valves  form  the  operculum,  exactly  closing 
the  aperture  at  the  top.  The  name  (signifying  an 
acorn)  was  originally  given  by  the  ancient  (Jreeks, 
from  a  supposed  resemblance  of  some  of  the  kinds 
to  acorns ;  and  acorn-shell  has  sometimes  been 
adopted  as  an  English  name.  There  are  many 
species,  and  they  are  found  in  almost  all  seas, 
attached  to  stones,  timber,  shells,  crustaceans.  &c. 
They  cover  the  rocks  between  high  and  low  water- 
mark on  many  parts  of  the  coast  as  with  a  white 
calcareous  incrustation,  so  that  arithmetic  fiils  in 
computing,  and  imagiiuition  in  conceiving  their  mul- 
titudes. They  niay,  however,  be  readily  passed  over 
as  individually  objects  of  little  interest  when  they 
are  seen  after  the  tide  has  left  them,  for  then 
their  valves  are  closed,  and  they  exhibit  no  sign 
of  life ;  but  if  observed  in  a  pool  of  the  rocks,  or 
anywhere  under  water,  they  present  a  very  dif- 
ferent and  extremely  pleasing  spectacle,  the  oper- 
cular valves  continually  opening  and  shutting  with 
a  quick  but  jiretty  regular  motion,  and  an  ex- 
quisitely delicate  apparatus  of  feathery  arms  or 
cirrhi  (see  CinRHOPODA)  being  as  frequently  thrown 
out  and  retracted  like  a  hand  or  a  little  net,  to 
seize  and  carry  in  to  the  mouth  the  minute  nutri- 
tious particles  or  very  small  animals  upon  which  the 
creature  feeds.  Thus,  the  little  balaiii,  immovably 
fixed  to  the  rock,  or  carried  about  at  the  plea- 
sure of  mollusks  or  crustaceans  to  which  they 
adhere,  obtain  their  food  from  the  waters  around 
them. 

A  remarkable  fact  in  the  natural  history  of  these 
creatures  has  recently  been  discovered  by  Mr. 
Thompson  of  Cork,  that  in  the  earlier  stages  of 
their  existence  they  are  not  fixed  as  in  their  adult 
state,  but  move  about  very  actively  in  a  succes- 
sion of  bounds,  by  means  of  swimming-feet  like 
those  of  t^ie  Cyclops  (q.  v.) ;  having,  however,  a 
shell,  appai-ently  of  two  valves,  resembling  a  very 
minute  muscle.  Still  more  remarkable  is  the  dis- 
covery made  dong  with  this,  that  in  their  early 
locomotive  state  they  possess  large  stalked  eyes, 
which  disappear  along  with  the  organs  of  locomotion 
Avhen  they  attach  themselves — probably  by  the  guid- 
ance of  some  peculiar  instinct — to  their  final  place 
of  repose,  undergoing  a  transformation  into  perfect 
cirrhopods,  and  acquiring  as  a  covering  their  many- 
valvod  shell. 
634 


Some  of  the  larger  species  of  B.  were  esteemed 
a  delicacy  by  the  ancient  Romans.  The  Chinese 
entertain  the  same  estimation  of  B.  iintinnahuluin, 
which  is  said  to  resemble  lobster  in  ta.ste  ;  and  B. 
pxitiacus,  a  South  American  species,  which  is  in 
like  nuiimer  compared  to  crab,  is  exported  in  large 
quantities  from  Concepcion  de  Chili  to  Valparaiso 
and  Santiago.  This  species  is  sometimes  almost 
four  inches  in  diameter,  the  height  considerably 
more.  It  is  chopped  off  the  rocks  with  a  hatchet. 
The  two  posterior  0|)ercidar  valves  are  beaked,  from 
which  it  receives  the  name  of  Pico,  and  its  scientific 
trivial  name,  psUtacus  (a  parrot). 

BALASO'RE,  a  seaport  in  the  district  of  Cuttack 
and  presidency  of  Bengal,  near  the  Boorabullung, 
which  enters  the  sea  to  the  west  of  the  Iloogly  or 
Calcutta  River.  It  is  situated  in  lat.  '21°  8U'  N.  and 
long.  87°  E.,  and  has  dry-docks  and  a  coasting-trade  ; 
but  it  is  entitled  to  notice  chiefly  in  connection  with 
the  past,  having  been  the  seat,  successively,  of 
Portuguese,  Dutch,  and  Danish  factories.  It  was 
only  in  1846  that  the  Danes  sold  their  interest  in 
the  place  to  the  English. 

BA'LATOX,  Lakk  of  (Platten-See),  a  lake,  the 
largest  in  Hungary,  about  .55  miles  south-west  of 
Pesth.  Its  extreme  length  is  48  miles,  with  a 
breadth  of  from  3  to  lo  miles,  and  an  estimated 
area,  including  its  frequently  submerged  marshes,  of 
4'20  square  miles.  Its  greatest  depth  is  39  feet.  It 
is  supplied  by  upwards  of  thirty  streams — the  chief 
of  which  is  the  Szala — as  well  as  by  numerous 
springs  which  rise  on  its  margin.  Its  outlet  is  by 
tlie  Sio,  which  discharges  itself  into  the  Sarvitz,  a 
feeder  of  the  Danube.  The  waters  of  B.  are  dear 
and  transparent,  except  when  they  are  agitatccl  by 
a  storm,  when  they  assume  a  bluish  color.  They 
have  a  slightly  brackish  taste.  Fish  of  various 
kinds  are  found  in  abundance,  and  sand  impreg- 
nated with  iron,  interspersed  with  which  are  small 
garnets,  rubies,  and  other  precious  stones,  is  taken 
from  it.  "Woods  and  vineyards  cover  the  hills  which 
encircle  its  northern  sides,  and  on  its  banks  near  the 
town  of  Fiired  there  is  a  spring  of  acidulous  water. 
The  surrounding  country  is  rich  in  rare  plants  and 
mineral  treasures,  and  was  the  scene  of  several 
bloody  conflicts  during  the  Hungarian  war  (1848 — 
l!^4it).  The  lake  itself  figures  prominently  in  the 
old  romantic  ballads  of  the  Magyars. 

BALAUSTA.     Sec  Beury. 

BA'LAY,  or  B A' LAIS,  the  name  now  used  to  dis- 
tinguish the  ruby  of  a  bright  rose-colour  from  the 
ruby  proper,  which  is  of  a  blight  red  or  cochineal 
colour,  and  from  the  spinel/e  ruby,  which  is  of  a  red 
h.ue  approaching  to  rose-colour.  This  last  kind  of 
ruby  has  been  recognized  only  in  times  which  are 
comparatively  modern.  In  the  iniddle  ages,  they 
seem  to  have  known  only  the  B.  ruby  and  the  ruby 
proper,  or  le  bean  rubis,  as  it  was  often  called.  M. 
de  Laborde  thinks  that  the  term  B.  was  anciently 
employed  as  a  name  for  all  sorts  of  rubies. 

BA'LBI,  Adriano,  well  known  by  his  geographi- 
cal, and  more  especially  by  his  statistical  works, 
was  born  in  Venice  on  the  '2'jlii  of  April  1782.  In 
1808  he  gained  so  much  credit  in  Italy  by  his  first 
geographical  work,  that  he  was  appointed  Profes- 
sor of  Geography  in  the  college  of  San  Jlichele  at 
Murano,  and  in  1811  Professor  of  Physics  in  the 
Lyceum  at  Fermo.  Subsecpiently  he  resided  for  a 
time  in  Portugal,  and  then  went  to  Paris,  to  super- 
intend the  publication  of  his  Bxttai  Statisti<juf  xnr 
Ic  Royaumc  ck  Portugnl  ct  dAlrinrve  (2  vols..  Par. 
182'2)!  This  work  was  soon  followed  by  the 
VariJfes  Folitiqiiea  ct  Stati/tiujties  de  la  Monarchie 
Portugaisc  (Par.  1822).  B.  lived  in  Paris  till  1S32. 
Ue  was  the  intimate   friend   of  Malte   Brun,  from 


BALBI— BALCONY. 


whose  papers  he,  jointly  with  Larcnauiliore  and 
Iluot,  publisliod  the  Traite  Elhnentairc  dc  Geogfa- 
phie  (2  vols.,  Par.  1S30— 1834).  He  also  publi.shed 
several  works  of  comparative  national  statisties. 
His  Atlas  Ethnographi(juc  du  Globe  (Par.  182(j) 
is  distinguished  by  its  extensive  aeeunndation  of 
facts  and  views,  giving  an  account  of  (iernian 
researches  on  the  subject,  and  entering  into  questions 
of  comparative  philology.  B.'a  best  known  work  is, 
however,  the  Alrige  de  Geographie  (3d  edition, 
Par.  1838),  which  has  been  translated  into  several 
languages.  In  the  year  1832  he  returned  to  Italy, 
and  settled  at  Padua,  where  he  died  14th  March 
1848.  A  collection  of  his  Scritti  Geogrofui  was 
made  by  Eugene  Balbi  (5  vols.,  Turin,  1841 — 1842. 

BA'LBI,  Gasparo,  a  Venetian  merchant  of  the 
16th  c,  who  is  worthy  of  mention  as  the  first  tra- 
veller who  has  left  an  account  of  India  beyond  the 
(iangcs.  In  the  pursuit  of  his  calling,  B.  was  often 
led  to  Aleppo,  and  from  thence,  on  one  occasion,  he 
made  a  visit  to  India,  which  lasted  several  years. 
After  his  return  to  Venice,  he  published,  in  1590,  the 
results  of  his  travels  in  a  volume  entitled  Viaggio 
aW  Indie  Orientali.  A  Latin  translation  was  printed 
in  De  Bry's  Collection  of  Voijages  and  Travels  to  the 
East  Indies,  published  at  Frankfort  in  1590 — 1594.  B. 
appears  to  have  set  down,  without  exaggeration,  all 
that  he  himself  saw,  and  is  particularly  minute  and 
exact  concerning  connnercial  matters ;  but  there  is 
scarcely  any  limit  to  his  credulity  with  regard  to 
what  he  heaid  from  others  about  the  country.  From 
Aleppo,  his  journey  was  down  the  Euphrates  until 
opposite  Bagdad  ;  thence  down  the  Tigris  to  Bas- 
sorah,  where  he  embarked  for  the  Malabar  coast. 
Having  visited  Goa  and  Cochin,  and  other  Portu- 
guese settlements,  he  sailed  lor  Pegu,  then  an  inde- 
pendent empire,  where  he  remained  two  years, 
returning  by  the  same  route.  The  most  interesting 
part  of  his  narrative  is  that  relating  to  Pegu. 

BALBI'NUS,  Decimus  C^lhis,  one  of  the  two 
emperors  of  Rome  whom  the  senate  elected  on  hear- 
ing of  the  death  of  the  elder  Gordianus,  and  his  son, 
in  Africa,  in  opposition  to  Maximinus,  who  had  the 
support  of  the  legions  in  Germany.  He  was  cele- 
brated as  an  orator  and  a  poet,  and  was  a  man  of 
mild  disposition.  His  coadjutor,  Marcus  Clodius 
Pupienus  Maximus,  was  a  bold  and  resolute  soldier 
who  had  risen  from  the  people.  They  had  only 
reigned  a  few  months,  during  which  time  Maximinus 
had  been  killed  by  his  own  soldiers,  who  after- 
wards submitted  to  Maxinms,  when  they  were  both 
killed  in  242  a.  n.  by  the  prtetorians,  who  at  that 
time  were  animated  by  bitter  hostiUty  to  the 
civilians,  and  extended  it  to  the  rulers  who  had  been 
elected  by  them. 

BA'LBO,  C^SARE,  an  Italian  statesman  and 
author,  was  born  21st  November  1789  at  Turin. 
When  18  years  old,  B.,  whose  father  had  enjoyed 
the  patronage  of  Napoleon,  was  appointed  auditor  of 
the  Council  of  State  in  Paiis,  and  in  1812  he  was 
made  commissioner  for  the  Illyrian  provinces,  ceded 
to  Franco  by  the  Peace  of  Vienna.  After  the  fall  of 
Napoleon,  13.  went  to  London  as  secretary  of  the 
bardinian  embassy.  Aftei-  leaving  political  affairs,  he 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  history,  and  among 
Other  works  produced  during  the  years  1821 — 1843, 
were  a  Ilistorg  of  Itali/,  which,  however,  extended 
only  to  the  reign  of  Charlemagne  ;  and  a  translation, 
with  commentary  of  Leo's  Development  of  the  Consti- 
tuHou  of  the  Loirdiardic  Towns.  His  Speranze  d^ Italia 
(' Hopes  of  Italy'),  jiublished  in  1843,  first  extended 
his  literary  reputation  to  foreign  countries.  One  of 
its  main  objects  was  to  prove  that  national  inde- 
pendence must  precede  the  enjoyment  of  constitu- 
tional liberty ;  and  that  to  strive  after  the   latter, 


however  good  in  itself,  so  long  as  the  former  had 
not  been  secured,  was  both  foolish  and  reprehen- 
sible. It  ga\e  a  vivid  and  intelligent  picture  of  the 
political  condition  of  Italy,  its  aims  and  jjiospects. 
His  compendium  of  Italian  history  (Ihlla  Sloria 
(Iltalia,  i:c.)  was  also  successful.  B.  took  a  jjronii- 
nent  part  as  a  moderate  lilieral  in  the  political  move- 
ments of  1847 — 1848,  and  subsequently  supported 
the  ministry  of  Azeglio.  He  died  3d  June  1853. 
He  was  a  man  of  strict  morality  and  unspotted 
character.  In  all  his  wiitings,  B.  adhered  stiongly 
to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  whose  truth  he 
conceived  to  lie  the  healiug  of  nations  as  well  as  of 
individuals,  and  the  only  source  of  true  culture. 

BALBO'A,  Vasco  Ntnez  de,  a  Spanish  con- 
queror, was  born  of  a  noljle  but  reduced  fanniy  at 
Xeres-de-Caballeros  in  1475.  After  leading  rather  a 
dissolute  life  in  his  youth,  he  gladly  took  part  in  the 
great  mercantile  expedition  of  Rodrigo  de  Bastidas 
to  the  New  World.  He  established  himself  in  St. 
Domingo,  and  began  to  cultivate  the  soil ;  but  for- 
tune proving  adverse,  in  order  to  escape  from  his 
creditors,  he  had  himself  smuggled  on  board  a  ship, 
and  joined  the  exjjedition  to  Darien  in  1510,  com- 
manded by  Francisco  de  Enciso.  It  is  curious  to 
reflect  that  the  man  destined  to  discover  the 
eastern  siiores  of  the  largest  ocean  on  the  globe, 
should  have  been  compelled  to  secrete  himself  in  a 
cask  before  he  could  share  in  the  new  enterprise. 
An  insurrection  which  took  place  obtained  for  B. 
the  supreme  command  in  the  n(;w  colony.  Confused 
accounts  which  reached  him  of  a  great  western 
ocean,  impelled  him,  in  1513,  to  set  out  in  quest 
of  it.  On  the  25th  of  September  of  this  year,  he 
obtained  the  first  sight  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  from  a 
mountain-top  in  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  His  natu- 
ral enthusiasm  at  this  great  discovery  was  shared  by 
all  the  educated  men  of  his  time,  and  the  descrip- 
tions of  it  by  contemporary  authors  may  still  be 
read  with  much  interest,  tiro  governorship  of  the 
territories  conquered  by  B.  was  obtained  in  1514  by 
Pedrarias  Davila,  by  means  of  his  intrigues  at  the 
Spanish  court.  B.  resigned  the  command  into  the 
hands  of  the  new  governor,  a  narrow-minded  and 
cruel  man,  and,  in  a  subordinate  situation,  under- 
took many  successful  expeditions;  but  these,  and  all 
his  other  merits,  only  served  to  increase  the  hatred  of 
Pedrarias  Davila  towards  him.  The  government 
of  the  mother-country  sought  in  vain  to  mediate 
between  them,  and  B.  even  married  the  daughter  of 
Pedrarias.  But  on  the  first  occasion  of  dispute  which 
arose,  B.,  liaving  been  induced  by  Pedrarias  to 
deliver  himself  up,  was  accused  of  a  design  to  rebel, 
and  in  violation  of  all  forms  of  justice  was  beheaded 
at  Santa  Maria  in  1517. 

BALBRI'GGAN,  a  small  maritime  town  in 
Dublin  county,  22  miles  north  of  Dublin.  It  is 
a  seat  of  cotton,  calico,  and  stockir.g  manufactures. 
The  cotton  stockings  made  here  are  remarkable 
for  fineness  of  texture  and  beauty  of  open  work. 
Many  females  are  employed  in  embroidering  mus- 
lins. B.  is  a  favourite  wateiing-place.  After  the 
battle  of  the  Boyne,  William  encamped  here.  Pop. 
(1861),  2308. 

BA'LCONY,  or  BALCO'NY  (Ital.  Balcone),  a 
projecting  gallery  in  front  of  a  window  or  of  several 
windows,  with  a  balustrade  or  parapet  before  it,  and 
Supported  by  consoles,  or  brackets  hxed  in  the  wall, 
or  by  pillars  resting  on  the  ground  below.  The  B. 
was  unknown  in  (Jreek  and  Roman  architecture, 
and  is  prol)ablv  an  Italian  contrivance,  as  the  earliest 
examples  of  it  occur  in  Italy,  to  the  climate  of  which 
country  it  is  i)eculiarly  adapted.  Balconies  con- 
structed of  wood  are  of  constant  ocx^urrence  in  the 

635 


BALCONY— BALDNESS. 


cottage  arcliitec'tiire  ol'Switzerlaiid,  to  the  picturesque 
character  of  which  they  add  very  esseutially. 


llalcony. 

BA'LCOXY,  the  pallery  or  storn-walk  outside  the 
stern  of  a  larpc  t-liip.  Tlireo-deckers  have  two  such 
balconies,  and  tuo-docUcrs  one.  AVhere  there  are 
two,  the  lowermost  is  connected  with  the  adiniral's 
state-cabin,  and  the  up[)enuost  with  the  captain's 
cabin. 

BA'LDACIIIN  (Ital.  r.ahlachhio\  signifies  a  kind 
of  canopy,  of  the  lt)rni  of  a  tent  or  unil)rella,  made 
of  costly  materials  and  richly  adorned,  which  is 
either  supported  on  ])illars,  or  fastened  to  the  wall 
over  a  throne  or  couch,  or  over  a  pulpit,  an  altar,  or 
other  sacred  object.  One  of  the  most  celebrated  is 
the  B.  in  the  church  of  St.  Peter's  in  Rome,  cast  iu 
bronze  by  Bernini,  which  is  supported  on  four  large 
twisted  cohnnns.  B.  was  also  the  name  formerly 
given  to  a  kind  of  umbrella  of  a  square  form,  made 
of  silk  brocade  or  other  rich  material,  and  supported 
on  four  poles,  which  was  wont  to  be  carried  in  the 
middle  ages  at  solemn  processions,  coronations, 
marriages,  &e.,  over  the  heads  of  royal  personages 
or  high  dignitaries,  as  a  syntbol  of  their  rank.  In 
Europe,  the  B.  is  now  chicHy  used  in  the  ))rocessions 
of  the  Boman  Catholic  Church.  It  is  generally 
borne  over  the  priest  who  carries  the  Host.  The 
word  B.,  as  well  as  the  thing  itself,  comes  from  the 
cast.  Partly  as  a  protection  from  the  burning  rays 
of  the  sun,  partly  as  a  symbol  of  their  power  and 
dignity,  the  rulers  and  great  personages  of  the  east 
seldotn  appeared  in  public,  whether  on  foot  or  on 
horseback,  in  a  litter  or  on  an  elephant,  without  a 
splendid  canopy,  often  borne  by  the  groat  men  or 
chief  officers  of  their  kingdom.  These  canopies, 
generally  made  in  the  form  of  a  tent  or  umbrella, 
were  often  sent,  in  the  early  part  of  the  middle 
ages,  as  presents  from  eastern  princes  to  those  in 
the  west;  as,  for  example,  fiom  the  Calif  Haroun- 
al-Raschid  to  Charlemagne.  During  the  Crusades, 
and  the  subsequent  trade  with  the  east,  they 
became  well  known  to  the  Italians.  Such  canopies, 
as  well  as  the  rich  stuifs  of  wliicli  they  were  made, 
were  called,  from  the  land  whence  they  came,  Baliy- 
lonica ;  and  also  Baldachins,  from  Baldach,  the 
eastern  name  of  the  city  of  Bagdad. 

BA'LDER,   or    BA'LDUR,   a    divinity  worshipped 
by    the    ancient   Scandinavians,  and    probably  :"lso 
by  the   other  Germanic  nations,  is   the  hero  of  one 
636 


of  the  most  beautiful  and  interesting  of  the  inyth.s 
of  the  Edda.  B.,  who,  according  to  old  riortliern 
mythology,  was  the  second  son  of  Odin  and  Frigga, 
and  the  husband  of  Nanna  (maiden),  dreamed  evil 
dreams  which  threatened  his  life.  When  he  related 
them  to  the  gods,  they  held  a  council  and  endea- 
voured to  secm-e  his  safety.  Frigga  took  an  oath 
from  fire  and  water,  from  iron  and  all  metals,  from 
stones,  earth,  and  plants,  beasts  and  birds,  the 
serpent,  poison  and  all  diseases,  that  they  would 
not  harm  Balder.  After  this  was  done,  the  gods 
in  their  mirth  sported  with  B.,  wrestled  with  him, 
and  cast  darts  at  him,  but  nothing  could  injure  him. 
While  the  gods  rejoiced  at  this,  the  thing  displeased 
Loki  (miscliievons  cunning  or  destructive  tire).  He 
changed  himself  into  the  form  of  an  old  woman, 
and  inquiring  the  cause  of  the  invulnerability  of 
B.,  was  told  by  Frigga  that  all  things,  animate  and 
inanimate,  had  sworn  not  to  harm  him,  with  the 
exception  of  one  little  shrub,  the  misletoe.  Loki 
went  in  haste  to  i'etch  this  shrub,  and  repaired 
with  it  to  the  assembly  of  the  gods,  where  he 
placed  it  in  the  hands  of  the  blind  Iloder.  the  god 
of  war,  directed  his  aim,  and  B.  fell  pierced  to  the 
heart.  The  sorrow  of  the  gods  was  unutterable. 
Frigga  asked  who,  to  win  her  favour,  would  journey 
to  Hel — the  goddess  of  Hades  or  the  grave — to 
release  Balder.  Ilermoilcr  or  Helmod  (the  heroic!, 
the  son  of  Odin,  readily  olfered  his  services,  and  Hel 
consented  to  grant  his  re((Uest  on  condition  that  all 
things  should  wee])  fur  Balder.  All  men,  all  living 
beings,  and  all  things  wept,  save  the  witch  or 
giantess  Thock  (the  step-daughter  of  Loki),  who 
refused  to  sympathise  in  the  general  mom-niiig.  B. 
was  therefore  ol)liged  to  remain  in  the  kingdom  of 
Hel  until  the  end  of  the  world. 

The  myths  of  B.  have  been  very  differently 
interpreted.  B.,  as  the  originator  of  all  that  is 
beneiicent  and  good — for  B.  and  the  other  Honn  of 
Odin  (see  Scamunavian  MvTiioLOfiv)  aie  oidy 
personified  aspects  or  functions  of  the  dimly  con- 
ceived one  unseen  Power  that  moves  all  nature — is 
represented  as  a  hero  of  so  lovely  and  gracefid  a 
manly  beauty,  that  a  brilliant  light  sti earns  from 
his  person  ;  the  whitest  of  the  northern  flowers  is 
named  BalJers-broir.  As  the  god  of  peace  of  the 
Germanic  nations,  who  conducts  to  peace  through 
battle  and  victory,  he  is  a  purely  ethical  conception, 
a  mythical  personification  of  the  peace  obtainable 
through  conflict,  and  agreed  to  by  compact  among 
the  gods.  The  gods,  foreseeing  doubtless  that 
peace  cannot  long  endure,  seek  in  every  possible 
way  to  secure  the  precious  life  of  B.,  as  even  the 
weakest  and  most  insignificant  have  it  in  their 
power  to  destroy  peace.  Loki,  in  his  symbolical 
character  as  the  god  of  retributive  justice,  stirs  up 
Hoder,  or  War,  through  whom  the  god  of  peace 
falls.  Hoder,  indeed,  is  also  slain  by  Wall,  or 
Val-fader,  the  baltle-god,  and  the  war  is  ended  by 
a  bloody  overthrow  ;  but  once  violated  and  broken, 
peace  is  irrevocably  lost  along  with  Balder.  Her- 
moder  or  Helmod  labours  in  vain  to  ristore  it, 
for  the  giantess  Thiick  (retaliation,  revenge)  pre- 
vents it.  Holy  and  true  peace  can  only  revive 
again  in  a  new  world,  when  the  old  sinful  world 
and  the  old  guilt-stained  gods  now  ruling  it  shall 
have  been  destroyed. — Others  (among  them  Max 
Miiller)  see  iu  the  myth  of  B.  a  representation  of  the 
contest  between  Winter  and  Summer.  Compare 
Weinhold  Die  Sagen  von  Loki,  in  Haupl'sZt't^.sf/(r//lf 
fur  Deutehes  Altcrtlium  (Leip.  18-10). 

BA'LDNESS  {alopecia).  See  Hair.  There  are 
some  rare  cases  on  record  in  which  the  hair  has 
never  been  developed.  This  is  termed  congciutal 
baldness. 

Accidental  baldness  may  involve   the  whole  scalp, 


BALDO— BALDWIN  II. 


or  may  be  oiilv  in  patches  ;  these  patches  may  run 
into  each  other,  and  hence  some  coti.-^ider  tins  con- 
dition a  species  of  liii^'worm.  It  is  caused,  savs 
Mr.  Erasmus  Wilson,  liv  an  atrophy  of  the  hair- 
follicles  (().  v.).  B.  in  the  comparatively  young  and 
middle-oped  mav  occur  from  wearing  waterproof 
caps,  which,  by'  preventing  evaporation  from  the 
head,  occasion  an  unhealthy  state  of  .skin.  Naval 
nnd  military  officers  are  liable  to  B.  arising  from  this 

cause.  ...  -1     »i 

Seni'e  haJdiica^  (calvities)  m  not  nceessardy  the 
consefiueiice  of  age— it  may  arise,  like  the  pre- 
ceding varietv,  from  an  atrophy  of  those  parts  on 
wliicirthe  hairs  depend  for  nutrition.  It  generally 
commences  on  the  crown  of  the  head,  where  the 
supply  of  blood  is  naturally  less  abundant.  Women 
have  a  greater  quantity  of  soft  tissue  un(U>r  the 
skin,  therefore  the  vessels  are  less  likely  to  be  inter- 
fered with  ;  hence  they  are  not  so  frequently  bald  as 

men.  ^     .  ,       r 

The  causes  of  B.  are  the  defective  supply  ol  nu- 
trition just  mentioned,  a  family  tendency,  late  houis, 
dissipation,  but  especially  old  age.  The  hair  falls  olt 
after  severe  illnesses,  or  after  other  causi-s  of  general 
debility.  Dm-ing  pregnancy  the  hair  falls  out ;  and 
in  this  country  we  often  see  the  long  hair  of  young 
women,  victims  to  consumption,  almost  completely 

shed.  .        .        ,      ^.        ^ 

Treatment  of  balduess  consists  in  attention  to 
cleanliness,  and  in  exciting  the  languid  circulation 
of  the  scalp  to  greater  activity,  by  using  a  hard  hair- 
brush, and  the  application  of  stimulants,  as  the 
Spanish-fly  ointment  in  the  proportion  of  two 
drachms  to  an  ounce  of  lard  mixed  with  about  the 
same  quantity  of  pomatinn.  Or  the  stimulants  may 
be  applied  in"  the  form  of  lotions.  But  at  the  same 
time  constitutional  debility  should  be  remedied  by 
attention  to  the  various  functions  of  the  body  ; 
tonics  should  be  administered;  and,  if  possible, 
causes  of  anxiety  or  night-watching  should  be  avoid- 
ed. Sliaving  the  whole  head  is  sometimes  resorted 
to.'  If  these  remedies  are  successfid,  downy  white 
hair,  like  that  of  an  infant,  begins  to  grow,  which 
may'  or  may  not  acquire  the  colour  and  vigorous 
appearance  of  the  former  growth. 

BA'LDO,  Mo'nte,  a  mountain  of  Lombardy,  on  the 
east  of  Lake  Garda,  with  an  elevation  of  TlOO  feet. 
It  contains  interesting  petrifactions,  and  the  line 
"i-een  sand  known  as  the  sand  of  Verona. 
"  BA'LDRICK,  or  BAU'DRICK  (Fr.  Bamlner),  is 
a  band  or  sash  worn  partly  as  a  military  and   partly 


Baldrick. 

as  a  heraldic  svmbol.  It  passes  round  the  waist  as  a 
girdle,  or  passes  over  the  left  shoulder  and  is 
brought  down  obliqviely  under  the  right  arm,  or  is 
suspended  from  the  right  shoulder  in  such  a  way 
as  to  sustain  a  sword.  Many  of  the  effigies  of 
knights   contain    representations    of    the    B.,    more 


frequently  as  a  belt  than  a  shoulder-sash.  Qvieen 
Victoria  "fre(pientlv  wears  a  blue  silken  B.  on  state 
occasions.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  baltcus  ot 
the  Roman  soldier. 

BA'LDUNG,  Hans,  called  .ilso  Hans  Griin,  a  Ger- 
man* painter  and  wood  engraver,  a  contemporary  of  . 
Albert  Durer,  to  whom,  in  expression,  colourmg,  and 
finish  he  was  little  inferior  as  a  i.ainter.  He  was 
born 'in  Gmiind,  Swabia,  about  1470,  and  died  at 
Stra^bur"  in  15.52.  His  master-piece,  a  p;Linting  ot 
the  Crucifixion,  is  in  the  cathedral  of  Freiburg;  his 
wood  engravings  are  numerous. 

BA'LDWIN   I.,  the  first  Latin  emperor  of  Con- 
stantinople,  was  born  at  Valenciennes  in    1171    a.d., 
his  parents  being  Baldwin,  Count   of  Ilamault,  and 
Margaret,  Countess  of  Flandcns.     In  11'.):'.,  he  suc- 
ceeded to  his  mother's  possessions,  and  in  the  year 
followiu"-,  to  the  title  and  county  of  his  father.     In 
l-)()0    he  appointed   his  brother  Philip,   along  with 
other    persons,    to    the    regency    of    llainault    and 
Flanders,  and  joined  the  fourth  Cru.sade.     Bart  ot 
the  Crusaders— B.  among  others— were   induced   to 
assist  the  Venetians  in   reconquering   Zara,  in  Dal- 
matia,  from  the  king  of  Hungary.     While   at  Zara, 
the  voung  Alexis,  son  of  Lsaac  II.,  emperor  of  Con- 
stantinople, craved  the   assistance  of  the  Crusaders 
a-aiust    his    uncle    Alexis    Angelus,    who,    having 
deposed    and    blinded    Isaac    II.,    had    usurped    the 
throne.     In  return  for  their  aid,  he  promised  them 
a  liberal  sum  of  money,  and  also  to  help  them  to 
recover  Balestinc.     The  Crusades  agreed,  and  soon 
defeated  the  usurper's  forces,  and  restored  the  right- 
ful emperor  ;    but  Alexis   havhig  some   dilticulty  in 
carrving  out  his  promises,  they   turned   their   arms 
a<'ainst°  him.       A   revolution    breaking    out    in   the 
ci"ty  at  the  same  time,  Alexis  the  younger  was  mur- 
dered, and  is  father  is   said   to  have   died   of  griel. 
Alexis  Ducas  Murzuphlus  then  usurped  the  throne, 
but   was   defeated  bv   the   Crusadcr.s,   and    the    city 
was  sacked— the   Crusaders  and   Venetians   sharing 
the  booty.     B.  was  chosen  emperor,   and  crowned 
on    the  "oth    Mav    12u4;     but    lie    received    only 
about  a  fourth  part  of  the  empire— Constantinople 
and    Thrace— the   Venetians   obtaining   the   greater 
share  of  the   provinces.     A   part   also   fell   to   the 
French    adventurers    who    accompanied    the    expe- 
dition   and  several  provinces  remained  in  the  hands 
of  (ir'eek   princes.      The   abilities   of  B.— and  they 
appear    to    have    been    of    a    superior   character- 
were  not  able  to    cope    with   the   evils   necessarily 
atiendino-    so    anomalous    a    po.sition.       The    Greeks 
were   discontented,    and,   backed   by    Calo-Joannes, 
kin'T  of  Bulgaria,  while  B.'s  brother,  with  the  flower 
of  his  troops,  was  away  on   an   expedition    in   Asia, 
they    rose    and     massacred    the    Latins     scattered 
throucrhout  the  towns  of  Thrace,  and  made  them- 
selves   masters   of    Adrianople.      B.    laid    siege   to 
the  town  with   the  forces   he   had  at   his   disposal; 
but   he   was   defeated   and   taken   prisoner  by   the 
Bidn-arian  king,  and  died  about  a  year  after  (1206) 
in   captivity.      He   ^vas   succeeded   by   his   brother 
Henry. 

BA'LDWIN  II.,  emperor  of  Constantinople,  was 
born  in  1217.  He  was  the  son  of  Peter  de  Courtenay 
and  Yolanda,  Countess  of  Flanders,  sister  of 
Baldwin  I.  Being  but  U  years  old  when,  by  the 
death  of  his  brother  Robert,  he  succeeded  to  the 
throne,  he  was  placed  under  the  guardianship 
of  John  of  Brienne,  titular  king  of  Jerusalem, 
who  died  about  1237.  B.  then  assumed  the  rod 
of  empire,  but  he  had  neither  the  means  nor  the 
ability  to  wield  it  successfully  against  his  power- 
ful Greek  and  Bulgarian  opponents.  Two  begging- 
visits  to  AVestern  Europe,  in  one  of  which  he 
left   his   son    Philip    in    pledge    at    Venice    for    a 

637 


BALDWIN  I.— BALFE. 


debt,  find  disposed  of  several  most  holy  relics  for 
money,  were  not  successful  in  procuring  liim  suf- 
ficient forces  to  resist  his  foes  ;  and  on  the  night  of 
the  15th  of  July  1201,  his  capital  was  taken  by  one 
of  the  geneiais  of  Michael  Pahvologns,  ruler  of 
Nicaja,  and  B.  fled  to  Italy.  With  him  terminated 
the  Latin  Empire  in  tlie  East,  afler  it  had  lasted  57 
years.  His  descendants  for  more  than  a  century  re- 
tained the  title  of  emperor. 

BA'LDWIN  L,  king  of  Jerusalem,  1100—1118, 
was  born  in  1058.  He  was  the  youngest  brother 
of  Godfrey  de  Bouillon  (q.  v.), "  Duke  of  Lower 
Lorraine  or  Brabant.  He  took  part  in  the  first 
Crusade  ;  but  having  quarrelled  with  Tancred,  he 
retired  to  Edessa,  at  the  request  of  tiie  Christian  in- 
habitants of  tlie  place,  and  was  soon  after  elected  to 
be  Count  of  Edessn.  After  the  death  of  his  brother 
Godfrey,  in  1 100,  he  Ijecame  Protector  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre,  and  Baron  of  Jerusalem,  and  innne- 
diately  assumed  the  regal  title,  which  his  brother 
had  refused.  He  conquered  Cwsarea,  Ashdod, 
and  Tripolis,  and  with  the  assistance  of  a  (ienoese 
fleet,  he  became  master  also  of  Acre,  and  sub- 
sequently of  Sidon,  but  failed  to  reduce  Ascalon. 
He  died  in  1118.  Unlike  his  brother,  who  was 
a  disinterested  enthusiast,  B.  was  worldly  and 
ambitious. — Balpavin  II.  (Baldwin  du  Bourg), 
cousin  of  Baldwin  I.,  who  had  made  him  Count 
of  Edessa  when  he  ascended  the  throne  of 
Jerusalem,  succeeded  him,  and  reigned  from  1118 
to  1131.  During  his  reign  Tyre  was  taken,  in 
1124,  Avith  the  assistance  of  a  Venetian  fleet; 
and  the  order  of  the  Templars  was  instituted. 
Having  been  taken  prisoner  by  the  Turks,  B. 
endured  a  captivity  of  six  months.  He  died  on 
the  21st  of  August  llol,  leaving  four  daughters. 
Shortly  before  his  death  he  resigned  the  crown 
in  favour  of  his  son-in-law,  Foulqucs  of  Anjou, 
who  reigned  till  1134. — Baldwin  III.,  king  of 
Jerusalem,  1143 — 1162,  the  son  and  successor  of 
Foukjues  of  Anjou,  was  born  1129.  He  was 
a  model  of  knighthood,  which,  during  the  period 
of  the  first  Crusades,  was  a  personification  of 
Honour,  Justice,  Devotion,  and  Love.  Edessa 
was  lost  to  the  Christians  during  his  reign. 
In  1152,  he  fought  victoriously  at  Jerusalem 
against  Noineddin,  the  sultan  of  Aleppo.  In 
1157,  after  he  had  defeated  the  same  prince  at 
Jacob's  Ford,  on  the  Jordan,  he  again  humbled 
him  severely  near  I'utaha.  After  this,  he  ruled 
in  peace,  and  endeavoured  to  improve  both  the 
external  and  internal  defences  of  his  kingdom. 
The  authority  and  influence  of  B.  were  so  great, 
that  even  Saracens  followed  under  him  the  banner 
of  the  Cross.  By  his  marriage  with  Theodora, 
the  daughter  of  the  Greek  Emperor  Manuel,  he 
gained  a  faithful  ally  in  that  prince.  He  died,  it  is 
believed,  of  poison,  in  the  flower  of  his  age,  at 
Tripolis,  in  Syria,  on  the  10th  of  February  1162. 
With  his  death  the  Christian  power  in  the  east 
began  to  decline.  He  was  succeeded  in  the  govern- 
ment  by  his  brother  Amalric  or  Amaury,  who  died 
in  1173. — Baldwin  IV.,  the  son  and  successor  of 
Amalric,  surnamcd  the  Leper,  reigned  till  1183. — 
When  a  child  of  5  years  old,  Baldwin  V.,  the  son 
of  Sybilla,  sister  of  Baldwin  IV.,  was  called  to  the 
throne.  He  died  in  1187,  a  year  before  Jerusalem 
was  retaken  by  Saladin. 

BA'LDWIN'S  PHO'SPHORUS  is  a  term  applied 
to  the  nitrate  of  lime,  which,  on  evaporation,  parts 
with  its  water  of  crystallisation,  and  then,  as  dis- 
covered by  Baldwin  in  1675,  assumes  a  luminous  ap- 
pearance in  the  dark. 

BATiE,  John,  Bishop  of  Ossory,  in   Ireland,   was 
638 


born  at  the  village  of  Cove,  in  Suffolk,  in  November 
1495.  He  was  educated  as  a  Carmelite  moidv,  but 
afterwards  turned  Protestant,  and,  being  [lei'secuted 
t)y  the  Roman  Catholics,  fled  to  Flander.«,  where  he 
remained  eight  years,  during  which  he  wrote  numer- 
ous works.  He  was  recalled  by  Edward  VI.,  and 
sncce.ssively  presented  to  the  living  of  Bishopstoke, 
in  IIamp.shire,  and  the  bishopric  of  O.^sory.  In  thi.s 
latter  sphere  he  made  liimself  so  obnoxious  to  the 
Catholics  by  his  zeal  in  the  Protestant  cause,  that 
on  news  of  the  death  of  Edward,  his  house  was 
attacked,  and  five  of  his  servants  killed.  He  him- 
self escaped  out  of  the  country  after  great  difficulty, 
and  the  loss  of  all  his  effects.  On  the  accession  of 
Elizabeth  he  returned  to  England,  and  was  made  a 
prebend  in  the  Cathedral  of  Canterbury.  He  died 
in  1563.  His  fame  mainly  rests  on  a  collection  of 
British  Biography,  which,  notwithstanding  that 
sections  of  a  book  are  not  nnfrequently  set  down  in 
it  as  distinct  works,  and  that  the  names  of  persons 
who  never  wrote  anything  are  set  down  as  authois, 
is  a  valua])le  work.  It  was  first  published  in  1548 
under  the  title  of  Jllnxtrbim  Mnjorix  r.riUanice 
Scripfornm,  hoc  ext,  Atiffliw,  Cambrue,  ei  Scotlce 
Summarium. 

BALE.     See  Ba.sel. 

BALEA'RIC  ISLES,  a  group  of  five  islands— 
Mallorca  (Majorca),  Miiiort'a,  Iviza,  Formentera, 
Cabrera — lying  off"  the  coast  of  Valencia,  in  lat.  38^  4' 
— 40°  5'  N.,  and  long.  1  — 5'  I'].  They  at  one  time 
formed  the  kingdom  of  Mallorca,  which  was  united 
in  12S9  with  the  crown  of  Aragon.  They  now  form 
a  Spanish  province,  and  have  unitedly  an  area  of 
1753  squai'e  miles,  with  a  population,  in  1857,  of 
266,952.  The  soil  generally  is  good.  Vines,  olives, 
and  other  fruit-trees  aie  cultivated  abundantly;  but 
corn  has  to  be  imported.  The  coasts  are  jjrecipitous, 
with  .some  excellent  harbours — Port  Mahon,  in 
Minorca,  lieing  one  of  the  finest  in  Europe.  The  Phoe- 
incians  visited  the  B.  I.  at  a  very  early  date,  and 
they  were  followed  by  the  (Jreeks,  from  one  or  other 
of  whom  they  are  said  to  have  received  their  name. 
If  from  the  Ph'-Miicians,  tlie  name  is  derived  from  a 
Plurnician  word  e{[uivalcnt  to  the  Greek  r/>nii7ietns, 
signifying  light-armed  troops;  if  from  the  Greeks, 
then  it  is  from  ballcin,  to  throw,  and  was  given 
because  of  the  expertness  of  the  natives  in  using 
the  sling,  to  the  use  of  which  they  were  trained 
from  their  infancy.  Later,  the  B.  I.  became  sub- 
ject to  Carthage ;  but  after  a  short  period  of  free- 
dom, during  which  tlieir  iidiabitants  became  pirates, 
were  annexed  to  the  Roman  empire  by  Jletellus 
(Da'earim.s),  123  n.c.  FVoin  that  time  their  history 
is  involved  in  that  of  the  peninsula.     See  Spain. 

BALE-FIRE.     Sec  Beacon. 

BALFE,  Michael  William,  an  English  com- 
poser of  operas,  &c.,  was  born  May  15,  ISOS,  in 
Dublin.  His  musical  talent  receive  1  early  culture, 
and  several  anecdotes  are  related  of  his  singular 
precocity,  which,  if  true,  are  all  the  more  wonderful, 
from  the  fact  that  B.,  though  a  brilliant  and  popu- 
lar composer,  is  not  considered  remarkably  original. 
When  only  seven  years  old,  he  played  publicly  one 
of  Viotti\s  concertos  for  the  violin.  At  nine,  he  wrote 
the  ballad  entitled  77ie  Lovcr\s  Mistake,  which 
achieved  popularity  through  the  singing  of  Madam 
Vestris.  At  sixteen,  he  made  his  debut  in  London, 
at  the  Diury  Lane  Theatre,  as  conductor  of  the 
orchestra.  In  1825,  he  left  this  situation,  in  order 
to  visit  Italy,  where  he  began  his  successful  career 
as  a  composer,  with  music  for  the  ballet  La  Pe>f- 
roiisfi,  performed  at  the  Theatre  La  Scala,  in  Milan. 
In  1827,  he  returned  to  the  stage,  and  sang  in 
the  Italian  Opera,  at  Paris,  where  in  concert  with 


BALFOUR— BALIOL. 


MiililHiiii  and  Soiitag,  he  gained  great  applause,  and 
many  warm  friends,  wlio  seemed  to  think  it  their 
princiiial  duty  in  hfe  to  lend  the  young  Irishman  as 
much  money  as  he  wanted.  He,  however,  returned 
to  Italy,  and  devoted  himself  to  composition,  pro- 
ducing in  rapid  succession  the  operas — /  Rivali 
(1830),  Un  Avvertimcnto  (1832),  Enrico  IV.  (1834), 
Assed'to  di  La-Rovhelh  (1835),  Manon  Lencaut. 
(written  for  Malibran,  1830),  C.  G'rei/  (1837),  La 
Dame  VoiUe  and  Fahtaff  (1838),  Jeanne  d\'lrc 
(1839),  Keolanfhe  (1840),  and  the  Bohemian  Girl 
(1844).  This  last  opera  is  one  of  tlie  few  English 
compositions  which  have  been  popular  in  (icrtnany. 
The  Bondman,  was  produced,  with  some  success,  in 
1846  ;  but  failed  to  excite  permanent  interest.  A 
few  years  ago  appeared  llie  Base  of  Castile,  an 
opera  which  acquired  a  large  measure  of  temporary 
popularity  through  the  delightful  singing  of  Miss 
Louisa  I'yne,  the  principal  member  of  the  English 
operatic  company.  As  a  composer,  B.,  as  we  liave 
hinted,  is  little  more  than  an  imitator  (chiefly  of 
Aubcr),  and  has  no  true  creative  genius;  but  his 
opera  airs,  and  other  vocal  music,  are  extremely 
singable,  and  afford  such  opportunities  of  display  as 
singers  seem  to  be  fond  of. 

BALFOU'R,  Sir  James,  Lord  President  of  the 
Court  of  Session,  and  author  of  an  able  book,  Prar- 
iicks  of  Scots  Law,  was  a  son  of  Sir  Michael  Balfour 
of  Pittendreich  and  Mont(]uhaiiy,  in  Fifeshir(>.  In 
early  life  he  was  implicated  in  the  conspiracy  against 
Cardinal  Beaton,  and  being  in  the  Castle  of  St. 
Andrews  when  it  surrendered,  in  1547,  he  was 
carried  prisoner  to  France  in  the  same  vessel  with 
John  Knox.  About  two  years  after,  returning  to 
Scotland  along  with  other  of  his  fellow-prisoners,  he 
changed  his  religion,  his  apostasy  gaining  for  him 
the  appellation  of  the  'Blasphemous  Balfour'  from 
Knox,  but  unusual  honours  and  emoluments  from 
the  queen  and  court.  B.  was  sagacious  enough  to 
notice  the  increasing  influence  of  Bothwell,  and  he 
immediately  insinuated  himself  into  his  confidence, 
joined  the  conspiracy  for  the  assassination  of 
Darnley,  and  framed  the  bond  for  nnitual  support, 
signed  by  the  conspirators.  He  was  afterwards 
accused  by  Lord  Lennox  as  an  accomplice  in  the 
murder  of  Darnley,  but  the  trial  was  hurried  over 
before  proof  of  his  guilt  could  be  brought  forward. 
In  1507,  at  the  instance  of  Bothwell,  he  was  ap- 
pointed governor  of  Edinburgh  Castle ;  and  he  re- 
paid the  kindness  of  that  nobleman  and  the  queen, 
by  handing  over  to  the  confederate  lords  the  cele- 
brated letters  upon  wliich  they  endeavoured  to 
found  Mary's  guilt,  and  which  had  been  given  him 
by  Bothwell  for  safe  custody.  lie  afterwards  sur- 
rendered the  castle  to  Murray,  on  certain  conditions, 
in  which  his  own  safety  and  interests  were  the  chief 
considerations.  The  great  object  of  B.'s  life  appears 
to  have  been  self-aggrandisement,  without  regard 
to  the  means  by  which  that  was  accomplislicd. 
Accordingly,  w'e  find  bin;  the  recipient  of  favours 
under  the  regency,  as  he  was  under  the  queen. 
He  was  made  a  privy-councillor,  Commendator  of 
the  Priory  of  Pittenweem ;  and  in  exchange  for  the 
clerk-registry,  lie  received  the  Lord  Presidentship 
of  the  Court  of  Session,  and  a  pension  of  £500. 
When  Morton  was  made  regent,  B.  contrived  to 
curry  favour  with  him,  and  received  from  him  a 
commission  to  make  a  general  digest  of  the  law. 
Not  feeling  himself  safe  in  Scotland,  however,  he 
Jeft  it  for  France,  where  lie  remained  for  some  time. 
When  the  young  king  ascended  the  throne,  he 
joined  the  party  hostile  to  Morton,  but  again  fled 
10  France,  when  in  1579  Morton  recovered  his 
authority.  In  1580  he  returned,  and  was  instru- 
mental in  obtaining  Morton's  death,  by  producing 
the  deed  compassing  the  murder  of  Darnley.  which 


that  nobleman,  along  with  others,  had  signed.     He 
died  in  1583. 

BALFRU'SH  (or  more  correctly  BARFURU'SH, 
'  mart  of  burdens'),  an  impi)rlant  commercial  town 
in  the  Persian  province  of  Mazanderan,  and  situated 
on  the  River  Balibul,  aliout  twelve  miles  from  its 
mouth  in  the  Caspian  Sea.  The  river,  which  is  here 
about  fifty  yards  broad,  but  shallow,  is  crossed  by  a 
fine  stone-bridge  of  eight  arches.  It  is  not  navi- 
gated, all  goods  being  landed  at  the  port  of  Mesh- 
hedi-Ser,  on  the  Caspian,  from  whence  they  are  con- 
veyed to  B.  by  an  excellent  road.  To  the  soutli  of 
the  town  there  is  an  artificial  island,  about  half  a 
mile  in  circumference,  on  which  the  palace  of  Shah 
Abbas  formerly  stood.  B.  has  excellent  bazaars,  and 
several  Mohammedan  colleges ;  the  population  is 
variously  estimated  at  from  5o,000  to  200, (joO.  The 
latter  estimate  was  made  by  Eraser,  who  visited  it  in 
1822,  since  which  time  it  has  been  greatly  depopu- 
lated by  plague  and  cholera.  Flax  and  cotton  are 
much  cultivated  in  the  vicinity. 

BA'LI  or  BA'LLY,  an  island  to  the  cast  of  Java, 
about  70  miles  long  by  35  broad.  With  an  area  of 
1.100  S([uare  miles,  it  contains  a  population  of  about 
700,000,  being  406  inhabitants  to  a  square  mile. 
It  is  said  to  differ  from  the  other  islands  of  the 
Indian  archipelago  in  shewing  a  majority  of  Hindus 
and  a  predominance  of  Hinduism.  Like  the  islands 
generally  in  every  section  of  tlie  archipelago,  from 
the  Philippines  to  Sumatra  inclusive,  B.  is  volcanic 
— its  highest  mountain,  with  an  elevation  of  11,32+5 
feet,  hiiving  been  an  active  volcano  as  late  as  1843. 
The  Dutch  have  a  settlement  in  Badong,  the  chief 
of  the  eight  states  into  which  the  island  is  sub- 
divided, and  many  Chinese  are  to  bo  found  in  the 
seaports.  The  lat.  and  long,  of  Badong  harbour  are 
8°  42'  S.,  and  116°  83'  E. 

BA'LIOL,  Joiix,  Lord  of  G.vllowat,  and  after- 
wards King  of  Scotland,  was  born  in  1259,  and  on 
the  deaili  of  the  Princess  Margaret  in  1290,  became 
a  competitor  for  the  crown  of  Scotland.  As  the 
grandson  of  the  eldest  daughter  of  David  Earl  of 
Huntingdon,  brother  of  William  the  Lion,  his  claim 
was  pronounced  superior  to  that  of  the  other  prin- 
cipal competitor,  Robert  Bruce,  Lord  of  Annandale, 
son  of  the  second  daughter.  The  arbiter  on  the 
occasion  was  Edward  I.  of  England,  who  found  this 
a  fit  opportunity  for  asserting  his  claim  as  lord-para- 
mount of  Scotland.  That  claim  was  acknowledged 
by  the  Scottish  estates  in  submitting  the  contest  to 
his  decision  ;  and,  consistently  with  this  ignominious 
submission,  B.,  before  and  after  receiving  the  crown 
(November  SO,  1292),  swore  fealty  to  Edward  as  his 
feudal  superior.  He  was  soon  made  to  feel  that 
his  sovereignty  was  merely  nominal,  and,  abject  as 
he  had  shewn  himself,  the  indignities  which  he  ex- 
perienced at  length  roused  him  to  an  assertion  of  his 
rights  as  king.  In  1295  he  took  upon  him,  by  the 
advice  of  his  nobles,  to  conclude  an  alliance  with 
France,  then  at  war  with  England.  This  act  of  re- 
volt was  followed  by  speedy  chastisement.  Edward 
invaded  Scotland  with  a  large  force;  defeated  the 
Scottish  troops,  took  B.  prisoner,  and  compelled 
him,  after  performing  a  humiliating  penance,  for- 
mally to  surrender  his  crown,  July  2,  1296.  B.  was 
confined  for  three  years  in  the  Tower,  enjoying, 
however,  a  limited  freedom,  and  something  of  royal 
state.  At  the  end  of  that  time  he  was  permitted  to 
retire  to  his  patrimonial  estates  in  Normandy,  where 
he  died  in  1314,  a  short  time  after  the  battle  of 
Bannockburn.  The  estimate  by  his  subjects  of  this 
unfortunate  and  jioor-spirited  prince  was  significantly 
indicated  liy  the  surname  of  '  Toom  Tabard,'  or 
Empty  Jacket. 

BA'LIOL,  Edward,  son  of  John,  makes  himself 

039 


BALISTA— BALIZE. 


momentarily  coiiRpieuous  in  history  by  liis  daring 
and  successful  invasion  of  Scotland,  then  under  the 
regency  of  Randolph,  Earl  of  Moray,  in  1:^32.  Ac- 
companied by  some  English  nolilemen  bint  on  re- 
covering their  forfeited  estates  in  Scotland,  he  landed 
with  a  few  hundred  followers  at  Kinghorn,  in  J^ife- 
shire  ;  defeated  the  Earl  of  Fife  ;  pushed  boldly  into 
the  country;  and  on  Dupplin  Moor,  in  Perthshire, 
routed  with  immense  slaughter  an  army  upwards  of 
ten  times  more  numerous  than  liis  own.  On  the  'i4th 
of  September,  seven  weeks  from  the  date  of  his 
landing,  he  was  crowned  king  of  Scotland  at  Scone. 
He  liad  only  enjoyed  the  kingly  dignity  for  about 
three  months,  when  lie  was  surprised  in  his  camp  at 
Annan,  and  nearly  lost  his  life  as  well  as  the  crown 
he  liad  so  recently  assumed.  His  subsequent  career 
is  the  very  reverse  of  what  niiglit  have  been  antici- 
pated from  so  adventurous  a  beginning,  being  marked 
only  by  weakness,  servility,  and  misfortune.  He 
died  at  Doncaster  in  13G3,  and  with  him  ended  the 
Louse  of  Baliol. 

BALI'STA,  or  BALLFSTA  (Gr.  hallein.io  throw), 
was  one  among  the  larger  kinds  of  military  weapons 
in  use  before  the  invention  of  gunpowder.  The  B., 
the  catapidta,  the  scorpion,  and  the  onaper,  pro- 
pelled large  and  heavy  missiles,  chiefly  through  the 
reaction  of  a  tightly-twisted  rope  of  hemi),  flax,  cat- 
gut, sinew,  or  hair;  or  else  by  a  violent  movement  of 
levers.  The  scorpion  was  a  land  of  large  crow-bar ; 
the  B.  threw  stones ;  the  catapulta  threw  heavy 
darts  or  arrows,  and  was  somewhat  smaller  than  the 
Balisfa.  One  man  could  manage  the  scorpion,  but 
two  or  more  were  needed  for  the  B.  or  the  catajjulta. 
There  was  a  good  deal  of  mechanism  necessary  to 
bring  about  the  propulsive   force.     The  makers  of 


Balista. 

those  machines  were  very  particular  in  the  choice  of 
women's  hair,  the  sinews  of  a  bull's  neck,  and  the 
tendons  of  the  deer,  wherewith  to  fashion  tlie  elastic 
cord.  The  onager  was  a  kind  of  B.,  which  threw  a 
stone  by  the  agency  of  a  sling  instead  of  a  stretched 
cord.  The  early  chroniclers  tell  of  catapultas  that 
would  throw  an  arrow  half  a  mile,  or  hurl  a  javelin 
across  the  Danube ;  and  of  a  B.  which  threw  a  stone 
weighing  360  lbs.  Numerous  other  weapons  of  an 
analogous  character  were  known  in  the  middle  ages 
— such  as  the  inavponel ;  the  trebuclicf,  which  threw 
a  large  stone  by  the  action  of  a  lever  and  a  sling  ; 
the  petrarp,  which  (as  its  name  implies)  threw  a 
stone  ;  the  robinet,  which  threw  darts  as  well  as 
stones  ;  the  mate-griffon  and  viate-funch,  both  sling- 
ing machines;  the  tricolle,  which  hurled  quarrels,  or 
square-headed  arrows ;  the  cspringnl  or  springal, 
which  threw  large  darts  ;  the  ribmideqnin,  a  laVge 
kind  of  cross-bow;  the  war-wolf,  a  stone-throwing 
machine,  &c.  The  Arbalest  (q.  V.)  may  be  regarded 
as  a  small  portable  arrow-throwing  Balista. 

BALI'STfe,  or  FFLE-FISH,  a  genus  of  osseous 
fishes  of  the  order  Plectognathi  (q.  v.)  of  Cuvier ;  the 
type  of  a  family,  Balutidie,  the  species  of  which  are 
640 


almost  all  inhabitants  of  tropical  and  sul)tropical 
seas,  freipienting  rocky  coasts  and  coral-reefs.  Their 
colours  are  generally  brilliant.  The  body  is  remark- 
ably compressed,  the  ossification  of  the  skeleton, 
as  in  the  other  Plectognathi,  is  very  incomplete,  and 
the  external  covering  of  the  body  resembles  that  of 
the  Ganoid  (q.  v.)  flshe.s,  consisting,  in  some  of  the 
genera,  of  large  rhomboidal  scales,  disposed  in 
regular  rows,  and  not  overlapping ;  in  others,  of  very 


Balistes  pencilligerus. 

small  rough  scales,  with  stiff  bristles,  as  densely 
crowded  as  the  pile  of  velvet.  But  the  most  inte- 
resting thing  in  connection  with  these  fishes,  is  the 
provision  for  fixing  the  first  dorsal  spine  in  an  erect 
position,  or  lowering  it  at  the  will  of  the  animal. 
The  spine  is  articulated  'by  ring  and  bolt  to  the 
broad  interneural  osseous  plate.'  'When  the  spine 
is  raised,  a  depression  at  the  back  part  of  its  base 
receives  a  corresponding  projection  from  the  con- 
tiguous base  of  the  second  ray,  which  fixes  it  like 
the  hammer  of  a  gun-lock  at  full  cock,  and  it  cannot 
be  let  down  imtil  the  small  spine  has  been  depressed, 
as  by  pulling  the  trigger ;  it  is  then  received  into  a 
groove  on  the  supportingplate,  and  offers  no  impedi- 
ment to  the  )>rogress  of  the  fish  through  the  water. 
This  trigger-like  fixing  of  the  spine  takes  place  also 
in  the  dead  fish ;  and  when  a  B.  is  removed  from  the 
bottle  for  examination,  it  is  generally  necessary  to 
release  the  spine  by  pressing  on  the  small  trigger* 
ray.'  The  spine  is  roughened  with  enamel  grains, 
whence  the  naiue  File-fish.  The  flesh  of  these  fishes 
is  generally  regarded  as  unwholesome. 

BALISTRA'RIA  (Ital.  BalcHtricra),  one  of  the 
names  given  to  those  narrow 
apertures  so  often  seen  in  the 
walls  of  old  castles,  and  through 
which  the  cross-bowmen  dis- 
charged their  arrows.  See  Bal- 
ista. B.  do  not  seem  to  have 
come  into  use  till  the  13th  c. 
The  lower  terminations  of  B. 
are  generally  circular,  sometimes 
n  the  form  of  a  shovel.  See 
Loophole. 

BALI'ZE,  or  BELIZE,  a 
British  colony  on  the  Bay  of 
Honduras,  in  the  Caribbean  Sea, 
extending  in  N.  lat.  from  IG^ 
45'  to  18°  30',  and  in  W.  long,  from  8S°  10'  to  89°. 
It  forms  the  south-east  part  of  the  peninsula  of 
Yucatan,  which  here  divides  the  Caribbean  Sea 
from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Its  area  is  said  to  be 
1.3, .5 00  square  miles — about  two-thirds  of  that  oi 
Scotland.  In  1S61,  the  population  was  25,635; 
nearly  half  of  the  whole  being  in  the  town  of  B., 
which  stands  at  the  mouth  of  a  river  also  of  the 


Balistraria. 


BALKAN— BALL. 


same  name.  In  addition  to  the  Belize,  which 
traverses  the  middle  of  the  country,  the  Rio  Hondo 
and  the  Sil)Oon  form  respectively  the  nortli-west 
and  the  sontli-eust  boundaries.  The  presence  of  the 
English  in  this  neighbourhood  was  naturally  enough 
an  object  of  jealousy  to  the  Spaniards,  being  long 
tolerated  from  necessity,  but  fornmlly  sanctioned 
only  in  1783.  Besides  teeming  with  tropical  pro- 
ductions in  general,  B.  exports  mahogany,  cedar, 
sarsaparilla,  logwood,  fustic,  and  other  dye-woods. 
The  town  is  a  depot  of  British  goods  destined  for 
Central  America,  and  the  river  is  said  to  be 
navigable  for  200  miles  from  its  mouth. 

BALKA'N,  or  HvE'MUS,  the  eastern  branch  of 
that  mountain-system  which  comprehends  the  ranges 
of  Montenegro,  Herzegovina,  and  the  Dinarrc  Alps. 
It  extends  from  the  j)lain  of  .Sophia  to  Cape  Emineh, 
on  the  Black  Sea,  and  forms  the  southern  boundai'y 
of  the  basin  of  the  Danube.  The  B.  range  runs 
almost  parallel  with  the  Danube,  and  for  about  five 
degrees  of  latitude  divides  Bulgaria  from  Kumelia. 
Culminating  in  the  west  in  the  peak  of  Tchar-dagh, 
f)700  feet  high,  it  decreases  gradually  in  elevation  as 
it  approaches  the  Black  Sea  on  the  cast,  losing,  to 
some  extent,  its  wild  bare  character,  and  becoming 
diversified  with  valleys  and  wooded  slopes.  This 
part  of  the  B.  has  great  strategical  importance. 
Numerous  offsets  traverse  western  Bulgaria  and 
Servia.  The  B.  is  traversed  by  five  or  six  passes, 
the  only  important  one  of  which  is  called  Porta 
Trajani,  and  forms  the  line  of  communication 
between  Vienna  and  Constantinople. 

BALKA'SH,  or  TENGI'Z  (Tenghiz  or  Tenguiz), 
a  lake  of  Central  Asia,  on  the  north-west  borders  of 
Chinese  Turkistan,  hit.  4-f°  and  47°  N.,  long.  77°  and 
80°  E.  Its  length  is  stated  at  150  miles,  and  its 
greatest  breadth  at  75  miles.  Its  principal  feeder  is 
the  river  Hi.     It  has  no  outlet. 

BALKH,  formerly  the  most  northerly  province  of 
Afghanistan,  is  now  subordinate  to  the  khanate  of 
Bokhara,  though  not  incorporated  with  it.  It 
corresponds  to  ancient  Bactria,  and  lies  between 
lat.  35  and  37°  N.,  and  long.  64°  and  69°  E.  It 
is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  river  Oxus,  on  the  E. 
by  Budukshan,  on  the  S.  by  the  Hindu-Kush, 
and  on  the  W.  by  the  Desert.  Offsets  of  the  Hindu- 
Kush  traverse  it  in  a  north-west  direction,  and 
slope  down  to  the  low  steppes  of  Bokhara.  Its 
length  is  250  miles;  its  breadth,  120.  Its  situation 
was  once  important  during  the  overland  commerce 
between  India  and  Eastern  Europe  liefore  the  sea- 
route  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  was  followed.  The 
soil  has  the  general  characteristics  of  a  desert 
land  ;  only  a  few  parts  are  made  fertile  by  artificial 
irrigation  ;  and  such  arc  the  vicissitudes  of  climate, 
that  where  grapes  and  apricots  ripen  in  summer,  and 
the  mulberry-tree  permits  the  cultivation  of  silk,  in 
winter  the  frost  is  intense,  and  the  snow  lies  deep 
on  the  ground.  The  natives  are  Usbck  Tatars ;  and 
their  character  seems  to  depend  very  much  on  that 
of  the  country.  In  the  barren  regions,  they  are 
simply  plunderers  of  caravans;  in  the  more  favour- 
able ones,  they  are  peaceful  nomades ;  and  in 
the  most  prosperous  districts  they  are  tillers  of 
the  soil,  and  artisans  in  towns  and  villages. — 
Balkh,  the  chief  town,  about  23  miles  from  the 
Amu,  is  situated  in '  a  neighbourhood  where  the 
water  of  the  Rudi  Haaj  is  distributed  in  numerous 
canals.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  mud  wall ;  but  though 
bearing  the  imposing  title  of  Amu  al  Bulud  ('mother 
of  cities'),  it  has  little  of  the  grandeur  of  ancient 
Bactria,  on  the  site  of  which  it  is  built.  It  was 
twice  destroyed  by  Genghis  Khan  and  Timur ;  and  as 
late  as  1825,  it  was  plundered  by  the  powerful  ruler 
of  Kunduz,  Mir-Murad-Bei.  The  neighbourhood  is 
41 


famous  for  its  corn  and  fruits.  As  a  boundary  town 
between  Afghanistan  and  Bokhara,  B.  assumed  a 
l)roniinent  position  in  the  British-Afghan  war. 
Pop.  20U0. 

BALL.  Games  with  balls  were  among  the  most 
favourite  gynniastic  exercises  of  the  ancients.  They 
were  played  almost  daily  by  all,  young  and  old  ;  by 
the  highest  statesmen  equally  with  the  lowest  of  the 
people.  The  Greeks  prized  the  game  as  a  means 
of  giving  grace  and  elasticity  to  the  figure,  and 
erected  a  statue  to  one  Aristonicus  for  his  skill  in 
it.  The  effeminate  Maecenas  amused  himself  during 
a  journey  by  playing  B.,  as  we  learn  from  Horace. 
In  the  gymnasia  of  the  Greeks,  and  in  the  Roman 
baths,  there  was  a  special  compartment  for  B. -play- 
ing {spfucristeritan),  where  certain  rules  and  grada- 
tions of  the  exercise  were  to  be  observed  according 
to  the  state  of  health  of  the  player.  The  balls 
were  of  very  various  kinds  ;  they  were  generally  of 
leather,  and  filled  with  air;  others  were  stuffed  with 
feathers.  Ornamental  balls,  composed  of  12  dif- 
ferently coloured  segments  (such  probably  as  are  to 
be  seen  in  modern  toy-shops),  are  mentioned  in 
Plato's  Pluedon.  There  was  also  great  variety  in 
the  kinds  of  game,  each  having  a  name.  In  one,  the 
B.  was  thrown  up,  and  the  players  strove  who 
would  catch  it  as  it  fell ;  another  was  the  same  as  our 
foot-ball ;  in  a  third,  a  numljcr  of  persons  threw  it  at 
one  another,  either  with  a  view  to  hit,  or  for  the  B. 
to  be  caught  and  returned  ;  in  a  fourth,  the  B.  was 
kept  rebounding  between  the  earth  and  the  palm  of 
the  player's  hand  as  often  as  possible. 

Ball-playing  seems  to  have  been  of  equal  antiquity 
in  the  west  of  Europe,  and  to  have  come  down 
uninterruptedly  to  modern  times.  In  the  16th  c, 
it  was  in  great  favour  in  the  courts  of  princes, 
especially  in  Italy  and  J'rance.  The  French  jeu  cle 
pauiiic,  and  the  English  Tennia  (q.  v.),  are  often 
mentioned.  Houses  were  built  for  playing  in 
all  weathers:  and  in  gardens  and  elsewhere  long 
alleys  were  laid  out  for  the  purpose,  the  names  of 
which  still  adhere  to  many  localities.  The  B.  was 
struck  with  a  mallet — It.  maylia  ;  Fr.  mail  or  maillc  ; 
Eiig.  mall.  The  mallet  was  also  called  by  the  com- 
pound name  pail-mail,  pcll-i/iell,  or  pall-mall,  from 
It.  palla  (Lat.  pila),  a  ball.  The  same  names  signi- 
fied also  the  game  or  the  alley  where  it  was  played ; 
hence  the  English  Malls  and  Pall-Malls.  The  game 
is  thus  described  in  BlounVs  Glossographia,  quoted 
in  Cunningham's  Hand-book  of  London  : 

'  Pale  Maille  (Fr.),  a  game  wherein  a  round  bowl 
is  with  a  mallet  struck  through  a  high  arcli  of  iron 
(standing  at  either  end  of  an  alley),  which  he  that 
can  do  at  the  fewest  blows,  or  at  the  number  agreed 
on,  wins.  This  game  was  hei-etoforc  used  in  the 
long  alley  near  St.  James's,  and  vulgarly  called 
Pell-Mell.' 

Towards  the  end  of  the  18th  c,  the  game  of 
B.  ceased  to  be  played  at  courts,  and  at  the  same 
time  went  out  of  fashion  in  the  higher  circles  of 
continental  society,  though  it  is  still  practised  by 
the  people  in  Spain  and  Italy.  The  form  of  it  called 
Cricket  (q.  v.)  is  still  played  in  England  by  all  classes, 
and  Golflq.  v.)  is  a  favourite  game  in  Scotland. 

For  cultivating  graceful  motion,  agility,  and 
strength,  as  well  as  promoting  general  health  of 
body  and  cheerfulness  of  mind,  B. -playing  is  one  of 
the  best  gymnastic  exercises.  Ancient  physicians 
were  in  the  habit  of  prescribing  a  course  of  balls  to 
their  patients  where  most  modern  doctors  would 
likely  pvescnhc  pills ;  and  in  this  point  at  least  the 
ancient  practice  might  bo  copied  with  advantage. 

BALL.  In  the  somewhat  indefinite  language  of 
the  military  and  naval  arts,  all  kinds  of  shot  and 
bullets  are  occasionally  called  by  the  collective  name 

641 


BALL— BALLARAT. 


of  ball.  This  was  especially  the  case  when  nearly 
all  such  projectiles  were  solid  and  spherical,  before 
the  era  of  hollow  and  spheroidal  shells.  At  present, 
when  the  varieties  are  so  numerous,  it  is  more  usual 
to  employ  the  terms  Bullet  and  8hot  (q.  v.).  These, 
together  with  Shell,  are  subdivided  into  numerous 
kinds,  the  most  important  of  which  will  be  found 
noticed  under  their  proper  designations.  A  parti- 
cular class  of  spherical  combustibles  is  described 
under  Balls.  For  BALL-CAiixuinGE,  see  Cart- 
ridge. 

BALL  (Fr.  bal\  a  dancing  entertainment.  In 
England  there  are  county  balls,  attended  by  the 
gentry  of  the  shire  or  county,  military  balls,  court 
balls,  subscription  balls,  besides  balls  on  various 
festive  occasions.  AVhether  designated  balls  or 
assemblies,  these  entertainments  are  conducted  with 
great  decorum,  according  to  certain  established 
usages.  If  of  a  getiernl  kind,  it  is  customary  to 
issue  tickets  only  to  those  producing  vouchers  for 
their  respectability  ;  and  to  insure  the  most  perfect 
propriety,  a  number  of  lady-patronesses  (married 
ladies  of  distinction)  take  a  lead  in  the  management, 
and  grace  the  assembly  by  their  presence.  Ordi- 
narily, the  charge  for  gentlemen's  tickets  at  sub- 
scription balls  is  at  least  two-thirds  higher  than 
those  for  ladies.  According  to  etiquette,  no 
unmarried  lady  can  attend  a  ball  unless  she  accom- 
pany a  gentleman,  or  a  married  lady.  All,  of  both 
sexes,  are  expected  to  be  in  full  dress — anything 
else  would  be  held  disrespectful.  Fancy  balls  are 
entertainments  at  which  every  person  attending 
is  expected  to  be  in  a  fancy  or  peculiar  national 
costume  ;  in  other  respects  they  are  conducted  like 
ordinary  balls.  Masked  balls,  once  so  common,  have 
now,  for  obvious  reasons,  lost  their  repute.  At  all 
high-class  balls,  there  is  an  appointed  master  of  the 
ceremonies,  who  superintends  the  proceedings,  and, 
in  the  event  of  there  being  no  programme,  prescribes 
the  dances. 

BALLACHU'LISH,  a  parish  on  the  borders  of 
Argyle  and  Inverness  shires,  and  partly  in  both 
counties.  In  the  Argyleshire  part  of  the  parish, 
114^  miles  south-south-west  of  Fort  William,  on  the 
south  side  of  Loch  Leven,  an  east  branch  of  Loch 
Linnhe,  are  the  celebrated  quarries  of  blue  roofing 
clay-slate.  These  quarries  have  been  wrought  since 
1760,  and  now  emp-Ioy  200  men.  White  and  gray 
marble  quarries  exist  also  in  the  parish. 

The  slate  is  exposed  on  the  mountain-side,  and 
the  quarries,  commencing  on  the  shore,  extend 
southwards  along  the  side  of  the  mountain.  The 
face  of  the  rock  is  laid  open  by  three  workings 
fronting  the  west,  and  rising  one  above  another  in 
successive  step-like  terraces,  all  of  them  being 
entered  from  the  north  end  of  the  bed.  The  height 
from  the  lowest  terrace  to  the  top  of  the  workings 
is  about  216  feet,  and  the  face  of  rock  wrought  about 
536  feet.  The  situation  of  the  quarries  permits  the 
water  and  debris  of  broken  and  waste  slate  to  be 
at  once  got  rid  of  into  the  sea.  The  great  advan- 
tage of  this  is  evident  when  it  is  remembered 
that  this  debris  amounts  to  more  than  six  times  the 
(juantity  of  saleable  material  raised  from  the  quarries. 
A  few  years  ago,  the  annual  produce  amounted  to 
from  5,000,000  to  7,000,000  of  roofing  slates,  weigh- 
ing about  10,000  tons- 

BALLAD.  The  name  is  of  Italian  origin  (ballate), 
and  meant  originally  a  dance-song,  being  derived 
from  the  mid.  Lat.  ballare  or  balare,  corresponding 
to  the  Gr.  ballizein,  to  dance.  The  B.  is  a  kind  of 
poem  which  it  is  very  difficult  to  characterise.  In 
the  course  of  centuries  it  has  undergone  various 
transformations,  and  the  name  has  been  transferred 
to  pieces  which  in  extent,  subject,  and  character 
642 


have  no  longer  anything  in  common  with  the  primi- 
tive ballad.  The  confusion  of  ideas  was  rendered 
still  worse  from  the  circumstance  that  poems  of 
exactly  the  same  nature  were  styled  sometimes 
lomances,  sometimes  ballads,  sometimes  epic  or 
lyrico-epic,  or  poetic  narratives  ;  so  that  it  was  left 
to  the  capiice  of  the  poet  which  of  these  generic 
names  he  would  give  to  his  production.  As  early 
as  the  12th  c.  the  Italians  gave  the  title  of  B.  to 
short,  purely  lyrical  pieces,  allied  to  the  sonnet  or 
still  more  to  the  madrigal,  and  which  generally  had 
love-sorrows  for  their  subject.  Dante  has  such 
ballate.  Akin  to  these  are  those  French  ballads 
which  Moliere  set  himself  against,  and  wiiich  fell 
into  disuse.  The  earliest  ballads,  as  the  word 
is  now  understood,  are  those  of  England,  and 
of  Scotland,  beginning  about  the  14th  c.  They 
in  so  far  rcsendile  the  Spanish  Romances,  that  the 
subject  in  both  is  narrative,  and  handled  lyrically. 
See  Lyric.  The  Spanish  romance,  however,  has 
more  of  the  lyrical  element,  and  is  of  a  gayer  cast, 
rcfli'cting  the  southern  character  of  the  people ; 
while  the  northern  B.  took  a  more  earnest  sombre 
shape,  especially  among  the  Danes;  though  in  the 
north  also  there  are  ballads  of  a  cheerful  and 
sportive  tone. 

As  far  as  subject  is  concerned,  the  B.  is  a  species 
of  minor  Epic  (q.  v.).  The  name  is  generally  applied 
to  a  versified  narrative,  in  a  simple,  popular,  and 
often  rude  style,  of  some  valorous  exploit,  or  some 
tragic  or  touching  story.  Ballads  are  adapted  to  be 
sung  or  accompanied  by  an  instrument.  They  are 
coniparalivcly  short,  the  story  being  circumscribed, 
and  not  embracing  a  combination  of  events,  as  the 
plan  of  the  grand  epic  does.  There  can  be  little 
doubt  that  the  B.  has  been  the  first  form  of  poetry 
among  all  nations;  and  that  the  earlier  epics  or 
heroic  ])oems  of  the  higher  kind,  such  as  the  Spanish 
Ci<l  and  the  German  Nibelungen,  grew  out  of  such 
simple  beginnings.  Of  the  popular  B.,  Scotland, 
or  more  correctly  the  border-land  of  Scotland  and 
England,  is  allowed  to  have  produced  the  best 
examples — as  Chevy  Chase,  Fair  Helen  of  Kirkcounel 
Lee,  and  many  others.  As  a  B.  of  modern  com- 
position may  be  instanced  Goldsmith's  Edwin  and 
Anejelina. 

Many  of  the  old  popular  songs  of  the  Germanic 
nations  are  just  narratives  of  epic  events  and  inci- 
dents in  which  the  feelings  of  the  composer  manifest 
themselves.  But  the  name  of  B.  was  not  then  in 
use,  and  such  poetical  narratives  were  called  simply 
songs,  or  more  specifically  perhaps  layn  (Ger.  leich). 
It  was  not  till  the  last  half  of  the  18th  c.  that  the 
foreign  name  was  transferred  to  them. 

The  B.  has,  in  recent  times,  been  cultivated  chiefly 
by  the  Germans,  and  in  their  hands  it  has  assumed 
a  more  artificial  development.  Biirger  may  be  said 
to  be  the  creator  of  the  modern  ballad.  He  was 
intimately  acquainted  with  the  more  simple  Scotch 
and  English  15.  poetry ;  but  while  adhering  to  its 
spirit,  he  gave  to  his  own  compositions  a  far  wider 
extent,  surrounded  his  narration  with  descriptions  of 
scenery  and  other  decorations,  and  by  means  of 
dialogue  imparted  to  them  the  vivacity  of  the 
drama.  His  Leonore  has  become  at  once  classical 
and  popular.  Burger,  Schiller,  Gothe,  and  Uhland 
are  the  greatest  German  names  in  this  department 
of  composition.  Following  the  practice  of  these 
writers,  it  has  become  common  to  confine  the  name 
B.  to  an  epic  narrative  with  something  fabulous  and 
supernatural  in  the  background.  In  this  sense, 
Gothe's  Erlkonig  is  a  ballad ;  and  Coleridge's 
Ancient  Mariner  is  perhaps  the  best  exemplification 
in  English. 

BALLARAT,  the  oldest  of  the  considerable  gold- 
fields  of  Victoria,  and  in  fact  the  oldest  but  one  of 


BALLAST— BALLET. 


all  the  gold-fields  of  the  colony.  It  is  situated 
about  100  miles  west-by-nortli  of  Melbourne.  It 
was  first  worked  in  September  1851,  the  compara- 
tively unimportant  ground  at  Anderson's  Creelc, 
which  dated  from  August  of  the  same  year,  having 
beeu  actually  the  earliest  result  of  the  '  prospecting,' 
which,  a  few  months  previously,  liad  been  stimu- 
lated by  the  newly-discovered  '  diggings '  of  New 
South  Wales.  In  a  short  time,  B.,  within  the  compass 
of  little  more  than  a  square  mile,  contained  about 
7000  adventurers.  Though  B.  was  speedily  rivalled 
by  Mount  Alexander  and  Bendigo,  yet  it  has  by 
no  means  lost  its  original  pre-eminence.  In  1857, 
of  gold  brought  down  by  escort,  B.  contrilnited 
948,709  ounces,  being  107,914  more  than  Bendigo 
and  Mount  Alexander  taken  together.  B.  is  unri- 
valled in  the  fineness  of  its  gold,  which  averages 
23|  carats,  being  only  -J-  less  than  the  unalloyed 
metal. 

BA'LLAST  is  a  heavy  substance  employed  to 
give  a  ship  sufficient  hold  of  the  water,  to  insure 
her  safe  sailing  with  spread  canvas,  when  her 
cargo  and  equipment  are  too  light.  The  amount 
of  B.  required  by  a  ship  depends  not  only  on 
her  size  and  cargo,  but  also  on  her  build  ;  some 
forms  ^of  construction  requiring  more  B.  than 
others.  It  is  not  merely  the  quatitity  of  B.  which 
a  skilful  mariner  has  to  consider  ;  he  is  required 
also  to  take  into  account  its  distribution.  If  a 
heavy  mass  of  B.  be  deposited  within  a  small  com- 
pass near  the  keel,  it  places  the  centre  of  gravity 
very  low  down  ;  the  sliip  will  sail  sluggishly,  and  is 
said  to  be  'stiff.'  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  B.  be 
massed  too  high  up,  the  ship  becomes  'crank,'  and 
cannot  carry  much  sail  without  danger  of  being 
upset.  Under  average  circumstances,  it  is  considered 
that  a  ship  is  well  ballasted  when  the  water  comes  up 
to  about  the  extreme  breadth  amid-ships. 

In  ballasting  a  ship,  the  cargo  and  B.  are  con- 
sidered together,  Jhe  quantity  and  distribution  of 
the  latter  being  made  dependant  on  the  former.  In 
a  ship  of  war,  the  B.  is  made  subservient  to  the 
requirements  of  the  necessary  stores  and  war 
mata-iel ;  in  a  merchant  or  passenger  vessel,  to  the 
convenience  of  the  passengers  and  the  careful 
stowage  of  the  cargo.  During  the  last  great 
European  war,  the  ships  of  the  British  navy  were 
supplied  with  a  certain  conventional  weight  of 
B.,  according  to  size  and  armament.  Thus,  a  100- 
gun  ship  had  550  tons  of  B.  ;  an  80-gun,  440  tons ;  a 
50-gun,  235  tons;  a  36-gun,  225  tons;  a  20-gun,  110 
tons,  &c.  The  recent  revolution  in  the  sizes  and 
shape  of  war-ships,  however,  and  the  introduction  of 
steam  propulsion,  have  rendered  all  such  fixity  of 
ratio  inapplicable. 

The  substances  used  as  B.  are  various — chiefly 
iron,  stone,  gravel,  sand,  mud,  and  water.  Iron  is 
now  superseding  the  next  three  varieties  in  ships  of 
any  importance ;  and  water-ballast  is  gradually 
l)eing  introduced  in  the  collier-ships  of  the  Tyne, 
Wear,  and  Tees.  Water-ballast  is  employed  in  four 
different  ways.  Bag-water  B.  is  contained  in 
water-proof  bags  laid  on  the  floor  of  the  vessel, 
and  filled  or  emptied  by  means  of  a  pump  and  a 
hose.  Bottom-water  B.  is  confined  beneath  a  false 
bottom  in  the  vessel.  Hold-water  B.,  first  employed 
in  screw-steamer  colliers  constructed  by  Mr.  Scott 
Russell,  is  contained  in  a  large  receptacle,  which 
may  be  filled  with  the  cargo  when  the  ship  is  not 
in  B.  Tank-water  B.  is  contained  in  two  fore-and- 
aft  tanks,  which  can  easily  be  filled  and  emptied. 
The  customs'  laws  relieve  merchant-ships  from  cer- 
tain formalities  and  payments  when  leaving  a  port  in 
ballast. 

The  term  B.  is  employed  by  civil  engineers  to 
signify  the  sand  or  gravelly  material  which  is  laid 


as  a  packing  between  railway-sleepers,  in  order  to 
give  them  solidity.  No  English  railway  is  considered 
to  be  conii)]ete  or  safe  for  transit  until  it  is  dressed 
and  finished  by  ballasting.  The  possibility  of  pro- 
cui'ing  ballast  at  a  cheap  rate,  considerably  aflects 
the  cost  of  railway  undertakings. 

BA'LLAST  IIEA'YIXG  has  reference  to  the 
use  of  sand  or  mud  ballast.  In  order  to  prevent 
captains  from  filling  up,  or  otherwise  injuring  the 
entrance  to  rivers,  ports,  havens,  roadsteads,  &c., 
by  the  discharge  of  ballast,  certain  regulations  have 
been  made  at  most  maritime  places,  as  to  its  dis- 
posal. The  Trinity  House  Corporation  has  a  pecu- 
liar jurisdiction  over  the  bed  of  the  Thames,  and 
regulates  all  the  proceedings  touching  the  reception 
and  discharge  of  ballast.  Before  the  use  of  water- 
ballast,  the  collier  captains  ballasted  their  empty 
ships  with  gravel  or  sand,  mostly  dredged  up  from 
the  bed  of  the  Thames  in  and  near  Woolwich  Reach. 
Generally  about  10,000  tons  per  annum  were  thus 
used.  The  ballast-heavers  were  men  employed  by 
the  Trinity  House  Ballast-office  in  transferring  sand 
from  the  bed  of  the  Thames  to  the  empty  ships. 
When  the  collier  vessels  returned  to  the  Tyne  or 
its  neighbourhood,  they  were  not  permitted  to 
empty  the  sand  in  the  river,  but  were  under  penal- 
ties to  discharge  it  on  shore.  This  is  the  origin 
of  the  vast  mounds,  or  sand-hills,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Tyne,  which  have  been  made  very  useful  in  the 
construction  of  railways.  Ships  coming  into,  as 
well  as  those  leaving  the  Thames  in  ballast,  are 
equally  subject  to  Trinity  House  control.  The  Bal- 
last-office Corporation  of  Dublin  has  similar  powers  in 
reference  to  the  river  Liflfey. 

BA'LLATER,  a  village  of  Aberdeenshire,  Scot- 
land, on  the  banks  of  the  Dee,  30  miles  west-south- 
west of  Aberdeen.  It  is  remarkable  as  the  resort  of 
numerous  visitors,  on  account  of  its  chalybeate 
springs.     Pop.  379. 

BA'LLENY  ISLANDS,  a  group  of  five  small  vol- 
canic islands  discovered  in  the  Antarctic  ocean,  1839. 
Lat.  66°  44'  S.,  long.  163°  11'  E. 

BA'LLET  (of  similar  derivation  with  the  word 
hall — see  Ballad),  a  species  of  dance  usually  form- 
ing an  interlude  in  theatrical  performances,  but 
confined  principally  to  operas.  Properly,  a  B.  is  a 
theatrical  exhibition  of  the  art  of  dancing  in  its 
highest  perfection,  and  must  therefore,  in  general, 
comply  with  the  rules  of  the  drama  as  to  its  composi- 
tion and  form.  The  pantomimic  sacrificial  dances  of 
antiquity,  although  they  maybe  regarded  as  the  source 
of  Attic  tragedy,  are  not  to  be  considered  as  directly 
the  origin  of  the  ballet.  The  B.,  as  known  to  us, 
undoubtedly  originated  in  the  service  of  the  courts. 
We  find  it  existing  in  Italy  in  the  beginning  of  the 
16th  c.,  especially  at  the  court  of  Turin,  where  it 
was  enriched  by  the  inventive  genius  of  Count  Aglio ; 
and  where  the  princes  and  princesses  of  the  court 
themselves  took  part  in  it,  in  song  and  declama- 
tion as  well  as  in  dance  ;  for  the  B.  at  first  appeared 
in  combination  with  the  other  theatrical  arts,  and 
completed  the  chaotic  medley  exhibited  in  these 
spectacles,  which  were  at  once  mythological,  allego- 
rical, fantastic,  warlike,  and  pastoral.  From  these 
mingled  elements  the  individual  species  of  dramatic 
entertainments  were  gradually  evolved  in  their 
distinct  forms.  Baltagerini,  director  of  music  to 
Catherine  de  Medicis,  was  the  first  to  introduce  the 
B.  into  France,  where  it  soon  became  such  a 
favourite,  that  Louis  XIII.  danced  in  one  of  these 
ballets,  and  his  example  was  followed  by  Louis 
XIV.  in  his  youth.  The  latter  made  his  last 
appearance  on  the  stage  in  1699,  in  the  B.  of  Flora. 
Hitherto,  the  B.  has  always  appeared  in  combina- 
tion with  the  characteristic  features  of  the  opera, 

643 


BALL-FLOWER— BALLOON. 


and  even  of  comedy,  as  is  evident  from  the  works  of 
Quinault  and  Moliere,  arranged  by  Lully.  The  art 
of  dancing  possessed  then  little  dranKitic'cxpression, 
and  still  reqnired  to  be  introduced  and  explained  by 
pinging  and  recitation.  In  1697,  Antoine  Houbart 
de  la  Motte  undertook  to  reform  the  B.,  to  which 
he  imparted  both  dramatic  action  and  the  expres- 
sion of  passionate  feehng.  About  this  time,  women 
first  made  their  appearance  in  the  B.,  as  well  as 
in  plays  and  operas,  which  had  until  then  been 
performed  exclusively  by  men.  There  is  no  mention 
of  any  female  B.  dancer  of  note  before  1790.  About 
the  middle  of  the  18th  c,  Noverre  separated  the 
B.  from  the  opera,  gave  it  an  independent  dramatic 
form,  and  laid  the  foundation  in  his  writings  of  an 
ingenious  theory  on  the  subject.  The  Mythological 
B.,  a  relic  of  the  magnificence  of  A^'ersailles,  came  to 
an  end  during  the  Consulate,  when  it  gave  place 
to  the  newly-invented  Comic  Ballets  Dansomanie  La 
Fille  mal  Gardee  and  the  Arlecjuinadea.  Vincenzo 
Galeotti,  in  Copenhagen,  carried  out  the  ideas  of 
Noverre  so  far  as  to  subordinate  the  dance  to  purely 
dramatic  principles,  instead  of  giving  it  the  first 
place  as  formerly ;  and  thus  he  gave  to  his  ballets 
the  character  of  great  rhythmical  pantomimes.  These 
splendid  and  talented  performances  were  longest 
kept  up  in  the  theatre  of  Milan,  where  the  most 
lifelike  and  magnificent  tableaux  were  cxhil)ited  in 
pantomime  ;  and  subjects  were  attempted  for  beyond 
the  limits  of  the  ballet.  The  story  of  Hamlet  was 
turned  into  a  B.,  and  the  subjects  of  several  other 
tragedies  were  similarly  treated.  In  general,  the 
B.  has  now  become  unfaithful  to  its  original  design 
and  its  true  artistic  signification ;  and  exhausts 
itself  in  the  exhibition  of  mere  feats  of  bodily 
agility,  tasteless  displays  of  artificial  dexterity, 
distortions  of  the  persons  almost  to  dislocation,  and 
balancing  of  the  figure  in  attitudes  often  indelicate. 
Consisting  as  it  does  more  of  external  show  than 
internal  meaning,  it  contributes  gradually  to  blunt 
the  public  taste  for  the  enjoyment  of  the  legitimate 
drama,  which  speaks  more  to  the  mind  than  to  the 
eye. 

BA'LL-FLOWER,  so  named  from  its  resembling 
a  ball  placed  in  a  circular 
flower ;  an  ornament  pe- 
culiar to  the  decorated 
style  of  Gothic  architec- 
ture which  prevailed  in 
the  14th  c.  The  B.-F.  is 
supposed  by  some  to  be 
an  imitation  of  a  pome- 
granate, by  others  of  a 
hawk's  bell.  Its  form  will 
be  better  understood  from  the  illustration. 

BALLINA',  a  seaport  town  on  the  confines  of 
Mayo  and  Sligo  counties,  Ireland,  but  chiefly  in 
Sligo,  on  the  Moy,  7  miles  south  of  its  entrance  into 
Killala  Bay.  The  Moy  runs  through  the  town,  is 
crossed  by  two  bridges,  and  separates  the  two 
counties.  The  tide  runs  up  to  the  town,  but  the 
river  is  only  navigable  from  the  sea  up  to  a  mile 
and  a  half  below  Ballina.  B.  has  a  brisk  trade  in 
agricultural  produce,  salmon,  and  cured  provisions. 
Coarse  Hnens  and  snuff  are  manufactured  here. 
Many  anglers  resort  to  the  river  Moy  and  Loch 
Conn.  Killala  Bay  was  the  rendezvous  of  the  French 
inviiders  in  1798.  They  landed,  and  took  B.,  but 
were,  three  weeks  afterwards,  defeated  at  Killala. 
Pop.  (1861),  54,52.  Of  these  4870  live  in  the  Sligo 
part  of  the  town  called  Ardnaree. 

BALLINASLOE',    a   small    inland   town    on    the 

borders  of  Galway  and  Roscommon  counties,  near 

the    centre  of  Ireland,   on  both  sides  of  the  river 

Suck — which    divides    the    two    counties — 8    miles 

644 


Ball-Flower. 


from  its  confluence  with  the  Shannon,  and  81  miles 
west  of  Dublin.  The  Suck  at  B.  is  divided  into 
several  channels,  over  which  the  road  from  Athlone 
to  Galway  is  carried  l)y  a  succession  of  bridges  and 
causeways  500  yards  long.  B.  is  noted  for  its 
great  annual  fair  in  October,  one  of  the  largest  in 
the  kingdom.  In  185S,  upwards  of  83,000  sheep 
and  16,000  cattle  were  sold  at  this  ftxir.  Pop.  (1861) 
3200. 

BALLTNRO'BE,  a  small  town  of  Ireland,  county 
Mayo,  picturesquely  seated  on  the  Robe,  about  3 
miles  from  its  mouth  in  Lough  Mask,  and  about  16 
miles  S.S.E.  of  Castle  Bar.  B.  is  a  seat  of  petty  and 
general  sessions,  and  has  a  union  workhouse  and  a 
barrack.  It  has  a  weekly  market  and  two  annual  fairs. 
Pop.  2161. 

BA'LLIOL  CO'LLEGE,  Oxford,  was  founded 
between  1263  and  1268  by  John  de  Balliol,  father 
of  John  Balliol,  king  of"  Scotland.  The  original 
foundation  consisted  of  16  poor  scholars,  and  the 
revenue  for  their  maintenance  amounted  for  many 
years  to  oidy  8d.  per  week  for  each.  In  1340, 
the  establishment  was  enriched  by  benefactions  from 
Sir  William  Fenton  and  Sir  Piiilip  Somervyle,  the 
latter  of  whom  gave  the  college  a  new  body  of 
statutes.  Its  most  important  subsequent  benefac- 
tors were  Bell,  Bishop  of  Worcester,  in  1566;  AVill. 
Hammond,  Esq.,  in  1575 ;  Peter  Blundell's  execu- 
tors in  1615  and  1676;  Lady  Periam,  1620;  Warner, 
Bishop  of  Rochester,  1667  ;  John  Snell,  Esq.,  1677; 
and  Mrs.  Williams,  1830.  The  society  in  1859 
consisted  of  a  master,  12  fellows,  and  13  scholars. 
The  number  of  members  on  the  books  was  328. 
The  master  and  fellows  enjoy  the  privilege  of 
electing  their  own  visitor.  John  Wycliff'e  was 
master  of  this  college  in  1361  ;  among  its  scholars 
have  been  John  Evelyn,  and  Bradley  the  astrono- 
mer. The  Snell  Exhibitions  for  students  of  Glas- 
gow University,  attract  aruiually  to  this  college 
a  few  distinguished  Scottish  students.  Among 
these  have  been  Sir  William  Hamilton  and  J.  G. 
Lockhart. 

BALLI'STA.     See  Balista. 

BALLI'STIC  PE'XDULUM.  An  instrument  so 
named,  Avas  invented  by  Robins,  in  the  latter 
part  of  last  century,  to  ascertain  the  velocity  of 
projectiles,  and  to  prove  the  quality  of  gunpowder. 
It  consists  of  a  large  block  of  wood,  suspended 
from  a  strong  horizontal  axis ;  and  it  is  so  solidly 
constructed  as  to  bear  the  heaviest  blow  of  the 
heaviest  shot  without  injury.  An  excavated  centre 
on  one  side  of  the  block  is  filled  with  sand,  packed 
in  leather  upon  an  iron  frame;  four  bags  form  a 
filling  or  core.  The  core,  forming  the  place  of 
impact,  is  easily  replaced  after  each  firing.  Straps 
of  wrought-iron  suspend  the  block  from  the  wrought- 
iron  axis  or  shaft.  The  shaft-ends  have  knife- 
edges,  which  rest  on  V  supports.  The  construction 
is  such,  that  a  violent  percussion  makes  only  a  very 
slight  oscillatory  movement  in  the  block.  A  brass 
graduated  limb  measures  the  arc  of  vibration  ;  and 
a  brass  slide  is  pushed  forward  by  an  index  attached 
to  a  bar  connected  with  the  suspension  straps.  An- 
other form  of  instrument  for  similar  purposes  will  be 
described  under  Eprouvette  ;  and  some  of  the  re- 
sults obtained  by  these  experiments  will  be  noticed 
under  Gunnery  and  Gunpowder. 

BA'LLIUM.     See  Bailey. 

BALLOO'X  (Fr.  ballon,  a  large  ball).  According  to 
the  principle  of  Archimedes  (q.  v.),  bodies  immersed 
in  a  fluid  are  buoyed  upwards  with  a  force  equivalent 
to  the  weight  of  the  fluid  displaced  by  them.  If 
their  own  weight  is  not  sulEcient  to  counterbalance 


BALLOON. 


this  force — that  is,  if  tlicy  are  lighter  than  the  fluid — 
they  rise  upwards  with  a  force  equal  to  the  dill'eriMice 
of  the  weight  of  the  displaced  fluid,  and  of  their 
own  weight.  A  B.,  therefore,  which  consists  of  an 
integument  enclosing  a  gas  within  it,  will  rise  iu  air 


Balloon. 

in  the  same  way  that  a  cork  rises  in  water,  provided 
that  the  weight  of  the  whole  be  less  than  that  of  an 
equal  volume  of  aii'.  If  one,  for  instance,  occupy 
as  much  space  as  1000  lbs.  of  air,  but  weigh  itself — 
covering,  gas,  and  appendages — 600  lbs.,  it  will  be 
impelled  upwards  with  a  force  of  400  lbs.  The 
gases  employed  for  filling  balloons  are  either  hydro- 
gen or  ordinary  coal-gas.  The  former,  when  pm-e, 
is  between  fourteen  and  fifteen  times  lighter  than 
atmospheric  air,  and  the  latter  generally  about  two 
and  a  half. 

The  B.,  as  it  is  at  present  employed,  is  a  large 
pear-shaped  bag,  made  of  any  pliable  silk  cloth, 
covered  with  a  varnish,  made  by  dissolving  caout- 
chouc in  oil  of  turpentine,  to  render  it  airtight. 
The  common  size  of  this  bag  varies  from  20  to 
30  feet  in  equatorial  diameter  with  a  proportionate 
height.  The  mouth  or  neck  of  tliis  bag  is  just 
large  enough  to  enable  a  man  to  get  inside  to  make 
any  necessary  repairs,  and  is,  of  course,  turned 
downwards  when  the  B.  is  inflated.  A  net-work 
of  hempen  or  cotton  twine  is  accurately  fitted  to 
the  B.,  and  the  separate  cords,  on  which  it  ends, 
are  tied  to  a  circular  hoop  placed  a  few  feet 
below  the  neck.  The  car,  generally  a  large  wicker- 
basket,  is  suspended  by  ropes  from  this  hoop,  and 
hangs  at  a  considerable  distance  below,  so  that  the 
aeronaut  may  be  removed  from  the  vicinity  of  the 
gas.  The  net-work  serves  to  distribute  the  weight  of 
the  car  and  its  charge  equally  over  the  whole  upper 
surface  of  the  balloon.  One  of  the  most  important 
requisites  in  the  construction  is  the  valve,  which  is 
introduced  into  the  top  of  the  balloon.  It  consists  of 
a  wooden  clapper,  four  or  five  inches  square,  opening 
inwards,  and  kept  closed  by  a  sufficient  spring. 
A  rope  attached  to  this  valve  descends  through  the 
neck  into  the  car,  where,  to  prevent  accidental  open- 
ing, it  is  allowed  to  dangle  freely.  The  furniture  of 
the  car  are  the  ballast  or  sand-bags,  by  emptying 
which  the  B.  may  be  lightened ;  the  barometer, 
or  corresponding  apparatus  for  telling  the  height 
ascended,  or  tfte  upward  or  downward  course  of  the 
B. ;  the  map  and  compass,  for  shewing  the  direction 


of  the  voyage  ;  and  the  grappling-iron,  tied  to  the 
end  of  a  long  rope,  for  anchoring  the  B.  at  the 
descent.  During  his  flight,  the  aeronaut  has  at  his 
disposal  the  means  of  guiding  his  air-ship  only  in  an 
upward  or  downward  direction,  the  motion  of  trans- 
lation being  wholly  dependent  on  the  wind  by 
which  it  is  borne.  If  he  wishes  to  ascend,  he 
throws  some  of  the  ballast  over  the  side  of  the  car; 
and  if  to  descend,  he  pulls  the  valve-rope,  so  that 
the  gas  rushing  by  virtue  of  its  specific  lightness 
through  the  passage  made  for  it  by  the  open  valve, 
the  buoyant  material  may  be  lessened.  It  is 
evident  that  the  power  of  thus  directing  his  machine 
becomes  more  limited  with  each  exercise  of  it,  for 
in  each  case  there  is  an  unrepaired  loss  of  the  means 
necessary  to  it.  All  attempts  at  guiding  balloons 
in  a  horizontal  direction  have  hitherto  proved 
failures.  In  ordinary  flights,  the  mouth  of  the 
B.  is  left  open,  so  that  there  is  no  danger  of 
explosion  arising  from  the  expansion  of  the  gas  in 
the  rarer  regions  of  the  atmosphere.  The  diffusion 
that  takes  place  through  the  open  neck  is  inconsid- 
erable during  the  few  hours  that  an  aerial  voyage 
lasts.  Early  aeronauts,  who  kept  their  balloons 
closed,  frequently  ran  considerable  risk  by  inat- 
tention to  the  valve  when  the  imprisoned  gas 
demanded  vent  for  its  expansion. 

The  art  of  traversing  the  air  by  means  of  balloons, 
generally  called  Aeronautics,  and  sometimes  Aeros- 
tation, is  of  comparatively  recent  date.  The  germ 
of  the  invention  of  balloons  is  to  be  found  in  the 
discovery  by  Cavendish,  in  1766,  of  the  remarkable 
lightness  of  hydrogen  gas,  then  called  inflammable 
air.  Professor  Black,  of  Edinburgh,  seems  to  have 
been  the  first  who  conceived  the  idea  that  a  light 
envelope,  containing  this  gas,  would  rise  of  itself. 
He  requested  Dr.  Monro,  the  professor  of  anatomy, 
to  give  him  some  thin  animal  membrane  for  the 
experiment,  but  for  some  reason  or  other,  it  was  never 
made.  The  first  practical  attempts  were  made  by 
Cavallo,  who,  in  1772,  filled  swine's  bladders  and 
paper-bags  with  the  gas,  but  found  the  former  too 
heavy,  and  the  latter  too  porous ;  and  he  only  suc- 
ceeded in  raising  soap-bubbles  inflated  with  the  gas. 
The  invention  of  the  B.  is  due  to  the  two  brothers 
Stephen  and  Joseph  Montgolfier,  paper-makers  at 
Annonay,  in  France,  whose  names  are  as  dis- 
tinguished in  the  development  of  their  own  branch 
of  manufacture  as  in  the  history  of  aeronautics. 
It  immediately  struck  these  brothers,  on  reading 
Cavendish's  Different  Kinds  of  Air,  that  the  air 
could  be  rendered  navigable  by  enclosing  a  light 
gas  within  a  covering  of  inconsiderable  weight.  Led 
liy  their  avocation,  they  fixed  upon  paper  as  the 
most  fitting  material  for  the  purpose,  and  first 
attempted  to  make  balloons  of  paper  filled  with  inflam- 
mable air.  Finding  that  these  emptied  themselves 
almost  as  soon  as  they  were  filled,  instead  of  aban- 
doning the  paper  as  an  unsuitable  covering  for  the 
gas,  they  sought  after  another  gas  more  suited  to 
the  paper.  By  a  chain  of  false  reasoning  which 
need  not  here  be  detailed,  they  thought  they  found 
such  in  the  gas  which  resulted  from  the  combustion 
of  slightly  moistened  straw  and  wool,  which  had, 
as  they  imagined,  an  upward  tendency,  not  only 
from  its  being  heated,  but  from  its  electrical  pro- 
perties, which  caused  it  to  be  repelled  from  the 
ground.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say,  that  this 
so-called  Montgolfier  gas  possessed  no  advantages  for 
raising  balloons  other  than  that  possessed  by  heated 
air  of  any  kind  ;  in  fact,  the  abundant  smoke  with 
which  it  was  mixed,  by  adding  to  its  weight,  rather 
detracted  from  its  merits.  At  Avignon,  in  Novem- 
ber 1782,  Stephen  Montgolfier  first  succeeded  in 
causing  a  silk  parallelopiped,  of  about  50  cubic  feet, 
to  rise  to  the   roof  of  a  room.     Encouraged  by  this 

645 


BALLOON. 


success,  the  brothers  made  experiments  on  a  larger 
scale  at  Annonay  with  an  equally  happy  result ;  and 
finally,  in  June  1*783,  in  the  presence  of  the  states  of 
Vivarais,  and  of- an  immense  multitude,  they  raised 
a  B.,  35  feet  in  diameter,  to  a  height  of  1500  feet. 
This  last,  nearly  spherical  in  shape,  was  made  of 
packcloth,  covered  with  paper,  and  was  heated  by 
an  iron  choffer  placed  beneath  it,  in  which  10  pounds 
of  moist  straw  and  wool  were  burned. 

The  news  of  this  extraordinary  experiment  soon 
reached  Paris,  where  it  produced  a  most  lively 
impression.  A  commission  was  appointed  by  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  to  report  upon  it.  Public  curi- 
osity, however,  could  not  await  the  tardy  decision  of 
this  body,  and  accordingly  a  subscription  was  entered 
into  to  defray  the  expense  of  repeating  the  Annonay 
experiment.  Such  was  the  excitement  that  the 
subscription  M'as  filled  in  a  few  days,  and  the  con- 
struction of  the  B.  was  intrusted  to  the  brothers 
Robert,  famous  philosophical  instrument-makers  of 
the  day,  and  to  Professor  Charles,  a  young  but 
experienced  physicist.  As  the  detailed  account  of 
the  Annonay  ascent  had  not  reached  Paris,  and  as 
nothing  was  therefore  known  of  the  Montgolfier 
gas,  Charles  fixed  upon  hydrogen  as  the  gas  most 
likely  to  insure  succes.s.  It  was,  however,  a  formid- 
able undertaking  to  produce  it  in  suHicient  abund- 
ance for  a  B.,  as  it  was  at  that  time  only  dealt 
with  in  small  quantities  in  the  lecture-room.  By 
ingenuity  and  perseverance  combined,  he  triumphed 
over  this  diificulty,  and  succeeded  in  filling,  in  the 
course  of  four  days,  a  silk  globe  of  12  feet  in 
diameter.  This  B.  was  transferred  to  the  Champs 
de  Mars,  the  largest  open  space  in  Paris,  where,  on 
the  27th  of  August  1*783,  it  ascended  in  the  presence 
of  300,000  spectators,  half  the  population  of  the 
city.  At  the  instance  of  the  commission  already 
referred  to,  Stephen  Montgolfier  constructed  a  firc- 
B.,  72  feet  high,  and  41  feet  in  diameter.  It 
ascended  before  the  commission  on  the  12th  of 
September  1783,  but  being  held  captive,  it  was 
much  injured  by  a  violent  wind,  which  blew  at  the 
time,  and  after  it  descended  it  was  finally  broken 
up  by  heavy  rains.  Another  was  made  of  nearly 
■the  same  dimensions,  which  ascended  on  the  19tii 
of  the  same  month  at  Versailles,  the  king  and  royal 
family  '  assisting '  at  the  spectacle.  This  ascent  is 
worthy  of  note,  from  the  fact  that  a  sheep,  a  cock, 
and  a  duck  were  placed  in  an  ozier-basket  attached 
to  the  lower  part  of  the  B.,  and  that  these  first 
aerial  voyagers  reached  the  ground  again  in  safety. 

The  B.  was  now  a  fait  accompli,  and  it  began  to 
be  seriou.sly  discussed  whether  it  might  not  be 
serviceable  as  an  air-ship  for  bearing  men  aloft  as 
passengers.  The  solution  of  this  question  was  first 
given  by  Pilatre  des  Rosiers.  In  a  Montgolfiere, 
as  the  heated  air-B.  was  called,  74  feet  high, 
and  48  feet  in  diameter,  supporting  at  its  base 
a  gallery  of  wicker-work,  he,  in  company  with 
the  Marquis  d'Arlandes,  made  the  first  aerial 
voyage,  21st  November  1783.  They  remained  in 
the  air  twenty-five  minutes,  and  sailed  across  the 
Seine  and  over  a  considerable  part  of  Paris.  The 
year  1783,  so  fertile  in  the  annals  of  aerostation, 
was  destined  not  to  pass  away  without  witnessing 
an  additional,  and  even  more  satisfactory  triumph. 
On  the  1st  of  December,  Professor  Charles,  along 
with  Robert,  rose  from  the  Tuileries  gardens 
with  a  hydrogen  B. — then  called  a  Charliere — 
made  from  the  proceeds  of  a  public  subscription. 
This  B.  was  made  of  alternately  red  and  yellow 
gores  of  silk  sewed  together,  and  coated  with  caout- 
chouc varnish.  It  was  covered  with  a  net  which 
supported  the  car,  and  was  furnished  with  a  valve, 
a  barometer,  and  sand-ballast,  and  was,  in  fact 
a  complete  aerial  machine.  It  may  be  said  that 
646 


the  art  of  aerostation  at  once  attained  perfection 
in  Charles's  B.,  and  no  essential  change  or  improve- 
ment has  taken  place  since.  In  consequence  of 
the  danger  attending  the  use  of  fire-balloons,  and 
the  engrossing  attention  wliich  they  demand  of  the 
aeronaut,  they  have  now  entirely  given  way  to  the 
hydrogen  or  coal-gas  balloons.  Before  they  became 
obsolete,  several  remarkal)le  voyages  were  made  in 
them.  The  same  Pilatre  des  Rosiers  made  30  leagues 
in  one  of  them,  the  longest  voyage  ever  executed  in  a 
Montgolfiere.  Among  the  names  of  the  first  pro- 
fessional aeronauts,  those  of  Lunardi,  Blanchard,  and 
Garncrin  deserve  special  note.  Lunardi  was  the 
first  who  nnide  the  ascent  in  Great  Britain ;  and 
Blanchard,  along  with  the  American  Dr.  Jeifries, 
crossed  the  English  Channel  from  Dover  to  Calais 
in  circumstances  of  almost  unparalleled  danger, 
January  7,  1785.  Garnerin  first  descended  from  a 
B.  by  a  Parachute  (q.  v.),  October  22,  1707.'  It  is 
much  to  be  regretted  that  the  first  aeronaut,  Pilatre 
des  Rosiers,  fell  a  victim  to  a  blind  devotion  to  his 
art.  In  order  to  outvie  Blanchard  he  constructed  a 
compound  machine,  consisting  of  a  hydrogen  B. 
above  and  a  Montgolfiere  below,  and  started  from 
Boulogne,  accompanied  by  a  young  natural  philo- 
sopher named  Romain,  on  the  morning  of  the 
5th  June,  1785.  He  had  not  ascended  many 
minutes,  when,  as  it  afterward  appeared,  on 
attempting  to  open  the  valve  of  the  hydrogen  B. 
by  the  rope  attached  to  it,  he  caused  a  rent  of 
several  yards  in  it,  so  that  it  emptied  itself  almost 
immediately,  and  fell  on  the  Montgolfiere  beneath. 
The  fire  in  the  latter  not  I)eing  kindled,  the  whole 
machine  fell  with  a  frightful  rapidity  to  the  earth, 
and  the  ill-fated  aeronauts  perished  on  the  spot 
whence  they  had  risen.  It  is  worthy  of  nunark, 
that  though  several  melancholy  incidents  of  this 
kind  are  on  record,  the  number  of  casualties  in  the 
navigation  of  the  air  has  been  less  in  proportion 
than  in  the  navigation  of  the  sea.  For  15no  aero- 
nauts and  1(»,000  ascents,  calculating  approximately, 
only  15  lives  have  been  lost,  certainly  a  small  pro- 
portion considering  dangers  and  inexperience. 

In  1794,  during  the  wars  of  the  Revolution,  an  aero- 
static institution  was  formed  at  Meudon,  near  Paris, 
for  training  a  corps  of '  aerostiers,'  in  order  to  observe 
the  enemy  by  means  of  balloons.  A  balloon  under 
the  management  of  this  corps  was  present  at  the 
battle  of  Fleurus,  near  Charleroi,  fought  against  the 
Austrians,  where,  according  to  the  testimony  of 
Jourdan,  the  general  in  command,  it  rendered  signal 
service.  If  report  speaks  true,  those  days  have  been 
revived  in  the  seven  weeks'  campaign  in  Italy 
in  1859. 

Balloons  have  likewise  been  enlisted  in  behalf  of 
science.  The  first  ascent  for  avowedly  scientific 
objects  was  made  at  Hamburg,  July  18,  1803,  by 
Robertson  and  Lhoest.  The  results  obtained  by 
these  observers,  more  particularly  regarding  the 
diminution  of  terrestrial  magnetism,  and  the  general 
feebleness  of  electrical  and  galvanic  phenomena  in 
the  rarer  portions  of  the  atmosphere,  were  con- 
sidered of  such  importance  by  the  French  Institute, 
that  another  ascent  was  determined  on  ;  MJI.  Biot 
and  Gay-Lussac  were  appointed  to  take  the 
management  of  the  B.  and  of  the  physical  experi- 
ments ;  and  they  started,  accordingly,  on  the  20th 
August  1804.  As  this  aerial  expedition  was  not  al- 
together successful,  a  second  was  undertaken  by  Gay- 
Lussac  alone,  in  the  same  year,  in  which  he  rose  to 
a  height  of  23,000  feet.  The  observations  of  the 
French  savans  did  not  confirm  those  made  by 
Robertson,  for  after  a  series  of  experiments,  as  care- 
ful as  their  novel  situation  would  admit,  they  found 
that  no  diminution  was  perceptible  in  the  intensity 
of  electrical  phenomena  in   the  upper  air.      Since 


BALLOON— BALLOT. 


then,  one  or  two  scientific  aerial  voyages  have  been 
undertaken,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  that 
by  Humboldt  in  America;  those  made  by  Mr.  Rush, 
in  company  with  Mr.  (ircen  as  steersman,  on  behalf 
of  the  British  Association,  during  1847 — 1849  ;  and 
that  by  MM.  Barral  and  Bixio  (1850)  at  Paris.  No 
fact  of  importance  has  been  established  by  these 
ascents,  and  tlie  contril)Utions  of  balloons  to  positive 
science  may  be  set  down  as  yet  at  almost  nothing. 
Still  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  hygronietric 
and  thcrmometric  laws  obtaining  in  the  air  may  be 
ascertained  by  a  series  of  regular  and  well-arranged 
B.  ascents.  The  nature  of  aerial  currents,  at  present 
so  imperfectly  understood,  might  also  be  discovered 
Vjy  the  same  means.  The  introduction  of  coal-gas, 
instead  of  hydrogen,  by  Mr.  Green,  the  most  famous 
of  English  aeronauts,  is  the  most  important  advance 
in  aerostation  since  the  earliest  days  of  the  art.  His 
largo  coal-gas  B.,  in  1830,  bore  Messrs.  Green,  Hol- 
land, and  Mason  from  Vauxhall  Gardens,  London,  to 
Weilburg,  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Na.ssau,  a  distance 
of  500  miles  in  1 8  hom-s. 

In  the  United  States,  aerostation  has  been  prose- 
cuted with  great  zeal.  Mr.  J.  Wise  has  more  than 
once  exploded  his  B.,  when  high  up  in  the  air,  to 
shew  what  he  considers  to  be  always  the  case,  that 
the  fragments  with  the  net-work  form  in  such 
circumstances  a  parachute,  which  moderates  the 
rapidity  of  descents,  and  shields  the  aeronaut  from 
danger.  During  1859,  the  longest  flight  on  record 
was  made  by  Mr.  J.  Wise,  Mr.  La  Mountain,  and 
others,  who,  starting  from  St.  Louis  with  the  inten- 
tion of  reaching  New  York,  succeeded  in  following 
the  course  they  had  mapped  out  for  themselves 
until  they  had  crossed  Lake  Erie ;  when  they 
were  caught  in  an  adverse  current  of  air,  and 
forced  to  abandon  their  original  design,  after  having 
travelled  1150  miles  in  less  than  20  hours.  In 
September  1859,  Mr.  La  Mountain  made  a  trip  of 
300  miles  in  4  hours.  Mr.  Lowe,  another  American 
aeronaut,  has  constructed  an  immense  B.,  which  he 
calls  an  aerial  ship,  the  greatest  circumference  of 
which  is  387  feet,  with  a  capacity  to  hold  700,000 
cubic  feet  of  gas,  with  a  lifting-power  of  22i-  tons, 
and  furnished  with  many  new  appliances  for  elevating, 
depressing,  and  directing  the  machine.  In  this  Mr. 
Lowe  anticipates  with  confidence  that  he  will  be  able 
to  cross  the  Atlantic  Ocean  in  48  hours,  or  at  most  64 
hours. 

BA'LLOT  (in  French,  hallotte)  is  a  little  ball  used 
in  the  practice  of  secret  voting,  which  is  thence 
generally  called  '  voting  by  B.,'  whether  it  be  a 
ball  or  a  ticket  that  is  used.  Votes  may  be  taken 
by  B.  in  various  ways — e.  g.,  the  voter  may  deposit 
a  ball  in  either  of  two  boxes,  so  conjoined  that  no 
one  shall  be  able  to  say  into  which  he  drops  it ;  or 
he  may  be  presented  with  two  balls — a  white  and  a 
black — and  so  drop  one  of  them  into  a  box  that  it 
shall  be  unknown  which  he  used.  Tickets  marked 
'  Yes,'  '  No,'  or  with  the  names  of  candidates,  will 
clearly  serve  the  purpose  of  balls  in  private  voting. 
The  Dikasts  in  Greece  voted  secretly  by  means  of 
balls,  stones,  or  shells,  with  marks.  From  this  use 
of  marked  shells  (Gr.  oslrakon)  in  popular  voting 
became  the  Greek  ostracivn,  or  secret  vote  of  the 
people,  by  which  they  drove  into  exile  those  who 
became  obnoxious  to  them.  Tabulae  or  tickets  were 
chiefly  used  by  the  Romans.  If  the  vote  concerned 
a  change  in  the  law,  the  tickets  were  marked  V.  R., 
the  initial  letters  of  the  words  '  Uti  Rogas,'  expressing 
consent  to  the  proposer's  proposition ;  and  A.  for 
'  Antiquo,'  expressing  adherence  to  the  old  law.  If 
the  vote  concerned  the  election  of  candidates  to  a 
public  office,  then  the  tickets  bore  the  names  of  the 
candidates.  The  system  of  secret  voting  in  Rome  was 
fixed  by  various  laws,  of  which   the  Gabiniana  Lex 


most  closely  resembles  the  modern  project  of  vote  by 
ballot. 

The  system  of  vote  by  B.  is  mostly  in  use  among 
the  moderns  in  private  or  social  clubs,  and  in  the 
election  of  officers  and  other  acts  of  public  or  joint- 
stock  companies  ;  but  in  some  countries  the  B.  is  used 
in  political  voting.  For  instance,  it  is  in  use  in  France, 
in  several  of  the  United  States,  and  in  the  Australian 
colonies.  The  pro|)riety  of  employing  it  in  private 
clubs  has  never  been  questioned,  for  to  the  harmony 
of  these  it  is  essential  that  the  votes  of  a  few  should 
suffice  to  exclude  an  obnoxious  person ;  and  looking 
to  the  personal  and  invidious  nature  of  the  vote,  it  is 
equally  essential  to  their  harmony  that  the  voting 
should  be  secret.  A  candidate  for  admission,  who 
succeeds  in  the  face  of  a  few,  though  not  a  sufficient 
number  of  voters,  could  not  but  regard  those  who 
voted  against  him  as  enemies.  But  if  the  voting  be 
by  B.,  all  he  can  know,  if  the  voters  keej)  their  own 
counsel,  is  that  some  persons  are  unfriendly.  It  is 
thus  left  open  for  him  to  associate  on  friendly  terms 
with  all  the  members — a  condition  of  the  success  and 
continuance  of  such  associations.  But  whether  the 
system  is  suited  to  political  voting  has  been  the  subject 
of  much  discussion. 

We  have  said  that  the  system  prevailed  in  Greece, 
and  on  its  fruit  there — especially  in  the  exercise  of 
the  ostracism — there  have  been  various  opinions. 
While  some  have  considered  that  the  Athenians, 
for  instance,  acted  under  cover  of  secrecy,  fre- 
quently without  a  just  sense  of  responsibility,  there 
is  the  authority  of  Mr.  Grote,  in  his  Historn  of  Greece, 
on  the  other  side,  to  the  effect,  that  they  exercised 
the  right  most  beneficially.  But  if  we  have  in  Mr. 
Grote  an  advocate  of  the  B.,  in  Gibbon  we  have  an 
opponent  of  it.  In  his  Decline  ami  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire,  that  philosopher  dates  the  decline  of  the 
republic  from  the  introduction  of  secret  voting, 
which,  he  says,  destroyed  public  confidence — in 
effect,  broke  up  the  ancient  relations  of  patron  and 
client,  and  caused  a  general  demoralisation  of  the 
people.  To  come  to  modern  times,  we  find  the  B. 
in  use  in  the  Venetian  senate  ;  and  that  in  Britain  it 
was  first  demanded,  not  for  the  purpose  of  elections, 
but  of  votes  in  parliament.  In  Scotland,  during  the 
revulsions  against  the  court  in  the  reign  of  Charles 
II.,  the  system  was  actually  adopted  in  the  legisla- 
ture ;  but  it  does  not  appear  to  have  afforded  voters 
in  all  cases  the  desired  protection.  No  one  would 
now  dream  of  demanding  its  introduction  in  parlia- 
ment, whose  proceedings,  according  to  popular  opin- 
ion, cannot  be  too  open  and  above  board.  On  this 
point  it  may  be  mentioned  that  secret  voting  was 
the  rule,  for  over  five  years  (from  1840 — 1845),  in 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  France,  when  it  was 
abolished,  as  being  productive  of  abuse.  This,  how- 
ever, as  we  have  said,  bears  on  a  use  of  the  system 
that  has  now  no  advocates.  Two  illustrations  remain 
of  its  use  in  elections.  In  the  colonies  of  Melbourne 
and  Sydney,  the  B.  is  said  to  have  worked  well, 
though  it  has  been  doubted  whether  its  efficacy  has 
been  properly  tested  in  these  countries,  in  which 
there  is  so  much  individual  independence,  peculiar 
to  new  countries,  that  those  who  vote  care  little 
for  concealment.  In  the  United  States,  on  the 
other  hand,  it  seems  to  be  the  general  opinion  that 
the  system  has  proved  inefficacious.  In  the  State  of 
New  York,  where  the  B.  was  adopted  a  few  years 
ago,  there  is  a  popular  demand  now  for  open  voting, 
as  a  cure  for  the  evils  introduced  by  the  secret  sys- 
tem. It  has  among  the  Americans  opposed  no  effect- 
ual obstacle  to  coercion  and  intimidation  from  the 
majority,  while  those  to  whom  the  arrangements  for 
secrecy  are  intrusted,  flagrantly  betray  their  trusts, 
and  the  voters  on  either  side  are,  as  a  rule,  well  known 
to  the  public. 

64*7 


BALLOT  FOR  MILITIA— BALLYSHANNOX. 


The  advocates  of  the  B.  maintain  that  it  will  be 
effectual  to  prevent  bribery,  intimidation,  and  undue 
influence.  They  regard  its  failure  in  America  as 
being  beside  the  question  as  to  its  suitability  for 
this  country,  because  in  America  what  the  voter  has 
to  contend  against  is  the  pressure  of  the  many, 
while  with  us  he  seeks  to  resist  coercion  by  indi- 
viduals. The  tenants,  for  instance,  want  security, 
through  concealment,  against  the  loss  of  their  farms, 
should  they  vote  against  the  wishes  of  their  land- 
lord. They  believe  it  will  prevent  bribery,  through 
the  uncertainty  that  the  bribed  party  will  vote  as 
he  promises.  And  as  a  candidate  will  not  give 
bribes,  because  he  cannot  trust  that  he  will  get 
value  for  his  money,  so  intimidation  will  not  be 
attempted  in  the  absence  of  any  security  that  it  will 
be  of  effect.  To  this  it  is  answered,  on  the  other 
side,  that  the  case  of  Amei-ica  is  in  point,  inasmuch 
as  intimidation  may  arise  here,  as  there,  from  a 
majority,  and  that  the  case  of  a  shopkeeper  and  his 
patrons  is  that  of  many  iigainst  one  all  over  the  world. 
If  the  B.  fails  to  protect  the  unit  against  the  crowd  in 
one  country,  how  can  it  succeed  in  another  ?  As  to 
the  undue  influence  of  indi^■iduals  over  many — as  of 
a  landlord  over  his  tenants — it  can  only  be  prevented 
providing  the  many,  in  all  their  public  acts,  contra- 
dict their  secret  votes.  If  the  many  act  publicly  as 
if  they  agreed  with  the  few,  and  privately  vote  against 
them,  we  should  have  a  state  of  things  in  which  the 
professed  public  opinion  would  be  in  antagonism 
with  the  public  policy,  supported  by  private  votes 
— a  state  of  things  justly  regarded  as  being  impos- 
sible to  be  produced.  The  influence  of  individuals, 
then,  must  remain — i.  e.,  the  secret  voting  would 
be  of  no  use,  since,  short  of  life-long  hypocrisy,  it 
must  fail  to  ha  a  protection.  As  to  Ijribery,  the 
opponents  of  the  B.  think  better  of  human  nature  than 
those  who  would  purify  it  by  machinery.  '  Honour 
among  thieves'  they  s-.iy :  'lie  who  takes  a  bribe, 
either  has  no  principle  left  in  him  for  which  to  vote 
contrary  to  his  promise,  or  will  be  guided  by  his 
deceased  sense  of  honour.'  On  the  other  view,"  they 
put  it,  you  secure  the  vote  of  a  rogue,  through  his 
playing  the  knave  doubly,  by  the  public  in  taking  a 
bri})e,  and  by  the  briber  in  not  fulfilling  his  pledge. 
That  men  will  be  inclined  to  give  and  take  bribes  as 
formerly,  despite  the  somewhat  diminished  security, 
they  appear  not  to  doubt. 

An  element  in  the  controversy  is  the  question — 
whether  the  franchise  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  public 
tru.st  or  a  private  power,  to  be  used  at  the  indivi- 
dual's discretion.  The  opponents  of  the  B.  maintain 
the  franchise  to  be  a  trust,  on  which  view,  certainly, 
it  should  be  openly  exercised.  Its  advocates,  on  the 
other  view,  hold  the  object  of  the  franchise  to  be 
the  ascertainment  of  the  conscientious  opinions  of 
the  people.  The  fact  is,  the  right  partakes  of  both 
characters :  it  is  a  power  of  expressing  opinion  by 
the  agent  under  a  sense  of  responsibility.  The  B. 
gives  greater  security  for  independence  of  thought ; 
l>ut  the  public  vote  is  attended  by  the  greater 
security  for  sense  of  responsibility.  It  is  usual 
to  sjDrinkle  pleas  against  the  B.  with  high  praise 
of  the  whole  scheme  of  British  politics,  as  open, 
manly,  and  candid,  and  with  expressions  of  con- 
tempt for  the  B.,  as  sneaking,  and  dissonant  with 
that  scheme.  But  we  know  how  much  corruption 
is  hid  under  the  fair  surface  of  British  politics,  and 
the  advocates  of  the  B.  are  not  unprepared  with  a 
ready  and  obvious  retort  to  such  arguments.  Let  us 
hope  that  the  public  feeling  may  continue  to  improve, 
till,  as  the  poiut  of  that  retort  grows  blunter,  the 
necessity  for  trying  some  such  remedy  as  the  B.  may 
grow  less. 

The  B.   has  for  years  been  the  subject  of  annual 
iiDOtions  in   our  parliament.      Ever   since    1835,    its  1 
648 


introduction  has  been  an  open  question  with  the 
AVliigs.  It  is  a  pet  project  of  the  liatlicals,  who  in 
1859  must  have  ])een  ])leased  to  find  Lord  John  Bus- 
sell  expressing  himself  as  being  almost  a  convert  to 
their  views. 

BA'LLOT  FOR  MILITIA.     See  Militia. 

BALLO'TA.     See  Horeiiound. 

BALLS,  Hollow.  In  military  pyrotechny, 
many  varieties  of  B.  are  made,  diflering  in  purpose 
from  bomb-shells,  but,  like  them,  filled  with  ignit- 
ible  composition.  They  are  used  to  give  light,  to 
produce  a  dense  smoke,  or  to  diffuse  a  suffocating 
odour.  Some  of  them,  though  called  B.,  are  not 
globular  in  shape.  Lu/ht  B.  consist  of  canvas 
stretched  over  a  skeleton-frame,  and  painted ;  the 
frame  is  filled  with  a  composition  of  saltpetre,  sul- 
phur, resin,  and  linseed-oil,  rammed  down  hard ; 
and  is  provided  with  a  fuse,  the  length  of  which 
determines  the  time  that  will  elapse  before  the  com- 
position ignites.  These  light  B.  weigh  from  5  lbs.  to 
70  lbs.  each,  according  to  their  size.  They  are 
intended  to  give  out  a  l)rilliant  light,  which  may 
reveal  the  operations  of  the  enemy  during  night, 
at  a  .siege  or  in  the  field.  Smokc-B.  are  made 
of  several  thicknesses  of  paper,  shaped  by  means 
of  a  globular  core  or  mould.  They  are  filled  with 
gunpowder,  saltpetre,  powdered  sea-coal,  Swedi.sh 
pitch,  and  tallow ;  and  are  calculated,  after  being 
fired  off,  to  send  out  a  dense  smoke  for  nearly 
half  an  hour,  in  order  to  blind  or  incommode  the 
enemy.  Sti)ik-B.  are  filled  with  a  composition 
which,  when  ignited,  diffuses  an  odour  almost  in- 
tolerable. Some  of  the  contrivances  of  Captain  Nor- 
ton and  other  inventors  at  the  present  day,  noticed 
under  Asphyxiants,  are  extensions  of  the  same  prin- 
ciple as  these  inflammable  balls.  It  may  here  be 
added,  that  most  of  these  projectiles,  especially  light  B. 
and  smoke-B.,  are  fired  from  mortars,  rather  than 
from  guns. 

BA'LLY,  BAL,  a  Celtic  word  or  prefix,  signifying 
'  town'  or  '  dwelling,'  enters  into  the  composition  of 
hundreds  of  names  of  places  in  Ireland  and  Scotland. 
It  is  allied  (see  letter  B)  to  Gr.  polls,  city,  and  to  the 
Lat.,  Ital.,  and  Span,  villa. 

BALLYCA'STLE,  a  small  seaport  town  in  the 
north  of  Antrim  county,  Ireland,  in  an  open  bay 
opposite  Rathlin  Isle,  88  miles  north  of  Belfast,  and 
5  miles  south-west  of  Fairhead.  It  lies  at  the  base  of 
Knocklayd  Mountain,  1635  feet  high;  and  the  marine 
and  mountain  scenery  around  is  very  romantic.  B. 
consists  of  an  upper  and  lower  town,  a  quarter  of  a 
mile  apart.  Its  harbour  and  pier  cost  £150,000, 
but  the  former  is  now  filled  with  sand.  Coal  was  dug 
here  at  least  500  years  ago.  Linen  manufacture  and 
salmon-fishery  are  carried  on  here.  Near  B.  are  the 
Bonnamargy  Abbey  ruins.  There  is  a  singular  fissure, 
called  the  '  Gray  Man's  Path,'  in  the  face  of  a  green- 
stone precipice  near  B.  on  the  way  to  Fairhead.  Pop. 
1626. 

BALLYME'NA,  a  small  inland  town  in  the  centre 
of  Antrim  county,  Ireland,  in  a  plain,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Braid,  2  miles  above  its  junction  with 
the  Maine,  and  38  miles  north-north-west  of  Bel- 
fast. It  lies  in  a  densely  peopled  and  well-cultivated 
district,  the  inhabitants  uniting  the  pursuit  of  agricul- 
ture, with  the  manufacture  of  linen.  B.  is  one  of  the 
greatest  linen  and  flax  markets  in  Ireland,  and  its 
vicinity  is  covered  with  extensive  bleach-fields.  Pop. 
6774. 

BALLYSHA'NNON,  a  small  seaport  town  in 
the  south  of  Donegal  county,  Ireland,  the  chief 
to^vn  of  the  county,  though  not  the  cripital.  It 
is  situated  at   the   mouth  of  the   river  Ei-ne,  on  a 


BALM— BALNAVES. 


small  inlet  running  oft'  from  Donegal  Bay,  and 
120  miles  north-west  of  Dublin.  A  bridge  of  14 
arches  crosses  the  Erne  here.  The  Erne  discharges 
more  water  than  any  other  Irish  river  except  the 
Shaunon,  and  falls  140  feet  over  a  rugged  bed 
in  the  last  9  miles  of  its  course ;  400  yards  below 
the  bridge  at  B.  the  river  falls  in  a  cataract  16 
feet  high  at  low  water,  and  450  feet  wide,  over 
a  limestone  ledge  of  rock.  The  chief  streets  of 
B.  arc  very  steep.  There  is  a  valuable  salmon- 
fishery  on  the  river.  The  export  trade  is  small, 
iu  consequence  of  the  existence  of  a  bar  at  the 
mouth  of  the  harbour  and  the  prevalence  of  west 
winds.     Pop.  3197. 

BALM  {Melissa  officinalis),  an  erect,  branching 
perennial,  herbaceous  plant  of  the  natural  order 
Labiake,  a  native  of  the  south  of  Europe,  naturalised 
in  a  few  places  in  England.     It  has  ovate  creuate 


Balm  {Jlelissa  officinalis). 


leaves  and  axillary  half-whorls  of  white  flowers  on 
one  side  of  the  stem.  The  whole  plant  has  an 
agreeable  lemon-like  smell,  on  account  of  which 
it  is  frequently  cultivated  in  gardens.  The  stems 
and  leaves  are  used  in  medicines  as  a  gentle 
aromatic,  stimulant,  and  tonic.  B.  is  also  employed 
for  making  an  agreeable  and  somewhat  exhilarating 
beverage  called  B.  Wine.  B.  was  formerly  in  much 
higher  repute  than  now  for  its  medicinal  virtues. 
Its  qualities  depend  on  an  essential  oil  of  a  pale 
yellow  colour,  called  Oil  of  Balm. 

For  medical  use,  the  herb  should  be  cut  before 
the  appearance  of  the  flowers,  which  begin  to 
expand  in  July.  It  is  nearly  inodorous  when  dried. 
The  taste  is  somewhat  austere,  and  slightly  aro- 
matic. B.  scarcely  produces  any  remedial  operation 
upon  the  system.  The  quantity  of  oil  which  it 
contains  is  not  more  than  sufficient  to  communicate 
a  pleasant  flavour  to  the  infusion,  which  forms  an 
excellent  drink  in  febrile  complaints,  and  when 
taken  warm,  tends  to  promote  the  operation  of 
diaphoretic  medicines. — A  variety  of  the  common 
Cat-mint  {Nepeta  cataria),  with  a  smell  like  that 
of  B.,  is  often  mistaken  for  it. — Moldavian  B. 
{Dracoccphalum   Moldavicum)   is    a   native    of    the 


country  from  which  it  derives  its  name,  and  of 
Siberia,  &c. ;  an  ainuial  plant,  having,  when  I'resh, 
a  smell  like  that  of  B.,  but  less  pleasant.  It  is 
much  used  in  Germany  for  flavouring  dishes. — 
Bastard  B.  {Melittis  Melissophyllun)),  a  native  of 
the  south  of  England  and  of  many  parts  of  Europe, 
is  a  very  beautiful  plant,  which  when  dried  has  a 
delightful  fragrance,  and  retains  it  long.  All  these 
are  of  the  natural  order  Lahiatw. 

BALM  OF  GI'LEAD.     See  Balsam  of  Gilead. 

BALMO'RAL  CASTLE,  the  autumnal  residence 
of  Her  Majesty  (^ueen  Victoria,  is  situated  in  a 
beautiful  dell  in  Braemar  (the  south-west  district  of 
Al)erdeenshire),  on  a  natural  platform  that  slopes 
gently  down  from  the  l)ase  of  Craigan-gowan  to  the 
margin  of  the  river  Dee  in  front ;  and  about  48 
miles  west  of  the  city  of  Aberdeen.  The  castle 
commands  a  magnificent  prospect  on  all  sides.  In 
1848,  Prince  Albert  purchased  the  reversion  of  a  38 
years'  lease  from  the  representatives  of  Sir  Robert 
Gordon,  who  had  held  it  under  the  Earl  of  Fife ; 
and  in  1852  he  acquired  the  fee-simple  of  the  estate 
from  the  Fife  trustees  for  a  sum  of  £32,000.  The 
old  castle  not  being  sufliciently  commodious  for  the 
royal  family.  Prince  Albert  erected  a  new  one  at  his 
own  expense,  in  what  is  called  the  Scottish  baronial 
style  of  architecture.  The  castle  consists  of  two 
separate  blocks  of  buildings,  united  by  wings  and  a 
massive  tower  35  feet  square,  rising  to  the  height 
of  80  feet,  surrounded  by  a  turret  20  feet  high. 
At  a  distance,  the  castle,  which  is  built  of  granite, 
has  a  strong  and  imposing  appearance,  looking 
almost  as  if  it  had  been  hewn  out  of  one  huge  rock 
of  that  material.  Great  improvements  have  been 
made,  and  are  being  made,  by  Prince  Albert  in  the 
approaches  to  the  royal  residence.  The  estate  now 
includes  Birkhall,  Knock  Castle  ruins,  Loch  Muich, 
and  '  dark  Lochnagar,'  celebrated  by  Byron  (which 
is  about  seven  miles  south-west  of  B.  C),  and  con- 
tains about  10,000  acres,  in  addition  to  30,000  acres 
of  hill  ground,  which  have  been  converted  into  a 
deer-forest. 

BA'LNAVES,  Henry,  of  Halhill,  an  eminent  lay- 
reformer  of  the  16th  c.  Born  at  Kirkcaldy  in  Fife- 
shire  of  poor  parents,  who,  however,  contrived  to 
give  him  a  university  education  at  St.  Andrews,  he 
went  to  the  continent,  and  entered  a  iree  school  at 
Cologne,  where  he  greatly  improved  his  scholarship, 
and  received  instruction  in  the  principles  of  the  new 
faith  which  Luther  had  just  promulgated.  On 
his  return  to  Scotland,  he  studied  law,  and  acted 
for  some  time  as  a  procurator  at  St.  Andrews.  In 
1538,  James  V.  made  him  a  senator  of  the  College 
of  Justice ;  and  on  Arran  being  appointed  to  the 
regency,  B.  was  made  secretary  of  state.  In  1543,  he 
was  imprisoned  on  account  of  his  Protestantism,  but 
appears  to  have  been  liberated  in  the  following  year. 
He  now  appears  to  have  made  himself  active  on  the 
Protestant  side ;  and  it  is  asserted  that  he  was 
privy  to  the  conspiracy  formed  for  the  murder  of 
Cardinal  Beaton,  and  that  he  acted  for  the  con- 
spirators at  the  English  court.  In  1547  he  took 
refuge  in  the  Castle  of  St.  Andrews,  and  was  declared 
a  traitor  and  excommunicated.  When  the  castle  was 
captured  by  the  French,  B.,  with  Knox  and  others, 
were  sent  to  Rouen  as  prisoners  of  war.  While  in 
prison  here,  B.  wrote  a  treatise  on  Justification, 
to  which  Knox  added  marginal  notes,  and  pre- 
fixed a  dedication,  and  which  was  afterwards  pub- 
lished with  the  title  of  The  Confession  of  Faith. 
When  Mary  of  Guise  was  raised  to  the  regency 
in  1554,  B.'s  forfeiture  was  rescinded,  and  he 
returned  to  Scotland,  and  took  an  active  part  on 
the  side  of  the  Lords  of  the  Congregation,  by 
whom  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  commissioners 

649 


BALSAM. 


who  settled  the  treaty  of  Berwick  in  1559 — 1560, 
which  established  by  law  the  reformed  religion  in 
Scotland.  In  1563,  B.  was  nominated  a  commis- 
sioner to  revise  Tfie  Book  of  Discipline.  He  after- 
wards acted  for  the  Regent  Murray  in  the  inquiry 
into  the  charges  against  Mary  for  the  murdpr  of 
Darniey.  He  died  in  1579;  one  account  says  15*70. 
Both  Knox  and  Melville  had  a  high  opinion  of  him 
alike  for  his  piety,  wisdom,  and  learning. 

BA'LSAM,  a  name  formerly  comprehensive  of 
many  resinous  substances  and  oils,  to  which  import- 
ant medicinal  virtues  were  ascribed,  as  well  as  of 
medicines  compounded  of  resins  and  oils.  When 
the  term  B.  is  now  used  without  addition,  the 
balsams  of  Peru  and  Tolu  are  generally  intended. — 
These  two  balsams  are  very  similar  in  all  their  more 
important  properties,  and  are  both  produced  by  trees 
of  the  genus  Myro&permum  (or  Myroxylon),  of  the 
natural  order  Leyuminouc^  sub-order  Papilionacea;, 
natives  of  the  tropical  parts  of  America.  M.  perui- 
ferum,  which  is  called  the  Quinquino,  a  beautiful  tree, 
common  from  Peru  to  Mexico,  is  generally  regarded 
as  the  species  which  produces  the  B.  of  Peru  ;  and 
M.  toluiferum,  a  very  similar  species,  found  on  tlie 
mountains  of  Tolu,  the  banks  of  the  Magdalena,  &c., 
as  that  which  produces  the  B.  of  Tolu ;  but  it  is 
doubtful  if  the  difference  is  not  at  least  as  much 
owing  to  the  modes  of  procuring  and  preserving  the 
B. ;  and  other  species  of  the  same  genus  (J/,  jmnc- 
tatw/i  and  31.  pnbesccns)  are  supposed  also  to  yield 
it.  B.  of  Peru  appears  in  two  forms,  known  as 
White  B.  of  Peru  and  Black  B.  of  Peru;  the  former 
of  which  has  been  said  to  be  obtained  from  the 
pods,  and  the  latter  from  incisions  in  the  trunk  of 
the  tree  ;  but  it  has  also  been  stated  that  the  white 
B.  flows  from  the  trunk,  and  that  the  black  B.  is 
obtained  by  distilling  down'  the  wood  after  the 
manner  of  tar-burning,  or  by  boiling  with  water. 
The  actual  evidence  is  insufficient  to  determine 
these  points  with  certainty,  and  it  is  not  improbable 
that  different  methods  may  be  employed.  White 
B.  of  Peru  is  at  first  of  the  consistence  of  recent 
honey,  and  of  a  light  yellow  colour ;  the  black  B. 
is  of  a  reddish  or  blackish  brown  colour,  and  of  the 
consistence  of  treacle.  B.  of  Tolu,  until  recently, 
appeared  in  commerce  dry  and  friable,  but  is  now 
generally  soft  and  tenacious  when  first  imported, 
becoming  hard  by  age.  Both  balsams  have  a  very 
fragrant  odour.  They  are  used  in  confectionary, 
to  impart  a  flavour  like  that  of  vanille ;  also  in 
perfumery,  and  for  pastilles,  &c.  In  medicine,  they 
are  administered  as  gentle  stimulants  and  tonics, 
and  particularly  in  chronic  bronchial  affections. 
T'olu  lozenges  are  a  popular  and  pleasant  remedy 
for  troublesome  coughs.  These  balsams  are  also 
used  for  cleansing  ulcers. — They  contain  Cinnamic 
Acid,  and  a  peculiar  oily  substance  which  has  been 
called  Cinnameine,  and  is  also  known  as  Oil  of  B.  of 
Peru.  The  name  White  B.  of  Peru  is  sometimes 
given  to  a  balsamic  substance  which  flows  from  the 
Liquidambar  styraciflua.     See  Liquidambar. 

BALSAM,  or  BALM  OF  GILEAD,  is  a  liquid 
resinous  substance,  which  has  long  enjoyed  a  very 
high  reputation  in  the  East,  being  prized  not  only 
for  its  fragrance,  but  also  for  the  medicinal  virtues 
which  it  is  supposed  to  possess.  It  is  the  subject 
of  several  allusions  in  the  Old  Testament,  which 
strongly  indicate  the  prevalent  opinion  of  its 
preciousness ;  and  is  celebrated  by  Strabo,  Pliny, 
Diodorus  Siculus,  and  other  ancient  writers,  almost 
as  a  cure  for  every  disease.  It  is  still  somewhat 
doubtful  what  tree  furnishes  it,  but  it  is  generally 
believed  to  be  a  species  of  Balxmnodendron  (q.  v.) — 
a  small  tree  growing  in  Arabia  and  Abyssinia,  and 
known  as  B.  Gilecuknse.  The  finest  balsam,  called 
650 


Opobalsara  or  Balm  of  Mecca,  is  obtained  by  inci- 
sions, is  at  first  turbid  and  white,  but  finally  becomes 
of  a  golden  yellow  colour,  and  of  a  consistence  like 
iioney.  Inferior  kinds  are  obtained  by  boiling  the 
fruit  and  the  wood.  B.  of  Gilead  is  irritating  when 
applied  to  the  skin,  and  is  believed  to  resemble  B. 
of  Copaiva  in  its  effects  upon  the  human  system. 
Balsamodendron  Opobalsamum,  a  species  very  nearly 
allied  to  B.  Gileadense,  is  sometimes  said  to  furnish 
this  balsam. 

Other  substances,  sometimes  designated  balsams, 
and  possessing  a  somewhat  similar  fragrance,  are 
produced  by  different  species  of  Amyridaceai  (q.  v.). 
Among  them  is  one  called  American  Balm  of  Oilead, 
the  produce  of  a  tree  called  Icica  Carana. — Balsamic 
substances  are  furnished  also  by  a  number  of  species 
of  Vlusiacece — Balsam  of  Umiri,  a  fragrant  yellow 
fluid,  by  Hnmiriian  foribundum,  a  South  American 
tree,  of  the  natural  order  Humiriacece. — Canadian 
Balsam  is  a  kind  of  turpentine  obtained  from  the 
Balm  of  Gilead  Fir  {Abies  balsawen);  Hungarian 
Balsam,  from  the  Mugho  or  Mountain  Pine  {Pinus 
Pumilio  or  Muyhus) ;  and  Carpathian  Balsam, 
from  the  Stone  Pine  {Pinus  Pivea).  See  Fire  and 
Pine. — Balsam  of  Copaiva  is  the  produce  of 
dift'erent  species  of  Copaifera.     See  Copaiva. 

BALSAM  is  also  the  common  name  of  a  natural 
order  of  succulent  herbaceous  plants,  Balsamineie 
or  Balsaminace(e  of  botanists,  of  which  the  beautiful 
B.  (Impatiens   balsamina   or  Balsamina   hortetisis), 


Balsam  (Impatiens  Noli-me-tangere). 

a,  top  of  stem  with  leaves  and  flowers ;  />,  ripe  fruit  unopened; 

r,  ripe  fruit,  elastically  opening. 

SO  much  cultivated  in  gardens  and  green-houses, 
is  a  familiar  example.  Upwards  of  one  hundred 
species  are  known,  natives  chiefly  of  damp  bushy 
places  in  the  East  Indies,  and  many  of  them 
plants  of  great  beauty.  They  are  almost  all  annuals, 
and  have  generally  white  or  red  flowers.  This 
natural  order  is  very  closely  allied  to  Geraniacece 
(see  Geranium)  SluA' Oxalidece  (q.  v.),  wood-sorrel, 
&e.,  but  is  distinguished  from  both  by  the  extreme 
irregularity  of  the  flowers,  and  from  the  former 
also,  by  the  beakless  fruit,  which  is  a  five-celled 
capsule,"  bursting  by  five  elastic  valves.  The  leaves 
are  simple  and  without  stipules,  the  flowers  gene- 
rally axillary. — The  common  B.  is  a  native  of  the 


BALSAM  OF  SULPHUR— BALTIMORE. 


East  Indies  and  Japan.  Many  fine  varieties  have 
resulted  from  careful  cultivation.  It  has  an  uprif^ht 
succulent  stem,  usually  about  1 — 2  feet  high,  but 
in  favourable  circumstances  will  attain  a  greater 
size.  It  often  appears  with  flowers  partially  double, 
but  still  capable  of  producing  seed.  In  Britain,  the 
seed  is  usually  sown  on  a  slight  hotbed ;  and  the 
plant  is  often  kept  in  the  green-house ;  although 
even  in  Scotland  it  may  be  made  an  ornament  of 
a  sheltered  border.  It  is  one  of  the  flowers  fre- 
quently to  be  seen  in  cottage-windows.  A  vulnerary 
was  formerly  prepared  from  it,  whence  it  has  its 
name.  One  species  of  B.  {hnpatiens  Noli-me-tangere), 
called  Yellow  B.  or  Touch-me-not,  is  a  native  of 
Europe,  and  a  doubtful  native  of  Britain.  It  has 
yellow  flowers,  and  one  of  the  petals  prolonged  into 
a  spur.  Its  ripe  capsules  burst  on  the  slightest 
touch.  This  and  two  other  species  are  natives  of 
North  America. 

BA'LSAM  OF  SU'LPIIUR  is  a  mixture  employed 
for  medicinal  purposes,  and  considered  of  service 
when  applied  to  foul  ulcers.  It  is  prepared  by  dis- 
solving 1  part  of  flowers  of  sulphur  in  8  parts  of  olive 
oil,  which  yield  a  dark,  reddish  brown,  thickish  sub- 
stance, with  a  very  unpleasant  odour. 

BALSAMODE'NDROX  (Gr.  balsam-tree),  a  genus 
of  small  trees  or  bushes  of  the  natural  order  Antyri- 
dacece  (q.  v.),  having  small  green  axillary  flowers, 
small  dry  oval  fruits,  and  small  pinnated  leaves  with 
3  or  5  leaflets.  Some  of  them  are  spiny :  they  gene- 
rally exhibit  a  scrubby  appearance,  and  have  little 
foliage.  They  are  remarkable  for  the  balsamic  sub- 
stances obtained  from  their  wood  and  fruit — as 
Balsam  of  Gilead  (q.  v.),  Myrrh  (q.  v.).  Bdellium 
(q.  v.),  and  Oriental  Elemi  (q.  v.).  The  red  resinous 
wood  of  £.  Katof  is  a  common  article  of  sale  in 
Egypt ;  and  a  species  called  Schnee  is  much  culti- 
vated in  Afghanistan  for  its  aromatic  and  stimulant 
properties.  All  the  known  species  are  natives  of  the 
East  Indies,  Arabia,  and  the  east  of  Africa,  except 
that  which  yields  African  bdellium,  which  is  found  in 
Senegal. 

BA'LTA,  a  well-built  and  thriving  town  on  the 
Kodema,  an  affluent  of  the  Bug,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Podolia,  Russian  Poland.  Pop.  (1855), 
12,619. 

BA'LTIC  PROTINCES  (in  Russia).  This  term, 
in  a  wider  sense,  comprehends  the  five  Russian 
governments  bordering  on  the  Baltic — viz.,  Cour- 
land,  Livonia,  Esthonia,  Petersburg,  and  Finland ; 
in  a  restricted  sense,  it  often  designates  the  first 
three.  The  B.  P.  once  belonged  to  Sweden,  except 
Courland,  which  was  a  dc^pendency  of  Poland.  They 
came  into  the  possession  of  Russia  partly  in  the 
beginning  of  the  18th  c,  through  the  conquests  of 
Peter  the  Great,  partly  under  Alexander  in  1809. 
They  have  still  very  various  constitutions,  though 
the  usual  '  government '  machinery  has  been  intro- 
duced, and  every  effort  is  made  completely  to  Rus- 
sianise  them.  The  five  governments  have  an  area 
of  about  200,000  square  miles  with  a  population  in 
1864  of  about  4,637,000. 

BA'LTIC  SEA,  is  the  great  gulf  or  shut  sea 
bordered  by  Denmark,  Germany,  Russia,  and 
Sweden,  and  communicating  with  the  Kattegat  and 
North  Sea,  by  the  Sound  and  the  Great  and  Little 
Belts.  Its  length  is  from  850  to  900  miles  ;  breadth, 
from  100  to  200 ;  and  area,  including  the  Gulfs 
of  Bothnia  and  Finland,  about  160,000  square 
miles.  Its  depth  is  on  an  average  15 — 20  fathoms, 
in  many  places  not  half  so  much,  seldom  more  than 
40 — 50,  and  never  exceeding  167.  Its  shallowness 
and  narrowness,  the  flat  coasts  of  Prussia  on  the  one 
side  and  the  rocky  coasts  of  Sweden  on  the  other, 
and  above   all   the  numerous   and  sudden  changes 


of  wind  accompanied  by  violent  storms,  make  the 
navigation  of  the  Baltic  very  dangerous.  The  group 
of  the  Aland  Islands  divide  the  south  part  of  the  sea 
from  the  north  part  or  Gulf  of  Bothnia  (q.  v.).  The 
Gulf  of  Finland  (q.  v.),  branching  off'  eastwards  into 
Russia,  separates  Finland  from  Esthonia.  A  third 
gulf  is  that  of  Riga  or  Livonia.  The  Kurish  and 
other  Ilaffs  (q.  v.)  are  not  gulfs,  but  fresh-water  lakes 
at  the  mouths  of  rivers. 

The  water  of  the  Baltic  is  colder  and  clearer  than 
that  of  the  ocean.  It  contains  only  a  fifth  of  the 
salt  of  the  Atlantic,  and  ice  hinders  its  navigation 
from  three  to  five  months  yearly.  Tides,  as  in  all 
inland  seas,  are  little  perceptible — at  Copenhagan, 
about  a  foot ;  yet  the  water  rises  and  falls  at*  times, 
though  from  other  causes,  chiefly  from  the  varying 
quantity  of  water  in  the  rivers  at  different  seasons. 
Upwards  of  250  rivers  flow  into  this  sea.  The  chief 
from  Germany  are  the  Trave,  Warnow,  Oder,  Rega, 
Persante,  Vistula,  Pregel,  and  Niemen ;  from  Russia, 
the  Windau,  Diina,  Narva,  Neva,  and  Ulea ;  and 
from  Sweden,  Toruea,  Lulea,  Pitea,  Umea,  Anger- 
man,  Dal,  the  water  of  Lake  Maelcr,  and  that  of 
Wetter  and  other  lakes  through  the  i-iver  Motala. 
The  basin  of  the  Baltic  occupies  at  least  888,710 
square  miles,  or  about  one-fourth  of  all  Europe  ; 
and  only  about  a  fourth  of  the  boundary  of  the 
basin  is  mountainous.  The  principal  islands  are  Zea- 
land, Fiinen,  Boruholm,  Samsoe,  MiJen,  Langeland, 
and  Laaland,  belonging  to  Denmark  ;  the  Swedish 
islands  Gottland,  Oland,  and  Hveen  (in  the  Sound) ; 
the  Aland  Islands,  Dago,  and  Oesel,  belonging  to 
Russia ;  and  Riigen,  to  Prussia.  The  number  of 
vessels  that  pass  the  Sound  to  or  from  the  Baltic 
annually  is  very  large.  See  Sound  Dues.  Timber, 
hides,  tallow,  and  grain,  are  the  chief  exports 
from  the  countries  bordering  on  the  Baltic.  The 
Eider  or  Schleswig-Holstein  Canal,  connecting  the 
Baltic  near  Kiel  with  the  North  Sea  at  Tonningen, 
facilitates  the  grain  trade  in  mild  winters.  The  two 
seas  are  also  connected  by  the  Gotha  Canal,  which 
joins  the  lakes  of  South  Sweden.  The  most  im- 
portant harbours  in  the  Baltic  are:  in  Denmark, 
Copenhagen,  Flensburg,  Schleswig,  and  Kiel ;  in 
Germany,  Travemiinde  (Lubeck),  AVismar,  Rostock, 
Stralsund,  Stettin,  Swinemiinde,  Danzig,  Elbing, 
Konigsberg,  Pillau,  and  Memel ;  in  Russia,  Riga, 
Revel,  Narwa,  Kronstadt,  and  Sveaborg ;  and  in 
Sweden,  Stockholm,  Karlskrona,  and  Ystad. — The 
shores  of  the  Baltic  in  Prussia  and  Courland  have 
been  long  noted  for  the  amber  cast  ashore  by  the 
waves  in  stormy  weather.  Another  important  phe- 
nomenon coiniected  with  the  Baltic,  is  an  alleged 
slow  vertical  movement  of  its  coasts,  downwards  in 
the  south  of  Sweden,  but  further  north  upwards, 
being  there  supposed  to  be  at  the  rate  of  three  feet 
in  a  century.  See  Lyell's  Principles  of  Geology. — 
The  Germanic  nations  call  this  sea  Ostsee,  or  Eastern 
Sea ;  the  name  Baltic  is  derived  by  Dr.  Latham,  from 
an  island  Baltia,  mentioned  by  Pliny,  and  which  Dr. 
Latham  considers  to  be  Zealand. 

BiVLTIMORE,  a  city,  port  of  entry,  and  seat  of 
justice  of  Baltimore  co.,  Maryland,  is  situated  on  a 
small  bay  or  estuary,  wliich  extends  about  2+  miles 
inland  fi'om  the  N.  side  of  Patapsco  River,  about  12 
miles  from  its  entrance  into  Chesapeake  Bay.  The 
city,  by  ship  channel,  is  about  200  miles  from  the 
ocean.  It  is  38  miles  by  railroad  N.  E.  from  Wash- 
ington, and  98  miles  S.  W.  from  Philadelphia.  Lat. 
39"  17'  N.,  Ion.  76°  37'  W.  Baltmiore  has  direct 
communication  with  the  Great  West  by  the  Baltimore 
and  Ohio  Railroad  to  Wlieeling ;  and  is  connected  by 
railway  with  H;u-risbm-g,  York,  and  Chambersburg, 
in  Penna. ;  -vN-ith  Annapolis,  Fi-ederick  City,  and 
Cumberland,  in  Maryland,  and  with  Winchester,  in 
VLfginia,  etc. 

651 


BALTIMORE-BIRD— BALZAC. 


From  the  number  of  its  monuments,  B.  has  been 
denominated  the  "  Monumental  City."  Among  which 
are  the  "Washington  Monument,"  212-^  feet  high, 
erected  at  a  cost  of  $200,000 ;  and  "  Battle  ]\Ionu- 
nient,"  52^  feet  high,  erected  in  memory  of  those  who 
fell  while  defending  the  city  fi-om  the  attack  of  the 
British,  Sept.  12, 1814.  The  most  imposing  church  is 
the  Roman  Catholic  Cathedral,  a  massive  granite  struc- 
ture, 190  feet  long,  177  broad,  and  127  to  the  top  of 
the  cross  surmounting  the  dome.  It  contains  one 
of  the  largest  organs  in  the  U.  S.,  having  6000  pipes 
and  36  stops ;  and  two  beautiful  pauitings,  "  llie  De- 
scent from  the  Cross,"  presented  by  Louis  XVI.  of 
France,  and  "  St.  Louis  burpng  his  officers  and  sol- 
diers slain  before  Tunis,"  presented  by  Charles  X. 
Tlie  whole  number  of  churches  is  as  follows :  Metho- 
dist Episcopal,  47  ;  Roman  Catholic,  20 ;  Protestant 
Episcopal,  19  ;  Presbyterian,  15  ;  Luthei'an,  10;  Bap- 
tist, 10 ;  Methodist  Protestant,  8 ;  Je-\\dsh  Synagogues, 
6  ;  German  Reformed,  3 ;  Friends'  meeting-houses,  3 ; 
Swedenborgian,  3 ;  Christian  Baptist,  or  Disci])les' 
chm-ch,  2  ;  Evangelical  Association,  2  ;  Gernum  Inde- 
pendent churches,  4  ;  Unitarian,  1 ;  Universalist,  1 ; 
Seamen's  Union  Bethel,  1 ;  United  Brethren,  1 ;  and 
5  African  churches.  Among  tlie  educational  institu- 
tions may  be  named  the  University  of  Maryland, 
Lo3'ola  College,  Baltimore  College,  and  the  Peabody 
Institute.  The  newspaper  press  comprises  about  25 
publications,  7  or  8  of  which  are  dailies. 

The  foreign  imports  of  B.  in  1868  were  $12,930,7.'?3 ; 
exports,  $13,857,391  ;  vessels  entered  the  port  in  1868, 
299,  tonnage,  Ho, 146  ;  cleared  595,  tonnage,  214,205. 
Pop.  in  1860,  212,418. 

BA'LTIMORE-BIRD,  or  BALTIMORE  ORIOLE 
(^I'cterus  BaUimorii),  a  very  beautiful  American, 
bird,  found  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  as 


Baltimore-Bird. 

far  north  as  55°  N.  lat.,  but  migrating  to  tropical 
or  subtropical  regions  in  winter.  The  genus  to 
which  it  belongs  is  usually  referred  to  the  natural 
family  of  Icteridm  (see  Starling).  The  B.-B.  is  in 
size  somewhat  less  than  a  common  starling ;  the  bill 
conical,  very  acute,  and  a  little  curved  ;  the  plumage 
brilliant,  particularly  in  the  adult  males,  glossy 
black  finely  contrasting  with  bright  orange  and 
vermilion;  the  tail  longish,  rounded  and  slightly 
forked.  The  bird  is  remarkably  active  and  lively ; 
its  song  extremely  agreeable.  Its  nest  is  a  curious 
and  interesting  structure — a  pendulous  cylindrical 
pouch  of  six  or  seven  inches  long,  usually  suspended 
from  two  twigs  at  the  extremity  of  a  lofty  drooping 
652 


branch ;  the  materials,  which  vary  according  to  cir- 
cumstances, being  woven  together  with  groat  nicety. 
It  is  sometimes  sewed  through  and  through  with  long 
horse-hairs.  Thread,  which  may  happen  to  be  bleach- 
ing, is  very  liable  to  be  appropriated  to  the  purpose 
of  nest-building. 

The  nests  of  other  species  of  Mcrus  are  also 
pensile.  Several  are  natives  of  North  America,  and 
others  of  South  America.  They  arc  quite  distinct 
from  the  true  Orioles  (q.  v.). 

BALTSCHI'K,  or  BALDJI'K,  a  town  of  European 
Tinkey,  18  miles  north-east  of  Varna,  noteworthy 
in  consequence  of  being  in  the  vicinity  of  the  ruins 
of  Tomi,  to  which  place  Ovid  was  exiled. 

BA'LUSTER,  popularly,  banister  or  ballaster' 
(Ital.  balaustro  ;  Fr.  balustre)  the  name  given  to 
the   small  shafts  or  pillars  set  in  a  line   at   short 


Balusters. 

equal  distances,  and  supporting  a  cornice  or  coping, 
These  miniature  pillars  have  generally  either  a  pear- 
shaped  sweUing  at  the  lower  end,  or  consist  of  two 
pear-shaped  pieces,  placed  above  each  other,  a  ring 
of  moulding  being  set  between  them.  This  makes 
the  profile  resemble  an  ancient  bow  or  Balista(q.  v.), 
from  which  some  derive  the  name  ;  others  derive  it 
from  Lat.  pains,  Eng.  pole  or  pale. 

BALUSTRADE,  a  range  of  balusters,  together 
with  the  cornice  or  coping  which  they  support. 
The  B.  is  often  used  as  a  parapet    for  bridges,  the 


Balustrade. 

roofs  of  large  edifices,  &c.,  or  as  a  mere  termination 
to  the  structure.  It  is  also  used  to  enclose  stairs, 
altars,  balconies,  &c.  Balustrades  are  made  of  stone, 
metal,  or  wood. 

BALZAC,  Jean  Louis  Guez  pe,  born  at 
Angouleme  in  1594.  In  his  youth  he  was  secre- 
tary to  Cardinal  la  Valette  at  Rome,  where  he 
cultivated  his  taste  for  elegant  composition,  and 
on  his  return  to  Paris  devoted  himself  to  the  refine- 
ment of  his  native  language.  His  efforts  in  this 
direction  have  given  him  a  permanent  place  in  the 
literature  of  his  country;  and  though  his  writings  do 
not  possess  much  intrinsic  worth,  they  heralded  the 
splendid  phalanx  of  genius  which  adorned  the 
subsequent  age  of  Louis  XIV.  He  was  a  favourite 
of  Cardinal  Richelieu,  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy,  a  councillor  of  state,  and  historiographer. 
His  violent  literary  disputes  with  Father  Goula, 
caused  him  to  leave  Paris  and  retire  to  his  liere- 
ditary  property  of  Balzac,  where   he   died  on   the 


BALZAC— BAMBIXO. 


18th  February  10.55.  A  collection  of  the  works  of  B. 
appeared  in  Paris,  edited  by  L'Abbt;  Cassaigno 
(2  vols.  Par.  1605  ;  3  vols.  Anist.  1084.)  Of  all 
his  works,  his  Lettres  (3  vols.  Par.  ISuO)  have 
been  most  generally  admired,  and  arc  still  read. 
A  selection  from  his  writings  was  arranged  by 
Malitotiruc  (2  vols.  Par.  1822).  Compare  Moreau  de 
Mersau,  Fcnui'cs  de  B.  (Par.  ISOV). 

BALZAC,  HoxoRE  dk,  one  of  the  best  of  the 
modern  French  uovelists,  was  born  on  the  20th 
May  1799,  at  Tours,  where  his  father  held  a  civil 
office.  At  the  ago  of  twelve,  he  entered  the  college 
of  Vendome,  but  finished  his  studies  at  the  Pension 
Lepitre,  in  Paris.  His  father,  who  had  been  impo- 
verished by  the  loss  of  his  situation,  then  placed 
him  with  a  notary,  to  whom  he  acted  as  clerk. 
This  occupation  proving  intolerably  irksome,  B.  soon 
after  began  his  literary  career,  and  wrote  about 
30  volumes,  under  the  names,  St.  Aubin,  M.  de 
Veillergre,  St.  Alme,  &c.  He  received  some  trifling 
assistance  in  writing  these  novels,  which  were, 
however,  so  unsuccessful,  that  he  lived  in  the 
greatest  poverty.  In  the  year  1820,  he  entered 
into  partnership  with  the  printer  Barbier,  and 
published  various  works ;  but  the  speculation 
turned  out  so  ill,  that  he  fell  into  debt,  and  returned 
once  more  to  book-making.  His  perseverance  was 
adunralde.  Although  long  utterly  unsuccessful, 
he  continued  to  write  on  until  at  last  he  opened 
a  path  for  himself  by  his  novel  Les  Dernicrs 
Chouans,  ou  la  Brctagne  en  1800  (Par.  1829). 
In  this  book  he  abandoned  for  the  first  time  the 
manner  of  Pigault  and  Lebrun,  which  he  had 
hitherto  adopted.  Among  his  best  works  are  the 
Physiologic  ilu  Mariayc  (2  vols.  Par.  1831),  Scenes 
de  la  Vie  Privee  (5  vols.  1831),  Scenes  de  la  Vie  de  Pro- 
vince (1832),  Scenes  de  la  Vie  Parisienne  (1832),  Le 
Midccin  de  Campagne,  Le  Pere  Goriot,  La  Peau  de 
Chagrin,  La  liechervhe  de  PAbsolu,  which  were  all 
received  with  much  favour  by  the  public.  Of  all 
his  novels,  two  only  can  lay  claim  to  anything  like 
artistic  completeness.  They  are  the  Histoire  Intcl- 
lectuelle  de  Lotiis  Lambert,  and  Eugene  Grandet. 
His  other  works  suffer  more  or  less  from  unnatu- 
ralness,  diffuseness,  and  the  want  of  a  solid  know- 
ledge of  the  world,  although  there  is  a  richness  of 
description  in  portraying  individual  features  of 
character,  as  drawn  directly  from  the  heart,  not 
to  be  denied.  B.  exercises  immense  power  over 
the  female  part  of  his  readers.  In  his  Contes 
Drolatiques,  colligez  es  Ahhaies  de  Tourai7ie,  et  mis 
en  lumiere  par  le  Sictcr  de  Balzac  pour  I'esbattement 
de  Pantagruelistcs  ct  non  aultres  (2  vols.  Par.  1833), 
he  follows  exactly  in  the  footsteps  of  Kabelais.  Suc- 
cess made  B.  conceitedly  ambitious.  He  thought 
himself  equal  to  the  most  distinguished  auth.ors  of 
all  time,  and  represented  the  aim  of  his  literary 
activity  to  be,  to  give  a  complete  picture  of  human 
life  in  all  its  varied  phases.  As  a  dramatic  author 
he  decidedly  failed.  In  the  year  1850,  he  was  seized 
with  hypertrophy  of  the  heart,  of  which  he  died 
on  the  ISth  of  August.  Almost  the  whole  literary 
■world  of  Paris  were  present  at  his  funeral. 

BAMBA'RRA,  one  of  the  states  of  Sudan, 
"Western  Africa,  lying,  so  far  as  has  been  ascer- 
tained, between  lat.  12^  and  1-1°  X.,  long.  15°  E.,  and 
5°  W.,  and  occupying  both  sides  of  the  Joliba  or 
Niger,  which  flows  through  its  centre  from  south- 
west to  north-east.  The  principal  towns  of  B. 
stand  on  the  banks  of  this  river.  The  mountains 
in  which  the  Niger  has  its  source  divide  it  on 
the  S.  from  Guinea ;  the  Sahara  desert  bounds 
it  on  the  N. ;  on  the  W.,  Senegambia ;  and  on  the 
E.,  some  of  its  sister-states.  In  its  general 
aspect,  the  country  is  said  to  bear  a  considerable 


resemblance  to  the  agricultural  districts  of  England ; 
but  in  the  west  there  are  low  chains  of  granite 
hills,  forming  continuations  of  the  highlands  from 
which  the  Niger  springs.  The  climate  in  some  parts 
is  intensely  hot;  in  others,  it  is  more  temperate, 
but  it  is  generally  healthy.  The  rainy  season  lasts 
from  June  to  November.  The  land  is  well  watered 
and  fertUe.  Double  crops  of  corn,  rice,  nuiize,  yams, 
&c.,  arc  raised  annually  without  much  laijour. 

The  butter-tree,  cotton-tree,  oil-palm,  baobab,  and 
date,  are  among  the  most  important  indigenous 
growths.  The  manufacturing  industry  of  B.  is 
important;  the  women  making  a  soft  coarse  cloth, 
much  esteemed  for  its  beautiful  blue  colour,  and 
the  men  articles  in  gold,  iron,  and  ivory,  in  which 
a  pretty  extensive  trade  is  carried  on.  The  inha- 
liitants,  chiefly  Mandingoes,  are  said  to  be  superior 
to  their  neighbours  in  intelligence,  and  to  be  much 
sought  after  a3  warriors  by  the  petty  chiefs  around 
them,  who  are  at  constant  war  with  each  other. 
They  generally  lend  their  assistance  ou  condition 
of  a  certain  payment.  The  upper  classes  profess 
Mohammedanism,  but  the  lower  arc  pagans.  The 
introduction  of  the  former  religion  has  had  at  least 
one  good  effect.  It  has  supplied  the  native  dialect 
with  a  written  speech  through  the  use  of  Arabic 
letters.  The  chief  domestic  animals  are  horned 
cattle,  goats,  sheep,  and  fine  horses.  The  Avild  ani- 
mals are  lions,  leopards,  elephants,  wolves,  panthers, 
&c. ;  and  venomous  reptiles,  of  which  the  natives 
are  much  afraid.  Crocodiles  are  numerous  in  the 
rivers,  which  also  abotmd  with  fish.  The  principal 
towns  are  Sego.  Sansanding,  Yamina,  andBammaku, 
which  are  all  populous.  T\\f.  country  has  a  nominal 
monarch,  but  it  is  in  reality  ruled  by  several  chiefs. 

BA'MBERG,  a  city  of  Bavaria,  in  the  district  of 
Upper  Franconia,  beautifully  situated  on  the  banks 
of  the  Regnitz,  not  far  from  its  confluence  with  the 
Main,  and  in  the  midst  of  vineyards,  orchards,  and 
hop-gardens.  B.,  which  has  considerably  declined 
in  importance  since  the  Reformation,  is  a  city  of 
considerable  antiquity,  having  originated,  it  is  said, 
with  a  colony  of  Saxons  who  settled  here  in  804. 
The  most  noteworthy  of  its  public  buildings  is 
the  cathedral,  a  magnificent  edifice  in  the  Byzan- 
tine style,  founded  by  the  Emperor  Henry  II.  in 
1004,  and  restored  after  fire  in  1110.  It  contains, 
among  other  monuments,  the  elaborately  carved 
tomb  of  the  founder  and  his  empress,  Cunigunda. 
Attached  to  the  cathedral  is  a  library,  with  valuable 
missals  and  manuscripts,  and  what  is  represented  to 
be  the  prayer-book  of  Henry  II.  There  are  several 
other  fine  ecclesiastical  structures  of  early  date,  and 
the  old  palace  of  the  former  prince-bishops  of  Bam- 
berg. The  ruins  of  the  castle  of  Altenlnirg,  origi- 
nally the  seat  of  the  Counts  of  Babenberg,  and  the 
scene  of  many  important  historical  events,  stand  on 
an  eminence  about  a  mile  and  a  half  from  the  town. 
Pop.  24,600,  chiefly  engaged  in  tiie  manufacture  of 
beer,  which  is  famous  throughout  Germany,  porce- 
lain, jewellery,  gloves,  musical  instruments,  &c. 
A  large  export  trade  in  liquorice  and  garden-seeds 
is  carried  on. 

BAMBI'NO,  a  term  in  art  descriptive  of  the 
swaddled  figure  of  the  infant  Saviour,  which,  sur- 
rounded by  a  halo,  and  watched  over  by  angels, 
occasionally  forms  the  subject  of  altar-pieces  in 
Ronum  Catholic  churches.  The  Santissimo  B.,  in 
the  church  of  the  Ara  Cceli  at  Rome,  is  held  in  great 
veneration  for  its  supposed  miraculous  power  of 
curing  the  sick.  It  is  carved  in  wood,  painted,  and 
richly  decorated  with  jewels  and  precious  stones. 
The  carving  is  attributed  to  a  Franciscan  pilgrim, 
out  of  a  tree  that  grew  on  Mount  Olivet,  and  the 

653 


BAMBOCCIADES— BAMBROUGH. 


painting  to  St.  Lulvc.  Tlie  festival  of  the  B.,  which 
occurs  at  the  Epiphany,  is  attended  by  great  num- 
bers of  country  people,  and  the  B.  is  said  to  draw- 
more  in  the  shape  of  fees  than  the  most  successful 
medical  practitioner  in  Rome. 

BAMBO'CCIADES,  in  painting,  are  grotesque 
scenes  from  common  or  low  life — such  as  country- 
fairs,  penny-weddings,  boors  merry-making.  The 
name  is  derived  from  Peter  van  Laar,  a  painter,  who, 
on  account  of  his  personal  deformity,  was  surnamed 
Bamboccio  (Cripple) ;  but  he  was  not  the  first  painter 
of  such  scenes. 

BAMBOO'  (Bambusa),  a  genus  of  grasses,  of 
which  most  of  the  species  attain  a  great  size,  many 
of  them  20  or  30  feet,  some  '70  or  lOofeet  in  height. 
The  species  are  numerous,  and  are  found  in  tropical 
and  subtropical  regions,  both  of  the  eastern  and 
western  hemispheres.  They  are  of  great  importance 
to  the  inhabitants  of  tlie  countries  in  which  they 
grow.  All  of  them  have  a  jointed  subterranean 
root-stock  (rhizome),  which  throws  up  10 — 100  stems. 
These  are  generally  straight  and  erect ;  although  one 
large  species  {B.  ar/resiis),  common  in  dry  mountain- 
ous situations  in  the  south-east  of  Asia,  has  crooked, 
and  sometimes  creeping  stems.  The  stems  grow  to 
their  full  height  unbranched,  but  afterwards  throw 
out  straight  horizontal  branches,  especially  in  their 
upper  parts,  forming  a  dense  thicket ;  and  many  of 
them  being  strongly  armed  with  spines,  they  arc 
planted  for  defence,  presenting  a  formidable  barrier, 
even  against  regular  troops.  Some  of  the  smaller  kinds 
are  often  planted  as  hedges.     Tlic  stems  arc  jointed 


Bamboo. 

like  those  of  other  grasses,  very  hard,  but  light  and 
elastic,  hollow,  containing  only  a  light  spongy  pith, 
except  at  the  joints  or  nodes,  where  they  are  divided 
by  strong  partitions.  They  are,  therefore,  readily 
converted  into  water-vessels  of  various  sorts  ;  and 
when  the  partitions  are  removed,  they  are  used  as 
pipes  for  conveying  water.  They  are  also  much 
employed  for  house-building,  for  bridges,  and  for 
many  other  purposes  to  which  wood  is  usually 
applied.  The  smaller  stems  are  converted  into 
walking-sticks,  and  are  imported  into  Europe  under 
the  name  of  B.  Cane,  both  for  that  purpose  and  to 
be  employed  in  light  wicker-work.  Some  of  the 
species  grow  to  the  height  only  of  a  few  feet ;  and 
almost  all  of  them  are  slender  in  proportion  to  their 
height,  although  £.  Guadua,  a  iiative  of  New 
Granada  and  Quito,  has  a  trunk  16  inches  in  diame- 
ter. The  stems  of  different  species  vary  also  very 
654 


much  in  the  thickness  of  the  woody  part,  and  so  in 
their  adaptation  to  different  purposes.  The  external 
covering  of  the  stem  is,  in  all  the  species,  remark- 
ably silicious ;  the  stem  of  B.  tabacaria  is  so  hard 
that  it  strikes  fire  when  the  hatchet  is  applied. 
This  species  is  a  native  of  Amboyna  and  Java ;  its 
slender  stems  are  polished,  and  used  for  the  stalks  of 
tobacco-pipes.  The  leaves  of  some  kinds  are  used 
for  thatch,  and  the  Chinese  plait  hats  of  them  ;  of 
the  external  membrane  of  the  stems  of  some,  they 
make  paper.  From  the  knots  of  the  B.  there  exudes 
a  saccharine  juice,  Avhich  dries  upon  exposure  to  the 
atmosphere,  and  which  the  Greeks  called  Lidian 
Honey.  It  is  also  sometimes  called  Tabaris  or  Taba- 
shtcr ;  but  this  name  more  properly  belongs  to  a 
phosphorescent  substance,  containing  silica  and  lime, 
and  possessing  remarkable  properties,  which  forms 
in  the  joints  of  some  species  of  B.,  and  of  other 
large  grasses  growing  in  dry  situations.  See  Taua- 
siiKKR. — The  young  shoots  of  some  kinds  of  B.  are 
eaten  like  asparagus,  or  are  pickled  in  vinegar. 
Those  of  B.  Tulda,  a  common  Bengalesc  species,  are 
used  for  these  purposes  when  about  2  feet  long. 
The  seeds  of  some  species  are  used  as  rice,  and  for 
making  a  kind  of  beer.  Bamboos  are  generally  of 
very  rapid  growth,  and  they  are  often  found  in  arid 
situations,  which  would  otherwise  be  destitute  of 
vegetation.  It  is  not  improbable  that  they  may  yet 
be  employed,  where  they  do  not  naturally  abound, 
to  render  districts  productive  which  are  now  little 
else  than  deserts,  in  climates  like  those  of  Arabia, 
the  north  of  Africa,  and  Australia;  and  the  quality 
of  the  grain  of  different  species  seems  to  deserve 
more  attention  than  it  has  ever  received.  The 
species  common  in  the  West  Indies  {B.  vidgaris)  is 
supposed  to  have  been  introduced  from  the  East 
Indies.  A  few  species  are  found  in  the  Himalaya,  to 
an  altitude  of  12,000  feet,  and  a  dwarf  species  from 
that  region  has  been  successfully  tried  in  the  open 
air  iu  England. 

BAMBOU'K,  a  country  of  Senegambia,  Western 
Africa,  lying  in  the  angle  formed  by  the  Senegal 
and  Fal6me  rivers,  in  N.  lat.  12°  30' — 14°  and  W. 
long.  10° — 12°  30'.  Its  extent,  however,  has  not 
been  accurately  ascertained,  but  is  roughly  esti- 
mated at  140  miles  in  lengtli,  and  from  80  to  100 
in  breadth.  It  is  populated  by  Mandingoes,  who 
are  ferocious  and  cruel  in  the  extreme.  The  climate 
is  sultry  and  unhealthy,  especially  during  the  rainy 
season.  Low  ranges  of  mountains  cover  the  greatest 
portion  of  the  surface  of  B.  The  intervening 
valleys,  which  are  subject  to  inundations,  are 
remarkable  for  their  fertility.  Trees  common  to 
Western  Africa  here  attain  enormous  proportions. 
Vast  herds  of  wild  oxen  roam  the  hills,  and  the 
most  formidable  wild  animals  of  Africa  are  found 
in  the  forests  and  rivers.  B.,  however,  is  chiefly 
remarkable  for  its  rich  gold-mines,  the  produce 
of  which  the  natives  exchange  for  salt,  cotton,  and 
other  manufactured  goods.  Its  inhabitants  are 
professedly  Mohanmiedaus,  but  they  cling  to  many 
of  the  pagan  superstitions.  B.  was,  four  centuries 
ago,  in  the  possession  of  the  Portuguese,  but  they 
appear  to  have  been  soon  driven  out. 

BA'MBROUGH,  or  BA'MBOROUGH  CASTLE, 

one  of  the  oldest  castles  in  Britain,  on  the  coast  of 
Northumberland,  16  miles  south-east  of  Berwick, 
and  crowning  a  basalt  rock,  rising  150  feet  above 
the  sea,  and  accessible  only  on  the  south-east. 
In  this  rock  is  a  draw-well,  145  feet  deep,  sunk 
through  the  basalt  into  the  sandstone  below.  B. 
Castle  was  founded  in  1070.  It  was  forfeited  by 
the  Forsters  in  1715,  but  afterwards  purchased  by 
a  scion  of  the  same  house,  Lord  Crewe,  Bishop  of 
Durham,  who  bequeathed  the  castle  and  estate  for 


BAMIAX— BAMPTO!^  LECTURES. 


charitable  purposes.  In  1830,  the  income  of  the 
charitv  was  upwards  of  £8000.  Connected  with 
the  castle  is  a  market  for  the  sale  of  provisions  and 
groceries  to  the  poor  at  prime  cost ;  a  dispensary 
for  gratis  advice  and  distribution  of  medicines  to 
the  sick;  funds  for  lodging,  clothing,  and  cducat- 
in<r  the  children  of  the  poor  gratis  ;  an  extensive 
lib"rarv,  open  to  all  living  within  20  miles ;  hfe-boats 
to  save  the  crews  of  vessels  in  distress  ;  apartments 
for  shipwrecked  sailors  ;  and  a  constant  patrol 
durin^'  stormy  nights  for  8  miles  along  the  coast. 
Part  °of  the  'funds  are  also  employed  to  increase 
small  benefices,  to  build  and  repair  churches,  to 
support  schools,  and  to  aid  young  men  at  the 
universities.  B.  village  near  the  castle,  was  the 
site  of  an  old  castle  once  the  residence  ot  the 
Northumbrian  kings.  Opposite  B.  Castle  are  the 
dan^-erous  rocks  called  the  Farn  Isles,  abounding  in 
sea-fowl.  Here  Grace  Darling  and  her  father  saved 
the  crew  of  the  TioMsa'/ steamer  in  1 838. 

BAMIA'N,  a  fruitful  valley  and  pass  of  Afghan- 
istan  about  a  mile  in  breadth,  and  enclosed  by  steep 
rocks,  leading  from  Cabul  to  Turkistan.     It  is  at  an 
elevation  of  8496  feet,  and  is  as  yet  the  only  known 
pass  over  the  Hindu  Rush  practicable  for  artillery 
and   heavy    transport.       This    valley    was    one    ot 
the  chief  centres  of  Buddhist  worship,  as  gigantic 
idols     mutilated   indeed    bv    fanatical   Mussulmans, 
still  remain   to  prove.     B.,  with  its  colossal  statues 
cut  out  in  the  rock,  was  described  by  the  Buddhist 
monks    who    traversed    Central    Asia,  on  their  way 
from  China  to  India,  in  the  4th  and  5th  centuries. 
The  statues  are  found  on  a  hill  about  300  feet  high, 
iu  which  are  a  multitude  of  cells  excavated  _in_  the 
rock  all  round,  and  rising  above  one  another  in  irre- 
gular tiers.    The  cells  are  covered  with  carving.    The 
male  figure  is  about  160  feet,  the  female,  120.     Both 
are  natural  in  attitude,  and  clothed  in  light  drapery, 
the  face  of  the  former  is  the  most  perfectly  preserved. 
Each  figure  is  hewn  out  of  a  deep  niche,  also  elabo- 
rately carved,  and  representing  royal  personages  and 
a  variety  of  symbols  which  resemble   those  on  the 
coins   of  the   Sassanida;.     Each   contains  a  winding 
stair  by  which  it  is  possible  to  ascend  to  the  head. 
The  whole  valley  is  covered  with  the  ruins  of  tombs, 
mosques,  and  other  buildings,  once  belonging  to  the 
towii  of  Ghulghuleh,  which  more  recently  occupied 
this  site,    and  was   destroyed   by  Genghis-Khan  in 
1221.     Eight  miles  eastward  of  B.  lies  the  ancient 
fortress  of  Zohak,  attributed  to  the  fabulous  Persian 
Serpent-king   of  that   name.     The   fortress   is   pre- 
served for  the  purpose  of  guarding  the  important 
pass.     Both  there  and  in  the  valley  of  B.,  a  great 
number    of  coins,  ornaments,  and  other  antiquities 
have   been    recently  found,  and  fully  described  by 
Masson,  Wilson,  Prinsep,  Wood,  and  others. 

BA'MPTON,  a  small  town  in  the  north-east  of 
Devonshire,  chiefly  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Batham, 
a  tributary  of  the  Exe,  and  22  miles  north  of  Exeter. 
There  are  here  extensive  carboniferous  limestone 
quarries.  The  manufiicture  of  serge  and  pottery 
is  carried  on.  St.  Michael's  Church  was  built  in  the 
14th  c,  and  has  a  tower  70  feet  high.     Pop.  2102. 

BA'MPTON  IN  THE  BUSH,  a  small  town  in  Ox- 
fordshire, 14  miles  south-west  of  Oxford.  It  has  an 
ancient  cruciform  church,  with  a  large  Norman  tower, 
and  examples  of  every  period  of  the  pointed  Gothic 
style.     Pop.  851. 

BA'MPTON  LE'CTURES.  These  lectures  are 
so  called  after  the  name  of  their  founder,  the 
Rev.  John  Bampton,  Canon  of  Salisbury,  who  left 
estates  originally  worth  £120  per  annum,  to  the 
university  of  Oxford,  for  the  endowment  of  eight 
divinity-lecture  sermons,  to  be  preached  at  Great 
St.  Mary's  every  year,  and  to  be  published,  at  the 


expense  of  the   estate,  within  two  months  of  their 
being  preached.     The  preacher  is  to  lecture  on  one 
of  the  following  subjects:  The  Confirmation  of  tlie 
Christian  Faith,  and   the  Confutation  of  all   Heretics 
and   Schismatics  ;     the     Divine    Authority   of    the 
Scriptures ;  the  Authority  of  the  Primitive  Fathers 
in    Matters    of   Christian    Faith    and    Practice  ;    the 
Divinity  of  Christ ;  the  Divinity  of  the  Holy  Ghost  ; 
the    Apostles'   and   Nicene   Creeds.     No   person   is 
qualified  to  preach  these  lectures  who  has  not  taken 
the  degree  of  M.  A.,  either  at  Oxford  or  Cambridge, 
and  the  same  person  shall  never  preach  them  twice. 
The    first  course  was   deUvered  in  1780.     In  1834 
and    1835,    no  lecturers   were    appointed,    and    no 
lecture  was  preached  in  1841.     With  these   excep- 
tions, there  has    been  an  unbroken  series   of  very 
valuable,  but  rather  learned  than  popular,  discourses. 
The   most   remarkable    are    the   following  :    Those 
delivered  in  1784,    on  Christianity   and    Mohamme- 
danism,  by  Dr.  White,  who  was   accused  of  having 
obtained    assistance    in     their     composition     from 
Dr.  Parr  and  Dr.   Badcock  ;  those  by  Dr.  Tatham 
in   1790,  on  the  logic  of  Theology  ;    those  of  Dr. 
Nott   in  1802,   on  Religious  Enthusiasm — this  series 
was  directed  against  the  pretensions  of  Wesley  and 
Whitefield— those  of  Dr.   Mant  in  1812  ;  those  of 
Reginald  Heber  in  1815  ;  Whately  in  1822  ;  Milman 
in   1827  ;  Burton  in  1829,   on   the  Heresies  of  the 
Apostolic  Age  ;  Soames  in  1830,  on  the  Doctrines 
of  the   Anglo-Saxon    Church.      But  of  the   whole 
series,  none  have   caused   greater   excitement   and 
controversy  than  those  delivered  by  Dr.  Hampden 
in  1832,  on 'The  Scholastic  Philosophy  considered 
in  its  Relation  to   Christian  Theology.'     They  were 
attacked  on  all  sides,  but  especially  by  the  leaders 
of  the    Oxford   Tract  Association.     Hampden   was 
accused   of  Rationalism   and   Socinianism.       When 
he  was  appointed  Regius  Professor  of  Divinity  in 
1836,  a  petition  against  his  appointment  was  sent 
up  to  the  throne  ;  and   upon  this   being   rejected, 
a  censure  was  passed  upon  him  in  convocation  by 
a    large    majority,    declaring     his    teaching    to    be 
unsound,  and   releasing  undergraduates  from  attend- 
ance at  his  lectures.     Notwithstanding  this,  he  was 
raised  to   the  see  of  Hereford  in   1847,  under  the 
government  of  Lord  John  Russell — thirteen  of  the 
bench    of  bishops    protesting  against   the    appoint- 
ment.    There   was   a   course  of   Bampton   Lectures 
delivered  by  Henry  Longueville   Mansel  in  1858,  on 
'The  Limits  of   Religious   Thought,'  which  caused 
a    less    bitter,  but    scarcely    less    mteresting    con- 
troversy.    Mr.  Alansel  possesses  great  power  as  a 
dialectician,    and    his   lectures   contain   many   very 
eloquent    passages.     The   main   position    which   he 
takes    up   is,    'That    the    human    mind    inevitably, 
and   by   virtue   of    its   essential  constitution,    finds 
itself    involved  in    self-contradictions   whenever    it 
ventures  on  certain  courses  of  speculation,'  i.  e.,  on 
speculations  concerning  the  infinite  nature  of  God. 
He    maintains    that   all    attempts   to  construct    an 
objective    or   metaphysical    theology    must    neces- 
sarily fail,  and  that  the  attainment  of  a  philosophy 
of    the    infinite   is    utterly   impossible,    under    the 
existing  laws  of  human  thought— the  practical  aim  of 
the  whole  course  being  to  shew  the  'right  use  of 
reason  in  religious  quesUons.'     Mr.  Mansel  has  been 
accused  by  his  critics  of  coudemning  all  dogniiitic 
theology  (e.  g.,  all  creeds  and  articles),  and  of  making 
revelaUon  itself  impossible.     Mr.  Maurice  has  been 
one  of  his  principal  opponents. 

The  B.  L.  for  1859  were  delivered  by  Geo.  Rawlm- 
son,  the  subject  being  TJic  Jlistorirnl  Evidences  of  the 
Truth  of  the  Scripture  Records,  stated  avc>/\  with  Spe- 
cial Reference  to  the  doubts  and  discoveries  of  Modern 
Times. 

A  course  of  lectures  similar  to  the  Bampton  was 
'  655 


BAN— BANANA. 


founded  about  the  same  time  at  Cambridge,  by 
tlie  Rev.  Joliu  IIulsc.     See  IIulsean  Lectures. 

BAN.  Tliis  word  occurs  in  most  of  the  modcru 
languages  of  Europe,  and  its  primary  signification 
appears  to  have  been,  '  to  make  a  signal '  (see 
Banner),  '  to  proclaim  '  or  '  publisli.'  This  mean- 
ing, it  retains  in  the  phrase,  bans  or  banns  (q.  v.) 
of  marriage.  In  Germany,  the  <icht  or  bamimn 
was  a  sentence  of  outlawry  pronounced  in  the 
middle  ages  against  those  who  escaped  from  justice, 
or  refused  to  submit  to  trial.  We  often  read  of 
refractory  princes,  and  even  cities,  being  placed 
under  the  ban  of  the  empire.  The  following  are 
the  terms  of  banning  used  in  an  old  formula  :  '  We 
declare  thy  wife  a  widow  and  thy  children  orphans  ; 
we  restore  all  thy  feudal  tenures  to  the  lord  of 
the  manor :  thy  private  property  we  give  to  thy 
children ;  and  we  devote  thy  body  and  flesh  to  the 
beasts  of  the  forest  and  the  fowls  of  the  air.  In  all 
ways  and  in  every  place  where  others  find  peace 
and  safety,  thou  shalt  find  none  ;  and  we  banish 
thee  into  the  four  roads  of  the  world — in  the  devil's 
name.'  Besides  these  sentences  of  outlawry,  many 
other  announcements  were  accompanied  with  denun- 
ciations and  imprecations.  When  a  grant  of  land 
was  made  for  a  religious  purpose,  or  wlien  a  charter 
of  liberties  was  granted,  the  transaction  was  pro- 
claimed in  public  with  certain  ceremonies,  and  curses 
were  denounced  against  any  one  who  shoidd  violate 
tlie  deed.  Tlius  banning,  or  pul)lishing,  came  to  be 
associated  with  cursing  ;  and  hence  the  origin  of  tlie 
popular  use  of  the  word.  It  occurs  in  this  sense  in 
Shakspeare  and  Milton,  and  otlier  old  writers. 

BAN  ;  ARRlilRE  BAN.  Besides  the  civil  use 
of  the  word  ban,  as  a  proclamation  or  prohibition, 
there  was  a  military  application  of  the  term  in  former 
days  in  France.  When  the  feudal  barons,  who  held 
their  estates  and  honours  from  the  king,  were 
summoned  to  attend  him  in  the  time  of  war,  they 
were  called  the  ban,  or  tlie  levy  first  called  out ; 
while  the  tenants,  subordinate  to  these  barons, 
formed  the  arriere  ban,  or  secondary  levy. 

BAN,  or  BA'NUS,  supposed  by  some  to  be  a 
contraction  of  the  Illyric  word  Bojan,  i.  c.,  lord, 
but  more  probably  another  form  of  the  Slavonic 
word  Pan,  which  possesses  the  same  signification. 
Formerly,  it  was  a  tide  given  to  some  of  the  military 
chiefs  wlio  guarded  the  ea.-^tern  boundaries  of  the 
Hungarian  kingdom,  and  was  therefcn'e  synonymous 
with  the  German  Ifarkr/raf.  The  ban,  wlio  was 
appointed  l>y  the  sovereign,  but  not  for  life,  and 
whose  appointment  had  to  be  ratified  by  the  national 
diet,  had  originally  very  extensive,  in  fact,  almost 
unlimited  powers.  In  political,  judicial,  and  military 
affiiirs,  he  was  the  supreme  authority.  Within  his 
own  territory,  lie  exercised  an  infiuence  similar  to 
that  of  the  Falatin  in  Hungary,  and  only  lower  than 
a  king.  In  time  of  war,  he  headed  the  troops  of 
his  Banat  (q.  v.),  and  if  the  campaign  occurred  within 
its  limits,  it  was  his  duty  invariably  to  occupy  the 
post  of  danger.  He  led  the  van  to  battle,  or  covered 
the  rear  in  retreat.  For  these  services,  he  was 
recompensed  partly  in  ready  money,  and  partly  by 
a  monopoly  of  salt.  The  most  important  banats 
were  those  of  Dalmatia,  Croatia,  Slavonia,  Bosnia, 
JIachow,  and  Szoreny,  but  their  boundaries  changed 
so  frequently,  that  at  the  present  day  it  is  impos- 
sible to  ascertain  what  they  originally  were.  The 
encroachments  of  the  Turks  in  the  I6th  c,  rendered 
the  union  of  the  various  banats  necessary  ;  and  after 
some  time,  the  whole  were  formed  into  the  double 
banat  of  Dalmatia  and  Croatia.  A  still  more  com- 
plete unity  was  subsequently  obtained  by  centralis- 
ing the  mihtary  power.  In  1723,  the  authority  of 
the  B.  was  made  entirely  subordinate  to  that  of  the 
656 


supreme  government  of  Hungary.  After  numerous 
vicissitudes,  his  powers,  rights,  and  titles  wore 
strictly  defined  during  the  reign  of  Maria  Theresa. 
He  was  then  acknowledged  to  be  the  third  dignitary 
of  the  Hungarian  kingdom,  appointed  a  member  of 
the  Hungarian  council  of  government,  and  president 
of  the  council  of  the  banat,  and  at  the  coronation  of 
the  Hungarian  king  went  before  him,  bearing  the 
golden  apple,  the  symbol  of  sovereignty.  Such  was 
the  position  of  the  ban,  until  the  4th  of  March,  1849, 
when  Croatia,  Slavonia,  and  Dalmatia  were  trans- 
formed into  Austrian  crown-lands,  and  the  ban  made 
wholly  independent  of  Hungary,  and  endowed  with 
the  same  extensive  powers  as  the  governors  of  other 
crown-lands,  but  retaining,  nevertheless,  his  original 
title.  During  the  disturbances  in  Vienna  and 
Hungary,  in  1848,  the  Ban  .Tellachich  (q.  v.)  render- 
ed important  service  to  the  Austrian  emperor. 

BANA'NA,  a  fruit  originally  East  Indian,  but 
much  cultivated  in  warm  countries  over  the  whole 
globe.  It  is  now  generally  regarded  as  a  mere 
variety  of  the  Plantain  (q.  v.) ;  although  they  were 
formerly  ranked  by  botanists  as  distinct  species,  the 
Plantain  under  the  name  of  Musa  Paradisaica,  and 
the  B.  of  M.  sapirntum — the  specific  name  signifying 
'  of  the  wise  men,'  and  being  intended  to  convey  an 
allusion  to  a  statement  by  Thcophrastus  concerning 
a  fruit  which  served  as  food  for  the  wise  men  of 
India,  and  which,  from  its  description,  is  supposed 
to  have  been  the  plantain  or  banana.  The  names 
plantain  and  B.  are  somewhat  vaguely  used  in  their 


Banana. 

application  to  different  cultivated  varieties,  which 
are  very  numerous ;  those  called  B.  have  generally 
dark  purple  stripes  and  spots  on  their  stems,  and 
the  fruit  is  smaller,  less  curved,  and  of  more  delicate 
taste  than  the  plantain,  with  a  soft  and  luscious 
pulp.  Each  fruit  is  generally  about  four  or  five 
inches  long.  The  B.  is  always  used  in  a  ripe  state, 
and  never  like  the  plaintain,  as  a  substitute  for 
bread  ;  unless  when  the  pulp  is  squeezed  through  a 
fine  sieve,  and  formed  into  small  loaves,  which, 
when  dried,  may  be  kept  for  a  great  length  of  time, 
but  which  arc  saccharine,  and  not  farinaceous.  It 
is  sometimes  fried  in  slices ;  it  is  often  made  into 
preserves ;  and  its  juice  afibrds  an  excellent  wine. 
It  has  been  produced  of  good  quality  in  hot-houses 
in  Britain. — The  fruit  of  Musa  Cavendiskii  is  some- 
times also  called  banana.     See  Plantain. 


BANANA  BIRD— BANCROFT. 


BANA'NA  BIRD  (A'mithormis  Ictcnis),  a  beauti- 
ful bird,  allied  to  the  Ballinioie  bird  (q.  \.),  wliich 
it  considerably  exceeds  iu  size  ;  a  native  of  the  West 
Indies  and  warm  parts  of  America.  Its  colours 
are  tawny  and  black,  with  white  bars  upon  the 
wings.  It  is  very  lively  and  active.  It  is  gregari- 
ous, and  a  number  of  the  nests  may  often  be  seen 
near  each  other,  suspended  to  the  extremities  of 
slender  branches  of  tree.',  so  as  to  be  out  of  the 
reach  of  snakes  and  monkeys.  It  is  often  kept  in 
houses  to  destroy  insects.  It  is  very  easily  domesti- 
cated, and  delights  to  be  caressed. 

BA'NAT,  any  district  or  territory  under  a  ban, 
but  specially  f^pplied  to  a  province  of  the  Austrian 
empire,  which  has,  curiously  enough,  no  ban.  It 
is  bounded  on  the  W.  by  the  Theiss ;  on  the  S.,  by 
the  Danube ;  on  the  E.,  by  the  line  of  mountains 
which  separates  Hungary  fioni  Wallachia  and  Tran- 
sylvania; and  on  the  N.,  by  the  Maros.  Pop.,  in 
1858,  l,o74,.500.  It  is  partly  mountainous  and 
partly  flat,  but  is  everywhere  copiously  watered, 
and  exceedingly  fertile.'  The  chief  rivers  are  the 
Temes  and  Karasch.  The  climate  is  warm  in 
summer,  and  comparatively  cold  in  winter;  but, 
though  not  unpleasant,  it  is  far  from  salubrious  in 
the  west,  on  account  of  the  swamps  and  morasses 
which  abound.  Nevertheless,  it  is,  next  to  Lom- 
bardy,  the  most  productive  of  the  Austrian  pro- 
vinces, Yielding  rich  crops  of  wheat,  spelt,  and  other 
grains; "the  vine  is  little  cultivated.  Wild  fowl  are 
numerous,  and  the  rivers  swarm  with  fish.  The 
mines  are  valuable ;  coal,  iron,  copper,  gold,  silver, 
and  zinc  being  procured  in  considerable  quantities. 
The  mineral  springs  of  Mehadia  are  in  great  repute. 
The  principal  town  is  Teniesvar. 

Fornierl  v  the  B.  belonged  to  Hungary,  but  by  an  im- 
perial edict  of  18th  Nov.  1849,  it  was  separated  from 
that  country,  and  formed  into  an  Austrian  crowai-land 
under  the  title  of  the  '  Woiwodina  of  Serviaand  Banat 
of  Temes.'  It  was  restored  to  Hungary  about  1860. 
BA'NBRIDGE,  a  small  town  in  the  west  of 
Down  county,  Ireland,  on  a  steep  slope  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Bann,  76  miles  north  of  Dublin.  It  is  a 
thriving  seat  of  the  linen  manufacture  in  all  its 
stages,  from  the  preparation  of  the  soil  for  the  flax- 
seed to  the  finishing  of  the  finest  linen.  Miles  of 
bleaching-greens  exist  in  the  vicinity,  and  numerous 
factoriesalong  the  Bann.     Pop.  8301. 

BA'NBURY,  a  small  town  in  the  north  of  Oxford- 
shire, on  the  right  bank  of  the  Cherwell,  23  miles 
north  of  Oxford.  There  formerly  existed  here  a 
very  strong  castle,  Avhich  was  built  about  ir25,  and 
sustained  various  sieges  during  the  early  English 
civil  wars.  At  Danesmore,  near  B.,  the  Yorkists 
were  defeated  in  1469.  B.  is  the  centre  of  the 
famous  rich  red  land  of  Oxford  county.  This  land 
is  among  the  most  fertile  in  the  kingdom.  A  system 
of  canals,  connects  the  town  with  all  parts  of  Eng- 
land. The  vicinity  of  B.  is  thickly  studded  with 
villages.  Numerous  remains  of  the  ancient  Britons 
are  found  in  the  neighbourhood.  B.  is  noted  for 
its  munuficture  of  "agricultural  implements,  and 
for  its  malt  liquors,  cheese,  and  cakes.  There  are 
also  manufactures  of  plush,  shag,  girth,  and  other 
webbing.  B.  returns  one  member  to  parliament.  Pop. 
of  municipal  borough,  4020  ;  of  parhamentary,  8715. 
BANC,  legally,  is  a  seat  or  bench  of  justice,  and 
in  this  sense  has  given  rise  to  the  expression  of  the 
courts  of  law  at  Westminster  '  sitting  in  banc,'  or 
in  banco — that  is,  sitting  together  on  the  bench  of 
their  respective  courts,  in  term-time,  and  otherwise, 
as  is  provided  by  statute. 

BA'NCA,   an  island  on  the  north-east  coast  of 
Sumatra  (lat.  2°  20'  S.,  long.  106°  E.),  from  which 
it  is  separated  by   a  strait   of  its  own  name    with 
42 


an  area  of  43U0  sijiiare  miles,  and  a  population 
of  47,000 ;  being  barely  eleven  persons  to  a  square 
mile.  It  is  famous  for  its  tin,  exporting  annually 
4rOOO  tons,  mostly  to  China  and  Java. 

BA'NCO  (It.),  a  commercial  term  meaning  the 
standard  money  in  wliich  a  bank  keeps  its  accounts, 
as  distinguished  from  the  current  money  of  the 
place.  The  distinction  was  more  necess;iry  when 
the  currency  consisted,  as  it  often  did,  of  clipped, 
worn,  and  foreign  coins.  These  the  early  banks 
(Venice,  Amsterdam,  &c.)  received  at  their  intrinsic 
worth,  and  credited  the  depositor  in  their  books 
with  this  bank-value.  The  term  is  now  chiefly 
applied  to  the  money  in  which  the  Hamburg  bank 
keeps  its  accounts,  which  is  not  represented  by 
any  coinage.  The  Hamburg  Mark.  B.  (  =  ls.  5f(i. 
sterling=i5i|  Prussian  S.  groschen)  is  to  the  current 
mark  \  =  \h.  1\d.z=\n  S.  groschen)  as  20  to  16. 
Sweden  has  aK-o  a  peculiar  bank-money,  8  dollars 
B.  being  equal  to  3  dollars  specie.  Genoa  had 
at  one  time  a  bank  standard,  and  the  present  cur- 
rent money  being  different  from  that,  is  still  called  ^ 
'fuori  banco,'  outside  the  bank. 

BA'NCROFT,  George,  American  historian,  born  3d 
October  1800,  near  Worcester,  in  Massachusetts 
was  the  son  of  Dr.  Aaron  Bancroft,  an  eminent 
Unitarian  minister.  He  entered  Harvard  College  at 
the  age  of  13,  and  obtaining  a  valuable  exhibition 
there,  proceeded  in  1818  to  Gottingen,  where 
he  studied  hisiorv  and  philology  under  Ileeren, 
Plank,  and  Eichhorn,  and  in  l'820  obtained  the 
degree  of  doctor.  At  Berlin,  he  attended  the 
lectures  of  Hegel,  and  had  frequent  intercourse 
with  Schleiermacher,  W.  Von  Humboldt,  Savigny, 
Varnhagen  von  Ense,  and  other  literary  men  of 
note.  Subsequently,  he  travelled  through  Germany, 
and  formed  an  acquaintance  with  Goethe  and 
Schlosser.  Having  visited  Paris,  London,  and  Italy, 
B.  returned  to  America,  and  after  some  time  spent 
in  tuition,  devoted  himself  to  poUtics.  He  soon 
became  celebrated  as  a  democratic  politician,  and 
was  made  collector  of  customs  at  Boston.  He 
still  continued  his  literary  labours,  especially  in 
lectures  upon  German  literature,  philo.^ophy,  &c. 
When  Polk  was  elected  president,  in  1845,  he 
appointed  B.  secretary  of  the  navy.  While  in  this 
office,  he  established  an  observatory  at  Washington 
and  a  naval  school  at  Annapolis.  In  the  autumn 
of  1846,  B.  was  sent  by  Polk  as  ambassador  extra- 
ordinary and  plenipotentiary  to  England,  where  he 
remained  till  1849,  taking  advantage  of  his  stay 
in  London  to  carefully  and  comprehensively  investi- 
gate all  the  authentic  sources  ibr  materials  to  aid 
him  in  writing  the  History  of  America.  He  pub- 
lished the  result  of  his  labours"  in  his  History  of  the 
Revolution  (Boston,  1852).  He  had  alre«dy  secured 
for  himself  an  honorable  place  among  motlern  his- 
torians bv  his  History  of  the  Colonization  of  the 
United  States  (3  vols.,  Boston,  1834^1840).  The 
whole  of  these  wTitings  are  now  includetl  in  the 
author's  History  of  the  United  States,  a  work  of 
i  solid  excellence,  of  which  up  to  the  present  time 
I  (1868)  9  vols,  have  been  issued. 

BA'NCROFT,  Richard,  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, and  a  bitter  opponent  of  the  Puritans,  son  of 
Jolrn  B.  and  Mary,  niece  of  Hugh  Curwyn,  Arch- 
bishop of  Dublin,  was  born  at  Farnworth,  Lancashire, 
in  September  1544.  Educated  at  Cambridge,  he 
took  the  degree  of  B.A.  at  Christ's  College  in  1567, 
and  that  of  M.A.  at  Jesus'  College  in  1570,.  He 
became  rector  of  Teversham,  Cambridgeshire,  in  1575, 
of  St.  Andrews,  Holborn,  in  1584,  and  treasurer  of 
St.  Paul's  Cathedral  in  1585.  .  In  the  latter  year, 
he  was  admitted  D.D.  By  the  lord  Chancellor, 
Hatton,  to  whom  he  was  chaplain,  he  was  presented 

657 


BAND— BANDEL. 


to  the  rectory  of  Coltiiiphiini,  Northaiiiptonshirc. 
In  1581),  he  became  a  prebendary  of  St.  Pan]',-;,  in 
1592,  of  Westminster,  and  in  1594,  of  Canterbury. 
Consecrated  Bishop  of  London,  May  8,  1597,  he 
attended  Queen  Elizabeth  during  her  last  illness.  At 
the  famous  Hampton  Court  Conference  under  James 
I.,  he  was  one  of  the  chief  commissioners  on  behalf 
of  the  Church  of  England,  and  took  the  lead  in  the 
disputations.  In  the  convocation  of  lG(i3 — i,  he 
sat  as  president.  In  October  1G04,  he  succeeded 
Whitgift  as  Archbishop  of  Canterbury;  and  was 
sworn  iu  one  of  his  majesty's  privy  council  in 
September  1605,  and  chancellor  of  the  university 
of  Oxford,  1608.  He  died  November  2,  I6l0.  B. 
had  a  high  character  as  a  preacher  and  statesman ; 
and  was  a  vigilant  ruler  of  the  church.  He  is 
author  of  two  sermons,  one  of  which,  preached  at 
St.  Paul's  in  1588,  contains  a  furious  invective 
against  the  Puritans,  and  of  two  treatises  respecting 
cliurcli  order  and  discipline.  B.  left  his  library  to 
his  successors  in  the  see  of  Canterbury  for  ever. 
— His  nephew,  John  B.,  Bishop  of  Oxford,  1632, 
died  164(»,  built  the  pahice  of  Cuddesdcu  for  the 
bishops  of  that  see.  Burned  by  the  parliament 
troops,  1644,  it  was  rebuilt,  1679. 

BAND,  or  BANDS,  a  portion  of  clerical  dress,  and 
the  only  relic  of  the  ancient  amice,  a  linen  vestment 
which  was  used  in  the  ancient  church  to  cover  the 
shoulders  and  neci\  of  the  priest.  It  also  forms  a 
part  of  the  full  dress  of  the  bar,  the  universities,  and 
the  leading  functionaries  in  schools  of  old  founda- 
tion. At  Winchester  and  some  other  schools,  it  is 
even  worn  by  the  scholars  themselves.  The  bands 
worn  l)y  lawyers  and  other  civilians,  may  be  a  rehc 
of  the  wide  stiff'  collar  which  was  a  part  of  the  ordi- 
nary civilian  dress  in  the  reign  of  James  I. 

,  BAND,  in  Architecture,  is  the  name  given  to  any 
kind  of  ornament  which  is 
continued  horizontally  along 
a  wall,  or  by  which  a  Ijuikling 
is  encircled.  Bands  often 
consist  of  foliage,  quatrefoils, 
or  of  simple  bricks.  B.  of 
a  ilinft  is  the  moulding  or 
suits  of  mouldings  by  which 
the  piiliirs  and  shafts  are 
encircled  in  Gotliic  archi- 
tecture. Several  bands  are 
olten  placed  at  equal  dis- 
tances on  the  body  of  the 
shaft,  when  it  is  long,  in 
which  case  they  are  known 
as  shaft -rings. 

BA'NDA,  chief  town  of 
a  district  in  Bundelcund,  in 
hit.  25°  28'  N.  and  long.  80° 
23'  E.  In  1847,  its  population 
WHS  33,464.  It  is  a  great 
mart  for  cotton.  It  is  situ- 
ated on  the  riglit  bank  of  the  Cane  or  Keyn, 
an  affluent  of  tiie  Jumna,  being  95  miles  to  the 
southwest  of  Allahabad,  660  to  the  north-west  of 
('alcutta,  and  190  to  the  southeast  of  Agra.  The 
district  of  B.  contains  2878  square  miles,  and 
552,525  inhabitants. 

BA'NDAGES  are  used  by  surgeons  to  apply 
pressure  on  a  part,  or  to  retain  dressings  upon 
wounds.  The  most  common  bandage  is  a  strip  of 
linen,  calico,  or  elastic  web,  from  3  to  6  or  more 
inches  in  breadth,  rolled  longitudinally;  he:ice  the 
name  roller.  There  are  also  B.  to  suit  special 
purposes,  as  the  four-tailed  for  the  head  or  knee, 
which  consists  of  a  piece  of  cloth  split  up  on  each 
fide  towards  and  nearly  to  the  centre.  When 
658 


^and  of  a  shaft. 


applied,  the  tails  are  crossed  and  tied  so  as  to  make 
an  extemporaneous  night-cap.     In  applying  the  roller 


Bandage. 

bandage  to  a  leg,  the  surgeon  first  turns  it  round 
the  foot,  then  round  the  ankle  ;  and  so  by  repeated 
turns,  each  one  of  which  should  overlap  about  a  third 
of  the  previous  one,  till  he  reaches  the  calf  of  the 
leg,  when  he  must  fold  at  each  turn  the  bandage 
sharply  back  on  itself,  by  which  manoeuvre  the 
bandage  will  lie  flat  and  smooth  on  the  limb.  The 
operator  must  remember  that  the  bandage  must  be 
applied  more  tigiitly  at  the  foot  than  in  the  leg, 
so  that  it  may  not  impede  tlic  course  of  the  blood 
througli  the  veins.  This  requires  to  be  practised, 
as  the  eff'ect  of  a  bandage  is  always  for  good  or  evil 
as  it  is  well  or  ill  applied. 

BA'NDA  ISLES,  a  portion  of  the  Moluccas, 
consisting  of  12  islands,  0  of  which  arc  unin- 
habited, about  50  miles  to  the  south  of  Ceram. 
Their  population  is  variously  stated  at  from  5000  to 
155,00<).  Their  mean  lat.  and  long,  respectively  are 
4°  30'  S.,  and  129°  50'  E.  Their  chief  production  is 
the  nutmeg,  the  annual  export  of  that  spice  being 
al>out  500,000  lbs.,  with  a  corresponding  quantity — 
about  one  third — of  the  mace.  Like  most  of  the 
islands  in  this  neighbourhood,  they  belong  to  the 
Dutch.     They  are  lofty  and  volcanic. 

BA'NDA  ORIE'NTAL,  a  state  of  South  America. 
See  Uruguay. 

BANDA'NA,  a  kind  of  printed  handkerchief 
of  Indian  origin,  now  extensively  made  in  Britain, 
usually  of  cotton.  The  cloth  is  first  dyed  Turkey 
red,  and  then  the  pattern  is  made  by  discharging 
the  colour  with  bleaching  liquor  in  a  powerful 
Bramah  press.  The  pattern  to  be  discharged  is  cut 
out  on  two  plates  of  such  metal  (lead)  as  may  not 
be  acted  on  by  the  liquor,  and  of  the  full  size  of  the 
handkerchief.  A  dozen  or  more  are  put  in  at  once 
between  the  plates,  and  so  many  of  these  courses 
are  entered  together  as  till  the  press,  when  the 
pressure  is  applied,  and  the  liquor  is  run  in  on  the 
uppermost  plate,  which  is  grooved  on  the  upper  side 
to  receive  it,  and  holed  to  pass  it  from  plate  to 
plate  through  all  the  cloth-folds  in  the  press.  The 
pressure  on  the  cloth  to  make  clean  work  by  pre- 
venting the  spreading  of  the  liquor,  is  enormous. 
The  patterns  in  the  real  B.  style  of  printing  are 
spots  and  diamond  prints,  the  best  suited  for  dis- 
charging, and  even  for  these  a  pressure  of  500  tons  is 
required  to  work  them  clean.    See  Calico  Printing. 

BA'NDEL,  Ernst  Yon,  an  eminent  modern  sculp- 
tor, was  born  in  1800,  in  Anspach.  While  attending 
the  Academy  at  Munich,  he  prosecuted  his  studies  so 
diligently  that  in  1820  he  sent  to  the  exhibition  a 
plaster  figure  of  Mars  reposing,  as  large  as  life, 
which    procured    for   him   considerable   reputation. 


BANDELLO— BANDIERA. 


Of  Viiriou?  models  of  this  kind  done  by  him,  one, 
a  figure  of  Charity,  was  executed  in  inurblc.  This 
work  occupied  the  artist  about  ten  years„  It 
exhibits  great  chastcncss  of  design,  and  a  minute 
carefulness  of  execution.  Among  his  best  portrait 
busts,  in  which  he  excels,  arc  those  of  Maximilian, 
king  of  Bavaria  (1S3J),  and  of  the  artists  I).  Quaglio 
and  Pi'ter  Hess.  He  has  also  executed  the  monu- 
uient  of  the  Knight  von  Skell  in  the  English  garden 
of  the  Art  Institution  at  Municli,  the  tombstone  of 
the  historical  painter  Langer,  and  several  figures  of 
the  gods..  In  1842,  B.  executed  a  bust  of  the  poet 
Grabbe,  and  a  marble  statue,  as  large  as  life,  of 
Thusnelda,  wife  of  Hermann.  She  is  represented 
loaded  with  chains,  with  her  hands  crossed  on  her 
breast,  as  when  slio  was  led  away  captive  by  the 
Romans. 

BANDE'LLO,  Matteo,  an  Italian  writer  of 
novellc  or  tales,  was  born  at  Castelnuovo  in  Pied- 
mont about  the  year  1480.  In  early  life,  he  became 
a  Dominican  monk,  in  the  Convent  delle  Grazie  at 
Milan,  but  soon  abandoned  this  vocation  for  a  more 
free  and  independent  life.  His  uncle,  who  had  been 
elected  general  of  the  order  in  15Ul,  took  him  to 
travel  with  him  ;  and  in  Rome  and  Naples,  B. 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  belles-lettres.  He 
then  returned  to  Milan,  whence  he  was  driven  by 
the  Spaniards,  as  a  partisan  of  France,  after  the 
battle  of  Pavia,  in  lo'io.  He  accompanied  Francis 
I.  to  France,  and  was,  in  1550,  made  bishop  of 
Agen  by  Henry  II.  He  left  the  care  of  his  diocese 
to  the  Bishop  of  Grasse,  in  order  to  be  able  to 
devote  himself  without  disturbance  to  the  comple- 
tion of  his  tales,  which  he  published  in  the  Italian 
language  in  three  volumes  (Lucca,  1554),  to  which 
a  fourth  was  added  after  his  death,  which  took 
place  in  1561.  The  tales  of  B.  rank  next  to  those 
of  Boccaccio  in  Italy.  They  are  distinguished  by 
unalfected  simplicity  of  style,  fluency  and  vividness 
of  narrative,  and  a  harmonious  brevity  of  periods. 
It  must  be  confessed,  however,  that  they  are  not 
unfrequcntly  very  impure  in  tone.  B.  wrote  several 
other  works. 

BANDE  NOIRE  ('  Black  Band ')  was  the  name 
given,  during  the  first  French  Revolution,  to  the 
societies  of  capitalists  who  bought  the  confiscated 
buildings  which  had  belonged  to  the  church,  emi- 
grants, &c.  The  opprobrious  name  was  fixed  on 
them  on  account  of  their  vandalism  in  the  destruc- 
tion of  old  relics,  works  of  art,  churches,  convents, 
abbeys,  episcopal  residences,  &c.,  many  of  which 
possessed  both  a  scientific  and  historical  interest. 
It  has,  however,  been  alleged,  on  the  other  hand,  that 
these  societies  have  frequently  done  considerable 
service  to  the  community,  in  removing  old  and 
useless  edifices,  and  that  their  minute  subdivision 
into  lots  of  the  old  territorial  domains,  has  both 
favoured  agriculture  and  ameliorated  the  condition 
of  the  people. 

^ BA'NDEROLE,   a  small  streamer 

f  fixed  immediately  under  the  crook, 
on  the  top  of  the  staff'  of  a  crosier 
(q.  v.),  and  folding  over  the  staff. — 
Also  an  architectural  term  for  the  flat 
inscribed  band  used  in  the  Renais- 
sance buildings,  similar  to  those  now 
used  for  mottoes  to  coats-of-arms. 


Ife) 


Banderole. 


BA'ND-FISH,  or  SNA'KE-FISH  (Cepo/a),  a 
genus  of  fishes  of  the  Ribbon-fish  (((.  v.)  family.  The 
body  is  much  elongated  and  compressed.  The  bones 
arc  little  more  solid  than  a  mere  fibrous  net-work, 
and  everything  else  exhibits  a  corresponding  deli- 
cacy, so  that  specimens  are  seldom  to  be  obtained 
in  an  uninjured  state.  All  the  species  inhabit 
quiet  depths,  and  are  incapable  of  contending  with 


waves  and  currents.  Their  singular  form  and  the 
beauty  of  their  colours,  make  them  objects  of  great 
interest.  One  species,  the  Red  B.  (C  rubexcens),  not 
uncommon  in  the  Mediterranean,  is  occasionally 
cast  ashore  by  storms  on  the  British  coasts.  It  is 
about  fifteen  inches  long.  Its  brilliant  appearance, 
when  seen  moving  in  the  water,  has  suggested  the 
names  of  Fire-flame  and  Red-Ribbon,  by  which  it  is 
known  at  Nice. 

BA'NDICOOT  {PeramdcH),  a  genus  of  marsupial 
(  q.  V.)    quadrupeds,  occupying    in  the    zoology   of 


Bandicoot. 

Australia  a  place  somewhat  analogous  to  that  of 
shrews  (q.  v.)  in  Europe.  Their  dentition  is  remark- 
able, as  they  have  ten  cutting  teeth  in  the  upper 
jaw,  and  only  six  in  the  lower,  the  posterior  ones  of 
which  are  two-lobed :  in  other  respects  it  nearly 
resembles  that  of  opossums.  They  have  an  elongated 
head  and  pointed  muzzle;  the  hind-legs  are  consi- 
derably longer  than  the  fore-legs;  the  thumb  and 
little  toe  of  the  fore-feet  are  little  more  than  simple 
tubercles,  so  that  there  seem  to  be  only  three  toes  ; 
and  there  is  a  fleshy  tubercle  in  place  of  a  thumb  on 
the  hind-feet.  Their  movements  are  similar  to 
those  of  hares  or  rabbits.  They  live  on  bulbs, 
insects,  &e.,  make  ravages  in  potato-fields,  and 
devour  corn  in  granaries.  There  are  several  species. 
The  Long-nosed  B.  {P.  nasuta)  is  about  a  foot  and 
a  half  in  length  from  the  extremity  of  the  nose  to 
the  origin  of  the  tail,  which  is  not  unlike  that  of 
a  large  rat,  but  better  covered  with  hair.  It  is 
chiefly  found  in  the  moimtainous  parts  of  New 
South  Wales.  P.  Gunnii  is  common  in  Van 
Diemen's  Land. 

BA'NDICOOT,  BA'NDICOOT  RAT,  MALA" 
BA'R  RAT,  or  PIG-RAT  (J/m.?  gujantcm\  the 
largest  known  species  of  rat.  The  name  B.  is  a 
corruption  of  the  Telinga  pandihoku,  literally  signi- 
fying pig-rat.  The  animal  inhabits  many  parts  of 
India,  and  is  plentiful  in  Ceylon.  It  is  chiefly  found 
in  dry  situations,  and  often  in  hilly  districts.  It 
attains  the  weight  of  two  or  three  pounds,  and  is 
24 — 30  inches  long,  including  the  tail,  which  at  the 
base  is  2^  inches  in  circumference.  The  body  is 
thick,  and  greatly  arched,  black  above,  greyish 
below.  Its  flesh  is  a  favoiu'ite  article  of  food  with 
the  coolies  of  India,  and  is  said  to  be  delicate,  and 
nmch  resembles  young  pork.  It  feeds  chiefly  on 
grain  and  roots,  and  is  very  destructive  in  gardens. 
'Its  nests,  when  rifled,  arc  frequently  found  to 
contain  con.siderable  quantities  of  rice,  stored  up 
against  the  dry  season.' — Sir  J.  E.  Tennent's  Ceylon. 

BANDIERA,  Attilio  and  Emilio,  two  brothers 
well  known  for  their  tragic  fate,  were  descended 
from  a  distinguished  aristocratic  family  of  Venice, 
which  had  once  held  a  place  in  the  red  book  of  the 
republic.  They  were  lieutenants  in  the  Austrian 
navy,  their  father  being  rear-admiral ;  but,  instead  of 
sharing  the  pro-Austrian  sentiments  of  their  parent, 
they  cherished  enthusiastic  dreams  of  the  free  and 

659 


BAXDINELLI— BANDOLIXE. 


united  republic  of  Italy.  In  the  year  1842,  they 
entered  into  correspondence  with  Mazzini,  whom 
they  regarded  as  almost  a  demigod.  Their  glowing 
iind  enthusiastic  patriotism  breathes  in  every  line  of 
their  letters.  Both  were  noble  spirits,  ready  for 
any  sacrifice,  but  unfortunately  impressed  with  the 
delusive  idea  that  their  native  country  could  be 
saved  by  means  of  a  conspiracy.  Emilio,  the 
younger,  of  a  stronger  bodily  frame,  but  of  a  lighter 
disposition,  was  under  the  influence  of  his  graver 
and  more  thoughtful  brother.  In  the  year  1843, 
they  believed  that  the  time  was  come  for  a  revolu- 
tion by  force  of  arms  ;  but  their  premature  appeal 
finding  no  practical  res{)onse,  they  fled  to  Corfu  in 
March  1844,  where  they  endured  many  bitter  dis- 
appointments and  much  misery.  Hope  '  alone 
inspired  them  with  life ;  but  at  length,  misled  by 
false  rumours  of  a  rising  in  Naples,  with  which  it 
is  supposed  the  Neapolitan  police  had  something 
to  do,  they  ventured  to  land  with  twenty  com- 
panions, at  the  mouth  of  tiie  small  river  Nieto,  in 
Calabria,  believing  that  their  appearance  would  be 
the  signal  for  a  general  insurrection.  The  Neapolitan 
government  expected  them ;  one  of  their  com- 
panions, a  certain  Boccheciampe,  had  betrayed 
them.  They  were  attacked  by  an  overwhelnnng 
force,  and  were  nearly  all  taken  prisoners  at  once. 
One  only  fell  on  the  spot,  and  two  escaped.  Nothing 
was  ever  allowed  to  transpire  respectiitg  the  trial  of 
these  unfortunate  men.  Attilio  and  Emilio  were 
shot  along  with  seven  of  their  comrades  in  the 
public  square  of  Cosenza,  on  the  "iSth  July  1844, 
They  died  joyfully,  exclaiming  'Viva  i'ltalia!'  The 
public  mind  had  not  then  become  accustomed  to 
hear  of  bloody  deaths  for  political  causes.  A  cry 
of  indignation  resounded  through  Europe  at  this 
'kingly  revenge,'  as  it  was  called  in  a  conservative 
paper  of  the  day.  A  year  later,  their  remaining 
companions  were  pardoned.  The  fate  of  the  brothers 
B.  attracted  much  attention  in  England,  from  the 
circumstance  that  letters  of  M.  Mazzini,  then  in 
Loudon,  had  been  opened  in  the  post-office  by 
authority  of  government,  which  was  accused  of 
giving  such  information  to  the  Italian  governments 
as  enaljled  them  to  entrap  the  insurgents. 

BANDINE'LLI,  Baccio,  the  son  of  a  famous 
goldsmith  of  Florence,  and  one  of  the  best  sculptors 
of  his  time,  was  born  at  Florence  in  1487.  His  first 
instructions  were  probably  received  in  the  workshop 
of  his  father,  for  in  those  days  goldsmiths  wrought 
from  their  own  designs.  He  was  afterwards  a  pupil 
of  Rustici,  and  the  friend  of  Leonardo  da  Yinci. 
He  was  an  angry  and  jealous  rival  of  Michael 
Angelo,  whose  grandeur  of  conception  he  strove  to 
equal,  and  who  is  said  to  have  retaliated  his  enmity 
by  contempt.  It  must  be  admitted,  however,  that 
we  have  only  prejudiced  sources  from  which  to 
draw  our  information  regarding  him.  Benvenuto 
Cellini,  whose  language  is  generally  passionate  and 
hyperbolical,  is  his  chief  accuser,  although  Yasari 
also  speaks  of  his  proud  and  envious  disposition. 
Whatever  may  have  been  his  moral  infirmities,  it  is 
impossible  to  deny  that,  as  a  sculptor,  he  was  in  his 
day  second  only  to  Michael  Angelo.  His  feuds  with 
his  brother-artists  do  not  appear  to  have  injured 
him  in  the  opinions  of  persons  of  distinction.  He 
was  patronised  by  Cosmo  de'  Medici,  Charles  Y., 
Francis  I.,  Clement  VII.,  and  other  powerful  friends. 
Clement  even  bestowed  on  him  an  estate.  He  died 
at  Florence,  1559 — 1560. 

His  best  works  are  bassi-relievi,  among  which  are 
those  that  adorn  the  choir  of  the  Duomo  at  Florence. 
On  the  high  altar  in  the  same  building  is  to  be  seen 
his  Corpse  of  Christ,  supported  by  an  angel,  with 
God  the  Father  over  it.  His  most  ambitious  work 
is  Hercules  with  Cacus  at  his  feet.  In  the  Mediceau 
6oO 


Gallery  are  his  copies  of  the  group  of  the  Laocoou 
— a  masterly  imitation  of  the  anticjue,  in  which  he 
boasted  that  he  excelled  even  the  ancients  them- 
selves. He  also  executed  statues  of  some  of  his 
patrons;  all  his  works  exhibit  power,  vigour,  and 
skilful  drawing,  but  it  is  alleged,  apparently  with 
considerable  truth,  that  '  he  was  too  fond  of  the 
terrible  graces  of  composition.' 

BA'NDIT,  a  word  originally  signifying  a  'ban- 
ished '  or  outlawed  person  ;  then  one  who,  because 
outlawed,  wages  war  against  civilised  society ; 
and  finally,  a  highway  robber.  The  banditi,  or 
banditti,  formed  in  Italy  in  earlier  times,  as  it 
were,  a  separate  community  or  guild,  who  sub- 
mitted to  their  own  stringent  laws,  carried  on 
both  open  and  secret  war  with  civilised  societ}-, 
and  kept  up  a  certain  romantic  idea  of  honour. 
By  means  of  the  severe  measures  which  were 
adopted  in  1820  by  the  papal  government  against 
the  banditti  and  their  abettors,  their  haunts  were 
broken  up.  Those  who  still  occasionally  disquiet 
the  frontiers  of  Naples  are  in  general  people  settled 
on  the  spot,  who  regard  robbery  and  murder  as 
equally  a  branch  of  their  trade  with  agriculture. 
I'eter  the  Calabrian,  one  of  the  most  i'amous  B. 
chiefs  in  1812,  assumed  the  titles  of  'Emperor  of 
the  Mountains,  King  of  the  Woods,  and  Lord  of  the 
Highroads  from  Florence  to  Naples.'  The  govern- 
ment of  Ferdinand  I.  I'ound  themselves  obliged  to 
conclude  treaties  with  him.  The  banditti  must  be 
distinguished  fiom  common  robbers,  wlio  w ere  called 
Malriieiifi.  In  later  times,  t!ie  banditti  were 
joined  by  adventurers  of  all  kinds,  to  such  an 
extent,  that  the  Austrian  troops  who  occupied 
Naples  were  obliged  to  make  frequent  expeditions 
against  them.  In  Sicily  the  banditti  are  most 
numerous  in  the  Yal  Demone.  They  formerly 
acquired  so  much  power  there,  that  the  Prince  of 
Yillafrancn,  as  a  piece  of  policy,  declared  himself 
their  patron,  and  treated  them  with  much  confi- 
dence. In  the  years  1841 — 1843,  polifical  iugitives 
united  with  robbers  and  adventurers  of  all  kinds 
in  the  Abruzzi,  Calabria,  and  Romagna,  and  since 
then  they  have  never  been  entirely  extirpated. 
The  revolutions  of  1848 — 1849  added  greatly  to 
their  niiml)ers,  and  in  several  districts  of  Italy, 
especially  in  the  States  of  the  Church,  between 
Ferrara  and  Ancona,  they  reached  ati  unheard  of 
degree  of  boldness,  notwithstanding  the  Austrian 
army  of  occupation.  Under  the  command  of  one 
Bellino  (known  by  the  name  of  'II  Pas.-^atore'),  a 
daring  and  talented  man,  who  died  in  March  1851, 
they  kept  the  country  in  terror,  and  even  burned 
several  villages  to  the  ground.  They  also  carried 
on  a  real  guerrilla  warfare  against  the  nnlitary  forces 
of  the  country.  Recent  events  (1850)  in  Italy  have, 
it  is  said,  recalled  numbers  of  these  banditti  to  a 
more  honourable  course  of  life. 

BANDOLEER,  or  B.VNDALEE'R.  Two  cen- 
tuiies  ago,  soldiers'  muskets  were  provided  with 
matchlocks,  a  very  slow  and  ineffective  contrivance 
for  firing.  The  "musketeers  were  furnished  with 
gunpowder  in  small  cylindrical  boxes  made  of  wood, 
tin,  or  leather,  each  containing  sufficient  for  one 
charge.  Twelve  of  these  little  bo.xes  were  fixed 
to  a  belt  called  a  bandoleer,  worn  over  the  left 
shoulder.  In  what  way  these  were  superseded  by 
a  superior  arrangement,  will  be  found  noticed  under 
Cartridge. 

BA'NDOLINE  is  a  mucilaginous  substance  used 
for  stiifening  hair,  and  keeping  it  in  shape  or  form. 
It  is  much  used  by  ladies  in  the  present  prevailing 
mode  of  wearing  the  hair,  and  by  gentlemen  to 
dress  their  moustaches.  The  usual  receipt  for 
making  the  B.  sold  in  the  shops  ii  to  boil  Carrageen 


BANDONG— BANFFSHIRE. 


(q.  V.)  or  Irish  moss  with  water  till  a  thick  mucilage 
is  obtained,  which  is  afterwards  scented  with  Eau 
de  Cologne  or  other  perl'unicd  spirit ;  a  second  mode 
of  preparing  B.  is  to  soak  quinco-secds  in  cold  water 
for  a  day  or  two,  then  strain,  and  add  perfume ;  and 
a  third  process  is  to  heat  gum  tragacanth  (gum 
dragon)  with  water,  and  when  a  mucilage  is  obtained, 
let  it  cool,  and  add  the  scent.  The  synonyms  of 
B.  iiro  fiwatr ice, Jjjratufc,  and  clysphitiqiie. 

BANDO'XG,  a  commercial  town  on  the  west 
coast  of  Java,  in  tlie  vicinity  of  the  volcano  (iunong 
Guntour,  by  au  eruption  of  which  eighty  villages 
were  destroyed  in  1822. 

BAXDS,  Military,  consist  each  of  a  body  of 
skilled  musicians,  attached  to  a  regiment  in  the 
British  service.  According  to  military  regulations, 
the  ordy  indispensable  instruments  are  drums,  fifes, 
bugles,  and  trumpets,  all  of  which  are  employed  to 
give  signals  on  the  march  or  in  active  service,  either 
for  infimtry  or  for  cavali'v.  To  supplement  this 
meagre  musical  establishment,  however,  the  officers 
of  regiments  organise,  chiefly  at  their  own  cost, 
effective  military  bands,  who  use  a  variety  of  instru- 
ments— such  as  flutes,  clarionets,  bassoons,  horns, 
ophicleides,  big  drums,  cymbals,  triangles,  &c.  What 
at  first  appears  to  have  been  a  matter  of  individual 
choice,  has  at  length  assumed  almost  the  force  of 
a  regulation  ;  for  officers  are  obliged  to  contribute 
twelve  days'  pay  in  the  course  of  a  year,  and  an 
extra  sum  when  promoted,  to  the  band-fund.  The 
members  of  these  bands  are  selected  from  the  ranks  ; 
but  the  band-master,  though  in  uniform,  is  usually 
a  civilian  who  is  hired  for  the  purpose,  and  who 
generally  refuses  to  accompany  the  regiment  abroad, 
except  at  an  increased  rate  of  remuneration.  The 
musicians,  generally,  are  in  an  anomnlous  position  ; 
for,  whilst  serving  in  the  band,  their  pay,  and 
eventually  their  pensions,  are  restricted  to  those 
of  the  private  soldier.  Good  musicians  have  at 
all  times  a  tendency  to  quit  the  B. ;  their  better 
prospects  as  teachers,  and  players  in  orchestras  and 
concerts,  induce  them  to  obtain  release  by  paying 
the  amount  of  compensation  prescribed  by  regulation. 
An  attempt  made  by  the  Duke  of  Cambridge  in  1856, 
to  relieve  the  commissioned  officers  of  part  of  the 
expense  entailed  upon  them  by  the  present  system, 
failed,  and  matters  remain  as  they  were.  In  most 
of  the  regiments  of  the  line,  the  band  consists  of  a 
band-master  and  about  fifteen  musicians  ;  but  in  the 
choice  corps  the  number  is  often  much  larger.  When 
a  regiment  consists  of  two  or  more  battalions,  the 
band  goes  with  the  first.  The  band  plays  on  parade 
and  at  mess,  as  a  part  of  regular  duty.  When  M. 
B.  play  at  festivals,  concerts,  &c.,  '  by  permission  of 
the  commanding-officer,'  the  payment  goes  to  the 
musicians;  and  the  chance  of  obtaining  these  fees 
is  one  of  the  inducements  to  the  men  to  remain  in  a 
service  whicli  has  very  few  attractions  in  relation  to 
the  actual  regular  amount  of  pay.  The  bands  of  the 
three  regiments  of  foot-guards — Grenadier,  Cold- 
Ptream,  and  Scots  Fusilier — are  very  frequently 
engaged  in  this  way  during  the  London  season. 

BA'NEBERRY.     See  Acma. 

BANFF  (pron.  Bamf),  the  capital  of  Banffshire,  a 
seaport  town  in  the  north  end  of  the  county,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  mouth  of  the  Doverau,  45  miles 
nortli-north-west  of  Aberdeen.  It  stands  on  an  abrupt 
height  on  the  Moray  Firth,  and  consists  of  an  upper 
or  inland  town,  and  a  lower  or  sea  town,  with  the 
rem;iinsof  an  ancient  castle  on  a  height  between  them. 
Glose  to  the  south  side  of  B.  stands  Duff  House, 
the  seat  of  the  Earl  of  Fife,  with  a  park  14  miles  in 
circumference.  The  harbour  is  liable  to  be  filled 
with  sand.  A  seven-arched  bridge  over  theDoveran 
unites  B.  with    the  town  and   seaport   of  Macduff, 


which  stands  on  the  east  side  of  the  river.  The 
chief  exports  are  corn,  cattle,  salmon,  and  herrings. 
Robert  II.,  in  1372,  made  B.  a  royal  burgh.  Sharpe, 
the  famous  Archbishop  of  St.  Andrews,  was  born 
here  in  1613,  and  the  noted  robber,  Macpherson 
was  executed  in  1700.  The  August  floods  in  the 
Doveran,  in  1820,  undernuned  and  carried  away 
several  houses,  and  destroyed  much  property  in 
Banff.  B.  unites  with  Elgin,  Cullen,  Inverury, 
Kintore,  and  Peterhead  in  sending  one  member  to 
parliament.     Bop.,  including  Macduff,  6000. 

BA'NFFSHIRE,  a  county  in  the  north-east  of 
Scotland,  bounded  N.  by  the"  Moray  Firth  ;  E.,  S.E., 
and  S.  by  Aberdeenshire  ;  W.,  by  Elgin  and  Inver- 
ness shires.  It  stands  fourteenth  among  the  Scotch 
counties  in  size,  and  fifteenth  in  population.  Its 
greatest  length  is  about  68  miles,  its  greatest  breadth 
about  32 — average,  12;  its  extent  of  sea-coast  about 
30 ;  estimated  area,  647  square  miles.  The  surface, 
especially  in  the  south  and  south-east,  is  moun- 
tainous, interspersed  with  fertile  valleys  and  fine 
pastures;  but  the  surface  near  the  coast  is  com- 
paratively level.  The  chief  mountain-ranges  and 
rivers,  as  well  as  the  stiike  of  the  stratified  rocks, 
run  from  south-west  to  north-east,  and  the  whole 
county  is  an  extensive  slope  in  the  same  direction, 
from  the  Grampians  to  the  Moray  Firth.  The  coast 
is  rocky,  but  not  high,  except  to  the  east  of  Banff. 
The  highest  peaks  are  the  North  Cairngorm,  4090 
feet;  Ben-a-Main,  3874  ;  Ben  Rinnes,  2763  ;  Corry- 
habbie,  2569;  Knock,  1416;  Ben  Muicdhui,  4296 
feet,  is  partly  in  Banffshiie.  The  rivers  of  B. 
all  flow  into  the  Moray  Firth.  The  chief  are  the 
Spey — one  of  the  largest  of  the  Scottish  rivers, 
and  the.  most  rapid  in  Britain — which  bounds  a 
third  of  the  county  on  the  W. ;  and  the  Doveran, 
60  miles  long,  and  included  within  the  county.  The 
predominant  rocks  are  granite,  quartz  rock,  mica- 
slate,  clay-slate,  sycnitic  greenstone,  graywacke  and 
gray  wacke  slate,  and  old  red  sandstone  with  fossil 
fishes.  Many  patches  of  metamorphic  limestone 
and  of  serpentine  occur.  The  serpentine  near 
Portsoy  has  long  been  famous  as  the  '  Portsoy 
Marble.'  Beryl  and  rock-crystal  occur  on  Cairn- 
gorm. Slate  and  limestone  are  quarried.  Lead, 
iron,  antimony,  and  plumbago  occur  in  small  quan- 
tity. The  soil  is  very  fertile,  and  highly  cultivated 
on  the  best  modern  principles  of  agriculture,  in  a 
tract  along  the  coast  two  to  eight  miles  broad, 
as  well  as  along  the  valley  of  the  Doveran,  and  in 
many  of  the  glens.  In  1857,  nearly  a  third  of  the 
surface  of  B.  was  in  crop,  the  chief  crops  being 
oats,  turnips,  and  grass.  The  breeding  of  cattle 
is  the  chief  object  of  the  farmer.  The  chief  manu- 
factures of  B.  are  weaving,  bleaching,  tanning, 
and  distilling.  The  produce  of  Glenlivet,  near  the 
centre  of  B.,  has  long  been  celebrated.  The  chief 
exports  are  grain,  meal,  and  cattle.  There  are 
twelve  fishing  towns  and  villages  along  the  coast 
The  herring-fishery  is  extensively  carried  on.  The 
salmon-fisheries  of  the  Spey  and  Doveran  employ 
200  men,  and  are  very  valuable,  the  Spey  ranking 
after  the  Tweed  and  Tay  as  a  salmon-river.  B.  is 
divided  into  the  districts  of  Enzie,  Boyne,  Strathisla, 
Strathdoveran,  Balveny,  Glenlivet,  and  Strathavon. 
The  chief  towns  and  villages  are  Banff,  Macduff, 
Portsoy,  Keith,  Cullen,  Buckie,  Dufftown,  and 
Tomantoul.  Pop.  in  1861,  59,234  ;  schools  about  175, 
with  10,100  pupils  ;  jilaees  of  worship,  74  (20  of  the 
Established,  and  23  of  the  Free  Church).  B.,  along 
with  the  counties  of  Aberdeen  and  Elgin,  enjoys 
the  Dick  Bequest  (q.  v.)  for  parochial  educatioa. 
Two-thirds  of  B.  belong  to  four  landed  proprietors. 
The  county  returns  one  member  to  parliament,  and 
Banff  and  Cullen  unite  with  Elgin,  Inverury, 
Kintore,  and  Peterhead  in   returning  another.     B. 

661 


BANGALORE— BANGOR. 


contains  numerous  remains  of  antiquity,  the  most 
remarkable  being  the  old  churches  of  Ganirie  and 
Mortlach.  The  former,  built  in  1010,  and  used  for 
public  worship  till  1830,  is  called  the  '  Kirk  of 
Skulls,'  the  bones  of  the  Norsemen  who  fell  on  the 
neighbouring  field  of  Bloody  Pots  having  been  built 
into  its  walls.  Mortlach  was  for  a  century  the  seat 
of  a  bishop,  but  David  I.,  in  1139,  incorporated  the 
see  with  that  of  Aberdeen. 

BANGALO'RE,  a  fortified  town  of  Mysore, 
situated  70  miles  to  the  north-east  of  Seringapatam, 
in  lat.  12°  58'  N.,  and  long.  17°  38'  E.  It  is  the 
chief  military  station  of  the  British  in  the  territory. 
It  has  a  manufacture  of  silk  ;  but  that  of  cotton  is, 
or  has  been,  far  more  important,  having  been  at 
one  time  estimated  to  employ  3000  looms.  The 
population  of  B.  is  about  60,000.  As  the  jilace  is 
3000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  the  thermo- 
meter, during  six  successive  years,  is  said  to  have 
risen  only  twice  above  90°,  and  then  only  to  92° 
and  93°.  During  the  same  period  of  time,  the  lowest 
temperature  was  61°.  B.  was  a  favourite  residence 
of  Hyder  Ali ;  and,  in  1791,  it  was  stormed  by  the 
British  under  Lord  Cornwallis.  Water  is  good  and 
abundant ;  and  the  usual  vegetables  of  Europe  come 
to  maturity  in  the  gardens. 

BANGKO'K,  the  capital  city  of  Siam,  is  situated 
on  the  banks  of  tlie  Mcinani,  about  20  miles 
from  the  mouth  of  that  river,  in  the  Gulf  of  Siam, 
and  in  lat.  13°  38'  N.,  and  long.  100°  34'  E.  Its 
population  has  been  estimated  by  the  Roman 
Catholic  missionaries,  who  have  had  the  best  means 
of  ascertaining  it,  at  upwards  of  4(Kt,000.  Sir  John 
Bowring's  '  impression '  is  that  it  exceeds  300,000. 
There  are  upwards  of  200,<i00  Chinese,  -in  whose 
hands  is  centered  nearly  all  the  trade  of  B.,  which  is 
large.  For  their  right  to  trade  here,  the  Chinese 
pay  a  poll-tax  of  about  three  dollars  on  cirtering  the 
kingdom,  and  a  similar  sum  is  collected  from  them 
every  three  years.  The  payment  of  this  tax  exempts 
them  from  the  half-yearly  servitude  which  all  other 
oriental  strangers  resident  in  Siam  are  required  to 
give.  The  approach  to  B.  by  the  Meinam,  which 
can  be  navigated  by  ships  of  from  200  to  300  tons 
burden,  is  exceedingly  beautiful,  the  banks  being 
skirted  by  fine  trees  full  of  gay  birds.  As  the  town 
is  neared,  numerous  temples  present  themselves, 
and  floating  houses  become  common;  and  finally, 
the  whole  city,  with  its  rich  gardens,  and  shining 
temples  and  palaces,  bursts  full  upon  the  view. 
A  large  number  of  the  houses  float  on  rafts,  and 
can  be  transferred  from  one  ])lace  to  another  at 
pleasure.  There  are  a  few  houses  in  the  city  built 
of  brick  and  stone,  but  the  greater  part  are  of  wood. 
There  are  usually  in  each  house  a  division  for  males 
and  one  for  females.  The  land-houses  are  raised  upon 
piles,  6  or  8  feet  from  the  ground,  and  are  reached  by 
rude  ladders — the  daily  flow  of  the  tides  and  the 
annual  inundations  rendering  this  plan  necessary. 
The  floating-houses  are  made  of  bamboo-boards, 
wicker-work,  or  palm-leaves,  and  have  generally  a 
verandah  in  front,  with  a  small  wirg  at  each  end. 
The  circumference  of  the  walls  of  B.,  which  are  15 
foet  high  and  12  broad,  is  said  to  be  6  miles.  The 
internal  traffic  of  B.  is  chiefly  carried  on  by  means 
of  canals,  there  being  only  a  few  passable  streets 
in  the  whole  city.  Horses  and  carriages  are  rarely 
seen  except  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  palaces. 
The  chief  interest  of  the  kingdom  of  Siam,  according 
to  Sir  John  Bowrlng,  concentrates  itself  in  Bangkok. 
B.  is  the  constant  residence  of  the  two  kings  of 
Siam  and  their  respective  comts.  The  palace  of 
the  first  king  is  surrounded  by  high  walls,  and  is 
nearly  a  mile  in  circumference.  It  includes  temples, 
public  offices,  accommodation  for  some  thousands  of 
662 


soldiers,  with  their  necessary  equipments,  a  theatre, 
and  rooms  for  about  3000  females,  600  of  whom  are 
the  wives  of  the  king.  The  sacred  white  elephant 
has  also  a  |)lace  within  the  palace.  Throughout  the 
interior  are  distributed  the  most  costly  articles  in 
gold,  silver,  and  precious  stones.  The  palace  of  the 
second  king,  whose  functions  are  not  very  cleaily 
defined,  is  nearly  as  large  as  that  of  the  first  king, 
but  not  so  ostentatious.  See  Siam.  The  temples 
of  B.  are  innumerable,  and  decorated  in  the  most 
gorgeous  style,  the  Siamese  taking  a  pride  in  lavish- 
ing their  wealth  on  them.  Some  of  them,  accord- 
ing to  the  Catholic  bishop  Pallegoix,  have  cost 
more  than  4,0()U,000  francs  (£160,000).  In  the 
neighbourhood  of  B.  are  iron-mines  and  forests  of 
teak-wood.  The  chief  exports  are  sugar,  pepper, 
cardamoms,  ivory,  feathers,  hides,  fine  woods,  rice, 
salt,  and  fish.  At  one  time,  the  exportation  of  rice 
and  teak  was  prohibited;  and  by  the  treaty  con- 
cluded by  Sir  John  Bowring  in  1855,  the  Siamese 
reserve  the  right  to  prohibit  that  of  salt,  rice,  and 
fish,  in  cases  of  threatened  scarcity.  The  imports 
are  tea,  manufoctured  silks,  and  piece-goods,  opium, 
camphor,  porcelain,  and  glass  wares.  See  Sir  John 
Bowring's  Siam. 

BANGOR,  an  episcopal  city,  borough,  and  sea- 
port town  in  the  north-west  of  Caernarvonshire, 
North  Wales,  on  the  south-east  bank  of  the  Menai 
Strait,  2i  ndles  from  the  Britannia  Bridge,  and 
59^  west  of  Chester.  It  consists  chieflj'  of  a 
narrow  crooked  street,  a  mile  long,  stretching 
south-west  through  a  narrow  fertile  valley,  bounded 
on  the  south  by  steep  precipices.  The  grandeur 
and  beauty  of  the  surrounding  scenery  has  long 
made  it  a  favourite  resort,  and  the  opening  of 
the  Chester  and  Holyhead  Railway,  on  the  great 
line  of  communication  from  London  to  Dublin, 
has  greatly  ])roinoted  its  prosperity.  The  town  has 
of  late  years  been  greatly  improved,  and  mostly 
rebuilt.  Its  chief  trade  is  deiived  from  the  great 
slate-quarries  of  Llandegai,  6  miles  distant,  and 
employing  2000  men.  The  slates  are  exported  to 
all  parts  of  the  world,  and  also  manufactured  at 
B.  into  tables,  chimney-pieces,  &c.  Pop.  6338.  B. 
unites  with  Caernarvon,  Conway,  Criccieth,  Nevin, 
and  Pwllheli,  in  sending  one  member  to  parliament. 
B.  is  a  place  of  great  antiquity.  In  525,  St.  Deiniol 
founded  a  college  here.  It  was  raised  to  a  bishopric 
in  550,  the  founder  being  the  first  diocesan.  The 
cathedral  founded  by  him  was  destroyed  by  the 
Saxons  in  1071,  rebuilt  in  1102,  and  again  destroyed 
by  fire  in  1-402.  The  present  edifice,  built  between 
1496  and  1532,  is  a  plain  embattled  cruciform 
structure,  214  by  60  feet,  with  a  pinnacled  tower 
60  feet  high.  Several  Welsh  princes  and  distin- 
guished ecclesiastics  are  buried  here.  B.  bishopric 
is  the  oldest  in  Wales. 

BA'NGOR,  a  small  seaport  town  in  the  north- 
east of  Downshire,  on  the  south  side  of  the  entrance 
to  Belfast  Lough,  and  12  miles  cast-north-east 
of  Belfast.  Pop.  2850.  It  has  linen  and  cotton 
manufactures.  'The  enibroideriugof  muslin  is  carried 
on.  Cattle  and  provisions  are  exported.  There  is 
much  traffic  with  the  west  of  Scotland.  Coal,  slate, 
and  copper  are  found  in  the  neighbourhood.  St. 
Cungall,  in  555,  founded  Bangor  Abbey  ('  Ban-choir,' 
the  '  White  Choir,'  whence  the  name  Bangor),  of 
which  the  ruins  still  remain.  From  this  abbey, 
Alfred  selected  professors  when  he  founded  the 
university  of  Oxford.  In  the  9th  c.  it  had  3000 
inmates. 

BA'NGOTl,  a  city,  of  Penobscot  co.  ^RLiine,  on  the 
Penobscot  River,  66  miles  E.  N.E.  of  Au^'usta,  126 
N.  E.  of  Portland,  and  231  N.  E.  of  Boston.  Lat.  44*^ 
47'  50"  N.,  Ion.  68°  47'  W.     The  Kenduskcag  Rivet 


BANGORIAN  CONTROVERSY— BANK,  BANKING. 


here  enters  the  Penoliscot.  Banj^or  is  one  of  the 
greatest  hinibor  depots  in  the  worjd.  Nearly  2000  ves- 
sels are  annualh-  employed  in  tliis  trade.  The  city  con- 
tains 12  or  13  l)aiiks,  and  II  churches,  4  of  which  cost 
about  f  2.5,000  each,  and  the  Bangor  Theological  Semi- 
nary. TSvo  daily  and  four  weekly  newsjuqiers  are  pub- 
lished here.  The  schools  of  Bangor  are  in  a  most  pros- 
jierous  condition.  Among  the  manid:"acturing  estab- 
lishments are  4  foundries,  4  f uriuture  shops,  and  sev- 
eral sawing  and  ])laning  mills.  Steamboats  run  fi'om 
Bangor  to  Boston  and  Portland,  and  the  Penobscot  and 
Kennebec  K.  R.  connects  it  '«'ith  Waterville.  Sliipping, 
June  30,  18G3,  amounted  to  22,181  tons  registered,  and 
22,087  tons  enrolled  and  licensed ;  Pop.  in  1860, 16,407. 

BANGO'RIAX  CO'NTROVERSY.  Dr.  Benjamin 
Hoadlcv,  Bi.-^liop  of  Bangor,  in  a  sermon  preached 
before  George  I.,  March  31,  ITIT,  on  the  text,  'My 
kingdom  is  not  of  this  world,'  advanced  opinions 
regarding  the  constitution  of  the  cliurch  which 
excited  strong  o[>positioii  from  the  zealous  advocates 
of  ecclesiastical  authority.  A  controversy  ensued, 
which  was  carried  on  with  great  heat  for  many 
years,  and  resulted  in  a  ponderous  collection  of 
pamphlets.     See  IIoadley. 

BA'NGOR-ISCOE'D  (Bangor  below  the  "Wood), 
an  inland  village,  beautilully  situated,  in  a  fertile 
and  richly  wooded  country,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Dee,  on  the  borders  of  Flint  and  Denbigh  shires. 
North  Wales,  5  miles  south-east  of  Wrexham.  Pop. 
554.  It  was  once  the  seat  of  one  of  the  largest 
monasteries  in  Britain.  This  monastery  was  founded 
before  180  a.d.  and  contained  2400  monks  in  the 
time  of  St.  Augustine,  in  the  end  of  the  6th  c,  when 
they  distinguished  themselves  in  resisting  the  eloims 
of  the  papal  see.  Ethelred,  king  of  Northumbria, 
in  593,  devasted  the  monastery,  and  massacred  1200 
of  the  monks. 

BANIALU'KA,  a  fortified  town  of  Bosnia,  Euro- 
pean Turkey,  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Verbas, 
with  a  manufactory  of  gunpowder,  and  numerous 
bazaars  aud  public  baths.     Pop.  7800. 

BA'NIAX  or  BANIA'N  (from  the  Sanscrit  lanij, 
a  merchant),  a  word  used  in  India  to  designate  a  mer- 
chant or  trader  generally.  It  is  more  particularly 
applied  to  the  great  mercluints  in  the  west  of  India, 
especially  in  the  sea])ort  towns  of  Bombay,  Sural, 
Cand)ay,  &c.,  who  carry  on  a  very  extensive  trade  by 
means  of  caravans,  with  the  interior  of  Asia,  even  to 
the  borders  of  Russia  and  China.  Contrary  to  the 
general  custom  of  the  Indian  people,  these  merchants 
travel  much,  and  the  establishments  and  counting- 
houses  of  Indian  Banians  are  to  be  found  in  almost 
every  commercial  town  of  any  note  in  Asia.  The 
banians  ibrm  a  class  or  division  of  the  caste  (q.  v.) 
of  the  Vaisya,  adopt  a  peculiar  custom,  and  are 
strict  in  the  observance  of  fasts  and  in  abstaining 
from  the  use  of  flesh. 

BA'NIAN  DAYS,  a  sailoi's  phrase,  nearly  equi- 
valent to  the  jours  maiyrcs  of  the  French.  The 
term  denotes  the  days  when  no  meat  is  served  out 
to  a  ship's  crew.  How  far  this  is  likely  to  occur  in 
the  royal  luivy,  or  tlio  mercantile  marine,  will  be 
found  noticed  under  Victualling.  The  term  is 
derived  from  the  practice  of  the  Banian  (q.  v.)  traders. 

BA'NIAX-TREE.     See  Banyan. 

BA'NIM,  John,  a  celebrated  Irish  novelist,  born 
ISOO,  whose  pictures  of  manners,  in  the  form  of 
tales,  have  excited  consideralile  interest  in  England. 
His  aim  was  to  become  ibr  Ireland  what  Scott 
had  been  for  Scotland.  He  has  given  proof  of 
vigorous  intellectual  grasp  and  vivid  fancy,  in  a 
series  of  pictures  of  life,  in  which  he  delineates 
the  peculiarities  of  the  Irish  character  in  strong 
light  and  shade,  and  appeals  forcibly  to  the  national 


feeling.  His  Tales  of  the  O'Hara  Family  (London, 
1825)  were  followed,  in  1826,  by  a  second  series, 
which  did  not  disappoint  the  higfi  oxpeciations 
excited  by  the  first.  Of  these,  several  have  been 
translated  into  German  by  Lindan.  Next  appeared 
The  Battle  of  the  Boi/ne,  'Jlie  Croppy,  (1828),  Tlie 
lJc7ioiuiccd  (IHoO),  The  Sniiuiglcr  (IbSl),  lite  Mayor 
of  Windyap,  Father  Connell,  &c.  In  1837,  general 
sympathy  having  been  attracted  towards  B.'s  priva- 
tions, occasioned  by  disease  that  precluded  all 
literary  exertions,  a  pension  of  £150  per  annum 
from  the  civil  list  was  awarded  him  by  government, 
which  was  afterwards  further  increased  by  £40  for 
the  education  of  his  daughter,  an  only  child.  He 
died  in  poverty  on  the  1st  August,  1842,  at  Windgap 
Cottage,  near  Kilkenny. 

B.  failed  in  his  attempt  to  portray  the  manners 
and  frivolities  of  the  higher  classes  ;  but  none  of 
his  predecessors,  such  as  Edgeworth,  Morgan,  and 
Crofton  Croker,  have  succeeded  in  depicting  so 
vividly  and  truly  the  Irish  peasant,  with  his  pic- 
turesque peculiarities  in  his  sufferings  and  errors. 
Although  generally  happy  in  the  plot  and  develop- 
ment of  his  story,  he  is  too  much  disposed  to 
dwell  on  the  horrible.  His  denunciations  may  be 
well  founded,  but  they  disturb  the  poetic  effect. 
B.  was  also  not  qiiite  free  from  a  somewhat  tiresome 
minuteness  of  description,  and  his  imitation  of  Scott 
is  frequently  very  palpable. 

BA'NISHMENT,  excepting  in  the  penal  sense  of 
Transportation  (q.  v.),  with  which  it  is  popularly 
synouymous,  can  only  now  be  said  to  have  a  legal 
meaning  historically.  Formerly,  in  England,  parties 
who  were  required  to  abjure  the  realm — that  is, 
renounce  and  depart  from  the  country — were,  so  to 
speak,  banished  ;  but  the  word  appears  to  have  a  more 
technical  and  precise  significance  in  the  Scotch  law 
than  in  the  English,  and  in  Scotch  law-books,  is 
defined  as  the  punishment  of  exile  from  Scotland 
inflicted  on  persons  convicted  of  certain  offences  for 
which  that  punishment  is  provided.  But  as  a 
punishment,  it  has  either  been  abolished  in  that 
country  by  express  enactment  or  become  obsolete  by 
disuse.     See  Transportation,  Penal  Servitude. 

BA'NISTER,  a  corruption  of  Baluster  (q.  v.). 

BANJERMASSI'N,  an  extensive  territory  occu- 
pying the  south-east  portion  of  the  island  of  Borneo, 
the  river  Banjer  bounding  it  on  the  west,  and  the 
strait  of  Macassar  on  the  east.  A  range  of  moun- 
tains, rising  in  many  places  to  an  elevation  of  3000 
feet,  intersects  it  from  north  to  south.  Pop. 
120,000,  principally  Mohammedans,  and  governed 
by  a  sultan,  who  is  absolute  so  far  as  his  people 
are  concerned,  but  who  is  to  a  certain  extent  subject 
to  the  Dutch.  The  manufactory  of  all  kinds  of 
small-arms  has  been  brought  to  a  state  of  great 
perfection  in  this  country.  Iron  serves  in  place  of 
money.  Coal  of  good  quality  was  discovered  in 
1846,  and  is  now  piofitably  worked  by  the  Dutch. 
The  capital,  which  bears  the  name  of  tiie  district,  is 
situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Banjer,  about  fifteen 
miles  from  its  mouth,  and  has  a  considerable  trade 
with  China  through  its  port  at  Tabeniow,  about 
fifty  miles  from  the  town,  a  bar  at  its  entrance 
rendering  the  Banjer  inaccessible. 

BANK,  BANKING.  A  banker  is  the  custodier 
of  the  money  of  other  persons.  Such  is  his  business, 
viewed  in  its  simplest  aspect.  A  banker,  if  he 
hoarded  the  money  deposited  with  him,  would  be 
simply  a  cash-keeper  to  the  public  ;  his  bank  would 
be  literally  a  bank  of  deposit.  Even  were  the  busi- 
ness of  banking  limited  to  the  keeping  of  deposits, 
it  would  be  of  no  small  advantage  to  society  :  the 
depositors  would  be  relieved  from  the  care  of  their 
money,  and  in  mi:nv  cases,  fVoin  the  trouble  of  handing 

663 


BANK,  BANKING. 


it  to  those  to  whom  they  required  to  make  a  pay- 
ment. If  the  peison  to  whom  tlie  depositor  wishes  to 
jiay  money  intend  also  to  deposit  it,  a  transfer  in  the 
IjooIkS  of  the  barilier  from  tlie  one  to  the  other,  made 
on  the  order  or  cheque  of  tlie  depositor,  would  eft'oi^t 
the  payment.  The  money  itself  would  lay  undis- 
turbed. The  Baidv  of  Amsterdam,  as  it  existed  in 
the  17th  c,  was  a  bank  of  deposit,  pure  and  simple. 
But  the  business  of  receiving  money  on  deposit  lias 
almost  always  been,  and  is  now,  universally,  com- 
bined with  that  of  lending  it  out.  A  banker  does 
not  hoard  all  the  money  deposited  with  him — he 
gives  the  greater  portion  out  in  loan.  The  lending 
of  money  is  as  much  a  part  of  his  business  as  the 
receiving  of  deposits.  The  advantages  accruing  to 
society  from  the  operations  of  banking  arc  thus 
immense.  A  million  of  money  lent  out  to  be  used, 
and  which  otherwise  would  have  lain  dead,  either  in 
small  portions  in  the  repositories  of  the  owners,  or  in 
one  huge  hoard  in  the  coficrs  of  the  banker,  makes 
the  world  one  million  the  richer — or  at  least  pre- 
vents it  from  becoming  one  million  the  poorer  ;  for 
money,  so  long  as  unused,  serves  no  end  as  a  means 
of  exchange.  With  the  money  thus  lent  out,  manu- 
facturers can  purchase  raw  material  to  be  worked 
up,  and  ])rocure  food  and  clothing  for  their  work- 
men ;  and  traders  can  go  into  the  markets  and  jiur- 
chase  commodities  for  resale.  Commodities  are  thus 
more  quickly  turned  to  useful  purposes,  and  a  stimu- 
lus is  given  to  the  production  of  more.  But  a  hanker 
deals  not  with  the  money  only  of  others ;  he  uses 
money  belonging  to  himself.  This  is  his  capital. 
Few  would  be  found  to  deposit  their  money  with  a 
person  known  to  possess  none  of  his  own.  If  he 
should  lend  dejiosits  to  those  who  fail  to  repay  them 
— that  is,  make  bad  debts — he  has  the  means  from  his 
capital  of  rci)lacing  the  deposits  thus  lost.  Such, 
then,  are  the  simple  functions  of  a  banker  ;  lie  bor- 
rows and  lends. 

But  for  the  money  he  lends  he  receives  interest 
from  the  borrowers  ;  and  in  this  interest  he  is  paid 
for  his  trouble  in  taking  charge  of  the  deposits,  and 
for  his  risk  of  bad  debts.  The  services  that  a  banker 
performs  as  the  cash-keeper  of  his  depositors  are 
very  great.  In  the  case  of  persons  not  themselves 
in  business,  it  is  quite  usual  for  a  banker  to  make 
all  their  inoney-paynients,  beyond  their  small  daily 
expenditure,  and  to  I'eceive  the  money  payable  to 
them.  The  money  transactions  of  such  persons  are 
thus  contained  in  their  banker's  books.  This  is 
effected  b^-  the  depositor  giving  a  cheque  or  order  on 
his  lianker  for  the  sums  he  has  to  pay ;  and  by 
handing  to  him  all  the  cheques  or  orders  the  deposi- 
tor receives  for  sums  payable  to  himself.  Suppose  a 
person's  income  derived  from  dividends  on  govern- 
ment stock :  he  sends  a  power  of  attorney  or  autho- 
rity to  his  banker  to  uplift  the  dividends  for  him. 
These  are  received  by  the  banker  as  deposits,  and 
are  drawn  out  by  the  depositor  as  occasion  occurs, 
by  cheques  issued  by  the  depositor  to  those  to  whom 
he  requires  to  pay  it  away.  So  he  may  receive 
money  due  to  him  by  a  cheque  given  to  him  by  his 
debtor.  This  cheque  he  sends  to  his  banker,  who 
will  obtain  payment.  If  both  persons  deal  with  the 
same  banker,  a  simple  transfer  in  his  books  will 
carry  through  the  transaction  ;  and  if  the  banker* 
be  different,  and  each  has  had  received,  in  the 
course  of  his  business,  as  is  always  happening,  a 
cheque  on  the  other,  there  will  be  a  set-ott"  between 
them  ;  aiid  tv,o  payments  will  be  made  as  well  as 
two  deposits,  without  trouble  to  the  persons  con- 
cerned, and  without  the  employment  of  any  money. 
But  this  mode  of  managing  one's  pecuniary  transac- 
tions is  not  confined  to  the  case  of  those  not 
engaged  in  business  ;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  followed 
on  a  scale  out  of  all  proportion  greater  in  carrying 
664 


through  the  money  transactions  of  those  in  business 
or  trade  in  the  principal  industrial  countries. 

Besides  thus  performing  the  functions  of  cashiers 
to  their  depositors,  in  consideration  of  the  profit 
made  on  their  deposits,  many  banks  allow  their 
depositors  interest  on  their  deposits.  The  rate 
allowed  is,  of  course,  always  less  than  that  received 
by  the  banker.  Frequently  a  depositor  bargains 
with  the  banker  not  to  draw  out  his  deposit  without 
previous  notice,  longer  or  shorter,  as  may  be  agreed 
on;  and  in  this  case  the  banker  will  allow  a  higher 
rate  of  interest  than  when  the  deposit  is  repayable 
on  call — that  is,  at  any  time,  without  juevious 
notice.  The  practice  of  allowing  interest  on  deposits 
always  obtained  in  Scotland,  but  in  England  is 
of  later  growth.  It  has  led  there,  of  late  years,  to  a 
great  increase  in  the  amount  of  deposits,  especially, 
it  is  believed,  of  small  sums.  Where  banks  allow 
intercut  on  deposits,  it  is  quite  common  for  persons 
lo  lodge  their  money  with  them,  solely  for  the  sake 
of  the  return  received  in  the  shape  of  interest  from 
the  banks.  These  persons  prefer  the  low  rate  of 
interest  which  banks  give,  to  the  higher  rate  which 
may  be  obtained  from  individual  borrowers,  or  to 
the  greater  return  which  may  be  received  if  they 
traded  on  their  money.  The  low  rate  of  interest  is 
compensated  lor  by  the  greater  security,  and  the 
absence  of  trouble  and  labour  to  the  depositor. 

Occasions  are  always  occurring  for  withdrawing 
deposits,  as  well  as  making  them.  Traders  and 
commercial  men,  for  example,  day  by  day,  deposit 
with  their  bankers  the  drawings  or  sums  of  money 
which  they  receive  in  the  course  of  their  business; 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  day  by  day,  draw  out  such 
sums  as  they  require  to  pay  away  in  purchases  of 
goods,  in  wages,  rent,  and  other  expenditure.  A 
bank,  therefore,  while  continually  receiving  deposits, 
is  continually  repaying  deposits  ;  and  the  amount 
uncalled  for  is  subject  to  a  daily  fluctuation.  At 
one  period  of  the  year,  or  in  a  certain  condition 
of  trade,  the  amount  of  deposits  may  be  high  ;  at 
another,  low.  As  it  is  a  principle,  *at  the  very 
root  of  banking,  that  money  deposited  ^hall  be 
returned,  either  on  demand,  or  punctually  at  the 
expiry  of  a  stipulated  notice,  it  follows  that  banks 
must  always  have  in  their  coffers  as  much  of  the 
money  deposited  with  them  as  there  is  the  least 
likelihood  of  being  called  for  by  depositors.  When 
business  is  in  its  ordinary  condiiion,  a  bank  can, 
after  some  experience,  approximate  pretty  nearly 
to  the  amount  of  the  greatest  demand  for  a  return 
of  deposits  throughout  the  year,  and  ])rovide  accord- 
ingly. But  sometimes  the  credit  of  a  bank  becomes 
doubted,  either  from  causes  peculiar  to  itself,  or 
on  occasion  of  a  panic  or  general  distrust,  when 
all  who  own  money  wish  to  have  it  in  their  own 
possession.  In  these  cases,  there  is  a  ruti  on  the 
bank  for  repayment  of  its  deposits,  and  the  amount 
called  for  may  be  far  beyond  the  maximum  demanded 
in  ordinary  times.  If  the  bank  has  not  retained 
as  much  of  the  deposits  in  its  coffers  as  meet  the 
demand,  it  is  said  to  suspend  payment,  and,  as  a 
general  rule,  it  must  wind  up  its  business  ;  the 
confidence  of  the  public  that  it  will  in  future  restore 
its  deposits  on  demand  being  now  destroyed.  There 
are  two  prime  rules  in  safe  banking :  the  one  is, 
that  the  bank  shall  lend  ito  deposits  only  on  good 
and  undoubted  securities,  however  low  the  profits ;  and 
the  other  is,  that  the  bank  shall  retain  a  sufficient 
amount  of  its  deposits — and  this  is  called  the  reserve 
— to  meet  the  possible  demands  of  the  depositors, 
even  in  cases  of  a  run,  although  there  may  be 
no  reason  to  expect  a  run  or  unusual  demand ; 
for  when  a  run  comes,  it  seldom  casts  its  shadow 
before.  But  it  is  evident  that  the  greater  the 
reserue  of  a  bank,  the  less  the  amount  of  deposits 


BANK,  BANKIXG. 


which  it  is  leiuliiifjf  out  .and  drawing  interest  for; 
lierice  the  temptation  which  banks  lie  under  of 
iiuprudontly  lending  out  a  too  great  proportion 
of  their  deposits;  and  it  is  their  yielding  to  this 
tempUition  which  almost  always  precipitates  the 
failures  of  banks. 

Tlie  7'csrrve  of  the  banking  department  of  the 
Bank  of  England  is  always  in  coin,  or,  what  is 
the  same  thing,  in  notes  against  wliich  there  is 
coin  lying  in  what  is  called  the  issue  department 
of  the  Bank.  In  the  case  of  all  other  banks  in 
this  country,  the  reserve  is  only  partly  in  coin  ; 
sometimes  the  pro[)ortion  of  coin  is  very  small. 
A  great  portion  of  the  reserve  is  generally  in 
Bank  of  England  notes,  equivalent,  of  course,  to 
coin.  These  other  banks  also  hold  a  portion  of 
what  is  truly  their  reserve,  in  the  shape  of  govern- 
ment stock,  in  which  they  have  invested  it.  In 
this  way,  the  banks  obtain  a  return  on  this  last 
portion  of  their  reserve,  in  the  dividends  or  interest 
paid  by  government  ou  the  stock — this  return  being 
less,  indeed,  in  the  usual  case,  than  if  the  bank 
had  lent  out  the  money  in  the  ordinary  course 
of  business,  but  better  than  no  return  at  all,  as 
must  be  when  the  coin  or  notes  are  lying  idle.  The 
reason  why  government  stock,  in  Great  Britain, 
is  a  safe  reserve  is,  that  it  is  sure  to  command  a 
purchaser  at  all  times.  If  there  be  a  run  on  a 
bank,  it  immediately  finds  a  purchaser  for  the 
stock,  and  with  the  price,  whether  paid  in  gold, 
or  in  Bank  of  England  notes,  the  only  other  legal 
tender,  it  meets  the  demands  of  its  depositors. 
Sometimes,  a  bank  has  its  reserve  in  the  form 
of  a  deposit  at  the  Bank  of  England  ;  or,  if  a  pro- 
vincial bank,  with  some  London  bank  which  has 
its  own  reserve  there.  From  the  Bank  of  England 
being  the  channel  through  which,  directly  or  in- 
directly, payments  are  made,  and  moneys  received, 
by  other  banks,  it  is  more  convenient  for  them 
to  have  their  reserve  lying  as  a  deposit  in  it,  than 
lying  as  gold  within  their  own  walls.  In  the 
case  of  a  demand  on  their  reserve,  the  banks  will 
draw  out  their  deposits,  in  notes,  or,  if  gold  be 
in  demand,  in  gold,  from  the  Bank  of  England. 
Whether,  tlitrelbra,  the  reserve  of  a  bank  is  invested 
in  government  securities,  or  is  deposited  in  the 
Bank  of  England,  or  is  in  Bank  of  England  notes, 
it  is  from  the  coin  in  that  bank  that  the  gold  comes 
in  the  case  of  a  run.  It  is  apparent  from  this  that 
it  is  essential  to  the  stability  of  all  banks  in  this 
country,  so  long  as  they  themselves  do  not  keep 
a  sufticient  reserve  of  coin  in  their  coffers,  that 
the  Bank  of  England  shall  always  be  po.ssesscd 
of  coin,  and  never  be  unable,  on  demand,  to  pay 
its  depositors  in  gold,  or  to  give  gold  in  exchange 
for  all  its  notes  that  may  be  presented  to  it.  It 
may  be  added,  that  while  banks  gain,  through 
the  annual  dividends,  in  keeping  their  reserve  in 
government  stot'k,  tney  run  the  risk  of  a  loss  in 
the  event  of  their  re(iuiring  to  sell  it  in  the  time 
of  a  panic.  For  at  such  a  time,  when  many 
secm-ities  and  stocks  become  unsaleable,  and  all 
of  them  sulfer  depreciation  in  value,  government 
stock'  itself  falls  in  price,  although  less  so  than 
the  other.s.  Banks  often  invest  ])ortions  of  their 
reserve  in  other  stocks  than  government  stock. 
The  higher  return  obtained  ou  these  other  is, 
however,  outweighed  by  the  L-reater  risk  of  depre- 
ciation in  their  value,  whether  continued  unsold 
or  thrown  into  the  market  for  s.ale  in  times  of 
]  anic. 

We  have  hitherto  been  treating  banks  as  banks 
of  deposit  and  loan  :  but  many  of  these  banks, 
in  all  countries  where  banks  are  known,  arc  also 
banks  of  issu".  Banks  of  deposit,  as  has  been 
mentioned,     make     loans     from    their     capital    and 


deposits.  If  from  capital,  the  banker  has  no  greatei 
profit  by  the  transaction  than  if  he  had  lent  out 
ills  money  in  any  other  way,  equally  safe,  and 
involving  the  same  amount  of  trouble.  If  from 
deposits,  the  interest  he  receives,  in  so  far  as  it 
exceeds  the  interest,  if  any,  paid  to  the  dei)ositors, 
and  a  rateable  proportion  of  the  expense  of  carrying 
on  the  business  of  the  bank,  is  pure  gain  to  him- 
But  a  banker  may  give  the  loan  from  his  own 
notes,  and  in  that  case  his  gain  is  still  greater. 
A  bank-note  is  simply  a  written  promise  by  the 
bank  issuing  it,  to  pay  to  the  bearer,  on  demand, 
a  sum  of  money — that  is,  in  coin  of  the  realm.  Of 
course,  the  borrower  would  not  accept  a  loan 
from  a  bank  in  its  own  notes,  unless  he  believed 
that  it  could  redeem  its  promise  of  paying  in  coin, 
and  that  the  public  w-ere  of  the  same  opinion ; 
for  the  moment  that  a  suspicion  arises  that  the 
promise  will  not  be  made  good,  the  note  will  cease 
to  pass  from  hand  to  hand  as  coin,  or  to  perform 
all  the  functions  which  coin  performs.  But  when 
the  loan  is  accepted  in  a  bank's  own  notes,  it 
is  evident  that  the  interest  which  the  baidc  draws 
for  the  loan  of  its  promises  to  pay  is  pure  profit, 
except  the  rateable  proportion  —  as  in  the  other 
cases — of  the  expense  of  carrying  on  its  business, 
and  the  expense  of  the  paper  and  printing  of  the 
notes  with  the  government  stamp-duty.  In  other 
words,  a  bank  which  can  get  people  to  pay  to  it 
interest  for  the  loan  of  its  promises  to  pay,  draws  the 
same  income  —  barring  the  comparatively  trifling 
expense  of  manufacturing  the  written  promises — 
as  a  bank  does  which  has  to  provide  itself  with  gold 
for  making  its  loans.  The  motive  which  a  bank 
has  to  extend  its  issues  on  loans  is  therefore 
apparent,  so  long,  of  course,  as  it  is  not  compulsory 
on  it  to  retain  unemployed  in  its  coffers  as  much  in 
gold  as  it  issues  in  notes. 

But  it  by  no  means  follows  that  when  a  bank 
makes  a  loan  in  its  own  notes  for  a  definite  period, 
it  will  really  obtain  the  benefit  of  the  interest  on  it 
for  that  period ;  for  the  borrower  does  not  apply 
for  the  notes  that  he  may  keep  them  beside  him, 
but  that  he  may  pay  them  away  in  making  a 
purchase,  or  in  liquidating  a  debt,  and  this,  most 
commonly,  on  the  very  day  he  receives  them.  If 
the  person  to  wlioni  the  notes  are  thus  paid  by  the 
borrower  has  himself  no  purchase  to  pay  for,  or  no 
payment  to  make,  he  may,  the  moment  he  gets 
them,  return  them  to  the  bank  that  issued  them,  to 
lie  there  on  deposit.  If  the  bank  pays  interest  on 
deposits,  as  most  banks  do,  then  out  of  the  interest 
drawn  by  it  on  the  original  loan,  it  will  have  to  pay 
interest  to  the  depositor  of  the  notes ;  in  other 
words,  the  loan  is  no  longer  a  loan  of  its  notes,  but 
a  loan  from  its  deposits.  Or,  the  person  receiving 
the  notes  from  the  borrower,  may  immediately 
present  them  to  the  issuing  bank  for  coin,  instead  of 
depositing  them.  Here,  too,  therefore,  the  loan  that 
was  made  in  notes  is  now  converted  into  a  loan  of 
coin,  that  was  in  reseive  from  previous  deposits,  or 
that  was  part  of  the  bank's  own  capital  ;  in  which 
cases,  the  bank  obtains  no  advantage  whatever  in 
having  made  the  loan  originally  in  its  notes.  It 
might  equally  well,  so  far  as  profit  is  concerned, 
have  originally  made  it  in  gold  from  its  reserve  of 
deposits  or  capital.  Notes  generally  find  their  way 
back  to  the  hank  that  issued  them  through  other 
banks,  into  which  they  have  been  paid  as  deposits, 
or  for  the  liquidation  of  debts  due  to  them.  These 
hanks  suffer  the  loss  of  profit  or  interest  on  the 
amount  of  the  notes  thus  received  by  them  so  long 
as  they  keep  them ;  they  therefore  immediately 
present  them  to  the  issuing  bank  for  gold,  to 
replenish  their  own  reserves,  or  to  lend  out ;  or, 
what   is   the   same   thing,  they   present  them  to   the 

665 


BANK,  BANKING. 


issuing  bank  for  government  stoclc,  or  other  securi- 
ties bearing  interest,  and  which  that  banli  has  had 
to  provide  from  its  capital  and  deposits. 
^  It  will  now  be  apparent  to  the  reader  that  there 
are  two  cheeks  which  prevent  a  bank  issuing  notes 
to  any  extent  it  pleases.  In  the  first  place,  there 
must  be  a  demand  for  its  notes  by  borrowers.  It  is 
only  to  people  in  good  credit,  and  likely  to  make 
a  profitable  use  of  them,  that  a  bank  will  lend  its 
notes,  and  such  people  will  not  take  an  increase  of 
loans  unless  trade  be  increasing  and  new  opportuni- 
ties be  presenting  themselves  for  profitably  employ- 
ing the  notes  borrowed.  True,  banks,  when  impru- 
dently conducted,  or  when  deceived  in  the  character 
of  their  customers,  frequently  lend  their  notes  to 
reckless  persons,  who  overtrade  with  them,  and 
become  bankrupt.  But  banks  commit  this  error, 
when  they  do  commit  it,  to  a  far  greater  extent  by 
loans  of  their  deposits  and  capital,  than  by  loans  of 
their  notes.  In  the  second  place,  the  immediate 
return  of  the  notes,  chiefly  through  other  banks  for 
gold,  or  for  other  portions  of  the  reserve  of  the 
issuing  bank,  is  a  check  to  its  issuing  more  notes 
than  it  has  a  reserve  to  meet.  This  return  of 
notes  through  banks  is  called  the  exchatnie  of  notes — 
the  notes  issued  by  a  bank  being  returned  to  it  in 
exchange  for  the  notes  held  by  it  of  another  bank. 

Besides  issuing  its  notes  in  loans,  a  bank  may 
issue  them  in  repayment  of  deposits.  In  this  case, 
there  is  the  same  profit  to  the  bank  as  in  the  other 
case.  The  bank  gets  the  profit  which  it  make.'!  on 
the  money  which  was  originally  deposited  or  lodged 
with  it,  without  having  to  pay  interest  to  the  pereons 
who  made  the  deposit  or  lodgment ;  the  deposit, 
or  money  lodged,  having  now  been  repaid  in  its 
notes.  But  here,  too,  these  notes  are  eciually  liable 
to  be  returned  to  the  issuer  as  when  they  are  issued 
on  loans. 

Of  all  the  notes  issued,  in  whatever  way,  by 
banks,  a  certain  amount  is  not  returned  to  them, 
but  is  kept  in  circulation,  being  what  is  required 
by  the  necessities  of  the  public  for  use  as  money, 
passing  from  hand  to  hand.  It  is  of  course  on  this 
portion  that  the  banks  make  their  profit;  and,  in 
consequence  of  this  profit,  they  are  able  to  afford 
banking  facilities  to  the  public  more  cheaply  than 
they  could  otherwise  do.  The  profit  is  just  the 
interest  on  the  notes  in  circulation — less  the  expense 
of  manufacturing  the  notes,  a  rateable  proportion  of 
the  expenses  of  conducting  the  banks,  and  the  loss 
of  interest  or  profit  on  an  unemployed  reserve  kept 
from  prudence,  or  by  the  requirement  of  law,  to 
meet  a  return  of  notes.  This  interest  is  paid  by  the 
persons  who  originally  borrowed  these  notes  from 
the  banks,  and  wlio  have  not  repaid  them ;  or  if  the 
banks  have  repaid  deposits  with  the  notes,  the 
interest  is  paid  by  those  to  whom  they  lent  what 
was  originally  these  deposits.  The  amount  of  the 
bank-notes  in  circulation  varies  at  different  periods 
of  the  year  :  at  terra-times  and  quarter-days,  when 
more  payments  than  usual  are  made,  there  is  a 
greater  quantity  of  money  required  by  the  public 
than  at  other  times,  and  the  notes  in  circulation 
increase  in  amount.  This  addition  to  the  circulation 
is  drawn  from  the  banks  by  depositors  or  borrowers. 
After  it  has  served  its  purpose,  this  additional 
quantity  gradually  returns  to  the  banks  as  deposits 
or  in  repayment  of  loans.  If  the  credit  of  an  issuing 
bank  is  at  any  time  suspected,  the  holders  of  notes 
will  present  them  for  gold,  just  in  the  same  way  as 
its  depositors  will  call  for  a  return  of  their  deposits ; 
and  a  bank  requires  to  provide  itself  with  a  reserve 
— on  which,  of  course,  it  makes  no  profit — to  meet 
a  run  from  its  note-holders,  as  well  as  a  run  from 
its  depositors.  It  has  been  generally  imagined  that 
when  issuing  banks  suspend  payments  on  a  run,  the 
666 


run  is  one  on  the  part  of  their  note-holders  ;  but 
this  is  only  a  popular  error.  In  a  well-established 
bank,  the  amount  of  its  notes  in  circulation  is  almost 
nothing  compared  to  its  deposits  ;  and  though  the 
holders  of  small  sums  in  notes  may  be  more  apt 
than  depositors  to  take  alaim  and  ru.'^h  in  a  panic 
to  the  bank  for  gold  for  its  notes,  a  small  proportion 
of  its  depositors  suddenly  demanding  a  return  of 
their  money  in  gold,  as  effectually  drains  a  bank  of 
its  reserve,  as  if  its  whole  circulation  were  to  be  at 
once  presented  to  it  for  gold. 

Banks  make  their  loans  chiefly  in  the  form  of 
dhcounts :  that  is,  upon  bills  of  exchange.  Commo- 
dities in  the  wholesale  market  are  generally  sold  on 
credit.  The  buyer  promises  to  jiay  the  amount  at 
a  certain  date  to  the  seller,  and  his  promise  is  con- 
tained in  a  bill  of  exchange.  The  seller  transfers  it 
to  a  bank,  which,  on  the  faith  of  it,  advances  the 
amount  in  loan  to  him,  less  dlKcmnit,  that  is,  interest 
of  the  money  till  the  bill  be  due.  This  is  called 
discou7itivg.  But  banks  lend  on  other  securities. 
A  holder  of  government  stock,  for  example,  will 
obtain  a  loan  on  the  security  of  liis  stock ;  the 
banker  being  entitled  to  sell  it,  and  repay  the 
loan  from  the  price,  if  the  borrower  fail  to  make 
punctual  paj'mcnt.  So,  also,  the  holder  of  stock 
or  shares  in  any  public  company,  v  a  railway 
company,  or  of  a  debenture  or  bond  cue  1  y  such, 
will,  where  the  company  is  believed  to  be  in  a 
sound  condition,  or  the  security  is  saleable,  obtain  a 
loan  from  a  bank.  The  owners  of  commodities 
lying  in  a  public  warehouse,  may  obtain  a  loan  on 
depositing  with  the  bank  the  uarrants  or  certificates 
of  ownership.  Loans,  too,  are  occasionally  made  for 
.short  periods  on  the  mere  note  of  hand  of  the  bor- 
rower, when  the  banker  is  satisfied  of  the  ability  of 
the  borrower,  to  repay  the  money.  It  is  seldom  in 
this  country  that  banks  lend  on  mortgages  over 
land.  Borrowers,  in  these  cases,  generally  take 
loans  to  lie  unpaid  for  a  few  years ;  but  to  have  his 
money  locked  up  in  that  way  does  not  suit  the  tiade 
of  a  banker.  Where  a  banker  finds  the  security 
which  he  has  received  to  be  insufficient,  and  re])ay- 
nient  of  the  loan  is  not  forthcoming,  he  will,  of 
course,  like  any  other  trader,  to  avoid  making  a  bad 
debt,  take  any  other  security  the  debtor  can  give 
him — such  as  a  manufactory  or  a  mine.  Banks  have 
in  this  way  frecjuently  become  involved  in  manufac- 
turing transactions,  in  their  attempts  to  make  more 
money  of  the  securities  than  they  would  have  done 
by  an  immediate  sale  of  them ;  they  have  become 
manufacturers  and  miners,  and  suffered  great  losses 
in  consequence.  And  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that 
banks  always  abstain  from  making  loans  when  the 
security  is  known  to  be  doubtful ;  far  from  it :  banks, 
like  other  commercial  establishments,  have  been,  on 
many  occasions,  recklessly  managed.  In  trying  to 
push  business,  they  have  made  loans  on  insufficient 
security,  and  banks  are  under  strong  temptation,  to 
which  they  frequently  yield,  when  a  trader  largely 
indebted  to  them  is  appioaching  bankruptcy,  to 
sustain  his  credit  by  additional  advances,  in  the 
hope  that  he  may  retrieve  his  affairs,  and  pay  in 
full  both  the  old  and  the  new  advances.  The  result 
is  often  the  loss  of  both.  Conduct  of  this  kind  has 
been  the  ruin  of  many  banking  establishments  in 
England,  of  two  or  three  in  Ireland  and  Scotland, 
and  elsewhere. 

Bankers  perform  another  very  important  function : 
they  remit  money  from  one  place  to  another.  One 
illustration  will  serve  to  explain  how  this  is  man- 
aged. A  debtor  in  Edinburgh  makes  a  payment  to 
his  creditor  in  London  in  this  way :  he  pays  the 
money  to  a  banker  in  Edinburgh,  who,  for  a  small 
charge,  called  the  exchange^  gives  him  a  draft  for  the 
amount  on  a  banker,  his  correspondent,  in  London. 


BANK,  BANKING. 


The  debtor  transmits  the  draft  to  his  creditor,  who 
presents  it  to  the  London  banker,  and  receives  the 
money  from  him.  No  actual  transmission  of  the 
money,  however,  takes  place,  for  there  are  debtors 
in  London  reiiniriiig  to  pay  money  to  creditors  in 
Edinburgh,  and  these  debtors  elfcct  the  payment  by 
giving  the  money  to  the  London  bunker,  and  obtain- 
ing his  drafts  on  the  Edinburgh  banker.  The 
London  banker  is  thus  refunded  for  the  money  he 
pays  away  on  the  drafts  upon  him  by  the  Edinburgh 
banker.  The  one  set  of  drafts  are  set  off  against 
the  other.  Not  only  may  remittances  between 
two  places  be  thus  made  without  the  use  of  money, 
but  the  payments  to  and  by  the  parties  in  both 
places  may  also  be  made  without  it.  The  debtore 
may  pay  for  the  dral'ts  by  cheques  on  the  banker 
who  grants  them,  and  the  creditors  may  receive  the 
money  by  drawing  cheques  on  the  banker  by  whom 
the  drafts  are  made  payable. 

The  large  amount  of  money  transactions  carried 
through  without  the  intervention  of  coin  or  bank- 
notes, in  a  country  like  England,  is  inconceival)le 
to  those  not  engaged  in  business  pursuits.  The 
manner  in  which  these  transactions  may  be  effected 
without  money,  would  be  at  once  apprehended,  if 
all  persons  in  the  same  locality  dealt  with  the  same 
bank,  and  if  all  the  banks  scattered  throughout  the 
kingdom  were  only  branches  of  the  same  establish- 
ment. But  in  practice,  matters  are  so  managed  as 
if  this  were  the  case.  The  cheques,  bills,  or  other 
drafts  which  come  into  the  hands  of  a  banker 
drawn  on  (that  is,  payable  by)  other  bankers,  are 
set  off  and  liquidated  by  drafts,  which  they  have 
received,  drawn  on  him.  The  balance  or  difference 
only  is  paid  in  money.  In  London,  the  centre  of 
the  money  world,  there  is  an  establishment  called 
the  Clearing-house,  of  which  most  of  the  London 
banks  are  members.  There,  at  a  fixed  hour  daily, 
attendance  is  given  by  a  clerk  from  each  of  these 
banks,  who  presents  all  the  drafts  immediately 
payable  which  his  bank  holds  on  the  others ;  the 
balance  or  difference,  on  the  whole,  for  or  against 
each  bank  is  ascertained ;  and  the  banks  which  hold 
a  less  amount  of  drafts  on  others  than  they  hold  on 
it,  pays  the  difference  by  cheques  on  the  Bank  of 
England.  There  are  clearing-houses  in  New  York 
and  Dublin,  conducted  on  a  similar  principle. 

Bank  of  Jincjlaud. — This  institution,  which  is  the 
largest  and  most  important  banking  establishment 
in  the  world,  was  projected  by  William  Paterson,  a 
Scotsman,  and  received  its  charter  of  incorporation 
July  27,  lG9f.  It  was  constituted  as  a  joint-stock 
association,  with  a  capital  of  £1,2U0,000,  which  sum 
was  lent  at  interest  to  the  government  of  William 
and  Mary,  at  the  time  in  a  state  of  embarrassment. 
At  its  very  outset,  therefore,  the  Bank  of  England 
was  a  servant  of  government ;  and  in  a  lesser 
or  greater  degree,  it  has  enjoyed  this  character 
through  all  the  stages  of  its  subsequent  history. 
At  first,  the  chartL-r  of  the  Bank  was  for  eleven  years 
only  ;  but  in  consequence  of  the  great  services  of 
the  institution  to  government,  its  charter  has  been 
at  various  times  renewed.  The  last  renewal  was  in 
1844,  and  the  charter  of  that  year  still  subsists,  its 
terms  being  subject  to  modification  or  revocation  by 
the  legislature  at  pleasure.  By  the  act  or  charter  of 
1844,  the  Bank  was  divided  into  two  departments — 
the  issue  and  the  banking.  What  led  to  the  division 
was  this :  it  was  supposed  that,  when  a  foreign 
drain  of  gold  from  us  set  in,  it  would, "if  the  currency 
or  circulation  in  this  country  had  been  purely 
metallic,  have  produced  a  contraction  of  the  circu- 
lation, and  a  consequent  fall  of  prices,  and,  as  an 
ultimate  result,  the  cessation  of  the  drain.  It  was 
further  supposed  that  banks  could  issue  their  notes 
to    any   extent   they   pleased ;    that    their   excessive 


issues  increased  the  currency,  and  therefore  in- 
creased prices,  which  in  their  turn  led  to  toreign 
drains ;  and  tliat,  on  the  occasion  of  those  drains, 
the  continued  issues  prevented  the  natural  and 
desirable  contraction  of  the  circulation,  and  aggra- 
vated the  commercial  convulsions  occurring  at  such 
periods.  The  objeit  of  the  act  of  1844  was  to 
prevent  issues  of  notes  beyond  a  certain  amount, 
unless  against  an  equal  amount  of  gold  held  by  the 
issuing  bank,  so  that  the  mixed  currency  of  notes 
and  coin  might  thus  expand  and  contract  like  a 
self-acting  metallic  currency.  Experience,  however, 
has  shewn,  that  when  these  foreign  drains  occur, 
the  gold  exported  is  taken  cliiefiy  from  the  reserves 
in  the  Bank  of  England,  being  withdrawals  of 
deposits  or  loans  by  the  Bank ;  and  that  the  amount 
of  notes  in  the  hands  of  the  public  has  not  been 
affected  by  the  legislature  of  1844.  In  practice, 
whenever  there  are  signs  of  a  foreign  drain,  and  tlie 
reserve  of  the  Bank  is  diminishing,  the  Bank  counter- 
acts the  tendency  to  a  drain  by  raising  the  rate  of 
discount  and  restricting  its  loans ;  the  purchasing 
power  of  the  public  is  thereby  limited,  and  prices 
kept  down ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  gold  is  attracted 
to  this  country  for  investment.  The  circulation  is 
in  reality  not  interfered  with.  It  was  also  intended 
by  the  act  of  1844  to  add  to  the  security  of  bank- 
notes by  insuring  a  supply  of  gold  to  meet  the  pay- 
ment of  them  at  all  times.  But  the  solvency  of  the 
Bank  of  England  is  undoubted ;  its  notes  would 
at  any  time  be  taken  as  gold  ;  and  this  effect  of  the 
act  of  1844,  and  the  supplementay  act  of  1845,  has  in 
the  case  of  the  notes  of  other  banks  been  hitherto 
inappreciable. 

In  the  issue  department  of  the  Bank  of  England, 
its  sole  business  is  to  give  out  notes  to  the  public. 
Befqre  the  separation  of  the  de)iartments,  the  govern- 
ment was  due  to  the  Bank  £11,015,000.  This  sum 
was  declared  to  be  now  a  debt  due  to  the  issue 
department,  and  for  the  issue  of  notes  to  that 
amount,  no  gold  requires  to  be  held  by  it.  This  was 
just  the  same  thing  a.s  if  the  Bank  had  orginally  lent 
£11,015,000  of  its  notes  to  government,  and  these 
notes  had  found  their  way  into  circulation.  The 
Bank  was  also  allowed  to  issue  additioiud  notes  on 
securities — that  is,  to  lend  them  to  a  limit  which  at 
present  amounts  to  £3,459,900,  and  this  also  without 
holding  gold.  The  amount  of  notes  which  may  thus 
be  issued,  without  gold  being  in  reserve  against  it,  is 
£14,475,000.  All  notes  issued  above  that  amount 
can  be  issued  only  in  exchange  for  gold.  At  the 
passing  of  the  act  in  1844,  the  limit  of  notes  to  be 
issued  against  the  government  debt  and  securities 
was  fixed  at  £14,000,000 — past  experience  having 
shewn  that  there  was  not  the  least  risk  of  there 
being  at  any  time  less  than  that  amount  of  Bank  of 
England  notes  in  the  hands  of  the  public.  The 
addition  of  the  £475,000  is  an  extra  issue,  authorised 
by  the  act,  in  consequence  of  certain  issuing  banks 
having  since  ceased  to  issue.  The  Bank  has  to 
account  to  government  for  the  net  profit  of  this 
issue  loan  of  notes  of  £475,000 ;  and  the  profit  the 
Bank  derives  from  its  issue  department  is  the  interest 
received  on  the  £14,000,000  of  government  debt  and 
.securities,  which,  at  3  per  cent.,  is  £420,000  yearly. 
But  out  of  this  the  Bank  pays  to  government,  for 
its  banking  privileges,  and  in  lieu  of  stamp-duties, 
£180,000.  The  expense  of  the  issue  department 
being  £100,000,  the  net  yearly  profit  upon  it  to  the 
Bank  is  thus  £80,000.  The  Bank  also  makes  a 
profit  of  £20,000  to  £40,000  yearly  upon  bullion  and 
foreign  coin.  These  are  brought  to  the  Bank  for 
notes;  they  are  worth  £3.  17s.  \()ld.  per  ounce;  but 
the  Bank  is  obliged  by  its  charter  to  purchase  them 
at  £3,  17s.  9d.  The  holders  prefer  taking  this  price 
to   have  their  bullion   and  foreign  coin  coined,  free 

667 


BANK,  BANKING. 


of  charge,  at  the  public  mint,  as  the  delay  in  the 
coining  is  equal  to  a  loss  of  interest  of  lid.  per 
ounce.  The  amount  of  notes  in  the  hands  of  the 
public  averages  about  £20,000,000 ;  but  the  amount 
issued  by  the  issue  department  is  greater.  The  dif- 
ference is  the  amount  lying  in  the  banking  depart- 
ment, and  represents  the  reserve  of  gold  of  that 
department ;  that  is  to  say,  the  banking  department 
retains  only  a  half  or  three-fourths  of  a  million  of 
coin,  and  transfers  the  bulk  of  its  reserve  to  the  issue 
department,  in  exchange  for  notes.  We  therefore 
require  to  regard  the  reserve  of  the  banking  depart- 
ment as  gold,  though  Ij'ing  in  the  shape  of  notes 
issued  by  the  other  department. 

Viewed  in  its  bankinc/  department,  the  Bank  differs 
from  other  banks  in  having  the  management  of  the 
public  debt,  and  paying  the  dividends  on  it;  in 
holding  the  deposits  belonging  to  government,  and 
in  making  advances  to  it  when  necessary  ;  in  aiding 
in  the  collection  of  the  public  revenues,  and  in  being 
the  bank  of  other  banks.  For  the  management  of 
the  public  debt,  the  Bank  receive  about  £247,000, 
against  which  there  has  to  be  set  £124,000  of  charges. 
The  remaining  profits  of  the  Bank  are  derived  irom 
its  employment,  like  other  banks,  of  its  deposits,  on 
which  it  allows  no  interest,  and  of  its  own  capital. 
The  capital  was  originally  £1,200,000;  in  1816,  it 
reached  £14,553,000 — the  present  amount.  There  is 
besides  a  rest  of  about  £3,000, 0(H).  The  deposits 
(public  and  private)  vary  between  £13,000,000  and 
£22,000,000. 

In  1*797,  the  Bank  found  itself  likely  to  be  obliged 
to  suspend  payments,  and  its  notes  were  declared  by 
law  a  legal  tender,  although  no  longer  convertible 
into  coin.  This  state  of  matters  continued  till  1821. 
The  notes  during  this  interval  not  having  been  con- 
vertible into  coin  on  demand,  there  was  no  check  upon 
the  Bank  in  the  amount  of  its  issues ;  and  the  cur- 
rency became  depreciated — that  is,  a  £5  note  would 
not  exchange  for  five  sovereigns ;  and  every  man  to 
■whom  £5  was  due,  was  thus  obliged  to  accept  pay- 
ment in  u  £5  note,  not  worth  £5.  It  is,  however, 
said  that  the  value  of  gold  at  the  time  was  enhanced 
owing  to  absorption  by  hoarding  and  by  military- 
chests,  and  that  the  depreciation  was  more  apparent 
than  real.  The  export  of  gold  following  on  a  rise  of 
prices  occasioned  by  an  issue  of  bank  or  government 
notes  is  unlimited,  except  by  exhaustion,  if  these 
notes  are  not  payable  in  coin  on  demand,  and  are 
issued  without  any  check  from  without  or  self- 
imposed.  But  as  prices  estimated  in  these  notes 
rise,  the  price  of  bullion,  like  other  commodities, 
rises  too,  and  the  price  of  coin  which  can  be  con- 
verted into  bullion,  or  be  used  abroad  at  its  previous 
purchasing  power,  rises  also.  Since  1821,  the  Bank 
lias  been  oftencr  than  once  on  the  verge  of  a  suspen- 
sion of  payments,  owing  to  foreign  drains  of  gold. 
The  separation  of  the  Bank  into  two  departments 
is  regarded  by  many  as  having  a  tendency  to  produce 
a  suspension  in  times  of  panic,  when  the  reserve  is 
I'cduced  by  withdrawals  to  supply  a  foreign  drain 
or  to  meet  an  internal  run.  Before  the  separation, 
the  Bank,  in  the  case  of  withdrawals  of  gold,  had 
the  whole  amount  of  gold  within  the  Bank  to  meet 
them  ;  but  now  it  loses  the  command  of  all  the  gold 
in  the  issue  department.  It  cannot  get  that  gold 
unless  in  exchange  for  notes,  but,  its  reserve  being 
reduced  or  exhausted,  it  has  none  to  spare.  The 
restriction  of  credit  consequent  upon  the  approach  to 
an  exhaustion  of  the  reserve  of  the  banking  depart- 
ment, is  so  great,  that  the  fear  of  it  occasions  a  panic  ; 
and  both  in  1847  and  1857,  on  the  possible  suspen- 
sion of  payments  by  the  banking  department,  owing 
to  a  reduction  of  its  reserve,  being  apparent,  the 
government  of  the  day  took  the  responsibility  of 
authorising  the  Bank  to  lend  additional  notes,  not 
C68 


represented  by  gold,  which  was  an  indirect  way  of 
getting  at  the  gold  in  the  issue  department,  where 
the  object  of  the  borrowers  was  to  obtain  gold.  In 
1857,  it  was  found  necessary  to  take  the  benefit  of 
this  authorisation. 

The  Bank  of  England  is  situated  in  the  centre  of 
London  ;  but  it  has  a  branch  in  the  west  end,  and 
several  branches  in  the  provinces. 

Joint-stock  Banks  in  L'nc/l'Uid  and  ]Vales. — There 
are  95  of  these  banks  of  which  63  in  the  jirovinces 
are  entitled  to  issue  notes  to  the  extent  of  £3,303,357, 
without  its  being  conipiilsory  to  hold  any  gold  in 
reserve  against  them.  But  they  are  not  allowed  to 
exceed  that  amount ;  and  their  actual  issue  is  several 
hundred  thousands  less.  Most  of  them  have  branch- 
offices — two  of  them  having  each  about  100  branches 
and  sub-branches.  Their  paid-up  capital  varies  from 
£21,000  to  £1,000,000;  and  there  are  as  great  dif- 
ferences in  the  numbers  of  their  partners.  The 
deposits  of  the  joint-stock  banks  in  London  are 
about  £40,000,000.  All  of  them  allow  interest  on 
deposits. 

J'rirate  Banks  in  England  and  Wald"^. — Of  these, 
there  aie  312,  of  which  57  are  in  London.  Of  the 
provincial  banks,  151  have  a  fixed  authorised  issue 
of  £4,404,935,  which  cannot  be  exceeded.  The 
actual  issue  is  about  a  million  less. 

In  the  case  of  all  these  banks,  whether  issuing 
or  non-issuing,  their  profits  are  ch'efly  derived  from 
the  use  of  their  deposits.  As  already  nientioned, 
the  i.ssues  of  those  lianks  possessing  the  privilege 
are  small  compared  with  their  deposits. 

There  are  also  in  London  the  estaV)lishments  of 
18  colonial,  Indian,  and  foreign  joint-stock  banks. 

Banks  in  Scotland. — The  earliest  banking  institu- 
tion in  North  Britain,  was  the  Bank  of  Ir^cntland, 
instituted  by  a  charter  of  incorporation  from  the 
Scots  parliament  in  1695.  The  original  capital  was 
£1,200,000  .  Scots,  or  £100,000  sterling.  The 
amount  was  raised  bv  shares  differing  in  extent, 
from  £1,000  Scots,  or  £83,  6s.  8d.  sterling,  to  £20,000 
Scots.  In  1774,  the  amount  of  stock  was  extended 
to  £200,000  sterling:  now  it  is  £1,000,000  sterling, 
and  the  shares  £100  sterling. 

The  Bank  of  Scotland  continued  to  be  the  only 
bank  in  the  country  till  the  year  1727,  when  a  new 
and  similar  establishment  was  constituted  under 
the  title  of  the  Royal  Bank  of  Scotland,  whose 
advanced  capital  is"  now  £2,000,000.  In  1746, 
another  association  was  formed,  and  incorporated 
by  royal  charter,  with  the  title  of  the  British 
Linen  Company.  The  object  of  this  association 
was  at  first  to  encourage  the  linen  manufacture 
of  Scotland,  but  gradually  it  fell  into  the  course 
of  common  banking  business.  From  £100,000,  its 
capital  has  increased  to  £1,000,000.  There  are  other 
eleven  joint-stock  banks  with  capitals  varying  from 
£1,000,000  to  £60,000.  There  are  now  no  private 
banks.  The  amount  of  deposits  is  imderstood  to  be 
about  50  millions,  on  which  interest  is  allowed.  Their 
authorised  issue  of  notes  is  £2,749,271,  but  their 
actual  issue  is  between  £1,000,000  and  £2,0()0,000 
more.  The  Western  Bank,  with  a  capital  of 
£1,500,000,  a  circulation  of  above  £400,000,  having 
1,300  shareholders,  and  about  100  branches,  suspended 
payments  in  1857.  The  shareholders,  however,  being 
under  unlimited  liability,  neither  the  depositors  nor 
the  note-holders  sustained  any  loss.  The  solvency 
of  the  shareholders,  as  a  body,  being  undoubted,  the 
other  banks  at  once  paid  off  the  Western  Bank 
deposits,  and  redeemed  its  notes,  by  which  they 
became  its  creditors  at  a  remunerating  rate  of 
interest.  Another  Scottish  establishment,  called  the 
Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  Bank,  had  about  the  same 
time  to  wind  up  its  affairs,  with  the  entire  loss  of 
its   capital.     Both   cases   of    stoppage   arose   from   a 


BANK,  BANKING— BANK-NOTES. 


recklessly  profu.«e  system  of  diseountinf;  bills.  In 
England  and  Ireland,  the  creditors  of  bankrupt  banks 
have  generally  found  gn-at  difficulty  in  recovering 
even  a  dividend  on  their  deposits  and  notes  ;  but 
in  Scotland,  the  loss  on  such  occasions  has  fallen 
entirely  on  the  sluuelioldcrs,  as  in  tlic  case  of  the 
Western  Bank.  In  consequence  of  allowing  interest 
on  deposits,  the  banks  in  Scotland  may  bo  said  to 
hold  the  whole  capital  of  the  country,  nnnus  only 
the  money  passing  from  hand  to  hand.  This  wide 
spread  system  of  depositing  is  gre;itly  aided  by  thv 
establishment  of  branches  from  tiie  {)arent-l)aiik3 ; 
and  these  branches  arc  fouvd  in  every  sniall  town  ii 
the  kingdom.  The  entire  number  of  branch-bank; 
in  Scotland,  in  1859,  was  583,  besides  some  sub- 
branches.  At  these  branch-banks,  the  agent  (usually 
a  respectable  person  in  business)  discounts  bills 
within  certain  limits,  issues  letters  of  credit,  and 
pays  out  notes,  and  also  gives  ca'ili  on  demand  for 
them;  though,  strictly,  the  notes  of  a  bank  are  only 
payable  on  demand  at  the  head-ofliue.  By  a  strict 
system  of  supervision,  Scottish  branch-banks  are 
usually  well  conducted,  and  are  of  great  service  in 
every  department  of  trade.  For  one  thing,  they 
have  ])owerful]y  contributed  to  extinguish  burglary 
and  liighwiiy  robbery,  as  no  one  thinks  of  keeping 
money,  except  to  a  trifling  amount,  cither  in  his 
house  or  about  his  person.  At  all  the  great  fairs, 
bankers  attend  to  receive  deposits,  and  to  pay 
cheques.  Forgeries  of  Scottish  bank-notes  are  now 
unknown. 

The  banks  in  Scotland,  like  the  baidvs  in  Ireland, 
but  unlike  the  provincial  banks  in  England,  are 
allowed  to  issue  notes  beyond  their  fixed  issues, 
on  holding  gold  equal  in  amount  to  the  extra  issue. 
But  as  the  gold  thus  retained  is,  like  the  other 
gold  in  reserve,  liable  for  all  the  deposits,  as  well 
as  for  the  whole  circulation  of  a  bank,  if  it  should 
fail,  the  security  of  the  establishment  is  increased 
only  in  a  small  degree  by  this  arrangement,  which, 
apart  from  tlie  loss  of  profit  to  the  bank  on  the 
gold  unemployed,  is  attended  with  inconvenience  at 
those  seasons  when  the  circulation  is  extended.  In 
Scotland  and  Ireland  also,  banks  can  issue  one- 
pound  notes ;  the  English  banks  are  not  permitted 
to  circulate  notes  of  less  value  than  £5. 

Besides  employing  money  in  discounting  bills, 
the  Scottish  banks  grant  loans  of  fluctuating 
amount,  called  caxh-acconnts  or  cash-credits.  By  a 
cash  account  is  signified  a  process  whereby  an 
individual  is  entitled  to  draw  out  sums  as  required, 
to  a  sti]ndated  amount,  and  by  an  implied  condition 
to  make  deposits  at  his  conxenience  towards  the 
liquidation  of  the  same.  On  entering  nito  this 
arrangement,  he  finds  security  to  the  bunk  that 
he  will  repay  to  the  bank  whenever  called  on, 
the  balance  of  sums  drawn  out,  less  those  paid  in, 
with  the  interest  that  may  be  due.  These  accounts 
are  balanced  yearly  like  current  or  deposit  accounts. 
The  only  dificrence  between  them  and  a  cash-account 
on  the  face  of  them  is,  that  if  the  credit  allowed  on 
the  cash-account  is  being  made  use  of,  the  balance 
is  in  favour  of  the  bank  ;  whereas,  on  the  other 
kind  of  accounts,  the  balance  is  in  favour  of  the 
bank's  customer. 

Banks  in  Irelaiid. — There  are  eight  joint-stock 
banks,  having  17  li  branches.  Their  authorised 
issue  is  £6,o5-l,494 ;  the  actual  issue  is  a  little 
sometimes  above,  and  sometimes  below  that  amount. 
Of  the  authorised  issue,  £3,738,428  is  that  of  the 
Bank  of  Ireland.  It  is  a  national  bank,  lending 
£2,030,769  of  its  capital  to  government.  It  was 
established  in  1783,  with  privileges  resendjling  those 
of  the  Bank  of  England.  Its  capital  is  about 
£2,8(10,000,  and  its  rest  £1, 043,07 1;.  It  allows  no 
interest  on  deposits.      The    capitals   of    the    other 


banks  vary  from  £125,000  to  £500,000.  Five  of 
them  are  issinng  banks.  There  are  also  five  private 
banking  firms  in  Dublin. 

Foreign  and  Coloxial  Banks. — On  the  continent  of 
Europe,  there  are  both  luitional  or  incorporated  banks 
and  private  banks.  The  national  banks  are,  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent,  government  establishments, 
managing  the  public  debt  and  finances,  and,  unlike 
the  Bank  of  England,  subject  to  government  influ- 
ence or  interference.  In  India  and  the  British 
colonies,  there  are  joint-stock  banks  and  private 
bankers.  The  joint-stock  banks  of  Australia,  though 
in  their  infancy,  arc  becoming  establishments  of 
magnitude.  In  the  United  States,  Oct.  1,  1868,  1629 
national  banks  were  in  o])eration  ;  207  of  which  were  in 
Massachusetts,  299  in  N.  York,  197  in  Pennsylvania, 
13.3  in  Ohio,  and  the  remainder  in  almost  every  other 
state  and  territory  of  the  Union.  The  cajiital  paid  in 
amounted  to  $426,189,111,  and  their  circulation  to 
about  $300,0()0,()()0.  There  were  also  244  state  banks 
in  operation,  having  a  cajntal  of  $66,024,925.  On 
Jan.  9,  1869  there  were  in  the  city  of  N.  York,  56 
national  banks  and  13  state  banks,  with  combined 
resources  of  $355,334,831.  No  state  banks  now 
exist  in  Massachusetts,  N.  and  S.  Carolina,  Georgia 
and  a  few  other  states. 

BANK-NOTES,  Manufacture  of.  The  chief 
object  in  the  manufacture  of  B.  is  to  render  forgery 
impossible,  or  at  least  easy  of  detection.  This  is 
sought  to  be  effected  l>y  peculiarity  of  paper, 
design,  and  printing,  or  by  a  combination  of  these 
means,  as  is  done  by  the  Bank  of  England,  and 
by  other  banks  in  America  and  elsewhere.  See 
Paper-making.  The  chief  reliance,  however,  has 
been  on  mechanical  design — that  the  impression 
should  be  such  as  to  make  the  genuine  note 
readily  distinguishal)le  by  the  public  for  its  high 
art,  and  to  the  bank  officials  by  secret  peculiari- 
ties in  its  execution.  Thus,  the  writing,  the 
emblems,  and  the  ornaments  are  so  combined 
as  to  render  forgery  difficult.  The  ink,  too,  is 
peculiar  (see  Ink-making),  being  the  blackest  and 
most  indelible  of  inks.  As  a  further  security  against 
forgery,  a  self-registering  machine  was  contrived  by 
the  Messrs.  Oldham,  engineers  to  the  Bank  of 
England,  and  each  note  was  impressed  with  a  dis- 
tinctive mark  known  only  to  the  bank  authorities. 

Copperplate  printing  was  the  only  printing  in  use 
for  bank-notes  till  1837,  when  one  of  the  greatest  im- 
provements was  made  in  practical  engraving  which 
the  history  of  the  arts  has  to  rc-cord.  This  was 
the  production  of  designs  by  the  mill  and  die,  by 
mechanical  pressure,  as  invented  by  Messrs.  Perkins 
and  Heath,  for  baid^-note  printing,  and  which  was 
afterwards  attended  with  such  extraordinary  results, 
as  applied  to  calico-printing,  as  were  all  but  fabu- 
lous— creating  a  new  order  of  means,  with  a  rate 
of  production  and  style  of  patterns  unappioach- 
able  by  hand-action.  The  principle  of  this  great 
invention  is  simply  this:  the  pattern  is  engraved 
on  a  soft  steel  plate,  which  is  then  hardened,  to 
transfer  the  pattern  by  pressure  to  a  soft  steel 
roller,  on  which,  of  course,  the  pattern  is  produced 
in  relief.  The  roller  or  mill  is  then  hardened,  to 
reproduce  the  pattern  in  the  plate  from  which  the 
printing  is  to  be  done,  and  thus  almost  any  number 
of  plates  for  all  common  purposes  can  easily  be 
produced. 

This  system  of  siderography  continued  in  use  for 
bank-note  printing  in  the  Bank  of  England  till  1855, 
when  electrotype-printing  was  introduced  by  Mr. 
Smee,  the  surgeon  of  the  bank,  with  the  assistance 
of  the  mechanical  officials  (see  I]lectrotyping)  ; 
and  since  that  time,  the  notes  of  the  Bank  of 
England  have  been  all  produced  by  surface-printing 
by  the  electrotype. 

669 


BANKRUPTCY— BANKSIA. 


BANKRUPTCY.     See  Insolvency. 

BANKS,  in  Navigation,  are  elevations  of  the 
bottom  of  the  sea;  when  tolerably  smooth  at  the 
top,  they  constitute  shallows,  skoals,  and  Jlais  ;  but 
when  rocky,  they  become  reefs,  ridr/es,  kc;/s,  &c.  Pilots 
and  captains  of  ships  require  to  be  intimately 
acquainted  with  the  B.  along  their  route ;  and 
a  chart,  if  properly  prepared,  always  detines  them 
by  means  of  small  dots,  if  sands,  and  small  crosses, 
if  rocky.  In  war-time  small  vessels  often  escape 
capture  by  running  into  shallows  where  larger 
vessels  dare  not  follow  them.  The  Newfoundland 
and  the  Bahama  B.  are  well-known  examples  of 
this  kind  of  sea-bottom. 

BANKS  LAND,  an  island  in  the  Arctic  Ocean, 
To  miles  to  the  south-west  of  Melville  Island.  It 
is  intersected  by  the  parallel  of  74°  N.,  and  by  the 
meridian  of  11G°  W. 

BANKS,  Savings'.     See  Savings'  Banks. 

BANKS,  Sir  Joseph,  a  zealous  naturalist,  was 
born,  according  to  some  accounts,  at  Revcsby  Abbey, 
in  Lincolnshire,  according  to  others  in  London,  in 
January,  1743,  and  died  June  10,  1820.  He  was 
descended  from  a  family  of  Swedish  origin,  which 
had  been  settled  in  England  about  2uO  years. 
To  this  family  belongs  also  John  Banks,  who 
made  his  name  known  as  a  writer  of  tragedies, 
in  the  latter  half  of  the  17th  c.  B.  was  educated  at 
Eton  and  Oxford.  In  l'i'63  he  made  a  voyage  to 
Newfoundland  and  Labr:idor,  collecting  plants  ;  and 
from  1708  to  1771,  he  sailed  with  Cook  round  the 
world  in  the  capacity  of  naturalist,  and  wrote  the 
botanical  descriptions  for  the  first  voyages.  In  the 
year  1772  he  visited  the  Hebrides  and  Iceland, 
whence  he  brought  back  a  rich  treasure  of  speci- 
mens for  his  studies  in  natural  history.  Before  this 
voyage,  Staffa  was  hardly  known  beyond  its  imme- 
diate vicinity.  It  was  carefully  examined  by  B., 
and  through  him  its  wonders  were  made  known 
to  the  public.  In  1777,  he  was  elected  President  of 
the  Royal  Society,  an  oftice  which  he  held  for  42 
years;  and  in  17S1  he  was  created  a  baronet.  He 
deserves  peculiar  credit  for  founding  and  managing 
the  African  Association  ;  and  the  colony  of  Botany 
Bay  owed  its  origin  mainly  to  him.  Through  his 
eflbrts,  the  bread-fruit  tree  was  transferred  from 
Otaheite  to  the  West  Indies,  and  the  mango  from 
Bengal,  as  well  as  many  of  the  fruits  of  Ceylon  and 
Persia.  Many  naturalists  and  travellers — Rlumen- 
thal,  Hornemann,  Burckhardt,  Mungo  Park,  and 
others,  were  indebted  to  him  for  zealous  and  disin- 
terested assistance  in  their  labours.  During  the 
French  war,  B.  did  much  to  alleviate  the  suffer- 
ings of  all  captive  men  of  science,  and  used  his 
influence  with  government  to  procure  the  restora- 
tion of  their  papers.  Cuvier,  in  his  eloge  on  him 
before  the  French  Academy  of  Science,  states  that 
no  less  than  ten  times  had  collections  captured  by 
the  English,  been  restored  to  the  Jnrdin  du  Roi  at 
Paris  through  the  instrumentality  of  B.  No  man  of 
science  appealed  to  him  in  vain  for  pecuniary  assist- 
ance ;  and  his  splendid  library  of  natural  history 
was  at  the  service  of  those  who  desired  to  consult  it. 
With  the  exception  of  articles  in  magazines,  and 
contributions  to  the  publications  of  learned  socie- 
ties, especially  to  the  Philosophical  Transactions,  R. 
has  written  nothing  but  two  small  works — y[  Short 
Account  of  the  Causes  of  the  Diseases  in  Corn  called 
Blicjh.t,  Mildew,  and  Rust,  which  was  printed  for  his 
friends  in  1803,  and  for  the  public  in  180,5  ;  and 
Circumstanees  Relative  to  Merino  Sheep  (London, 
1809).  He  left  a  valuable  library,  of  which  an  excel  - 
lent  catalogue  was  made  by  his  friend  Dryander ; 
and  a  rich  collection  of  specimens  in  natural  history, 
both  of  which  he  b<»queathcd  to  the  British  Museum. 
670 


BANKS,  Thomas,  an  eminent  English  sculptor, 
born  in  Lambeth  in  December,  1735.  B.  was  appren- 
ticed to  a  landscape  gardener  and  architect,  but  he 
soon  abandoned  these  practical  arts  for  the  more 
imaginative  one  of  sculptor.  In  1770,  B.  was  a 
successful  candidate  for  the  gold  prize  of  the 
Royal  Academy,  established  two  years  before.  In 
1772,  with  an  allowance  of  £50  a  year  from  the 
Academy  for  three  years,  he  went  to  Rome  to  study 
the  master-pieces  of  art  there.  After  a  residence  of 
several  years  in  Rome,  during  which  he  exhibited 
two  of  his  finest  works,  '  Caractacus  Pleading  before 
Claudius,'  and  'Psyche  and  the  Butterfly,'  and  having 
gained  nuich  fame  but  little  profit,  he  returned  to 
England.  Here  his  refined  imaginative  style  was 
little  apiireciatod  in  comparison  with  the  popular  but 
inferior  performances  of  some  of  his  contemporaries ; 
and  after  two  years,  he  went  to  Russia,  where  he 
was  well  received  by  the  Empress  Catharine,  who 
purchased  his  Psyche,  and  gave  him  a  commission 
for  a  group  called  '  Armed  Neutrality.'  Having 
executed  this,  he  returned  to  England,  where  he 
com])leted  perhaps  his  finest  work,  '  The  Mourning 
Achilles,'  now  in  the  British  Institution.  B.  now 
received  several  commissions,  and  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Royal  Academy.  The  monuments 
of  Sir  Eyre  Coote  in  Westminster  Abbey,  and  of 
Captains  Burgess  and  Westeott  in  St.  Paul's  Cathe- 
dral, were  among  his  last  works.  He  died  February 
2,  1805.  It  was  in  purely  imaginative  works  that  B. 
most  excelled;  in  practical  subjects  his  introduction 
of  the  ideal  was  incongruous  and  inartistic,  render- 
ing them  far  less  valuable  than  those  of  some  of  his 
rivals. 

BA'NKSIA,  a  genus  of 
Australian  shrubs  of  the 
natural  ov(\er  Protcacece  {<[.  v.), 
named  in  honour  of  Sir. Joseph 
Banks.  A  few  of  the  species 
become  small  trees.  They 
have  hard  dry  leaves,  ■  gene- 
rally white  or  very  pale 
green  beneath,  and  present  a 
remarkable  ajipearnnce  from 
the  umbellate  arrangement  of 
their  branches,  which,  beai* 
towards  their  extremities  ob- 
long heads  of  very  numerous 
flowers.  The  flowers  secrete 
much   honey.       Some   of  the 

species    are    now    fretiuent    ornaments    of    green- 
houses in  Britain.     They  are  abundant  in  all  parts 


^^^ 


Banksia  littoralis 
in  flower. 


Fruit  and  Leaf  of  Banksia. 

of  Australia,  forming,  indeed,  a  characteristic  feature 
of  its  vegetation,  and  are  called  Honeysuckle  trees. 


BANK— BANNER. 


B.  Grandis,  found  at  Swan  River,  exceeds  all  the 
rest  of  the  genus  in  size,  attaining  a  height  of  50 
feet. 

BANX,  the  name  of  two  rivers  in  the  north-east 
of  Ireland  ;  tlio  one,  the  Uppier  B.,  llowiiig  into,  and 
the  other,  the  Lower  B.,  out  of  Lough  Neagh.  The 
Upper  B.  rises  on  the  north  side  of  the  Mourue 
Mountains,  in  the  south  of  Downsliire,  and  runs 
25  miles  north-north-west  through  the  counties  of 
Down  and  Armagh,  successively  in  a  granite,  silurian, 
trap,  and  ternary  basin,  into  the  south  side  of 
Lough  Neagh.  It  passes  Bainbridge,  Gilford,  and 
Portadown.  At  the  latter  place  the  Newry  Canal 
joins  it.  The  Lower B.,  strictly  the  continuation  of 
the  Upper,  issues  from  the  north-west  corner  of 
Lough  Neagh,  and  flows  40  miles  north-north-west, 
through  Lough  Beg,  and  dividing  the  counties 
of  Antrim  and  Londonderry.  It  runs  past  Port- 
glenone  and  Coleraine,  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean  4 
miles  south-west  of  Portrush.  One  mile  above 
Coleraine  it  falls  over  a  ledge  of  rocks  1.3  feet  high. 
It  bears  the  surplus  waters  of  Lough  Neagh  to  the 
ocean,  and  has  important  salmon  and  eel-fisheries. 
Vessels  of  2o0  tons  can  reach  Coleraine  by  the  river, 
4  miles  from  the  ocean. 

BA'NNATYNE  CLUB,  a  literary  club  deriving 
its  name  from  George  Bannatyne,  to  whose  industry 
we  are  indebted  for  the  preservation  of  nuich  of  the 
Scottish  poetry  of  the  15th  and  16th  centuries.  The 
B.  C.  was  instituted  in  Edinburgh  in  1S23  by  Sir 
Walter  Scott,  with  the  assistance  chiefly  of  Mr.  David 
Laing  of  the  Signet  Library,  Mr.  Archibald  Con- 
stable, and  Mr.  Thomas  Thomson.  The  object  of  the 
institution  was  to  print  rare  works  illustrative  of 
Scottish  history,  topography,  poetry,  miscellaneous 
literature,  &c.j  in  a  uniform  and  handsome  manner, 
either  at  the  expense  of  the  club,  or  as  the  contril>u- 
tions  of  individual  members.  As  a  general  rule,  the 
number  of  copies  of  each  work  printed  was  limited 
to  the  numlier  required  for  distribution  among 
members,  but  in  some  instances  a  few  were  printed 
for  sale.  The  club  originally  consisted  of  31  mem- 
bers only,  who  p;iid  an  annual  contribution  of  five 
guineas;  but  owing  to  the  anxiety  of  many  eminent 
men  to  become  members,  the  number  was  gradually 
extended  to  loo,  where  it  was  definitely  fixed,  the 
same  annual  payment  being  still  required.  Its 
first  president  was  Sir  Walter  Scott,  and  its  first 
secretary  Mr.  David  Laing,  who  still  continues  to 
discharge  the  duties  of  the  ofiice.  The  club  had 
annual  meetings  in  December,  which  were  of  a  very 
convivial  character,  so  far  as  can  be  judged  from 
an  account  of  their  first  meeting  jjubhshed  in 
the  Edlnburcih  Literary  Gazette  of  Februai'y  1824 — 
afterwards  reprinted  by  the  club  itself — which 
suggestively  says  that  the  Bannatpie  Garland, 
No.  1,  a  song  composed  by  one  of  the  members,  was 
sung  '  to  the  tune  of  Four  Bottles  more.''  These 
meetings,  however,  have,  within  recent  years,  been 
given  up;  and  tlie  club  itself,  which,  in  1859, 
numbered  about  eighty  members,  was  to  be  dis- 
solved in  a  few  months.  Since  its  commencement 
it  has  numbered  among  its  members  many  of  the 
most  distinguished  Scotsmen,  and  has  printed  more 
than  a  hundred  quarto  works,  besides  several  octavo 
ones,  some  valuable  as  they  are  rare,  and  all  bring- 
ing high  prices  at  sales. 

BA'ISNER,  a  piece  of  cloth  attached  to  a  pole, 
and  usually  bearing  some  warlike  or  heraldic  device, 
or  national  emblem.  In  this  sense  B.  is  a  generic 
term,  including  many  species,  such  as  standard, 
ensign,  pennon,  flag,  &c.  Banners  have  been  used 
from  the  earliest  times,  and  in  all  countries,  for  the 
purpose  of  directing  the  movements  of  troops.  We 
read  of  them  constantly  in  the  Old  Testament,  as  in 


Numbers  ii.  2,  '  Every  man  of  the  children  of 
Israel  shall  camp  I)y  his  standard,  and  under  the 
ensign  of  his  fath'-r's  house.'  The  earliest  Roman 
standard  was  a  bundle  of  straw  fixed  to  the  to-p  of 
a  spear.  This  was  succeeded  by  figures  of  animals 
— the  horse,  the  boar,  &c.,  all  of  which  soon  gave 
place  to  the  eagle,  which  continued  all  along  to  be 
the  chief  Roman  ensign,  and  was  afterwards  assumed 
by  the  (ierman,  and  latterly  by  the  French  emperors 
of  the  Napoleon  dynasty.  In  addition  to  the  eagle, 
each  Roman  cohort  had  a  B.,  generally  a  serpent  or 
dragon  woven  on  a  square  piece  of  cloth.  The 
standard  of  the  cavalry  was  a  square  piece  of  cloth 
expanded  on  a  cross,  and  it  was  to  this  that  the  term 
vexillum  properly  applied.  Examples  of  these  stand- 
ards are  sculptured  on  the  Arch  of  Constantiue  at 


Roman  Standards  from  the  Arch  of  Constantiue. 

Rome.  The  top  of  the  staff  was  also  frequently 
adorned  with  a  figure  of  Mars  or  of  Victory,  and  in 
later  times,  with  the  head  of  the  reigning  emperor. 
After  Constantine  embraced  Christianity,  the  Cross 
was  substituted  for  the  head  of  the  emperor  on  the 
purple  B.  of  Byzantium.  Standards  were  less  in  use 
amongst  the  Greeks  than  has  been  usual  with  war- 
like nations  ;  but  a  standard,  and  sometimes  a  scarlet 
flag,  was  employed  as  a  signal  for  giving  battle.  On 
the  rise  of  Chivalry,  in  the  middle  ages,  the  ordering 
of  biinners,  like  every  other  branch  of  military 
organisation,  attained  to  something  like  scientific 
exactitude.  From  the  B. -royal,  which  bore  the 
national  emblems,  to  the  small  streamer  attached  to 
the  lance,  with  its  cross  or  stripes,  there  was  a 
regular  subordination,  each  emblem  having  its  place 
and  its  meaning.  The  pennon  of  the  simple  knight 
differed  from  the  square  B.  of  the  banneret  (q.  v.), 
in  being  pointed  at  the  ends.  In  addition  to  their 
varieties  in  size,  shape,  and  colour,  these  banners 
were  distinguished  by  the  emblems  which  they 
bore.  One  of  the  earliest  is  the  Danish  raven, 
depicted  on  the  standard  taken  by  Alfred,  of  which 
Asser  mentions  the  tradition,  that  'in  every  battle, 
wherever  that  flag  went  before  them,  if  they  [the 
Danes]  were  to  gain  the  victory,  a  live  crow  would 
appear  flying  on  the  iniddle  of  the  flag  ;  but  if  they 
were  doomed  to  be  defeated,  it  would  hang  down 
motionless.'  Nor  did  the  privilege  of  carrying 
banners  belong  to  princes  and  knights  alone, 
bishops  and  abbots  displayed  similar  ensigns,  which 
were  carried  before  them  in  religious  processions, 

671 


B  ANNERET— B  ANN?. 


and  under  which  tlieu'  retauiers  fought  in  their 
defence.  It  wa.s  to  these  that  the  term  '  Gonfalon,' 
a  word  as  to  the  origin  of  which  much  divers^ity  of 
opinion  exists,  was  more  commonly  applied.  In 
place  of  the  heraldic  emblems  of  the  ktiiglit,  the  B. 
of  the  Church,  and  of  towns  and  communes,  usually 
bore  the  effigies  of  saints.  Some  banners,  however, 
displayed  no  ensigns  whatever,  and  were  known 
simply  by  their  colour.  Of  this  the  orijinmme,  or  plain 
ruddy  flag  of  St.  Denis,  was  a  famous  example.  The 
celebrated  Bayeux  Tapestry  (q.  v.)  throws  consider- 
able light  on  banners,  as  w  ell  as  on  other  matters  con- 
nected with  the  warlike  arrangements  of  the  middle 
ages.  Much  curious  information  on  this  and  kindred 
subjects  will  be  found  in  Hewitt's  Ancient  Armour 
and  Weapons  in  Europe.  By  every  warlike  people 
the  B.  has  been  regarded  as  the  emblem  of  national 
honour,  as  a  palladium  for  tlie  defence  of  whicli  the 
individual  warrior  was  at  all  times  ready  to  sacrifice 
his  life.  From  the  converse  of  this  feeling,  banners 
and  flags  taken  from  the  enemy  have  always  been 
regarded  as  special  trophies  of  victory,  and  places 
of  honour  in  churches  and  public  buildings  have 
consequently  been  assigned  them.  As  to  the  flags 
borne  by  the  ships  of  different  nations,  and  the 
arrangements  concerning  them  in  peace  and  war,  see 
Flag  ;  as  to  colours  of  regiments,  see  Colours. 

The  relation  which  banners  bear  to  other  kinds 
of  flags,  in  their  forms  and  uses  will  be  explained 
under  Colours,  Rkgimextal  ;  Ensign;  Flag;  Pen- 
dant; &c. 

Banner  diaplaijed.,  is  the  term  used  by  heralds  to 
describe  a  B.  open  and  flying. 

BA'NNERET,  a  higher  grade  of  knighthood 
conferred  by  the  sovereign  for  some  heroic  act 
performed  in  the  field,  and  so  called  because  the 
pennon  of  the  knight  was  then  exchanged  for  the 
banner — a  proceeding  which  was  effected  by  the 
very  simple  means  of  rending  the  points  from  the 
pennon.  The  first  B.  in  England  is  said  by  Froissart 
to  have  been  made  by  King  f]dward  I.,  and  the 
last  time  the  honour  was  confei-red  was  by  Charles 
I.  after  the  battle  of  Edgehill,  the  recipient  being  an 
individual  who  rejoiced  in  the  familiar  name  of 
John  Smith.  The  ceremony  of  the  creation  of  a 
Knight  B.  must  have  been  very  impressive  to 
persons  tilled  with  the  ideas  which  were  prevalent 
in  the  ages  of  chivalry.  The  king,  or  his  general, 
at  the  head  of  his  army,  drawn  up  in  order  of 
battle  after  a  victory,  under  the  royal  standard 
displayed,  attended  by  all  the  officers  and  nobility 
of  the  court,  received  the  B.  elect,  who  was  not 
necessarily  a  knight  previously,  led  between  two 
knights  of  note,  or  other  men  famous  in  arms, 
carrying  his  pennon  in  his  hand,  the  heralds  walk- 
ing before  him  and  proclaiming  his  valiant  achieve- 
ments, for  which  he  deserved  to  be  made  a  Knight 
B.,  and  to  display  his  banner  in  the  field.  The  king, 
or  general,  then  said  to  him  :  '  Advance,  Banneret !  ' 
{Advances  toy  Banneret),  and  caused  the  point  of 
his  pennon  to  be  torn  oft".  The  new  knight,  with 
the  trumpeters  sounding  before  him,  and  the  nobi- 
bility  and  officers  bearing  him  company,  was  sent 
back  to  his  tent,  where  a  noble  entertainment  was 
provided  by  the  king.  Some  attempts  have  been 
made  to  revive  the  title  in  recent  times,  as  when 
George  III.,  at  a  review  of  the  navy  at  Portsmouth 
in  1773,  conferred  it  on  Admiral  Pye  and  several 
other  officers. 

BA'NNOCK,  a  cake  of  home-made  bread,  com- 
mon in  the  country  parts  of  Scotland,  but  now  less 
BO  than  formerly.  It  is  usually  composed  of  pease 
meal  or  of  pease  and  barley  meal  mixed ;  prepared 
without  any  leaven,  it  is  baked  on  a  circular  plate 
of  iron,  called  a  girdle.  When  made  of  mixed 
672 


meal,  it  is  called  a  niashlum  bannock.  '  Bannocks  of 
barley-meal '  form  the  theme  of  a  popular  Scottish 
song.  A  superior  kind  of  B.,  called  a  Selkirk  B., 
from  the  phice  where  it  is  made,  resembles  the 
finer  and  lighter  species  of  tea-cakes  prepared  by 
bakers.  The  word  B.  is  from  the  Gaelic  honach,  a  cake. 
In  the  west  of  Scotland,  it  is  pronounced  biinnock. 
There  is  an  amusing  fairy-tale  called  The  Story  of 
the  Wee  (little)  Bwmock.  The  B.  is  doubtless  of 
great  antiquity,  being,  in  fact,  the  primitive  cake, 
only  Varied  in  material,  of  every  country. 

BA'XXOCKBURN,  a  village  iu  the  east  of 
Stirlingshire,  three  miles  south-south-cast  of  Stir- 
ling, on  the  Bannock  rivulet,  which  falls,  a  few 
miles  below  this,  into  the  Forth.  Xcar  this  was 
fought  the  great  battle  of  B.  on  Monday,  24th  June 
1314.  Robert  Bruce,  with  30,000  Scotch,  gained 
a  signal  victory  over  Edward  II.,  with  100,000 
English,  and  secured  his  thione  and  the  independ- 
ence of  Scotland.  The  English  are  said  to  have 
lost  30,000,  and  the  Scotch  8000  men.  The  '  Bore 
Stone,'  on  which  Bruce  is  said  to  have  fixed  hia 
standard  ou  that  eventful  day,  is  still  to  be  seen 
on  an  eminence  near  the  scene  of  the  fight.  On 
the  south-cast  of  the  field  of  B.,  at  Sauchie  Burn, 
James  III.  was  defeated  in  1488  by  his  rebellious 
subjects,  and  assassinated  after  the  battle  in  a  mill 
where  he  had  taken  refuge.  B.  is  now  an  important 
seat  of  the  woollen  manufactures,  especially  those 
of  tartans  and  carpets.  It  has  long  supplied  the 
tartan  worn  by  the  Highland  regiments.  Tanning 
is  carried  on  to  some  extent,  and  the  neighbouring 
villages  are  noted  for  the  manufacture  of  nails. 
Pop.  2627. 

BANXS,  or  BAXS,  in  the  law  of  England,  means 
a  proclamation,  or  public  notification,  or  summon.s, 
in  which  general  sense,  however,  it  may  be  said  to 
have  become  obsolete.  It  is  now  chiefly,  if  not 
solely,  used  in  the  publication  of  intended  marriages, 
as  to  which,  see  next  article. 

BAXXS  or  BAXS  of  MA'RRIAGE.  This  is  one 
of  three  alternative  preliminary  forms  now  essential 
to  the  legal  celebration  of  marriage  in  England.  The 
other  two  are  marriage  by  licence,  and  marriage 
by  a  registrar's  certificate.  B.  of  M.,  like  many 
of  our  ecclesiastical  regulations,  has  its  origin  in 
the  ancient  practice  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
which  our  reformers  wisely  refrained  from  abolish- 
ing. By  the  publication  of  these  B.  is  meant  the 
legal  proclamation  or  notification  within  the  parish, 
district,  or  chapelry,  and  in  the  proper  church  or 
chapel,  of  the  names  and  descriptions  of  the  persons 
who  intend  to  be  there  married  ;  the  object  being 
the  notoriety  of  the  solemn  act,  so  that  all  who  have 
objections  to  the  marriage  may  be  enabled  to  state 
them  in  time.  According  to  the  old  English  canon 
law,  the  publication  of  B.  might  be  made  on  holidays  ; 
but  a  change  was  made  to  Sundays  by  the  first 
important  Marriage  Act,  the  26  Geo.  II.  c.  33  ;  and 
although  that  act  was  afterwards  superseded  by 
the  4  Geo.  lY.  c.  76,  the  regulation  as  to  Sundays 
has  been  since  continued.  The  latter  act  is  still 
the  principal  subsisting  statute  on  the  subject  of 
marriage  B.,  although  it  has  been  amended  and 
extended  by  the  6  and  7  Will.  IV.  c.  85,  and  1  Vic. 
c.  22,  the  3  and  4  Vic.  c.  72,  and  the  19  and  20  Vic. 
c.  119.  The  law,  as  contained  in  these  acts  of 
parliament,  is  as  follows :  By  the  4  Geo.  IV.  c.  76, 
s.  2,  ,it  is  enacted  that  all  B.  of  matrimony  shall 
be  published  in  an  audible  manner,  according  to  the 
rubric  prefixed  to  the  marriage-service  in  the  Book 
of  Common  Prayer,  upon  three  Sundays  preceding 
the  ceremony,  during  the  time  of  morning-service, 
or  of  evening-service  (if  on  the  day  of  publication 
1  there  shall  be  no  morning-service)  immediately  after 


BANQUETTE— BANTAM  FOWL. 


the  second  lesson.  The  rubric  referred  to  is  in 
the    following    terms :      '  I    publish    the    banns    of 

marriage  between  M.  of  and  N.  of  .     If 

any  of  you  know  cause  or  just  impediment  why 
these  persons  should  not  l)e  joined  together  in  holy 
matrimony,  ye  are  to  declare  it.  This  is  the  first 
[second,  or  third]  time  of  asking.'  By  the  'I'ld 
section  of  the  same  act,  all  marriages  celebrated 
■without  such  publication  of  B.,  or  without  licence 
(or  uow,  under  the  6  and  7  Will.  IV.  c.  85,  s.  42, 
without  a  Registrar's  certificate),  are  declared  to  be 
null  and  void.  By  the  'itUh  section  of  the  last- 
mentioned  act,  the  bishop,  with  consent  of  the 
patron  and  incumbent,  may  license  chapels  for  the 
celebration  of  marriages  in  populous  places ;  and  by 
the  33d  section  of  the  1  Vic.  c.  22,  B.  may  be  pub- 
lished in  such  chapels.  By  section  9  of  the  4 
Geo.  IV.  e.  vG,  it  is  provided,  that  if  the  marriage 
be  not  celebrated  within  three  months  after  pub- 
lication of  B.,  the  marriage  shall  not  take  place 
until  the  B.  shall  have  been  republished  on  three 
several  Sundays,  unless  it  be  a  marriage  by  licence, 
or  now,  by  certificate,  which  two  latter  alternatives, 
however,  must  also  be  availed  of  within  the  three 
months.  It  only  remains  to  be  added  on  the  law, 
as  contained  in  these  marriage  acts,  that  by  section 
8  of  the  last  of  them,  the  19  and  20  Vic.  c.  119,  it 
is  provided,  that  in  every  case  in  which  one  of  the 
parties  intending  marriage  without  licence  shall 
dwell  in  Scotland,  a  certificate  of  proclamation  of 
B.,  in  Scotland,  under  the  hands  of  the  session-clerk 
of  the  parish  in  which  such  proclamation  shall  have 
been  made,  shall,  when  produced  to  any  person 
duly  authorised  under  the  provisions  of  this  act 
to  solemnise  a  marriage,  be  as  valid  and  effectual 
for  authorising  such  person  to  solemnise  such  mar- 
riage as  the  production  of  a  cei'tificate  for  marriage  of 
a  superintendent  registrar  of  a  district  in  England 
would  be,  in  reference  to  a  party  resident  within  such 
district. 

The  purpose  of  the  law  is  to  secure  public  know- 
ledge of  intended  marriages,  and  therefore,  although 
the  4  Geo.  IV.,  following  in  this  respect  the  26 
Geo.  II.,  declares  that  marriages  shall  be  void 
without  publication  of  B.  (where,  of  course,  that 
is  the  chosen  preliminary),  it  is  not  necessary  that 
such  publication  should  be  made  in  the  real  baptismal 
names  of  both  or  either  of  the  parties  ;  it  is  sufficient 
that  the  B.  be  published  in  the  names  by  which 
the  parties  are  known,  or  either  of  them.  Nay,  it 
even  ajipears  that  where  the  baptismal  names  have 
been  discovered,  having  been  previously  concealed 
or  unknown,  it  is  better,  if  not  necessary,  that  publi- 
cation should  be  made  in  the  names  by  which  the 
parties  are  familiarly  known  in  the  district,  by 
which,  indeed,  they  may  be  said  to  be  known  to 
the  world.  There  are  numerous  cases  decided  in 
England  from  which  such  doctrine  necessarily  fol- 
lows. In  one  of  these  cases,  Lord  Chief-justice 
Ellenborough,  the  highest  judicial  authority  that 
could  be  named,  stated,  in  giving  judgment :  '  The 
object  of  the  act  is  to  secure  notoriety,  to  apprise 
all  persons  of  the  intention  of  the  parties  to  contract 
marriage ;  and  how  can  that  be  better  attained 
than  by  publication  in  the  names  by  which  parties 
are  known  V  I  think  that  the  act  only  meant  publi- 
cation by  known  and  acknowledged  names.'  It  has 
also  Ijeen  decided,  that  a  fraudulent  knowledge  of 
a  wrong  name  in  the  publication  of  B.  will  not  void 
the  marriage,  unless  the  fraud  should  be  on  both 
*ides. 

In  Scotland,  B.  have  the  same  Roman  Catholic 
origin  as  in  England.  Indeed,  Mr.  Erskine,  one  of 
the  most  authoritative  Scotch  legal  writers,  gives  it 
as  his  opinion,  that  the  Scotch  borrowed  the  practice 
from  the  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent ;  but  a 
43  -^ 


recent  able  writer  (see  Frascrs  Domestic  Bclations, 
vol.  i.  p.  113)  considers  this  opinion  erroneous,  and 
shows  that  B.  were  first  sanctioned  in  Scotland 
by  councils  which  were  held  in  that  country  long 
before  the  time  of  the  Council  of  Trent.  After  the 
Reformation  in  Scotland,  the  i)raetice  of  proclaiming 
11,  as  the  phrase  is  in  that  country,  was  continued. 
They  are  described  in  the  Scotch  Act  16G1,  c.  34, 
'  as  a  part  of  the  laudable  order  and  constitution  of 
the  kirk  ; '  and  they  have  since  been  mentioned  in 
various  acts  of  parliament  applicable  to  Scotland, 
such  as  the  10  Anne,  c.  7,  and  the  4  and  5  Will.  IV. 
c.  28.  By  the  first  of  these  acts,  the  privilege  of 
publicly  celebrating  marriage  was  extended  to  the 
Scotch  Episcopalian  clergy^  but  with  a  proviso  that 
the  B.  should  be  duly  published  three  Lord's  Days, 
not  only  in  the  Episcoi)al  churches  which  the  parties 
frequent,  but  also  in  the  parish  church  or  churches. 
Should  the  parish  minister,  however,  neglect  or 
refuse  to  publish  the  B.  of  such  parties,  the  act 
declares  that  it  shall  be  sufficient  to  do  so  in  any 
Episcopal  congregation  alone.  The  4  Will.  IV.  c. 
28,  puts  other  dissenting  bodies  in  Scotland  in  the 
same  position  as  the  Episcopal  Church  there ;  but 
there  is  this  little  difference,  that  publication  of  the 
B.  of  such  dissenters  is  required  to  be  made  in  the 
parish  church  alone.  There  is  one  other  regulation 
of  the  Scotch  law  on  this  subject  which  is  deserving 
of  notice  for  popular  information — namely,  that 
when  both  of  the  parties  have  their  clonvicile  (q.  v.) 
within  Scotland,  and  enter  into  marriage  in  England 
or  Ireland,  they  must  have  their  B.  proclaimed  in  the 
parish  church  of  their  domicile  in  Scotland,  otherwise 
they  are  liable  to  the  penalties  of  clandestine  marriage. 
Such  is  the  express  enactment  of  the  Scotch  statute 
1661,  c.  34. 

The  Scotch  law  differs  from  the  English  in  regard 
to  the  effect  of  non-publication  of  banns.  In 
England,  as  we  have  seen,  the  consequence  is  to 
render  the  marriage  absolutely  void.  In  Scotland, 
however,  marriage,  without  proclamation  of  B.,  is 
valid ;  but  in  such  case  the  parties,  celebrator,  and 
witnesses  are  liable  in  the  above  penalties.  See 
Marriage  Licence,  Special  Licence,  Registrar's 
Certificate. 

BANQUETTE,  in  Fortification,  is  a  raised  ledge 
or  step  inside  the  parapet  of  a  rampart,  of  such  a 
height  that  musketeers,  when  standing  on  it,  may  be 
able  to  fire  over  the  crest  of  the  parapet  without  too 
much  exposure  to  the  enemy.  It  is  about  4  feet  wide, 
and  4  or  A\  feet  below  the  crest.  The  musketeers 
ascend  to  it  from  the  rampart  either  by  a  few  steps  or 
by  a  sloping  patli. 

BANTA'M,  a  seaport,  now  decayed,  in  a  district 
of  the  same  name,  which  forms  the  west  end  of 
Java.  It  is  40  miles  to  the  west  of  Batavia,  being 
in  lat.  6°  2'  S.,  and  long.  106°  11'  E.  It  was  founded 
by  the  Dutch  in  1602,  being  their  earliest  establish- 
ment in  the  island.  The  district  contains  362,242 
inhabitants. 

BA'NTAM  FOWL,  a  well-known  variety  of  the 
common  Domestic  Fowl  (q.  v.),  originally  brought 
from  the  East  Indies,  and  supposed  to  derive  its  name 
from  Bantam,  in  Java.  It  is  remarkable  for  small 
size,  being  only  about  a  pound  in  weight,-  and  for  a 
disposition  more  courageous  and  pugnacious  -than  even 
that  of  a  game-cock.  A  Ijantam-cock  will  drive  to  a 
respectable  distance  great  dunghill-eocks  -  five  times 
its  weight,  and  has  been  described  as' a  beautiful  ex- 
ample of  a  great  soul  in  a  little  body.'  There  are 
sevei'al  subvarieties  of  the  bantam.  Most  of  them 
have  the  legs  much  feathered.  The  flesh  and  eggs  arc 
good,  although  the  eggs  are  of  coucse  small;: and  the 
bantam  lays  well  in  winter. 

673 


BAXTEN'G— BAPnOMET. 


BANTENG  {Bos  Bantcnci  or  B.  Sondaicun),  a 
species  of  Ox  (q.  v.),  a  native  of  Java  and  Borneo, 
which,  in  colour,  shape,  horns,  and  want  of  dewlap 
bears  some  resemblance  to  the  Gaur  (q.  v.)  of  India, 
'  but  in  the  skeleton  of  the  gaur,  the  sacrum  consists 
of  5  vertebrye,  and  the  tail  of  19,  while  in  the  skeleton 
of  the  B.,  the  sacrum  consists  of  but  4  vertebrci?, 
and  the  tail  of  18.'  The  B.  is  black,  with  white 
legs.  The  hair  is  short  and  sleek,  the  limbs  slender. 
The  muzzle  is  sharp.  The  back  rises  into  a  high 
arch  immediately  beliind  the  neck.  The  B.  inhabits 
forests,  and  has  been  generally  described  as  untam- 
able, but  this  opinion  rests  on  no  satisfactory  autho- 
rity. 

BV'NTRY,  a  seaport  town  in  the  south-west  of 
Cork  county,  Ireland,  in  a  cove  opposite  Whiddy  Isle, 
at  the  head"  of  B.  Bay,  and  44  miles  west-south-west 
of  Cork.  The  two  chief  streets  converge  into  an 
open  space  towards  the  sea,  and  mountains,  933  feet 
high,  rise  behind  the  town.  The  chief  trade  is  the 
export  of  agricultural  produce.  A  little  fishing  is 
carried  on.  In  last  century,  there  was  an  extensive 
pilchard-fishery  here ;  but  the  pilchard  has  now  de- 
serted the  coast.  Many  tourists  resort  to  B.  in  sum- 
mer.    Pop.  2935. 

BA'NTRY  BAY,  a  deep  inlet  in  the  south-west 
extremity  of  Ireland,  between  Crow  Point  and  Sheep's 
Head  Point,  in  Cork  county.  It  is  25  miles  long, 
running  east-north-east,  with  a  breadth  of  3  to  5 
miles.  It  is  one  of  the  finest  harbours  in  Europe, 
affording  safe  and  commodious  anchorage  for  ships 
of  all  sizes.  Near  the  entrance  on  the  north  side  is 
a  fine  large  sheltered  harbour,  formed  by  Bear 
Island,  with  a  safe  passage  on  both  sides.  At  the 
head  of  the  bay  are  two  harbours :  the  one  to  the 
south  or  the  landlocked  roadstead  of  B.  harbour, 
is  formed  by  Whiddy  Isle,  opposite  B.  town  ;  the 
other  to  the  north,  or  Glengaritf  harbour,  is  also 
sheltered  by  an  island,  but  is  small,  and  narrow  at 
the  entrance.  The  coast  around  B.  B.  is  rocky  and 
high,  consisting  of  Devonian  strata,  and  exhibiting 
some  of  the  finest  scenery  in  the  kingdom.  On  the 
north  side,  lY  miles  west  of  B.  town,  is  the  great 
cataract  of  Hungry  Hill,  where  three  lakes,  at  the 
heights  of  1011,  li26,  and  1360  feet  above  the  sea, 
discharge  their  waters,  by  almost  continuous  cascades, 
into  Adrigoole  Creek.  Near  the  opening  of  B.  B.  a 
skirmish  took  place,  in  1689,  between  a  small  English 
fleet  under  Admiral  Herbert  (afterwards  Lord  Tor- 
rington),  and  the  French  fleet,  which  conveyed  James 
II.  to  Kinsale.  Several  ships  of  the  French  invading 
expedition  under  General  Hoche  anchored  here  in 
1796. 

BANX'RING  (Ti(paia\  a  genus  of  insectivorous 
quadrupeds,  remarkably  dift'ering  from  the  other 
insectivora  (q.  v.)  in  their  habits,  as  they  climb 
trees  with  the  agility  of  lemurs  or  squirrels.  They 
ai-e  also  remarkable  for  their  very  elongated  muzzle. 
They  have  soft  glistening  fur,  and  a  long  bushy  tail. 
The  few  species  known  are  all  natives  of  the  Indian 
archipelago. 

BA'NYA  (Negay),  or  NEU'STADT,  a  town  of 
Hungary,  province  Szathmar,  with  a  royal  mint,  and 
productive  mines  of  gold  and  silver.     Pop.  5500. 

BA'NYAN,  or  BA'NIAN  (Fictis  Indica),  a  tree, 
native  of  India,  remarkable  for  its  vast  rooting 
branches.  It  is  a  species  of  Fi«  (q.  v.);  has  ovate, 
heart-shaped,  entire  leaves,  about  five  or  six  inches 
long  ;  and  produces  a  fruit  of  a  rich  scarlet  colour, 
not  larger  than  a  cherry,  growing  in  pairs  from  the 
axils  of  the  leaves.  The  branches  send  shoots  down- 
wards, which,  when  they  have  rooted,  become  stems, 
the  tree  in  this  manner  spreading  over  a  great  sur- 
face, and  enduring  for  many  ages.  One  has  been 
described  aa  having  no  fewer  than  350  stems,  equal 
674 


to  large  oaks,  and  more  than  3000  smaller  ones, 
covering  a  space  sufficient  to  contain  7000  persons. 
The  branches  are  usually  covered  with  monkeys, 
birds,  and  enormous  bats.      The  monkeys  eat  both 


Banyan-Tree. 

the  fruit  and  leaves.  The  vegetation  of  the  B. 
seldom  begins  on  the  ground.  The  seeds  are  de- 
posited by  birds  in  the  crowns  of  palms,  and  send 
down  roots  which  embrace  and  eventually  kill  the 
palm.  As  the  B.  gets  old,  it  breaks  up  into  separate 
masses,  the  original  trunk  decaying,  and  the  props 
becoming  separate  trunks  of  the  different  portions. 
The  wood  of  the  B.  is  light,  porous,  and  of  no  value. 
The  bark  is  regarded  by  the  Hindoo  physicians  as 
a  powerful  tonic,  and  is  administered  in  diabetes. 
The  white  glutinous  juice  is  used  to  relieve  tooth- 
ache, and  also  as  an  application  to  the  soles  of  the  feet 
when  inflamed.  Bird-lime  is  also  made  from  it.  Gum- 
lac  is  obtained  in  abundance  from  the  B.-trce.  The 
B.-tree  is  beautifully  described  by  Southey  in  his  poem 
J'he  Curse  of  Kchama. 

BANYULS-SUR-MER,  a  town  of  France  in  the 
Pyrenees  Orientales,  with  a  fishing-port  on  the  Medi- 
terranean. The  celebrated  wines  of  Grenache  and 
Rancio  are  produced  in  this  district.  Near  the  town 
are  four  old  towers,  one  of  which  marks  the  division 
between  France  and  Spain.  B.  was  the  immediate 
scene  of  many  encounters  between  the  French  repub- 
licans and  the  Spaniards  during  the  first  French  Re- 
volution.    Pop.  1512. 

BANYUWA'NGY,  or  BANJOUVA'NGY,  an  im- 
portant and  populous  seaport  town  and  military  post 
belonging  to  the  Dutch,  on  the  east  coast  of  Java, 
capital  of  district  of  same  name. 

BA'OBAB.     See  Adansonia. 

BAPAUME,  a  fortified  town  of  France,  department 
of  Pas-de-Calais.  A  portion  of  the  allied  troops  ad- 
vanced to  this  place  after  compelling  the  French  to 
abandon  their  fortified  position,  and  to  retreat  behind 
the  Scarpe,  in  August  1793.     Pop.  2900. 

BAPHOMET  is  the  name  of  a  mysterious 
symbol,  which  was  in  use  among  the  Templars. 
According  to  the  oldest  and  most  probable  inter- 
pretation, the  word  is  a  corruption  of  Mahomet, 
to  whose  faith  the  members  of  the  order  were 
accused  of  having  a  leaning.  The  symbol  consisted 
of  a  small  human  figure  cut  out  of  stone,  having 
two  heads,  male  and  female,  with  the  rest  of  the 
body  purely  feminine.  It  was  environed  with 
serpents,  and  astronomical  attributes,  and  furnished 
with  inscriptions  for  the  most  part  in  Arabic. 
Specimens  are  to  be  found  in  the  archaeological 
collections  of  Vienna  and  "Weimar.  Hammer, 
however,  in  his,  lunclr/rubcti  dcs  Orients^  derives 
B.  from  Gr.   bapfie,   baptism ;   and  7nitis,  council  or 


BAPTISM. 


wisdom.  He  charges  the  knights  with  a  depraved 
Gnosticism,  and  makes  the  v.'ord  signify  the  baptism 
of  wisdom — the  baptism  of  fire  ;  in  sliort,  the  Gnostic 
baptism — a  species  of  spiritual  illumination,  which, 
however,  was  interpreted  sensually  by  later  Gnostics, 
each  as  the  Ophites  (an  Egyptian  Liect  of  the  11th  c), 
to  whose  licentious  practices  he  declares  them  to 
have  been  addicted.  But  this  explanation  is  gener- 
ally disci'i'dited. 

BA  PTISM  (Gr.  hapto,  to  dip  or  wash,  or  to  stain 
with  a  li(iuid),  one  of  the  sacraments  (q.  v.)  of  the 
Christian  Church,  deriving  its  name  from  the  out- 
ward rite  of  washing  with  water,  which  forms  an 
essential  part  of  it.  B.  is  almost  universally  ac- 
knowledged among  Christians  as  a  sacrament,  and 
is  referred  to  the  autliority  of  Christ  himself,  whose 
express  connnandment  is  recorded  in  the  gospels 
(Mat.  xxviii.  I'J  ;  Mark  xvi.  16).  B.  is  freiiuently 
mentioned  in  the  New  Testament  as  a  divine  ordi- 
nance. 

The  name  and  the  rite  were  not,  however, 
altogether  new  when  the  ordinance  was  instituted 
by  Christ.  Religious  meanings  were  early  attached 
to  washings  with  water,  both  by  heathens  and 
Jews ;  they  were  among  the  ordinances  of  the 
Jewish  law ;  and  it  is  not  necessary  to  go  beyond 
that  law  to  find  the  origin  of  the  custom  of  wash- 
ing or  baptising  proselytes  upon  their  admission 
into  the  Jewish  Church.  Washing  with  water 
was  requisite  for  the  removal  of  ceremonial  un- 
cleanness,  and  every  proselyte  must  have  been 
regarded  as,  prior  to  his  admission  into  the  Jewish 
Church,  ceremonially  unclean.  John  the  Baptist 
baptised  not  proselytes  upon  their  renouncing 
heathenism  and  entering  the  Jewish  Church,  but 
those  who,  by  birth  and  descent,  were  members  of 
it,  to  indicate  the  necessity  of  a  purification  of  the 
soul  from  sin — a  spiritual,  and  not  a  mere  outward 
change. 

One  of  the  most  important  of  the  controversies 
wliich  have  agitated  the  Christian  Church  as  to 
B.,  is  that  concerning  the  proper  subjects  of  B., 
whether  adults  only  who  profess  faith  in  Christ 
are  to  be  baptised,  or  if  this  ordinance  is  to  be 
administered  to  their  infants  also.  See  Baptists, 
and  Baptism,  Infant.  The  B.  of  adults  was  cer- 
tainly more  frequent  in  the  apostolic  age  than  it  has 
ordinarily  been  where  the  B.  of  infants  has  pre- 
vailed ;  for  which  an  obvious  cause  presents  itself  in 
the  fact,  that  the  first  members  of  churches  were 
converts  from  Judaism  or  from  heathenism.  It 
is,  however,  generally  held  by  those  who  advocate 
the  B.  of  infants,  that  it  was  the  practice  of  the 
apostles  and  of  the  church  of  the  apostolic  age  to 
baptise  the  infants  of  C'aristians ;  wliich,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  as  stoutly  denied,  and  infant  B.  is 
alleged  to  have  crept  in  along  with  other  corruptions. 
For  neitlier  opinion  can  any  positive  historical  proof 
be  adduced,  the  arguments  on  both  sides  being  purely 
infereitial. 

It  is  admitted,  on  all  hands,  that  at  an  early 
|)eriod  in  the  liistory  of  the  church,  B.  was 
administered  to  infants,  although,  according  to 
Neander,  even  after  '  it  had  been  set  forth  as  an 
apostolic  institution,  its  introduction  into  the 
general  practice  of  the  church  was  but  slow.'  He 
finds  '  the  first  trace'  of  it  in  Irenieus.  It  was 
opposed  by  TertuUian  about  the  end  of  the  2d  c.  ; 
and  was  advocated  by  Cyprian,  and  acknowledged 
as  an  apostolic  institution  in  the  North  African 
Church  and  in  the  Alexandrian  and  Syro-Persian 
Churches  in  the  3d  c. ;  but  it  was  not  until  the 
5th  c.  that  it  became  fully  established  as  the 
general  practice  of  the  Cln-istian  Church.  It  has 
unquestionably  continued  to  be  the  general  practice 
from     that     period     to    the     present    day ;     feebly 


opposed  by  some  of  the  sects  of  the  middle  ages, 
and  more  vigorously  by  some  of  those  who  have 
adopted  the  general  principles  of  the  Reformation. 
See  Baptists. 

Both  the  practice  of  infant  B.,  and  the  neglect 
of  it  in  the  early  ages  of  the  church,  were  con- 
nected with  particular  views  of  religious  doctrine, 
and  of  the  nature  and  purpose  of  B.  itself.  The 
prevalence  of  the  Augustinian  doctrine  of  original 
sin  is  generally  regarded  as  a  principal  cause  of  the 
prevalence  of  infant  B. ;  but  Pclagius,  whilst  oppos- 
ing that  doctrine,  maintained  the  necessity  of  infant 
B.°  apparently  upon  the  ground  that  the  kingdom 
of  heaven  can  be  attained  by  human  beings  only 
through  God's  grace.  No  little  influence  in  favour 
of  infant  B.  must  be  ascribed  to  the  growing  belief 
of  the  absolute  necessity  of  B.  to  salvation,  and  of 
a  sort  of  mysterious  efficacy  in  the  rite  itself.  It  is 
certain,  on"  the  other  hand,  that  the  belief  in  the 
forgiveness  of  sins  in  B.  led  to  a  practice  of  deferring 
it  as  long  as  possible,  that  all  sins  might  be  blotted 
out  at  once  ;  thus  the  Emperor  Constantine  the  Great 
was  baptised  only  a  .«hort  time  before  his  death.  The 
approach  of  a  war  or  pestilence  caused  many  to  rush 
forward  in  haste  to  be  baptised,  who  had  previously 
delayed. 

Two  modes  of  B.  are  practised,  by  immersion  or 
dipping,  and  by  aspersion  or  sprinkling,  concerning 
which  there  has  been  much  controversy  in  the  early 
period  of  the  church's  history,  as  well  as  in  recent 
times.  Affusion,  or  pouring,  the  common  practice 
of  the  Church  of  Rome,  may  be  regarded  as  essen- 
tially the  same  with  sprinkling.  The  advocates  of 
sprinkling  universally  admit  the  validity  of  B. 
administered  in  the  other  mode,  but  the  advocates 
of  dipping  generally  refuse  to  acknowledge  that  B. 
by  sprinkling  can  be  true  Christian  baptism.  The 
opponents  of  infant  B.,  almost  without  exception, 
insist  upon  immersion  ;  whilst  aspersion  or  affusion 
of  water  is  general,  except  in  the  Eastern  churches, 
wherever  the  B.  of  infants  prevails.  The  argument 
upon  which  Baptists  depend  most  of  all  is  from  the 
word  B.,  and  the  verb  bapfizo,  to  baptise,  which 
also,  in  classic  Greek,  signifies  to  immerse.  On  the 
other  side,  it  is  contended  that  a  strict  limita- 
tion to  this  sense  does  not  well  accord  with  its 
character  as  a  '  frequentative'  form  of  bapto ;  and 
instances  are  adduced  from  the  New  Testament 
itself,  in  which  this  signification  cannot  easily 
be  attached  either  to  the  noun  or  to  the  verb,  as 
1  Cor.  X.  2,  where  Paul  says  that  the  Israelites 
were  '  baptised  unto  Moses  in  the  cloud  and  in 
the  sea ; '  and  Heb.  ix.  10,  Mark  vii.  4,  and  Luke 
xi.  38,  where  both  verb  and  noun  are  employed 
concerning  the  icashhiffs  of  the  Jews,  and  the  noun 
even  of  their  washing  of  '  cups,  and  pots,  brazen 
vessels,  and  of  tables.' — To  the  argument  in  favour 
of  immersion,  derived  from  the  phrases  employed 
when  B.  is  mentioned  in  Scripture,  as  when  we  are 
told  (Mat.  iii.  6)  that  John  the  Baptist  baptised  '  in 
Jordan,'  that  our  Lord  after  his  B.  (Mat.  iii.  KS)  'went 
up  out  of  the  water,'  that  Philip  and  the  Ethiopian 
eunuch  (Acts  viii.  38)  '  went  down  both  into  the 
water ; '  it  is  replied  that  all  the  passages  of  this 
description,  even  if  their  meaning  were  certainly 
as  precise  and  full  as  Baptists  suppose  it  to  be,  are 
insufficient  to  sustain  the  weight  of  the  conclusion 
as  to  the  necessity  of  a  particular  mode  of  B. ;  that, 
however,  it  is  far  from  being  clear  that  these 
passages  must  be  interpreted  or  the  meaning  of  the 
Greek  prepositions  so  strictly  defined  as  the  argu- 
ment requires ;  and  further,  that  there  are  instances 
mentioned  in  Scripture  which  afford  a  presumptive 
argument  in  favour  of  another  mode  of  B.,  as 
where  we  are  told  of  great  numbers  added  to  the 
church   in   one   dav ;    whilst   we   have   nowhere   any 

675 


BAPTISM, 


intimation  of  converts  being  led  to  any  pond  or 
river  to  be  baptised.  To  tl:e  argument  drawn 
from  the  language  of  Paul  in  Rom.  vi.  4,  Col.  ii.  12 
(see  Baptists),  it  is  replied  that  it  depends  upon  a 
fanciful  interpretation  of  these  texts. — According 
to  most  of  the  advocates  of  B.  by  sprinkling,  the 
great  error  of  their  opponents  is  that  of  attaching 
too  much  importance  to  the  question  of  the  mode  of 
baptism. 

It  is,  however,  indisputable  that  in  the  primitive 
church  the  ordinary  mode  of  B.  was  by  immersion, 
in  order  to  which  BaptUteries  (q.  v.)  began  to  be 
erected  in  tlie  3d,  perhaps  in  the  2d  c.,  and 
the  sexes  were  usually  baptised  apart.  But  B. 
was  administered  to  sick  persons  by  sprinkling ; 
although  doubts  as  to  the  complete  efficacy  of  this 
clinic  (sick)  B.  were  evidently  prevalent  in  the 
time  of  Cyprian  (middle  of  3d  c).  B.  by  sprinkling 
gradually  became  more  prevalent ;  but  the  dispute 
concerning  the  mode  of  B.  became  one  of  the  irre- 
concilable differences  between  the  Eastern  and 
Western  Churches,  the  former  generally  adhering  to 
the  practice  of  immersion,  whilst  the  latter  adopted 
mere  pouring  of  water  on  the  head,  or  sprinkling 
on  the  face,  which  practice  has  generally  j)revailed 
since  the  13th  c.  ;  but  not  universally,  for  it  was 
the  ordinary  practice  in  England  before  the  Reforma- 
tion to  immerse  infants,  and  the  foiits  (q.  v.)  in  the 
churches  were  made  large  enough  for  this  purpose. 
This  continued  also  to  be  the  practice  till  the  reign 
of  Elizabeth  ;  and  the  change  which  then  took  place 
is  ascribed  to  the  English  divines  who  had  sought  re- 
fuge in  Geneva,  and  other  places  of  the  continent, 
during  the  reign  of  Mary.  To  this  day  the  rul)ric  of 
the  Church  of  England  requires,  that  if  the  godfathers 
and  godmothers  '  shall  certify  him  that  the  child  may 
well  endure  it,'  the  officiating  priest  '  shall  dip  it  in 
the  water  discreetly  and  warily  ; '  and  it  is  only  '  if 
they  shall  certify  that  the  child  is  weak,'  that  '  it  shall 
suffice  to  pour  water  upon  it,"  which,  however,  or 
sprinkling,  is  now  the  ordinary  practice. 

B.  was  accompanied,  from  an  early  period  in  the 
history  of  the  church,  with  various  forms  and  cere- 
monies, besides  the  simple  rite  of  washing  with 
water  and  the  pronouncing  of  the  formula  which 
declares  it  to  be  '  in  the  name  of  the  Father,  and  of 
the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost.'  These  ceremonies 
are  almost  all  retained  in  the  Church  of  Rome, 
and  also  generally  in  the  oriental  churches,  but 
have  been  entirely  or  almost  entirely  laid  aside  by 
Protestants.  The  Church  of  England  retains  the  sign 
of  the  cross  made  upon  the  forehead  after  B.,  but  the 
other  Protestant  churches  in  Britain  reject  it.  It 
was  an  ancient  custom  that  the  catec/nimen.t,  as  can- 
didates for  B.  were  called  whilst  receiving  instruction 
with  a  view  to  that  sacrament,  when  they  were  to 
be  baptised,  publicly  made  a  profession  of, their  faith 
and  a  renunciation  of  the  devil  and  all  his  works. 
The  profession  of  faith  is  still  retained  by  Protestant 
churches  as  the  formal  ground  of  the  administration 
of  B.  ;  the  renunciation  of  the  devil  and  his  works 
is  required  by  the  Church  of  England  of  the  person 
baptised,  if  an  adult,  or  of  the  spo7i.wrs  or  '  sm-eties ' 
of  a  child. — Sponsors  (q.  v.)  were  early  admitted  to 
answer  for  those  who  could  not  answer  for  them- 
selves, and  particularly  for  infants.  The  belief  in 
the  absolute  necessity  of  B.  to  salvation  led  even 
to  B.  of  the  dead  among  the  Montanists  (q.  v.)  in 
Africa,  in  which  sponsorship  was  also  introduced. 
Presbyterian  and  Independent  churches  generally 
reject  all  sponsorship,  and  regard  the  profession 
niaile  by  parents  as  simply  a  profession  of  their 
own  faith,  which  entitles  their  infants  to  baptism. 
The  ancient  practice  of  exorcism  (q.  v.)  imme- 
diately before  B.  has  been  rejected  as  superstitious 
by  almost  all  Protestant  churches ;  as  have  also 
676 


that  of  immersing  three  times  {trime  immersion), 
or  sprinkling  three  times,  with  reference  to  the 
three  persons  of  the  Godhead — that  of  breathing 
upon  the  baptised  person,  '  to  signify  the  expulsion 
of  the  devil,'  and  to  symbolise  the  gift  of  the  Holy 
Spirit — that  of  anointing  with  oil  {chrism,  q.  v.),  to 
symbolise  the  same  gift,  or  to  indicate  that  the 
baptised  person  is  ready,  as  a  wrestler  in  the  ancient 
games,  to  fight  the  good  fight  of  faith — that  of 
giving  him  milk  and  honey,  in  token  of  his  spiritual 
youth,  and  of  his  reception  of  spiritual  gilts  and 
graces — that  of  putting  a  little  salt  into  his  mouth, 
to  signify  the  wisdom  and  taste  lor  heavenly  things 
proper  to  a  Christian — that  of  touching  his  nostrils 
and  ears  with  spittle,  to  signify  that  his  ears  are  to 
be  ever  open  to  truth,  and  that  he  sliould  ever  fetl 
the  sweet  odour  of  truth  and  virtue — and  that  of 
clothing  him  after  B.  with  a  white  robe  (the  chr;- 
snvic),  in  token  of  the  innocence  of  soul  which  by 
B.  he  was  supposed  to  have  acfjuired.  The  white 
robe  and  the  anointing  with  oil  were  retained  in 
the  Church  of  England  for  a  short  time  after  the 
Reformation. — The  giving  of  a  name  in  B.  (see 
Names,  Baptismal)  is  no  essential  part  of  it,  but 
is  a  custom  apparently  derived  from  that  of  the 
Jews  in  circumcision  (Luke  i.  59 — 63). — The  Church 
of  Rome  prefers  the  use  of  holy-water  (q.  v.)  in  B., 
but  regards  any  water  as  fit  for  the  purpose  in  case  of 
necessity. — According  to  an  ancient  usage,  long  obso- 
lete, the  ordinary  administration  of  B.  was  limited  to 
the  two  great  festivals  of  Easter  and  Whitsuntide. — 
Whether  B.  may  be  administered  in  private,  has  been 
much  debated,  both  in  ancient  and  modern  times. 
The  administration  of  B.  in  private  houses,  and  not  in 
the  presence  of  a  congregation,  was  one  of  the  things 
earnestly  contended  against  by  the  Presbyterians  in 
Scotland  in  the  first  half  of  the  17th  c.  ;  their  oppo- 
sition being  grounded,  not  only  upon  hostility  to 
what  they  deemed  usurpation  of  authority,  but  upon 
the  danger  of  superstitious  views  of  baptism.  And 
apparently  upon  this  latter  ground,  B.  in  private 
houses  is  also  discouraged,  even  while  it  is  allowed, 
if  there  is  '  great  cause  and  necessity,'  by  the  Church 
of  England  ;  yet  it  lias  become  very  frequent  both  in 
the  Church  of  England  and  among  the  Presbj'terians 
of  Scotland. 

Some  of  the  most  important  questions  concerning 
B.  will  be  most  appropriately  noticed  in  the  article 
Sacrament,  particularly  those  relating  to  its  place 
in  the  Christian  system  and  among  the  means  of 
grace.  The  opinions  early  became  prevalent,  that 
forgiveness  of  sins  is  obtained  in  B.,  and  spiritual 
life  begun,  and  that  it  is  indispensably  necessary 
to  salvation — exception  being  only  made,  if  any  was 
made  at  all,  of  the  case  of  believers,  adult  persons, 
who  desiring  B.,  were  prevented  from  being  baptised, 
and  particularly  of  those  who  suffered  martyrdom, 
which  was  generally  held  to  be  equivalent  to  bap- 
tism. The  Church  of  Rome  still  owns,  as  supplying 
the  place  of  B.  by  water,  these  two — B.  by  desire, 
and  B.  by  blood, — i.  e.,  in  martp-dom. — According 
to  the  general  doctrine  of  the  Protestant  churches, 
B.  is  'a  sign  and  seal '  of  the  covenant  of  grace, 
representing  as  a  sign  the  blessings  of  the  covenant, 
and  as  a  seal,  confirming  the  covenant.  As  a  sign, 
it  is  generally  held  to  represent  in  its  rite  of  wash- 
ing, the  removal  both  of  guilt  and  corruption,  by  the 
blood  and  by  the  Spirit  of  Christ,  and  so  to  relate 
equally  to  pardon  and  regeneration,  although  some  have 
limited  its  symbolic  reference  to  regeneration  alone. 
One  of  the  most  important  points  disputed  concerning 
B.,  is  that  of  baptismal  regeneration.  See  Regenera- 
tion. 

Some  early  Christian  sects  appear  to  have  rejected 
B.,  on  grounds  somewhat  similar  to  those  on  which 
it  is  rejected  by  Quakers  (q.  v.)  at  the  prese/it  day. 


BAPTISM— BAPTISTERY. 


who  explain  the  passages  which  relate  to  it  sytnboli- 
cally,  and  insist  that  a  spiritual  B.  is  the  only  real 
B.  of  Christians. — The  Socinians  {([.  v.)  also  in 
modern  times  have  maintained  that  B.  is  not  an 
ordinance  of  permanent  obligation,  but  a  merely 
symbolical  rite  of  little  importance. 

Much  controversy  has  taken  place  concerning  Zay 
Baptism.  Wherever  there  is  a  recognised  ministry  in 
the  church,  there  is  a  general  agreement  in  referring 
the  ordinary  administration  of  B.  to  those  who  hold 
this  office.  It  might  be  e.xpected  tliat  the  more 
strongly  the  necessity  of.  the  trausmis.-ion  of  /lolj/ 
ordirs  by  apostolical  succession  is  asserted,  the  more 
strongly  also  would  exclusiveness  be  manifested  with 
regard  to  the  right  of  the  clergy  to  adndnister  B.  But 
tliis  tendency  is  counteracted  by  the  belief  in  the 
necessity  of  B.,  or  at  least  of  its  great  importance  to 
the  salvation  of  infants ;  so  that  iiom  an  early  period 
lay  B.  was  allowed,  although  not  without  a  struggle, 
in  cases  of  apprehended  danger ;  and  in  the  Church 
of  Rome,  this  principle  is  logically  carried  out  to 
the  fullest  e.xtent,  and  even  women  are  authorised 
to  admiiuster  B.  in  cases  of  necessity.  On  the 
same  ground,  lay  B.  was  at  first  permitted  in  the 
Protestant  Church  of  England ;  but  the  prevalence 
of  other  viewu  led  to  a  kind  of  formal  restriction  of 
the  right  of  administeiing  it  to  '  lawfid  ministers,' 
although  in  practice  the  validity  of  lay  B.  is  still 
generally  recognised. 

Another  question  much  agitated  in  the  church 
from  early  times,  is  that  concerning  the  validity  of 
B.  by  heretics.  The  opinion  ultimately  prevailed, 
that  B.  by  heretics  is  valid,  except  in  the  case  of 
those  who  do  not  baptise  in  the  name  of  the  three 
Persons  of  the  Godhead.  This  continues  to  be  the 
almost  universal  opinion.  Few  Protestant  theolo- 
gians hesitate  to  acknowledge  the  validity  of  B. 
administered  in  the  Church  of  Rome. 

The  £.  of  hells  is  a  custom  supposed  to  have  been 
introduced  about  the  10th  c,  and  still  retained  in 
the  Church  of  Rome.  The  term  benediction  is 
sometimes  substituted  for  B. ;  but  the  rite  itself 
is  very  similar  to  that  of  B.,  and  is  accompanied 
with  many  similar  ceremonies — '  a  sort  of  exorcism,' 
sprinkling  with  holy  water,  anointing  '  with  the 
oil  of  catechumen.s'  and  '  with  chrism,'  a  formula  of 
consecration  '  in  the  name  of  the  Father,  Son,  and 
Holy  Ghost,'  and  sometimes  also,  if  not  always,  the 
giving  of  a  name  to  the  bell  consecrated,  and  even 
a  kind  of  sponsorship  as  by  godfathers  and  god- 
mothers in  baptism.  This  custom  has  no  doubt 
greatly  fostered  the  notion  of  an  efficacy  in  the 
linging  of  bells  i'or  protection  in  storms,  and  for 
other  benefits ;  indeed,  it  is  expressly  avowed  that 
'  the  bells  are  blessed,  to  turn  oft'  storms  and  tempests 
from  the  faithful.' 

BAPTISM,  Infant.  The  chief  arguments  in 
favour  of  infant  B.  arc  based  upon  the  proposition 
that  the  church  is  one  throughout  all  changes  of 
dispensation.  From  this  it  is  argued  that  as  infants 
were,  so  they  still  nmst  be  included  in  the  visible 
church.  It  is  maintained  that  in  all  covenants 
which  God  has  made  with  men,  their  children  have 
been  included;  that  the  covenant  with  Abraham 
was  a  renewed  revelation  of  the  covenant  of  grace, 
the  temporal  promises  made  to  him  being  connected 
with  the  greatest  spiritual  promises  ;  that  circum- 
cision was  a  seal  of  the  covenant  with  respect  to 
these,  in  which  the  children  of  Christians  have  the 
same  interest  that  Jewish  children  had;  and  that 
B.  is  a  seal  of  the  covenant  now  as  circumcision 
was,  the  things  to  which  it  has  immediate  reference 
being  also  blessings  which  children  are  capable  of. 
It  is  contended  that  the  arguments  in  favour  of 
infant  salvation  derive  additional  strength  from 
that  view  of  the   place  of  infants   in   the   church 


according  to  which  they  are  entitled  to  baptism. 
The  passages  which  connect  B.  with  faith  arc 
regarded  as  exclusively  relating  to  adults,  like  the 
passages  which  connect  salvation  with  faith  and 
repentance.  In  reply  to  the  argument  that  there 
is  no  express  command  for  infant  B.,  it  is  ai'gued 
that  the  state  of  the  case  rather  demands  of  those 
who  ojipose  it  the  production  of  an  express  command 
against  it,  without  which  the  general  command  mu>t 
be  held  to  include  it;  the  words  and  actions  of  our 
Saviour  (Mark  x.  14)  with  respect  to  children  arc 
quoted  as  confirming  the  opinion  that  the  place  of 
infants  in  the  church  is  precisely  what  it  was  under 
the  Jewish  dispensation ;  and  it  is  contended  that  it 
would  have  been  a  very  great  restriction  of  privilege 
in  the  new  dispensation  if  infants  had  been  excluded 
from  a  place  which  they  held  before,  as  entitled  to 
a  seal  of  the  covenant,  whereas  it  is  evident  that 
the  new  dispensation  is  characterised  not  by  restric- 
tion but  by  enlargement  of  privilege. — Those  who 
hold  the  doctrine  of  infant  B.  are  styled  Ppcdo- 
baptists. 

The  Roman  Catholic  and  Lutheran  Clmrches 
regard  the  B.  of  infants  as  adnutting  them  into 
the  church,  and  making  them  members  of  Ciirist's 
body.  The  Reformed  (q.  v.)  Churches  hold  that  the 
children  of  Christians  are  included  in  the  visible 
church  from  their  birth,  and  therefore  entitled  to 
baptism.  These  are  the  natural  starting-points  of 
very  different  systems. 

BA'PTISTERY  (Gr.  baptisterion,  a  large  vase  or 
basin),  the  name  given  sometimes  to  a  separate 
building,  sometimes  to  the  portion  of  the  church 
itself  in  which  the  ceremony  of  baptism  was  per- 
formed. In  the  latter  case,  the  B.  was  merely  the 
enclosure  containing  the  font,  to  be  seen  in  most 
English  churches.  According  to  the  earlier  arrange- 
mer.ts  of  the  Christian  Church,  however,  the  B. 
seems    usually    to   have    been   a   building   standing 


Section  and  Plan  of  Baptistery  at  Asti. 

detached  from,  though  in  the  immediate  vicinity 
of  the  church  to  which  it  appertained.  Baptisteries, 
at  first,  were  either  hexagonal  or  octagonal,  but 
afterwards  became  polygonal  and  even  circular. 
The  B.  of  St.  Giovanni  in  Fonte,  at  Rome,  commonly 
known  as  the  B.  of  Constantinc,  is  octagonal,  whilst 
the  Church  of  St.  Constantia,  which  was  originally  a 
B.,  is  a  circular. 

The  celebrated  B.  of  Florence  is  an  octagonal 
structure,  measuring  about  one  hundred  feet  iu 
diameter.  It  stands  detached  from,  but  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  the  cathedral.  It  is  built 
of  black  and  white  marble,  in  the  style  which 
Giotto  is  said  to  have  introduced,  and  which  is 
still  peculiar  to  Florence.  Internally,  a  gallery, 
which  runs  nearly  round  the  whole  building,  is 
supported  by  sixteen  large  granite  columns,  and 
the  vaulted  roof  is  decorated  with  mosaics  by 
Andrea  Tafi,  the  pupil  of  Cimabue.  But  the  mag- 
nificent bronze  doors,  with  their  beautiful  bas-reliefs, 
are  the  most  remarkable  feature  of  this  famous 
baptistery.  The  most  celebrated  of  the  three  doors 
was  executed  by  Lorenzo  Ghiberti,  the  earliest  being 

677 


BAPTIST 


the  work  of  Andiea  of  Pisa.  Fifty  years  were 
re(iuiie(l  for  their  completion  ;  and  it  is  remarkable 
that  the  contracts  for  their  execution  are  still  pre- 
served. Next  in  importance,  and  of  even  greater 
size,  is  the  B.  of  Pisa.  It  is  circular  in  form,  the 
diameter  measuring  116  feet.  Externally,  it  is 
divided  into  three  stories,  the  two  under  ones  being 
surrounded  by  columns,  of  which  the  upper  are 
smaller  and  more  numerous  than  the  under.  The 
building  is  raised  from  the  ground  on  three  steps, 
and  terminates  in  a  pear-shaped  dome,  which  is 
famous  for  its  echo,  the  sides  acting  as  whispering- 
galleries.  The  largest  B.  ever  erected  is  supposed 
to  have  been  that  of  St  Sophia,  at  Constantinople, 
which  was  so  spacious  as  to  have  served  on  one 
occasion  for  the  residence  of  the  Emperor  Basilicus. 

BAPTISTS  (sometimes  called  Antijhrclobapfists, 
as  opposed  to  Pcedobaptixts,  or  those  who  advocate 
Infant  Baptism*).  This  denomination  of  Christians 
refuse  to  acknowledge  any  great  name  as  founder  of 
their  sect.  They  trace  their  origin  to  the  primitive 
church  itself,  and  refer  to  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles 
and  their  Epistles  as  affording,  in  their  opinion, 
incontestible  evidence  that  their  leading  tenets  liad 
the  sanction  of  inspiration.  When  Christianity 
became  corrupted  by  the  rise  of  Antichrist,  they 
point  to  the  maintenance  of  their  scripture  practice 
among  the  Cathari  and  Albigenses  and  other  sects 
of  tlie  irdddle  ages,  who,  in  the  midst  of  surrounding 
darkness,  continued  to  hold  fast  the  apostolic 
testimony.  They  sprung  into  notice  in  England 
under  Henry  VIII.  and  Elizabeth.  They  were 
persecuted  under  both  reigns,  but  they  received 
freedom  to  meet  for  worship  from  James  II.,  and 
complete  religious  liberty  under  William  III.  Ever 
since,  they  have  diffused  their  principles  extensively 
in  Great  Britain  and  North  America ;  many  of  their 
ministers  have  done  good  service  to  the  cause  of 
science  and  literature,  and,  both  as  preachers  and 
writers,  have  taken  a  position  of  eminence  in 
society. 

The  B.  hold  the  plenary  inspiration  and  supreme 
authority  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  as  a  revelation 
from  God ;  the  equal  deity  of  the  Son  and  the  Holy 
Spirit  in  the  unity  of  the  ever  blessed  Trinity.  But, 
as  a  condensed  view  of  opinions  cannot  be  expected 
in  this  work,  it  may  \>e  as  well  to  state  that  the 
denomination  are  distinguished  by  almost  all  the 
shades  of  behef  which  exist  in  other  bodies.  They 
have  among  them  Calvinists  both  hyper  and 
moderate,  also  high  and  low  Arminians,  diverging 
oft'  in  every  variety  of  shade  from  a  common  centre. 
The  great  body  of  them  in  Britain  and  America 
liold  the  doctrine  of  Calvinism  in  a  moditied  form  ; 
that  is  to  say,  they  maintain  the  sufficieiiry  of  the 
Atonement  for  all  meyi,  the  limitation  for  which 
some  have  pleaded,  they  consider,  lies  in  its  applica- 
tion to  the  sinner  by  the  sovereign  grace  of  God 
through  faith.  They  maintain  the  necessity  of 
regeneration  and  holiness  of  life  as  essential  lo  true 
religion,  and  that  'without  holiness  no  man  shall 
see  the  Lord  ;'  and  their  conduct,  in  general,  will  bear 
a  comparison  with  any  class  of  their  co-religionists. 

Particular  B.,  so  called  because  holding  that 
Christ  died  for  an  elect  number,  and  General 
B.,  who  maintain  that  he  died  for  all  men,  consti- 
tute the  two  leading  sects  into  which  the  body 
is  divided.  English  B.,  in  their  cliurch  order  and 
government,  aie  the  same  as  Congregationalists,  the 

*  The_  Baptists  of  Great  Britain  and  America  rejcot  the 
name  of  Anabaptists,  as  expressinsr  only  an  aeciflental  circum- 
etance  of  their  tenets — viz.,  the  rftiaptisinsr  of  converts  from 
other  sects,  who  happen  to  have  liec-n  baptised  in  infancy,  and 
also  as  associatinsr  them  with  the  scandals  of  the  German  Ana- 
b.ipti>t3  (q.  v.)  of  the  ]6tb  c,  from  whom  they  claim  to  be 
historically  distinct.  From  the  same  feeling,  the  modern 
kect  in  Germany  and  Holland  style  themselves'  Taufgtuinute. 
678 


rite  of  baptism  excepted.  Scotch  B.,  properly  so 
called,  insist  on  a  plurality  of  pastors  in  every 
church,  and  the  exerci.-^e  of  mutual  exhortation  by 
the  members  in  their  public  assemblies.  There  are 
Baptist  churches  in  England,  however,  who  are 
Scotch  in  their  order,  and  English  B.  in  Scotland 
who  are  English  in  theirs.  Seventh-day  B.,  we 
believe,  are  to  be  found  almost  wholly  in  Ainerica, 
who  observe  not  the  first  day  of  the  week,  but  the 
seventh,  as  a  day  of  rest.  There  are,  besides  these 
great  divisions,  various  small  associations  of  B. 
scattered  over  Great  Britain,  America,  and  the 
continent  of  Europe,  whose  opinions  cannot  be 
gathered  up  into  systematic  arrangement,  and  who 
would  not  approve  of  being  identified  with  any  of 
the  sectarian  designations  here  set  down. 

The  particular  tenet  which  characterises  B. 
among  their  fellow-Christians  is,  that  baptism  is  an 
ordinance  the  validity  of  which  depends  on  an  intel- 
ligfMit  faith  on  the  part  of  the  recipient.  Their 
views  on  the  matter  of  baptism  may  be  rcdtieed  to 
two  heads — the  subjects  and  tnode  of  baptism.  The 
subjects  of  the  baptismal  rite  they  hold  to  be 
believers  in  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  They  ground 
their  faith  in  this  matter  on  the  following  posi- 
tions— namely :  1st,  The  Lord  in  his  commission 
to  his  apostles  associates  leaching  with  baptism, 
and  limits  the  admiinstration  of  the  rite  to  the 
taught.  2d,  The  Acts  of  the  Apostles  shews  how 
they  understood  their  Master,  for  they  baptised 
none  but  believers,  or  such  as  appeared  to  be  so. 
Sd,  That  the  kingdom  of  Christ  as  it  appears  in 
this  world  is  restricted  to  credibly  converted  per- 
sons, as  is  shewn  in  his  discourse  with  Nicodemus : 
'Except  a  man  be  born  again,  he  cnnnot  see  the 
kingdom  of  God  ;'  and  his  subsequent  statements 
on  to  the  hour  when  he  emitted  his  memorable  con- 
fession before  Pilate,  '  My  kingdom  is  not  of  this 
world,'  uniformly  ])roves  that  its  subjects  and  insti- 
tutes form  a  distinct  and  separate  community  fiom 
the  Jewish  theocracy,  which  embraced  parents  and 
children  in  nonage  in  one  commonwealth.  4th,  They 
maintain  that  the  ordinance,  as  explained  in  the  New 
Testament,  always  points  to  a  moral  and  spiritual 
change,  apart  from  which  it  were  indeed  a  meaning- 
less ceremony. 

As  respects  the  mode,  the  B.  hold  that  only 
immersion  in  water  is  baptism.  They  argue,  that 
the  original  term  bnptizo  conveys  this  meaning,  and 
no  other;  that  nothing  less  can  possibly  answer  to 
the  apostle's  exjilanation  in  Rom.  vi.  4,  5,  and  Col. 
ii.  12,  '  buried  with  him  in  baptism,  wherein  also  ye 
are  risen  with  him ;'  that  the  many  allusions  in 
the  epistles  to  the  churches  manifestly  bear  out 
this  interpretation ;  and,  finally,  that  the  fact  of 
John  baptising  at  a  spot  selected  for  the  purpose 
'  because  there  was  much  water  there,'  is  perfectly 
conclusive. 

Their  form  of  church-government  is  congregational. 
They  maintain  that  the  only  order  of  officers 
remaining  to  the  church,  since  inspiration  ceased, 
are  pastors  (otherwise  called  elders  and  bishops), 
deacons,  and  evangelists  ;  that  the  number  of  official 
persons  in  e;ich  of  the  apostolic  churches  cannot  be 
ascertained  from  the  record,  but  must  of  necessity 
have  depended — and  always  must  depend — on  cir- 
cumstances ;  that  each  church  is  possessed  of  the 
power  of  self-government  under  its  exalted  head, 
Jesus  Christ,  subject  to  no  foreign  tribunal  or  court 
of  review  ;  that  discipline  is  to  be  exercised  by  the 
nders  in  presence,  and  with  the  consent  of  all  the 
members,  and  parties  received  or  excluded  at  their 
voice. 

The  B.  are  divided  among  themselves  regarding 
comnmnion — one  portion  receiving  conscientious 
Paj-dobaptists  to  the  Lord's  table  and  membership  ; 


BAR-BARAGUAY  IVIIILLIERF;. 


the  other  refusing  this  i)rivilcgc  to  any  but  fuch  as 
have  been  immersed  on  a  profession  of  their  taitti. 
Tde  churches  of  the  former  are  called  open  commu- 
nionists ;  the  latter,  strict  communionists.  _  1 

Next  to  the  Moravians,  the  B.  were  earlie«;t  in  the 
field  of  missions.     They  have  been  honored  to  phmt 
churches  in  nianv  parts  of  continental  India,  m  Le} - 
Ion    iu  the  Bahamas,  the  West  Indies,  Africa,  and 
China     Ko  mission  band  has  arisen  in  any  denonu- 
nation,  ^^•ithin  the  century,  who  have  surpassed  the 
a-ents  of  the  Baptist  Mssionary  Society  in  ardent 
zeal    patient  perseverance,  and  invincible  fortitude, 
in  c'arryin-'  out  their  Lord's  commission  to  preach 
the  KOs'pcHo  cverv  creature.     The  names  of  Carey, 
Marshman,  Ward.'and  Knibb,  Anil  be  had  in  gratetu 
remembrance    bv    all    succeeding    generations;    and 
their  footsteps  'are  now  being  trod  by  a  long  list  ot 
missionaries   of    all   evangelical    persuasions  —   the , 
messengers  of  the  churches  and  the  glory  ot  Christ.    | 
This   section   of    the    Christian   church    was   less; 
zealous    than    their   brethren,   at  one    time,  in   pre- 1 
pariii'--  their  ministers  for  their  work  by  a  course  ! 
of  studv  in  theologv  and  general  literature,     lliey  | 
now  have  schools  of  learning  inferior  to  none  tor 
training   voung   men    of    piety  for    pastoi^l    duties, 
presided  over  by  men  of  great  ability.     At  Bristol, ! 
Bradford,  Re-ent's  Park  (London),  Pontypool,  Haver-  | 
fordwest,  Nottingham,  and  other  places  in  Lngland, 
thev  have  colleges  and  theological  schools,  ot   the 
first  class.     In  America  they  have  twenty  colleges, 
the  oldest  founded  in  1764,  and  the  youngest  in  1859  ; 
and  also  thirteen  theological   seminaries,  the  oldest 
founded  in   1820,  and  the  youngest  in  1863.     Many 
of  these  have  ample  endoAnnents  and  full  faculties 

In  1866,  the  B.  of  the  United  States  (next  to  the 
Methodists,  the  largest  religious  body  in  the  countrjO 
had  13  470  chiu-ches,  and  1,123,148  members,  ihe 
Baptist  Churches,  accorrUng  to  the  latest  returns,  have 
in  Nova  Scotia  a  membership  of  1 6,208  ;  iu  New  Bruns- 
wick, 8757  ;  in  Canada,  14,767,  and  in  the  West  Indies 
(estimated)  40,000. 


Bar. 


BAR  is  anv  elongated  piece  of  wood,  metal,  or 
other  solid  substance.  In  the  iron  manufacture,  B. 
is  a  rod  either  round  or  square  shafted.  The  round 
ones  are  made  bv  drawing  the  iron  red  hot  through 
a  bore  or  hole  i'n  a  plate,  and  the  square  ones  by 
passing  it  likewise  red-hot  through  a  roller-mill 
between  two  rollers  counter-grooved,  with  their 
triangular-grooved  faces  forming  the  square  opening 
for  the  passage  of  the  iron.  Railway  and  knee  iron 
are  made  in  the  .same  manner.     See  Iru.n  Ma.nufac- 

TURE. 

BAR,  in  Hydrography,  is  a  bank  opposite  the 
mouth 'of  a  "river  which  obstructs  or  bars  the 
entrance  of  vessels.  The  B.  is  formed  where  the 
rush  of  the  stream  is  arrested  by  the  water  ot  the 
sea,  as  the  mud  and  sand  suspended  in  the  rivcr- 
water  arc  thus  allowed  to  be  deposited.  It  is  thus 
that  deltas  are  formed  at  the  mouths  of  rivers.  The 
navio-atiou  of  many  streams  (as  the  Danube)  is  kept 
open  only  by  constant  dredging  or  other  artificial 
means. 

BAR,  in  Music,  is  a  line  drawn  across  the  stave, 
to  divide  the  music  into  small  portions  of  equal 
duration ;  each  of  these  small  portions  is  itself  called 
a  bar. 

BAR,  or  BARR,  in  Heraldry,  one  of  tho^e  more 
important  figures  or  charges  in  heraldry,  which  are 
known  as  ordinaries.  By  the  heralds  of  this  coun- 
try, the  ordniaries,  or,  as,  by  way  of  eminence,  they 
are  called,  the  'honourable  ordinaries,'  are  com- 
monly reckoned  as  ten  in  number,  the  sub-ordi- 
naries, or  minor  charges,  being  greatly  more  numer- 
ous. The  B.,  like  the  Fcss  (q.  v.),  is  formed  by  two 
horizont^il  lines  passing  over  the  shield,  but  it  differs 


from  it  in  size,  the  fess  occupying  a  third    the  B. 
oidy  a  fifth  part  of  the  shield.     There  is  this   fur- 
ther   difference    between    these    two 
ordinaries,  that  the  fe.ss  is  confined  to 
the  centre,  while  the  B.  may  be  borne 
in  several  parts  of  the  shield.     There 
is  a  diminutive  of  the  B.  called  the 
Closet,  which  is  half  a  B. ;  and  again 
of    the   closet,    called    the   Barrulet, 
which  is  half  a  closet,  or  the  fourth 
part  of  a  bar. — Bar-okmel  is  a  double   bar,  from 
the  French  jinncau,  i.  jumdle,  a  twin. 
!      BAR,  in  Law.     This  word  has  several  legal  mean- 
'  ings  ;  thus,  it  is  the  term  used  to  signify  an  enclosure 
or" fixed   place  iu  a  court  of  justice  where   lawyers 
may  plead,  or  perhaps  more  correctly,  where  they 
can  address  their  advocacy  on  behalf  of  their  clients. 
I  A  veileil-off  space  within  the  Houses  of  Parliament 
lis   similarlv    called   the    B.      See   Pleading.      The 
i  dock,  or  enclosed  space  where  persons  accused  of 
felonies    and    other    offences    stand    or    sit    during 
i  their  trial   is  also  called   the  B.;  hence  the  expres- 
1  sion,   '  prisoner  at  the  bar.'     This  word  is  hkewise 
applied    to   the   gate   or  rail  thrown  across  a  turn- 
pike  road   for   the   levying   of  the   toll-duties.      It 
has    also    a    general    meaning    in    legal    procedure, 
signifving  something  by  way  of  stoppage  or  preven- 
tion. "  There    is    also  a  trial    at    B.,  that  is,  a  trial 
before    the  judges    of  a    particular    court,   who    sit 
to<'ether  for  that  purpose  in  banc  (q.  v.).     See  the 
foUowing  articles:  Bar  of  Dower,  Pleas  in  Bar, 
Trial  at  Bar,  Tolldar,  Felony,  Treason,  Barris- 
1  ters,  Advocates. 

BAR  OF  DOWER.  Dower,  the  estate  or  provi- 
sion which,  bv  the  law  of  England,  a  widow  is  entitled 
to  out  of  the"  lands  and  tenements  of  her  deceased 
husband,  may  be  barred  or  defeated  by  her  elope- 
ment her  divorce  on  the  ground  of  her  own  adul- 
tery, the  tieasou  of  her  husband  and  other  disabih- 
tie.s,'and  by  detaining  the  title-deeds  or  evidences  of 
the'estate  from  the  licir  until  she  restores  them.  A 
woman  might  also,  while  fines  and  recoveries  were 
in  force,  be  barred  bv  these  assurances,  as  she  now 
may  by  the  new  method  of  conveyance  appointed  by 
the  st-atute  3  and  4,  Will.  IV.  c.  74,  in  substitution 
for  a  fine  or  recovery,  in  the  case  of  a  married 
woman.  And  another  method  of  barring  dower  is 
by  jointure,  as  regulated  by  the  statute  i1  Henry 
VIll.  c.  11). — Stephen's  Commenlnrie-t,  vol.  i.  p.  2(3. 
See  bowER,  Jointure,  Widow,  Fines  and  Recove- 
ries, and  Common  Assir.\nce. 

The  term  corresponding  to  Dower  in  Scotch  law  is 
Terce  (q.  v.),  which  may'also  be  barred  or  excluded 
in  various  ways;  as,  for  instance,  by  the  widow's 
express  discharge  or  renunciation,  by  the  deeds  ot 
the  husband  affecting  his  real  estate,  by  the  hns- 
baiul's  conviction  for  treason,  by  the  wife's  express 
acceptance  of  a  different  provision  in  lieu  of  the 
terce,  and  by  her  divorce  on  the  ground  ot  adultery. 
BAR,  Pleas  in.  See  Pleading  and  Pleas  in 
Bar. 

BAR,  Toll.  See  Toll. 
Bar,  Trial  at.  See  Trial  at  Bar. 
BAR  ABA',  a  steppe  of  Siberia,  extending  betv/een 
the  rivers  Obe  and  Irtish,  and  occupying  more  than 
11(0,000  square  miles,  and  covered  with  salt  lakes^ind 
marshes.  It  was  colonized  by  the  Russians  in  17 til, 
who  have  since  cultivated  parts  of  it. 

BARACO'A,  a  seaport  town  on  the  north-east 
coast  of  Cuba,  belonging  to  the  Spaniards.  Lat.  20° 
22'  N.,  long.  74°  ?.0'"W.  In  its  vicinity  is  a  remark- 
able mount^iin  called  the  Anvil  of  Baracoa. 

BARACrUAY  D'HILLIERS;  Locis,  a  distin- 
guished general  of  the  French  empire,  was  born  in 
°  "  679 


BARAGUAY  D'HILLIERS— BARBARA. 


Paris  in  1764.  After  serving  under  Custine  and 
Menou,  he  received  an  appointment  in  the  army 
of  Italy  from  Napoleon,  and  was  a  sharer  in  all 
the  success  of  the  campaigns  of  1796-7.  He 
was  made  a  general  of  division  ;  and  in  virtue  of 
Napoleon's  treaty  with  the  Venctiiin  Republic  in 
May  16,  1797,  commandant  of  Venice.  B.  accom- 
panied the  expedition  to  Egypt ;  and  afterwards 
successively  held  appointments  in  the  armies  of 
the  Rhine,  and  the  Tyrol,  and  in  Catalonia.  He 
headed  a  division  in  the  Russian  campaign  of  1812: 
but  on  the  retreat,  he  incurred  the  displeasure  of  Na- 
poleon. He  was  sent  as  governor  to  Berlin,  where 
he  soon  after  died  of  grief  and  exhaustion. 

BARAGUAY  D'HILLIERS,  Achille,  a  French 
general,  the  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris 
on  the  6th  of  September,  1795.  He  rose  rapidly 
through  the  inferior  military  grades,  and  obtained, 
in  1832,  the  appointment  of  governor  in  the  military 
school  of  St.  Cyr,  where  he  suppressed  a  republican 
conspiracy  that  threatened  to  break  out  in  the 
institution.  After  he  had  served  with  various 
success  in  more  than  one  campaign  in  Algeria,  he 
was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general,  on 
the  6th  of  August,  1843  ;  and  in  1847,  he  was  made 
inspector-general  of  infantry.  After  the  revolution 
of  February  1848,  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
National  Assembly,  in  which  he  joined  the  party 
of  reaction,  and  was  in  favour  of  the  restriction  of 
the  press.  In  the  beginning  of  November  1849,  he 
went  to  Rome,  as  commander-in-chief  of  the  French 
army  sent  to  sustain  the  authority  of  the  pope. 
He  returned  in  1850;  and  in  January  1851  obtained 
the  command  of  the  army  of  Paris,  in  the  place 
of  Changarnier.  B.  concurred  in  the  policy  of 
the  coup  d'etat  of  December  1851,  and  was  made 
a  member  of  the  Consultative  Commission.  During 
the  Crimean  war,  in  1854,  he  received  the  command 
of  the  French  expeditionary  corps  of  the  Baltic, 
iind  co-operated  with  the  British  fleet  in  the  capture 
of  Bomarsund,  and  was  now  made  a  Marshal  of 
France.  He  commanded  in  the  Italian  campaign 
of  1859  with  distinction — a  portion  of  his  troops, 
imder  the  immediate  direction  of  General  Forey, 
having  been  the  first  to  cross  bayonets  with  the  Aus- 
trians  at  Montebello. 

BA'RAS  KHOTU'N,  or  BARS  KHOTA'N,  a 
ruined  city  on  the  banks  of  the  Kherlon,  one  of 
the  head  streams  of  the  Amur,  in  the  Mongol 
country.  Some  suppose  it  to  have  been  built  by 
the  Emperor  Kublai ;  others,  that  it  was  erected 
by  Toghon  Timur  in  the  I4th  c,  after  the  expulsion 
of  the  Mongols  from  China.  The  remains  of  the 
mud-walls  shew  that  the  city  had  been  five  miles  in 
circumference. 

BARB,  the  designation  of  a  noble  breed  of  horses 
cultivated  by  the  Moors  of  Barbary,  and  introduced 
by  them  into  Spain.  Barbs  are  less  remarkable 
for  their  beauty  and  symmetry,  than  for  their  speed, 
endurance,  abstinence,  and  gentle  temper. 

BA'RBACAN.     See  Barbican. 

BARBA'DOES,  the  most  easterly  of  the  Carib- 
bces,  and  the  residence  of  the  governor-general  of 
the  British  Windward  Islands.  See  Antillks.  The 
lat.  and  long,  of  its  capital,  Bridgetown,  are  13°  4' 
N.,  and  59°  37'  W.  Its  area  is  about  166  square 
miles,  or  106,240  acres — the  unprecedented  propor- 
tion of  160,000  being  under  cultivation.  Besides  the 
capital,  B.  contains  3  other  towns,  all  more  or  less 
in  a  state  of  decay — Jamestown,  Speights-town,  and 
Oistin.  B.  affords  no  harbours,  being  almost  encircled 
by  coral-reefs,  which  here  a:id  there  extend  as  much 
as  3  miles  to  seaward.  Inside  of  the  coral-reefs, 
the  coast,  excepting  at  two  points,  presents  long 
lines  of  sandy  beach — one  of  the  most  remarkable 
680 


being  Carlisle  Bay  with  its  exposed  roadstead,  on 
which  Bridgetown  stands.  Setting  aside  occasional 
attacks  of  yellow  fever,  the  climate  is  healthy. 
In  1844,  the  fall  of  rain  was  72  inches;  and 
the  temperature  is  said  to  have  ranged  only 
between  76f°  and  83-^°  F.  Shocks  of  earthquake 
are  sometimes  felt,  and  thunder-storms  are  fre- 
quent and  severe.  But  hurricanes  are  the  grand 
scourge  of  Barbadoes.  In  1780,  one  of  them 
destroyed  4326  persons,  and  property  to  the  value 
of  £1^320,564  sterhng;  and  in  1831,  another  de- 
stroyed 1591  persons,  and  property  to  the  value 
of  £1,602,800  sterling.  Of  the  former  of  the.se, 
the  violence  appears  to  have  surpassed  all  belief — 
the  winds  and  the  waves  between  them  having  car- 
ried a  12-pounder  gun  a  distance  of  140  yards. 

In  1834,  the  commencement  of  the  apprentice- 
ship under  the  imperial  act  of  emancipation,  the 
population  was  102,231  ;  by  1861  it  had  increased 
to  152,727,  being  an  average  of  920  inhabitants 
to  every  square  mile,  or  of  3  to  every  2  acres 
under  cultivation.  The  trade  and  the  revenue 
bear  a  similar  testimony  to  the  benefits  of  eman- 
cipation. Between  1833  and  1868  the  revenue  has 
increased  from  £20,975  to  £116,356;  the  imports 
from  1833  to  1867,  from  £841,610  to  £985,503  ;  the 
exports,  from  £408,363  to  £1,245,500  -,  the  shipping 
entered  inward,  from  79,005  tons  to  152,886  tons,  and 
the  product  of  sugar  has  greatly  increased.  Being  uni- 
versally cultivated  in  regular  plantations,  the  island 
affords  no  room  for  the  squatting  of  negroes  on  unre- 
claimed lands,  as  in  Jamaica  and  other  West  India  pos- 
session.^. On  this  account,  if  from  no  other  cause,  the 
negro  population  have  been  compelled  to  labor  dili- 
gently for  hire,  and  are  generally  in  a  condition  most 
creditable  to  their  industry  and  prudence — contrast- 
ing, in  tills  respect,  with  the  improvidence  and  indo- 
lence of  some  of  the  lower  classes  among  the  whites. 
Altogether,  however,  the  Barbadians  are  a  shrewd 
and  clever  people,  nor  are  they  deficient  in  a  duo 
appreciation  of  their  own  power  and  importance. 
B.  is  the  see  of  a  bishop.  It  contains  also  many 
well-endowed  seminaries — Codrington  College,  in 
particular,  having  a  revenue  of  £3000  a  year.  It 
was  first  colonised  by  the  English  in  1625,  having 
previously  been  depopulated  by  the  Spaniards. 

BARBA'DOES  CHE'RRY,  the  name  given  in  the 
West  Indies  to  the  fruit  of"  two  small  trees,  Mal- 
piff/iia  urens  and  M.  glabra,  which  are  cultivated 
for  its  sake.  Clusters  of  fruit  are  produced  from 
the  axils  of  the  leaves.  The  fruit  of  M.  urens  is 
small,  that  of  M.  glabra  is  like  a  May  duke  cherry  in 
size  and  appearance,  but  inferior  in  flavour.  Each 
fruit  contains  three  triangular  seeds.  The  leaves  of 
M.  Kerens  have  stinging  hairs  on  the  under  side.  See 
Malpighiack.e. 

BARBA'DOES  GOO'SEBERRY  [Percskia  acn- 
Icata),  a  pleasant  West  Indian  fruit,  produced  by  a 
plant  of,  the  natural  order  Cactew  (q.  v.),  with  a 
round  stem,  thick  flat  alternate  leaves,  and  large 
strong  spines.     The  fruit  has  expectorant  properties. 

BA'RBARA,  Saixt,  Avho  suffered  martyrdom  at 
Nicomedia,  in  Bithynia,  about  236,  or,  according  to 
other  accounts,  at  Heliopolis,  in  Egypt,  about  300, 
was  of  good  birth,  and  well  educated  by  her  father, 
Dioscorus.  To  avoid  disturbance  in  her  studies,  he 
had  a  tower  built  for  her,  where  she  spent  her  youth 
in  the  deepest  solitude.  While  in  this  retirement, 
she  was  led,  through  Origen,  as  is  said,  to  embrace 
Christianity.  Her  fiithcr,  a  fi^natic  heathen,  learning 
his  daughter's  conversion,  and  failing  to  induce  her 
to  renounce  Christ,  delivered  her  up  to  the  governor, 
Martianus,  to  be  dealt  with  by  the  law.  Martianus, 
struck  with  the  intelligence  and  beauty  of  the 
maiden,  attempted  first  by  arguments  to  make  her 


BARBAREA— BARBARY. 


relinquish  Christianity,  and  when  that  failed,  had 
recourse  to  the  mo?t  exquisite  tortures.  At  last, 
the  blinded  father  offered  himself  to  strike  off  his 
daughter's  head.  Scarcely  was  the  deed  done,  when 
he  was  struck  with  lifrhtiiing:.  Hence  St.  B.  is  to 
this  day  prayed  to  in  siorins.  For  the  same  reason, 
she  is  the  patron  saint  of  artillery,  and  her  image 
was  at  one  time  frequently  placed  on  arsenals, 
powder-magazines,  <tc.  The  powder-room  in  a 
French  ship  of  war  is  to  this  day  called  Sainte- 
Barbe.     St.  B.'s  day  is  the  4th  December. 

BAR'BAREA.     Sec  Cress. 

BARBA'RIAX  (Gr.  Larbaros),  among  the  Greeks, 
as  early  as  the  time  of  Homer,  signified  one  who 
could  not  speak  the  Greek  language ;  and  this 
restricted  signification  was  not  wholly  obsolete  even 
in  the  age  of  Plato,  for  the  latter  divides  the  entire 
human  race  into  Hellenes  and  Barharoi.  The  origin 
of  the  word  is  unknown,  if  it  be  not  artificially 
formed,  on  the  principle  of  imitation,  to  represent  a 
meaningless  babble  of  sound,  such  as  the  Greeks 
conceived  all  foreign  languages  to  be.  It  first  began 
to  acquire  its  secondary  and  invidious  signification 
at  the  period  of  the  Persian  wars.  The  Greeks,  who 
always  exhibited  a  proud  consciousness  of  their 
superior  intellect  and  privileges,  employed  the  term 
to  designate  the  character  of  their  enemies.  It  then 
meant  whatever  was  opposed  to  Greek  civilisation, 
freedom,  or  intelligence  ;  but  it  coidd  not  yet  have 
attained  tlie  degraded  sense  in  which  it  is  now  used, 
for  the  Romans  in  the  time  of  Plautus  accepted 
the  appellation,  and  called  themselves  Bcirbaroi. 
Subseciuently,  when  Rome,  under  Augustus,  became 
the  mistress  of  the  woild,  the  word  was  applied 
to  all  the  Germanic  and  Scythian  tribes  with  whom 
she  came  into  contact.  In  modern  times,  B.  signifies 
savage,  uncivilised,  or  ignorant. 

IJARBARO'SSA.     Sec  Frederick  I. 

BARBAROSSA,  Aroodje  or  Harupj  and  Kiiair 
Edoin,  two  brothers,  renegade  Greeks,  natives 
of  Mitylenc,  who,  as  Turkish  corsairs,  were  the  terror 
of  the  Jlediterranean  duiing  the  first  half  of  the 
I6th  c.  They  made  themselves  masters  of  Algeria 
(q.  v.)  and  Tunis,  and  lnonght  these  countries  under 
the  sovereignty  of  the  Turkish  sultaji. 

BARBAROUX,  Charles,  one  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished and  energetic  of  the  Girondists,  was  born 
at  Marseilles  in  lli'u.  The  new  ideas  of  equality 
and  fraternity  found  in  B.  a  warm  advocate,  and  he 
did  much  to  promote  their  spread.  He  was  elected 
the  special  delegate  of  Marseilles,  to  attend  the  Con- 
stituent Assembly  at  Paris.  There  he  opposed  the 
court,  and  took  part  with  the  minister  Roland,  then 
out  of  favour.  After  the  events  of  the  lUth  of 
August,  he  returned  to  his  native  town,  where  he 
was  received  with  enthusiasm,  and  was  soon  after 
chosen  delegate  to  the  Convention.  In  the  Conven- 
tion, he  adhered  to  the  (iirondists,  and  belonged  to 
the  party  who,  at  the  trial  of  the  king,  voted  for  an 
appeal  to  the  people.  As  B.  boldly  opposed  the 
party  of  Marat  and  Robespierre,  and  even  directly 
accused  the  latter  of  aiming  at  the  dictatorship, 
he  was,  in  May  1793,  proscribed  as  a  royalist  and 
an  enemy  of  the  rei)ublic.  He  wandered  about 
the  country,  hiding  himself  as  he  best  could,  for 
thirteen  months,  when  he  was  taken,  and  perished  at 
Bordeaux  by  the  guillotine,  June  25,  1794.  B.  under- 
stood the  revolutionary  crisis  much  better  than  the 
most  of  his  party.  Had  the  Girondists  generally 
]  ossessed  anything  like  his  energy  and  sagacity,  the 
Jacobins  must  have  succumbed,  and  much  bloodshed 
and  horror  would  have  been  spared  to  France  and 
the  world. 

BA'RBARY,  an  extensive  region  in  Northern 
Africa,  comprising  the   countries  known  in  modern 


times  under  the  names  of  Barca,  Tripoli  Proper 
Fezzan,  Tunis,  Algeria,  and  Marocco,  together  with 
the  half-independent  province  of  Sus  ;  and  in  ancient 
times,  under  those  of  Mauritania,  Nuniidia,  Africa 
J'ropria,  and  Cp'enaica.  It  stretches  from  Egypt 
to  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  from  the  Mediterranean 
to  the  Desert  of  Sahara,  or  between  long,  lo"  W.  and 
2.5°  E.,  and  lat.  25—37°  N.  The  north-west  of 
this  region  is  divided  by  the  Atlas  Mountains  into 
two  parts  :  the  northern  comprising  Marocco,  Alge- 
ria, and  Tunis  ;  the  southern,  a  hall-desert  region, 
called  Bclud-el-Jerid,  the  country  of  dates.  Though 
pertaining  geographically  to  Africa,  B.  is  not  specially 
African  in  any  of  its  characteristics;  but  in  climate, 
flora,  fauna,  and  geological  configuration,  lieloiigs  to 
that  great  region  which  forms  the  basin  of  the 
Mediterranean.  It  is  watered  by  many  small 
streams,  which  either  flow  into  the  Mediterranean 
or  into  the  salt-lakes  on  the  edge  of  the  Desert, 
according  as  they  rise  on  the  northern  or  southern 
slopes  of  the  Atlas  Mountains.  A  large  jiortion  of 
the  country  is  capable  of  cultivation,  and  sandy  or 
rocky  tracts  are  rare,  except  on  the  southern  margin. 
Dm-ing  the  times  of  the  Carthaginians,  Greeks,  and 
Romans,  it  was  richly  fertile,  and  all  the  natural 
conditions  of  its  ancient  productiveness  still  remain. 
— For  an  accoimt  of  the  climate,  geology,  produc- 
tions, &c.,  see  the  various  countries. 

Among  the  people,  besides  the  French  and  other 
Europeans,  seven  distinct  races  may  be  enumerated : 
Berbers  (or  Kabyles),  Moors,  Beduins,  Jews,  Turks, 
Kuhiglis,  and  Negroes.  The  Berbers  and  Beduins 
iidiabit  the  open  country,  while  the  Moors,  on  the 
other  hand,  reside  in  the  towns.  Most  of  the  Berber 
tribes  are  cither  wholly  free,  or  subject  to  the  mere 
noniimil  jurisdiction  of  native  chiels,  kaids,  judges, 
&c.  The  Beduins  luxuriate  in  equal  liberty.  Jews 
had  settled  here  in  ancient  times,  but  the  greater 
number  of  that  race  immigrated  when  the  Moors  were 
expelled  from  Spain.  The  Turks  entered  B.  in  the 
Kith  c.  They  ibrni  the  dominant  race  in  Trijjoli, 
and  Tunis,  but  never  established  themselves  per- 
manently in  Marocco.  Their  sway  in  Algeria  was 
brought  to  an  end  by  the  French.  The  Kuhiglis  (the 
children  of  Turks  by  native  mothers)  are  excluded 
from  the  possession  of  all  the  paternal  rights  and 
privileges.  The  negroes  are  not  natives  of  B.,  but 
are  brought  thither  as  slaves,  principally  from  Sudan 
and  Guinea.  They  are  for  the  most  part  domestic 
.slaves.  The  population,  exclusive  of  Jews  and 
Christians,  is  about  10,000,000,  all  Mohammedans. 
Arabic  is  the  language  of  commerce  and  intercourse, 
and  in  Marocco,  the  language  of  government,  and  the 
mother-tongue  of  Beduins,  Moors,  and  even  Jews  ; 
but  in  Tunis  and  TripoU,  where,  as  we  have  said,  the 
Turks  are  still  dominant,  the  language  of  government 
is  Turkish.  The  Berbers  Proper,  or  Kabyles,  espe- 
cially in  the  highlands,  to  which  they  have  been 
driven  by  foreign  conquerors,  use  a  peculiar  speech 
among  theiuselves. 

In  the  oldest  historical  times,  we  find  the  Mauri 
(the  ancestors  of  the  modern  Moors)  mentioned  as 
residing  in  the  north-west  of  B.,  the  Numidians  in 
the  interior  and  eastern  parts,  and  the  Phomician 
colonies  on  the  coasts.  These  last  people  formed 
settlements  and  founded  cities — among  them  Utica, 
Hippo,  Hadrumetum,  Leptis,  and  afterwards  Car- 
thage, about  1000  B.  c.  It  does  not  appear  that  they 
ever  penetrated  far  into  the  interior.  Confining 
themselves  to  the  coast  between  the  Great  Syrtis 
and  the  Straits  of  Gii>raltar,  they  maintained  com- 
merce with  the  people  of  the  interior  and  the 
seaports  of  the  Mediterranean.  In  the  7th  c.  B.C.,  the 
Greeks  founded  Cyrene,  considerably  to  the  east  of 
Carthage,  and  colonised  the  plateau  of  Barca,  now 
styled  Jebel-el-Achdar   by   the   Arabs.     While   the 

GSl 


BARBARY— BARBARY  APE. 


Phu'iiician  colonics  hold  sway  on  the  coast,  the 
Mauri  and  the  Numidians  were  divided  into  several 
independent  tribes,  and,  like  their  neighbours  the 
Ga?tuli,  were  wholly  uncivihsed.  After  the  second 
Punic  war,  the  Romans  extended  their  sway  over 
Carthaginian  Africa,  wiiich  became  a  Roman  pro- 
vince at  the  close  of  the  third  Punic  war,  when 
the  city  of  Carthage  w;is  sacked  and  destroyed.  I 
Kuniidia  was  '  annexed '  after  the  victory  over 
Jugurtha,  and  Mauritania  after  tiie  defeat  of  King 
Juba,  the  ally  of  Pompey's  party.  The  son  of 
Juba,  bearing  the  same  name,  was  allowed  to  reign 
as  a  nominal  sovereign  by  Augustus ;  but  Mauri- 
tania was,  in  fact,  a  Roman  province.  Thus,  the 
Romans  had  acquired  a  territory  in  Africa,  extending 
from  the  Great  Syrtis  to  the  Atlantic  (corresponding 
to  the  modern  states  of  B.),  which  formed  some  of 
the  largest  and  most  flom-ishing  provinces  of  their 
vast  empire.  Everywhere  they  built  large  towns, 
whose  extensive  ruins  are  still  to  be  seen  scattered 
over  the  whole  land,  even  to  the  verge  of  the 
Pcsert ;  as,  for  instance,  those  at  El-Haman,  in  the 
regency  of  Tunis,  at  Sava,  Mnsulupium,  and  cspe- 
ciallv  the  splendid  city  of  ruins,  Lambasa,  not 
far  from  the  Desert  of  Sahara.  The  Romans  had, 
in  general,  only  two  legions,  nund)ering  24,000  men, 
in  their  African  provinces;  nevertheless,  their 
autliority  was  uncontested,  and  they  were  enabled  to 
undertake  important  works,  such  as  the  cisterns  and 
aqueducts  at  Rusicada,  Hippo,  and  Cirta,  and  the 
temples  and  amphitheatres  of  Calama  and  Anuna, 
which  clearly  shew  that  the  inhabitants  enjoyed  the 
benefits  of  a  safe  and  powerful  civilisation. 

Under  Constantino,  North  Africa  was  divided  into 
the  several  provinces,  Mauritania-Tingitana,  Mauri- 
tania-CfEsariensis  (on  the  east  of  the  former),  Mauri- 
tania-S;tifen«is,  Numidia,  Zeugitania,  Byzacium, 
Cyrcnaica,  and  the  Regio  Syrtica.  At  the  division 
of  the  empire,  the  whole  of  these  provinces,  with  Uie 
exception  of  the  last,  fell  to  the  share  of  tlie 
Western  Empire.  About  this  time,  Christiatdty 
was  promulgated  in  Africa,  and  with  such  success, 
that  in  the  three  Mauritanias  there  were  more  than 
160  dioceses.  As  Roman  power  declined  in  Europe, 
the  consequences  were  severely  felt  in  the  African 
provinces.  Religious  disturbances,  native  revolts, 
and  the  ambitious  aspirations  of  the  Roman 
governors  after  independence,  loosened  the  political 
bands  which  bound  the  provinces  together,  and 
made  them  an  easy  prey  to  the  Vandals,  who 
landed  in  Africa,  in  429  a.  p.,  under  the  ferocious 
Genseric,  and  in  an  incredibly  short  space  of  time 
overran  the  country,  which  they  savagely  mis- 
governed until  533,  when  they  were  defeated  by 
Justinian's  great  general,  Belisarius.  Meanwhile 
the  Numidians  and  the  Mauri  had  made  themselves 
masters  of  the  interior,  and  of  the  coast  of  Mauri- 
tania-Tingitana, and  the  Greek-Roman  territories 
were  restricted  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Carthage 
and  some  points  on  the  coast.  The  whole  country 
of  B.  was  thus  made  an  easy  prey  for  the  Arabs, 
and  in  G47,  Abdallah-ben-Said,  with  40,000  fanatical 
Mohammedans  from  Egypt,  defeated  and  slew  the 
Greek  jirefect,  Gregorius,  at  Tripoli.  He  did  not, 
however,  follow  up  his  victories;  but  in  GG5 — 670 
A.  D.,  the  Arabian  general,  Akbah,  conquered  the 
coast-towns  of  Tripoli,  founded  Cairo,  and  extended 
his  sway  almost  to  the  Desert.  Hassan,  the  general 
of  the  "Calif  Abd-el-Malek,  in  f.92,  stormed,  plun- 
dered, and  destroyed  the  new  Carthage,  and,  in  fact, 
aniuhilated  the  Greek-Roman  dominion  in  Africa. 
In  the  course  of  less  than  a  century  the  greater 
part  of  the  native  tribes  were  converted  forcibly  to 
the  faith  of  Islam.  In  789,  the  western  provinces 
separated  themselves  from  the  others,  and  Edris- 
bcu-Al)dallah  founded  there  the  dynasty  of  the 
682 


Edrisitcs.  After  800,  when  the  governor,  Ibrahim* 
ben-Aglab,  declared  himself  independent,  and 
founded  the  dynasty  of  the  Aglabites,  Africa  was 
lost  to  the  califs.  From  this  time  down  to  1269, 
the  changes  of  dynasty  in  B.  were  so  fre(|uent,  that 
we  cannot  here  describe  them  in  detail.  The  residts 
were,  that  independent  states  aros^e  in  Algeria,  Oran, 
Bugia,  Tenez,  &c.  About  this  time,  also,  began  the 
reaction  of  the  Christian  world  against  Mohamme- 
danism in  North  Africa  and  Spain.  St.  Louis  under- 
took an  expedition  against  Timis.  The  Moors  wei'e, 
by  and  by,  expelled  from  Spain,  and  settled  them- 
selves on  the  coast  of  Northern  Africa,  there  to 
begin  that  course  of  piracy  by  which  they  became 
odious  to  Etu'ope,  first  as  a  fierce  retaliation  against 
their  Christian  persecutors,  but  ultimately  as  a 
barbarous  profession.  As  early  as  the  time  of 
Ferdinand  the  Catholic,  the  Spaniards  sought  to 
check  their  insolent  ravages,  and  landed  in  Africa 
on  several  occasions,  captuiing  the  ports  of  Ceuta, 
Melilla,  Oran,  Bugia,  the  island  befoie  Algiers,  and 
Tripoli.  The  Portuguese  landed  on  the  coast  of 
Marocco,  where  at  first  they  had  great  success ;  but 
they  were  ultimately  compelled  to  leave  the  country. 
After  vai'ious  changes  of  fortune,  Algiers,  Tunis,  and 
Tripoli  were  brought  under  the  government  of  the 
sultan.  Since  1830,  however,  the  first  of  these  (see 
Algeria)  has  been  under  French  sway,  while  for 
many  years  the  other  t«  o  have  been  only  nominally 
dependent  on  the  Turkish  ruler.  A  similar  fate,  at 
a  much  earlier  period,  befell  the  western  part  of  B., 
where  the  successors  of  the  Arabian  Slierif,  Mida- 
Mehemed,  overthrew  the  kings  of  Marocco  and  Fez, 
and  established  the  Sherif  dynasty,  which  rules  to 
the  present  day  over  these  lands. — Shaw's  Travels 
and  Observations  relative  to  several  Parts  of  B.  : 
Mauroy,  Du  Commerce  des  Feuples  dc  VAfrique 
Septentrio7ialc  (Par.  1845). 

BA'RBARY    APE,  PI'GMY    APE,  or   MA'GOT, 

a  small  species  of  ape  or  tailless  monkey,  interesting 
as  the  only  one  of  the  monkey-race  which  is  found 
in  Europe.  The  oidy  Einopean  locality,  however,  in 
which  it  occurs  is  the  Rock  of  Gibraltar,  and  it  is 
said  to  have  been  originally  brought  from  the  north 
of  Africa.  It  ijihabits  the  precipitous  sides  of  the 
Rock,  inaccessible  to  human  foot,  and  enjoys  a  certain 
measure  of  protection  I'rom  firearms  in  return  for 
the  amusement  afibrded  by  its  manners.  It  is  gre- 
garious, and  large  numbers  are  often  seen  together, 
the  females  carrying  their  young  upon  their  ))acks. 
In  some  parts  of  the  north  of  Africa,  the  B.  A.  is 


Barbary  Ape. 

extremely  abundant,  inhabiting  rocky  mountains 
and  woods.  It  displays  great  agility  in  passing  from 
tree  to  tree,  and  its  bands  often  plunder  gardens,  one 
of  their  number  keeping  careful  w-atch.  It  feeds 
on  fruits,  roots,  &c.  ;  and  its  fondness  for  eggs  is 
supposed  to  have  given  rise  to  the  ancient  story  of 


BARBASTELLE— BARBEL. 


the  buttle  of  the  pigmies  and  the  cnuics.  It  is  of  a  j 
greeiiish-^raj'  colour,  paler  uiidcriieath  ;  and  in  size 
resombles^a  large  cat.  The  characters  agree  with 
those  of  the  genus  Jllacacns  (Wanderoo  Monkey, 
q.  v.,  &c.),  except  that  the  tail  is  reduced  to  a 
mere  tubercle.  The  muzzle  is  somewhat  elongated, 
although  not  nearly  so  much  as  in  the  baboons,  with 
which  this  ape  has  sometimes  been  classed,  and  the 
ficial  angle  is  much  higher  than  in  them.  The  face 
is  almost  nriked,  and  somewhat  wrinkled.  The  ears 
are  in  form  not  unliiic  human  ears.  The  eyes  are 
round,  reddish,  and  of  great  vivacity.  The  B.  A.  is 
one  of  the  monkeys  most  frcqnently  to  be  seen  in 
captivity,  at  least  in  Britain;  and  possessing  a  con- 
siderable degree  of  intelligence,  is  capable  of  being 
trained  to  many  tricks.  In  order  to  this,  however, 
it  must  be  taken  young,  as  the  older  ones  are  often 
sullen  and  mischievous.  It  usually  walks  on  four 
feet,  altiiouijh  it  can  be  trained  to  stand  or  walk,  in 
a  more  awkward  manner,  on  two.  It  is  filthy  iu  its 
habits. 

BARBASTE'LLE.     See  Bat. 

BARBA'STRO,  a  walled  town  of  Spain,  in  the 
province  of  Aragon.  It  is  situated  on  the  Yero, 
has  a  cathedral  with  some  paintings  by  Antonio 
Galceran.     Pop.  G175. 

BA'RBAULD,  Anna  LrTiTiA,  an  English 
authoress,  was  born  at  Kibworth-IIarcourt,  in 
Leicestershire — where  her  father,  the  Rev.  John 
Aikin,  a  dissenting  clergyman,  kept  an  academy — 
on  the  2uth  June  1743.  Her  private  education,  the 
religious  influence  of  her  home,  and  secluded  life 
in  the  countiy,  were  well  fitted  to  develop  early 
her  natural  taste  for  poetry  ;  but  it  was  not  until 
177:-!  that  she  was  induced  to  give  her  effusions  to 
the  public,  who  appreciated  them  so  highly  that  four 
editions  were  called  for  during  the  year.  Encouraged 
by  this,  she  the  same  year,  conjointly  with  her 
brother,  published  Miscellaneous  Pieces  in  Prose 
(Lond.  1773),  which  also  passed  through  many 
editions.  In  the  Ibllowing  year,  the  poetess  married 
the  Rev.  Rochemont  Baibauld,  a  dissenting  minister 
at  Palgrave,  in  SutTolk,  in  which  village  the  newly- 
married  pair  openetl  a  boarding-school  for  boys. 
The  literary  fame  and  the  assiduity  of  Mrs  B.  soon 
made  it  celebrated.  During  the  ten  years  Mrs  B. 
was  engaged  in  the  duties  of  tuition  here,  she  pub- 
lished Early  Lessons  for  Children,  and  JJi/mns  in 
Prose,  works  which  have  been  often  re[)rinted  in  Eng- 
land for  youthful  readers,  and  translated  into  several 
languages.  Her  Devotional  Pieces  was  also  published 
during  this  jjciiod.  In  17'.)!2,  she  commenced  with 
the  brother  ineviously  mentioned — who  wrote  the 
most  of  them — the  well-known  series.  Evenings  at 
Home,  which  were  completed  in  three  year.s.  In 
1795  she  edited  Akenside's  Pleasures  of  Imagina- 
tion, and  Collins'  Odes,  prefi.xing  to  each  a  critical 
essay.  In  18w4,  she  began  to  edit  a  selection  from 
the  Spectator,  Guardian,  Taller,  Sn:.  ;  and  in  1810 
publislied  a  collection  of  the  British  Novelists, 
the  task  of  editing  which  she  had  undertaken  to 
divert  her  mind  from  the  loss  she  had  sustained  two 
years  previously  in  the  death  of  her  husband.  The 
Female  Spectator  (Lond.  1811)  contains  a  selection 
from  her  writings.  Her  last  poetical  effort  was  an 
ode,  entitled  Eighteen  JIundred  and  Eleven  (Lond. 
181"J).  All  her  compositions  are  characterised  by 
sini[)lieity  of  feeling,  an  easy,  flowing  style,  and  pure 
and  elevated  seiitiment,  and  give  token  of  a  nnnd 
well  versed  in  classical  literature.  She  lived  in 
quiet  retirement  till  her  death,  which  happened  on 
the  yth  Maic'i,  18:^5.  The  life  of  iirs  B.  has  been 
written  by  Lucy  Aikin,  also  known  as  an  authoress, 
and  prefi.Kcd  to  the  collection  of  the  Works  of  A.  L. 
Barbauld  (2    vols.,    Lond.    18-2J).     The   same   lady 


also  published  from  the  posthumous  papers  of  the 
authoress,  A  Legacg  for  Yuung  Ladies  {Lonn.   1S26). 

BA'RBED  AND  CRE'STED,  heraldic  terms,  by 
which  the  comb  and  gills  of  a  cock  are  designated, 
when  it  is  necessary  to  particularise  them  as  being 
of  a  different  tincture  from  the  body.  The  common 
English  term  is  Wattled  and  Combed,  gules,  or 
whatever  else  the  tincture  may  be. 

BA'RBEL  (Barbus),  a  genus  of  fishes  of  the 
family  of  the  Cyprinidce  (q.  v.),  differing  from 
Vyprinns  (Carp,  Gold-fish,  <fec.)  in  the  short  dorsal 
and  anal  fins,  in  having  one  of  the  rays  of  the 
dorsal  fin  strong  and  serrated,  and  the  mouth  fur- 
nished with  four  soft  barbules  (whence  the  name  B., 
from  Lat.  bnrha,  a  beard),  two  near  the  point  of  the 
snout,  and   one   at   each  angle  of  the   mouth.     Tiie 


Barbel. 

upper  jaw  also  cxtemls  considoralily  beyond  tlie 
lower.  The  species  are  numerous.  Like  the  other 
Cyprinidaj,  they  are  all  inhabitants  of  fresh  water, 
and  generally  of  muddy  ponds  and  rivers,  where 
they  seek  food  by  ploughing  up  tlie  nnid  w  ith  their 
snouts,  like  swine,  and  aie  said  often  to  seize  the 
small  fishes  which  come  to  share  with  them  the 
worms  and  insects  of  the  mud.  They  also  feed  upon 
the  leaves  and  roots  of  aquatic  plants. — The  Com- 
mon B.  {B.  vulgaris)  is  abundant  in  many  of  the 
rivers  of  the  temperate  parts  of  Europe.  It  is  the 
only  species  found  in  Britain,  and  only  iu  some  of 
the  still  and  deep  rivers  of  England.  It  is  very 
abundant  in  the  Thames,  frequenting  the  weedy 
parts  of  the  river  in  shoals  in  summer,  an.l  seeking 
the  deeper  water  in  winter,  becoming  so  torpid 
during  cold  weather,  that  the  fishermen  sometimes 
take  it  with  the  hand,  or  by  pushing  it  with  a  pole 
into  a  small  net  fastened  to  an  iron  hoop.  It  grows 
to  a  large  size,  sometimes  3  feet  in  length,  and  15 
to  IS  pounds  in  weight ;  it  is  rather  of  a  long  shape, 
in  section  ncaily  circular  ;  the  general  colour  of  tlie 
head  and  upper  part  of  the  body,  greenish  brown, 
becoming  yellowish  green  on  the  sides,  the  belly 
white,  tlie  tail  somewhat  forked,  and  of  a  deep 
purple  colour.  It  affords  sport  to  anglers,  but  is 
a  very  coarse  fish,  and  little  used  for  food  except  by 
the  poor,  who  often  boil  bacon  with  it  to  give  it  a 
relL^h.  The  larger  barbels  are  esteemed  the  best. 
The  roe  has  poisonous  qualities,  although  its  elfects 
are  disagreeable  rather  than  permanently  injurious. 

Another  species,  called  the  Binny,  or  B.  of  the 
Nile,  is  very  abundant  in  that  river;  attains  a  very 
great  size,  7()  lbs.  or  upwards ;  is  much  esteemed 
tor  food  ;  and  is  taken  by  hooks  baited  with  dates 
steeped  in  honey.  A  number  of  baited  hooks,  each 
attached  to  a  separate  strong  line,  are  enclosed  in  a 
mass  of  clay,  flour,  dates,  &c.,  which  is  sunk  in  the 
river,  and  to  which,  as  it  begins  to  dissolve,  the 
binnies  are  attracted  ;  when  boring  into  it  with 
their  snouts,  and  devouring  the  dates,  they  are 
caught.  The  fish  being  generally  hooked  by  the  pro- 
jecting upper  jaw,  is  allowed  to  remain  in  the  water, 
the  line  being  fastened  on  shore,  and  is  taken  out 
when  wanted  for  immediate  use. 

BA'RBEL,  Angling  for.  The  B.  is  a  ground-feed- 
ing fish,  grubliiiig  on  the  bottom  for  his  sustenance. 

683 


BARBER— BARBERLVO-DI-MUfxELLO. 


The  baits  principally  used  to  capture  him  are  worms 
and  maggots,  greaves,  and  cheese  ;  and  the  means  of 
angling  for  him  -are  chiefly  with  a  dead-line,  called 
a  ledger,  or  with  float-tackle.  The  ledger  is  a 
perforated  leaden  bullet ;  through  this  the  line  runs 
freely.  To  pievent  its  slipping  down  on  the  hook, 
a  large  shot  or  other  substance  is  fastened  on  the 
line,  about  a  yard  above  the  hook.  The  hook 
(about  No.  5  or  6  in  size)  is  baited  either  with  a 
lob-worm  or  greaves,  and  the  lead  is  cast  into  the 
water,  and  remains  motionless  on  the  bottom.  When 
a  fish  bites,  the  angler  feels  the  tug,  and  strikes 
smartly ;  as  the  fins  of  the  B.  are  large,  and  his 
muscles  powerful,  he  frequently  offers  considerable 
resistance.  The  rod  used  for  ledger-fishing  is  short 
and  stiff.  In  float-fishing  for  B.,  the  tackle  is  finer,  and 
the  hook  smaller.  A  cork-float  suited  to  the  depth 
and  rapidity  of  the  river  is  used,  and  it  is  fixed  at 
such  a  height  upon  the  line  that  the  bait  just 
touches  the  bottom.  The  instant  the  float  dis- 
appeais,  the  angler  strikes,  but  not  so  forcibly  as  in 
ledger-fishing.  Previous  to  angling  for  B.,  it  is 
desirable  to  bait  the  place  to  be  fished,  for  the 
purpose  of  drawing  the  fish  together.  This  is 
accomplished  by  chopping  up  and  casting  into  the 
water  from  500  to  lOUO  lob-worms,  and  it  should  be 
done  18  or  20  hours  before  fishing.  In  float-fishing 
for  B.,  the  float  should  be  allowed  to  travel  down  a 
consideral)le  distance  of  water,  at  least  30  or  4ii 
yards,  in  order  that  no  spot  where  a  portion  of  the 
worms  may  have  lodged  should  be  missed.  This 
is  sometimes  done  by  the  use  of  a  float  called  a 
slider,  which  is  not  fixed  on  the  line,  but  by  the 
management  of  the  angler,  accommodates  itself  to 
the  depth  of  the  water.  In  this  fishing,  the  bait 
trails  along  the  ground,  and  the  rod  should  be  at 
least  1-1  or  15  feet  in  length,  and  the  line  very  light 
and  fine.  B.  will  sometimes  take  a  spinning  bait,  and 
are  often  caught  l)y  the  angler  while  trout-fishing ; 
but  this  is  by  no  means  a  certain  method  of  angling 
for  them.  The  B.  may  be  said  to  be  gregarious ;  he 
spawns  in  May  or  June,  choosing  some  gentle 
shallow  for  that  purpose.  He  soon  recovers  his 
strength  again,  however  ;  and  about  the  end  of  July, 
he  seeks  the  deep  rapid  streams,  and  may  be  seen 
vigorously  springing  from  the  water  in  his  endea- 
vours to  rid  himself  of  the  parasitical  insects  which 
attach  themselves  to  him  during  his  quiescence. 
Here  he  remains  the  greater  part  of  the  summer  and 
autumn.  Frosty  weather  renders  the  B.  torpid,  and 
he  takes  shelter  imder  some  large  stone  or  weed, 
where  he  can  lie  up  during  the  winter.  Although 
the  B.  is  by  no  means  an  estimable  fish  for  the 
table,  it  is  nmch  used  by  the  Jews  in  their  fasts  and 
festivals. 

BA'RBER  (Lat.  barba,  the  beard,)  a  shaver  of 
the  beard,  and  who  ordinarily  includes  hair-cutting 
in  his  profession.  Barbers  are  of  great  antiquity, 
if  not  for  the  shaving  of  the  beard,  at  least  for 
shaving  a  portion  of  the  head.  The  office  of  the  B. 
is  referred  to  by  the  prophet  Ezekiel :  '  And  thou, 
son  of  man,  take  thee  a  barber's  razor,  and  cause 
it  to  pass  upon  thine  head  and  upon  thy  beard.' 
— Ezek.  V.  1.  In  all  oriental  countries,  including 
China,  the  shaving  the  whole  or  part  of  the  head 
continues  to  be  performed  by  barbers.  In  every 
part  of  the  world,  the  professional  B.  and  hair- 
dresser is  celebrated  for  his  garrulity  and  general 
obliging  qualities,  such  being  required  by  those 
who  place  themselves  in  his  hands.  The  anmsing 
character  of  the  B.  in  one  of  the  tales  in  the 
Arabian  Nu/hts  Entertainments,  and  also  of  the  B. 
in  Rossini's  opera  of  Figaro,  will  readily  occur  to 
recollection.  As  will  be  seen  from  the  succeeding 
article,  barbers  at  one  time  acted  as  a  kind  of 
surgeons,  and  accordingly  occupied  a  higher  social 
684 


position  than  they  now  enjoy.  Latterly,  on  account 
of  the  simple  mode  of  trimming  the  hair,  and  of 
the  prevalence  of  private  shaving,  the  business 
of  the  B.  in  England  has  greatly  declined,  and 
his  services  are  chiefly  confined  to  the  humbler 
classes.  In  the  United  States,  the  business  of 
the  B.  is  almost  exclusively  in  the  hands  of  the 
coloured  population.  Anciently,  one  of  the  utensils 
of  the  B.  was  a  brass  basin,  with  a  semicircular  gap 
in  one  side  to  compass  a  man's  throat,  by  which 
means,  in  applying  the  lather  to  the  face,  the  clothea 
were  not  soiled.  Readers  will  recollect  that  Don 
Quixote  crazily  assumed  a  barber's  basin  ss  a  helmet. 
At  the  end  of  a  pole,  the  brass  basin  is  still  hung 
out  as  a  sign  at  the  door  of  the  B.  in  Great  Britain, 
France,  and  other  countries. 

BA'RBER-SU'RGEOXS.  In  former  times,  as 
stated  in  the  foregoing  article,  barbers  acted  as  a 
kind  of  surgeons,  or  at  least  phlebotomists,  and  such 
appears  to  have  been  the  case  in  all  countries.  Till 
this  day,  on  the  pole  on  which  the  barber's  basin  is 
suspended,  there  is  represented  a  twisted  or  spiral 
ribbon,  which  symbolises  the  winding  of  a  ribbon 
round  the  arm  previous  to  blood-letting.  In  Lon- 
don, Edinburgh,  and  elsewhere,  the  B.  formed  corpor- 
ations with  certain  [)i'ivilegcs.  The  surgical  duties 
of  these  bodies  now  jiertain  to  the  corporations 
of  surgeons.  The  existence  of  B.  as  professois  of 
the  healing  art,  in  England,  can  be  traced  as  far 
back  as  the  reign  of  Edward  IV.  in  1401,  when 
they  were  first  incorporated  ;  and  from  thence  till 
the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  when  they  were  united 
with  the  surgeons,  until  the  time  of  George  II., 
when  the  B.  ceased  to  be  anything  but  barbers,  as 
we  now  understand  the  term.  In  the  latter  reign, 
an  act  was  passed,  the  18  Geo.  II.  c.  15,  from  the 
preamble  of  which  we  learn  that  not  till  then 
iiad  the  discovery  been  made  that  the  business 
or  trade  of  a  barber  was  '  fcreign  to,  and  indepen- 
dent of,  the  practice  of  surgery; 'and  it  therefore 
proceeds  to  dissolve  the  connection  between  the 
two  bodies,  and  to  remit  the  B.  to  the  more  humble 
functions  they  now  perform.  But  this  is  done 
with  an  express  saving  of  all  their  privileges  as  a 
company  or  corporation,  and  as  such  they  exist  to 
the  present  day.  See  an  interesting  account  of 
them  in  Knight's  Histori/  of  London,  vol.  iii.  pp. 
177 — 192,  which  concludes  with  the  following  curious 
extract  from  the  list  of  officers  to  Ileriot's  Hospital 
in  the  statutes  of  that  charity  compiled  in  1G27  : 
'  One  chirurgeon  barber  uho  shall  cut  and  pole  the 
hair  of  all  the  scholars  of  the  hospital ;  and  also  look 
to  the  cure  of  all  those  within  the  hospital  who 
anywa;/  shall  stand  in  need  of  his  art.'  And  see 
the  Report  of  the  Royal  Commissioners  appointed 
to  inquire  into  the  corporations  of  London,  and 
printed  in  1837,  in  which  all  particulars  relating 
to  the  government  and  working  of  this  company  at 
the  present  day  are  given.  The  report  states,  that 
the  company  exists  '  for  using  and  exercising  the  art 
and  mystery  of  barbers,  which  includes  hair-dressers 
within  the  suburbs  and  liberties  of  the  city  ; '  and 
it  concludes  as  follows :  '  The  company  possess 
extensive  powers  for  the  regulation  of  the  trade, 
but  in  practice  none  are  exercised  except  the  power 
of  compelling  all  persons  using  the  trade  or  business 
of  barber  (which,  as  before  mentioned,  includes  hair- 
dressers) within  the  city  to  become  free  of  the 
company.'  The  barbers  still  retain  their  ancient  hall 
— winch  they  possessed  before  the  surgeons  were 
disunited  from  them — in  Monkwell  Street,  Cripple- 
gate,  in  the  city  of  London.  See  Apothecakies, 
Surgeons,  Trade  Corporatioxs. 

BARBERI'NO-DI-MUGE'LLO,  a  town  of 
Tuscany  on  the  Sierc,  15  miles  north  of  Florence,  with 


BARBERRY— BARBICAN. 


a  population  of  9000,  engaged  in  the  manufacture 
of  straw-liats.  The  rojal  villa  of  Caffegiolo,  the 
ancient  residence  of  the  Medicis,  stands  in  the 
environs. — B.  Di  Val-d'Elsa,  a  village  in  the  same 
district,  with  a  beautiful  situation  on  the  ridge 
between  the  valleys  of  the  Pesa  and  Elsa,  and 
celebrated  as  the  place  where  Pope  Urban  VIII. 
was  born.  One  of  the  palaces  of  the  Barberini  is 
here. 

BARBERRY  {Berheris\  a  genus  of  plants,  of  the 
natural  order  Berheridece  (q.  v.).  All  the  species, 
which  are  numerous,  and  found  in  temperate  climates 
in  most  parts  of  the  world  except  Australia,  are 
shrubs,  with  yellow  flowers,  having  a  calyx  of  six 
leaves,  a  corolla  of  six  petals,  and  six  stamens, 
which  when  touched  at  the  base,  display  a  con- 
siderable degree  of  irritability,  starting  up  from 
their  ordinary  position  of  reclining  upon  the  petals, 


Common  Barberry. 

and  closing  upon  the  pistil,  apparently  a  provision 
to  secure  fecundation.  The  fruit  is  a  berry  with 
two  or  three  seeds.  Not  a  few  of  the  species  are 
evergreen.  They  are  divided  into  two  sub-genera, 
sometimes  ranked  as  genera ;  those  with  simple 
leaves  forming  the  sub-genus  Berberix,  and  those 
with  pinnate  leaves  the  sub-genus  llafionia,  or  Ash- 
leaved  B. — The  Common  B.  {B.  vulgaris)  is  a  native 
of  most  of  the  temperate  parts  of  Europe,  Asia, 
and  North  America.  It  produces  its  flowers  and 
fruit  in  pendulous  racemes ;  has  obovate,  slightly 
serrate,  deciduous  leaves ;  and  numerous  straight 
three-forked  spines.  It  is  a  very  ornamental  shrub, 
especially  when  covered  with  fruit.  Its  berries  are 
of  an  elongate  oval  form  ;  when  ripe,  generally  of  a 
bright  red  colour,  more  rarely  whitish,  yellow,  or 
almost  black.  They  contain  free  malic  acid.  The 
fruit  of  the  ordinary  varieties  is  too  acid  to  be 
eaten,  but  makes  excellent  preserves  and  jelly. 
Malic  acid  (q.  v.)  is  pretty  extensively  prepared 
from  it  in  France.  A  yellow  fungus,  Aecidium 
Berheridls,  is  very  general  upon  the  under-side  of 
the  leaves  of  the  B.  ;  and  a  notion  prevails  that  it 
produces  runt  in  corn,  which  is  erroneous,  the  rust 
(q.  V.)  of  corn  being  a  totally  different  fungus,  which, 
like  this,  is  apt  to  appear  in  humid  weather. 
The  prevalence  of  this  notion,  however,  appears  to 
have  prevented  the  general   employment   of  the   B. 


as  a  hedge-plant,  for  which  it  is  admiraljly  adapted, 
hedges  made  of  it  being  easily  kept  free  from  gaps, 
and  becoming  more  and  moi-e  impervious  by  new 
shoots  thrown  up  from  the  root.  The  yellow  root 
of  the  B.  is  used  for  dyeing  yellow,  and  especially 
the  inner  bark  of  it,  and  also  of  the  stem  and 
branches.  The  bark  is  capable  of  being  employed 
for  tanning  leather.  In  like  manner,  B.  c/lauca,  B. 
ilicifolia,  B.  tvmcntona,  and  B.  lutca  are  used  for 
dyeing  in  Chili  and  Peru  ;  B.  tinctoria  by  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  Neilgherry  Hills,  and  B.  arhtata  in 
Nepaul ;  and  a  strong  similarity  of  properties  appears 
to  pervade  the  whole  genus.  B.  Lyciuvi^  a  native 
of  the  north  of  India,  is  characterised  by  great 
astringency,  and  an  extract  jjrepared  from  it  is 
valual)le  in  ophthalmia.  Most  of  the  species  are 
more  or  less  spiny,  and  some  of  the  evergreen  species 
might  be  very  ornamentally  employed  for  hedge- 
plants ;  as  B.  dulcu^  now  frequent  in  shrubberies  in 
Britain.  This  species,  sometimes  called  the  Sweet 
B.,  is  a  native  of  the  south-west  coast  of  America. 
Its  leaves  much  resemble  those  of  the  common  B.  ; 
it  has  solitary  flowers  on  rather  long  stalks,  and 
globose  black  berries  about  the  size  of  a  common 
black  currant.  The  fruit  is  produced  very  copiously 
in  Britain,  is  quite  sweet  when  fully  ripe,  and 
makes  excellent  jelly.  When  unripe  and  very  acid, 
it  is  used  for  tarts.  Pleasant  fruits  are  produced 
also  by  B.  arintata  and  B.  Asiafica,  the  berries  of 
both  of  which  are  dried  in  Nepaul,  after  the  manner 
of  raisins  ;  B.  coiiciuna,  also  a  Himalayan  species ; 
B.  viicrophr/l/a,  found  in  the  southern  parts  of  South 
America ;  and  B.  trifoUata,  found  in  Mexico.  Those 
of  some  of  the  other  species  are  either  disagreeable 
or  insipid,  which  is  particularly  the  case  with  most  of 
the  ash-leaved  barberries,  natives  of  North  America 
and  the  north  of  India. — Numerous  species  of  B., 
both  from  the  Himalaya  an<l  South  America,  are 
daily  becoming  more  frequent  in  Britain  as  orna- 
mental shrubs. 

BA'RBET  (Bkcco),  a  genus  of  birds  generally 
placed  by  ornithologists  in  the  family  of  the  Picidce, 
or  Woodpeckers  ((j.  v.),  but  regarded  as  the  type  of 
a  very  distinct  sub-family,  exhibiting  points  of 
resemblance  to  the  cuckoos.  They  have  a  large 
conical  beak,  surrounded  with  tufts  of  bristles  di- 
rected forwards — a  characteristic  from  which  the 
name  B.  is  derived  (Lat.  barba^  a  beard).  They 
prey  on  insects,  and  some  of  them  also  on  young 
birds  ;  some  are  at  least  partially  frugivorous.  They 
inhaliit  warm  parts  both  of  the  eastern  and  western 
hemispheres,  and  most  of  them  are  birds  of  gay 
plumage.  The  Linna?an  genus  has  been  subdivided, 
and  includes,  besides  the  true  barbets,  the  Barbacous 
(Afonasa),  South  American  birds — the  Barbicans 
(Poffonias)  of  Africa  and  India — the  American  Puff- 
birds  [ToDiatia),  &c.  The  Puff-birds  are  remarkable 
for  erecting  their  plumage  till  tliey  resemble  a  round 
ball.  Being  birds  of  short  wing,  both  they  and  the 
true  barbets  wait  for  their  prey,  generally  sitting 
with  great  patience  on  some  withered  branch  till  it 
comes  near  them,  when  they  suddenly  dart  upon  it. 
They  often  choose  positions  close  to  human  habita- 
tions, and  shew  little  fear. 

BARBETTE,  an  earthen  terrace  inside  the 
parapet  of  a  rampart,  serving  as  a  platform  for 
heavy  guns ;  it  has  such  an  elevation  that  the  guns 
may  be  fired  over  the  crest  of  the  parapet  instead  of 
through  the  eml)rasures,  to  give  them  a  freer  scope 
by  swivelling  round  into  difterent  directions. 

BARBICAN  (Ital.  barbacdne),  a  projecting  watch- 
tower,  or  other  advanced  work,  before  the  gate  of 
a  castle  or  fortified  town.  The  term  B.  was  more 
specially  applied  to  the  outwork  intended  to  defend 
the     drawbridge,    which     in     modern     fortifications 

685 


BAHBITOX— BARCA. 


iri  calkHl  the  tcte  du  pout.  '  To  begin  from  with- 
out, the  Tirst  member  of  an  aneient  castle  was  the 
B.,  a  watch-tower,  for  the  purpose  of  descrying 
an  enemy  at  a  greater  distance  '  (Grose's  Antiquities 
of  EiKjIand  and  VFrt/e.s,)  and,  to  the  same  effect, 
Camden,  speaking  of  Bedford  Castle,  says  it  was 
taken  by  four  assaults ;  in  the  first  was  taken  the 
B. ;  in  the  second,  the  o«<<'>- balia.  l->ee  Baii.ky.  See 
also  Tarker'a  Glossary  of  Architcdure.      There  arc 


Barbican. 

a  few  perfect  barbicans  remaining  in  England,  as  at 
Alnwick  and  Warwick  ;  but  the  l)est  exami)les  of  it, 
as  of  the  other  parts  of  the  fortifications  of  the 
middle  ages,  are  probably  to  be  seen  in  the  town  of 
Careassone  (q.  v.).  A  very  curious  and  minute 
account  of  the  siege  of  Careassone  in  1240,  in  the 
form  of  a  report  to  Queen  Blanche  by  tiie  seneschal 
who  defended  it,  preserved  in  the  archives  of  France, 
has  been  published  in  Hewitt's  Anr'iciit  Annnur 
(p.  355,  ct  S€q.\  in  which  the  uses  of  the  B.  are  fully 
illustrated.  The  street  called  Barbican  in  London, 
near  Aldersgate  Street,  marks  the  site  of  such  a  work, 
in  front  of  one  of  the  gates  of  the  old  city. 

BA'RBITON,  or  BA'RBITOS,  a  stringed  instru- 
ment of  the  ancient  Greeks,  made  of  ivory,  in  the 
form  of  a  lyre,  with  seven  strings,  and  said  to  have 
been  invented  by  Anacreon. 

BARBOU,  the  name  of  a  celebrated  French 
family  of  printers,  the  descendants  of  John  B.  of 
Lyon,  who  lived  in  the  lt>th  c.  From  his  press 
issuecl  the  beautiful  edition  of  the  works  of  Clement 
Marot,  in  1530.  His  son,  Hugh  B.,  removed  from 
Lyon  to  Limoges,  where,  among  other  works, 
his  celebrated  edition  of  Cicero's  Letters  to  Atticus 
appeared  in  1580.  Joseph  Gerard  B.,  a  descendant 
of  the  same  family — who  in  the  beginning  of  the 
18th  c.  settled  in  Paris — continued  in  1755  the 
series  of  Latin  classics  in  duodecimo — rivals  to  the 
Elzevirs  of  an  earlier  date — which  had  been  begun 
in  1743  by  Coustelier,  at  the  instigation  of  the 
learned  Lenglet  Dufresnoy.  This  series  of  classics, 
which  is  much  prized  for  its  elegance  and  cor- 
rectness, was  purchased,  along  with  the  rest  of 
the  business,  by  Delalain,  from  the  heirs  of  Hugh  B., 
who  died  in  1809.  There  is  a  complete  set  of  the  B. 
classics  in  the  royal  library  of  the  British  Museum. 

BA'RBOUR,  John,  an  eminent  Scottish  poet  of 
the  14th  e.,  regarding  whom  history  has  not  much  to 
record  beyond  the  production  of  the  national 
epic,  entitled  77*6  Bntee.  Nothing  is  kno\\Ti  of  his 
parentage,  and  of  his  birth  it  can  only  be  conjectured 
to  have  been  about  1320.  The  ascertained  facts  of 
his  life  are  few.  We  are  informed  only  that  in 
his  own  age  he  was  accounted  a  man  of  great 
learning  and  worth ;  that  he  was  Arch-deacon  of 
Aberdeen  as  early  at  least  as  1357,  and  held 
that  office  till  his  death  in  1395;  that  in  1357, 
he  travelled  into  England,  accompanied  by  three 
scholars  for  the  purpose  of  studying  at  Oxford  ; 
686 


that  he  repeated  his  visit  to  England  for  the  same 
purpose  in  13r)4  ;  that  in  1305,  he  obtained  a  pass- 
port '  to  travel  through  England  with  six  companions 
on  horseback  towards  St.  Denis  and  other  sacred 
places  ; '  that  in  13t>8,  he  again  received  permission  to 
travel  through  England  with  two  servants  and 
two  horses,  on  liis  way  for  scholaily  purposes  to 
France;  that  in  1373  he  was  Clerk  of  Audit  of 
the  household  of  King  Robert  IL,  and  one  of  the 
auditors  of  Exchequer;  that  in  1375,  liis  great 
poem  was  more  than  half  finished;  that  in  1377, 
he  had  a  gratuity  of  ten  pounds  from  Kii  g  Robert 
IL  ;  that  in  1378,  he  received  from  the  same  prince 
a  perpetual  annuity  of  twenty  shillings,  which  in 
13S()  he  be(|neathed  to  the  dean  and  chapter  of 
Aberdeen,  under  the  condition  that  they  siiould  sing 
a  yearly  mass  for  the  rest  of  his  soul ;  that  in 
1381  he  had  a  gift  from  the  crown  of  the  ward  of 
a  minor,  whose  estate  lay  within  the  parish  of  which 
he  was  rector;  that  in  1 383,  and  again  in  1385,  he 
was  one  of  the  auditors  of  Exchequer;  that  in  1388, 
King  Robert  IL  granted  him  a  pension  of  ten 
j)Ounds  a  year ;  and  that  he  died  between  JIartinmas 
1394  and"  Whitsunday  1395,  probably  on  the  13th 
March  of  the  year  laf-t  named,  his  anniversary  in 
the  cathedral  of  Abenleen  being  celel^rated  on  that 
day  until  the  Reformation.  Besides  J'fie  Jinice, 
B.  wrote  another  poem,  now  lost,  called  7'/ie  Urule, 
in  which  ho  recounted  the  origin  and  history  of  the 
royal  house  f)f  Stuart.  Ilie  liriice  is  distinguished 
by  great  ])urify  and  cle.nrncss  of  style,  the  language 
and  versification  conti-asting  advantageously  with 
those  of  any  contemporary  English  poet,  not  except- 
ing even  Chaucer.  His  iniagery  is  not  rich,  but  he  is 
seldom  other  than  lively,  simple,  and  energetic. 
Forttmate  in  the  choice  of  a  noble  theme,  he  has 
depicted,  in  rough  but  faithful  outline,  the  life, 
nninners,  and  deeds  of  a  truly  heroic  time,  and 
given  to  his  country,  not  only  the  fii-st  poem  in  her 
literature,  but  the  earliest  history  of  her  best  and 
greatest  king. — The  best  edition  of  llie  Bruce, 
accessible  to  the  public,  is  that  of  Dr.  Jamicson  (Edin. 
1820);  but  a  superior  one,  under  the  care  of  Mr. 
(,'osnio  Innes,  was  produced  for  the  Spalding  Club 
in  1856. 

BARBUDA,  one  of  the  British  Caribbees,  lying 
30  miles  to  the  north  of  Antigua.  Of  its  north 
end,  the  lat.  and  long,  are  17"  33'  N.,  and  01"  43'  W. 
Its  area  is  estimated  at  75  s(|uare  miles;  and,  in 
1851,  its  inhabitants  were  only  029.  The  propor- 
tional density,  therefore,  of  population  is  only  about 
-^_  of  that  of  Barbadoes  (q.  v.).  In  fact,  the  island, 
small  as  it  is,  has  never  been  cleared  for  cultivation, 
the  greater  part  of  the  interior  being  a  dense  forest 
interspersed  with  patches  of  savanna.  The  agricul- 
ture, such  as  it  is,  is  confined  to  the  rearing  of 
stock  and  the  growing  of  provisions.  B.  is  of  coral 
formation,  and  is  beset  with  reefs.  It  has  a  roadstead, 
but  no  harbour. 

BA'RBY,  a  walled  town  of  Prussian  Saxony,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Elbe,  15  miles  south-east  of 
Magdeburg.  It  is  well  built,  and  has  an  old  castle. 
Pop.  5592,  chiefly  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of 
woollens  and  linens. 

BA'RCA,  a  country  in  the  north  of  Africa,  in  lat. 
26^—33°  N.,  and  long.  20°— 25°  E.,  between  the 
Great  Syrtis  (now  called  the  Gulf  of  Sidra)  and 
Egypt.  It  forms  the  eastern  division  of  Tripoli, 
having  the  rest  of  that  dominion  on  the  W.,  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  on  the  X.,  the  Libyan  Desert 
on  the  S.,  and  it  is  separated  from  Egypt  on  the 
E.  by  no  definite  line,  but  by  a  number  of  roving 
independent  tribes.  It  nearly  corresponds  with  the 
aneient  Cyrenaica  (q.  v.).  Population  vnrionsly 
estimated  from  400,000  to  1,000,000.     The  climate  is 


BARCAROLLE— BARCLAY. 


healthy  and  agreeable  in  the  more  elevated  parts, 
which  reach  a  height  of  about  120U  feet,  and  in 
those  exposed  to  tlie  sea-breeze.  There  are  none 
but  small  streams,  but  the  narrow  terrace-like 
tracts  of  country  are  extremely  fertile,  realising  all 
that  13  said  of  the  ancient  Gyreiiaica.  Rice,  dates, 
olives,  saffron,  &c.,  are  produced  in  plenty.  The 
pastures  are  excellent ;  the  horses  still  celel^rated, 
as  in  ancient  times.  But  the  good  soil  extends  over 
only  about  a  fourth  of  B. :  the  east  exhibits  only 
naked  rocks  and  loose  sand.  Many  ruins  in  the 
north-western  parts  attest  a  former  state  of  cultiva- 
tion much  superior  to  the  present.  So  early  as  the 
time  of  Cyrus,  B.  became  a  state,  which  proved 
dangerous  to  the  neighbouring  state  of  Cyrene ;  but 
within  a  single  century  it  sank,  and  became  subject 
to  Egypt.  In  the  Roman  period,  its  inhabitants 
were  noted  for  their  predatory  incursions.  It  was 
afterwards  a  province  of  the  Greek  empire,  and  had 
declared  itself  independent  when  the  Arabs  invaded 
and  conquered  it  in  641.  The  present  inhabitants 
consist  of  Arabs  and  Berbers,  who  profess  the 
Mohammedan  religion,  and  are  subject  to  the  Pacha 
of  Tripoli,  to  whom  each  of  the  beys  pays  an  annual 
tribute. 

BARCARO'LLE,  a  species  of  song  peculiar  to 
the  gondoliers  of  Venice.  The  name  is  applied  to 
musical  compositions  for  voice  or  pianoforte  of  a 
similar  character. 

BARCELO'NA,  the  most  important  manufac- 
turing city  in  Spain,  in  the  province  of  the  same 
name,  is  beautifully  situated  on  the  Mediterranean 
between  the  mouths  of  the  Llobregat  and  the  Besos, 
in  the  midst  of  a  district  as  luxuriant  as  a  garden. 
It  is  walled,  and  possessed  of  a  citadel,  which,  how- 
ever, is  ineffectually  commanded  by  the  fortress  of 
Montjouy  on  the  south-west.  B.,  like  Edinburgh,  is 
divided  into  two  parts — the  old  town  and  the  new 
— by  the  Rauibla  (river-bed),  which  has  been  planted 
with  flowering  shrubs,  and  formed  into  a  beautiful 
promenade.  The  streets  of  the  old  town,  forming 
the  north-west  division,  are  crooked,  narrow,  and 
ill-paved.  Those  of  the  new  are  much  more  spacious 
and  regular.  There  is  a  large  suburb  to  the  east  of 
the  town,  where  the  seafaring  portion  of  the  popula- 
tion chiefly  reside.  Population  in  1864,  including 
the  suburb,  which  is  called  Barcclonctta^  252,01.5. 
B.  is  the  see  of  a  bishop,  and  the  seat  of  an  appeal 
court.  It  has  a  university,  and  colleges  and  schools 
for  general  and  special  educational  purposes ;  public 
libraries,  in  one  of  which  there  is  a  splendid 
collection  of  MSS.  ;  several  hospitals  and  other 
charitable  institutions ;  the  flnest  theatre  in  Spain  ; 
and  numerous  ancient  and  elegant  churches,  with  a 
cathedral  which,  begun  in  1298,  is  not  yet  completed. 
B.  manufactures  silk,  wollens,  cottons,  lace,  hats, 
firearms,  &c.,  which  forms  its  principal  exports.  It 
imports  raw  cotton,  coffee,  cocoa,  sugar,  and  other 
colonial  produce ;  also  Baltic  timber,  salt-fish,  hides, 
iron,  wax,  &c.  Next  to  Cadiz,  it  is  the  most  im- 
portant port  in  Spain.  Indeed,  more  vessels  clear 
out  of  its  port  than  out  of  Cadiz  ;  but  they  are  of 
smaller  size,  the  entrance  to  the  harbour,  which  is 
itself  connnodious,  being  obstructed  to  large  vessels. 
The  number  of  vessels  that  entered  in  1856  was 
1155,  with  tonnage  of  213,194  tons;  cleared  out 
729,  with  a  tonn;ige  of  149,277  tons ;  value  of 
imports,  341,777,026  reals  (£3,417,770);  exports, 
95,178,781  reals  (£951,787).  B.  is  a  place  of  great 
antiquity,  and  associated  with  many  Idstorical 
events.  Local  tradition  fixes  the  date  of  its  founda- 
tion 400  years  before  the  Romans  ;  and  it  is  said 
to  have  been  refounded  by  Amilcar  Barca,  the  father 
of  Hannibal,  from  whom  its  ancient  name,  Barcico, 
Was  derived.     An  important  city  under  the  Romans, 


Goths,  and  Moors,  B.  in  878  became  an  independent 
sovereignty  under  a  Christian  chief  of  its  own, 
whose  descendants  continued  to  govern  it,  and  to 
hold  the  title  of  Counts  of  Barcelona  until  the 
12th  c,  when  its  ruler  adopted  the  title  of  King  of 
Aragon,  to  whidi  kingdom  it  was  annexed.  During 
the  middle  ages  B.  became  a  flourishing  seaport, 
rivalled  in  the  Mediterranean  by  Genoa  only.  To 
its  commercial  code  framed  in  the  13th  c,  much 
deference  was  paid  by  the  whole  of  Europe ;  and  it 
was  at  this  time,  says  Ford  in  his  Handbook  of 
Spain,  '  a  city  of  commerce,  conquest,  and  courtiers ; 
of  taste,  learning,  and  luxury ;  and  the  Athens  of  the 
troubadour.'  Columbus  was  received  here  in  1493 
by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  after  his  discovery  of 
America.  In  1640,  it  appealed  to  France  against 
the  tyranny  of  Philip  IV.  ;  but  it  turned  against 
that  country  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish  Succession, 
and  adhered  to  Austria.  In  1705,  the  fortress  of 
Montjouy  was  surprised  and  captured  by  Lord 
Peterborough,  and  the  city  surrendered  shortly 
afterwards.  In  1714,  after  a  most  heroic  defence, 
it  was  stormed  by  the  Duke  of  Berwick,  and  given 
over  to  fire  and  sword.  Xapoleon  perfidiously 
obtained  possession  of  it  in  1808  ;  and  with  one  or 
two  reverses,  and  in  the  face  of  great  difficulties, 
it  was  held  by  the  French  until  the  treaty  of  peace 
concluded  in  Paris  in  1814.  For  thirteen  years,  B. 
remained  quiet  under  the  iron  rule  of  Espaha ;  but 
in  1827  its  old  turbulent  spirit  returned,  and  it  rose 
in  favour  of  Don  Carlos.  Since  that  time,  B.  has 
successively  supported  the  pretensions  of  any  party 
in  the  state  whose  ascendency  at  the  moment 
seemed  to  offer  most  advantages  to  itself. 

BA'RCLAY,  Alexander,  a  poet  and  prose  writer, 
born  about  the  end  of  the  15th  c,  whether  in  Eng- 
land or  Scotland  is  not  certain.  He  studied  at 
Oxford,  and  then  obtained,  through  his  patron, 
Bishop  Cornish,  an  appointment  as  one  of  the  priests 
or  prebendaries  of  St.  Mary  Ottery,  in  Devonshire, 
He  afterwards  became  a  monk  of  the  Benedictine 
monastery  of  Ely,  where  he  continued  until  its 
suppresion  in  1539.  He  died  in  June  1552,  six 
weeks  after  he  had  been  presented  to  the  rectory 
of  All-Hallows,  London.  His  claim  to  notice  rests 
chiefly  upon  his  famous  poem,  lite  Simp  of  Folys  of 
the  Worlda — partly  a  translation,  and  partly  an 
imitation  of  the  German  NorreriKchijf  by  Brandt — 
which  was  printed  by  Pynson  in  1508,  and  since 
several  times  reprinted.  It  is  interesting  (as  mo.st 
satires  are),  as  shewing  the  manners  and  customs  of 
the  times  satirised.  He  published  several  works 
besides ;  among  others,  T}ie  jili/rrour  of  GoodMminers, 
The  Castell  of  Labour,  The  Er/loges,  the  first  eclogues 
that  appeared  in  the  English  language  ;  and  also  made 
a  translation  of  Sallust's  History  of  the  Jugurtliine 
War.  In  his  lifetime,  he  was  admired  for  his  wit 
and  eloquence,  and  his  writings  exhibit  a  refinement 
not  common  in  that  age. 

BA'RCLAY,  John,  a  clever  poet  and  satirist, 
was  born  about  1582,  at  Pont-ii-Mousson  in  Lorraine, 
where  his  father,  William  B.,  a  Scotsman,  who  died 
in  1605,  had  held  the  office  of  Professsor  of  Law. 
He  studied  in  the  Jesuit  College  of  that  place ;  and 
the  distinguished  talents  which  he  early  displayed, 
caused  the  Jesuits  to  try  to  induce  him  to  enter 
their  order.  On  account  of  his  rejection  of  their 
proposals,  he,  as  well  as  his  father,  suffered  much 
persecution.  He  accompanied  his  father  to  Eng- 
land in  1603,  where  he  soon  attracted  the  attention 
of  James  I.,  to  whom  he  dedicated  one  of  his  works, 
Euphonnionis  Sati/ricoii  (Lond.  1603),  a  politico- 
satirical  romance,  chiefly  directed  against  the  Jesuits. 
Next  appeared  his  Conspiratio  Anglicana  (Lond. 
1605),  and  his  Icon   Animarum  (Lond.    1614).     In 

687 


BARCLAY— BARCLAY  DE  TOLLY. 


Ittlo,  he  left  England,  and  went  to  Rome,  where  he 
died  August  .'2,  1G21.  In  the  same  year  his  cele- 
brated work  Arffenis  appeared  in  Paris  (Paris,  1621). 
It  was  written  in  Latin,  and  has  been  translated 
into  several  languages.  There  are  no  fewer  than 
three  translations  into  English ;  the  last  appeared 
iu  1772.  It  is  a  political  allegory,  containing  clever 
allusions  to  the  state  of  Europe,  more  particularly  of 
France,  during  the  time  of  the  League.  Arffaiis  svus 
admired  both  by  Cowper  and  D'Israeli. 

BA'RCL^VY,  Robert,  the  celebrated  apologist  of 
the  Quakers,  was  born  on  December  23,  1(548,  at 
Gordonstown  in  Morayshire,  Scotland.  His  father 
was  the  son  of  David  Barclay  of  Mathers,  the  repre- 
sentative of  an  old  Scoto-Norman  family,  which 
traced  itself  through  fifteen  intervening  generations 
to  Walter  de  Berkeley,  who  acquired  a  setdcmcnt 
in  Scotland  about  the  middle  of  the  12th  c.  ;  his 
mother  was  the  daughter  of  Sir  Robert  Gordon,  the 
premier  baronet  of  Xovia  Scotia,  and  historian  of 
the  House  of  Sutherland.  Young  B.  received  the  ru- 
diments of  learning  in  his  native  country,  and  was 
afterwards  sent  to  the  Scotch  College  at  Paris,  of 
which  his  uncle  was  rector.  Here  he  made  rapid 
progress  in  his  studies,  and  excited  the  admiration  of 
his  preceptors,  as  well  as  of  his  relative,  who  offered 
to  make  him  his  heir,  if  he  would  remain  in  France, 
and  formally  adopt  the  Roman  Catholic  religion,  to 
the  ceremonies  of  which  he  had  been  habituated 
during  his  residence  there.  This,  however,  B.  refu.sed 
to  do  ;  and  in  compliance  with  the  wish  which  hi.s 
mother  had  expressed  on  her  death-bed,  he  returned 
home  in  ]  6rt4.  Though  only  sixteen,  B.  was  an  excel- 
lent scholar,  and  could  speak  in  the  Latin  language 
with  wonderful  fluency  and  correctness.  In  1  (ill 7,  he 
embraced  the  principles  of  the  Society  of  Friends, 
for  reasons  more  highly  respected  in  our  day  than  in 
his.  He  states  in  his  Treatise  on  Universal  Love, 
that  his  '  first  education  fell  among  the  strictest  sort 
of  Calvinists,'  those  of  his  country  '  surpassing  in  the 
heat  of  zeal  not  only  Geneva,  from  whence  they 
derive  their  pedigree,  but  all  the  other  so-called 
reformed  churches ; '  that  shortly  afterwards,  his 
transition  to  France  had  thrown  him  among  the 
opposite'  '  sect  of  papists,'  whom,  after  a  time,  he 
found  to  be  no  less  deficient  in  charity  th.an  the 
other ;  and  that  consequently  he  had  refrained  from 
joining  any,  though  he  had  listened  to  several.  The 
ultimate  effect  of  this  was  to  liberalise  his  mind,  by 
convincing  hmi  of  the  folly  and  wickedness  of  reli- 
gious strife.  In  both  Calvinists  and  Catholics,  he 
found  an  absence  of  '  the  principles  of  love '  '  a  strait- 
ness  of  doctrine,'  and  a  'practice  of  persecution,' 
which  offended  his  idea  of  Christianity,  as  wtII  as  his 
gentle  and  generous  nature.  He  therefore  allied 
himself  gladly  to  this  new  sect,  whose  distinguish 
ing  feature  was  its  charity  and  pure  simplicity 
of  Christian  life,  and  soon  became  one  of  its  most 
devoted  adherents  and  its  ablest  advocate.  In 
the  course  of  his  life,  he  made  several  excursions 
into  England,  Holland,  and  Germany,  earnestly  pro- 
pagating his  peaceful  views  wherever  he  went,  and 
occasionally  enjoying  the  companionship  of  William 
Penn.  His  first  publication  was  Truth  Clcorcd  of 
Calumnies.  It  appeared  in  1670,  and  was  intended 
as  a  refutation  of  the  charges — many  of  them  noto- 
riously false — made  against  the  new  sect.  In  1673 
appeared  A  Catechism  and  Confession  of  Faith,  the 
answers  to  the  questions  being — to  avoid  theological 
dogmatism — in  the  words  of  Scripture.  This  was 
followed  by  The  Anarchy  of  the  Ranters,  &c.  In 
1675,  he  published  his  magnum  opus,  elaborately 
entXiXaA  An  Apology  for  the  True  Christian  Divinity, 
as  the  same  is  held  forth  and  Preached  by  the  People 
called  in  scorn  Quakers:  Being  a  full  JSxplanatioi^, 
&c.     It  contains  a  statement  and  defence  of  fifteen 


religious  propositions  peculiar  to  the  Friends.  Tht? 
leading  doctrine  which  runs  through  the  whole 
book,  is,  that  divine  truth  is  made  known  to  us 
not  by  logical  investigation,  but  by  intuition  or 
immediate  revelation  ;  and  that  the  faculty,  if  it 
can  be  technically  defined,  by  which  such  intuition 
is  rendered  possible,  is  the  'internal  light'  the 
source  of  which  is  God,  or,  more  properly,  Christ, 
who  is  the  light  that  lightcth  every  man  that 
cometh  into  the  world.'  The  identity  of  this  doctrine 
with  that  held  by  Mr.  Maurice  and  others  of  the 
Broad  Church  in  the  present  day  has  been  more 
than  once  remarked.  In  1677  ai)peared  his  Treatise 
on  Universal  Love.  It  was  the  first  of  that  long 
series  of  noble  and  gentle  remonstrances  against  the 
criminality  of  war  that  has  so  honourably  distin- 
guished the  Society  of  Friends.  It  was  addressed 
to  the  ambassadors  of  the  several  princes  of  Europe, 
met  at  Nimeuen.  In  1686,  he  jiublished  his  last 
work,  which  was  a  defence  of  the  doctrine  of 
'  immediate  revelation.'  He  died  at  Ury,  iu  Kincar- 
dineshire, October  3,  1690.  His  estate  remained 
in  the  possession  of  his  descendants  till  18-54, 
its  owner  at  that  time  being  Captain  Barclay,  the 
famous  pedestrian.  '  The  Apologist's  study,'  which 
remained  much  as  he  left  it,  was  long  an  object  of 
pilgrimage  with  members  of  the  Society  of  Friends : 
It  was  destroyed  a  few  years  ago,  when  the  old  house 
of  Ury  was  pulled  down. 

BA'RCLAY  DE  TOLLY,  Michael,  Prince, 
one  of  the  most  distinguished  Russian  generals,  was 
descended  from  a  branch  of  the  Scotch  family  to 
which  the  two  preceding — Barclay  the  poet,  and 
the  apologist  of  the  Quakers — belonged,  some  of 
whom  had  settled  in  Mecklenburg  and  Livonia.  He 
was  the  youngest  of  three  brothers,  and  was 
born  in  1759  in  Livonia,  where  his  father, 
Gottlieb  B.  de  T. — at  one  time  a  member  of  the 
town-council  of  Riga — possessed  an  estate.  Having 
been  adopted  by  (ieneral  Van  Yermoulen,  B.  de  T. 
entered  a  Russian  regiment  of  cuirassiers,  at  first 
with  the  rank  of  sergeant.  He  fought  with  great 
bravery  in  the  Turkish  war  of  1788 — 1789;  in  the 
campaign  against  Sweden. in  1790;  and  in  those, 
against  Poland  in  1792  and  1794.  In  the  year  1806, 
at  Pultusk,  as  major-general,  he  commanded  Ben- 
ningsen's  advanced-guard.  He  lo.«t  an  arm  at  the 
batttle  of  Eylau.  Although  much  hatred  by  the 
Russian  national  party,  Ijccause  regarded  by  them  as  a 
German,  he  was  appointed  minister  of  war  by  the 
Emperor  Alexander  in  1810 — an  office  which  he  held 
till  1813.  In  1812,  he  was  made  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  army  of  the  west.  His  retreat  to 
Smolensko,  and  the  loss  of  the  battle  fought  there 
on  the  17th  of  August,  raised  the  hatred  of  the 
Russian  national  party  to  a  greater  height  than  ever, 
and  he  was  obliged  to  yield  the  chief  command  to 
Kutusow.  It  has  been  maintained  by  many  that 
B.  de  T.  was  the  originator  of  the  Russian  system 
of  defence  in  1812.  He  had  indeed  advised  a  retreat 
to  the  interior,  and  recommended  the  avoidance 
of  a  battle ;  but  the  system  of  defence,  as  a  whole, 
originated  with  General  Pfuel,  who  had  left  the 
Prussian  service,  and  constantly  accompanied  the 
Emperor  Alexander  from  the  year  1807,  without  hold- 
ing any  distinct  official  appointment.  At  Mcskwa, 
B.  de  T.  commanded  the  right  wing.  After 
the  death  of  Kutusow,  he  again  obtained  the  chief 
command  of  the  army,  which  he  held  at  the  battle 
of  Bautzen,  and  retained  till  the  truce.  He  after- 
ward commanded  the  Russian  army  in  Bohemia, 
and  took  part  in  the  battles  of  Dresden,  Culm,  and 
Lcipsic.  He  was  commander-in-chief  of  the  Russian 
army  in  France,  and  in  consequence  of  this  was 
made  a  prince  and  a  field-marshal.  He  died  in 
1818   at    Insterburg,  in   his   way  to    the   Bohemian 


BARCLAY  AND  PERKINS'  BREWERY— BARD. 


baths.  Two  or  three  years  before  his  death,  the 
estate  of  Tolly  or  Towie,  in  Abcrdeen.shire,  the  old 
inheritance  of  his  family,  was  for  sale,  and  he  was 
pressed  to  bny  it,  but  refused,  on  the  ground  that 
his  family  had  been  so  long  expatriated  that  Scotland 
was  now  to  them  a  strange  country. 

BARCLAY    AND    PERKINS'    BREWERY,    one 

of  the  largest  establishments  of  the  kind  in  the 
world,  is  situated  in  Park  Street,  Southwark,  Lon- 
don, the  buildings  coverings  upwards  of  ten  acres. 
The  brewery  was  founded  by  Dr.  Johnson's  friend, 
Henry  Thrale,  who,  in  1118,  according  to  a  state- 
ment made  by  the  doctor  on  his  Hebridean  tour,  was 
paying  as  much  as  £20,000  annually  to  the  Excise. 
After  Thrale's  death  it  was  sold  by  the  executors  to 
Barclay  (a  descendant  of  the  author  of  the  Apology 
for  the,  Quakers)  and  Perkins,  who  had  been  Thrale's 
chief  clerk,  for  £135,000.  Since  that  time,  the  busi- 
ness has  assumed  vast  proportions,  as  the  following 
statistics  will  serve  to  shew :  Two  steam-engines, 
together  equal  to  75  horse-power,  are  required  to  work 
the  machinery ;  there  are  24  malt-bins,  each  eciual 
in  size  to  an  ordinary  three-storied  house ;  and 
Westminster  Hall  is  not  much  larger  than  the  great 
brewing-room ;  more  than  100,000  gallons  of  water 
are  used  daily,  and  2000  quarters  of  malt  weekly ; 
10  brewing  coppers  have  an  aggregate  capacity  of 
120,000  gallons  ;  there  are  4  fermenting  vessels,  each 
capable  of  holding  1500  barrels  of  beer;  the  cooling- 
floor  has  a  surface  of  more  than  1000  stjuare  yards ; 
300  vessels  of  300  gallons  each  are  used  in  the 
working-off  of  the  yeast  from  the  beer,  which  is  stored 
in  150  vats,  the  largest  of  which  holds  108,- 
000  gallons ;  and  the  average  gives  30,000  gallons 
each.  200  horses  and  drays  are  employed  in  distribu- 
ting the  beer  to  London  i-etailers. 

BAR-CO'CHBA,  Simon,  the  leader  of  the  Jews  In 
their  great  insurrection  against  the  Romans,  under 
the  Emperor  Hadrian,  from  131 — 135  a.  d.  Three 
times  had  the  oppressed  Jews  revolted  without  suc- 
cess, from  115  to  118 ;  and  in  130,  soon  after  Hadrian's 
return  from  Syria,  a  new  rebeUion  broke  out,  for 
which  they  had  been  secretly  preparing.  At  the 
head  of  it  was  one  Simon,  who  assumed  the  name  of 
Bar-cochba,  i.  e.,  '  Son  of  the  Star,'  pretending 
that  the  prophecy  was  to  be  fulfilled  in  him,  '  There 
shall  come  a  Star  out  of  Jacob'  (Numb.  xxiv.  17). 
He  fought  at  first  with  great  success  against  the 
Romans,  and  even  obliged  them  to  evacuate  Jeru- 
salem, where  he  was  proclaimed  king,  and  caused 
coins  to  be  struck  with  his  name.  The  war  spread 
over  all  the  country  of  Palestine,  and  fifty  towns, 
besides  many  villages  and  hamlets,  came  into  the  pos- 
session of  the  Jews.  But  on  the  arrival  of  Hadrian's 
general,  Julius  Severus,  Jerusalem  was  retaken ;  and 
in  August  135,  Bether,  the  very  last  strong  fortress 
held  by  the  Jews,  was  stormed  by  the  Romans.  B. 
fell  on  the  day  of  this  bloody  conquest.  During  the 
war,  hundreds  of  thousands  of  Jews  were  destroyed, 
many  were  executed,  and  very  cruel  edicts  were 
subsequently  issued  against  them.  From  this  last 
struggle  dates  the  final  dispersion  of  the  Jews  over 
the  lace  of  the  eartli.  The  Holy  City  was  razed  to 
the  ground,  and  rebuilt  under  another  name.  The 
Jews  still  retain  in  their  liturgy  hymns  which  they 
chant  in  mournful  memory  of  this  tragic  event. 
For  a  particular  history  of  the  struggle,  see  Miintcr's 
Der  JiidiKcJie  Kriep  unter  den,  Kaisern  Trajan  %i7id 
Hadr ia7i  {A\ton&,  1821). 

BARD,  the  name,  known  to  the  Romans  since 
200  B.  c,  by  which  the  Gauls  and  other  Celtic 
peoples  (British,  Welsh,  Irish,  and  Scotch)  desig- 
nate their  minstrels.  Like  the  Scops  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxons,  and  the  Skalds  of  Scandinavia,  the  bards 
celebrated  the  deeds  of  gods  and  heroes  at  religious 
44 


solemnities,  and  the  festivities  of  princes  and  nobles, 
accompanying  their  recitations  with  the  harp  or 
chrotta  (Ir.  rruit  and  c/arsrach) ;  they  excited  the 
armies  to  bravery,  preceded  them  into  the  fight,  and 
formed  the  heralds  of  princes,  and  the  mediators  of 
peace.  The  institution  early  disappeared  among  the 
Gauls,  but  lingered  long  in  Wales,  Ireland,  and  Scot- 
land. The  bards  formed  a  hereditary  order,  and 
exercised  a  decided  national  influence.  The  min- 
strels among  the  Celts,  as  among  the  Germans,  were 
the  organ  of  the  people,  and  the  channel  of  all 
historical  tradition.  It  is  supposed  that  in  Wales, 
about  940  a.  d.,  their  privileges  were  defined  and 
fixed  by  1*110  laws  which  bear  the  name  of  King 
Howel  Dha ;  and  in  1078  the  whole  order  is 
said  to  have  been  reformed  and  regulated  anew  l)y 
Gryffith  ap  Conan.  At  Caerwys,  Aberfraw,  and 
Matharval,  there  were  held  from  time  to  time  great 
competitions  in  ministrelsy,  called  Eisteddfods,  at 
which  the  judges  were  appointed  by  the  prince, 
When  W^ales  was  conquered  by  Edward  I.  (1284), 
the  bards  lost  their  privileges,  and  were,  according 
to  tradition,  persecuted  and  put  to  death ;  but 
succeeding  princes  countenanced  the  institution,  and 
Eisteddfods  were  repeatedly  held  under  royal  com- 
mission down  to  the  i-eign  of  Elizabeth.  Since  then, 
exertions  for  the  revival  of  national  Welsh  poe- 
try and  the  bardic  profession  have  been  made  by 
several  societies :  the  Gwyneddigion,  founded  in 
1770 ;  the  Cambrian,  in  1818 ;  and  more  recently, 
the  Metropolitan  Cambrian  Institution.  To  these 
societies,  and  to  the  patriotism  of  individuals,  we 
owe  collections  of  the  relics  of  the  lays  of  the 
Welsh  bards,  none  of  which,  it  should  be  added, 
can  be  traced  to  MSS.  of  an  older  date  than 
the  12th  c.  The  most  interesting  of  those  relics 
are  those  of  Liwarc'h-Henn,  Aneurin,  and  Taliesin. 
See  Jones's  Relics  of  the  Welsh  Bards  (Lond. 
1794);  Owen's  Mjivyrian  Arducology  of  Wales 
(3  vols.,  Lond.  1801 — 1807);  Poemes  d'es  Bardcs 
Bretons  du  vie  Steele,  par  T.  H.  de  la  Villeniarque 
(Paris,  1850),  &c. 

In  Ireland,  the  bards  are  believed  to  have  been 
a  hereditary  guild,  divided  into  three  classes :  the 
Filedha,  who  sung  in  the  service  of  religion,  and  in 
war,  and  were  the  counsellors  and  heralds  of  princes ; 
the  Braitheamhain,  Avho  recited  or  chanted  the  laws  ; 
the  Seanachaidhe,  who  were  chroniclers  and  genealo- 
gists to  princes  and  nobles.  Their  ample  privileges 
and  endowments  of  land  gave  them  an  exorbitant 
influence,  w-hich  both  princes  and  people  had  some- 
times to  rise  against  and  curb.  The  great  skill  of  the 
Irish  bards  on  the  harp  was  acknowledged  every- 
where. After  the  conquest  of  Ireland  by  Henry  II., 
the  profession  began  to  sink.  Still  many  of  the 
chiefs  maintained  bards  in  their  fiimilies,  whose 
songs  and  legends  kept  up  the  national  feeling. 
This  occasioned  several  measures  of  the  English 
rulers  against  the  Irish  bards ;  Elizabeth  ordered  the 
bards  that  were  captured  to  be  hanged,  as  the 
instigators  of  rebellion.  Turlogh  O'Carolan,  bom 
1670,  died  1737,  is  reckoned  the  last  Irish  bard; 
his  poems  were  translated  into  English  by  Furlory. 
Other  lays  of  the  bards  have  been  translated  by 
Miss  Brooke,  Relies  of  Irish  Poetry  (Dub.  1789),  and 
Hardiman,  Irish  minstrelsy  (Dub.  1831.) 

The  bardism  of  Scotland  may  be  conjectured  to 
have  been  similar  to  that  of  Ireland ;  but  nothing 
is  certainly  known  of  the  subject  beyond  the  fact, 
that  there  were  poets  or  bards,  of  different  degrees, 
in  the  Highlands  down  to  the  17th  c. 

The  name  of  B.  was  known  among  the  Germanic 
nations ;  though  a  corrupt  reading  in  some  MSS. 
of  the  Geriiiania  of  Tacitus  {barditus  for  baritus, 
the  '  war-cry ')  led  Klopstock  and  others  to  write 
wild    religious    and   war    songs,    which    thev   called 

689 


BARD— BARERE  DE  VIEUZAC. 


'  Bardits,'  under  the  notion  that  they  were  restoring  a 
branch  of  the  national  literature.  This  Ossianic 
aberration  soon  eaine  to  an  end. 

BARD,  a  fortress  and  village  of  Piedmont,  situated 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Doire,  about  23  miles  south- 
south-east  of  Aosta.  When  the  French  crossed  the 
St.  Bernard  in  1800,  the  fortress  of  B.  offered  a  re- 
sistance to  their  further  advance  into  Italy,  which 
might  have  proved  effectual  had  the  Austrian  garrison 
been  suflBciently  on  the  alert.  The  French  failed  to 
take  the  fortress  by  storm,  but  they  succeeded  in 
dragging  their  artillery  under  and  past  the  guns  of  the 
fort  during  the  night,  and  were  far  on  the  road  to 
I\Tea  before  the  Austrian  commander  was  aware  that 
they  bad  passed.  B.  was  taken  a  short  time  after 
by  the  French,  and  razed,  but  it  has  since  been  re- 
stored. 

BARDESA'NES  (properly,  Bar-Deisan),  the  found- 
er of  a  Gnostic  sect,  was  a  native  of  Edessa,  in 
Mesopotamia,  and  flourished  towards  the  end  of 
the  2d  c.  He  stood  high  in  favour  with  the  mon- 
arch Abgar-bar-Maanu,  but  little  is  known  regard- 
ing him.  It  is  stated  that  he  held  a  disputation 
with  the  philosopher  Apollonius,  who  appeared 
in  Edessa  in  165  a.  d.,  in  the  suite  of  Antonius 
Verus.  He  was  first  a  disciple  of  Valentinus, 
whose  heresy  he  afterwards  abjured,  and  wrote  against 
it,  and  also  against  other  heresies ;  but  ultimate- 
ly he  relapsed  into  {)artial  agreement  with  his 
old  master.  His  Gnosis  was  not  purely  dualistic. 
He  did  not  consider  evil  the  eternal  coefficient 
of  good,  but  merely  the  result  of  a  temporary 
reaction  of  matter  on  spirit.  Yet,  inexplicably 
enough,  he  maintained  the  devil  to  be  a  self-exist- 
ent, independent  being.  He  denied  the  doctrine 
of  the  resurrection  of  the  body,  and  in  conformity 
with  such  a  conviction,  asserted  that  Christ's 
body  was  not  real,  but  only  an  illusive  image  brought 
down  from  heaven.  He  diffused  his  opinions  through 
the  medium  of  hymns,  of  which  he  is  reckoned  the 
first  writer  in  Syria.  These  hymns,  fragments  of 
which  are  still  extant,  exhibit  a  rich  and  pure  fancy. 
His  followers  were  called  Sardesainsts.  They  never 
formally  separated  themselves  from  the  orthodox 
church,  though  they  continued  to  exist  as  late  as  the 
5th  c.  See  Hahn's  £.  CTnostkus  Syrorwn  primus 
Hymnologus  (Leip.  1819). 

BARDOLI'NO,  a  town  of  Austrian  Italy,  with  a 
harbour  on  Lake  Garda,  and  about  14  miles  west  from 
the  fortress  of  Verona.  The  battle  of  Rivoli  was 
fought  in  its  vicinity  in  January  1797. 

BA'REFOOTED  (Lat.  discalceati,  i.  e.,  shoeless), 
an  appellation  given  to  certain  monks  and  nuns 
who  abstain  from  wearing  any  covering  on  the  feet, 
either  entirely  (as  the  Alcantarines,  who  orig- 
inated at  Placentia,  in  Spain,  in  1540,  but  who 
are  chiefly  found  at  present  in  the  kingdom  of 
Naples),  or  for  a  specified  period  of  the  year  (as 
the  nuns  of  our  Lady  of  Calvary) ;  or  who,  instead 
of  shoes,  wear  mere  sandals,  i.  e.,  soles  of  wood, 
leather,  rope,  or  straw  fastened  by  thongs.  They  do 
not  constitute  a  separate  order  in  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic Church,  but  are  to  be  found  as  a  higher  grade  of 
asceticism  with  more  or  less  severity  of  observance, 
among  most  of  the  orders,  Carmelites,  Franciscans, 
Augustines,  Eremites,  Capuchins,  &c.  They  are, 
however,  steadily  ignored  by  the  more  dignified 
Dominicans,  though  the  latter  are  themselves  mendi- 
cant friars.  The  origin  of  this  form  of  religious 
austerity  is  to  be  traced  generally  to  the  custom 
which  prevailed  among  the  Jews  and  Romans,  of 
putting  off  their  shoes  on  the  occurrence  of  public 
calamities,  that  fn  this  condition  of  mourning  and 
humiliation  they  might .  implore  the  divine  Being 
for  deliverance ;  but  perhaps  more  particularly  to 
690 


the  command  which  Christ  gave  his   disciples  (Matt. 
X.  10  ;  Luke  x.  4). 

BAREGES,  a  small  watering-place  in  France, 
situated  in  the  Pyrenees,  about  18  miles  from 
Bagneres  de  Bigorre.  The  mineral  water  for  which 
it  is  celebrated  contains  principally  sulphuret  of 
sodium,  with  portions  of  carbonate,  muriate,  and  sul- 
phate of  soda,  nitrogen,  and  sulphuretted  hydrogen. 
Its  efficacy  in  the  cure  of  wounds,  rheumatism,  stiff- 
ness of  joints  and  scrofulous  complaints,  is  said  to 
be  very  remarkable.  See  Murray's  Hand-Book  to 
Fraiice. 

BARE'GES,  mixed  tissues  adapted  for  women's 
dresses,  called  in  France  Crepe  de  Barec/es.  The 
name  is  derived  from  the  place  noticed  in  the  above 
article ;  in  reality,  however,  B.  were  never  made  in 
that  little  watering-place,  the  seat  of  the  manufacture 
being  at  Bagneres  de  Bigorre.  B.  are  usually  a 
mixture  of  silk  and  worsted ;  an  inferior  kind  being 
composed  of  cotton  and  worsted.  They  vary  in 
colour,  and  are  sometimes  light  in  tint,  with  printed 
patterns.  All  are  of  a  slight  fabric  for  summer 
wear.     The  best  are  still  manufactured  in  France. 

BA'REGINE.  Many  Algce  are  found  growing  in 
mineral  springs,  especially  those  of  a  sulphuric 
nature.  The  product  of  their  growth  is  a  mucus- 
like substance  somewhat  resembling  the  white  or 
glair  of  an  egg.  This  deposit  is  particularly  abundant 
in  the  hot  springs  at  Bareges,  whence  the  name  of 
baregine.  It  imparts  a  flesh  broth  flavour  and  odour 
to  the  water,  which  is  prized,  and  is  sometimes  imi- 
tated by  adding  animal  gelatine  to  the  sulphur-baths 
where  B.  is  deficient. 

BAREFLLY,  the  chief  city  of  a  district  of  the 
same  name  in  Rohilcund,  British  India — a  district 
which,  with  an  area  of  2937  square  miles,  contains 
1,143,657  inhabitants,  and  which  is  bounded  on 
the  E.  by  Oude  and  Nepaul.  The  city  itself,  with 
an  estimated  population  of  about  100,000,  is  in  lat. 
28°  23'  N.,  and  long.  79°  28'  E.,  being  788  miles  to  the 
north-west  of  Calcutta,  and  152  miles  to  the  east  of 
Delhi.  It  is  pleasantly  situated  in  a  well-wooded 
country  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Jooa,  an  affluent  of 
the  western  Ramgunga.  Besides  a  brisk  and  lucrative 
commerce,  it  has  considerable  manuflictures,  more 
particularly  in  the  articles  of  ornamental  chairs  and 
tables.  B.  became  a  name  of  notoriety  in  the  great 
mutiny  of  1857.  On  the  31st  of  May,  the  city 
was  a  scene  of  rapine  and  bloodshed.  The  native 
garrison,  without  any  European  troops  to  overawe 
them,  rose  against  their  officers,  and  seized  the  public 
treasure.  They  murdered  every  European  who 
had  not  the  means  of  escaping.  But  fortunately, 
from  a  suspicion  of  the  outbreak,  the  ladles  and  chil- 
dren of  the  Company's  servants,  both  civil  and  mili- 
tary, had  been  sent  off"  in  safety  to  Nynee  Tal,  in 
the  Himalaya.  B.  was  recovered  by  Sir  Colin  Camp- 
bell, now  Lord  Clyde,  in  the  May  of  the  following 
year. 

BARE  POLES.  When  a  ship  has  all  her  sails 
furled,  she  is  said  to  be  '  under  bare  poles.' 

BARERE  DE  VIEUZAC,  Bertrand,  a  member 
of  the  French  National  Convention,  born  at  Tarbes, 
10th  September  1755.  He  became  an  advocate 
in  the  court  at  Toulouse.  After  acting  as  a  deputy 
in  the  National  Assembly,  the  department  of  the 
Hautes-Pyrenees  elected  him  to  the  National  Conven- 
tion in  1792.  He  is  said  to  have  been  naturally  in 
favour  of  moderate  measures,  but  he  was  easily 
overawed  by  the  influence  of  the  party  of  the 
Mountain,  with  whom  he  generally  acted,  and 
whom  he  supported  by  his  eloquence,  which  was  so 
flowery  and  poetical  in  style  that  he  came  to  be 
designated    the   Anacreon    of    the    guillotine.      He 


BARETTI— BARGE, 


was  president  of  the  Convention  when  the  sentence 
was  passed  upon  Louis  XYI.  lie  rejected  the 
appeal  to  the  people  and  gave  his  vote  with  these 
words :  '  The  law  is  for  death,  and  I  am  here 
only  as  the  organ  of  the  law.'  His  natural  mild- 
ness warring  with  the  instinct  of  self-j)reserva- 
tion,  made  him  alternately  a  sujjporter  of  merciful 
measures  and  an  advocate  of  the  guillotine,  and  his 
whole  public  conduct  betokens  a  man  much  more 
selfish  than  patriotic  or  humane.  After  the  death 
of  Robespierre,  in  which  he  had  concurred,  B.  never- 
theless proposed  the  continuation  of  the  Revolu- 
tionary Tribunal,  for  which  he  was  denounced  by 
Lecointre,  and  afterwards  impeached  and  sentenced 
to  transportation ;  his  sentence,  however,  was  not 
carried  into  effect,  and  he  partook  of  the  general 
amnesty  of  the  18th  Brumaire.  He  was  elected 
as  a  deputy  to  the  Chamber  in  1815,  during  the 
Hundred  Days.  After  the  second  restoration,  he  was 
banished  from  France,  and  went  to  Brussels,  where 
he  devoted  himself  to  literary  work  till  the  revo- 
lution of  July  permitted  his  return.  In  the  year 
1832,  he  was  once  more  elected  as  a"  deputy  by  the 
department  of  the  Hautes-Pyrenecs ;  his  election, 
however,  was  annulled,  on  account  of  errors  of 
form,  whereupon  the  government  called  him  to  be 
a  memljer  of  the  administration  of  that  department, 
which  office  he  continued  to  hold  till  1840.  He 
died  on  14th  January  1841.  He  bestowed  upon 
the  younger  Carnot  his  Memoircs,  wliich  have 
been  published  (2  vols..  Par.  1842).  His  many 
other  political  and  historical  writings  are  Jiow  of  no 
importance. 

BARE'TTI,  Joseph,  an  Italian  writer,  born  at 
Turin,  1716.  He  was  intended  for  the  law,  but  de- 
voted himself  to  litei-ature.  In  1751,  he  established 
himself  as  a  teacher  of  Italian  in  London,  where,  in 
1757,  he  published  the  Italian  Library,  giving  an 
account  of  the  most  eminent  Italian  authors  and 
their  works.  He  was  about  this  time  appointed 
secretary  for  the  foreign  correspondence  of  the 
Royal  Academy.  In  1762,  he  published  an  account  of 
his  travels  through  Portugal,  Spain,  and  the  south 
of  France,  to  Italy  in  Lettere  Famigliari,  which, 
with  additions  and  a  new  title,  were  afterwards 
republished  in  England.  B.  now  lived  some  time 
in  Italy,  and  published  at  Venice  a  journal  called 
the  Literary  Scourge,  which  brought  upon  him 
many  ])rosecutions.  On  his  return  to  England,  he 
published,  among  other  works,  an  Italian  gram- 
mar, and  an  Italian  and  English  dictionary,  which 
have  since  gone  through  many  editions.  One 
evening,  he  became  involved  in  a  street-brawl,  in 
London,  and  stabbed  with  his  penknife  a  man,  who 
died  soon  after.  B.  was  tried  for  murder,  made 
his  own  defence,  and  was  acquitted — Dr.  Johnson, 
Burke,  and  Garrick,  testifying  to  the  excellence  of 
his  character.     He  died  in  1789  in  London. 

BARFLEUR,  a  seaport  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  La  Manche,  about  15  miles  east  of 
Cherbourg.  It  is  now  a  place  of  little  import- 
ance, but  it  is  noteworthy  as  being  the  port  from 
whence,  according  to  report,  William  the  Conqueror 
set  out  on  his  invasion  of  England.  In  the  loth 
and  14th  centuries,  B.  was  twice  pillaged  by  the 
English. 

BA'RGAIN  AND  SALE,  in  the  law  of  England, 
is  a  mode  of  conveyance  whereliy  property,  real  and 
personal,  may  be  assigned  or  transferred  for  valu- 
able consideration.  It  finds  a  chief  place,  however, 
in  law-books  in  connection  with  the  conveyance  of 
real  estate.     In  regard  to  personal  estate,  assicimnent 


contract,  by  means  of  which  property  in  lands  and 
tenements,  whether  that  property  be  in  possession, 
remainder,  or  reversion,  is  conveyed  from  one  person 
to  another.  In  its  terms,  it  consists  of  a  B.  and  S. 
by  the  seller  to  the  intended  vendee  for  money  ;  and 
l)y  the  statute  of  frauds,  29  Chas.  II.  c.  3,  it  must 
be  in  vritinfi ;  and  by  the  statute  of  enrolments,  the 
27  Hen.  VIII.  c.  16,  it  camiot  pass  a  freehold, 
unless  it  bo  by  indenture  enrolled  within  six  months 
after  its  date,  or  with  a  custos  rotulorum  of  the 
county.  But  hereditaments  lying  within  any  city 
or  town  corporate,  the  officers  of  which  have 
authority  to  make  enrolment  of  deeds,  are  excepted 
from  this  statute.  A  B.  and  S.  for  a  term  of  years, 
however,  will  be  effectual  without  enrolment.  But 
see  Lease  and  Release. 

No  particular  form  of  words  is  essential  to  the 
validity  of  a  B.  and  S.  ;  '  bargain  and  sell '  are  the 
words  of  transfer  ordinarily  used.  But  other  words 
will  have  the  same  effect,  and  the  distinctive 
character  of  the  conveyance  is  determined  by  the 
consideration  on  which  it  is  founded.  This  con- 
sideration, however,  is  held  to  be  a  mere  matter  of 
form,  and  sufficiently  complied  with  if  the  convev- 
ance  purport  to  be  so  founded.  To  this  end,  any 
trivial  sum  may  be  inserted  in  the  conveyance, 
though  the  consideration  which  really  passes  between 
the  parties  be  of  larger  amount ;  or  even  though 
it  be,  in  fact,  not  of  a  pecuniary  nature.  It  is 
also  immaterial  whether  the  sum  so  inserted  be 
actually  paid  or  not. — Stephen's,  Commentaries,  vol. 
i.,  pp.  535 — 537.  See  Gustos  Rotulorum,  Posses- 
sion, Remai.ndeu,  Reversion,  Indenture,  Lease,  and 
Release. 

There  is  no  such  title  to  land  or  other  real  estate 
in  the  Scotch  law,  but  in  that  system  there  may  be 
a  bargain  as  to  land,  the  evidence  of  which  must  be 
in  writing,  the  Scotch  law  in  this  respect  agreeing 
with  the  regulations  of  the  English  statute  of  frauds 
above  referred  to.  The  term  bargain  is  also 
used  by  Scotch  lawyers  to  signify  a  contract  or 
agreement  for  the  sale  of  personal  or  movable 
property,  and  to  such  a  bargain  the  intervention  of 
writing  is  not  necessary,  but  it  may  be  proved  by 
witnesses.  , 

BARGE,  an  ancient  town  of  Piedmont,  in  the 
province  of  Saluzzo,  30  miles  south-west  of  Turin. 
Pop.  7000,  who  are  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of 
fire-arms  and  the  quarrying  of  slate.  A  brisk 
general  trade  is  also  carried  on. 

BARGE.  Various  forms  of  vessels  receive  this 
appellation.     The  Admiralty    and    city   of    London 


Barge — Royal. 


barges,  used  on  ceremonial  occasions,  are  elegantly 
fitted  out,  and  supplied  with  accommodation  for  many 
rowers.  The  B.  belonging  to  a  man-of-war,  for 
the  occasional  use  of  the  superior  officers,  is  a 
well-trimmed,  though  not  showy  boat,  light  enough 
to  be  easily  hoisted   in   and   out   of 


_  .  .         I  .  the   ship.     On 

(q.  V.)  appears  to  be  the  more  appropriate  as  it  is  I  our  rivers  and  canals,  a  B.  is  a  clumsy,  flat- 
the  more  usual  term.  B.  and  S.,  then,  may  be  I  bottomed  vessel  of  burden,  employed  either  in 
described  as  a    conveyance,   in  the  way  of    a    real  |  conveying     goods     from     one     town     or     quay     to 

691 


BARGE-BOARD— BARING. 


another,  or  to  aid  in  bringing  stores  to  and  from 
ships.  There  are  several  kinds  of  this  last-named 
craft — namely,  coal-barges,  sand-barges,  west-country 


Barge — Common. 


^es,    &c.      For    the    chief    points    of    difference 
between  barges  and  othes  boats,  see  Boat. 

BA'RGE-BOARD.  Where  the  roof,  in  Gothic 
houses,  extends  over  the  wall,  the  gable  is  generally 
furnished   with    a    board,   which    either    covers   the 


Barge-board. 


rafter,  or  occupies  the  place  of  a  rafter  itself.  These 
barge-boards  were  often  very  richly  ornamented, 
particularly  in  the  14th  and  15th  centuries.  The 
accompanying  illustration  is  copied  from  Parker's 
Glossary  of  Architecture. 

BA'RI  (ancient  Barium^)  a  city  in  the  kingdom 
of  Naples,  capital  of  a  province  of  the  same  name, 
is  situated  on  a  peninsula  in  the  Adriatic,  in  lat. 
41°  8'  N.,  and  long.  16°  53'  E.,  and  about  140  miles 
north-north-east  from  Naples.  Pop.  27,300.  It  is 
strongly  fortified,  and  defended  by  a  massive  old  castle 
of  Norman  origin,  nearly  a  mile  in  circumference. 
The  city  is  divided  into  the  old  town  and  tlie  new. 
The  streets,  with  some  few  exceptions,  are  confined 
and  gloomy.  B.,  which  is  the  see  of  an  archbishop, 
has  manufactories  of  cotton,  silk,  linen,  soap,  &e., 
and  carries  on  an  active  export-trade  in  oil,  corn, 
and  fruit  with  Trieste  and  Dalmatia.  Its  harbour 
does  not  admit  of  the  entrance  of  large  vessels ;  but 
692 


its  quay  and  roadstead  are  good.  It  has  some  fine 
ecclesiastical  structures,  the  most  notable  of  which 
is  the  priory  of  St.  Nicholas,  a  noble  specimen  of  the 
Lombard  style  of  architecture,  founded  in  1087,  and 
liberally  endowed  liv  the  brothers  Guiscard.  Within 
the  wails  of  this  building.  Urban  II.,  in  1098,  held 
a  council  of  Greek  and  Latin  bishops,  with  the  view 
of  settling  the  differences  between  the  two  churches  ; 
and  Roger  II.  was  here  crowned  king  of  Sicily. 
The  priory  contains  some  interesting  monuments 
and  relics,  the  most  remarkable  of  which  is  the 
tomb  of  Bona  Sforza,  queen  of  Poland,  who  died  in  the 
castle  in  1557.  B.  is  one  of  the  cities  believed  to 
have  been  founded  by  lapyx,  son  of  Da?dalus.  Its 
coins  shew  it  to  have  been  a  jjlace  of  considerable 
note  among  the  Greeks  as  early  as  the  3d  c.  b.  c. 
The  Romans  appear  to  have  held  it  in  but  little 
repute ;  but  it  rose  in  esteem  when,  in  the  10th  c, 
it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Greek  emperors,  who  made 
it  the  capital  of  Apulia,  and  the  residence  of  a 
viceroy.  It  was  twice  taken  in  the  11th  c.  by 
the  Normans,  who  added  to  its  strength  and  import- 
ance. 

BARIGA'ZZO,  a  village  of  Modena,  province  of 
Lunigiana,  remarkable  for  the  streams  of  fire  which 
issue  out  of  the  soil  to  a  height  of  several  feet,  and 
which  continue  to  burn  for  days  without  intermis- 
sion. 

BARI'LLA,  an  impure  carbonate  of  soda,  pro- 
cured from  plants  which  grow  in  salt-marshes  or 
other  places  near  the  sea,  and  which  forms  a  consider- 
able article  of  commerce,  being  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  soap  and  of  glass,  and  for  other  purposes  in 
the  arts.  The  greatest  quantities  of  B.  are  produced 
in  Spain  and  the  Balearic  Islands ;  but  the  Canary 
Islands,  Italy,  and  France,  also  contribute  a  part. 
It  is  procured  by  burning  the  plants,  much  in  the 
same  way  that  sea-weeds  are  burned  upon  the 
coasts  of  Scotland  to  procure  kelp.  The  Spanish 
B.  is  most  esteemed,  especially  that  produced  near 
Alicante,  which  is  chiefly  obtained  from  the  Sahola 
sailva,  a  plant  of  the  natural  order  Chcnopodiacae. 
This  plant  is  there  cultivated  in  grounds  close  by 
the  sea,  embanked  on  the  side  nearest  it,  and 
furnished  with  flood-gates,  through  which  the  salt 
water  is  occasionally  admitted.  It  is  cut  in  Sejjtem- 
her,  dried  in  small  heaps,  and  then  burned  in  a  hole  in 
the  ground.  The  exportation  of  the  seed  is  prohib- 
ited hj  the  Spanish  government  under  the  severest 
penalties.  Other  species  of  Salsola  (Salt-wort),  as 
*S'.  7'rayus  and  S.  Kali  (the  latter,  a  common  native 
of  the  shores  of  Britain),  are  also  burned  for  B., 
although  they  yield  it  in  smaller  quantity  than 
S.  sativa.  B.  is  made  in  France  from  Salicornia 
herbncea  or  annua  (Glass-wort),  another  of  the 
Chenopodlncece,  plentiful  also  in  salt-marshes  on  the 
shores  of  Britain  and  other  parts  of  Europe.  See 
Salt-woiit. 

BA'RING.  The  firm  of  Baring  Brothers,  is  one 
of  the  greatest  commercial  houses  in  the  world. 
Its  founder  was  John  B.,  a  German,  who  settled 
in  a  small  business  in  Exeter,  England,  in  the  first 
half  of  the  18th  c.  Two  of  his  sons,  Francis  and 
John,  established  in  London  in  1770  the  now  existing 
house. 

Francis  became  a  director  of  the  East  India 
Company,  and  being  a  stanch  supporter  of  Pitt, 
was  created  a  baronet  by  that  Minister  in  1793, 
He  took  an  active  part  in  the  discussions  relative 
to  the  Bank  Restriction  Act  of  1797. 

Sir  Thomas  B.,  eldest  son  of  the  above,  born 
June  12,  1772,  succeeded  his  father  in  the  baronetcy. 
He  appears  to  have  taken  no  active  part  in  the 
business  of  the  firm,  being  chiefly  remarkable  as 
an  admirer  and  encourager  of   art.     His  magnificent 


BARITAII— BARK. 


collection  of  pidntings  was  dispersed  by  public  sale 
after  his  death  in  April  1848. 

Alexander  B.,  brother  of  the  above.     See  Lord 

ASHBURTON. 

Sir  Francis  Thornhill  B.,  son  of  Sir  Thomas, 
whom  he  succeeded,  was  born  in  1V90,  was  educated 
at  Oxford,  where  in  1817  he  tonk  a  doable  first  class. 
He  entered  parliament  as  M.P.  for  Portsmouth  in 
1826,  for  which  place  he  still  sits.  Under  successive 
Whig  governments,  he  has  held  respectively  the  offices 
of  a  Lord  of  the  Treasury,  Secretary  to  the  Treasury, 
Chancellor  to  the  Exchequer,  and  First  Lord  of  the 
Admiralty.  He  is  more  noted  for  his  business  aptitude 
than  as  an  orator  or  a  politician. 

Thomas  B.,  brother  of  the  above,  born  in  1800, 
devoted  himself  early  to  commercial  pursuits,  and 
also  to  politics,  taking  the  opposite  side  to  his 
brother.  He  is,  however,  much  more  widely  known 
as  a  partner  of  the  firm  of  B.  Brothers  than  as  a 
politician. 

The  firm  is  engaged  to  a  large  extent  in  the  nego- 
tiation of  national  loans,  in  exchange  and  money  brok- 
ing, in  the  produce-trade,  home  and  colonial,  in  im- 
portation and  exportation  upon  their  own  foreign  ac- 
counts, &c. 

BARI'TAH  (Bari'ta),  a  genus  of  large  Australian 
birds,  placed  by  some  ornithologists  in  the  family  of 
Shrikes  (q.  v.),  {Laniadip),  and  by  others  in  that 
of  Crows  (q.  v.),  {Comidce).  The  bill  is  large,  conical, 
scarcely  curved,  the  base  of  it  extending  remarkably 
backward  on  the  forehead.  The  best  known  species 
is  the  Piping  Crow,  or  Piping  Grakle,  or  Jar-ra-war- 
nang  of  Xcw  South  Wales  (B.  Tibicen).  It  preys  on 
small  birds,  is  gregarious,  assembling  in  small  flocks, 
has  a  melodious  voice,  is  easily  tamed,  and  becomes 
very  familiar  and  amusing,  learns  to  whistle  tunes  ex- 
tremely well,  and  exhibits  a  great  power  of  mimicking 
the  voices  of  other  birds. 

BA'RIUM  is  the  metal  present  in  heavy  spar 
(sulphate  of  baryta)  and  baryta.  Till  lately,  it  was 
regarded  as  a  white  metal,  but  the  recent  reseai-ches 
of  Dr.  Matthiessen  have  demonstrated  that  it  pos- 
sesses a  yellow  colour.  The  metal  is  ductile,  melts 
below  redness,  and  does  not  volatilise  at  a  red  heat. 
It  decomposes  water  readily  at  ordinary  temper- 
atures, and  exposed  to  the  air,  quickly  combines 
with  oxygen,  forming  the  oxide  of  B.  (BaO),  or 
Baryta.  The  latter  substance  is  an  earth  resem- 
liling  ordinary  caustic  lime,  and  may  otherwise  be 
I)repared  by  adding  finely  divided  black  oxide  of 
copper  (CuO)  to  a  solution  of  sulphuret  of  B.  (BaS), 
when  the  sulphuret  of  copper  (CuS)  is  thrown 
down,  and  the  baryta  (BaO)  is  left  in  solution.  On 
evaporation,  the  water  of  solution  passes  off  as 
steam,  and  leaves  the  solid  earthy-looking  substance, 
baryta.  A  third  mode  of  preparing  baryta  is  to 
heat  strongly  the  nitrate  of  baryta  (BaONOs),  when 
the  nitric  acid  (NOj)  flies  off,  and  leaves  the  baryta 
(BaO).  The  sulphuret  of  B.  (BaS)  is  obtained  when 
the  sulphate  of  baryta  (BaOSOa)  in  powder  is  mixed 
with  finely-pulverised  coal,  and  the  whole  being 
placed  in  a  crucible,  is  raised  to  a  red  heat  in  a  fur- 
nace. The  result  is,  that  4  atoms  of  the  carbon  (C) 
of  the  coal  carry  off  the  4  atoms  of  oxygen  in  the 
sulphate  of  baryta  as  carbonic  oxide  (CO),  whilst  the 
B.  united  solely  with  sulphur  is  left  behind  as  the 
sulphuret  of  B.  (BaS).  The  chloride  of  B.  is  pre- 
pared by  adding  hydrochloi-ic  acid  (HCl)  to  a  solu- 
tion of  the  sulphuret  of  B.  (BaS),  when  hydrosulphuric 
acid  (HS)  escapes,  and  chloride  of  B.  remains  be- 
hind, and  on  evaporation  of  the  liquid,  is  obtained  in 
crystals. 

BARK.     See  Barque. 

BARK  {cortex),  in  phanerogamous  or  flowering 
plants,  is  the  external  covering  of  the  stem.     It  is 


composed  of  layers  of  cellular  tissue,  whilst  the 
woody  stem,  to  which  it  forms  a  sort  of  sheath,  is 
vascular.  In  endogenous  plants  (palms,  <S:c.),  there 
is  not,  in  general,  a  very  mai-ked  line  of  separation 
between  the  B.  and  the  vessels  or  vascular  bundles 
of  the  stem,  so  that  these  plants  are  generally,  but 
incorrectly,  said  to  have  no  bark.  It  is  in  exogenous 
plants,  and  especially  in  perennial  woody  stems,  that 
the  development  of  B.  is  most  perfect,  and  the  dis- 
tinction between  wood  and  B.  most  mai'kcd.  The 
outermost  layer  of  the  B.  of  exogenous  plants  is  the 
epidermis  (q.  v.),  which,  however,  is  in  general  only 
to  be  seen  in  annual  stems,  and  in  the  youngest 
parts  of  woody  stems ;  peeling  off  as  the  stem  be- 
comes older  along  Avith  the  outer  layers  of  the  true 
bark.  Beneath  the  ei)iderniis  is  the  true  B.,  of  which 
the  outer  layer  is  called  the  epiphlreum  (Gr.  outer 
bark),  and  consists  of  cells,  usually  rectangular  and 
flattened,  with  thick  walls.  The  inner  layer  of  the 
true  B.  is  called  the  mesopMo'wn  (Gr.  middle  bark), 
and  is  generally  formed  of  a  cellular  tissue  of 
roundish  cells  with  thin  walls.  These  layers  are 
sometimes  very  distinctly  separated  from  one  another, 
and  sometimes  pass  gradually  into  one  another ; 
sometimes  there  is  merely  a  continuous  cellular 
tissue.  Within  the  true  B.  is  a  very  distinct  layer, 
the  inner  B.,  liber  (Lat.)  or  endopMceum  (Gr.  inner 
bark,)  also  frequently  called  Bast,  which  is  com- 
posed of  bundles  of  woody  fibre  or  vascular  tissue 
mixed  with  cellular  tissue.  The  layer  of  Cambium 
(q.  V.)  is  often  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  inner  B., 
but  rather  belongs  to  the  vascular  part  of  the  stem. 
In  the  inner  B.  are  sometimes  found  cells  containing 
a  milky  juice,  as  in  the  Apoci/nacea\  or  vessels  for 
a  milky  juice,  as  in  the  common  fig.  The  com- 
bined strength  and  flexibility  of  the  fibres  of  the 
inner  B.  render  it  in  many  cases  useful  for  various 
purposes.  See  Fibrous  Plants  and  Bast.  In 
the  true  B.,  the  peculiar  juices  and  most  character- 
istic substances  elaborated  by  the  plant  are  very 
generally  found,  for  which  reason  that  part  is  often 
of  the  greatest  importance  in  medicine  and  the  arts. 
The  B.  of  many  trees  abounds  in  tannin  (q.  v.)  or 
tannic  acid. 

The  B.  of  a  stem  or  branch  of  not  more  than  one 
year  old,  exhibits  only  a  cellular  integument  or 
epidermis  with  an  interior  lining  of  woody  fibre — 
the  inner  B.  ;  but  new  layers  added  from  year 
to  year,  the  B.  as  well  as  the  woody  stem  being 
increased  from  the  cambium,  the  mucilaginous  layer 
which  is  interposed  between  them,  and  wliich  par- 
ticularly abounds  in  spring,  when  the  separation  of 
the  B.  from  the  stem  is  most  easy.  The  annual 
layers,  however,  cannot  long  be  distinctly  recog- 
nised in  the  B.  as  in  the  wood ;  and  in  the  older 
portions  of  woody  stems  the  outermost  parts  of  the 
B.  become  desiccated  and  lifeless,  and  are  in  general 
gradually  thrown  off.  On  this  account,  those  mosses, 
Hchens,  and  other  plants  which  attach  themselves 
only  to  the  outermost  layer  of  the  B.  of  trees,  and 
derive  their  nourishment  from  it,  cannot  be  regarded 
as  true  parasites,  as  they  are  in  no  degree  supported 
by  the  juices  of  the  stem,  but  only  consume  and 
remove  external  matter  already  destitute  of  life. 
The  B.  of  some  trees  is  remarkable  for  the  thick- 
ness which  it  acquires,  as  that  of  the  cork-tree,  in 
which  the  cpiphloeum  is  formed  of  many  layers  of 
cells.  The  outer  parts  of  thick  barks  very  often  crack, 
to  admit  of  the  expansion  of  the  stem  within  ;  in  the 
lace-bark  tree  of  the  West  Indies,  the  fibres  of  the 
inner  B.  become  partially  sepiirated  as  it  is  distended, 
forming  lozenge-shaped  meshes  arranged  with  beauti- 
ful regulai-ity. 

The  connection  between  the  cellular  tissue  of  the 
B.  and  that  of  the  pith  in  the  centre  of  the  tree  is 
continually    maintained    by    means,    iu    exogenous 

693 


BARK— BARKER. 


stems,  of  the  medulliiry  rays.  See  Exogenous  Plants 
and  Pith.  The  B.  is  a  protection  to  the  young  and 
tender  wood ;  it  ajDpears  also  to  exercise  functions 
analogous  to  those  of  the  leaves,  which,  when  )"Oung, 
it  resembles  in  its  colour,  and  which  are  regarded  as 
dilatations  of  it,  so  that  it  has  been  called  the  '  univer- 
sal leaf '  of  a  plant. 

BARK,  in  Medicine,  &c.  The  principal  barks 
used  in  medicine  will  be  found  noticed  in  separate 
articles.  See  Andira  {Cabbage  B.,  Surinam  B.)\ 
Angostura  B.  ;  Caribbee  B.  {Jamaica  B.,  St.  Bvcia 
B.,  Piton  B.) ;  Cascarilla  {Cascarilla  B.,  Eleutheria 
B.);  Cinchona  {Cinchona  B.,  Peruvian  B.,  Jenidts' 
B.,  China.  Cascarilla,  Arica  B.,  Calccsai/a  B.,  Cara- 
baya  B.,  Huamalies  B.,  Huanuco  B.,  Jaen  B., 
Loxa  B.,  Maracaibo  B.,  Ash  B.,  Crown  B.,  Silver  B., 
Yelloiv  B.,  Tan  B.,  &c.) ;  Clove  B.  ;  Copalche  B.  ; 
CuLiLAWAN  B. ;  Winter's  Bark. — When  B.  is  men- 
tioned without  any  prefix,  it  is  always  Cinchona, 
otherwise  called  Peruvian  or  Jesuits'  B.,  which  is 
intended. 

The  barks  used  for  dyeing,  tanning,  and  other  pur- 
poses in  the  arts,  being  generally  named  from  the  trees 
which  produce  them,  particular  references  here  are 
unnecessary. 

BARK,  FOR  tanning.  The  B.  of  many  trees  is 
capable  of  being  used  for  tanning  (q.  v.),  but  those 
kinds  of  B.  are  preferred  which  particularly  abound 
in  tannic  acid.  Oak  B.  is  principally  used  in  Britain, 
and  throughout  Europe ;  also  in  North  America, 
although  tliat  of  America  Is  obtained  from  species 
of  oak  different  from  the  European  ;  in  Spain,  the 
inner  layer  of  the  B.  of  the  cork  oak,  or  cork-tree,  is 
employed,  and  it  is  to  some  extent  imported  into 
Britain  for  the  use  of  tanners.  The  B.  of  the  chest- 
nut is  also  much  esteemed.  Larch  B.  and  willow  B. 
are  used  in  preparing  some  kinds  of  leather.  The  B. 
of  the  birch  and  that  of  the  alder  are  also  employed  ; 
birch  B.  being,  however,  more  esteemed  for  steeping 
fishermen's  nets  and  cordage,  to  preserve  them  from 
rotting,  than  for  the  preparation  of  leather.  Different 
species  of  Acacia  (q.  v.)  and  of  Eucalyptus  (q.  v.) 
furnish  barks  used  for  tanning  in  Australia,  some 
of  which  have,  to  a  small  extent,  become  articles  of 
commerce. 

The  barHng  of  trees  can  be  accomplished  with 
facility  only  in  spring,  when  the  sap  has  begun  to 
circulate.  The  tree  being  felled,  the  rough  external 
lifeless  parts  of  the  B.  are  removed  as  useless,  by 
means  of  a  sharp  instrument  called  a  scraper  ;  the 
smaller  branches  are  cut  into  lengths  of  about  two 
feet,  and  their  B.  is  loosened  by  beating  with  a 
mallet,  and  easily  taken  oft" — as  boys  at  the  same 
season  make  plane-tree  whistles ;  the  B.  of  the 
trunk  and  main  branches  is  cut  through  by  a  chisel- 
like instrument,  called  a  barking-iron,  into  similar 
lengths,  each  of  which  is  divided  longitudinally,  and 
finally  stripped  off  by  the  aid  of  mallets,  chisels, 
&c.  The  B.  is  sometimes  dried  in  sheds,  being  placed 
on  narrow  shelves  or  frames  in  such  a  way  that 
there  may  be  a  very  free  circulation  of  air  about 
it ;  sometimes  in  the  open  air,  when  it  is  very 
generally  made  to  rest  in  a  sloping  position  against 
trunks  of  trees  placed  horizontally  at  a  little  dis- 
fcince  from  the  ground,  the  larger  pieces  of  B.  being 
placed  so  as  to  protect  the  smaller  both  from  sun 
and  rain.  Great  care  is  necessary  in  the  drying  of 
B.,  as  it  is  much  spoiled  if  allowed  to  get  mouldy, 
and  is  liable  to  suffer  injury  from  rain  or  from  the  ex- 
posure of  its  inner  surface  to  the  sun. — Oak  and  birch 
B.  are  usually  about  equal  in  their  price,  which,  how- 
ever, varies  very  much,  from  .£4  to  £8  per  ton.  Larch 
B.  is  much  less  valuable  •,  it  is  also  of  much  greater 
bulk  in  proportion  to  its  weight.  The  B.  is  a  very  im- 
portant source  of  the  revenue  derived  from  many 
woods  and  coppices. 
694 


BARK  BEETLE,  or  BARK-CHAFER,  a  name 
common  to  many  of  the  large  family  of  Coleopter- 
ous Insects  (q.  v.),  called  by  entomologists  Xylophagi 
(Gr.  wood-eaters).  They  are  all  small,  and  generally 
of  uniform  colour ;  they  have  hard  bodies,  and 
short,  often  club-shaped  antenna?.  Most  of  the 
family  live  in 'wood  or  other  vegetable  substances, 
as  mushrooms,  dried  plants  in  herbariums,  &c.,  and 
some  of  them  are  extremely  injurious  to  living 
trees.  Tho.'^c  called  B.  beetles  or  bark-chafers  bore 
holes  in  the  bark,  and  deposit  their  eggs  in  the 
inner  bark,  in  which  the  larvai  excavate  pathways, 
often  causing  the  death  of  the  tree.  One  species  in 
particular,  sometimes  called  the  common  Bark-chafer 
(Tomicus  fyj)ograph7is),  and  sometimes  the  Typog- 
rapher Beetle,   from   the  figure  of  its   burrows,  has 


'£>■ 


^  / 


Tomicus  typographus. 

natural  size  ;  b,  insect  magnified ;  c,  galleries  made  by 
the  insect. 

from  time  to  time  appeared  in  extraordinary  num- 
bers, ravaging  the  forests  of  Germany.  In  1783,  it 
caused  the  death  of  a  million  and  a  half  of  pines  in 
the  Hartz  Forest  alone.  This  insect  is  mentioned  in 
some  of  the  old  German  liturgies  under  the  popular 
name  of  '  the  Turk,'  which  its  dreaded  ravages  ob- 
tained for  it. 

BA'RKAL,  or  JE'BEL  BA'RKAL,  a  singular  sand- 
stone rock  in  Nubia,  situated  in  hit.  18°  81'  N.,  and 
long.  31°  46'  E.,  about  a  mile  from  the  right  bank  of 
the  Nile.  It  is  quite  isolated,  perpendicular  on  the 
side  facing  the  river,  and  very  steep  on  all.  It  is  about 
two  miles  in  circumference  at  the  base,  and  400  fleet 
in  height,  its  summit  forming  a  pretty  broad  plateau. 
Between  it  and  the  river  are  the  remains  of  some 
magnificent  temples,  the  two  principal  ones  being 
known  as  the  Typhonium,  and  the  Great  Temple,  one 
of  the  largest  monumental  ruins  of  Nubia.  The  an- 
cient city  of  Napata  is  suposed  to  have  been  situated 
in  the  vicinity.  The  two  red  granite  lions,  now  in  the 
Egyptian  Room  of  the  British  Museum,  were  brought 
from  B.  in  1832  by  Lord  Prudhoe. 

BA'RKER.  Edmund  Henry,  a  well-known  Eng- 
lish philologist,  was  born  2'2d  December  1788  at 
Hollym,  in  Yorkhsire,  and  studied  at  Cambridge. 
Besides  editions  of  several  Latin  classics,  and  nume- 
rous contributions  to  periodicals,  particularly  to  the 
Classical   Journal,  he   was  led,   during  a  residence 


BARKER— BARKER'S  MILL. 


with  the  famous  jihilologist  Parr,  to  undertake  a 
revision  of  Stephens's  IJicsaurns  Linr/iue  Grcecin. 
This  gigantic  work  was  violently  assailed  in  the 
Quarterly  Review  by  Blomfield,  against  whom  B. 
wrote  his  Arixtarchus  Anti-Bloinjieldianus  (Ijond. 
1818) ;  yet  he  and  his  publisher,  Valpy  of  Loudon, 
carried  it  on  and  completed  it  in  a  spirited  man- 
ner (13  vols.,  1816—1828).  In  1812  appeared  the 
first  volume  of  his  Classical  liecrcalions.  He  also 
supplied  materials  for  the  composition  of  Sturtz's 
Etyniolo(jicum  Gudianum.  He  likewise  translated 
some  works  of  German  philologists,  among  others, 
Buttmann's  Greek  Grammar  for  Schools.  He  col- 
lected the  mass  of  anecdote  and  criticism  relative 
to  his  friend  Dr.  Parr,  which  was  published  in 
2  vols,  in  1828 — 1829,  under  the  title  of  Farriana, 
a  work  well-nigh  unreadable,  from  the  superabund- 
ance and  ill-digested  nature  of  its  matter.  He 
also  assisted  Professor  Dunbar  in  the  compilation 
of  the  Greek  and  English  Lexicon  published  in 
1831.  He  lost  all  that  he  had  in  a  lawsuit  about  a 
valuable  inheritance,  so  that  he  was  obliged  to  sell 
his  fine  library,  and  was  put  into  the  debtors'  prison. 
He  died  in  London,  March  21,  1839,  in  extreme 
poverty. 

BA'RKER,  John,  descended  of  an  English  mer- 
cantile familj',  became,  in.  1*799,  agent  for  the  East 
India  Company  at  Aleppo  ;  in  1826,  British  consul  at 
Alexandria ;  and  afterwards  consul-general  in  Egypt. 
In  the  year  1834,  he  removed  from  this  situation 
to  the  lonely  but  lovely  valley  of  Suedia  on  the 
Orontes,  4  leagues  from  Antioch,  where  he  employed 
himself  in  the  cultivation  of  the  choicest  fruits  of  Asia 
and  Europe.  We  are  indebted  to  him  for  the  Han- 
wick  Nectarine,  the  most  delicious  yet  introduced 
into  our  gardens.  The  good  terms  on  which  he  stood 
with  the  people  around  him  and  with  the  government, 
enabled  him  to  render  many  valuable  services  to 
European  travellers.  He  died  at  Suedia  on  the  5th  of 
October  1850. 

BA'RKER'S  MILL  (Fr.  Roue  a  reaction,  Ger. 
Segnefs     Wasserrad),    a    water-wheel    invented    by 


Dr.  Barker  towards  the  end  of  the  lYth  c.  It  is 
represented  in  its  simplest  or  typical  form  in 
fig.  1.  A  is  a  wide  metal  pipe,  resting  at  its 
lower  end  by  the  steel  spindle  T,  on  a  metal  block 
B,  and  kept  in  a  vertical  position  by  the  spindle  S, 


I  at  its  upper  end,  which  passes  through  the  frame 
of  the  machine,  so  that  it  can  easily  revolve  round 
its  axis.  Near  its  lower  end,  two  smaller  pipes 
or  arms,  C,  C,  are  inserted,  which  project  hori- 
zontally from  it,  and  these  have  each,  at  the 
outer  extremity,  a  hole  cut  vertically  in  them, 
opening  towards  opposite  sides.  The  water  is 
supplied  by  the  pipe  P,  which  opens  over  a  funnel- 
like widening  on  the  upi)ei-  part  of  A,  and  the 
quantity  is  so  regulated  that  while  the  pipe  A  is 
kej)t  nearly  full,  no  more  is  admitted  than  issues 
from  the  lower  orifices.  The  reaction  caused  by 
the  water  gushing  from  the  arms,  forces  them 
backwards,  and  gives  to  the  whole  machine  a 
rotatory  motion.  This  reaction  is  much  the  same 
as  is  seen  in  the  recoil  of  a  gun  when  fired,  or 
in  the  pushing  back  of  a  small  boat  by  the  foot 
on  stepping  ashore.  It  may  be  also  thus  explained  : 
Suppose  that  the  arms  were  closed  all  round,  the 
water  would  press  against  the  sides  with  a  force 
proportional  to  the  height  of  the  water  in  the 
pipe  A,  and  the  pressure  against  any  particular 
surface  of  the  side  would  produce  no  motion  of 
the  arm,  because  an  equal  pressure  is  exerted  in 
a  contrary  direction  by  a  corresponding  surface 
opposite  to  it.  Now,  if  one  of  these  surfaces  be 
cut  out,  the  pressure  against  the  other  being  un- 
counteracted,  forces  the  arm  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion to  that  of  the  side  in  which  the  hole  is  made. 
This  being  done  to  both  arms  on  opposite  sides, 
two  equal  pressures  are  produced,  which  conspire 
in  generating  the  same  motion  of  rotation.  As 
soon  as  motion  ensues,  centrifugal  force  comes 
into  play,  which,  throwing  the  water  out  towards 
the  ends  of  the  arms,  increases  the  rapidity  of 
its  discharge,  and  also  its  reacting  power.  When 
the  wheel  is  in  action,  the  water  thus  acts  under 
the  influence  of  two  forces — one  being  the  pressure 
of  the  column  in  A,  and  the  other  the  centrifugal 
force  generated  by  the  rotation  of  the  wheel  itself. 
The  motion  of  the  wheel  is  transmitted  by  the 
spur-wheel  fixed  to  the  spindle  S,  to  the  machinery 
which  is  to  be  driven  by  it,  or,  in  the  case  of  a 
corn-mill,  the  spindle  passes  directly  through  the 
lower  millstone,  and  is  firmly  fixed  into  the  upper 
one. 

The  power  is  manifestly  increased  by  heightening 
the  water-column,  or  by  lengthening  the  arms — 
the  former  increasing  the  pressure  of  the  water, 
and  the  latter  increasing  the  leverage  at  which 
this  pressure  acts.  In  the  mill  shewn  in  the  figure, 
the  column  in  A  cannot  be  advantageously  height- 
ened, for  the  higher  it  rises,  the  greater  must  be 
the  weight  which  the  conical  spindle,  T,  has  to 
sustain,  and  the  greater,  consequently,  becomes  the 
friction.  It  is  from  this  circumstance  that  such 
mills  are  found,  in  practice,  to  yield  but  a  small 
mechanical  effect — the  friction  consuming  too  large 
a  proportion  of  the  work  of  the  wheel.  Hence,  in 
the  reaction-wheels  now  in  use,  the  original  B.  M. 
has  been  so  modified  as  to  allow  of  the  water  being 
conducted  from  the  reservoir  below  the  arms  instead 
of  above.  This  is  effected  by  making  the  vertical 
pipe  revolve  below  in  a  stuffing-box  at  its  junction 
with  the  conduit,  and  above,  by  a  pivot  moving 
in  the  fixed  frame.  By  this  arrangement,  the 
friction  attending  the  rotation  is  reduced  to  a 
minimum,  for  not  only  is  the  weight  of  the  water 
placed  out  of  account,  but  also  a  large  proportion 
of  the  weight  of  the  wheel  itself,  which  is  borne 
by  the  upward  pressure  of  the  water.  The  mechani- 
cal performance  of  such  wheels  is  said  to  be  highly 
satisfactory,  producing,  with  a  limited  supply  of 
water  frilling  from  a  considerable  height,  a  useful 
effect,  hardly  to  be  obtained  by  any  other  contriv- 
ance.    The   power   of    these   machines  may  be   also 

695 


B  ARK-STOV  E— BARLEY. 


increased  by  using  curved  (fig.  2)  instead  of  straiglit 
arms.     With  straight  arms 
a  considerable  loss  of  force 
is  incurred  by  the  sudden 
( /        ^/'''"^  n    *^'i^"gc  of  the  direction  of 

Ly  (  °  A  /  /    ^^^  current  when  it  leaves 

the  arm,   which   does  not 
take    place    to    the    same 
extent  with  curved  arms, 
_.     ^  where      this     change      is 

'»■  "■  effected      gradually.        In 

Whitelaw's  Mill  (hence  called  the  Scottish  tur- 
bine), the  form  of  B.  M.  generally  met  with  in 
Scotland,  there  are  three  instead  of  two  curved 
arms  of  this  description.  Considerable  difference 
of  opinion  still  exists  as  to  the  merits  of  B.  M., 
some  considering  it  as  the  most  perfect  way  of  apply- 
ing water-power,  and  others  putting  it  in  the  same 
rank  as  an  under-shot  wheel,  with  the  same  water- 
supply.  Of  late  years,  it  has  been  more  extensively 
employed  than  formerly,  both  in  this  country  and  on 
the  continent. 

BA'RK-STOVE,  in  Gardening,  a  kind  of  hot- 
house intended  for  those  plants  which  re(iuire  not 
only  the  greatest  heat,  but  also  a  continually  moist 
atmosphere.  It  derives  its  name  from  the  use  of 
tanners'  bark,  for  the  purpose  of  producing  this 
atmospheric  condition.  The  bark  is  placed  in  a 
pit,  lined  and  paved  with  brick,  and  pots  containing 
tropical  plants  are  sunk  in  it ;  by  which  means 
the  plants  not  only  enjoy  a  moisture  resembling 
that  of  their  native  climates,  but  the  earth  around 
their  roots  is  kept  uniformly  and  moderately  heated. 
The  pi'inciple  of  the  B.  is  adopted  in  pineries,  palm- 
houses,  orchid-houses,  &c.,  also  in  forcing-stoves  em- 
ployed for  j)roducing  the  ordinary  fruits  and  vegetables 
of  temperate  climates  at  unusual  seasons.  A  consider- 
able heat  results  from  the  fermentation  of  tanners' 
bark,  but  it  is  not  upon  this  that  its  value  in  the  B. 
chiefly  depends. 

BA'RLAAM     AND     JO'SAPHAT,    one     of    the 

most  widely-spread  religious  romances  of  the  middle 
ages,  relating  the  conversion  of  the  Indian  prince 
Josaphat  I>y  the  hermit  Barlaam,  and  thereby 
illustrating  the  power  of  Christianity  to  overcome 
temptation,  and  proving  its  superiority  over  all 
other  creeds.  The  celebrated  divine,  John  Dama- 
scene, has  been  by  some  erroneously  supposed  the 
author  of  the  original  Greek  MS.,  while  others  have 
attributed  it  to  the  church  historian  Anastasius 
Bibliothecarius.  At  all  events,  it  was  the  produc- 
tion of  an  eastern,  possibly  an  Ethiopian  Christian. 
The  Greek  original  was  first  published  by  M.  de 
Boissonade,  in  the  4th  volume  of  his  Anecdota  (Paris, 
1832),  and  translated  into  German  by  Leibrecht 
(Miinst.  1847).  But  even  in  the  middle  ages,  a  Latin 
version  of  this  romance  had  been  extensively  circu- 
lated. About  the  end  of  the  15th  c,  it  was  often 
printed  in  a  detached  form,  and  later,  it  appeared 
amongst  the  works  of  John  Damascene  (Paris,  1609). 
Vincent  de  Beauvais  wove  the  story  into  his  Specu- 
lum Historiale.  From  the  Latin  version  sprung 
three  French  poetical  versions  belonging  to  the  18th 
c,  and  as  yet  unprinted.  The  Italian  Storia  di  S. 
Barlaam  (latest  edition,  Rome,  1816)  maybe  traced 
to  a  Provencal  original  as  early  as  the  beginning 
of  the  14th  c.  In  Germany,  Rudolf  von  Ems  derived 
his  poem,  B.  and  /.,  first  printed  at  Konigsberg 
(1818),  and  later  at  Leipsic,  from  the  Latin  of  John 
Damascene.  There  is  also  an  Augsburg  impres- 
sion of  a  prose  translation  of  the  ancient  Latin 
text,  belonging  to  the  close  of  the  14th  c.  The 
Spanish  Historia  de  B.  y.  J.,  by  Juan  de  Arze 
Solorzano  (Madrid,  1608),  the  Polish  poetical  ver- 
sion, by  Kulizowsky  (Cracow,  1688),  as  well  as  the 
696 


Bohemian  (Prague,  1593),  are  all  Iwrrowed  from  the 
Latin ;  while  the  Icelandic  J>arlaams  Sa<ja,  and  the 
Swedish  popular  tale,  B.  och  J.,  have  a  Geuman 
source.  A  Norwegian  version,  printed  from  an  old 
vellum  MS.  of  the  beginning  of  the  13th  c,  said  to 
have  been  translated  by  King  Hakon  Sverreson,  ap- 
peared in  1851.  This  romance  has  even  been  ren- 
dered into  the  Tagala  language  of  the  Philippines,  and 
there  printed  (Manilla,  1712). 

BAR-LE-DUC,  or  BAR-SUR-ORNAIN,  a  town 
in  the  department  of  the  Meuse,  France.  It  is 
situated  on  the  Ornain,  about  125  miles  east  from 
Paris,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  railway,  and  with 
the  Rhine  by  canal.  Pop.  13,334,  who  manufacture 
cotton  and  calicoes,  and  carry  on  a  considcra))le  trade 
in  timber  from  the  Vosges,  for  the  use  of  I'aris,  and 
in  iron,  wool,  and  wine.  B.  has  a  communal  college, 
normal  school,  and  public  library.  Its  origin  dates 
from  the  10th  c. 

BARLE'TTA,  a  fortified  seaport  of  Naples, 
province  of  Bari,  on  the  Adriatic.  Pop.  about 
23,000,  who  carry  on  a  large  shipping-trade  w'ith 
Greece,  the  Ionian  Islands,  and  other  ports  of  the 
Adriatic.  The  town  is  well  built,  handsome,  and 
clean ;  has  a  fine  cathedral,  a  colossal  statue  sup- 
posed to  represent  the  Emperor  Heraclius,  a  college, 
theatre,  and  castle,  formerly  one  of  the  most  impreg- 
nable fortresses  in  Italy.  A  feature  of  B.  is  the 
large  and  magnificent  gateway  which  leads  to  its 
harbour.  During  the  blo(5kade  of  B.  by  the  French 
in  1502 — 1503,  which  ended  in  the  defeat  and  death 
of  their  commander,  the  Duke  of  Nemours,  the  cele- 
brated combat  between  eleven  cavaliers  of  France, 
and  as  many  of  Spain,  in  which  the  Chevalier  Bayard 
so  distinguished  himself,  took  place,  and  ended  in  a 
drawn  battle. 

BA'RLEY  (Hordeum),  a  genus  of  Grasses,  to 
which  belongs  one  of  the  most  extensively  cultivated 
kinds    of   grain.      The    genus    is    distinguished    by 


Barley. 
a,  two-rowed  barley  ;  6,  sprat  or  battledore  barlej'. 


spiked  inflorescence,  three  spikelets  being  always 
situated  upon  each  tooth  of  the  rachis,  of  which 
sometimes  only  the  middle  one  is  fertile,  and  some- 
times all  the  three,  so  that  in  the  former  case  the 
fruit-bearing  spike  is  two-rowed,  and  in  the  latter 
case,  six-rowed  ;    the  glumes  are   two,  containing   a 


BARLEY. 


siiiiile  lioret ;  the  palesB  two,  the  outer  one  awned; 
and  the  seed  is  surrounded  Ijy  the  paleaj.  The  species 
of  this  genus  are  ahnost  all  annual,  although  some 
varieties  of  B.  are  sown  in  the  end  of  autumn,  and 
the  cultivation  of  them  extends  over  tlic  winter.  B. 
is  mentioned  in  the  books  of  Moses  and  other  books 
of  the  Old  Testament,  also  by  the  Greek  and  Roman 
writers,  and  lias  been  extensively  cultivated  from 
remote  antiquity.  Beer  made  from  it  was  known  to 
the  Greeks,  the  Egyptians,  and  the  ancient  Germans. 
The  cultivation  of  it  appears  to  have  extended  from 
Italy  northwards  in  Europe,  but  it  is  better  adapted 
than  any  other  grain  to  the  most  northern  regions, 
some  of  its  varieties  being  cultivated  with  advan- 
tage where  the  climate  is  too  cold,  or  the  summer 
too  short,  for  any  other  cereal  crop ;  and  it  is  deemed 
probable  that  its  native  country  is  northern  or 
Central  Asia.  It  is  capable,  however,  of  being 
cultivated  in  very  warm  climates,  and  extends  over 
a  wider  climate  range  than  any  of  the  other  grains. 
B.-meal  is  used  for  bread  in  the  northern  parts 
of  Europe,  but  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  13.  is 
more  generally  converted  into  malt  for  the  making 
of  beer  (see  Brewing),  or  merely  deprived  of  its 
outer  skin,  and  so  used  as  an  article  of  food.  B. 
intended  for  brewing  is  first  subjected  to  the 
jM'Ocess  of  malting,  by  which  it  is  converted  into 
Malt  (q.  v.).  B.  simply  deprived  of  the  husk 
(palece)  in  a  mill  is  called  Pot  B.  or  Scotch  Barley. 
When  the  pellicle  of  the  seed  is  also  removed,  and 
the  seed  itself  rounded  and  polished,  it  is  Pearl 
Barley. — What  is  sometimes  called  Patent  B.,  is  a 
farina  obtained  by  grinding  pearl  B.,  and  differs  from 
B.-meal  in  being  quite  free  from  a  degree  of  acridity 
which  the  latter  derives  from  the  integuments  of 
the  seed. 

It  is  doubtful  if  this  grain  is  produced  by 
more  than  one  species,  or  whether  what  have 
been  described  as  distinct  species  by  botanists,  are 
not  really  mere  varieties,  the  result  of  long  culti- 
vation. H.  vulgare  is  usually  distinguished  as 
having  the  grains  disposed  in  four  rows ;  II. 
hexastichon,  as  having  them  in  six  rows ;  and  H. 
distichoti,  as  having  the  lateral  spikelets  abortive,  and 
the  grains,  therefore,  in  two  rows.  But  the  lower 
part  of  the  spike  in  the  varieties  ranked  under  II. 
vrdgare  is  often  six-rowed,  and  only  the  upper-part 
four-rowed;  and  in  rich  soils,  a  tendency  to  resume 
the  six-rowed  form  is  otherwise  manifest.  Xor  are 
the  kinds  known  as  Naked  Barley,  in  which  the 
seed  separates  readily  from  the  palea3,  to  be  looked 
upon  as  more  distinct.  The  four-rowed  or  six-rowed 
varieties  are  generally  coarser,  but  more  productive 
than  the  two-rowed;  and  some  of  them,  often  called 
Bkar,  or  Bigg,  are  regarded  as  most  suitable  for 
exposed  situations  and  inferior  soils.  A  kind  with 
naked  seeds,  called  Siberian  B.  (H.  coelexte  of  some 
writers),  is  extensively  cultivated  in  some  parts  of 
Europe,  and  its  straw  is  regarded  as  affording  a 
richer  food  for  cattle  than  that  of  most  other  kinds. 
The  Kepaul  or  Himalaya  B.,  another  variety  with 
naked  seeds,  and  further  characterised  by  the 
irregular  manner  in  which  the  grains  are  placed  in 
the  spike,  paleai  three-lobed  at  the  end,  and  very 
short  awns — and  which  is  therefore  regarded  by 
some  botanists  as  a  distinct  species  (//.  trifurcatuin 
or  H.  acgiceres) — has  been  recommended  as  particu- 
larly adapted  for  cold  mountainous  regions,  yielding 
good  crops  in  the  Himalaya  at  an  elevation  of 
14,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. — Of  the  two- 
rowed  B.,  there  are  many  varieties,  of  which  the 
Common  or  early  English  B.,  the  Italian  B.,  and  the 
CJievaiicr  B.  are  among  the  most  esteemed,  the 
latter  being  in  particular  demand  for  the  brewing  of 
the  finest  ales.  It  takes  its  name  from  M.  Chevalier, 
who    introduced    it. — The   Sprat  or  Battledore    B. 


[H.  zeocriton  of  many  botanists)  is  also  two-rowed, 
but  is  distinguished  by  the  grains  standing  out  from 
the  spike,  tlieir  awns  spreading  very  widely.  It  is 
sometnnes  called  German  Ixicc,  as  it  swells  by 
boiling  in  the  way  that  rice  does,  and  for  some  pur- 
poses forms  a  good  substitute  for  it.  It  is 
scarcely  cultivated  in  Britain,  but  is  in  much  esteem 
in  Germany,  and  succeeds  well  in  the  Alps  at  aa 
elevation  of  .S3C0  feet. 

Three  species  of  Ilordeum  are  natives  of  Britain, 
of  which  one  {H.  murimim),  a  small  grass,  is  pretty 
common  on  waste-grounds,  especially  in  England, 
and  is  apt  to  prove  troublesome  by  its  long  awns 
causing  inflammation  in  the  mouths  of  cattle.  Still 
more  injurious  in  this  way  is  the  North  American 
H.  jubatum,  or  Squirrel's  Tail.  Another,  Mkadow 
B.  or  MEAnow  B. -Grass  (//.  pratense),  frequent  in 
meadows  in  England,  is  reckoned  a  good  pasture- 
grass.  H.  bulbosui/t,  a  native  of  the  south  of 
Europe  and  north  of  Africa,  is  cultivated  in  Britain 
for  herbage,  of  which  it  yields  a  large  quantity, 
much  rehshed  by  cattle,  and  particularly  by  horses. 
Several  species  are  natives  of  North  America. 

BA'RLEY,  Cultivation  of.  Barley  was  culti- 
vated largely  by  the  Romans,  as  well  as  many  other 
nations  of  antiquity.  Though  sometimes  used  as 
food  by  the  soldiers,  it  Avas  most  generally  used  as 
food  for  horses.  The  ancient  inhabitants  of  Gaul 
prepared  a  spirituous  hquor,  a  kind  of  beer,  from  it. 
Many  of  the  other  western  nations  latterly  applied  it 
to  the  same  use,  and  it  also  became  an  important 
article  of  food.  On  the  whole,  its  growth  in  modern 
times  has  been  greatly  restricted  on  the  continent 
of  Europe.  Other  crops  are  found  to  be  more  pro- 
fitable. Being  a  plant  which  is  most  pi'oductive 
where  the  climate  is  moderately  dry  and  warm,  the 
excessive  heats  of  many  parts  of  Europe  are  adverse 
both  to  the  quantity  and  quality  of  its  grain.  It  is 
only  cultivated  to  a  large  extent  on  a  few  limited 
tracts  where  the  soil  is  specially  suited  to  it,  such  as 
in  Belgium,  Holland,  Prussia,  and  Denmark.  Indeed, 
while  most  of  the  countries  of  Europe  send  us  wheat, 
it  is  chiefly  Denmark  and  Silesia  that  supply  us  with 
barley.  Eor  this  reason,  the  prices  of  B.  have  been 
relatively  higher  in  this  country  than  those  of  wheat, 
since  the  introduction  of  free-trade  in  grain.  No 
country  seems  to  possess  a  soil  and  climate  so  well 
suited  to  its  growth  as  many  parts  of  Britain.  In 
former  times,  this  grain  was  largely  used  in  the 
British  Islands  as  human  food ;  but  this  is  the  case 
now  only  in  Ireland  and  the  Highlands  of  Scotland, 
where  the  condition  of  the  population  has  undergone 
comparatively  little  amelioration.  In  Scotland, 
however,  a  considerably  quantity  is  made  use  of 
in  the  making  of  broth.  In  this  case,  the  grain  is 
denuded  of  its  husk  by  the  friction  of  revolving  mill- 
stones, and  goes  under-  the  name  of  Pot  Barley. 
But  the  larger  proportion  of  the  B.  grown  in 
Great  Britain,  as  well  as  that  which  is  imported, 
is  employed  in  the  distillation  of  sjnrits,  and  in  the 
manufacture  of  beer,  ale,  and  porter.  The  inferior 
qualities  are  taken  up  by  the  distillers,  while  the 
brewers  of  ale  and  porter  require  the  finest,  which 
are  known  by  the  silvery  colour  of  the  husk,  and 
the  specific  gravity  of  the  grain.  Fine  malting  B., 
therefore,  always  commands  a  ready  demand  in 
the  London  market,  as  well  as  a  high  price. 

Perhaps  the  cultivation  of  B.  occupies  as  pro- 
minent a  share  of  the  arable  lands  of  Suffolk 
and  Norfolk  as  of  any  other  part  of  Britain.  Fine 
malting  qualities  are  grown  on  the  turnip-soils  of 
these  counties,  as  well  as  throughout  the  south- 
eastei'n  counties,  where  the  four-course  rotation  is 
adopted.  In  this  rotation,  the  B.  follows  the 
turnip-crop,  which  is  usually  consumed  on  the  land 
by   sheep.     The    ground  is   carefully   prepared   by 

697 


BARLEY— BARLEY-BREAK. 


ploughings  and  rollings,  to  pulverise  it  thoroughly 
before  the  reception  of  the  seed,  which  is  usually 
sown  by  a  drill-machine  at  the  rate  of  about  two 
bushels  to  the  acre.  Even  on  the  strong  clay-soils 
of  the  eastern  counties,  excellent  crops  of  6.  are 
obtained  by  the  peculiar  modes  of  culture  adopted. 
On  the  strong  lands  of  Suffolk  and  Huntingdon. 
for  example,  the  B.  crop  is  sown  after  a  summer- 
fallow  or  a  green-crop,  in  which  case  the  soil  is 
ploughed  before  the  frosts  of  winter  set  in,  to  render 
it  friable  by  spring.  As  soon  as  the  weather  permits, 
after  the  first  week  of  February  the  seed  is  com- 
mitted to  the  ground.  A  fine  mould  is  in  this  way 
obtained,  and  the  crops  are  usually  abundant  and  of 
good  quality.  In  the  south  of  England,  the  grain  is 
allowed  to  stand  till  it  is  fully  ripe,  when  it  is  either 
cut  with  the  scythe  or  the  reaping-machine.  In 
many  parts,  it  is  not  bound  up  into  sheaves,  but 
remains  in  the  swath  for  a  few  days,  when  it  is 
afterwards  carted,  and  stored  into  barns.  A  large 
portion  of  the  B.-crop  is  still  thrashed  out  by  the 
flail,  owing  to  the  maltsters  being  under  the  impres- 
sion that  the  thrashing  mills  injure  the  germinating 
powers.  The  chief  varieties  grown  in  England  are 
the  Chevalier,  the  Common,  the  Early  English,  and 
the  Norfolk.  The  first-named  is  the  most  largely 
sown,  as  the  quality  is  superior  to  any  other, 
and,  under  liberal  treatment,  the  yield  is  greater. 
The  produce  is  more  influenced  by  the  seasons  than 
that  of  wheat,  as  it  is  liable  to  suffer  from  droughts 
in  the  early  part  of  the  year.  On  well-farmed 
land,  from  48  to  60  bushels  and  upwards  are  got 
to  the  acre.  In  the  peaty-soils  of  the  feus  of 
Lincolnshire  B.  is  not  raised,  as  it  is  too  liable  to 
lodge  with  the  rain ;  neither  is  B.  a  favourite  crop 
in  the  moist  climate  of  the  west  of  England.  It  does 
not  endure  the  rain  so  well  as  wheat,  nor  bear  to  be 
highly  farmed.  In  Wales  and  Lancashire,  it  is  gen- 
erally grown  after  a  crop  of  wheat,  and  the  cul- 
tivation and  management  are  not  so  careful  as  in  the 
east. 

Barley  has  been  long  grown  in  Scotland,  and 
comes  to  great  perfection  where  the  soil  and  climate 
are  suitable.  The  level  parts  of  the  Lothians  and 
other  counties  in  the  east  of  Scotland  are  the  dis- 
tricts in  which  the  finest  crops  are  raised.  In  these 
rich  districts,  the  six-course  rotation  is  generally 
followed,  and  B.  is  sown  after  a  portion  of  the 
turnip-break.  For  this  reason,  it  does  not  occupy  so 
large  a  proportional  breadth  as  it  does  under  the 
Norfolk  four-course.  The  produce  is  equally  abun- 
dant, however,  and  the  quality  of  the  grain  is  not 
much  inferior.  Chevalier  is  the  favourite  variety 
there  also.  The  crop,  when  ripe,  is  cut  by  sickle, 
scythe,  or  reaping-machine-;  bound  up  at  once,  and 
put  into  stooks,  to  defend  it  from  the  weather  till 
ready  to  cart,  and  to  be  built  up  in  neat  round 
stacks.  The  grain  is  invariably  thrashed  out  by 
machinei'y.  In  the  higher  districts  of  Scotland, 
where  the  soil  and  climate  are  not  so  good,  the 
inferiority  of  the  grain,  both  in  quality  and  quan- 
tity, is  very  considerable.  It  is  only  in  fine 
seasons  that  the  quality  is  such  as  to  render 
it  an  object  to  maltsters,  and  distillers  can  only 
make  use  of  it  at  a  reduced  price.  The  Chevalier 
variety  is  too  late  for  inferior  chmates,  and  the 
early  English  and  other  kinds  that  come  sooner  to 
maturity  are  preferred.  In  Berwickshire,  the  five- 
course  rotation — of  two  years'  grass,  oats,  turnips, 
and  B. — is  more  generally  adopted  than  in  any  other 
county  in  Scotland,  and  a  large  quantity  of  this 
grain  is  raised,  but  the  quality  is  generally  inferior 
to  that  of  the  crops  in  East  Lothian.  Along  the 
light  soils  fringing  the  Moray  and  Cromarty  firths, 
as  fine  quality  of  grain  is  got  as  in  East  Lothian. 
On  the  other  hand,  in  the  less  genial  climate  of  the 
698 


western  counties,  and  also  of  the  upper  parts  of 
Aberdeenshire,  less  B.  is  sown,  and  oats  frequently 
succeed  the  green-crops.  In  these  parts,  the  variety 
known  as  bear,  or  bigg,  is  preferred  to  any  other, 
as  it  is  not  so  liable  to  lodge,  and  it  withstands  wet 
weather  far  better.  Bear,  too,  is  the  variety  which 
is  cultivatc^d  by  many  of  the  small  cotters  in  the 
Highlands  and  Islands,  where  agriculture  has  made 
little  advance  for  centuries.  Instead  of  a  rotation 
in  which  green-crops  find  a  place  to  husband  and 
spare  the  natural  resources  of  the  soil,  a  succession 
of  corn-crops  are  taken.  Late  sowing  is  generally 
adopted,  as  the  want  of  manure  in  the  soil  can  be 
so  far  made  up  by  the  more  genial  weather  of  sum- 
mer. For  this  reason,  sowing  is  often  delayed  till 
June,  and  the  frost  of  autumn  often  causes  the 
premature  ripening  of  the  grain. 

There  is  not  much  deserving  special  notice  in  the 
manuring  of  the  crop.  On  the  turnip-soils  of 
the  south  of  England,  the  laud  is  enriched  by  the 
droppings  of  the  sheep  which  consume  the  turnips.  In 
the  strong  soils  of  Norfolk  and  Huntingdon,  guano, 
I'ape-cake,  or  other  manures  abounding  in  nitrogen, 
are  applied  when  the  seed  is  sown.  In  the  west  of 
Englaiul,  the  moist  climate  renders  the  application  of 
manures  more  precarious,  and  B.  is  frequently  taken 
after  a  crop  of  wheat  without  any  application  of 
fertilisers.  Manures  containing  phosphates  might 
be  used  there  with  great  advantage.  When  the 
turnip-crop  is  drawn  from  the  land,  as  it  often 
is  in  East  Lothian,  guano  is  the  manure  held  in  most 
estimation;  the  cjuantity  applied  is  from  2  to 
3  cwt.  per  acre.  In  Berwickshire,  as  in  Norfolk, 
the  prevalence  of  the  five-course  shift,  and  the 
general  practice  of  eating  the  crop  on  the  ground, 
secure  a  sufficiently  liberal  manuring.  In  other 
parts,  where  B.  is  taken  after  wheat,  farmyard 
manure  is  often  applied,  as  well  as  guano  and  phos- 
phoric manures.  In  the  Highlands,  where  bear  is 
sown  on  the  small  farms,  the  chief  manure  is  shell- 
sand,  or  lime.  There  is  one  point  in  the  manuring 
of  the  crop  which  ought  to  be  atteiuled  to — that 
is,  the  earlier  it  is  sown  in  the  season,  the  more 
liberal  ought  to  be  the  application  of  nitrogenous 
manures.  On  the  other  hand,  the  later  it  is  sown, 
manures  containing  nitrogen  should  be  used  more 
sparingly,  and  a  portion  of  phosphoric  manures 
should  be  substituted  in  their  stead. 

BARLEY-BREAK,  a  popular  amusement,  very 
common  in  the  reign  of  James  I.,  and,  with  certain 
modifications,  in  name  and  practice  still  existing 
among  young  persons,  both  in  England  and  Scot- 
land. Originally,  it  was  played  by  six  people,  three 
of  each  sex,  who  were  formed  into  couples.  A  piece 
of  ground  was  then  apportioned  into  three  parts ; 
and  into  the  centre  one,  called  hell,  a  couple  was 
doomed  by  lot.  The  sport  consisted  in  the  two  in 
the  condemned  part  '  catching '  one  of  the  other 
couples  while  they  were  in  the  act  of  changing 
places,  when  the  couple  caught  had  to  go  into  the 
centre.  It  was,  however,  no  easy  matter  for  the  two 
in  the  centre  to  capture  another  couple,  for,  by  the 
rules  of  the  game,  they  were  bound  to  keep  united, 
while  the  others,  when  hard  pressed,  might  sever. 
Thus,   Sir  Philip   Sidney,    in   describing   the    game, 

says : 

Soon  as  the  middle  two 
Do,  cori'pled,  towards  either  couple  Diake, 
They  false  and  fearful  do  their  hands  undo. 

When  the  whole  had  been  caught,  the  game  was 
ended,  and  the  last  couple  taken  was  said  to  be  in 
hell.  Their  punishment  appears  to  have  consisted 
in  kissing  each  other.  Herrick  says,  in  referring  to 
the  game : 

If  kissina;  be  of  plagues  the  worst. 
We'll  wish  in  hell  we  had  been,  last  and  first 


BARLEYCORN— BARNABAS. 


In  Scotland,  the  game  consisted  in  one  person 
chasinfij  the  rest  round  the  stacks  in  a  farmyard ; 
and  when  one  was  caught,  he  or  she  had  to  assist  in 
capturing  tlie  rest.  The  origin  of  the  name  is  doubt- 
ful. Dr.  Janiieson  suggests  that,  in  Scotland,  the 
locality  of  the  game  may  have  given  it  its  name — 
'barla-bracks,  about  the  stacks.'  The  same  author- 
ity also  adds  :  '  Perhaps  from  harleji  and  hrcak,  <(., 
breaking  of  the  parley,  because  after  a  certain  time 
allowed  for  settling  preliminaries,  on  a  cry  being 
given,  it  is  the  business  of  one  to  catch  as  many 
prisoners  as  he  can.'  This  supposition  is  not  im- 
probable. In  the  modern  games  of  'Shepherds 
a-warniug,'  and  '  Tig,'  ■which  appear  to  have  been 
derived  from  B.,  a  'barley'  means  a, park;/. 

BA'RLEYCORN,  John,  a  personification  of  the 
spirit  of  bai'ley,  or  malt-liquor,  used  jocularly, 
and  also  in  humorous  poetical  eflPusions.  There 
exists  a  whimsical  English  tract  of  old  date,  under 
the  title  of  The  ArraU/nitig  avd  Indicting  of  Sir  John 
Barleycorn,  Knt.,  printed  for  Timothy  Tosspot,  in 
which  Sir  John  is  described  as  of  'noble  blood,  well 
beloved  in  England,  a  great  support  of  the  crown, 
and  a  maintainer  of  both  rich  and  poor.'  See  Hone's 
£very-day  Book,  vol.  i. 

BARLEY-SUGAR,  a  confection  prepared  with 
/sugar  and  a  decoction  of  barley.     See  Sugar. 

\j  BA'RLOW,  Joel,  an  American  poet  and  poli- 
/Atician,  born  in  1*755  at  Reading  in  Connecticut. 
Ule  studied  at  Yale  College  in  Newhaven.  He 
Vas  intended  for  the  profession  of  the  law,  but 
served  as  a  military  chaplain  during  the  war  of 
Independence.  In  17SY  he  published  a  poem  called 
The  Vision  of  Columbus,  which  in  1805  appeared 
anevv  in  an  enlarged  form  as  Tlie  Columhiad.  It 
abounds  in  beautiful  passages,  but  is  overburdened 
with  political  and  philosophical  discjuisitions,  and 
disfigured  by  singularities  of  expression.  B.  accepted 
a  commission  in  1788  to  prosecute  the  sale  of  lands 
for  the  Oliio  Company  in  England  and  France, 
where  he  signalised  himself  by  zealous  republic- 
anism ;  published  in  I7l>2  in  London  a  poem 
entitled  The  Conspiracy  of  Kings,  and  endeavoured 
also  to  work  upon  the  public  mind  in  England 
by  political  pamphlets.  In  autumn  1792  he  was 
deputed  by  the  London  reformers,  with  whom  he 
was  associated,  to  proceed  to  Paris,  where  he  received 
the  rights  of  French  citizenship.  He  spent  some 
years  on  the  continent  of  Europe  in  political,  liter- 
ary, and  mercantile  pursuits,  and  was  for  a  short 
time  American  consul  at  Algiers.  He  returned  to 
America  in  1805,  and  was  appointed  ambassador  to 
France  in  1811.  He  died  in  October  1812  at  Zarna- 
wiczc,  near  Cracow,  when  on  his  way  to  a  conference 
with  the  Emperor  Napoleon  at  Wilna. 
BARM.     See  Yeast. 

BA'RMECIDES,  or  BA'RMEKIDES,  a  Persian 
family,  distinguished  amongst  the  most  powerful 
in  the  province  of  Khorasan,  the  cradle  of  the 
greatness  of  the  Abbasidc  califs,  whose  cause  the 
children  of  Barmck  espoused.  Khcdeb-ben-Barmek, 
the  first  of  these  whose  authentic  history  has 
reached  us,  was  the  prime-minister  of  Abul  Abbas 
Al-Saifah,  the  first  Abbaside  calif;  and  his  influ- 
ence enduring  through  the  reigns  of  Al-Mansur  and 
Mohdi,  the  latter  intrusted  him  with  the  education 
of  his  son,  the  celebrated  Harun  Al-Raschid.  Yahya, 
the  son  of  Khalod — according  to  eastern  historians, 
equally  conspicuous  for  virtue  and  talent — was  made 
vizier  by  Harun  upon  his  acccssiop  to  the  califate 
(786  A.  D.),  and  both  by  his  military  skill  and  civil 
administration,  contributed  largely  to  the  prosperity 
of  the  reign — the  calif  himself  bestowing  on  him  the 
appellation  of  Father,     Harun,  however,  afterwards 


becoming  jealous  of  the  growing  power  and  popu- 
larity of  two  of  Yahya's  sons,  Fadhl  and  Jarfar 
(the  Giafar  of  the  Arabian  Nights),  had  them 
executed,  and  the  whole  of  the  B.  throughout  the 
kingdom  arrested,  and  their  goods  confiscated. 
Harun  even  carried  his  enmity  so  far,  as  to  forbid 
the  mention  of  their  name  on  pain  of  death  ;  but 
their  virtues  and  their  glory  are  celebrated  by  almost 
all  Mohammedan  poets  and  historians. 

BA'RMECIDE'S  FEAST,  a  phrase  originating 
most  probably  in  the  story  of  the  barber's  sixth 
brother,  recorded  in  the  Arabian  Nights,  and 
abridged  in  the  Guardian,  No.  162.  The  sub- 
stance of  the  story  is  as  follows  :  One  Schacabac 
being  in  great  want,  and  not  having  tasted  food  for 
two  days,  ventured  to  visit  a  rich  Barmecide  (see 
Barmecides)  noted  both  for  his  hospitality  and 
eccentric  humour,  in  the  hope  of  generous  entertain- 
ment. The  Barmecide,  on  learning  his  condition, 
invited  him  to  dinner.  Schacabac  was  presented 
with  an  empty  plate,  requested  to  'make  himself  at 
home,'  and  by  and  by,  asked  'how  he  liked  his  rice- 
soup.'  It  was  apparently  a  cruel  jest  to  play  off  oa 
a  starving  man.  Schacabac,  nevertheless,  feigned  to 
enter  into  the  humour  of  his  host,  and  expressed  his 
conviction  that  the  rice-soup  was  delicious.  The 
Barmecide  continuing  the  imposition,  next  asked  his 
victim  if  he  ever  saw  whiter  bread.  Poor  Schacabac, 
who  saw  neither  bread  nor  meat,  nor  indeed  anything 
eatable,  made  a  prodigious  effort  to  look  happy ; 
he  even  went  the  length  of  gently  remonstrating 
with  his  host  for  not  supposing  him  completely 
satisfied.  In  this  way  a  magnificent  but  fictitious 
dinner  was  disposed  of.  When  wine,  however,  was 
produced,  Schacabac  pretended  only  to  taste  it,  on 
the  ground  that  he  was  '  quarrelsome  in  his  liquor,' 
and  might  do  his  host  an  injury.  The  Barmecide 
forced  him,  however,  and  at  last  Schacabac,  who 
was  really  in  a  most  excusable  rage  at  being  so 
elaborately  tantalised,  feigned  to  have  got  flustered, 
and  gave  the  eccentric  old  gentleman  '  a  good  box 
on  the  ear.'  This  put  a  stop  to  the  joke.  The 
Barmecide  was  mightily  pleased  with  the  patient 
humour  of  his  guest,  a  visible  dinner  was  imme- 
diately ordered  up,  and  Schacabac  now  enjoyed 
in  reality  what  he  had  previously  partaken  of  only 
in  imagination. 

BA'RMEN,  a  most  charming  valley,  about  two 
leagues  in  length,  on  the  Wupper,  about  two  leagues 
from  Elberfeld,  in  the  province  of  Rhenish  Prussia. 
It  is  divided  into  Upper  and  Lower  B.,  and  contains 
five  towns  or  villages,  which  united  form  the  town 
of  B.,  with  41,1-12  inhabitants,  chiefly  Protestants. 
Nowhere  in  Germany  is  so  much  manufacturing 
industry  accumulated  in  a  single  spot.  B.  is  the 
principal  seat  of  the  ribbon-manufacture  on  the 
continent.  Its  fiibrics  go  to  all  parts  of  the  world. 
It  produces  linen,  woollen,  cotton,  silk  and  half- 
silk  ribbons  of  every  quality,  and  all  sorts  of  stay- 
laces,  &c.  Is  has  also  considerable  manufactures 
of  woven  lace,  sewing  thread,  the  coarse  cotton 
cloth,  called  Siamoise,  kc.  There  are,  besides,  in 
the  valley,  numerous  bleachfields,  and  dye-works. 
Lower  B.  has  a  mineral  spring,  and  a  bathing 
establishment. 

BA'RNABAS,  St.,  properly  Joses,  mentioned  in 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  as  a  fellow-labourer  of 
Paul,  and  even  honoured  with  the  title  of  apostle. 
He  is  also  supposed  to  have  founded  the  first 
Christian  community  at  Antioch.  According  to 
tradition,  he  became  the  first  Bishop  of  Milan,  but 
he  is  differently  reported  to  have  died  a  natural 
death,  and  to  have  suffered  martyrdom  at  the 
hands  of  the  Cypriot  Jews,  61  a.  d.  The  Epistle 
ascribed  to  him  is  of  very  doubtful  authenticity. 

699 


BARNABAS— BARNACLE  GOOSE. 


BA'RNABAS,  St.,  Epistle  of.  This  Epistle  con- 
tains twenty-one  chapters.  Its  aim  is  obviously  to 
strengthen  the  faith  of  believers  in  a  purely  spiritual 
Christianity.  It  commences  by  declaring  that  legal 
sacrifices  are  abolished,  and  then  proceeds  to  shew,  - 
though  not  in  a  very  coherent  or  logical  manner, 
how  variously  Christ  was  foretold  in  the  Old  Tes- 
tament. In  the  tenth  chapter,  it  spiritually  alle- 
gorises the  commands  of  Moses  concerning  clean  and 
vmclean  beasts ;  in  the  fifteenth,  it  explains  the  'true  i 
meaning'  of  the  Sabbath  ;  and  in  the  sixteenth,  what 
the  Temple  really  prefigured.  This  concludes  what  I 
may  be  termed  the  doctrinal  portion  of  the  Epistle ; 
the  remainder,  which  is  of  a  practical  character, 
describes  the  two  ways  of  life — the  way  of  Light 
and  the  way  of  Darkness,  and  closes  with  an 
exhortation  that  those  who  read  it  may  so  live  that 
they  may  be  blessed  to  all  eternity.  It  is  a  simple, 
pious,  and  earnest  work ;  but  makes  a  far  more 
judicious  use  of  the  New  Testament  than  of  the  Old. 

BA'RNABITES,  an  order  of  monks  which  sprung 
up  at  Milan  in  1530.  They  were  so  called  because 
the  church  of  St.  Barna})as  in  that  city  was  granted 
them  to  preach  in.  They  were  approved  of  by  Pope 
Clement  YII.  and  Pope  Paul  III.  Their  special 
duties  were,  to  attend  the  sick,  to  preach,  to  instruct 
the  young,  and  to  take  the  charge  of  souls.  They 
soon  established  themselves  in  Italy,  France,  Austria, 
and  Spain,  and  enjoyed  the  privilege  of  teaching 
theology  in  the  schools  of  Milan  and  Pavia.  Many 
eminent  men  Jiave  been  sent  forth  by  them.  Besides 
the  three  usual  monastic  vows,  they  took  a  fourth, 
viz.,  not  to  sue  for  church  preferments.  In  France 
and  Austria,  they  were  employed  in  the  conversion  of 
Protestants ;  but  they  have  now,  as  a  body,  almost 
fallen  into  oblivion.  Only  a  few  monasteries  exist 
here  and  there  in  France  and  Italy. 

BA'RNACLE  or  BE'RNICLE  {Lcpm,  also  called 
Anatifa  and  PentalanmiH),  a  kind  of  shell-fish,  a 
genus  of  Cirrhopoda  (q.  v.),  the  type  of  a  family 
of  articulate  animals  distinguished  by  a  long  flexible 
stalk  or  peduncle,  which  is  provided  with  muscles, 
upon  the  summit  of  which,  in  the  true  barnacles, 
are  shelly  valves,  five  in  number,  enclosing  the 
principal  organs  of  the  animal,  and  opening  and 
closing  on  one  side  like  the  opercular  valves  of 
Balanus  (q.  v.),  to  admit  of  its  spreading  out  and 
retracting  its  net — an  apparatus  similar  to  that  by 
which  the  animals  of  that  genus  obtain  their  food. 
Barnacles  abound  in  almost  all  seas,  attaching  them- 
selves in  great  numbers  to  logs  of  wood,  ships'  bot- 
toms, &c.     They  grow  very  rapidly.     Some  of  the 


resembling  them  in  general  form,  the  shelly  valves 
almost  entirely  disappear. 

In  former  times,  the  B.  was  supposed  to  be  the 
embryo  of  a  goose  or  bird  of  some  kind ;  a  notion 
which  doubtless  arose  from  a  fancied  resemblance 
between  the  convolutions  of  the  fish  in  its  shell  and 
the  embryo  of  a  bird  in  the  egg.  It  was,  therefore, 
believed  that  the  barnacle  goose,  described  in  next 
article,  sprung  from  these  marine  shells.  Hollinshed 
gravely  afhrms  that  such  was  the  case ;  and  the 
most  learned  men  of  their  time  were  weak  enough 
to  give  credence  to  the  absurdity.  Gerard,  in  his 
Herbal  (ISO?),  declares,  that  after  '  a  thing  in 
form  like  a  lace  of  silke  finely  woven,  as  it  were, 
together' — which  he  correctly  enough  states  to  be 
'  the  first  thing  that  appeareth '  when  '  the  shell 
gapeth  open' — there  next  follow  'the  legs  of  the 
))ird  hanging  out ; '  and  at  last  the  bird,  increasing 
in  size,  'hangeth  only  by  the  bill,' and  'in  short 
space  after  it  cometh  to  full  maturity,  and  falleth 
into  the  sea,  where  it  gathereth  feathers,  and 
groweth  to  a  fowl  bigger  than  a  mallard,  and  lesser 
than  a  goose,'  &c.  All  this  was  represented  as  con- 
stantly taking  place  on  the  coast  of  Lanca.shire  and 
the  Hebrides,  and  continental  writers  of  greater 
name  reported  in  like  manner  the  same  fable,  against 
which  Ray  and  other  early  naturalists  were  obliged 
seriously  to  argue.  The  B.,  however,  really  under- 
goes transformations  not  less  wonderful  than  the 
fabled  ones,  which  have  rendered  it  an  object  of  so 
much  interest.     See  Cirrhopoda. 

BA'RNACLE  GOOSE,  or  BERNICLE  GOOSE, 
often  also    called    B.vrxaclk,    or,  Bkrnicle  {Anser 


Barnacle. 

species  are  eaten  in  some  parts  of  the  world,  and 
perhaps  they  were  among  the  balani  which  the 
ancient  Romans  esteemed  a  delicacy. — In  some  cir- 
rhopods,  very  nearly  allied  to  the  true  barnacles,  and 
700 


Barnacle  Goose. 

Bernicla  or  leucopsis),  the  bird  which  the  fables  of 
former  days  represented  as  deriving  its  origin  from 
the  cirrhopod  of  which  it  bears  the  name.  It  is  in 
size  smaller  than  the  common  wild  goose,  being  only 
a  little  more  than  2  feet  long,  and  about  5  lbs. 
in  weight.  It  is  very  prettily  marked,  having  the 
forehead,  cheeks,  and  throat  white,  the  bill  black, 
and  a  black  stripe  extending  from  it  to  the  eye;  the 
crown  of  the  head,  neck,  and  upper  part  of  the 
breast  black  ;  the  rest  of  the  plumage  on  the  upper 
parts  of  the  body  chiefly  ash-gray  and  black,  in 
undulating  bars — on  the  lower  parts,  white.  It  is 
a  common  winter  visitant  of  the  western  coasts  of 
Britain  and  of  Ireland,  but  in  the  eastern  parts  of 
Britain  it  is  rare.  It  retires  in  spring  to  more 
northern  regions,  where  it  breeds,  vast  numbers 
passing  northward  along  the  coast  of  Norway  to 
the  Arctic  Ocean.  It  is  highly  esteemed  for  the 
table. 

The  Brent  Goose,  or  Brent  Barnacle  (Anser  Brenta 
or  torquatus,  A.  Bernicla  of  some  naturalists),  has 
frequently  received  the  name  of  the  B.  G.,  and  no 


BARNACLES— BARNEVELDT. 


little  confusion  has  existed  concerning  them  in 
books  of  science,  although  the  birds  are  suflRciently 
distinct.  The  Brent  Goose  is  smaller  than  the  B.  G., 
being  only  about  21  inches  in  length.  It  is  also  of 
much  darker  plumage,  the  whole  head,  throat,  and 
neck  being  black,  except  a.  small  patch  on  each 
side  of  the  neck,  which  is  white,  mixed  with  a 
few  regularly  placed  black  feathers;  the  upper 
parts  of  the  "body  generally  almost  black,  and  the 
lower  parts  slate-grey,  except  the  vent  and  under 
tail-coverts,  which  are  white.  It  is  remarkable 
for  length  of  wing  and  powerful  flight,  and  for  its 
distant  migrations.  It  is  very  common  in  winter 
on  the  British  sliores,  but  breeds  in  high  northern 
latitudes.  Jt  is  a  winter-liird  of  passage  in  the 
United  States  and  Canada,  as  in  Britiiin  and  on  the 
continent  of  Europe.     It  is  excellent  for  the  table. 

Very  nearly  allied  to  these  species  is  the  Rod- 
breasted  Goose,  or  Red-breasted  Barnacle  {Ansa- 
ruficollis),  a  beautiful  bird,  of  which  the  neck  and 
upper  part  of  the  breast  are  of  a  rich  chestnut 
red.  In  size,  it  resembles  the  Brent  Goose  ;  it  is 
a  very  rare  visitant  of  Britain  and  of  the  continent 
of  Europe,  and  is  abundant  oidy  in  the  extreme 
north  of  Asia. — Another  species,  called  Ilutchins' 
Goose  or  Barnacle  (^4.  Hutchinsii),  of  dark  plumage, 
and  with  a  triangular  patch  of  white  on  each  side 
of  the  head  and  neck,  is  abundant  in  Hudson's  Bay, 
and  the  extreme  north  of  America. 

These  species  are  regarded  by  some  naturalists 
as  constituting  a  genus  Bcrnicln,  distinguished 
chietly  by  a  sliorter  and  more  slender  bill  from  the 
ordinary  or  true  geese. 

The  Egyptian  Goose  or  Bargander  {Anser  Egypti- 
acus)  is  sometimes  ranked  with  these,  sometimes 
made  the  type  of  a  distinct  genus,  Chenalopex,  upon 
account  of  the  longer  bill,  a  short  spur  with  which 
the  bend  of  the  wing  is  armed,  and  tlie  anatomical 
peculiarity  of  a  hollow  bony  enlargement  at  the 
bottom  of  the  trachea  of  the  male.  It  has  long 
been  kept  in  parks  and  pleasure-grounds  in  Britain, 
chiefly  on  account  of  the  beauty  of  its  plumage, 
and  has  become  partially  naturalised.  It  is  a  little 
smaller  than  a  common  goose;  its  voice  more 
resembles  that  of  a  wild-duck.  The  prevailing 
colour  of  the  plumage  is  light  chestnut  brown, 
minutely  rayed  with  darker  lines;  the  neck  and 
part  of  the  wings  are  white.  Large  chestnut  patches 
surround  the  eyes.  It  is  very  abundant  on  the 
Nile,  and  is  frequently  figured  in  Egyptian  sculp- 
tures. It  is  much  esteemed  for  the  table,  and  was 
kept  and  fattened  for  it  by  the  ancient  Egyptians. 
It  is  the  Vhenalopex  of  Herodotus. 

BA'RXACLES,  in  Heraldry,  resembling  what 
are  now  called  twitchers,  were  instruments  used 
by  farriers  to  curb  and  conmiand  unruly  hoi'ses. 
B.  are  frequently  introduced  into  coats  of  arms  as 
a  charge. — The  term  Barnacles  applied  to  spec- 
tacles, probably  arose  from  the  circumstance  of  the 
spectacles  (as  they  were  at  one  time  made)  clasping 
the  nose  in  the  manner  of  the  horse-twitchcrs  above 
mentioned. 

BA'RXARD  CA'STLE,  an  inland  town  in  the 
south  of  Durham  county,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Tees,  about  40  miles  from  its  mouth,  and  26 
miles  south-west  of  Durham.  It  stands  on  the 
slope  of  an  eminence  rising  from  the  river.  Its 
chief  manufactures  are  hats,  carpets,  shoemakers' 
thread,  leather,  plaids,  and  stockings.  It  has  one 
of  the  largest  corn-markets  in  the  north  of  England. 
On  a  rocky  height  over  the  river  are  the  ruins 
(covering  tU  acres)  of  a  castle,  founded  about  1180 
by  Bernard,  son  of  Guy  Baliol,  a  follower  of  the 
Conqueror,  and  ancestor  of  John  Baliol,  king  of 
Scotland,  who   was  born  in  the  castle,  and  founded 


an  hospital  for  the  poor  in  the  town.  B.  C.  is  the 
scene  of  part  of  Sir  W.  Scott's  poem  of  Rokebij. 
Pop.  in  1861,4178. 

BARNAU'L,  a  town  ofWest  Siberia,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Tomsk.  It  is  situated  at  the  junction  of  the 
Barnaul  with  the  river  Oby,  and  has  a  population 
of  about  10,000,  who  are  chiefly  engaged  in  the 
mining  and  smelting  of  the  metals  found  in  the 
vicinity,  which  consist  of  silver,  lead,  and  copper. 
B.  has  120  furnaces  at  work,  is  the  seat  of  a  mining 
board,  and  has  a  magnetic  and  meteorological 
observatory. 

BARNAVE,  ANTOiNE-PiEnuE-JosEPn-MARiE,  a 
distinguished  character  and  victim  of  the  French 
Revolution,  was  born  at  Grenoble  in  1761,  was 
the  son  of  an  advocate,  adopted  his  father's  pro- 
fession, and  early  attracted  attention  in  the  parlia- 
ment of  Grenoble  by  the  talents  which  he  displayed. 
A  pamphlet  which  he  published  against  the  feudal 
system  led  to  his  being  returned  as  deputy  from 
his  province  to  the  States-general  in  1789.  He 
zealously  advocated  the  proclamation  of  the  Rights 
of  Man,  was  vehement  in  opposition  to  the  Absolute 
Veto,  carried  through  the  confiscation  of  church- 
property  to  the  use  of  the  nation,  the  emancipation 
of  the  Jews,  and  the  abolition  of  the  religious  orders, 
and  was  mainly  instrumental  in  the  liberation 
of  the  slaves  and  the  reorganization  of  the  colonies. 
As  a  leader  of  the  extreme  party  in  the  earlier 
stages  of  the  revolution,  he  became  the  idol  of 
the  people,  and  particularly  after  his  victory  over 
Mirabeau,  in  the  question  of  the  power  of  peace 
and  war,  which  Mirabeau  wished  to  remain  with 
the  king,  and  B.  successfully  claimed  for  the 
National  Assembly.  He  sulisequently,  however, 
became  inclined  to  a  more  moderate  course ;  the 
consequences  of  the  sudden  changes  in  the  colonies 
appear  first  to  have  alarmed  him  ;  and  being  sent, 
along  with  Latour-Maubourg  and  Petion,  to  bring 
back  the  king  after  his  flight,  he  was  much  moved 
by  the  spectacle  of  the  mislbrtunes  of  the  royal 
family,  and  thenceforth  endeavoured  to  render  them 
all  the  assistance  in  his  power.  He  defended,  in  a 
speech  of  great  vehemence,  the  inviolability  of  the 
king's  person,  and  resisted  the  assertion  by  the 
Assembly  of  power  to  remove  ministers.  His 
general  opposition  to  the  increasing  violence  of 
the  revolutionary  torrent,  and  this  last  stej)  in  par- 
ticular, destroyed  his  popularity  ;  he  was  regarded 
as  a  renegade  from  the  national  party,  and  was 
assailed  by  the  fiei'ce  vituperations  of  the  daily 
press.  He  retired  to  his  native  place  on  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  National  Assembly ;  but  after  the  10th 
of  August  1792,  he  was  impeached,  along  with 
Lameth  and  Duport-Dutertre,  on  account  of  corre- 
spondence with  the  court ;  was  brought  to  Paris, 
tried  before  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal,  condemned, 
and  guillotined  on  the  29th  of  November  1793. 

BA'RNET,  Chi'pping,  a  town  in  the  south  of 
Hertfordshire,  on  a  hill-top,  11  miles  norch-north- 
west  of  London.  Pop.  2989.  It  was  formerly  a 
great  thoroughfare,  but  since  the  advent  of  railways, 
its  once  bustling  appearance  is  sadly  altered.  Here, 
in  1471,  was  fought  the  famous  battle  of  B.  between 
the  Yorkists  and  Lancastrians,  in  which  the  latter, 
after  a  desperate  struggle,  were  routed,  and  their 
leader,  Warwick,  '  the  king-maker,'  killed,  by  which 
event  Edward  IV.  was  firmly  established  on  the 
throne.  A  commemorative  obelisk  is  now  erected 
near  the  spot. 

BA'RN^VELDT,  Jan  tan  Olden,  Grand  Pen- 
sionary of  Holland,  born  1549,  early  shewed  great 
ardour  in  the  cause  of  the  independence  of  his 
country.  As  advocate-general  of  the  province  of 
Holland,  he  proved  equally  his  insight  into  afiiiirs  and 

701 


BARNSLEY— BAROMETER, 


his  address  in  diplomatic  management.  Penetrating 
the  secret  designs  of  Prince  Maurice  (q.  v.)  of 
Orange,  he  became  tlie  head  of  the  republican  party, 
which  aimed  at  subordinating  the  stadtliolder  to 
the  legislature.  It  was  he  also  who  opposed  the 
warlike  tendencies  of  Maurice,  concluded  (1609)  a 
truce  with  Spain,  and  prevented  the  States-general 
from  taking  part  in  the  revolt  of  the  Bohemians. 
His  increasing  influence  excited  the  House  of  Nassau 
to  still  greater  jealousy,  which  in  the  religious  con- 
troversies between  the  Remonstrants  (q.  v.)  and 
Gomarists  degenerated  into  the  bitterest  hostility. 
With  the  view  of  ol)viating  a  civil  war,  B.  proposed 
an  ecclesiastical  assembly,  which  resulted  in  agree- 
ing to  a  general  toleration  in  respect  of  the  disputed 
points.  The  states  at  first  concurred  in  this  wise 
measure ;  but  the  intrigues  of  the  Orange  party 
brought  about  a  change  of  views,  by  representing 
the  Remonstrants  as  secret  friends  of  Spain.  B., 
who  sympathised  with  the  more  tolerant  principles 
of  that  party,  was  attacked  in  scurrilous  publica- 
tions, and  was  insulted  even  in  the  meeting  of  tlie 
states  by  the  mob,  with  whom  Maurice  was  an  idol. 
The  strife  between  the  Remonstrants  and  Gomarists 
became  hotter  every  day,  and  threatened  to  end  in 
civil  war.  In  the  meantime,  Maurice  procured  the 
summoning  (1618)  of  the  Synod  of  Dort  (q.  v.),  which 
condemned  the  Remonstrants  with  the  utmost  rigour 
and  injustice.  This  decision  encouraged  Maurice  to 
proceed  to  the  most  violent  measures.  Regardless 
of  the  opposition  of  the  states,  he  arrested  B.  and 
other  chiefs  of  the  Remonstrants,  and  got  26  venal 
judges  to  condemn  as  a  traitor  the  innocent  man  to 
whom  his  country  owed  its  political  existence.  It 
was  in  vain  that  his  friends  and  relations  raised 
their  voice ;  equally  vain  was  the  interference  of 
the  Dowager  Princess  of  Orange  and  of  the  French 
ambassador;  Maurice  was  not  to  bo  moved.  On 
May  13,  1619,  the  venerable  man  of  72  years  of 
age  mounted  the  scaffold,  and  laid  down  his  head 
with  the  same  firmness  that  he  had  shewn  through 
all  the  events  of  his  life.  His  sons,  Wilhelm  and 
Rene,  were  at  the  same  time  dismissed  from  office. 
Wilhelm  and  the  Remonstrants  formed  a  conspiracy 
against  the  life  of  the  prince  ;  but  it  was  discovered, 
and  Wilhelm  escaped  to  Antwerp.  His  brother 
Rene  was  seized  in  his  stead,  and  condemned  to 
death,  although  he  had  dissuaded  Wilhelm  from  his 
attempt.  The  mother,  who  had  not  sued  in  the  case 
of  her  husband,  because  he  was  innocent,  now,  when 
there  was  blame,  interceded  with  the  prince  for  the 
life  of  her  son ;  but  in  vain ;  he,  too,  was  executed, 
1623. 

BA'RNSLEY,  a  town  in  the  West  Riding  of  York- 
shire, 39  miles  south-west  of  York,  on  the  river 
Dearne  and  the  Dearne  and  B.  canal.  It  is  situated 
on  a  hill,  has  coal  and  iron  mines,  linen  manufac- 
tures, bleaching  and  dye  works,  iron  foundries,  wire- 
works,  and  glass-works.  The  damasks  and  drills, 
and  the  iron-wire  made  here  are  said  to  be  unrivalled. 
Much  of  the  flax  spun  in  Leeds  is  woven  at  Barnsley. 
An  explosion  in  Oak  Colliery  in  18-17  kihed  72  per- 
sona.    Pop.  in  1861,  17,890. 

BA'RNSTAPLE,  a  town  in  north-west  Devon- 
shire, on  the  right  bank  of  the  Taw,  6  miles  from  its 
mouth,  and  34  north-west  of  Exeter.  Being  the 
chief  city  of  north  Devon,  and  occupying  a  fine 
healthy  situation,  it  is  the  residence  of  many  respect- 
able families.  The  Taw  is  here  crossed  by  an 
ancient  bridge  of  16  arches,  which  has  been  widened 
by  iron-work  on  each  side.  In  consequence  of  the 
river  and  harbour  having  become  filled  up  with 
sand,  unfitting  them  for  large  ships,  much  of  the 
trade  of  B.  has  been  transferred  to  Bidcford.  It  has 
manufactures  of  pottery  and  lace.  It  sends  two 
102 


members  to  parliament.  B.  has  existed  since  the 
reign  of  Athelstan,  who  built  a  castle  here.  The 
poet  (lay  was  born  near  the  town,  and  educated  at 
its  grammai--school.     Pop.  8127. 

BAROCIIE,  Pierre-Jules,  an  eminent  French 
politician,  was  born  at  Paris  on  the  8th  November 
1802.  He  passed  as  an  advocate  in  1823,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  l)y  his  talents  as  a  pleader.  In 
1847,  he  was  sent  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  as 
representative  of  Rochefort,  took  his  position  among 
the  moderate  reform  party,  and  was  one  of  those 
who  signed  the  accusation  drawn  up  against  the 
Guizot  ministry.  During  the  republic,  he  voted  at 
first  along  with  the  democratic  party,  but  subse- 
quently supported  General  Cavaignac,  and  after  the 
10th  Deceml)er,  the  politics  of  Louis  Napoleon.  B. 
was  now  made  Procureur-general  of  the  Republic  at 
the  Paris  appeal  court,  in  which  function  he  played 
a  conspicuous  part.  In  March  1850,  he  succeeded 
Ferdinand  Barrot  as  Minister  of  the  Interior,  after 
which  he  became  a  decided  Bonapartist,  and  carried 
through  several  restrictive  measures,  both  commer- 
cial and  jiolitical.  In  April  18.31,  he  was  appointed 
Minister  of  Foreign  Aftairs,  with  Leon  Faucher  as 
colleague.  After  the  coup  d'etat  of  the  2d  December 
1851,  B.  accepted  the  vice-presidency  of  the  Consul- 
tative Commission,  and  was  authorised  to  make 
known  officially  the  result  of  the  phhiscitnin.  Since 
that  period,  B.  has  stood  high  in  favour  with  the 
emperor,  and  in  1855  received  the  grand  cross  of  the 
Legion  ot  Honour. 

BARO'DA,  a  city  of  Guzerat,  in  lat.  22°  16'  N., 
and  long.  73°  14'  E.  It  is  40  miles  from  Tunkaria, 
on  the  Gulf  of  Cambay,  81  to  the  north-north-east 
of  Surat,  and  231  north  of  Bombay.  It  stands  on 
the  Biswamintri,  which  is  here  crossed  by  a  stone- 
bridge  of  singular  construction — an  upper  range  of 
arches  resting  on  a  lower  one.  B.  is  the  residence 
of  the  Guicowar,  a  protected  Maliratta  prince. 
Pop.  about  140,000;  trade  considcralile.  It  occu- 
pies an  important  position  between  the  coast  and 
the  interior.  Some  years  ago,  the  Guicowar  contem- 
plated the  construction  of  a  railway  to  Tunkaria  ; 
and  at  last  English  capital  is  accomplishing  a  far 
longer  line,  which,  as  its  name  implies,  will  connect 
B.  with  Bombay  in  the  one  direction,  and  with 
Central  India  on  the  other. 

BARO'METER  (Gr.  baros,  weight;  metron,  a 
measure),  an  instrument  for  measuring  the  weight 
or  pressure  of  the  atmosphere.  The  term  is  gene- 
rally undeistood  to  refer  to  one  in  which  the  measure 
is  the  height  of  a  column  of  liquid  sustained  by 
atmospheric  pressure.  The  fundamental  principle 
of  the  construction  of  the  B.  is  best  shown  in  the 
experiment  which  led  Torricelli  to  the  first  dis- 
covery of  the  pressure  of  the  air.  A  glass  tube, 
about  33  inches  in  length,  open  at  one  end,  is 
completely  filled  with  mercury,  and  being  firmly 
closed  by  the  thumb,  is  inverted  and  ))laced  ver- 
tically in  a  cup  containing  mercury.  When  the 
thumb  is  removed,  the  mercury  sinks  in  the  tube  till 
it  stands,  generally,  about  30  inches  above  the  level 
of  the  mercury  in  the  cup,  leaving  in  the  upper  part 
a  space  free  of  air,  which  receives  the  name  of  the 
Torricellian  vacuum  (fig.  1).  The  mercury  within 
the  tube  being  thus  removed  from  the  pressure  of 
the  air,  while  that  in  the  cup  is  exposed  to  it,  the 
column  falls,  till  the  pressure  at  the  section  of  the 
whole,  in  the  same  plane  as  the  surfiice  of  the  mer- 
cury in  the  cup,  is  the  same  within  and  without  the 
tube.  A  similar  experiment  is  seen  when,  in  a 
U-shaped  tube,  having  one  branch  much  wider  than 
the  other,  a  column  of  mercury  in  the  narrow  branch 
balances  a  column  of  water  nearly  14  times  as  high 
in  the   other.      In  the  Torricellian  experiment,  we 


BAROMETER. 


have  the  air  and  the  space  occupied  by  it  taking  the 
place  of  the  wide  water  branch  of  the  U-shaped  tube, 
and  the  glass  tuba  and  mercury  forming  the  narrow 
branch,  as  before ;  the  narrow  branch,  however,  in 
this  case  being  closed  above,  to  prevent  the  air  from 
filling,  as  it  were,  both  branches.  In  both  cases,  the 
heights  of  the  cohnnns  are  inversely  as  the  specific 
gravities  of  the  liquids  of  which  they  consist ;  and  as 
air  is  about  10,000  times  lighter  than  mercury,  we 
should  have  the  aerial  column  10,000  times  30  inches 
high.  It  will  be  found,  under  Atmospiikre,  that 
from  the  air  lessening  in  density  as  it  ascends,  the 
height  is  considerably  greater.  Any  changes  that 
take  place  in  the  height  or  density  of  the  aerial 
column  will  be  met  by  corresponding  changes  in  the 
height  of  the  mercurial  column,  so  that  as  the  latter 
rises  or  falls,  the  former  increases  or  diminishes. 
We  have,  then,  in  the  simple  tube,  an  infallible 
index  of  the  varying  amount  of  atmospheric  pres- 
sure, and,  in  fact,  a  perfect  barometer.  The  changes, 
however,  are  indicated  on  a  scale  at  least  10,000 
times  diminished,  so  that  the  variations  in  the  tube 
shew  very  considerable  changes  in  the  weight  of  the 
atmosphere.  If  water  be  used  instead  of  mercury, 
the  water  column  would  be  14,  or,  more  correctly, 
13'G  times  as  high  as  the  mercurial  column,  or  about 
34  feet ;  and  the  scale  on  which  the  changes  take 
place  would  be  correspondingly  magnified,  so  that  a 
Avater  B.  should  be  much  more  delicate  than  a  mer- 
curial one.  Water  is,  however,  exposed  to  this 
serious  objection,  that  its  vapour  i-ises  into  the  empty 
space  above,  and  causes  by  its  elasticity  a  depression 
of  the  column,  the  depressions  being  different  for 
different  temperatures.  At  zero,  Fahrenheit,  for 
instance,  the  depression  thus  arising  would  be  i  an 
inch,  and  at  77°,  more  than  1  foot.  It  would  be 
doubtful,  likewise,  at  the  time  of  any  observation, 
whether  the  space  referred  to  was  filled  with  vapour 
of  the  elasticity  corresponding  to  the  observed  exter- 
nal temperature  or  not,  so  that  the  necessary  correc- 
tion could  not  with  certainty  be  made.  The  vapour  of 
mercury,  on  the  other  hand,  at  77°  F. — a  temperature 
considerably  above  the  average — produces  in  the  B.  a 
depression  of  only  y-ij^jo  of  an  inch,  an  amount  prac- 
tically inappreciable.  After  200  years  of  experience 
and  invention,  we  have  yet  no  better  index  of  the 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere  than  the  simple  mercurial 
column  of  Torricelli,  and  in  all  exact  observations  it 
is  taken  as  the  only  reliable  standard. 

Simple  as  the  B.  is,  its  construction  demands 
considerable  care  and  experience.  It  is  of  the  first 
importance  that  the  mercury  to  be  used  is  chemically 
pure,  otherwise  its  fluidity  is  impaired,  and  the  inside 
of  the  tube  becomes  coated  with  impurities  in  such 
a  way  as  to  render  correct  observation  impossible. 
Jfercury  as  usually  sold,  is  not  pure ;  and  before  being 
employed  for  barometers,  must  be  shaken  well  with 
highly  dilute  but  pure  nitric  acid,  to  remove  extra- 
neous metals  and  oxides.  The  same  object  is  effect- 
ed more  thoroughly  by  keeping  it  several  weeks  in 
contact  with  dilute  acid,  stirring  every  now  and 
then.  After  either  process,  the  metal  must  be 
thoroughly  washed  with  distilled  water,  and  dried. 
In  filling  the  tube,  it  is  essentially  necessary  to  get 
the  column  free  from  air  and  moisture.  To  effect 
this,  the  mercury,  after  filling,  is  boiled  in  the  tube, 
so  that  air  and  moisture  may  be  expelled,  partly  by 
the  heat,  and  partly  by  the  vapour  of  the  mercury. 
This  process  demands  great  experience  and  skill, 
but  the  same  end  may  be  more  easily  and  as  effectu- 
ally attained  by  boiling  the  mercury,  in  the  first 
instance,  in  an  atmosphere  of  carbonic  acid,  and  then 
pouring  it  into  the  previously  heated  tube  by  a  filler 
reaching  to  the  bottom  of  it.  Such  care  is  only 
expended  on  the  best  instruments  ;  ordinary  weather- 
glasses, not  needing  to  be  quite  accurate,  are  more 


simply  filled.  Notwithstanding  all  these  precautions, 
minute  bubljles  of  air  manage  to  keep  secreted,  and 
creep  up  in  the  course  of  time  into  the  TorriceUian 
vacuum.  When  the  space  above  the  column  is 
considerable,  these  become,  as  it  were,  lost  in  it,  and 
produce  no  sensible  depression,  and  this,  of  course, 
must  be  kept  in  view  in  the  construction. 

Barometers  are  usually  divided  into  two  classes — 
cistern  barometers  and  siphon  barometers.  The 
simplest  form  of  the  cistern  B.  is  that  shewn  in 
fig.  1,  which  only  requires  to  be  set  properly  in  a 
frame,  and  provided  with  a  scale,  to  make  it  com- 
plete. Fig.  2  presents  another  form  of  that  class, 
being    that    generally    seen    in   weather-glasses   or 


iiL 


Figs.  1, 


4, 


6, 


ordinary  barometers.  The  tube  is  bent  at  the 
bottom,  and  the  cistern  is  merely  an  expansion  of 
the  lower  end.  Very  generally,  the  cistern  is  hidden 
from  view,  and  protected  from  injury  by  a  wooden 
cover  in  front.  There  are  two  causes  of  inaccuracy 
in  cistern  barometers — one  being  the  capillarity 
arising  from  the  mercury  not  wetting  the  tube, 
which  tends  to  lower  the  column ;  and  the  other 
being  the  difference  of  level  in  the  cistern  caused 
by  the  fluctuations  in  the  tube,  which  renders  the 
readings  on  the  fixed  scale  above  at  one  time  too 
great,  and  at  another  too  small,  according  as  this 
level  rises  above  or  falls  below  the  original  level 
from  which  the  scale  was  measured.  The  effect  of 
capillarity  may  be  avoided  by  using  tubes  of  more 
than  half  an  inch  in  bore,  in  which  the  depression 
becomes  so  small  that  it  may  be  left  out  of  accoimt ; 
and  in  smaller  tubes  it  may  be  estimated  from 
tables  constructed  for  the  purpose.  Wide  tubes 
have  the  additional  advantage,  that  atmospheric 
changes  are  seen  earlier  in  them  than  in  narrow 
tubes,  there  being  less  friction  in  the  former  than 
in  the  latter.  It  is  worthy  of  notice,  that  the 
capillary  depression  is  less  in  boiled  than  in  unboiled 
tubes,  in  consequence  of  the  admixture  of  a  minute 
quantity  of  the  oxide  of  mercury,  formed  in  the 
process  of  boiling,  which  lessens  the  repulsion 
between  the  mercury  and  glass.  With  reference  to 
the  error  of  level,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
the  height  of  the  column  sustained  by  the  atmos- 
phere is  always  to  be  reckoned  from  the  lower 
level.  This  error  becomes  all  the  less  the  larger 
the  capacity  of  the  cistern  is  compared  with  that 
of  the  tube,  for  then  a  very  considerable  rise  or  fall 
in  the  tube,  when  spread  over  the  surface  of  the 
cistern,  makes  only  a  slight  difference  of  level  in  it. 

703 


BAROMETER. 


Care  must  be  taken,  then,  in  ordinary  barometers, 
to  make  a  cistern  as  large  as  possible.  The  only 
B.  in  which  the  error  of  level  is  completely  obviated, 
is  that  invented  by  Fortin,  which,  from  its  being  in 
every  respect  the  most  perfect  cistern  B.,  deserves 
particular  notice.  The  cistern,  and  the  lower 
portion  of  the  tube  of  this  B.,  is  shewn  in  fig.  3. 
The  cistern  is  made  of  boxwood,  with  a  movable 
leather  bottom,  bh,  and  a  glass  cylinder  is  inserted 
into  it  above,  all  except  the  glass  being  encased  in 
brass.  In  the  bottom  of  the  brass  box  a  screw- 
works,  on  the  upper  end  of  which  the  leather  rests, 
so  that  by  the  sending  in  or  taking  out  of  the  screw, 


r-^-^ 


Fig.  5. 


Fig.  8. 


the  bottom  of  the  cistern,  and  with  it  the  cistern 
level  of  the  mercury,  can  be  raised  or  depressed  at 
will.  A  small  ivory  pin,  p,  ending  in  a  fine  point, 
is  fixed  to  the  upper  frame  of  the  cistern ;  and 
•when  an  observation  is  made,  the  surface  of  the 
mercury  is  made  to  coincide  with  the  point  of  the 
pin  as  the  standard  level  from  which  the  barometric 
column  is  to  be  measured.  The  tube  of  the  B. — 
the  upper  part  of  which  is  shewn  in  fig.  4 — is 
enclosed  in  one  of  brass,  which  has  two  directly 
opposite  slits  in  it  for  shewing  the  height  of  the 
column,  and  on  the  sides  of  these  the  graduation  is 
marked.  A  brass  collar,  ce,  slides  upon  the  tube 
with  a  vernier  (q.  v.),  vv,  marked  on  it  for  reading 
the  height  with  the  greatest  exactness,  and  in  which 
two  oblong  holes  are  cut,  a  little  wider  than  the 
slits  in  the  brass  tube.  When  a  reading  is  taken, 
the  collar  is  so  placed  that  the  last  streak  of  fight 
is  cut  off  by  the  two  upper  edges  of  the  holes,  or 
until  they  form  a  tangent  to  the  convex  mercurial 
curve.  By  this  means,  the  observer  is  sure  that  his 
eye  is  on  a  level  with  the  top  of  the  column,  and 
that  the  reading  is  taken  exactly  for  this  point. 
This  is  the  contrivance  usually  adopted  to  prevent 
the  error  of  parallax,  or  that  caused  by  the  eye 
being  slightly  above  or  below  the  top  of  the  column, 
by  which  the  scale  and  the  top  of  the  colunm  are 
projected  too  high  or  too  low,  the  one  upon  the 
other,  as  the  case  may  be.  The  only  other 
arrangement  worthy  of  mention  for  effecting  the 
T04 


same  object  is  that  by  Weber,  who  etches  the 
scale  on  a  piece  of  silvered  glass  placed  over 
one  side  of  the  tube  ;  and  when— the  mirror  and 
tube  being  vertical — the  image  of  the  eye  appears 
along  with  the  vertex  of  the  column,  the  eye 
is  in  the  same  horizontal  line  with  it.  Fortin's 
B.  is  generally  arranged  so  as  to  be  portable,  in 
which  case  the  screw,  s,  is  sent  in  until  the  mer- 
cury fills  the  whole  cistern,  by  which  the  air  is 
kept  from  entering  the  tube  during  transport,  the 
leather  yielding  sufficiently  at  the  same  time  to 
allow  for  expansion  from  increase  of  temperature. 
It  packs  in  a  case,  which  serves  as  a  tripod  when 
the  instrument  is  mounted  for  use.  On  this  tripod 
it  is  suspended  about  the  middle,  swinging  upon 
two  axes  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  so  that  the 
cistern  may  act  the  part  of  a  plummet  in  keeping 
the  tube  vertical — the  position  essential  to  all  correct 
measurements. 

The  siphon  B.  consists  of  a  tube  bent  in  the  form 
of  a  siphon,  having  the  same  diameter  at  the  lower 
as  at  the  upper  end.  Fig.  5  represents  a  simple 
form  of  it.  The  tube  travels  along  the  board  on 
which  it  is  placed  by  passing  easily  through  fixed 
rings  or  collars  of  brass.  A  scale,  divided  in  inches 
and  parts  of  an  inch,  is  fixed  on  the  upper  part  of 
the  board ;  and  w-hen  an  observation  is  taken,  the 
tube  is  adjusted  by  the  screw,  ,s,  Avorking  below  it, 
so  that  the  top  of  the  lower  mercurial  column  may 
be  on  a  level  with  the  fixed  mark,  a,  which  is  the 
point  from  which  the  fixed  scale  is  measured.  In 
the  best  forms  of  the  siphon  B.,  both  tube  and  scale 
are  fixed,  the  latter  being  graduated  upwards  and 
downwards  from  a  zero-point  near  the  middle  of 
the  tube,  and  the  height  of  the  cohmm  is  ascertained 
by  addhig  the  distances  from  it  of  the  upper  and 
lower  levels.  T'ne  siphon  B.  is  in  many  respects  a 
more  perfect  instrument  than  the  cistern  barometer. 
In  the  first  ]ilace,  the  bore  at  the  upper  and  lower 
ends  of  the  tube  being  the  same,  the  depression  arising 
from  capillarity  is  alike  for  both,  and  the  error  from 
this  cause  disappears  in  taking  the  difference  of  the 
heights.  In  the  second  place,  since  the  final  reading 
is  got  from  a  reference  to  both  upper  and  lower 
surfaces,  the  error  in  the  cistern  B.  produced  by  the 
different  capacities  of  the  tube  and  cistern,  is  effec- 
tually avoided.  On  the  other  hand,  the  taking  of 
two  readings,  one  for  each  column,  is  a  serious 
addition  to  the  labour  of  observation.  Gay  Lussac's 
siphon  B.  (fig.  6)  is  bent  near  the  bottom,  so  as  to 
allow  of  the  lower  branch  being  placed  in  the  same 
straight  line  as  the  upper  one — a  position  highly 
favourable  to  accurate  observation.  When  con- 
structed for  transport,  the  tube  at  the  bend  is 
narrowed,  as  in  the  figure,  to  a  capillary  width,  which 
effectually  excludes  the  air;  and  when  the  tube  is 
inverted  (fig.  7),  being  the  position  in  which  it  is 
carried,  the  mercury  is  nearly  all  held  in  the  longer 
branch.  Such  a  tube  when  mounted,  like  Fortin's 
B.,  makes  an  excellent  travelling  instrument,  and 
is  comparatively  light,  from  the  small  cpiantity  of 
mercury  it  contains.     See  Aneroid  Barometer. 

The  wheel  B.,  originally  invented  by  Hook,  and 
generally  seen  as  a  parlour  ornament,  has  little  to 
recommend  it  as  a  trustworthy  instrument.  Fig. 
8  shews  the  main  features  of  its  construction.  It 
is  essentially  an  ordinary  B.  like  the  siphon 
B.  below,  but  having  a  cistern  above,  to  increase 
the  amount  of  variation  in  the  lower  branch. 
A  small  piece  of  iron  or  glass,  /,  floats  on  the  open 
surface,  and  a  thread  is  attached  to  it,  and  passed 
over  a  small  wheel,  a,  fixed  to  a  horizontal  axis, 
to  which  it  is  kept  tight  by  a  small  weight,  c, 
hanging  at  the  other  end.  A  pointer,  p,  is  fixed  to 
the  other  extremity  of  the  horizontal  axis,  which 
moves  to  the  right  or  left  of  the  dial,  c?J,  according 


B  Ar.O^lETER— B  AROMETZ. 


as  the  nicrciiry  falls  or  rises  in  the  lower  branch. 
The  great  sweep  which  the  index  takes,  as  compared 
with  the  comparatively  minute  variations  of  the 
mercurial  column,  is  the  only  merit  of  this  instru- 
ment. It  is  easy  to  see,  that  with  so  much  inter- 
vening between'  the  mercury  and  the  index,  the 
chances  of  error  from  friction  and  other  causes  are 
very  considerable. 

The  correction  of  the  B.  for  temperature  is  of 
importance.  Mcrcnry  expands  ^^'p^  of  its  bulk  for 
every  degree  of  Fahrenheit's  thermometer ;  conse- 
quently, a  column  of  30  inches  at  32°  F.,  or  the 
freezing-point,  would,  at  65°  F.,  for  instance,  be 
<.9--^2  ^jjj^gg  3Q  iii^-iies^  or  nearly  yV  of  ^^  "'^-''^ 
longer,  for  30  ,-V  inches  of  mercury  at  G0°  produce 
the  same  pressure  as  30  inches  of  it  at  3:2°.  In 
order,  therefore,  that  all  observations  may  be  com- 
pared correctly  with  each  other,  the  observed 
heights  are  reduced  to  what  they  would  be  at  32° 
F.  as  a  standard  temperature,  the  rule  for  reduc- 
tion is  very  simple:  Multiply  the  number  of 
degrees  above  or  below  32°  F.  by  the  observed 
height,  divide  the  product  by  9990,  and  subtract  or 
add  the  quotient  from  or  to  the  observed  height 
for  the  reduced  heijiht.  Corrections  are  sometimes 
also  made  for  the  expansion  of  the  scale,  but  this 
is  almost  needless  refinement. 

The  variations  of  the  B.  are  found  to  be  both 
peri(<dical  and  accidental.  Periodical  variations  are 
those  taking  place  at  stated  and  regular  intervals, 
and  accidental  such  as  have  no  regular  period  of 
recurrence.  The  only  truly  periodical  variation  is 
the  daily  one,  which  amounts  to  about  ,  ^ jj  of  an 
inch,  although  the  accidental  variations,  when  taken 
on  the  average,  constitute  something  like  periodical 
variations  at  the  different  seasons  of  the  year.  Acci- 
dental variations  have  a  range  of  about  3  inches. 
See  Atmosphere. 

The  uses  ot  the  B.  may  be  classified  into  physical, 
hypsometrical,  and  meteorological.  It  is  of  essential 
use  in  all  physical  researches  where  the  mechanical, 
optical,  acoustical,  and  cheiiiicul  properties  of  air 
or  Gtlier  gases  are  dependent  on  the  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere.  Its  use  in  hypsometry,  or  the  art  of 
measuring  the  heights  of  mountains,  is  very  valuable. 
When  a  B.  is  at  the  foot  of  a  mountain,  the  pressure 
it  sustains  is  greater  than  that  which  it  experiences 
at  the  top  by  the  weight  of  the  column  of  air  inter- 
vening between  the  top  and  bottom.  A  formula  of 
considerable  complexity  is  given  by  mathematicians 
for  finding  very  nearly  the  true  height  of  a  nioiui- 
tain  from  barometrical  and  thermometrical  obser- 
vations made  at  its  base  and  sunmiit,  the  interpre- 
tation of  which  does  not  come  within  the  compass 
of  this  work.  The  following  rules  give  very  nearly 
the  same  result:  1.  Reduce  the  mercurial  heights 
at  both  stations  to  32°  F.  2.  Take  the  logarithm's  of 
the  corrected  heights,  subtract  them,  and  multiply 
the  result  by  10,000,  to  give  the  approximate  height 
in  fathoms  of  the  upper  above  the  lower  station. 
S.  Take  themean  of  the  temperature  at  both  stations, 
take  the  di(r<M'ence  between  this  mean  and  32, 
multiply  the  difference  by  the  approximate  height, 
and  divide  the  product  by  43.5.  This  last  result  is 
to  be  added  to  the  approximate  height,  if  the  mean 
temperature  is  above  32,  and  subtracted,  if  below, 
to  find  the  true  height  in  fathoms.  Sec  Tables  Me- 
teoral  and  Physical  of  Smithsonian  IicsliUUion. 

The  best  known  use  of  the  B.  is  as  a  meteoro- 
logical instrument,  or  as  a  weather-glass.  Expe- 
rience has  attached  to  certain  heights  of  the  B. 
certain  states  of  weather,  and  at  certain  points 
of  the  scale  the  words  'Rain,'  'Changeable,'  'Fair,' 
&c.,  are  marked,  although  the  connection  thus  insti- 
tuted is  by  no  means  invariable.  Manv  of  those 
45 


who  have  observed  most  carefully  the  connection  o' 
barometric  heights  with  states  and  changes  of  the 
weather,  are  inclined  to  discard  entirely  the  use  of 
these  terms,  and  they  tell  us  that  it  is  the  tendency 
rather  than  the  actual  position  of  the  column  which 
prognosticates  the  nature  of  the  coming  weather. 
Several  elaborate  codes  of  rules  have  been  drawn  up 
to  serve  as  a  key  to  the  variations,  but  as  these  are 
more  or  less  of  a  local  character,  they  would  be  out 
of  place  here.  Generally  speaking,  a  i'alling  B. 
indicates  rain,  a  rising  B.,  fair  weather.  A  steady 
B.  foretells  a  continiiance  of  the  weather  at  the 
time  ;  when  low,  this  is  generally  broken  or  bad, 
and  when  high,  fair.  A  sudden  fall  usually  precedes 
a  storm,  the  violence  of  which  is  in  proportion  to 
the  suddenness  of  the  fall.  An  unsteady  B.  shews 
an  unsettled  state  of  weather ;  gradual  changes, 
the  approach  of  some  permanent  condition  of  it. 
The  variations  must  also  be  interpreted  with  refer- 
ence to  the  prevailing  winds,  each  difierent  wind 
having  some  peculiar  rules.  The  connection  between 
changes  of  weather  and  the  pressure  of  the  atmo- 
sphere is  by  no  means  well  understood.  One  reason 
is  given,  which  may  to  some  extent  account  for  the 
B.  being  lower  in  wet  than  in  dry  weather — viz.,  that 
so  long  as  atpieous  matter  renuiins  in  the  air  in  the 
form  of  elastic  vapour,  its  elasticity  assists  in  sup- 
porting the  barometric  column  ;  but  when  it  is  pre- 
cipitated in  the  form  of  rain,  this  force  is  lost,  and 
the  column  accordingly  falls.  The  connection  may, 
however,  with  more  reason,  be  attributed  to  the 
nature  of  the  winds  than  to  anything  else.  The 
south  and  south-west  winds,  which  are,  in  Western 
Europe,  more  than  any  other,  the  rain-bringing 
winds,  arc  warm  winds.  Now,  a  column  of  warm 
air,  to  be  of  the  same  weight  as  one  of  cold  air, 
must  bo  higher;  but  this  it  cannot  well  be  in  the 
atmosphere,  for  no  sooner  does  the  warm  colunm, 
by  its  lightness,  rise  above  the  surrounding  level  of 
the  upper  surface  of  the  aerial  ocean,  than  it  flows 
over,  and  becomes  nearly  of  the  same  height  as  the 
cold  air  around  it.  The  interchange  taking  place 
less  interruptedly,  and  consequently  less  slowly,  in 
the  higher  strata  than  in  those  near  the  ground,  it 
is  some  time  before  the  equilibrium  thus  disturbed 
is  restored,  and  meanwhile  the  B.  keej)s  low  under 
the  pressure  of  a  rarer  atmospheric  column.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  northerly  and  easterly  winds, 
being  comparatively  cold  and  dry,  are  accompanied 
with  fair  weather  and  a  high  barometer.  It  is  thus 
to  the  warmth,  and  not  to  the  moisture  of  these 
winds,  that  the  low  pressure  is  to  be  ascribed.  So 
far,  then,  as  this  reason  holds,  the  rain  attendant  on 
a  low  B.,  as  well  as  the  fine  weather  accompanying 
a  high  B.,  are  the  accidents  of  our  geographical 
position — of  our  having  the  land  to  the  east,  and 
the  ocean  to  the  west  of  us.  On  the  La  Plata  river, 
things  are  the  reverse  of  what  they  are  w  ith  us  ; 
there  the  cold  south-east  wind,  connng  from  the 
ocean,  brings  rain  with  a  high  B.,  and  the  land 
winds,  warmed  by  the  plains  of  South  America, 
maintain  fine  weather  with  a  low  barometer.  That 
the  temperature,  and  not  the  moisture  of  the  air,  is 
at  least  an  important  cause  of  the  changes  of  the 
B.,  is  also  -shown  by  the  fact,  that  in  the  tropics, 
where  the  variations  of  temperature  are  slight  com- 
pared with  the  temperate  zones,  the  B.  experiences 
almost  no  change,  being  as  high  in  the  rainy  as  in 
the  dry  reason. 

BA'ROMETZ,  or  Tartarian  or  Scythian  Lamb, 
the  prostrate  stem  (rhizome)  of  a  fern  {Axpidium 
Baroinetx)  which  grows  in  the  salt-plains  near  the 
Caspian  Sea.  It  is  shaggy  with  a  silky  down, 
and  has  a  sort  of  general  resemblance  to  an 
animal.  In  the  days  of  ignorant  credulity,  when 
the  storv  of  the  phoenix  was   received  as  a  truth  of 

705 


BARON. 


natural  history,  and  barnacles  were  believed  to  grow 
into  geese,  and  horses'  hairs  into  eels,  marvellous 
tales  were  toldof  the  B.,  which  was  supposed  to 
partake  of  the  nature  of  a  plant  and  an  animal, 
to  grow  on  a  stalk,  and  eat  grass  like  a  lamb,  &e. 
Ernian  (Travels  in  Sibana)  supposes  that  the  fables 
regarding  the  B.  may  have  some  connection  with  the 
cotton  plant. 

BARON.  This  term,  as  to  the  origin  of  which 
much  difference  of  opinion  exists,  is  probably  derived 
from  the  Latin  word  baro  (allied  to  vir,  a  man,  a 
hero),  which  originally  signilied  a  stupid,  brutal 
man,  afterwards  came  to  signify  a  man  simply, 
and  latterly,  by  one  of  those  strange  transmuta- 
tions wiiich  are  not  uncommon  in  language,  a 
man  pre-eminently,  or  a  person  of  distinction. 
Teutonic,  Celtic,  and  even  Hebrew  derivations 
have  also  been  assigned  to  the  word ;  but  the  fact 
of  its  having  been  introduced  into  this  country 
by  the  Normans,  seems  in  favour  of  a  Romanic 
origin.  It  is  now  the  title  which  we  apply  to  the 
lowest  degree  of  hereditary  nobility.  The  degree 
of  B.  forms  a  species  of  landing-place,  corresponding 
amongst  noblemen,  in  a  certain  sense,  to  that  of 
gentleman,  at  a  lower  stage  of  the  social  pyramid.  It 
was  in  t!iis  sense  that  the  word  was  nscd  in  former 
times  to  include  the  whole  nobility  of  England, 
because  all  noblemen  were  barons,  whatever  might 
be  the  higher  ranks  in  the  peerage  which  thoy  occu- 
pied. The  word  peer  has  recently  come  to  be  used 
with  the  same  signification,  perhaps  because  it  is 
no  longer  necessarily  the  case  that  every  nobleman 
should  be  a  B.,  there  being  instances  in  which 
earldoms  and  other  honours  have  been  given  willi- 
out  a  barony  being  attached  to  them,  and  in  which 
the  barony  has  been  separated  from  the  higher 
degree  by  following  a  dilTerent  order  of  descent. 
The  general  theory  of  the  constitution,  however, 
still  is,  that  it  is  as  barons  that  all  tiie  peers  sit  in 
the  upper  house ;  and  it  is  on  this  ground  that  the 
archbishops  and  bishops  are  said  to  sit  in  virtue  of 
their  baronies.  The  distinction  into  r/rcatn- und  lesser 
barons  seems  from  an  early  period  to  have  obtained 
in  most  of  the  countries  of  Europe.  The  greater 
barons,  who  were  the  king's  chief  tenants,  held  tlieir 
lands  directly,  or  ??i  capite,  as  it  was  called,  of 
the  crown  ;  whilst  the  lesser  held  of  the  greater  by 
the  tenure  of  military  service.  The  greater  barons, 
who  corresponded  to  the  Freiherren  (free  lords)  of 
Germany,  had  a  perpetual  sunnnons  to  attend  the 
great  councils  of  the  nation  ;  whereas,  the  latter  were 
summoned  only  in  case  of  their  lands  embracing 
a  certain  extent,  which  in  England  was  thirteen 
knights'  fees  and  a  quarter.  See  Knight's  Fee. 
When  the  representation  of  the  middle  class  in 
England  came  to  be  confided  to  the  knights  of 
the  shire  and  burgesses  of  towns,  the  minor  barons 
ceased  to  receive  the  royal  summons,  and  by 
degrees  the  title  B.  came  to  be  applied  to  the 
greater  barons,  or  lords  of  pailiament,  as  they  were 
called,  exclusively.  For  an  account  of  the  barons 
of  England  immediately  after  the  Conquest,  and 
of  the  "lands  which  they  held,  see  Doomsday-Book. 
The  habit  of  conferring  the  rank  of  B.  by  letters- 
patent,  by  which  it  was  converted  into  a  mere  title 
of  honour,  apart  from  the  possession  of  landed  pro- 
perty or  of  territorial  jurisdiction,  was  first  intro- 
duced by  King  Richard  II.,  who,  in  1388,  created 
John  Beauchamp,  of  Holt  Castle,  B.  of  Kidd<'r- 
niinstcr.  In  Germany,  the  old  barons  of  the  empire 
were  for  the  most  part  raised  to  the  dignity  of  grafs 
(counts)  and  princes;  whilst  the  lesser,  in  place  of 
f)assing  into  the  ranks  of  the  untitled  gentry,  as  in 
England,  constituted  a  grade  of  the  lower  nobility, 
to  which  no  duties  were  assigned,  and  scarcely  any 
political  privileges  belonged. 
70G 


When  a  B.  is  summoned  to  the  House  of  Lords  by 
writ,  a  letter,  in  the  sovereign's  name,  directs  him  to 
repair  to  the  parliament,  to  be  hohien  at  a  specified 
time  and  i)lace,  to  advise  with  his  sovereign,  the 
prelates,  and  nobles,  about  the  weighty  afiairs  of 
the  nation.  On  the  arrival  of  the  new  ])eer,  he  is 
presented  by  two  barons  to  the  lord-chancellor,  his 
patent  or  writ  being  carried  by  a  king-at-arms.  This 
having  been  read  by  the  chancellor,  he  congratulates 
him  on  becoming  a  member  of  the  House  of  Peers, 
and  invests  him  with  his  robe.  The  oaths  arc  then 
administered  by  the  clerk  of  parliament,  and  the 
new  B.  is  conducted  to  a  seat  on  the  b. irons'  bench. 
In  addition  to  barons  by  Avrit  and  barons  by  patent, 
barons  by  prescription  are  usually  mentioned,  bin 
incorrectly  according  to  Blackstone,  who  remarks 
that  'those  who  claim  by  prescription  must  suppose 
either  a  writ  or  patent  made  to  their  ancestors, 
thougli  by  length  of  time  it  is  lost.'  (Kerr's  Ed., 
vol.  i.  ]).  -}0('i.)  There  arc  some  distinctions  between 
a  creation  by  writ  and  by  patent  which  ought  to  be 
mentioned.  '  The  creation  by  writ,'  says  Black- 
stone,  '  is  the  more  ancient  way,  but  a  man  is  not 
ennobled  thereby,  unless  he  actually  takes  his  seat 
in  the  House  of  Lords;  and  some  arc  of  opinion 
that  there  must  be  at  least  two  writs  of  summons, 
and  a  sitting  in  two  distinct  parliaments,  to  evidence 
an  hereditary  barony.'  In  consequence  of  the  incon- 
venience thus  attending  it,  the  creation  by  writ  may 
now  He  considered  as  obsolete,  although  the  eldest 
son  of  a  peer  is  still  frequently  called  up  to  the  parlia- 
ment by  means  of  it,  there  being  in  that  case  no 
danger  of  the  children  losing  tlicir  nobility  even 
should  their  father  never  take  his  seat.  But  though 
creation  by  patent  is  thus  in  general  the  surest  way 
of  insuring  the  hereditary  character  of  the  peerage, 
it  lal)ours  under  one  disadvantage  as  compared  with 
a  creation  by  writ — viz.,  that  whereas  in  the  latter 
case  the  dignity  once  insured  by  possession,  passes 
to  the  heirs  of  the  holder  without  any  words  to 
that  purpose,  in  the  former  there  must  be  words 
to  direct  the  inheritance,  else  the  dignity  endures 
only  to  the  grantee  for  life.  Where  the  patent, 
again,  in  place  of  being  silent  as  to  the  succession, 
expressly  sets  forth  that  the  dignity  is  lor  life  merely, 
it  Avas  held,  in  the  Wensleydale  case,  that  it  does 
not  make  the  grantee  a  lord  of  parliament  at  all. 

The  coronation  and  parliamentary  robes  of  a 
B.  differ  very  slightly  from  those  of  an  earl. 
The  right  of  wearing  a  coronet  was  conferred 
on  barons  for  the  first  time  by  King  Charles 
II.  ;  their  head-dress  till  then  having  consisted 
of  a  cap  of  crimson  velvet,  lined  with  ermine, 
and  having  a  plain  gold  band. 
A  baron's  coronet  is  adorned 
with  six  pearls,  set  at  equal  dis- 
tances on  the  chaplet.  Coronets 
are  worn  only  on  great  occasions 
of  state  ceremonial.  In  ordinary 
garb,  there  is  nothing  to  distin- 
guish a  B.  from  a  connnoner.  A 
B.  has  the  title  of  'Right  Honourable  Lord,'  &c., 
and  is  addressed  as  '  My  Lord,'  or  '  Your  Lordship.' 
His  wife  has  also  the  title  of  'Right  Honourable,' 
and  is  addressed  as  'Madam,'  or  'Your  Ladyship.' 
A  B.,  ill  signing,  sinks  his  Christian  and  i'amily  sur- 
name, and  subscribes  his  titular  designation.  His 
children  enjoy  the  prefix  of  Honourable,  as  the 
'  Honourable  Mr.' — mentioning  Christian  and  sur- 
name. In  literature  and  conversation,  a  deceased  B. 
is  referred  to  by  his  Christian  name,  according  to  his 
number  in  the  list  of  peers  of  the  same  title,  as 
'Henry,  eighth  baron.' — The  Barons  of  Exchequer 
(q.  V.)  and  of  the  Cinque  Ports  (q.  v.)  are  examples 
still  existing  of  the  ancient  barons  by  office. 

In  the  United   Kingdom,  there    are   persons  who 


Baron's  Coronet. 


BARON  AND  FEME— BARONIUS. 


po.-soss  the  title  of  B.  imparted  by  some  foreign 
power ;  as,  for  example,  '  Baron  Rothschild.'  No 
such  honour  can  be  legally  enjoyed  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  sovereign  ;  but  at  best  the  title  is  only 
honorary,  and  connnunicates  no  special  privileges.  A 
good  article  on  the  Baronage  will  be  found  in  the 
Cyclopadia  of  Political  Knoivled(je,  published  by 
Bohn,  London,  1853.     See  Peer. 

BA'RON  AND  FEME,  or  FEMME.  These  are 
two  Norman-French  words  used  in  English  law- 
books to  denominate  HfsnAND  and  Wife  (q.  v.) ;  and 
see  Marriage  and  Matuimo.ny. 

BA'RON  AND  FEMME,  in  Heraldry,  is  the 
expression  used  to  designate  the  bearing  by  which  the 
arms  of  husband  and  wife  are  carried  per  pale,  or 
marshalled  side  by  side  on  the  same  shield.  The 
husband's  arms  arc  always  carried  on  the  dexter  side. 
Where  the  wife  is  an  heiress — i.  e.,  the  representative 
of  her  father's  house — her  husband  carries  her  arms, 
not  p''r  pale,  but  in  a  shield  of  pretence  ;  and  they  are 
quartered  with  the  paternal  coat  by  the  issue  of  the 
marriage. 

BA'RON  OF  BEEF,  a  large  piece  of  beef,  con- 
sisting of  both  sides  of  the  back,  or  a  double  sirloin, 
and  weighing,  according  to  the  size  of  the  animal, 
from  50  to  100  lbs.  Tliis  monstrously  large  piece  of 
beef,  roasted,  is  served  only  on  particular  festive 
occasions  at  the  English  court,  and  at  great  public 
entertainments.  When  served  according  to  ancient 
custom  at  civic  feasts  in  Guildhall,  London,  the  B.  is 
honoured  with  a  distinguished  place  on  a  kind  of  ele- 
vated rostrum,  where  it  is  ceremoniously  carved  for 
the  assembled  guests.  The  term  B.  probably  origin- 
ated in  a  fanciful  allusion  to  the  word  sirloin ;  inas- 
much as  a  haron  is  superior  in  rank  to  a  sir. 

BA'RONET.  This  title,  which  is  the  diminutive 
of  baron,  is  the  lowest  degree  of  hereditary  honour 
in  the  United  Kingdom.  Baronets  were  instituted, 
for  the  first  time,  by  King  James  I.,  on  the  22d 
May  1611.  The  ostensible  object  was  to  promote 
the  plantation  of  Ulster,  in  Ireland,  with  English 
and  Scottish  settlers ;  but  the  real  aim  was  to  raise 
money.  Each  B.'  was  bound  to  maintain  30  soldiers 
in  Ireland  for  3  years,  at  the  rate  of  %d.  per  diem  for 
each  man ;  the  wages  of  one  whole  year  to  be  paid 
into  the  exchequer  on  the  passing  of  the  patent. 
The  sum  thus  exacted,  with  the  fees  of  honour  due 
to  the  officers,  amounted  to  upwards  of  £1000  on 
each  patent.  It  is  a  striking  proof  of  the  passion  for 
hereditary  distinction,  that  200  persons  were  willing 
to  accept  the  honour  on  such  terms.  It  was  part  of 
the  bargain  that  no  title  should  be  created  between 
a  B.  and  a  baron,  and  that  the  number  of  the 
former  should  be  permitted  to  diminish  as  the 
families  of  the  original  200  died  out,  thus  enhancing 
the  value  of  the  title  to  those  that  remained.  But 
the  latter  stipulation  was  very  speedily  departed 
from,  and  a  new  commission  was  appointed  to  fill 
up  the  vacant  places,  and  even  to  treat  with  new 
applicants.  Such  was  the  origin  of  English  baronets. 
From  the  date  of  the  Union,  in  1*706,  those  created 
in  England  and  Scotland  were  baronets  of  Great 
Britain.  Irish  l)aronets  were  created  until  1800, 
since  which  period  all  baronetcies  are  of  the  United 
Kingdom.  There  is  no  limit  to  the  creation  of 
baronets  but  the  will  of  the  sovereign.  At  investi- 
ture there  is  no  ceremony.  The  rank  is  communi- 
cated by  patent  or  writ,  issued  under  authority 
of  the  crown  ;  the  fees  of  office  being  considerable. 
There  are  differences  in  the  terms  on  which  the 
honour  descends  (suggested,  perhaps,  by  the  recipient 
according  to  family  circumstances).  Sometimes, 
according  to  the  patent,  the  rank  is  confined  to 
direct  heir-;-male ;  sometimes  it  embraces  heirs- 
male  collateral ;    and  sometimes,  in  default  of  direct 


male  heirs,  it  parses  to  the  husbands  of  heirs-female. 
For  the  style  and  privileges  of  BaioiU'ts,  in  matters 
of  ceremony,  see  Burke's  Peerage  and  llaro)iefin/e- 
It  may  here  be  mentioned,  however,  that  baioneta 
have  precedence  of  all  knights,  except  those  of  the 
Garter,  bannerets,  and  privy-councilloi-s.  They  arc 
entitled  to  have  Sir  prefixed  to  tlieir  name,  along  with 
B.  as  an  affix  ;  which  is  their  ordinary  title.  The  wife 
of  a  B.  is  legally  styled  Dame  ;  but  in  common  speech 
she  is  called  Lady,  and  addressed  a.s  '  Your  Lady- 
shij).'  The  rank  of  B.  docs  not  raise  a  person  above 
the  degree  of  commoner ;  but  many  laaronctcies  have, 
in  course  of  time,  been  heritably  acquired  by  peers, 
which  lessens  the  ostensible  number. 

Baronets  of  Scotland  and  Nova  Scotia  originated 
in  a  project  of  James  I.  ;  but  were  not  instituted  till 
1025,  by  Charles  I.  The  professed  object  was  to 
encourage  the  settlement  of  Nova  Scotia  in  North 
America  ;  and  a  grant  of  a  certain  portion  of  land 
in  that  province,  to  be  held  of  Sir  William  Alex- 
ander, afterwards  Earl  of  Stirling,  who  was  then  his 
majesty's  lieutenant  in  Nova  Scotia,  actually  accom- 
panied the  title — the  grants  of  land  being  of  course 
illusory,  for  their  very  designations  were  a  fiction. 
The  first  person  who  received  the  honour  of  a  Nova 
Scotian  baronetcy  was  Robert  Gordon  of  Gordonstone, 
a  younger  son  of  the  Earl  of  Sutherland,  whose  patent 
bears  date  May  28,  1625.  There  are  no  new  additions 
to  this  branch  of  the  baronetage ;  the  latest  creation 
having  been  in  1*706,  the  year  of  the  Union  of  Scot- 
land and  England.  In  point  of  title  and  popular  re- 
cognition, there  is  no  distinction  between  these  and 
other  baronets. 

BARONIUS,  O^SAR,  an  eminent  Roman  Cath- 
olic ecclesiastical  historian,  born  at  Sora,  in  Naples, 
on  the  30th  October  1538,  and  educated  at  Naples 
and  Rome.  He  was  one  of  the  first  pupils  of  St. 
Philip  Neri,  who  founded  the  congregation  of  the 
Oratory,  of  which  B.  became  superior  in  1593.  He 
soon  after  became  Father  Confessor  to  the  Pope, 
Apostolical  Prothonotary,  and  finally,  in  1596, 
Cardinal,  and  Librarian  of  the  Vatican  Library. 
On  the  death  of  Clement  VIII.,  in  1605,  30  voted  in 
conclave  for  the  election  of  B.  as  Pope ;  and  but  for 
the  opposition  of  the  Spaniards,  who  were  indignant 
at  him  for  his  treatise  I)e  Monarchia  Sicilio',  in 
which  he  argued  against  Spain's  claim  to  that  coun- 
try, he  might  have  been  elected.  The  controversy 
against  the  work  called  the  Mngdehurr/  Centuries 
(q.  v.),  which  had  already  been  weakly  attempted 
by  Muzio  in  15*70,  seemed  at  that  time  the  most 
important  undertaking  for  the  learning  of  the 
Church  of  Rome.  B.  entered  upon  this  controversy 
with  great  energy  and  in  a  position  most  favourable 
for  access  to  authorities,  composing  his  Annales 
Eecle.iiastici  a  C/iristo  nnto  ad  avn.  1198  (12  vols., 
Rome,  1588 — 1607),  in  which  work  he  laboured  till 
his  death,  30th  May  1607.  As  his  oljject  was  to 
prove  that  the  Church  of  Rome  has  not  departed 
in  doctrine  or  constitution  from  the  Christian 
Church  of  the  1st  c,  B.  has  been  accused  of  not 
using  his  authorities  according  to  their  proper  histori- 
cal sense,  but  artfully  concealing,  obscuring,  and 
falsifying  many  things — sometimes,  perhaps,  from 
ignorance  of  the  Greek,  but  more  frequently  with 
design.  His  Annals  have  been  frequently  reprinted, 
liut  the  reprints  are  often  incorrect  and  incomplete. 
The  most  recent,  provided  with  copious  notes,  &c., 
and  containing  Pagi's  Critical  Examination  and 
Rinaldi's  continuation,  although  not  yet  entirely 
correct,  is  the  edition  of  Mansi  (43  vols.,  1738 — 
1757).  The  Critica  i?i  Annale.i  Ecclcsiaaticos  Barn:tii 
of  Anthony  Pagi,  the  Franciscan  (4  vols.,  Antwerp, 
1705,  improved  by  Francis  Pagi,  Antwerp,  1724), 
corrects  B.  in  many  points,  especially  of  chronology. 
Among    the    continuations   of    the    Annah,   all    of 

707 


BARONS  OF  THE  EXCHEQUER— BARRACKS. 


which  are  inferior  in  value  to  the  work  itself,  the 
most  rich  in  matter  are  that  of  Bzovius,  extending 
to  1572  (9  vols.,  Rome,  161(5—1672),  and  that  of 
Rinaldi  (10  vols.,  Rome,  1646 — 1677),  who  availed 
himself  of  the  materials  left  by  B.,  for  the  period  from 
1198  to  1571.  Amongst  the  otlier  works  of  B.,  his 
publication  of  the  Martp'ologimn  J\'o)nanum  deserves 
to  be  noticed  (Rome,  1586,  and  repeatedly). 

BARONS  OF  THE  EXCHEQUER.  See  Exche- 
quer, Barons  of  ;  Common  Law  ;  Courts  of  Com- 
mon Law  ;  Revenue. 

BA'RONY  is,  or,  it  may  rather  be  said,  was  a 
manorial  and  hereditary  right  ari.^ing  out  of  land, 
known  to  the  law  both  of  England  and  Scotland. 
In  England,  manors  were  formerly  called  baronies. 
In  the  Scotch  law,  a  right  of  B.  is  a  right  in 
relation  to  lands  which  have  been  erected,  or  at 
least  confirmed  by  a  clause  in  crown-charters 
making  the  grant  in  libcram  haroniam,  as  it  is 
called ;  and  by  the  crown  alone  could  such  a  right 
be  conferred.  It  involved  a  civil  and  criminal 
jurisdiction  to  which,  in  theory,  all  the  inhabitants 
of  the  B.  lands  were  amenable.  But  such  juris- 
diction has,  by  modern  legislation,  been  so  limited 
and  obstructed  as  scarcely  ever  to  be  exercised ; 
and,  indeed,  in  regard  to  the  right  of  B.  itself,  the 
clause  in  crown-charters  erecting  baronies  has,  since 
the  abolition  of  heritable  jurisdictions  by  the  20th 
Geo.  II.  c.  43,  become  obsolete.  But  by  the  35  Geo. 
III.  c.  122,  they  are  permitted  on  the  sea-coast  for 
encouragement  of  fisheries,  and  the  bailies  thereof 
(see  Bailie)  are  to  have  the  powers  of  justices  of  the 
peace.  In  England,  the  lord  or  banm  of  the  manor 
may  hold  his  Court  Baron  (q.  v. ;  see  also  Manor, 
Jurisdiction). 

BARO'SMA    See  Bucku. 

BARQUE,  or  BARK,  is  a  name  frequently  given 
to  ships,  but  with  no  very  definite  meaning.  Some- 
times it  denotes  simply  a  ship  of  small  size  ;  some- 
times   a    broad-sterned    vessel   without    figure-head ; 


Barque. 

but  more  technically  it  applies  to  three-masted  ves- 
sels whose  mizzen-sails  are  fore-and-aft  instead  of 
being  square.  An  armed  B.  is  one  variety  of  a 
special  sort  of  vessel  noticed  in  another  article.  See 
Armed  Ship. 

BARR,  or  BA'RRA,  a  petty  Mandingo  kingdom  of 
Western  Africa,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Gambia,  with  an 
estimated  area  of  about  250  square  leagues,  and  a 
population  of  200,000,  the  males  being  remarkable  for 
their  fine  proportions.  The  surface,  which  is  fertile, 
but  rather  marshy,  is  well  cutivated. 

BA'RRA,  a  pleasant  suburban  town  of  Naples,  about 
8  miles  east  of  the  capital,  with  a  population  of  12,- 
000.     It  has  numerous  fine  country  residences. 

BA'RRA,  a  small  island  near  the  south  extremity 
708 


of  the  Hebrides,  Scotland,  belonging  to  Inverness- 
shire,  and  42  miles  west  of  Ardnamurchan  Point; 
lat.  of  Barra-head,  56"  48'  N.,  long.  7°  88'  W.  It  is 
8  miles  long,  and  2  to  4  broad,  with  deep  inlets  of 
the  sea.  A  low  sandy  isthmus,  over  which  the  sea 
nearly  breaks  at  high  water,  connects  the  two  parts 
into  which  B.  is  divided.  The  south  or  larger  part 
contains  a  rocky  mountain,  2000  feet  high,  and  is 
divided  into  small  valleys.  The  island  is  formed 
of  gneiss.  The  soil  is  sandy,  but  sheep  and  cattle 
are  fed  on  the  hill  and  meadow  pastures.  Pop. 
1624,  chiefly  Roman  Catholics,  speaking  Gaelic  with 
great  purity ;  and  among  the  most  industrious  of 
Scottisli  fishermen.  Their  boats  are  sharp  fore  and 
aft,  and  are  built  by  the  fishermen  themselves,  who 
engage  extensively  in  the  cod,  ling,  herring,  and  shell- 
fish fisheries.  200  horse-loads  of  shell-fish  (cockles, 
limpets,  muscles,  razor-fish,  lobsters,  cral)s)  have  been 
taken  off  the  sands  in  one  day  during  the  summer 
spring-tides.  The  light-house  on  Barra-hcad,  the  lof- 
tiest in  Britain,  is  680  feet  above  the  sea,  and  is  seen 
33  miles  oft". 

BARRACKPO'RE,  a  native  town  and  military 
cantonment  on  the  left  or  east  bank  of  the  Iloogly, 
and  16  miles  up  the  stream  from  Calcutta,  in  lat. 
22°  46'  N.,  and  long.  88'  26'  E.  On  account  of  the 
salubrity  of  its  air,  B.  is  a  favourite  retreat  for 
Europeans  from  Calcutta,  the  governor-general 
having  here  his  country  residence.  In  fact,  B. 
appears  to  have  long  enjoyed  this  kind  of  distinc- 
tion ;  Mr.  Job  Charnock,  the  founder  of  Calcutta, 
having  erected  a  bungalow  here  as  far  back  as 
1689.  In  1857,  B.  became  famous  as  the  cradle  of 
the  formi(lat)le  mutiny  or  rebellion  of  that  year. 
Several  regiments  of  native  troops  were  stationed  at 
Bariackpore.  The  men  objected  to  bite  off  the  ends 
of  the  cartridges  for  the  Enfield  rifle,  believing  the 
paper  to  be  polluted  by  animal  fat.  The  troubles 
connected  herewith — a  mere  prelude  to  the  fatal 
outbreak  at  Mj?erut  in  May — commenced  about  the 
beginning  of  February,  and  continued  to  assume 
various  degrees  of  intensity,  till  at  last  two  regi- 
ments of  Bengal  native  infantry  had  to  be  disbanded 
— the  19th,  on  31st  March;  and  the  34th,  on  5th 
May.  It  was  in  the  last-named  corps  that  tlie  first 
blood  would  appear  to  have  been  drawn,  an  intoxi- 
cated sepoy  having  attacked  and  wounded  his  officer. 
Lieutenant  Baugh,  with  sword  and  pistol.  This 
fellow,  whose  name  was  Mungal  Pandy,  would  seem 
to  have  had  the  equivocal  honour  of  giving  the 
local  designation  of  Pandies  to  the  entire  body  of  in- 
surgents. 

BA'RRACKS  are  permanent  structures  for  the 
accommodation  of  soldiers,  as  distinguished  from 
huts  and  tents.  Originally,  the  word,  derived  from 
the  Spanish  barrncns,  applied  to  small  cabins  or 
huts ;  but  in  England,  the  term  is  now  always 
considered  to  relate  to  structures  of  brick  and  stone. 
Great  opposition  was  made  in  this  country  to  the 
introduction  of  permanent  B.  during  the  early  part 
of  the  last  century,  on  the  ground  that  the  liberty 
of  the  subject  might  possibly  be  endangered  by 
thus  separating  the  soldiery  so  completely  from  the 
citizens,  and  placing  them  in  the  hands  of  the  ruling 
power.  On  the  other  hand,  it  was  contended  that 
the  older  system  of  billeting  the  soldiers  on  the 
people  is  vexatious  and  burdensome  ;  and  that  the 
morals  of  towns-people  and  villages  are  liable  to  be 
vitiated  by  the  constant  presence  of  soldiers.  The 
permanent  B.  were  few  in  number  down  to  the 
year  1792,  when  George  III.  obtained  the  con- 
sent of  parliament  for  the  construction  of  several 
new  ones,  and  for  the  founding  of  the  office  of 
barrack-master-general.  Various  changes  in  the 
arrangements  were   made   from  time   to  time.     The 


B  ARRACOON— B  ARR  AS. 


expenditure  for  B.,  in  buildinpc,  rebuiidiiie,  enlar- 
ging, and  repairing,  between  1793  and  18(14,  was 
£4,l(tO,0(«);  between  1804  and  ISID,  £3,ii-20,(l()t) ; 
and  between  1819  and  1859  (including  Aldenshott 
B.),  upwards  of  £7,()(tO,()00.  It  lias  been  found,  on 
a  detailed  exanunation,  that  in  17  B.,  eonstructed 
between  18o2  and  1857,  the  cost  varied  from  £27  to 
£209  per  soldier  acconiinoduted,  according  to  the 
heaviness  of  the  worU,  and  to  the  inclusion  or  exclu- 
sion of  iness-roouKs  and  quarters  for  the  oHicers. 

The  condition  of  British  soldiers  has,  ever  since 
the  disasters  in  the  Crimea  in  the  winter  of  1854, 
been  an  object  of  much  public  solicitude.  This 
solicitude  was  so  strongly  expressed  as  to  break 
through  the  cold  foinialities  of  the  official  depart- 
ments. Returns  were  ordered,  and  conunissioiis  and 
committees  appointed,  partly  to  inquire  into  existing 
facts,  partly  to  suggest  improvements.  In  1857,  a 
return  was  ordered  by  the  House  of  Commons  of  all 
the  B.  in  the  United  Kingdom — shewing  the  locality, 
condition,  amount  of  accommodation,  and  internal 
economy.  The  return  made  in  obedience  to  this 
order  enumerated  252  barracks.  There  is  a  barrack- 
master-general,  who  superintends  the  construction 
and  repairs,  and  adapts  the  accommodation  to  the 
requiiements.  The  local  barrack-masters  (mostly 
half-p;iy  or  retired  military  officers)  act  under  him, 
and  attend  to  the  internal  economy  of  the  barracks. 
Under  these  barrack-masters  are  barrack-clerks  and 
barrack-sergeants,  to  assist  them  in  the  duties. 
The  furniture  of  the  B.  is  bought  by  the  War- 
office.  Tiie  French  have  a  singular  plan  of  hiring 
such  furniture  at  15  francs  per  man  per  annum; 
the  English  cost  is  about  25s.  per  man,  and  some 
of  our  officers  are  of  opinion  that  it  might  with 
advantage  be  superseded  by  the  French  plan. 
The  barrack-rooms  have  arm  and  accoutrement 
racks,  shelves,  and  pegs,  with  a  regular  order  for 
depositing  everything  thereon.  During  the  day,  all 
the  bedding  is  placed  in  exact  array ;  as  well  as 
dishes,  tins,  and  canteens.  A  subaltern  officer 
(lieutenant,  ensign,  or  cornet)  visits  every  room  every 
day.  The  iron  bedsteads  are  turned  down  every  even- 
ing, and  up  every  morning.  One  non-commissioned 
officer  (sergeant  or  corporal)  has  control  over  each 
room,  and  is  responsible  for  ((uiet,  cleanliness,  &c. 
Married  women,  in  the  ratio  of  6  to  a  company  of 
100  soldiers,  may  live  in  the  B.  with  their  husbands, 
but  not  unless  the  marriage  has  been  with  consent 
of  the  commanding  officer.  The  married  soldier 
may,  however,  sleep  out  of  B.,  and  is  allowed  an 
extra  'Id.  per  day  if  he  does  so.  Each  soldier  in  a 
barrack  has  an  iron  bedstead,  a  rug,  a  paillasse,  a 
bolster,  two  blankets,  and  two  sheets;  he  pays 
nothing  for  these,  except  2(7.  per  month  for  washing 
the  bed-linen.  Each  soldier  has  his  name  and 
number  written  near  his  bed  and  knapsack. 

Notwithstanding  the  order  and  regularity  estab- 
lished in  B.,  committees  of  inquiry  ajjpointed  in  1855 
and  1857  ascertained  the  existence  of  grievous  defects. 
It  was  found  that,  out  of  252  B.,  only  20  had  sepa- 
rate sleeping-rooms  for  married  soldiers;  the  wives 
of  such  soldiers,  in  the  other  232,  being  obliged  to 
put  up  with  arrangements  repugnant  to  all  decency 
and  propriety,  or  else  sleep  away  from  the  B. 
altogether.  In  regard  to  sanitary  arrangements, 
most  of  the  existing  B.  are  very  defective,  espe- 
cially those  in  London,  where  an  increase  of  space 
is  costly  to  procure.  Army-physicians  recommend 
600  cubic  feet  of  room-space  per  soldier;  the  exist- 
ing standard  is  450  feet ;  and  in  some  B.  the  space  is 
as  low  as  220.  It  has  been  estimated  that  a  new 
barrack  for  1000  footguards  in  London  would  cost 
£150,000,  besiden  land,  the  cost  of  which  would 
depend  wholly  on  the  particular  site  selected.  Of 
all  the   money  spent   since    1854   on  B.,  only  one- 


fourth  has  been  for  soldiers'  rooms  ;  three-fourths 
has  been  absorbed  for  officers'  mess-rooms  and 
quarters,  stables,  and  various  business  premises.  In 
relation  to  all  the  various  subjects  of  barrack-life,  a 
committee  of  military  officers  has  drawn  up  a  most 
comprehensive  scheme  of  reform  ;  but  unfortunately 
the  cost  of  making  these  iuiprov(  inents  would  be  so 
enormous,  that  nothing  better  than  a  very  gradual 
adoption  can  be  ex]n>cted,  es])ocialiy  as  the  British 
military  system  has  lately  become  very  expensive  in 
other  directions  also. 

The  finest  existing  B.  in  this  country  are  perhaps 
those  at  Aldershott,  attached  to  the  camp  noticed  in 
another  article.  See  ALnKKsiiOTi  Camp.  The  build- 
ings extend  in  two  long  lines,  branching  out  of  the 
Farnborough  and  Farnham  road,  with  a  large  parade- 
ground  between  them.  The  infantry  and  artillery 
B.  arc  on  the  north  side  of  this  space,  and  the 
cavalry  B.  on  the  south.  The  infantry  B.  are 
divided  into  blocks,  forming  each  a  spacious  quad- 
rangle, with  a  courtyard  in  the  centre.  Each  block 
is  a  complete  barrack  for  a  full  regiment,  with  all 
the  men's  rooms,  store-rooms,  school-rooms,  offices, 
&c.  The  officers'  rooms  are,  however,  separate,  and 
occupy  open  spaces  between  the  blocks  of  buildings. 
All  the  four  sides  of  each  quadiangle  are  occupied 
by  various  rooms  and  buildings ;  the  men's  living 
and  sleeping-rooms  being  mostly  on  the  side  next  to 
the  parade-ground.  The  sleeping-rooms,  each  for  24 
men,  are  very  large  and  airy;  the  wasl'.ing-rooms  arc 
ample  and  well  fitted ;  and  the  cooking-rooms  will 
each  cook  for  350  men.  Dry  phiy-grounds  and  drill- 
yards,  under  glass  roofs,  are  provided.  A  broad 
balcony  outside  every  range  of  sleeping  rooms  enables 
the  soldiers  to  look  out  upon  these  grounds.  The 
married  soldiers  and  their  wives  are  comfortably 
provided  for,  in  rooms  wholly  apart  from  the  rest. 
The  artillery  and  cavalry  B.  resemble  in  their 
general  features  those  for  the  infantry,  with  such 
modifications  as  are  required  for  the  accommoda- 
tion of  horses,  fodder,  harness,  guns,  and  ordnance 
stores.  Taken  altogether,  these  B.  are  regarded  as 
among  the  finest  in  Europe — in  relation,  at  least, 
to  the  domestic  comfort  of  the  soldiers. 

B ARRACOON,  the  appellation  given  to  a  depot 
for  newly  captured  slaves  on  the  coast  of  Africa, 
and  where  they  remain  under  restraint  until  carried 
off  by  vessels  in  the  slave-trade  (q.  v.). 

BARRA'DA,  or  BURA'DA,  a  river  of  Syria, 
which,  rising  in  hit.  33°  50'  N.,  long.  36°  E.,  flows 
in  a  south-south-east  direction  towards  Damascus, 
above  which  it  divides,  one  branch  being  diverted 
to  irrigate  the  city  and  its  gardens,  while  the  other 
passes  on  the  north  side.  The  branches,  which  it  is 
supposed  were  the  Pliarpar  and  Abana  of  Scripture, 
afterwards  unite,  and  flow  into  the  marshes  and 
lake  of  Bahr-el-Meij. 

BARRAFRA'NCA,  a  town  of  Sicily,  in  the  dis- 
trict of  Piazza,  about  10  miles  south-east  of  Caltani- 
setta,  with  a  population  of  about  0000. 

B  ARR  AS,  Paul-Jeax-Fuan^ois-Nicolas,  Cocxt 
RE,  a  distinguished  character  of  the  French  Revo- 
lution, was  born  at  Foy,  in  Provence,  oOth  June 
1755.  In  his  youth  he  served  as  a  lieutenant  against 
the  British  in  India,  and  after  his  return  homo, 
w'asted  his  property  in  Paris  in  dissipation.  He 
eagerly  joined  the  revolutionary  party,  and  was 
a  deputy  of  the  Tiers-Etat  in  the  States-general  in 
1789.  lie  was  actively  concerned  in  the  storming 
of  the  Tuileries,  was  appointed  administrator  of  the 
department  of  Var,  and  afterwai-ds  of  the  county 
of  Nice.  In  the  Convention,  he  voted  for  the 
execution  of  the  king  without  delay  or  appeal,  and 
on  the  31st  May  1793  declared  again.st  the  Girond- 
ists.    The   siege    of    Toulon,    and   triumph  of    the 

709 


BARRATRY— BARREL. 


rcvolntiotiary  piirty  in  tlic  south  of  France,  were  in 
a  great  measure  owing  to  liis  activity  and  energy; 
and  after  the  victory,  he  was  deeply  concerned  in 
all  the  bloody  nieasures  which  were  adopted.  Yet 
he  was  hated  by  Robespierre  and  the  Terrorists,  as 
one  of  the  less  decided  revolutionists;  and  their 
overthrow  was  accomplished  mainly  by  him,  the 
Conxention  appointing  him  comniandcr-in-chii'f, 
and  virtually  investing  him  w^th  the  dictatorship 
for  tlie  time.  While  holding  this  high  office,  in 
which  he  acted  with  great  decision  and  vigour,  and 
on  the  same  day  on  which  Robespierre  fell,  he  paid 
a  visit  to  the  Temple,  and  provided  for  the  better 
treatment  of  the  king's  son ;  he  hastened  also  to 
the  Palais  de  Justice,  and  suspended  the  execution 
of  a  large  numl)er  of  persons  who  had  been  con- 
demned to  death.  On  subsequent  occasions,  he 
acted  with  decision  both  against  the  intrigues  of  the 
Royalists  and  the  excesses  of  the  Jacobins;  and  on 
13th  Vendemiaire  (5th  October  1795),  being  again 
appointed  commander-in-chief  by  the  Convention, 
ho  called  his  young  friend  Bonaparte  to  his  aid, 
and  crushed  the  sections  with  merciless  discharges 
of  artillery.  The  Directory  being  appointeil  in 
Novcmljer  1795,  B.  was  nominated  one  of  the  five 
members,  and  in  this  capacity  he  procured  the 
nomination  of  Bonaparte  as  commander-in-chief  of 
the  army  in  Italy.  It  was  he  who  arranged 
the  marriage  of  Bonaparte  with  the  widow  Bcau- 
harnais.  On  18th  Fructidor  (see  Franck,  History 
of),  he  w'as  again  invested  with  the  dictatorship, 
and  was  again  victorious.  His  authority  now 
became  preponderant  in  the  Directory,  and  he 
affected  the  pomp  of  a  king,  and  began  to  give 
splendid  entertainments  in  the  palace  of  the 
Luxembourg.  This  continued  for  about  two  years, 
till  the  decline  of  the  power  of  the  Directory. 
After  30th  Prairial,  Sicyes  and  he  had  the  whole 
executive  power  in  their  hands;  and  whilst  B. 
secretly  negotiated,  it  is  said,  with  the  Bourbon 
princes,  demanding  a  large  reward  for  their  restor- 
ation, Sieyes,  in  secret  vnulerstanding  with  Bonaparte, 
brought  about  the  revolution  of  18th  Brumaire. 
Notwithstanding  the  favours  he  had  formerly  con- 
ferred on  Bonaparte,  he  was  now,  perhaps  unavoid- 
ably, an  object  of  suspicion  to  him,  was  compelled 
to  remove  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Paris,  resided 
in  Brussels,  then  in  Marseille,  was  banished  to 
Rome,  and  thence  sent  to  Montpellier,  being  kept 
under  constant  surveillance  of  the  police,  and 
actually  found  to  have  been  engaged  in  conspiracies 
for  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons.  After  the 
Restoration,  he  returned  to  Paris,  and  purchased  an 
estate  in  the  neighbourhood  of  it,  where  he  died  on 
2'Jth  January  1829.  He  had  acquired  a  consider- 
able fortune  in  the  revolution.  His  memoirs, 
which  must  be  of  historic  importance,  were  seized 
by  the  government. 

BA'RRATRY,  Common,  or,  as  it  is  called  in 
old  English  law-books,  I]arretr;/,  is  the  offence  of 
inciting  and  stirring  up  suits  and  quarrels  among 
the  queen's  subjects.  One  offensive  act  of  the  kind 
is  not  sufficient  in  order  to  maintain  an  indictment 
for  this  offence  ;  but  it  inust  be  shewn  that  the 
party  accused  frequently^  or  at  lenst  on  more  than 
one  occasion,  conducted  himself  in  the  way  imputed; 
and  therefore  the  principle  of  the  law  appears  to 
strike  at  the  habit  or  disposition  of  evil-minded 
persons,  who  would  incite  to  quarrelling,  or  i)usy- 
bodics,  as  they  are  in  fact  called  in  old  law-reports ; 
who,  to  use  a  familiar  expression,  'set  people  by  the 
ears.'  This  term  is  supposed  by  some  to  be  derived 
from  the  French  word  Lnrratew\  which  signifies  a 
deceiver  ;  by  others,  from  the  Latin  word  Barratro, 
a  vile  knave.  Some,  again,  account  for  it  by  the 
suggestion  that  it  is  made  up  of  Barra,  the  bars 
710 


of  courts  of  justice,  and  Jiettuin,  an  old  word  signi 
fying  an  otlence ;  while,  by  other  unti(|uarian 
lawyers,  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  borrowed  from 
the  Normans;  the  Anglo-Norman  6are/ signifying  a 
quarrel  or  contention.  In  old  English  indictments, 
charging  this  offence,  the  accused  is  not  only 
described  as  pacis  domini  regis  perlurbator,  but  also 
oppressor  vicinorwn  suoruui ;  that  is,  he  uho  is 
guilty  of  B.,  is  not  only  a  disturber  of  the  public 
peace,  but  a  nuisance  to  his  neighbours.  The 
punishment  for  this  offence  is  fine  and  imprison- 
ment; but  if  the  offender  belongs  to  the  profession 
of  the  law,  as  is  too  frequontiy  the  case,  he  may 
besides  be  disabled  fron)  practising  his  profession 
for  the  future.  And,  indeed,  it  is  the  existing 
statute  law  of  England,  that  if  any  one  who  has 
been  convicted  of  B.  shall  practise  as  an  attorney, 
solicitor,  or  agent  in  any  suit,  the  court,  uj)on  com- 
l)laint,  shall  examine  the  matter  in  a  summary  way ; 
and  if  the  fact  of  such  conviction  be  proved,  may 
direct  such  offending  attorney,  solicitor,  or  agent  to 
be  kept  in  penal  servitude  for  not  more  than  seven 
or  loss  than  three  years. 

Akin  to  this  offence  is  another  of  equal  malignity 
and  mischief;  namely,  that  of  suing  anotlu-r  in  the 
name  of  a  fictitious  plaintiff.  If  connnitted  in  any 
of  the  superior  courts,  this  offence  is  treated  as  a 
high  contempt,  punishable  at  discretion,  and  in 
inferior  courts,  by  six  months'  imprisonment,  and 
treble  damages  to  the  party  injured. 

B.,  ill  the  sense  above  explained,  is  not  a  technical 
term  in  the  law  of  Scotland.  But  in  that  system 
there  is  a  word  Barutri/,  which  is  defined  as  the 
ci'ime  committed  by  a  judge,  wiio  is  induced  by  a 
bribe  to  pronounce  a  judgment,  or  who  barters 
justice  for  money. 

There  is  also  Baratr;/  of  Mariners,  which  signifies 
— in  the  law  not  only  of  England  and  Scotland,  but 
also  of  France  and  other  European  states — the  fraud 
of  the  master  or  mariners  of  a  ship  tending  to  their 
own  advantage,  but  to  the  prejudice  of  the  owners. 
Such  conduct,  however,  is  one  of  those  risks,  which 
are  usually  insured  against  in  marine  policies  of  in- 
surance.    See  Marine  Insurance. 

BA'RREL  (It.  barile;  Fr.  baril  =  bnrrique), 
primarily,  a  large  vessel  for  holding  liquids — pro- 
bably from  bar,  in  the  sense  of  to  guard,  confine, 
contain — and  then  a  certain  measure,  but  varying 
in  every  locality,  and  almost  for  every  liquid.  In 
the  old  English  measures,  the  barrel  contained  Sl-J- 
gallons  of  wine,  32  of  ale,  and  3G  of  beer — the  wine 
gallon  itself  difft-ring  from  that  of  ale  and  beer.  In 
imperial  gallons,  their  contents  would  be :  old  wine 
barrel  =  'lij\  gal.;  ale  do.,  32i;  beer,  36^.  The 
Italian  barile  varies  from  7  to  31  English  gallons ; 
the  French  barrique  of  Bordeaux  =  228  French 
litres  =  50  English  gallons.  Four  barriqiies  make 
a  tonneau.  In  many  cases,  B.  signifies  a  certain 
weiff/it  or  other  quantity  of  goods  usually  sold  in 
casks  called  barrels.  In  America,  flour  and  beef 
are  sold  on  the  large  scale  in  barrels :  a  B.  of 
flour  must  contain  1 90  lbs.  ;  of  beef,  200  lbs.  A 
B.  of  butter  =  224  lbs.;  of  soft  soap,  25G  lbs.;  of 
tar,  2()j  gallons. 

BA'RREL,  Gun.  The  relation  which  the  bar- 
rels of  small-arms  bear  to  the  stock,  lock,  and  other 
parts,  is  described  in  such  articles  as  Musket, 
Pistol,  Rifi.e,  Revolver,  &c.  ;  but  the  remarkable 
processes  of  man\d'acturing  these  barrels  may  be 
briefly  noticed  once  lor  all. 

The  iron  for  all  good  musket-barrels  contains  a 
portion  of  steel,  or  undergoes  some  kind  of  steeling 
process.  Ilorsesiioe  nails  or  stubs,  after  much 
violent  usnge,  yield  a  very  tougli  kind  of  iron 
when  re-heated ;  and  English  gun-makers  have  been 


BARREL-BULK— BARRICADES. 


accustomed  to  buy  such  refuse  on  the  continent ;  but 
the  Ibreign  makers  now  use  the  old  nulls  themselves  ; 
and  BiriiiiMi^luiin  puts  up  with  those  of  English 
make,  \vliii.'h  are  inferior  in  quality.  The  best  bar- 
rels are  now  made  in  England  of  laminated,  twisted, 
and  Damascus  steel.  To  prepare  linninatcd  stfel, 
Mr.  Greener,  a  celebrated  Birmingham  gunsmith, 
collects  scraps  of  saws,  steel-pens,  files,  springs,  and 
steel-tools,  from  the  various  workshops ;  cuts  them 
into  small  and  nearly  equal  pieces ;  cleans  and 
polishes  them  by  revolving  in  a  cylinder ;  fuses 
them  into  a  semifluid  state;  gathers  them  into  a 
'  bloom'  or  mass ;  forges  this  bloom  witli  a  tlii-ec- 
ton  hammer;  hardens  and  solidifies  it  with  a  tilt- 
hammer  ;  rolls  it  into  rods ;  cuts  each  rod  into 
pieces  si.K  inches  long;  welds  these  pieces  together; 
repeats  the  rolling,  cutting,  and  welding  several 
times;  and  thus,  finally,  brings  the  metal  into  a 
very  liard,  tough,  tibrous,  and  uniform  state. 
Twisted  steel  for  barrels  is  made  by  taking  thin 
plates  of  iron  and  steel,  laying  them  alternately 
one  on  another  in  a  pile,  welding  them  by  heat 
and  hanmiering,  and  twisting  them  by  very  power- 
ful mechanical  agency,  until  there  are  twelve  or 
fourteen  complete  turns  to  an  inch ;  the  length 
becomes  reduced  one-half,  and  the  thickness 
doubled,  by  this  twisting.  Damascus  steel  barrels 
are  made  of  steel  which  has  undergone  a  still 
further  series  of  welding  and  twisting  operations. 
Stub  Damascus  barrels  are  made  of  a  mixture  of 
old  files  with  old  horse-nails ;  the  files  are  heated, 
cooled  in  water,  broken  with  hammers,  and  pounded 
in  a  mortar  into  small  fragments;  three  parts  of 
these  fragmento  axe  mixed  %yith  five  of  stub;  and 
the  mixture  is  fused,  forged,  rolled,  and  twisted. 
An  inferior  kind  of  Damascus-twist  is  made  by 
interlaying  scraps  of  sheet-iron  with  charcoal,  and 
producing  an  appearance  of  twist,  but  without  the 
proper  qualities.  Threepcnny-skelp  and  Twopcnny- 
skelp  are  inferior  kinds  of  barrel-iron  ;  and  the  worst 
of  all  is  skam-dam  sfcclp,  of  which  gun-barrels  are 
made  for  hawking  at  a  cheap  price  at  country-fairs, 
and  for  barter  with  the  Indians  in  fur-hunting 
countries. 

The  gun-barrel  manufiicture  of  England  is  now 
almost  wholly  conducted  at  l?irniingham,  very  few 
barrels  being  made  in  London  or  elsewhere.  The  best 
barrels  are  all  twisted  into  form.  The  skelps,  or  long 
strips  of  prepared  steel,  are  twisted  into  a  close 
spiral  a  few  inches  long  ;  several  of  these  spirals  are 
welded  end  to  end  ;  and  the  fissures  are  closed  up 
by  heating  and  hannnering.  The  I'ough  barrel,  with 
a  core  or  mandril  temporarily  thrust  in  it,  is  placed 
in  a  groove,  and  hammered  cold  until  the  metal 
becomes  very  dense,  close,  strong,  and  elastic.  The 
interior  is  then  bored  truly  cylindrical  by  a  nicely- 
adjusted  rotating  cutting-tool.  If,  on  narrow 
inspection,  the  interior  is  found  to  be  straight  and 
regular,  the  exteiior  is  then  ground  on  a  rapidly 
revolving  stone,  and  finally  turned  in  a  lathe. 
Commoner  barrels  are  not  twisted :  the  skelps  are 
heated,  laid  in  a  semi-cylindrical  groove,  hammered 
till  they  assume  the  form  of  that  gi-oove,  placed  two 
and  two  together,  and  heated  and  hammered  until 
one  B.  is  made  from  the  two  halves.     See  Proof. 

A  few  pecnliaritios  in  some  of  the  recent  rifle- 
oarrels  will  be  noticed  under  the  names  of  those 
weapons  themselves. 

BA'RREL-BULK,  a  term  denoting  a  measure- 
ment of  5  cubic  feet,  used  chiefly  in  the  coasting- 
trade. 

BA'RREL-ORGAN.  An  organ  (q.  v.)  in  which  the 
music  is  ))roduc-cd  by  a  barrel  or  cylinder,  set  with 
pins  and  staples,  which,  when  driven  round  by  the 
hand,  opens  the  valves  for  admitting  the  wind  to  the 


pipes  according  to  the  notes  of  the  music.  The 
number  of  tunes  that  any  one  instrument  can  play 
is,  of  course,  very  limited.  Barrel-organs  are  gene- 
rally portable,  and  mostly  used  by  street-musicians. 
A  street-organ  costs  from  £30  to  £70,  according  to 
size.  The  most  perfect  barrel-organs  are  those 
which  arc  driven  by  a  motive-power,  of  which  the 
best  are  made  in  Vieimn,  and  cost  from  £100 
to  .£300.  The  Orchestrion,  made  by  Kaufmann  in 
Dresden,  is  a  large  self-acting  barrel-organ.  See 
Orchkstrion. 

BARRIIEA'D,  a  town  of  recent  growth  in  the 
east  part  of  Renfrewshire,  (>  miles  south-west  of 
Glasgow.  It  has  cotton  mills,  and  bleaching  and 
print  works.     Pop.  C06'.). 

BARRICA'DES  are  defence-works  employed 
both  in  the  military  and  naval  services.  Military 
engineers,  and  sappers  and  miners,  are  instructed  in 
the  art  of  barricading  streets  and  roads  wi;li  beams, 
chains,  chevaux-dc-frize,  and  other  obstacles,  either 
in  defending  a  town  against  besiegers,  or  in  suppres.s- 
ing  popular  tumults.  In  a  ship,  a  strong  wooden 
rail,  supported  on  stanchions,  and  extending  across 
the  foremost  part  of  the  quarter-deck  is  called  a 
barricade  ;  during  a  naval  action,  the  upper  part  of 
this  barricade  is  sometimes  stuffed  with  hammocks 
in  a  double  rope-netting,  to  serve  as  a  screen 
against  the  enemy's  small-shot.  B.  have  been  made 
use  of  in  street-fights  since  the  middle  ages,  but 
they  arc  best  known  in  connection  with  the  insur- 
rections in  the  city  of  Paris.  As  early  as  1358, 
the  streets  of  Paris  were  barricaded  against  the 
Dauphin,  afterwards  Charles  Y.  A  more  noteworthy 
barricade-fight  was  that  in  1588,  when  4000  Swiss 
soldiers,  marched  into  Paris  by  Henry  III.  to  over- 
awe the  Council  of  Sixteen,  wo\ild  have  been  utterly 
destroyed  by  the  populace,  firing  from  behind  B., 
had  the  court  not  consented  to  negotiation  ;  and  the 
result  was,  that  the  king  fled  next  day.  The  next 
barricade-fight  of  importance  in  Paris  was  that 
of  1830,  which  resulted  in  the  expulsion  of  the 
Bourbons  from  the  throne  of  France,  and  the  election 
of  the  citizen  king,  Louis  Philippe.  During  the 
three  days  which  this  revolution  lasted,  the  number 
of  B.  erected  across  the  streets  amounted  to  several 
thousands.  They  were  formed  of  the  most  hetero- 
geneous materials — overturnca  vehicles,  trees,  scaf- 
Iblding-poles,  planks,  building-materials,  and  street 
paving-stones,  men,  women,  and  children  taking 
part  in  their  erection.  In  February  1848,  the  insur- 
rection against  Louis  Philippe  commenced  with 
the  erection  of  B.  ;  but  the  most  celebrated  and 
bloody  barricade-fight  was  that  between  the  popu- 
lace and  the  Provisional  Government,  which,  com- 
mencing on  the  r.ight  of  the  'i3d  June  1848,  lasted 
throughout  the  three  following  days,  when  the  jieople 
had  to  surrender.  The  national  losses  by  this  fight 
were  estimated  at  30,im0,0()ii  francs;  16,000  persons 
were  killed  and  wounded,  and  8,000  taken  piisouers. 
The  Emperor  Napoleon  III.  has  so  widened  and 
macadamised  the  principal  streets  of  Paris  since  he 
ascended  the  throne,  as  to  render  the  successful 
erection  of  B.  next  to  impossible.  There  was  a 
remarkable  barricade-erection  in  London  in  1821. 
The  ministry  desired  that  the  body  of  Queen  Caro- 
line should  be  conveyed  out  of  the  country  to  Ger- 
many, for  interment,  without  the  populace  having 
the  opportunity  of  making  any  demonstration.  On 
the  matter  becoming  known,  a  vast  barricade  was 
erected  at  the  point  where  the  Hamstead  Road 
joins  the  New  Road  ;  and  as  nothing  but  the  use  of 
artillery  could  have  forced  the  way,  the  olficer  in 
charge  of  the  funeral  cortege  deemed  it  prudent  to 
change  his  course,  and  pass  through  a  more  centi-al 
part  of  the  metropohs.     During  the  revolutions  of 

711 


BARRIER  ACT— BARRISTERS. 


1848,  B.  were  successfully  carried  in  Paris,  Berlin, 
Vienna,  and  otticr  places,  by  abandoning  the  attack 
in  front,  and  breaking  through  the  liouses  of  con- 
tiguous streets,  taking  their  defenders  in  the  rear. 

BA'RRIER  ACT,  the  name  commonly  given  to  an 
act  of  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Church  of  Scot- 
land, 8th  January  1697,  intended  as  a  barrier  against 
innovations,  and  a  hindi-ance  to  hasty  legislation. 
It  provides  that  no  change  can  be  made  in  the  laws 
of  the  church  without  being  submitted  by  that 
General  Assemljly  which  first  approves  it,  to  the 
consideration  of  all  the  presbyteries,  and  approved 
by  a  majority  of  them  ;  after  which  it  still  remains 
to  be  considered  by  the  next  General  Assembly, 
which  then  may  or  may  not  pass  it  into  a  law.  The 
B.  A.  is  regarded  as  of  the  greatest  importance,  both 
in  the  Established  Church  of  Scotland,  and  in  ihc 
Free  Church.  Analogous  regulations  have  been 
adopted  by  other  Presbyterian  churches. 

BA'RRIER  REEF,  an  immense  coral-reef  extend- 
ing along  the  north-east  coast  of  Australia  for  nearly 
13(10  miles,  at  a  distance  from  the  shore  of  from  10 
to  upwards  of  100  miles.  The  reef  is,  iu  general, 
precipitous,  and  in  many  places  rises  out  of  great 
depths,  lines  of  280  fathoms  having  fiiiled  to  reach 
the  bottom  on  the  outer  side.  Formerly,  ignorance 
of  anything  like  its  precise  extent  and  character  led 
to  many  shipwrecks ;  but  within  the  last  twenty 
years,  it  has  been  surveyed,  and  pretty  accurately 
laid  down  on  charts.  In  the  couise  of  its  length 
there  are  several  breaks  or  passages  in  it.  In  the 
voyage  from  Sydney  to  Torres  Strait,  the  inner  route 
is  usually  taken.  It  is  narrow,  and  requires  delicate 
steering  ;  but  it  is  safe,  and  not  so  much  exposed 
as  the  outer  route,  which  enters  Torres  Strait  by 
Flinders  Entrance. 

BA'RRING  OUT,  a  practice  formerly  very  com- 
mon in  schools,  but  now  almost,  if  not  altogether, 
abandoned.  It  consisted  in  the  scholars  taking 
possession  of  the  school,  and  fastening  the  doors 
against  the  master,  at  whose  helplessness  they 
scoffed  from  the  windows.  The  usual  time  for 
B.  0.  was  immediately  prior  to  the  periodical 
vacation.  It  seems  to  have  been  an  understood 
rule  in  B.  0.,  that  if  the  scholars  could  sustain  a 
siege  against  the  master  for  three  days  they  were 
entitled  to  dictate  terms  to  him  regarding  the 
number  of  holidays,  hours  of  recreation,  &c.,  for 
the  ensuing  year.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  master 
succeeded  in  forcing  an  entry  before  the  expiry  of 
that  period,  the  insurgents  were  entirely  at  his 
mercy.  The  masters,  in  most  cases,  appear  to  have 
acquiesced  good-humouredly  in  the  custom;  but 
some  chafed  at  it,  and  exerted  their  strength  and 
their  ingenuity  to  storm  or  surprise  the  garrison. 
Addison  is  said  to  have  been  the  chief  actor  in  a 
B.  0.  of  the  master  of  Lichfield.  One  remarkable 
and  fatal  case  of  B.  0.  occurred  at  the  High  School, 
Edinl)urgh,  in  September  1595.  The  scholars  had  to 
complain  of  an  abridgment  of  their  usual  holidays 
by  the  town-council,  who,  on  being  remonstrated 
with,  refused,  even  though  the  claim  was  supported 
by  the  master,  to  grant  more  than  three  of  the 
eight  days  which  the  boys  demanded  as  their 
privilege.  They,  accordingly,  took  advantage  of  the 
master's  temporary  absence  to  lay  in  a  store  of 
provisions,  and  having  done  so,  they  barricaded 
the  doors.  The  magistrates,  the  patrons  of  the  school, 
in  vain  sought  admission,  the  boys  saying  they 
would  treat  with  their  master  only  ;  and  after  a  day 
and  night  had  passed,  it  was  resolved  to  force  an 
entrance.  The  result  was,  that  one  of  them.  Bailie 
Macmoran,  was  shot  dead  on  the  spot  by  a  scholar 
named  Sinclair.  The  scholars  of  Witton  School, 
Cheshire,  were  directed  by  the  statutes  drawn  up 
712 


by  the  founder,  Sir  John  Dcanc,  to  observe  (he 
practice :  '  To  the  end  that  the  scholhirs  have 
not  any  evil  opinion  of  the  schoolmaster,  nor  the 
schoolmaster  should  not  mistake  the  schoUars  for 
requiring  of  customs  and  orders,  I  will  that  upon 
Thursdays  and  Saturdays  in  the  afternoons,  and 
upon  holydays,  they  refresh  themselves — and  a  week 
before  Christmas  and  Easter,  according  to  the  old 
cuslom,  they  bar  arul  keep  forth  the  school  the  school- 
master, in  sttrh  sort  as  other  schollars  do  in  great 
schools.''  This  school  was  founded  in  1558.  See 
Brand's  Popular  Aidiquities,  Chambers's  Doniextic 
Annals,  and  Carlisle's  A'ndoiced  Granniiar  Schools. 

BARRINGTONIA'CE.E,  a  natural  order  of 
exogenous  trees  and  shrubs,  natives  of  tropical 
countries,  and  generally  very  beautiful  both  in 
foliage  and  flower.s.  Few  plants,  indeed,  exceed 
some  of  them  in  beauty.  The  stamens  are  very 
numerous,  and  form  a  very  conspicuous  part  of  the 
flower.  The  fruit  is  fleshy,  with  bony  seeds  lodged 
in  pidp.  That  of  some  species  is  eaten,  as  Careija 
arboicn,  an  Indian  tree,  the  stringy  bark  of  which 
is  used  in  the  countries  along  the  foot  of  the 
Himalayas  as  a  slow  match  for  matchlock  guns. 
Humboldt  and  Bonpland  mention  that  children 
become  quite  yellow  after  eating  the  fVuit  of  an 
American  species,  Gvstavia,  speciosa,  of  which,  how- 
ever, they  are  very  fond  ;  but  that  this  colour  dis- 
apjiears  in  a  day  or  two.  The  Moordili.a  [Barrinej- 
tonia  speciosa)  is  described  by  Sir  J.  E.  Tennent  as  a 
tree  wliich  much  attracts  the  attention  of  travellers 
in  Ceylon.  It  has  dark,  glossy  leaves,  and  delicate 
crimson-tipped  white  flowers.  '  The  stamens,  of 
which  there  are  nearly  100  to  each  flower,  when 
they  fall  to  the  ground,  might  almost  be  mistaken 
for  painters'  brushes.'  Some  botanists  include  this 
order  in  Mi;rtncece  (q.  v.). 

BARRISTER,    Revising.      See   Rkvising    Bak- 

KISTER. 

BARRISTERS,  or  BA'RRASTERS,  as  sometimes 
spelt  in  old  books.  This  is  the  distinctive  name  by 
which  the  advocates  or  pleaders  at  the  English  and 
Irish  bars  are  known ;  and  thus  its  derivation  is 
perhaps  sufficiently  accounted  for.  They  are 
admitted  to  their  office  under  the  rules  and  regu- 
lation? of  the  Inns  of  Court  (q.  v.),  and  they  are 
entitled  to  exclusive  audience  in  all  the  superior 
courts  of  law  and  equity,  and  generally  in  all  courts 
civil  and  criminal,  presided  over  by  a  superior  judge. 
In  certain  of  the  inferior  tribunals,  attorneys  are 
allowed  to  practice  without  the  assistance  of  counsel ; 
but  the  disposition  of  the  judges  of  these  inferior 
courts  is  to  encourage  the  presence  of  the  regular 
bar,  and  to  give  them  exclusive  audience.  In  Scot- 
land, the  same  body  are  styled  Advocatks  (q.  v.), 
and  they  have  the  same  exclusive  privileges  that 
B.  enjoy  in  England  and  Ireland.  These  Scotch 
advocates,  however,  are  members  of  the  Faculty  of 
Advocates,  or  Scotch  Bar,  properly  so  called,  and 
are  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  advocates  who 
practise  under  that  name  in  the  town  and  county  of 
Aberdeen,  and  who,  as  explained  in  a  former  article, 
are  simply  country  attorneys.  See  Attorneys  and 
Solicitors. 

Barristers  were  first  styled  Apprentices,  who 
answered  to  the  bachelors  of  the  universities,  as 
the  state  and  degree  of  a  seijcant  did  to  that  of  a 
doctor.  These  apprentices  or  barristers  seem  to 
have  been  first  appointed  by  an  ordinance  of  King 
Edward  I.  in  parliament,  in  the  twentieth  year  of 
his  reign  (Stephen's  Commentaries,  vol.  i.  p.  17, 
and  authorities  there  referred  to).  Of  barristers, 
tliere  are  various  ranks  and  degrees,  and  among 
each  other  they  take  precedence  accordingly ;  the 
general  name,   '  counsel,'  being,  in  the  practise  of 


BARRISTERS. 


the  court,  common  to  them  all.  But  they  may  be 
divided  into  three  leading  bodies.  Ist,  Barrister.^ 
simply,  or  utter  barristers,  who  occujjy  the  position  of 
junior  counsels,  wearing  a  jjlain  stutt-gown  and  a 
short  wig  ;  2rf,  Scrrfeantn-at-laiv,  a  legal  order  of  very 
ancient  state  and  degree,  ami  who  are  distinguished 
by  the  coif  and  other  peculiarities  (See  Serjeants- 
AT-iiAw) ;  and  3'/,  Qticeii's  Counsel,  or  Her  Maj- 
esty's Counsel  learned  in  the  law,  as  they  are 
more  formally  called,  and  who  may  be  selected  either 
from  the  outer  or  junior  bar,  or  from  the  Serjeants. 
They  may  be  described  as  the  ordinary  leaders 
of  the  bar,  and  wlio  are  distinguished  by  a  silk  gown, 
and  on  state  occasions,  and  always  in  the  House  of 
Lords,  they  wear  a  full-bottomed  wig.  For  fur- 
ther details,  see  Queen's  Counsel.  Besides  these 
three  orders  or  gradations  of  rank  at  the  English 
bar,  the  crown  sometimes  grants  letters-patent 
of  precedence  to  such  barristers  as  Her  majesty 
may  think  proper  to  honour  with  that  mark  of  dis- 
tinction, whereby  they  are  entitled  to  such  rank 
and  pre-audience,  as  are  assigned  to  them  in 
their  respective  patents.  See  Precedence,  Pa- 
tent OF. 

Thus  constituted,  the  English  bar  perform  their 
functions  enjoying  many  professional  privileges  and 
immunites,  and  a  high  social  position.  As  we  have 
before  stated,  they  have  exclusive  audience  in  all 
the  superior  courts,  where  upon  terms  and  condi- 
tions, and  according  to  an  etiquette,  which  are  all 
well  understood  by  attorneys  and  solicitors,  they  take 
upon  themselves  the  protection  and  defence  of 
any  suitor,  whether  plaintiff  or  defendant.  AVith  the 
brief  (q.  v.)  or  other  instructions,  by  means  of  which 
their  professional  services  are  retained,  B.  receive  a 
fee,  or  such  fee  is  endorsed  on  the  brief  or  instructions, 
and  afterwards  paid.  Such  generally  is  the  existing 
practice  at  the  English  bar,  differing  in  this  respect 
from  the  practice  of  the  bar  in  Scotland,  and,  we 
believe,  to  a  great  extent  in  Ireland  also — where  pre- 
paj'ment  of  the  fee  is  the  rigid  etiquette.  The  amount 
of  this  fee  in  England,  depends,  of  course,  on  the 
nature  of  the  business  to  be  done,  the  time  to  be 
occupied  and  the  labour  to  be  bestowed  ;  and  it  is 
usually,  especially  in  the  case  of  leading  counsel,  a 
liberal  sum.  The  barrister's  fee,  however,  is  not  a 
matter  of  express  contract  or  stipulation,  recover- 
able at  law  like  an  attorney's  bill  of  costs,  but  is 
regarded  as  a  mere  honorary  reward — qiiiddam 
honorarium,  as  it  is  called  in  law-books.  There  is, 
therefore,  no  means  of  enforcing  its  payment,  and 
indeed,  in  this  respect,  the  barrister  has  notliing  to 
rely  upon  but  the  honour  and  good  faith  of  those 
who  employ  him.  Where,  however,  it  can  be  proved 
that  the  client  or  party  gave  money  to  the  solicitor 
or  attorney,  with  which  to  fee  the  counsel,  the  latter 
may  maintain  au  action  against  the  former  for  the 
amount. 

In  order  to  encourage  due  freedom  of  speech  in 
the  lawful  defence  of  their  clients,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  to  give  a  check  to  unseemly  licentiousness, 
it  has  been  held  that  a  counsel  is  not  answerable 
for  any  matter  by  him  spoken,  relative  to  the  cause 
in  hand,  and  suggested  in  his  client's  instructions, 
although  it  should  reflect  upon  the  reputation  of 
another,  and  even  prove  absolutely  groundless ;  * 
but  if  he  mentions  an  untruth  of  his  own  invention, 
or  even  upon  instructions,  if  it  be  impertinent 
to  the  cause  in  hand,  he  is  then  liable  to  an  action 
from  the  party  injured ;  and  counsel  guilty  of 
deceit  of  collusion  are  punishable  by  the  statute 
Westm.  I.  (3  Edw.  I.,  c.  28)  with  imprisonment 
for   a    year  and    a  day,    and    perpetual    silence    in 


*  But  the  publication  of  tho  counsel's  statement  by  a  third 
parti/  may  expose  such  third  party  to  an  action. 


the  courts — a  punishment  which  may  be  inflicted 
for  gross  misdemeanors  in  practice,  although  the 
course  usually  resorted  to  is  lor  the  Benchers  of  the 
Inn  of  Court,  which  the  person  so  oftending 
bclong.s,  to  disbar  him.  See  Stephen's  Connnentary^ 
and  Ker's  B/ackstotie,  and  see  Bknciiehs  and  Disbar. 

But  besides  advocacy  and  forensic  disputation,  B, 
in  Englanil  have  other  business  to  which  they  have 
extended  their  practice,  to  the  gieut  advantage  of 
the  ])ublic.  Tins  additional  practice  consists  in 
advising  on  the  law  by  their  opinion  on  a  case 
stated,  by  means  of  which  harassing  and  fruitless 
litigation  is  often  prevented  (see  Opinion  ok 
Colnsel)  ;  in  drawing  or  |)reparing  the  j)leadings 
or  statement  of  facts  on  which  an  action  or  suit  is 
founded  (see  Pleauing)  ;  and  in  preparing  the  drafts 
or  scrolls,  of  legal  instruments,  indentures,  deeds, 
contracts,  or  other  conveyances.  See  Conveyancing 
and  Conveyancer.  As  a  correlative  privilege  of  the 
position  in  which  they  stand  in  respect  of  their 
fees,  barristers,  are  not  personally  liable  for  the 
injurious  consequences  of  any  erroneous  advice  they 
may  give  •,  and  they  claim  absolute  control  over 
the  conduct  of  all  litigation  in  which  they  may  be 
engaged,  even  to  withdrawing  it  I'roni  court  alto- 
gether, and  referring  it  to  arbitration  ;  and  until 
lately,  it  was  the  opinion  of  the  profession  that 
counsel  might  at  any  time,  during  the  progress  of  a 
cause,  compromise  the  matter  in  dispute ;  but  the 
exercise  of  such  discretion  was  successfully  opposed 
in  a  recent  case,  and  it  may  now  be  doubted  whether 
B.  have  any  ex  officio  privilege  beyond  the  guidance 
and  conduct  of  actual  litigation  in  court. 

It  is  from  the  body  of  B.  that  all  the  judges  in 
England,  superior  and  inferior,  are  appointed ;  but 
B.  are  also  usually  chosen  for  the  office  of  police 
magistrate.  The  only  exception  to  the  exclusive 
appointment  of  B.  to  judicial  offices,  is  the  case  of 
the  Court  of  Quarter  Session.? — a  court  of  anomalous 
constitution  and  jurisdiction,  but  which  ^yorks  well 
in  practice,  and  has  many  claims  to  consideration. 
See  Quarter  Sessions,  Court  of. 

The  bar  in  Ireland  stands  on  the  same  footing, 
and  has  the  same  ranks  and  degrees,  and  is  subject 
very  much  to  the  same  rules  and  regulations,  as  the 
English  bar ;  and  in  that  country,  bjrrister  also  is 
the  name  by  which  the  profession  of  an  advocate  is 
distinguished.  In  Scotland,  the  same  office  is  simply 
called  by  its  own  name  of  Advocate.  See  Advo- 
cates, Faculty  of. 

At  the  bar  of  the  House  of  Lords,  and  before 
parliament  generally,  before  the  privy-council,  and 
also,  it  is  believed,  in  all  trials  for  high  treason, 
whether  in  England,  Ireland,  or  Scotland,  the  three 
bars  rank  on  a  footing  of  ecjuality,  taking  precedence 
according  to  the  date  of  their  call  and  admission  to 
their  own  respective  bars,  with  the  exception  of 
English  and  Irish  Queen's  Counsel,  who  generally 
lead  the  Scotch  bar,  among  whom  the  only  counsel 
of  corresponding  rank  are  the  Lord  Advocate  (see 
Advocate,  Lord),  the  Solicitor  General  of  Scotland 
(q.  V.)  and  the  Dean  of  Factiltt/  (q.  v.).  It  was  at 
one  time  disputed  between  the  Lord  Advocate  of 
Scotland  and  the  Attorney-General  of  England,  which 
of  them  should  lead  the  other  at  the  bar  of  the 
House  of  Lords;  and  a  case  occurred  in  1834  in 
the  House  of  Lords,  before  Lord  Chancellor 
Brougham,  in  which  very  high  pretensions  were 
urged  on  behalf  of  both  functionaries.  These  were 
the  present  Lord  Chancellor  Campbell  as  attorney- 
general,  and  the  late  Lord  Jeffrey  as  lord  advocate, 
who  contended  that  as  he  was  not  only  the  first 
law-officer  of  the  crown  in  Scotland,  but  also  a  high 
political  officer,  he  was  entitled  to  lead  the  former. 
But  the  House  decided  that  the  attorney-general  of 
England  has  precedency  over  the  Lord  Advocate  of 

713 


BARROS— BARROW. 


Scotland,  in  all  inuttei-s  in  which  they  may  appear 
as  ouunsol  at  their  lor(Jsliip''s  bar ;  and  it  is  presumed 
that  the  same  rule  would  be  followed  Ijefore  parlia- 
ment (generally,  the  privy-council,  and  in  all  trials 
for  hiji;li  treason,  whether  in  England,  Ireland,  or 
Scotland.  The  relative  rank  of  the  IriaJi  law-officers 
has  not  l)een  determined. 

It  oidy  remains  to  be  added,  that  as  the  three 
))ars  are  on  a  footing  of  equality  in  the  House  of 
Lords,  and  the  other  imperial  and  supreme  tribunals 
above  mentioned,  the  English  bar  have  no  exclusive 
audience  in  these,  even  in  English  cases ;  but  all 
causes  whatever  there,  whether  Engli-sh,  Irish,  Scotch, 
or  colonial,  may  be  equally  and  discriminately 
taken  and  advocated  by  English,  Irish,  or  Scotch 
counsel. 

BA'RROS,  JoAO  DE,  the  most  distinguished  of 
Portuguese  liistorians,  was  born  of  an  ancient  and 
noble  family  at  Viscu  in  1496  ;  became  a  page  to 
King  Emmanuel,  and  afterwards  companion  to  the 
Crown  Prince.  He  pursued  his  cla.ssical  and  other 
studies  with  great  diligence,  and  wrote  a  historical 
romance  in  his  24th  year,  which  attracted  much 
admiration  by  the  peculiar  beauty  of  its  style. 
Hereupon  the  kirg  a.ssigned  him  the  task  of  writing 
the  history  of  the  Portuguese  in  India,  whicli  he 
undertook,  but  of  which  only  the  first  three  decades 
proceeded  from  liis  pen,  under  the  title  of  Asia 
Portuf/uezn  (Lisb.  1552 — 1563);  the  continuation 
extending  to  twelve  decades,  was  the  work  of  Diego 
de  Couto.  (A  new  edition  of  the  whole  appeared  at 
Lisbon,  in  8  vols.,  in  1778 — 1788.)  B.  was  for  some 
time  governor  of  the  Portuguese  settlements  in 
Guinea,  and  afterwards  treasurer  and  general  agent 
for  the  Indies.  In  1539,  the  king  bestowed  on  him 
the  province  of  Maranhao  in  Brazil,  that  he  might 
found  a  colony  there  ;  but  he  was  obliged  to  renounce 
the  enterprise  after  much  loss.  He  died  at  his  estate 
of  Alitcm  on  the  20th  of  October,  1570. 

BARRO'SA,  a  village  of  Spain  16  miles  south- 
south-east  of  Cadiz,  celebrated  in  history  as  the 
place  where  General  Graham  (afterwards  Lord  Lyne- 
doch,)  in  Slarch  1811,  with  a  handful  of  Engli.-^h 
troops,  succeeded  in  gaining  over  the  French,  after 
his  Spanish  allies  had  retreated,  one  of  the  most 
glorious  victories  of  the  Peninsular  campaign.  More 
than  2000  French  were  killed  and  wounded  (some 
authorities  give  nearly  3000  killed  alone),  300  pris- 
oners taken,  6  pieces  of  cannon,  and  an  eagle — the 
first  captured  in  the  war. 

BARROT,  Camille  Hvacinthe  Odillon,  a 
French  jurist  and  statesman,  son  of  a  member 
of  the  Convention,  and  afterwards  of  tlie  Council 
of  Five  Hundred,  was  born  at  Villefort,  Lozere, 
19th  July  1791.  In  1814,  he  became  an  advocate 
in  the  Court  of  Cassation,  Paris,  and  soon  acquired 
a  high  reputation  as  an  eloquent  pleader.  Entering 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies  young,  he  in  time  came 
to  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  influential  leaders 
of  the  liberal  opposition.  At  the  Revolution  of 
1830,  he  was  one  of  the  three  commissioners  ap- 
pointed by  the  provisional  government  to  accompany 
Charles  X.  from  Ranibouillet  to  Cherbourg,  on  his 
embarkation  for  England.  Under  the  new  govern- 
ment, he  was  appointed  prefect  of  the  department 
of  the  Seine ;  and  in  Lafayette's  ministry,  a  member 
of  the  Council  of  State.  In  a  few  months,  however, 
he  resigned  his  office  of  prefect,  and  declined  the 
post  of  amba.ssador  at  Constantinople,  ofi'ered  him 
by  Louis  Philippe.  After  Casimir  Perier  became 
minister,  he  lost  also  his  place  in  the  Council  of 
State.  He  now  began  his  opposition  career  in  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  against  the  reactionary  policy 
of  the  government,  and  became  the  rallying-point 
for  all  who  desired  the  carrying  out  of  the  principles 
714 


I  cf  the  July  revolution.  He  essentially  contributed 
to  the  removal  of  the  Doctrinaires  (q.  v.)  from  office, 
in  February  1836,  and  energetically  opposed  the 
mini.stry  of  Mole,  even  supporting  the  Doctrinaires 
in  accomplishing  its  overthrow,  in  January  1839. 
The  same  year  he  visited  England  and  Scotland. 
When,  in  March  1840,  Thiers  was  placed  at  the 
head  of  the  government,  B.  for  the  first  time 
declared  himself  in  favour  of  the  ministerial  policy 
on  the  oriental  question.  On  the  return  of  Guizot 
to  office  in  October  following,  his  opposition  to  the 
government  was  renewed.  Taking  a  consjiicuous 
part  in  the  Reform  movement  of  1847,  he  attended 
several  of  the  provincial  reform  lianquets,  which 
led  to  the  revolution  of  1848.  On  the  outbreak 
of  the  struggle  of  23d  February,  when  Louis 
Philippe  called  upon  Thiers  to  form  a  new  ministry, 
B.  was  appointed  president.  His  advice  to  the  kiiig 
to  withdraw  his  troops  proved  fatal  to  the  throne 
of  July.  In  the  last  sitting  of  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies,  B.  supported  the  claim  of  the  Count  de 
Paris  to  the  throne,  and  the  regency  of  the  Duchess 
of  Orleans.  From  that  time  his  influence  declined. 
A  member  of  the  Constituent  and  Legislative 
assemblies,  he  was,  on  the  formation  of  the  first 
ministry  of  Prince  Louis  Napoleon,  appointed 
president  of  the  ministerial  council,  and  keeper 
of  the  seal;  but  in  March  1850,  he  was  succeeded 
by  Baroche.  He  subsequently  took  part  in  the 
coalition  formed  in  opposition  to  the  president,  after- 
wards Emperor  Louis  Napoleon. 

BA'RROW,  a  distinctive  term  applied  to  two 
prominent  localities  of  the  Arctic  Ocean  in  honour 
of  the  secretary  to  the  Admiralty  of  the  same  name, 
the  prime  mover  in  the  more  recent  era  of  northern 
discovery. — 1.  Point  B.,  in  lat.  71°  23'  N.,  and  long. 
156°  31'  W.,  generally  received  as  the  most  northerly 
spot  on  the  American  mainland ;  see,  however, 
Bi:llot  Strait,  and  MunciiisoN  Pi.omontory.  From 
this  circumstance  it  has  also  been  called  Cape  North 
— a  designation  inconvicntly  amliiguou.s,  as  tend- 
ing to  confound  this  headland  at  once  with  Cape 
North  in  Asia,  and  with  North  Cape  in  Europe. — 
2.  Barrow  Slait,  the  earliest  of  Parry's  discoveries, 
leading  to  the  west  out  of  Lancaster  Sound,  which 
Parry's  immediate  predecessor.  Captain,  afterwards 
Sir  John  Ross,  had  pronounced  to  be  landlocked  in 
that  direction.  Besides  its  main  course,  B.  Strait 
throws  off  Prince  Eer/enfs  Inlet  to  the  south,  and 
Wcllinr/lon  Channel  to  the  north.  The  passage 
averages  about  40  miles  in  breadth,  extending, 
prcttv  nearly  along  the  parellcl  of  74°  N.,  from  84'' 
to  90'°  W. 

The  interval  between  these  two  localities,  thus 
spanning  66°  of  long,  or  at  least  2000  miles,  only 
one  i;avigator  has  ever  traversed — the  indefatigable 
M'Clure,  carrying  his  good  ship,  the  Bnrsfif/afor, 
round  Point  B,  and  leaving  her  behind  him  only  when 
almost  in  sight  of  B.  Strait. 

BA'RROW,  a  river  in  the  south-east  of  Ireland. 
Of  the  Irish  rivers,  it  is  in  imjjortance  next  to 
the  Shannon.  It  rises  in  the  north  of  Queen's 
county,  on  the  north-east  slope  of  the  Slieve  Bloom 
ri(!ge  of  mountains.  It  flows  first  east  pa.^t  Port- 
arlington  to  the  border  of  Kildaro  County,  and  then 
south  between  Queen's,  Kilkenny,  and  Watcrford 
co>n)ties  on  the  west,  and  Kildare,  Carlow,  and 
Wexford  counties  on  the  east,  passing  the  towns 
of  Athy,  Carlow,  and  New  Ross.  It  has  a  course 
of  100  miles  through  a  earboniftrous,  granitic,  and 
Silurian  liasin.  Two  miles  above  New  Ross  it 
leceives  the  Nore  (q.  v.),  and  ciglit  miles  east  of 
Waterford,  it  is  joined  by  the  Suir  (q.  v.).  These 
three  rivers  (called  the  Three  Sisters,  from  their 
rising  in  the  same  mountain-ridge,  and  joining  near 


BARROW— BARROWS. 


the  sea,  after  flowing  through  different  countries) 
form,  near  the  sea,  the  large  and  secure  estuary  of 
Waterford  harbour,  9  miles  long.  The  B.  is  navi- 
gable for  ships  of  300  tons  to  New  Ross,  25  miles  up, 
and  for  barges  to  Athy,  Go  miles  up,  whence  the 
Grand  Canal  eoniniunicates  with  Dublin.  The  B.,  below 
Portarlington,  falls  227  feet. 

BARROW,  Isaac,  an  eminent  English  mathe- 
matician and  divine,  was  born  in  1630.  lie  received 
his  early  education  at  the  Charter-house,  where  he 
was  distinguished  chiefly  by  his  negligence  and 
pugnacity.  At  Felstead  school,  in  Essex,  to  which 
he°went" next,  he  greatly  improved;  and  in  164:3,  lie 
was  entered  at  Peter-house,  Cambridge,  under  his 
uncle  Isaac  Barrow,  then  a  fellow  of  that  college, 
and  finally  bishop  of  St.  Asaph.  On  the  ejection  of 
his  uncle"  in  li'.45,  he  removed  to  Trinity  College, 
where  he  became  B.A.  in  1648,  fellow  in  1649,  and 
M.A.  in  1652.  Finding  that  to  be  a  good  theologian 
he  must  know  chronology,  that  chronology  implies 
astronomy,  and  astronomy  mathematics,  he  applied 
himself  to  the  latter  science  with  distinguished 
success.  To  the  classics  he  had  already  devoted 
much  study,  and  on  the  vacancy  of  the  Greek  chair, 
he  was  recommended  for  the  office  ;  but  a  suspicion 
of  Arminianism  interfered  with  his  success.  After 
this  disappointment,  he  went  abroad  (1655),  and 
travelled  during  four  years  through  France  and 
Italy,  to  Smyrna  and  Constantinople,  back  to 
Venice,  and  home  through  Germany  and  Holland. 
On  the  voyage  from  Leghorn  to  Smyrna,  his  deter- 
mined personal  courage  seems  to  have  been  instru- 
mental in  scaring  away  an  Algcrine  pirate,  after  a  brisk 
exchange  of  shots.  Soon  after  his  return  he  took 
orders,  and  in  the  following  year  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  Greek.  The  neglect  with  which  he  was 
treated  after  the  Restoration  is  celebrated  in  his  coup- 
let addressed  to  the  king — 

Te  macris  optavit  redditunim,  Carole,  nemo, 
Et  nemo  secsit  to  rudiis.se  minus. 

In  1662,  he  was  appointed  to  the  Gresham  professor- 
ship of  geometry,  which,  on  his  being  appointed  to 
the  Lucasian  professorship  in  1G63,  he  thought  it  his 
duty  to  resign.  The  latter  he  also  resigned  in  1669, 
in  favour  of  his  pupil  Isaac  Newton.  On  quitting 
his  professorship,  he  obtained  from  his  uncle  a  small 
living  in  Wales,  and  from  Dr.  Seth  Ward,  bishop 
of  Salisbury,  a  prebend  in  that  cathedral.  He  de- 
voted the  revenues  of  both  to  charitable  purposes, 
and  resigned  them  in  16*72,  on  being  appointed  by 
the  king  Master  of  Trinity  College.  To  him,  while 
in  this  office,  is  due  the  foundation  of  that  valuable 
library,  which  is  one  of  the  chief  ornaments  of  the 
university.  In  16*75,  he  was  nominated  vice-chancel- 
lor of  the  university ;  and  in  1677,  he  died  at  the 
early  age  of  47,  having  achieved,  by  his  numerous 
able  works,  and  the  force  of  his  noble  personal 
character,  a  reputation  which  time  has  left  un- 
impaired. Of  his  original  mathematical  works,  the 
principal  are  his  Lcetioues  Gcometricce  and  Lcctiones 
Optiae,  of  which  it  has  been  said  that  they  are 
'  a  mine  of  curious  interesting  propositions,  to  which 
geometry  is  always,  applied  with  particular  elegance.' 
As  a  theologian,  his  fame  rests  chiefly  on  his 
sermons,  which  are  very  remarkable  as  specimens 
of  clear,  exhaustive,  and  vigorous  discu.?sion.  His 
sermons,  it  may  be  added,  were  generally  of  exces- 
sive length.  One,  on  charity,  lasted  three  hours  and 
a  half ;  and  at  Westminster  Abbey,  he  once  detained 
the  audience  so  long  that  they  got  the  organ  to  play 
Uill  they  had  blowe'd  him  down.'  B.'s  English  works, 
consisting  of  sermons,  expositions,  &c.,  have  been 
edited  by  Dr.  Tillotson,  Dean  of  Canterbury,  and  pre- 
faced  with  a  life  by  Mr.  Hill.     His  works,   besides 


those  already  mentioned,  are  very  numerous,  and  in- 
clude Euclid/s  Elcineuta,  A'udidis  Data,  Mnt/ientaticif 
Lectioncs,  Opuscnla,  containing  Latin  sermons,  poems, 
speeches,  &c.  Lectioncs  Matlicwnticie  and  /..  G'eomc- 
tricce  have  been  translated  liy  Kirby  and  Stone.  Eu- 
clidis  Ekinenta  has  also  been  translated. 

BA'RROW,  Sir  John,  Baronet,  an  English 
traveller,  was  born  on  the  19th  June  1764,  at 
Drayleybcck,  in  Lancashire ;  was  early  instructed 
in  mathematics ;  and  after  having  published  a  small 
volume  on  land-surveying,  tilled  a  situation  in  a 
Liverpool  iron-foundry,  vLsitcd  Greenland  with  a 
whaler,  and  after  his  return  taught  mathematics  in 
an  academy  at  Greenwich.  He  received  an  appoint- 
ment as  private  secretary  and  keeper  of  accounts 
to  Lord  Macartney,  who  went  as  ambassador  to 
Cliina.  He  availed  himself  of  his  residence  in 
China  to  learn  the  Chinese  language,  and  to  collect 
valuable  materials  for  the  account  of  China,  which 
he  afterwards  gave  to  the  world,  partly  in  articles 
in  the  QnaHcrlij  Review,  and  partly  in  his  Travcla  in 
China  (Lond.  'l804).  When  Lord  Macartney  after- 
wards became  governor  of  Cajie  Colony,  B.  availed 
him,-;elf  of  his  residence  in  South  Africa  to  make 
extensive  excursions  in  the  interior  of  the  country, 
wliich  he  described  in  his  still  valuable  Travels  in 
the  Interior  of  Southern  Africa  (2  vols.,  Lond.  1801 
— 1803).  Having  returned  to  London,  in  the  year 
1804,  he  was  appointed  by  Lord  Melville  secretary 
to  the  Admiralty,  which  situation  he  continued  to 
hold  till  1845,  "except  for  a  short  time  in  1806. 
Besides  the  works  above  mentioned,  B.  publislicd 
A  Voyaqe  to  Cochin- Chin  a  in  the  Years  1792 
and  1793  (Lond.  1806),  The  Life  of  Macartney 
(2  vols.,  Lond.  1807),  A  Chronological  Ilistory  of 
Voyages  into  the  Arctic  Her/iois  (Lond.  1818);  also 
a  series  of  Lives  of  English  Naval  Worthies.  Under 
Peers  ministry  in  1835,  he  was  raised  to  the  baron- 
etcy. In  the  year  1845  he  retired  from  public  ser- 
vice, but  afterwards  published  An  Autobior/raphical 
Memoir  (Lond.  1847),  and  Sketches  of  the  Jioyal 
Socictif,  and  died  at  London,  23d  November  1848. 
He  rendered  many  services  to  geographical  science 
by  suggesting  and  promoting  scicntiflc  expeditions; 
w'ith  him  also  originated  the  Idea  of  the  Geographical 
Society,  founded  "in  1830,  of  which  he  was  vice-presi- 
dent till  his  death. 

BA'RROW-ON-SOAR,  a  village  in  the  north  of 
Leicestershire,  10  miles  north  of  Leicester.  It  is 
noted  for  its  blue  lime  or  terras,  which  makes  good 
cement  under  water.  It  has  manufactures  of  lace 
and  stockings.  It  has  free  schools  and  several 
charities ;  and  is  the  seat  of  the  Poor-Law  Union  of 
the  district,  with  a  workhouse  capable  of  accommo- 
dating 500  persons. 

BA'RROWS,  artificial  mounds  of  earth  generally 
believed  to  have  been  erected  for  sepulchral  or 
monumental  purposes.  They  are  very  numerous  in 
Gre:it  Britain,  and  many  of  them  are  supposed  to 
belong  to  a  period  long  prior  to  the  Roman  invasion. 
The  counties  of  AVilts  and  Dorset  are  especially 
rich  in  these  remains,  and  the  B.  of  the  former 
have  been  thoroughly  explored,  described,  and 
classified  by  Sir  R.  C  Hoare  in  his  Ancient  Wilt- 
shire (2  vols.  fol.  1810—1821).  In  the  sepulchral 
B.,  the  human  remains  are  buried  either  in  a 
rude  stone  'cist'  or  chest,  in  which  the  body  was 
doubled  up,  or  are  laid  at  ftiU  length  in  the  earth, 
accompanied  liy  arms  and  other  utensils.  Where 
tlie  body  was  burned,  the  remains  were  laid  on  the 
floor  of  the  barrow,  in  a  cist  excavated  on  the  spot, 
or  at  a  later  epoch,  in  a  clay  urn.  Sir  R.  Hoare 
considers  the  Wiltshire  B.  as  indicating  three  stages 
in  the  progress  of  society.  The  first  class  contains 
spear  and  arrow  heads  of  flint  and  bone  ;  the  second, 

^  715 


BARRY— BARTAN. 


of  brass ;  and  the  third  contains  arms  and  instru- 
ments made  of  iron.  One  of  the  largest  barrows  in 
Europe  is  yilbury  Hill,  near  Marlborough,  in  Wilt- 
shire, which  covers  5  acres,  34  perches  of  land, 
and  has  a  slope  of  316  feet,  with  a  perpendicular 
height  of  no.  According  to  Sir  R.  Iloure,  banow- 
burial  was  practised  down  to  the  8th  c,  from  a  period 
of  unknown  antiquity.  The  practice  of  erecting 
sepulchral  mounds  prevailed  among  all  the  principal 
nations  of  antiquity  both  in  Europe  and  Asia,  and 
they  are  found  in  great  numbers  in  Central  America. 
Many  barrows  are  only  partly  artificial  ;  natural 
mounds  having  been  shaped  by  liunjan  hands  into  the 
form,  round  or  oblong,  which  it  was  wished  they 
hould  take. 

BA'RRY,  a  small  island,  of  about  a  mile  long,  in 
the  Bristol  Channel,  off"  the  south  coast  of  Glamor- 
ganshire, 10  miles  south-west  of  Cardiff.  It  has 
the  ruins  of  an  ancient  castle  and  of  two  chapels. 
On  Nell's  Point,  in  the  south  part  of  the  Lsland,  is  a 
fine  well,  to  which  great  numbers  of  women  resort 
on  Holy  Thursday,  and  having  washed  their  eyes  in 
the  spring,  each  drojjs  a  pin  into  it. 

BA'RRY  (in  Heraldry),  the  term  applied  to  a  shield 
which  is  diviled  transversely  into  four,  six,  or  more 
equal  parts,  and  consisting  of  two  or  more  tinctures 
interchangeably  disposed. 


"^ 


7 


liiiiMMi! 


Barry. 


Barry-bendy. 


Barry-pily. 


Barry-betul!/  is  where  the  shield  is  divided  into 
four,  six,  or  more  equal  parts,  by  diagonal  lines, 
the  tincture  of  which  it  consists  being  varied  inter- 
changeably. 

£arri/-pili/  is  where  the  shield  is  divided  by  dia- 
gonal lines,  the  colours  being  interchanged  as  in  the 
example. 

BA'RRY,  CoMTESSE  du.     See  Vaubernier. 

BA'RRY  CORNWALL.  See  Procter,  Bryan 
Walter. 

BA'RRY,  Sir  Charles,  R.A.,  architect  of  the 
two  Houses  of  Parliament,  son  of  Walter  Barry, 
Esq.,  Westminster,  was  born  there  in  May  179.3. 
Educated  at  private  schools  in  Leicestershire  and 
Bedfordshire,  he  was  indentured  to  Messrs.  Middle- 
ton  and  Bailey,  architects,  Lambeth.  In  1817,  at  the 
age  of  22,  he  went  to  Italy.  A  wealthy  countryman 
of  his  own,  attracted  by  the  beauty  of  his  drawings, 
took  him  with  him  to  Egypt,  as  his  companion, 
defraying  his  expenses.  He  also  visited  Greece  and 
Rome.  On  his  return  to  England  after  an  absence 
of  three  and  a  half  years,  he  became  the  successful 
competitor  for  the  design  of  a  church  at  Brighton. 
He  was  also  the  architect  of  the  Manchester  Athen- 
Ecum,  a  building  in  the  Grecian  style ;  and  of  the 
Grammar  School  of  King  Edward  VI.  at  Birming- 
ham ;  the  latter  esteemed  the  most  beautiful  of  liis 
works.  In  London,  he  designed  the  Traveller's  Club, 
and  the  Reform  Club,  both  in  Pall  Mall,  and  the 
College  of  Surgeons,  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields.  After  the 
burning  of  the  old  Houses  of  Parliament  in  1834,  on 
a  public  competition,  B.'s  design  for  the  new  building 
was  adjudged  the  best.  The  work  was  commenced  in 
1840  ;  and  on  3d  February  1852,  Her  Majesty  opened 
the  Victoria  Tower  and  Royal  Gallery  in  state,  and 
on  the  occasion  knighted  the  architect.  Chosen  a 
Royal  Academician  .i  1842,  Sir  Charles  was  also  a  Fel- 
low of  the  Royal  Society,  of  the  Society  of  Arts,  and 
71G 


of  the  Institute  of  Briti.sh  Architects.  Ilis  architec- 
tural works  are  numerous.      He  died  May  12,  I8G0. 

BA'RRY,  James,  a  historical  painter,  born  at 
Cork,  October  11,  1741  ;  and  distinguished  more  by 
the  force  of  his  conception  than  the  excellence  of  hia 
manipulation,  or  the  beauty  of  his  colour.  Dr. 
Johnson's  criticism  on  his  works  was:  'Whatever 
the  hand  may  have  done,  the  mind  has  done  its 
part.  There  is  a  grasp  of  mind  there  which  you 
will  find  nowhere  else.'  The  ckef-d'a'uvre  of  B.  is 
the  Victors  at  Olympia — a  work,  a  sight  of  which, 
Canova  said,  was  of  itself  sufficient  to  repay  a 
journey  to  England.  B.  was  a  protege  of  Edmund 
Burke.  lie  was  of  irritable  temper,  which  led  him 
into  many  quarrels ;  and  the  result  of  one  with  the 
Royal  Academy  was  his  expulsion  from  the  academy. 
He  died  on  the  22d  of  February  1806,  in  poor  circum- 
stances, while  some  friends  were  engaged  in  raising 
subscriptions  to  purcha.se  him  an  annuity. 

BA'RRY,  Martin,  a  ]ihysiologist  of  eminence, 
was  born  at  Fratton,  Hampshire,  in  1802.  He 
studied  at  the  medical  schools  of  London,  and  also 
at  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  where  he  took  his 
degree  of  M.D.  in  1833.  He  wrote  nnu-h  on  physio- 
logical subjects,  and  especially  on  animal  develop- 
ment, and  embryology,  for  discoveries  in  which  he  is 
best  known.  Until  the  publication  of  his  ])apers  in 
the  '  Philosophical  Transactions'  of  the  Royal  Society 
of  London  in  1840-1843,  it  was  not  known  that 
spermatozoa  actually  jionetrate  icitliiu  the  ovum ; 
and  physiologists  are  also  indebted  to  him  for  the 
knowledge  of  the  segmentation  of  the  yelk  in 
mannuals.  In  his  {)rivate  capacity,  B.  was  amiable 
and  greatly  benevolent.  His  means  being  ample,  he 
gave  his  professional  services  largely  to  the  poor  ;  and 
he  acted  as  house-surgeon  to  the  Edinburgh  Royal 
Maternity  Hospital.  He  died  at  Beccles,  in  Suffolk,  in 
April  1855. 

BARSCH,  or  BARS,  a  fortified  town  of  Hungary, 
capital  of  the  county  of  the  same  name.  It  is  situated 
on  the  Gran,  which  divides  it  into  Old  and  New  B. 
It  is  a  mart  of  some  importance  for  grain  and  fruit. 
Pop.  of  county,  134,000. 

BAR-SUR-AUBE,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  Aube,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
river  of  that  name.  It  is  an  ill-built  ancient  town ; 
numerous  old  coins  and  urns  attesting  that  the 
Romans  must  have  had  a  station  here.  B.  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  Huns  in  the  5th  c.,  but  rebuilt  again 
soon  after,  when  it  became  a  ])lace  of  coimnercial  im- 
portance. A  chapel  built  on  the  bridge  which  here 
crosses  the  Aube,  now  marks  the  spot  from  which 
the  Bastard  of  Bourbon  was  hurled  into  the  river 
by  command  of  Charles  VII.  in  1440.  B.  is  also 
noteworthy  as  the  place  where  the  council  of  the 
allied  sovereigns,  which  decided  the  plan  of  the 
campaign  ending  in  the  first  fall  of  the  Empire,  was 
held  on  February  25,  1814;  and  where,  two  days 
after,  the  French  were  defeated  by  the  allies,  xmder 
the  chief  command  of  Schwartzenbcrg.  B.  has  a 
population  of  4473  ;  a  good  trade  in  wine,  wood, 
hemp,  corn,  and  wool.  Its  principal  industrial  pro- 
ducts are  calicoes,  table-covers,  brandy,  paper,  vin- 
egar, and  nails. 

BAR-SUR-SEINE,  an  ancient  town  of  France, 
in  the  department  of  Aube,  pleasantly  situated  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Seine.  It  has  a  trade  in  grain, 
brandy,  woo!,  and  wine.  Pop.  2542.  It  is  celebrated 
as  the  place  where  the  allies,  under  the  Prince  of 
Wiirtembcrg,  defeated  the  French  under  Macdonald, 
in  March  1814. 

BARTA'N,  a  town  of  Anatolia,  situated  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Chati-su  (ancient  Partluvmn)  on  the 
Black  Sea.  Pop.  10,000,  who  carry  on  a  brisk  trade 
with  Constantinople. 


BARTAP— BARTII. 


BARTAS,  GuiLLAUME  de  Salluste,  a  soldier, 
diplomatist,  iiiid  man  of  letters,  was  bora  at  Mont- 
fort,  in  Armas^nac,  abo\it  the  year  1544.  Hid  repu- 
tation was  great  during  his  lifotime,  alike  in  '  the 
court,  the  camp,  the  grove.'  His  chief  poem  is  The 
Divine  M'eeks  and  Work.'i,  which  gives  an  account 
of  the  creation,  and  the  history  of  the  Jews  as  fur 
as  the  book  of  Chronicles,  and  is  said  to  have  had 
a  considerable  influence  on  Milton's  Paradise  Lost. 
Thirty  editions  of  the  work  passed  through  the 
press'in  six  years.  Dryden,  when  a  boy,  thought 
his  verse  incomparably  superior  to  Spenser's;  an 
opinion,  however,  which  he  lived  to  be  ashamed  of 
having  ever  entertained.  B.'s  name  is  now  quite 
forgotten,  or  remembered  only  in  connection  with 
bad  taste.  It  is  not  to  be  denied,  however,  that 
his  fancy,  though  generally  grotesque  and  lawless, 
occasionally  strikes  out  most  picturesque  imagery 
and  epithets.  His  use  of  compound  words  first  led 
to  their  introduction  into  England,  through  his 
translator  Sylvester  (q.  v.),  and  to  the  consequent 
enrichment  of  our  poetry.  He  died  of  wounds 
received  at  the  battle  of  Ivry,  1590. 

BA'RTER,  in  commerce  and  political  economy,  a 
term  used  to  express  the  exchange  of  one  commodity 
for  another,  as  contrasted  with  the  sale  of  commo- 
dities for  money.  It  is  usual  to  suppose  that  in  the 
history  of  any  community  B.  preceded  the  other 
methods  of  commerce,  as  people  would  find  the  con- 
venience of  exchanging  one  article  for  another  before 
they  were  acquainted  with  money  or  credit.  In 
point  of  fact,  ships  visiting  savage  countries  are 
generally  to  some  extent  freighted  with  weipons, 
tools,  or  ornaments,  to  be  used  in  B.,  if  it  be  desirable 
to  carry  on  a  trade  with  the  inhabitants.  Under 
old  artificial  systems  of  political  economy,  there  was 
much  useless  discussion  about  the  question,  whether 
a  B.  trade  or  a  money-payment  trade  was  more 
advantageous  to  the  community  at  large,  and  which 
of  them  should  be  encouraged  while  the  other  is 
depressed.  On  the  one  side,  it  was  maintained  that 
nothing  but  an  export  sale  for  cash  was  really  pro- 
fitable ;  on  the  other,  that  it  was  more  advantageous 
to  get  goods  in  return,  because  thus  there  was  a 
double  transaction  and  double  profit.  See  Balance 
OF  Trade.  But  the  simple  doctrine  of  the  present 
day,  that  whatever  the  merchant  finds  most  profit- 
able to  himself  will  also  be  most  profitable  to  the 
community,  saves  the  necessity  of  making  these 
distinctions,  and  of  acting  upon  them  by  interference 
with  commerce.  B.  is,  in  reality,  one  of  the  com- 
monest forms  of  trade,  taken  at  large  in  the  present 
day.  The  exporter  sends  goods  to  his  agent,  who, 
without  probably  ever  touching  hard  cash  in  the 
course  of  the  transaction,  lays  in  a  cargo  of  import 
goods  with  the  value,  and  these  are  literally  brought 
home  in  exchange  for  those  sent  out. 

lu  law.  Barter,  or  Excpiange,  as  it  is  now  more 
generally  called  in  law-books,  is  a  contract  for 
transferring  property,  the  consideration  being  some 
Other  commodity  ;  or  it  may  be  described  as  a  con- 
tract for  the  exchange  of  two  subjects  or  commo- 
dities. It  thus  differs  from  sale,  which  is  a  contract 
for  the  transference  of  property  in  consideration  of  a 
price  in  money.     See  Exchange  ;  Sale. 

BA'RTFA,  or  BA'RTFELD,  a  small  but  very 
old  free  tow^n  of  North  Hungary,  in  the  province 
of  Saros,  on  the  Tepla,  155  miles  north-east  of 
Pesth.  Its  position  on  the  borders  of  Galicia  has 
frequently  made  it  a  place  of  refuge  for  Poles  and 
Russians.  Its  hot  baths  are  much  frequented,  and 
a  trade  in  wine,  brandy,  linen,  and  earthenware  is 
carried  on.     Pop.  5200. 

BARTII,  IIeinrich,  Ph.D.,  D.C.L.,  an  enterpris- 
ing modern  African  traveller,  born  at  Hamburg,  19th 


May  1821,  received  his  education  in  his  native  town, 
and  afterwards  went  to  the  university  of  Berlin.  In 
his  vouth  his  favourite  studies  were  the  Roman  and 
Greek  classics  and  antiquities,  along  with  the  geogra- 
I)liical  sciences.  Hence  he  imbibed  a  strong  desire 
to  explore  the  shores  and  countries  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean. After  visiting  Italy  and  Sicily,  he  embarked, 
in  1845,  at  Marseille,  and  from  Gibralter  passed 
over  to  Tangier  in  Africa.  Proceeding  along  the 
Algerian  coast  he  made  excursions  into  the  interior, 
to  Tunis,  Tripoli,  and  Bengazi.  On  his  journey 
thence  to  Cairo,  he  was  attacked  by  a  band  of 
Arab  robbers,  whom  he  bravely  resisted,  but  was 
severely  wounded,  and  lost  all  his  effects  and  papers. 
He  afterwards  extended  his  researches  into  Egypt, 
Sinai,  Palestine,  Asia  Minor,  and  Greece.  These 
travels  occupied  him  for  nearly  three  years,  and  in 
1849  he  published,  at  Berlin,  an  account  of  a  portion 
of  them  in  a  work  entitled  Wanderunyen  diinh  die 
KiistenUindcr  dts  Miltehineeres.  On  the  8th  December 
of  that  year  he  again  sailed  from  Marseille,  having 
been  (along  with  Dr.  Overweg)  apitointed  by  the 
British  government  scientific  companion  to  Mr. 
James  Richardson,  then  charged  by  the  Foreign 
Office  with  a  political  and  commercial  mission  to 
Central  Africa.  Starting  from  Tripoli  on  the  4th 
February  1850,  Dr.  B.  and  his  companions  crossed  the 
Great  Desert  amid  much  difficulty  and  danger.  B. 
soon  separated  from  his  friends,  and  with  one  or 
two  exceptions,  when  he  again  joined  them  for  a 
short  time,  he  pursued  his  researches  by  himself. 
Both  Mr.  Richardson  and  Dr.  Overweg  succumbed 
to  the  climate — the  one  in  March  1851,  and  the 
other  in  September  of  the  following  year.  Thence- 
forward B.  was  quite  alone.  He  did  not  however, 
return  disheartened,  but  continued  his  explorations, 
which,  when  he  returned  to  Tripoli  in  September 
1855,  had  extended  over  24  degrees  of  latitude  and 
20  of  longitude,  from  Tripoli  in  the  north  to 
Andamawa  in  the  south,  and  from  Bagirmi  in  the 
east  to  Timbuktu  in  the  west,  upwards  of  12,000 
miles.  The  result  of  his  researches,  by  far  the  most 
extensive  ever  undertaken  in  Africa,  is  given  in  hi.s 
Travels  and  Discoveries  in  Central  Africa,  5  vols., 
Lond.  1857 — 1S5S.  His  account  of  Timbuktu,  where 
he  was  imprisoned  seven  months,  is  especially  inter- 
esting; and  the  whole  work  is  invaluable  to  the 
student  of  African  geography.      B.  died  in  1865 

BARTH,  Jean,  or  BART,  a  French  naval  hero, 
the  son  of  a  fisherman,  born  in  1651  at  Dunkirk,  but 
according  to  others,  in  the  Netherlands.  At  an 
early  age  he  entered  the  Dutch  navy,  but  on  the 
commencement  of  the  war  with  Holland  he  passed 
over  to  the  French  service.  As  persons  not  of  noble 
birth  could  not  then  obtain  the  rank  of  officer  in 
the  navy,  he  became  captain  of  a  privateer.  In 
this  capacity  he  displayed  astonishing  bravery,  so 
that  Louis "  XIV.  despatched  him  on  a  special 
mission  to  the  Mediterranean.  His  exploits  at 
last  induced  the  King  to  appoint  him  lieutenant 
of  a  man-of-war.  In  an  action  against  a  superior 
English  force  he  was  taken  prisoner,  and  carried 
to  Plymouth,  fiom  which  he  made  his  escape  in  an 
open  fisliing-boat  to  France,  where  the  king  now 
raised  him  to  the  rank  of  captain.  In  the  year  1696, 
Louis  XIV.  received  him  with  distinction  at  Ver- 
sailles, but  at  the  same  time  spoke  continually  of  the 
mischance  which  had  befallen  him  the  year  before. 
Stung  by  this,  B.  hastened  to  Dunkirk,  and  in  spite 
of  the  blockade  of  the  harbour  by  the  English, 
undertook  a  cruise,  in  which  he  was  remarkably 
successful.  Louis  XIV.,  in  a  personal  audience  in 
1697,  appointed  him  to  the  command  of  a  squadron, 
upon  which  B.  exclaimed :  '  Sire,  you  have  done 
well  in  this.'  The  courtiers  laughed,  as  at  a  piece 
of  gross  rudeness  ;  but  the  king  took  the  answer  in 
^  717 


BARTIIELEMY— BARTHOLIN. 


good  part,  and  B.  very  soon  showed  liow  well  he 
merited  such  an  appointment.  The  peace  of  Rys- 
wick  terminated  his  active  career.  He  died  at 
Dnnkirlv  in  iTO'i.  His  rough  frankness  and  conrso 
wit,  in  wliich  he.  spared  neither  higli  nor  low,  made 
him  popular,  no  less  tlian  his  boldness  and  readiness 
for  battle.  When  the  Prince  dc  Conti  was  nomi- 
nated king  of  Poland,  B.  was  required,  by  command 
of  Louis  XIV.,  to  convey  him  to  Elsinore,  and  tlie 
ship  being  attacked  by  the  English  on  the  voyage, 
was  near  being  taken.  After  the  action,  the  prince 
expressed  to  him  his  great  delight  that  they  had 
escaped  from  the  enemy.  'We  had  no  need,'  was 
the  reply,  '  to  be  afraid  of  being  made  prisoners  ;  I 
had  despatched  my  son  with  a  match  to  the  powder- 
magazine,  to  blow  up  the  ship  on  the  first  wink !' 

BARTH£LEMY,  Jean  Jacques,  a  historian  and 
antiquary,  born  20th  January  1716,  at  Cassis,  near 
Aubagne,  in  Provence.  He  was  educated  under 
the  Jesuits  for  the  church,  but  soon  abandoned  all 
tho\ight  of  becoming  a  priest,  and  devoted  himself 
to  the  study  of  the^Greek,  nel)rew,  Syriac,  Arabic, 
and  Chaldee  Lmguagcs,  though  he  retained  the  dress 
and  title  of  an  abbe.  He  first  acquired  distinction 
by  the  discovery  of  the  Palmyran  alphabet.  Li 
1Y45,  he  was  appointed  assistant-superintendent  of 
the  Royal  Cabinet  of  Medals,  and  in  1747  elected 
a  member  of  the  Acadhnie  dcs  Inscriptions  ct  Belles- 
lettres.  To  complete  his  studies,  he  visited  Rome  in 
1734,  in  the  suite  of  M.  de  Stainville,  afterwards 
Duke  of  Choiscul,  and  then  French  ambassador, 
where  he  was  courteously  received  l)y  Pope  Benedict 
XIV.  After  his  return,  he  was  again  employed  in 
the  arrangement  of  the  Royal  Cabinet  of  Medals, 
wliich  he  augmented  by  a  great  number  of  costly 
specimens.  The  Due  de  Choiscul,  who  became  min- 
ister in  175S,  placed  him,  by  means  of  a  pension  and 
other  favours,  in  a  position  to  devote  himself  entirely 
to  learned  researches,  which  he  quietly  pursued  till 
the  revolution  of  1789  deprived  him  of  his  offices. 
In  September  1793,  he  was  imprisoned  on  charge  of 
being  an  aristocrat,  but  almost  immediately  released. 
Shortly  after,  he  was  offered  the  situation  of  national 
librarian  then  vacant,  but  his  ago  and  infirmities 
compelled  him  to  decline  accepting  it.  He  died  on 
the  30th  April  1795. 

His  most  celebrated  and  popular  work  is  the 
Voyage  dujeune  Anacharsis  en  Grece  dans  le  Milcu 
du  quatrVeme  Steele  avant  Vere  Chretiemie.  Paris, 
1788,  4  vols.  (Travels  of  the  Young  Anacharsis  in 
Greece  about  the  Middle  of  the  Fourth  Century  b.c). 
The  work  (see  AKAcnAUsis)  is  a  very  pleasing  and 
agreeable  performance;  exhibits  an  extensive  know- 
ledge of  the  ancient  world,  especially  of  Greece  and 
its  colonies;  and  abounds  in  observations  which,  if 
not  profound,  are  at  least  judicious.  Later  and  more 
severe  criticism  has,  however,  pointed  out  many 
deficiencies  and  anachronisms.  It  has  been  trans- 
lated into  almost  every  European  language.  Among 
B.'s  other  works  may  be  mentioned  a  romance, 
entitled  Cari/te  et  Polt/dore  {Pavis,  1700);  Eu-plication 
de  la  Mosa'iqiie  de  Palestrine  (Furls,  176i))  ;  Pefexiojis 
sur  V Alphabet  etlaLangue  de  Palmyre  (Faris,  1754). 

BARTIIELEMY  SAINT-HILAIRE,  Jules,  a 
learned  Frenchman,  member  of  the  Institute,  and 
formerly  a  representative  of  the  people,  was  born 
at  Paris  on  the  19th  of  August  1805.  He  first  held 
a  subordinate  office  under  the  minister  of  finance. 
During  1828 — 1830,  he  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the 
Globe,  a  Paris  paper.  After  the  July  revolution,  he 
took  part  with  the  society  Aide-toi  et  le  Cicl  faidera 
{([.  v.),  revised  several  of  its  democratic  mani- 
festoes, established  the  Bori  Sens,  and  continued 
to  attack  the  government  of  Louis  Philippe  in 
the  Constitutionnel,  the  Courrier-Franrais,  and  the 
718 


A'atiorial.  In  \f<?,?,,  he  desisted  from  political  strife, 
and  betook  himself  to  more  quiet  studies.  In  1834, 
he  was  named  llepeliteiir  for  the  French  Literature 
Class  in  the  Iirole  Pohitcehuique  ;  and  in  1838,  pro- 
fessor of  Greek  and  Latin  philosophy  iti  the  ColUge 
de  France.  The  revolution  of  February,  however, 
brought  him  once  more  into  the  political  arena.  He 
was  appointed  secretary  to  the  Provision;d  Govern- 
ment, but  refused  his  support  to  the  government  of 
Cavaignac,  and  even  appeared  as  his  accuser,  though 
he  failed  to  establish  his  charges  against  the  sup- 
pressor of  the  June  insurrection.  B.  was  at  first  in 
favour  of  Louis  Napoleon,  but  the  coup  d\'tat  on  the 
2d  of  December,  and  the  overthrow  of  the  constitu- 
tion, compelled  him  to  become  an  oppositionist.  Since 
18.")2,  he  has  confined  his  attention  to  learned  studies. 
Along  with  M.  de  Lesscps,  and  the  representatives  of 
various  nations,  he  visited  Egypt  to  investigate  that 
quaslio  vcxnta — the  utility  of  a  canal  across  the 
Isthnms  of  Suez. 

His  principal  writings  "are  his  translations  of 
Aristotle's  works — Politique  d Aristote  {Vaus,  1837); 
De  la  Logiqtte  d'Aristote  (1838);  La  Logique 
d'Aristote,  tr;inslated  into  French  for  the  first 
time  (1839 — 1844,  4  vols.) ;  Pyschologie  d'Aristote, 
Traite  de  Vdme  (1846);  De  PFcole  d'Alera7idrie 
( 1 845) ;  Rapport  cnr  la  Comparaison  dc  la  Philosophic 
J/orale  et  J'ollt/qiie  de  Platoro  ct  d Aristotc,  avec  les 
Doctrines  des  pins  grands  Philosophcs  Modcrncs 
(1854);  Des  T7(/,(.s  (1854) ;  Da  Bouddhisme  (1855). 
An  eidarged  edition  of  this  last  work,  containing  an 
account  of  Buddhism  as  practised  in  Ceylon  at  the 
present  day,  was  published  in  18G0. 

BARTIIEZ,  Paul  JosErii,  one  of  the  most  learned 
physicians  of  France,  son  of  a  distinguised  engineer, 
born  ill  Montpellier,  11th  December,  1734.  After 
s(M-ving  as  an  army-physician,  he  founded  at  Mont- 
pellier a  medical  school,  which  rose  to  a  high 
European  reputation.  His  Nouveaux  Elements  de  la 
Science  de  V Homme  (Montpell.  1778  ;  2d  ed.,  2  vols., 
Pai-.  1806),  in  which  he  set  forth  a  system  founded 
on  dynamical  principles,  was  translated  into  most  of 
the  languages  of  Europe.  lie  became,  in  1785,  titular 
chancellor  of  the  university  of  Montpellier ;  and 
consultations  with  him  on  serious  cases  were  sought 
from  all  parts  of  the  civilised  world.  The  revolution 
deprived  him  of  the  greater  part  of  his  property  and 
his  places,  and  compelled  him  to  leave  Paris ;  but 
Napoleon  recalled  him,  and  heaped  honotirs  and 
dignities  upon  him  in  his  old  age.  He  died  in  great 
suffering,  alter  an  operation  for  stone  in  the  bladder, 
on  15th  October  1806.  Of  his  numerous  writings, 
the  following  deserve  special  mention  :  JSouvclle 
Mccanique  des  MoitvemeiUs  de  VHomme  et  des  Ani- 
maux  (Carcassonne,  1798  ;  Traitment  des  Maladies 
Goutteuses  (2  vols..  Par.  1802  ;  new  ed.,  1819  ;  and 
Consultation  de  Medecine  (2  vols..  Par.  ISlo).- — See 
Lordat,  FxpositioJi  de  la  Doctrine  Midlcalc  de 
Barthcz,  tt  3Iinwircs  sur  la  Vie  de  ce  Midecin  (Par. 
1818.) 

BARTHOLIN,  the  name  of  a  Danish  family 
distinguished  for  learning  and  authorship,  and  the 
members  of  which  have  filled  many  important  offices, 
especially  in  the  university  of  Copenhagen.  Kaspak 
B.,  born  Pith  February  1585,  at  Maliuo,  where  his 
father  was  a  minister,  studied  theology  and  philo- 
sophy at  Rostock  and  Wittenberg,  and  afterwards 
studied  medicine.  In  the  year  IGIO,  he  \\  as  made 
doctor  of  medicine  at  Basle.  He  practised  for  some 
time  in  Wittenberg,  and  in  1013  accepted  an  invita- 
tion to  be  professor  of  the  Greek  language  and  of 
medicine  at  Copenhagen,  where,  in  1624,  he  became 
professor  of  theology.  He  died  at  Sora  in  1629. 
Ilis  Institntiones  Anatomicce  (Wittenb.,  1011,  and 
often   reprinted),    which    were    translated   into   the 


BARTHOLOMEW— BARTHOLOMEW'S  DAY. 


German,  French,  English,  and  Oriental  languages, 
scrvi'd  in  the  17th  c,  in  many  univei'sities,  as  a 
text-book  for  prelections.  Of  his  sons,  who  are  all 
known  in  the  learned  world,  the  following  especially 
deserve  to  be  mentioned  :  the  orientalist,  Jacoh  B., 
born  102:5,  died  at  Heidelberg,  1053,  known  as  the 
editor  of  the  cabalistic  works,  Bahir  and  Majan 
Hachoihnia ;  and  Thomas  B.,  equally  celebrated  as 
a  plii'oiogist,  naturalist,  and  physician,  who  was  born 
20th  October  1010.  He  became,  in  1047,  professor 
of  mathematics,  and  in  1018  professor  of  anatomy, 
at  Copenhagen  ;  deniitted  these  offices  in  1001,  and 
thereafter  lived  in  retirement  upon  his  estate  of 
Hagestad.  In  1070,  the  king  appointed  him  his 
physician  in  ordinary,  which  situation  he  filled  till 
his  death,  4tli  November  lOSO.  Ho  enlarged  the 
new  edition  of  his  lather's  Anatomy  (Leyd.,  1041  ; 
often  re[)rinted)  with  a  mass  of  new  observations. 
Besides  many  other  valuable  anatomical  and  medical 
works,  his  works  on  biblical  and  other  antiquities, 
and  on  natural  philosophy,  are  particularly  worthy 
of  notice.  He  was  one  of  the  most  learned  and 
studious  of  phy.^icians,  and  warmly  defended  Har- 
vey's doct.inc  of  the  circidation  of  the  blood.  His 
son,  Kaspau  B.,  born  1054,  died  1704,  was  likewise 
an  accomplished  anatomist ;  and  another  son, 
Thomas  B.,  born  1059,  died  1090,  is  the  author 
of  a  standard  work  on  northern  antiquities — the 
AnticpiUntum  DaiiicarumLibri  Tres  (Copcnh.,  1089); 
also  of  De  Causis  Contempice  a  Danis  adhuc  gcntilibus 
Mortis. 

BARTHO'LOMEW,  St.,  one  of  the  twelve 
apostles,  supposed  to  be  the  same  person  as 
Nathanael.  He  was  a  native  of  Galilee,  but  nothing 
authentic  is  known  regarding  his  life  and  labours. 
According  to  the  traditionary  record  of  Eusebius,  he 
carried  Christianity  into  India  ;  Chrysostom  speaks 
of  him  as  a  missionary  in  Armenia  and  Asia  Minor, 
while  a  still  later  legend  declares  that  he  was  cruci- 
fied at  Albania  Pyla,  the  modern  Derbend,  a  town 
on  the  Caspian  Sea.  The  relics  of  St.  B.  '  appeared ' 
at  Rome  in  983  A.n.,  and  are  preserved  there  in 
the  church  bearing  his  name.  The  Roman  and 
Anglo-catholic  Churches  hold  a  festival  in  his 
memory  on  the  24th  August ;  the  Greek  Church, 
on  the  11th  June.  The  primitive  church  possessed 
an  apocryphal  Gospel  under  his  name,  but  it  is  now 
lost. 

BARTHO'LOMEW,  St.,  a  Caribbean  island, 
ceded,  in  1784,  by  France  to  Sweden,  whose  single 
transatlantic  colony  it  is.  It  lies  about  30  miles 
to  the  west  of  St.  Kitts,  the  lat.  and  long,  of  its 
east  point  being  respectively  17°  63'  N.,  and  62° 
52'  W.  With  an  area  of  only  35  square  miles,  St. 
B.  contains  about  10,000  inhabitants.  The  soil  is 
fertile,  though,  as  is  generally  the  case  in  the 
group,  fresh  water  is  scarce.  Like  most  of  its 
neigh V)0urs,  St.  B.  is  difficult  of  access,  its  only 
harbour  being  on  its  west  side,  near  the  chief  town 
Gustavia. 

BARTHO'LOMEW  FAIR,  formerly  held  at 
West  Sniithlicld,  London,  but  discontinued  since 
1855.  The  charter  of  this  fair  was  granted  by  Henry 
I.,  in  113X,  to  a  monk  named  Rayer  or  Rahere,  who 
had  been  his  jester,  and  had  founded  the  church  and 
priory  of  St.  Bartholomew,  with  an  hospital  attached. 
The  fair  was  held  animaliy  at  the  festival  of  St.  Bar- 
tholomew (August  24,  old  style),  and,  like  all  ancient 
iairs,  was  originally  connected  with  the  church, 
under  whose  auspices  Miracle-plays  (q.  v.),  founded 
on  the  legends  of  saints,  were  represented,  which 
gave  place  to  Mysteries,  and  these  again  to  Morali- 
ties ;  afterwards,  profane  stories  were  introduced — 
the  origin  of  the  modern  English  drama.  After  the 
opening  of  the   fair,  it   was  customary  anciently  for 


wrestlers  to  exercise  their  art.  Wild  rabbits  were 
hunted  for  sport  by  the  mob,  and  the  scholars 
from  the  different  Loudon  schools  met  at  the 
priory  for  disputations  on  grammar  and  logic,  and 
to  wrangle  together  in  verse.  In  the  first  centuries 
of  its  existence,  B.  F.  was  one  of  the  great  annual 
markets  of  the  nation,  and  the  chief  cloih-fair  of 
the  kingdom.  The  clothiers  of  England  and  the 
drapers  of  London  had  their  standings,  during  the 
fair,  in  the  priory  churchyard.  A  pedlar's  court, 
or  court  of  Pie  Poudre  (q.  v.),  was  held  within  the 
priory  gates,  for  debts  and  contracts,  before  a  jury  of 
traders  formed  on  the  spot,  at  which  the  prior,  as 
lord  of  the  fair,  presided  by  his  representative  or 
steward.  In  1445,  four  persons  were  ap])ointcd  by 
the  Court  of  Aldermen  as  keepers  of  the  fair  and  of 
the  court  of  Pie  J'ondrc,  the  city  l)eing  thus  in  that 
court  represented  as  joint  lord  of  the  fair  with  the 
prior.  As  the  fair  prospered,  its  chief  articles  of 
traffic  w^ere,  in  the  first  instance,  cloth  stuffs,  leather, 
pewter,  and  live  cattle ;  while  it  was  rendered 
attractive  to  the  crowds  that  attended  it  by  a 
variety  of  popular  amusements.  All  manner  of 
shows,  exhibitions,  theatrical  booths,  &c.,  thronged 
the  fair;  and  tumblers,  acrobats,  stilt-walkers, 
mummers,  mountebanks,  and  merry-andrews  re- 
sorted to  it  in  great  numbers.  On  the  suppression 
of  the  religious  houses,  the  priory  was  disjoined  from 
the  hospital,  and  the  latter,  on  27tli  December  1540, 
was,  by  Henry  VIII.,  transferred  to  the  corpoi-ation 
of  London,  a  new  hospital  being  established  on  the 
site  of  the  former.  The  priory  was  purchased  for 
£1004,  11.5.  3f/.  by  Sir  Richard"  Rich,  Chancellor  of 
the  Court  of  Augmentations,  afterwards  Lord  Chan- 
cellor under  the  title  of  Lord  Rich,  and  becaine  his 
town-house.  Towards  the  close  of  the  10th  c, 
streets  of  houses  began  to  be  built  on  the  site  of  the 
Cloth  Fair,  a  name  which  is  still  retained.  In 
1593,  the  keeping  of  the  fair  w^as,  for  the  first  time, 
suspended  by  the  raging  of  the  plague.  The 
same  thing  happened  in  1003,  in  1625,  in  1030, 
in  1665,  and  in  1660.  At  this  fair,  foreigners 
were  at  first  licensed  for  three  days,  and  the 
city  freemen  as  long  as  they  would,  which  was 
six  or  seven  days.  In  1001,  after  the  Resto- 
ration, the  fair  lasted  for  fourteen  days  or  more.  In 
1085,  it  was  leased  by  the  city  to  tlie  sword-bearer. 
After  this  period,  it  began  to  decay  as  a  i)lace  of 
trade.  In  1091,  the  continuance  of  the  fair  was 
limited  to  three  days,  besides  the  proclamation- 
day.  In  1701,  it  was  represented  as  a  nuisance.  In 
1750  it  was  again  limited  to  three  days.  By  the 
alteration  of  the  calendar  in  1752,  the  fair,  in  the 
following  year,  \vas,  lor  the  first  time,  proclaimed  on 
3d  September.  In  1798,  the  question  of  abolishing 
the  fair  was  discussed  by  the  corporation.  It  had 
long  ceased  to  be  a  place  of  traffic,  and  was  only 
considered  as  a  haunt  of  amusement,  riot,  and  dissi- 
pation. The  fair  had  latterly  been  attended  only  by 
the  keepers  of  a  few  gingerbread-stalls;  arrd  in 
1839,  measures  were  first  seriously  adopted  for  its 
suppression.  In  1840,  the  exhibitions  wert;  removed 
to  Isliirgton.  Wild-beast  sIioms  were  allowed,  but 
dwarfs  and  giants  were  excluded.  In  1850,  the  last 
proclamation  by  the  lord  mayor  took  place,  and  in 
1855  the  once  famous  B.  F.  came  to  an  end.  An 
octavo  volume,  entitled  Memoirs  of  Bartholomew 
Fair,  by  Henry  Morlev,  was  published  in  London  in 
1859. 

BARTHO'LOMEW'S  (St.)  DAY  (Fr.  La  St.- 
BarthUcmji ;  Ger.  Bartholoviata^uaclif,  i.  e.,  Bartho- 
lomew's Night,  or  Blrthochr.eif,  i.  e..  Blood-wedding), 
the  appellation  given  to  the  massacre  of  the  Pro- 
testants in  Paris  on  the  night  of  St.  B.  D.,  between 
24th  and  25th  August  15"72.  After  the  death  of 
Frarrcis   II.  in   1500,  Catharine  de'  Medici  (q.  v.),  as 

719 


BARTHOLOMEW'S  UOSriTAL— BAIITOLINI. 


legent  for  her  son,  Charles  IX.,  a  minor,  in  order  to 
annoy  tlie  Catliolic  party  of  the  Duke  J'ninci.s  of 
Guise  (q.  v.),  had  granted  an  edict  of  toleration  to 
the  Reformed,  at  whose  head  was  the  Prince  of 
Conde.  Both  parties  took  up  arms,  and  there  ensued 
a  war  which  lasted  for  eight  years,  the  cruelties  of 
Avhich,  tlirough  mutual  exasperation,  are  almost 
incredible.  The  Duke  Francis  of  Guise  was  murdered 
by  an  assassin,  and  the  Prince  of  Conde  was  taken 
prisoner  in  the  battle  of  Jarnac,  in  15C9,  and  shot. 
The  young  Prince  Henry  of  Beam,  afterwards  King 
Henry  IV.,  a  nephew  of  Conde,  then  became  leader 
of  the  Reformed,  along  with  Admiral  Coligny  (q.  v.). 
It,  was  not  till  the  strength  of  both  sides  was  ex- 
hausted, that  the  peace  of  St.  Germain-en-Layc  was 
concluded  in  1570,  whereby  the  Reformed  obtained 
the  free  exercise  of  their  religion.  Catharine  de' 
Medici  now  expressed  much  friendliness  towards  the 
Reformed,  and  even  endeavoured  to  lull  them  into 
negligence  by  the  marriage  of  the  youthful  Henry  of 
Beam  with  her  daughter  Margaret,  18th  August 
1572.  Admiral  Coligny  was  drawn  to  Paris,  and 
the  king  not  only  made  him  costly  presents,  but 
gave  him  an  impoitiint  oflice  in  the  council  of 
state.  However,  all  this  was  only  the  basest  hypoc- 
risy. When,  by  means  of  the  mariiage  of  Prince 
Henry,  the  most  eminent  of  the  Rei'ormed  had  been 
allured  to  Paris,  Admiral  Coligny  was  wounded  by 
a  shot  from  a  window  of  the  palace  on  22d  August 
1672.  The  king,  indeed,  hastened  to  him,  and  swore 
to  avenge  him;  but,  on  the  very  same  day,  the 
king  was  persuaded  by  his  mother  that  the 
admiral  sought  his  life.  '  By  God's  death ! '  he 
exclaimed,  '  let  the  admiral  be  slain,  and  not  him 
only,  but  all  the  Huguenots,  till  not  one  remain 
that  can  give  us  trouble !  '  That  night,  Catharine 
held  a  council,  and  appointed  St.  B.  D.  for  carrying 
into  effect  the  long-contemplated  massacre.  After 
Coligny  had  been  murdered,  a  bell  in  the  tower  of 
the  royal  palace,  at  the  hour  of  midnight,  gave  the 
signal  to  the  assembled  companies  of  citizens  for  a 
general  massacre  of  the  Huguenots.  The  king  him- 
self fired  from  the  palace  upon  those  that  were  [ 
fleeing  past.  The  Prince  of  Conde  and  the  king  of  j 
Navarre  only  saved  their  lives  by  going  to  mass, 
and  appearing  to  conform  to  the  Catholic  Church. 
The  provinces  were  at  the  same  time  summoned  to  i 
similar  slaughter ;  and  although  in  some  of  them  i 
the  officials  were  ashamed  to  publish  the  murderous  i 
commands  which  had  been  transmitted  to  them, 
there  were  found  bloodthirsty  ftinatics  enough,  who 
perpetrated  the  greatest  horrors  for  several  weeks 
together  in  almost  all  the  provinces,  so  that  it  was 
reckoned  that  SO, 000  (some  authorities  make  the 
number  7O,00O)  persons  were  murdered.  The  pope 
celebrated  the  events  of  St.  B.  D.  by  a  procession 
to  the  church  of  St.  Louis,  a  grand  Te  Deum, 
and  the  proclamation  of  a  year  of  jubilee.  Many 
of  the  Huguenots  fled  to  pathless  mountains  and 
to  La  Rochelle,  to  which  the  Duke  of  Anjou  laid 
siege.  Upon  receiving  intelligence,  however,  that 
he  had  been  elected  king  of  Poland,  he  made 
an  arrangement  on  July  fi,  157.S,  according  to 
which  the  king  granted  to  the  Huguenots  an 
amnesty,  and  the  exercise  of  their  leligion  in  certain 
towns. 

BARTHO'LOMEW'S  (St.)  HO'SPITAL,  Smith- 
field,  London,  was  originally  a  part  of  the  priory  of 
St.  Bartholomew,  ibnndod  in  1102  by  Rahere,  the 
first  prior.  At  the  dissolution  of  the  religious 
houses,  it  was  founded  anew  by  Henry  VIII.,  and 
the  endowment  has  been  subsequently  enlarged  from 
various  sources,  public  and  private.  The  hospital 
contains  580  beds,  and  affords  relief  to  70,000 
patients  annually.  There  is  a  medical  school 
attached. 
720 


Bartizan. 


BA'RTIZAN,  a  small  stone  closet,  thrown  out 
upon  corbels  over  doorways, 
ami  on  other  parts  of  me- 
dieval castles,  generally  for 
defence,  but  sometimes  only 
for  convenience  to  the  in- 
mates and  defenders. 

BA'RTLETT,  William 
Henry,  an  artist  and  popu- 
lar writer,  was  born  at 
Kentish  Town,  London,  on 
the  29th  March  1809.  He 
was  a  ])upil  of  the  eminent 
architectural  antiquary,  Mr. 
John  Britton,  of  London, 
and  during  his  apprentice- 
ship displayed  more  than 
ordinary  talent  for  drawing, 
which  was  fostered  by  his 
master  sending  him  into 
many  of  the  most  interest- 
ing counties  in  England, 
to  make  sketches  from 
nature.  Mr.  Britton  after- 
wards    employed    him    to 

make  drawings  for  his  Cathedral  Antiquities  and 
also  for  his  Pictureaque  Antiquities  of  English 
Cities.  B.  afterwards  visited  the  continent,  the 
Holy  Land,  and  America  several  times,  on  each 
occasion  enriching  his  portfolio  with  innumerable 
interesting  scenes.  No  less  than  nineteen  quarto 
volumes,  containing  about  1000  engravings  from 
his  sketches,  and  letterpress  from  his  own  pen, 
and  those  of  his  fellow-traveller.  Dr.  W.  Beattie, 
N.  P.  Willis,  and  Miss  Pardoe,  were  devoted  to 
tiiese  countries.  Several  other  volumes,  of  which  he 
was  the  sole  author  as  well  as  artist,  have  also  been 
published.  Some  of  the  books  had  a  wonderful  suc- 
cess, especially  those  on  Switzerland,  the  Holy  Land, 
and  Egypt.  B.  died  on  the  voyage  from  Malta  to 
Marseille  on  Septemlter  25,  1854.  He  had  been 
revisiting  Palestine,  and  the  materials  he  had  col- 
lected were  given  to  the  world  in  a  posthumous 
volume  entitled  Jerusalem  lievisited. 

BA'RTT^ETT,  John  Russell  B.,  an  American 
author,  born  at  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  October 
23,  1805.  He  was  employed  by  the  United  States' 
government,  in  1850 — 1853,  as  a  commissioner  for 
determining  the  Mexican  boundary-line,  and,  in  1854, 
published  an  account  of  his  explorations  and  adven- 
tures, &c.,  in  that  capacity.  On  his  return  home  he 
was  elected  Secretary  of  State  of  Rhode  Island.  H« 
is  also  the  author  of  The  Progress  of  Ethriology,  a 
popular  Dictionary  of  Anier-icanisns,  Peminiscencea 
of  Albert  Callatin,  and  other  works. 

BARTOLI'NI,  Lorenzo,  a  celebrated  Italian 
sculptor,  was  born  at  Vernio,  in  the  north  of  Tuscany, 
in  1777.  Circumstances  brought  him  to  Paris  while 
still  a  young  man,  where  he  practised  his  art  for 
some  time  with  very  little  pecuniary  success;  but 
at  length,  having  obtained  an  academy  prize  for  a 
bas-relief  of  Cleobis  and  Biton,  he  was  suddenly 
ushered  into  notice  and  prosperity.  Several  influ- 
ential persons  patronised  him,  such  as  Denou  and 
Regnauld  de  St.  Jean  d'Angely.  Through  the  first, 
he  obtained  a  commission  to  execute  one  of  the 
bas-reliefs  in  the  hall  of  the  Vendome  palace,  and 
also  the  b<ist  of  Napoleon  over  the  door  of  the 
Instittite  of  France.  Napoleon  himself  gave  him  a 
multitude  of  orders,  many  of  which,  unfortunately, 
were  never  executed.  In  1808,  the  emperor  sent 
him  to  Carrara,  to  establish  a  school  of  sculpture. 
Here  he  remained  till  1814,  when  he  accompanied 
his  imperial  master  to  Elba.  After  the  battle  of 
Waterloo,   he   repaired  to  Florence,  where  he  was 


BARTOLOMEO— BARYTA. 


subsequently  appointed  director  of  the  sculpture 
department  in  the  Aciideniy  of  the  Fine  Arts,  an 
office  he  retained  till  his  death  in  1850.  B.  was  a 
very  prolific  artist.  Besides  the  works  already 
mentioned,  B.  executed  busts  of  Cherubini,  Mehul, 
Madame  Regnauld,  a  magnificent  statue  of  Napo- 
leon I.  (now  in  America),  several  exquisite  sepul- 
chral monuments,  such  as  that  of  Lady  Strat- 
ford Canning  in  the  cathedral  of  Lausanne,  and 
various  groups,  the  most  celebrated  of  which  are  his 
'Chai'ity,'  and  'Hercules  and  Lvcus.'  In  England 
and  France,  his  style  is  in  general  greatly  esteemed  ; 
in  Germany,  it  is  less  highly  thought  of.  Ilis 
figures  are  characterised  by  their  truthfulness  of 
proportion  and  classic  repose,  though  they  also 
possess  a  remarkably  lifelike  expression.  After 
Canova,  B.  is  reckoned  the  most  distinguished 
Italian  sculptor  of  modern  times. 

BARTOLOME'O,  San,  a  town  of  Naples,  in  the 
province  of  Capitanata,  with  a  population  of  5400. 

BARTOLO'ZZI,  Francesco,  an  eminent  engraver, 
■was  born  in  Florence  about  1730.  After  practising 
his  art  under  Wagner  of  Venice,  he  went  to 
Rome,  where  he  executed  his  admired  plates  from 
the  life  of  St.  Nil  us.  He  was  afterwards  commis- 
sioned by  Mr.  Dalton,  librarian  of  George  IIL,  to 
engrave  a  series  of  drawings  by  Guercino,  and 
was  induced  by  the  same  gentleman  to  settle  in 
Englaud.  Here  B.  produced  his  spirited  and  highly 
finished  engravings  of  the  'Virgin  and  Child'  after 
Carlo  Dolci,  and  '  Clytie'  after  Annibale  Carracci, 
which  entitled  him  to  occupy  the  front  rank  in  his 
profession.  He  also  engraved  numerous  specimens  of 
the  works  of  his  friend  Giovanni  Cipriani,  of  Michael 
Angelo,  Cantarinj,  Cortona,  &c.,  with  equal  truth 
and  eft'ect.  B.  likewise  enriched  Alderman  Boydell's 
Shakspeare  Gallery  with  many  fine  engravings.  In 
18(i2  he  received  a  flattering  invitation  from  the 
Prince  Regent  of  Portugal,  to  take  the  superintend- 
ence of  a  school  of  engravers  at  Lisbon,  whither  he 
repaired  three  yeai'S  afterwards,  in  his  seventy-fifth 
year,  and  there  resided  until  his  death  in  1818.  He 
was  the  father  of  Madame  Vestris,  the  celebrated 
comedian. 

BA'RTON,  BERNARn,  an  English  poet,  born 
31st  January  1784,  in  London.  His  parents  were 
members  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  to  the  tenets  of 
which  body  B.  adhered  through  life.  In  1810  he 
became  clerk  to  a  banking-house  at  Woodbridge,  in 
which  situation  he  continued  until  within  two  years 
of  his  death.  His  first  poetical  efforts,  published  in 
1812  under  the  title  of  Metrical  Effusions,  brought 
him  into  correspondence  with  the  poet  Southey. 
Poems  by  an  Amateur  (1818),  and  Poems  (Lond. 
18211),  increased  his  reputation,  and  gained  him  the 
friendship  of  Lamb  and  Byron.  Napoleon  and  other 
Poems  appeared  in  1822,  and  was  followed  within 
five  years  by  several  other  productions.  All  the 
poems  of  B.  are  pervaded  by  pious  sentiment,  and 
some  passages  display  much  natural  tenderness  and 
religious  fervour ;  but  he  is,  on  the  whole,  rather  a 
fluent,  pleasant  versifier  than  a  poet.  So  early  as 
1824,  a  reading-club  founded  by  him  in  Wood- 
bridge  collected  the  sum  of  £1200  sterling,  and  pre- 
sented it  to  him.  Some  years  before  his  death,  he 
received,  through  Sir  Robert  Peel,  a  pension  of  £100 
sterling.  In  addition  to  the  works  mentioned,  he 
published  Fisher  s  Juvenile  Scraj}- Book  {Lond.  ]83(i), 
T/ie  Reliquary  (Lond.  1836),  and  Household  Verses 
(Lond.  1845).  After  his  death,  which  took  place 
suddenly,  19th  February  1849,  his  daughter  pub- 
lished Selections  from  the  Poems  and  Letters  of 
Bernard  Barton  (Lond.  1849). 

BARTON,  Elizabeth,  commonly  called  '  the 
Holy  Maid  of  Kent,'  a  wretched  creature,  subject  to 
46 


spasmodic  nervous  atlections,  during  which  she  gave 
utterance  to  incoherent  exclamations  and  phrases. 
About  the  year  1525,  she  was  servant  in  a  tavern  at 
Aldington,  in  Kent ;  and  the  cunning  priest  of  the 
parish  seeing  her  in  her  paroxysms,  on  the  strength 
of  her  misfortune  conceived  the  idea  of  presenting 
her  to  the  world  as  a  prophetess.  Under  his  direc- 
tions, she  played  her  part  so  well  that  not  only  the 
common  people,  but  even  men  of  intellect  and  edu- 
cation like  Sir  Thomas  More,  and  Barham,  the 
Arch))ishop  of  Canterbury,  were  deceived  by  her. 
The  former,  however,  afterwards  recognised  her 
true  character.  She  became  a  nun,  and  when,  in 
1532,  Henry  VIII.  quarrelled  with  the  court  of 
Rome,  she  was  induced  to  denounce  loudly  the 
king's  separation  from  his  first  wife,  and  his 
marriage  with  Anne  Boleyn,  and  even  to  prophesy 
his  death.  Being  arrested  by  the  king's  command, 
along  with  her  accomplices,  she  made  betbre  the 
judges  a  confession,  which  was  afterwards  publicly 
repeated  before  the  people,  of  the  fraud  which  had 
been  perpetrated,  and  was  sentenced  to  ecclesias- 
tical penance  and  to  imprisonment.  She  was  after- 
wards accused  of  high  treason,  and  executed  along 
with  some  of  her  accomplices  in  1534. 

BA'RTON  BEDS,  a  group  of  strata,  composed  of 
clay  and  sand,  andibrming  part  of  the  Middle  Eocene 
formation,  included  in  the  Bagshot  series  (q.  v.). 

BA'RTON-ON-HUMBER,  a  town  in  North  Lin- 
colnshire, on  the  south  side  of  the  Humber,  six 
miles  south-west  of  Hull.  It  is  a  very  ancient 
place,  having  been  one  of  the  chief  ports  of  the 
Humber  before  the  foundation  of  Hull.  It  was  once 
surrounded  by  a  rampart  and  fosse,  as  a  protection 
against  the  incursions  of  the  Danes  and  Saxons. 
Until  recently,  the  ferry  across  the  Humber,  on 
the  great  road  from  London  to  Hull,  was  here  ;  but 
the  London  and  Hull  inland  traffic  has  now  been 
diverted  from  B.  by  the  steam-ferry  at  New  Holland, 
six  miles  below  Barton,  The  chief  manufactures 
are  ropes,  sacking,  bricks,  tiles,  pottery,  and  whiting. 
There  are  quarries  of  chalk  and  oolite.  The  tower 
of  St.  Peter's  Church,  which  was  built  about  the 
time  of  the  Concpiest,  has  both  round  and  pointed 
arches ;  and,  with  the  part  of  the  building  to  the 
west,  constitutes  one  of  the  few  existing  examples 
of  undoubted  Anglo-Saxon  architecture.  St.  Mary's 
Church  is  a  handsome  structure  of  the  14th  c.  Pop. 
3866. 

BA'RU,  a  fine  woolly  substance  found  at  the  base 
of  the  leaves  of  the  Saguerus  saccharifer  (also 
called  Arenc/a  saceharifcra),  one  of  the  most  valuable 
sago-palms  of  tlie  Indian  Archipelago.  It  is  much 
employed  in  calking  ships,  in  stuffing  cushions,  and 
for  other  similar  purposes. 

BA'RUCH  (i.  e.,  the  Blessed),  the  son  of  Neriah, 
w\as  the  person  to  whom  the  prophet  Jeremiah  dic- 
tated his  oracles.  During  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  both  he  and  the  prophet  were,  by 
their  own  countrymen,  shut  up  in  a  narrow  prison, 
but  obtained  from  the  conqueror  freedom  and  per- 
mission to  choose  their  own  residence.  B.  remained 
for  some  time  in  Palestine,  but  afterwards  accom- 
panied Jeremiah  to  Egypt.  His  subsequent  history 
is  unknown.  An  apocryphal  work  in  the  Greek 
language  has  come  down  to  us  under  his  name — 
viz.,  the  Book  of  B.,  which  contains  words  of  com- 
fort for  the  Israelites,  and  predicts  the  rebuilding  of 
Jerusalem.  There  is  usually  appended  to  it,  as 
chapters  vi.  and  vii.,  a  letter — also  apocryphal — of 
the  prophet  Jeremiah  to  the  exiles  in  Babylon. 

BA'RWOOD.     See  Camwood. 

BARYTA,  or  BARY'TES,  or  Oxide  of  Barium 
(q.  v.)  symbol  BaO — is  the  earth  present  in  the 
minerals  witheritc  (carbonate  of  B.)  and  heavy  spar 

721 


BARYTON— BASALT. 


(sulphate  of  B.).  It  may  be  prepared  in  several  ways  : 
1.  By  acting  upon  the  carbonate  of  B.  (BaOCOj) 
by  nitric  acid  (NO5),  wiiich  causes  the  disengage- 
ment of  the  carbonic  acid  (CO2),  and  the  nitric  acid 
combining  with  the  B.  forms  the  nitrate  of  baryta 
(BaONOs).  On  evaporating  tlie  latter  substance 
to  dryness,  and  igniting  the  residue,  the  nitric  acid 
volatilises,  and  leaves  the  baryta  (BaO).  2.  Another 
mode  of  preparing  the  same  substance  is  to  act 
upon  a  solution  of  sulphuret  of  barium  (BaS)  by  the 
black  oxide  of  copper  (tluO),  when  an  interchange 
of  elements  occuis,  the  sulphur  uniting  witli  tlie 
copper,  producing  sulphuret  of  copper  (CuS),  and 
the  oxygen  with  the  barium,  forming  B.  (BaO), 
which  remains  dissolved  in  the  water,  and,  on 
evaporation,  deposits  crystals  in  the  hydrated 
condition  (BaO, 110).  B.  belongs  to  the  group  of 
alkaline  earths,  and  has  the  property  of  acting  like 
an  alkali  (q.  v.)  on  colouring  matters.  It  has  a 
very  harsh  taste,  is  highly  caustic,  and  is  very 
poisonous.  A  solution  of  B.  is  used  by  the  chemist 
as  the  best  indication  of  the  presence  of  cai'- 
bonic  acid  gas  in  the  atmosphere,  for  when  a 
plate  or  other  vessel  containing  the  solution  is 
exposed  to  the  air,  the  carbonic  acid  floating 
across  the  surface  combines  with  the  B.,  and  forms 
a  film  of  white  carbonate  of  baryta  (BaO,COo). 
Otherwise,  B.  possesses  little  interest,  as  it  is  not 
put  to  any  commercial  or  medicinal  use.  The 
compounds  of  B.  are,  however,  of  considerable 
importance.  The  sulphate  of  B.  (BaOSOs),  other- 
wise called  ponderous  or  heavy  spar,  is  found  in  the 
mineral    kingdom,     diffused    in    fissures    or    cracks, 


Crystal  of  Sulphate  of  Baryta. 

passing  through  other  rocks,  especially  in  Cumber- 
land, Durham,  and  Westmoreland,  and  in  the  island 
of  Arran.  At  the  latter  place,  an  extensive  mine 
of  heavy  spar  has  been  worked  for  many  years. 
In  its  native  condition,  the  sulphate  of  B.  occurs 
of  a  crystalline  texture,  is  sometimes  found  pure 
and  white,  but  generally  presents  a  fles'h-red  colour, 
from  the  red  oxide  of  iron  (rust)  incorporated 
in  it.  The  rust  can  be  got  quit  of  by  reducing 
the  sulphate  of  B.  to  a  fine  powder  under  rollers  or 
travelling-wheels,  and  subjecting  the  pulverised 
material  to  the  action  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid, 
which  dissolves  the  red  oxide  of  iron,  and  leaves  the 
sulphate  of  B.  as  a  white  dense  powder.  The 
principal  use  of  heavy  spar  is  as  a  pigment  under 
the  name  of  permanent  ivhite ;  but  having  little 
opacity,  it  cannot  be  employed  by  itself,  but  only 
when  mixed  with  ordinary  white  lead.  When 
added  to  the  latter,  however,  it  must  be  regarded 
as  an  adulteration,  for  the  little  opacity  it  possesses 
renders  it  of  service  only  as  an  increaser  of  the 
bulk  of  the  white  lead.  Several  mixtures  of 
sulphate  of  B.  and  white  lead  are  manufactured, 
and  are  known  in  commerce.  Venice  Mliite  contains 
]  i)art  Sulphate  of  B.  and  1  part  White  Lead. 
Hamburg  White  contains  2  parts  Sulphate  of  B., 
and  1  part  White  Lead.  Dutch  White  contains  3 
parts  Sulphate  of  B.,  and  1  part  White  Lead.  The 
native  sulphate  of  B.  has  been  employed  by  tlie 
celebrated  potter  Wedgwood  in  the  manufacture  of 
jasper  ware,  and  for  the  formation  of  white  figures, 
&c.,  on  coloured  jars  and  vessels.  The  Carbonate  of 
B.  found  native  as  Witherite,  and  the  Nitrate  of 
,722 


B.,  have  been    previously  referred  to  in  this   article 
and  that  on  Barium. 

BA'RYTON  (Viol  di  Bardoni),  an  old  chamber- 
instrument,  somewhat  like  the  viol  di  gamba  in 
tone :  had  a  broader  finger-board,  with  seven  gut- 
strings,  while  under  the  neck  there  were  sixteen 
strings  of  brass  wire,  which  were  touched  with  the 
point  of  tlie  thumb,  to  produce  a  sound,  while  the 
gut-strings  were  acted  on  by  a  bow. 

BA'RYTOX,  that  species  of  the  human  voice 
which  lies  betwen  the  bass  and  the  tenor,  the 
tone-character  of  which  is  more  allied  to  the  bass. 


The  compiiss  of  a  B.  voice  is  from  T\x- 


4 


but    the    principal   notes   of  the    voice    are   from 

3^, 


m 


J  and  these  should  possess  the  ener- 


getic character  of  a  bass  voice,  and,  above  all,  be 
produced  iiom  the  chest,  excepting  perhaps  the 
highest.  In  former  times,  the  music  for  this 
species    of    voice    was    written    on    a   stave    with 

the  F  clef  placed  on  the  Sd  line,  thus  :  -^)^ 

BAS,  or  BATZ,  a  small  island  in  the  English 
Channel,  belonging  to  France,  and  situated  off  the 
north  coast  of  the  department  of  Finisterre.  Its 
length  is  about  3  miles,  and  its  breadth  2.  It  hns  a 
light-house,  in  lat.  48°  46'  N.,  and  long.  4°  \\'  W., 
on  an  elevation  223  feet  above  the  sea,  and  is 
defended  by  two  forts  and  lour  batteries.  Pop. 
1132,  whose  chief  occupation  is  fishing. 

BA'SALT,  strictly  a  variety  of  trap-rock  (q.  v.), 
although  some  writers  use  the  words  as  synony- 
mous. It  is  composed  of  the  same  materials  as 
greenstone  (q.  v.)  and  other  varieties  of  trap,  viz., 
hornblende  and  felspar,  with  a  small  quantity  of 
iron ;  but  these  exist  in  a  state  of  finer  division 
than  in  greenstone,  shewing  that  the  crystalline 
action  has  been  stojiped  at  its  commencement  by 
the  more  rapid  cooling  of  the  mass.  To  this  is 
owing  its  sharp  conchoidal  fracture  and  its  hard- 
ness. As  the  hardness  is  frequently  accompanied 
with  tenacity,  it  makes  B.  a  valuable  material  in  the 
making  of  roads.  It  is  of  a  more  uniform  dark-gray 
colour,  approaching  to  black,  than  the  other  varietiea 
of  trap. 

A  rock  of  a  similar  appearance  and  structure 
occurs  as  a  variety  of  lava,  in  volcanic  districts. 
This  Lava-B.  differs  from 
the  older  Trap-B.  in  the  form 
which  the  silicates  of  mag- 
nesia and  lime  assume  when 
crystallising.  In  the  newer 
rocks,  they  appear  as  augite ; 
in  the  older,  as  hornblende. 
These  two  minerals  can 
scarcely  be  distinguished  by 
their  chemical  composition, 
the  different  formulas  given 
by  mineralogists  being  the 
result  of  the  presence,  in  the  specimen  analysed,  of 
accidental  ingredients  or  impurities.  The  slightly 
differing  crystallographic  angle  has  been  accounted 
for  by  the  supposed  more  speedy  cooling  of  the  vol- 
canic rocks.  Rose,  indeed,  has  shewn  that  the  horn- 
blende of  melted  greenstone,  in  re-cooling,  crystallises 
as  augite ;  and  we  have  observed  that  the  same 
change  has  tnken  place  in  specimens  of  recrystalliscd 
B.,  obtained   from   works   whicn    existed   lately   at 


Basalt  section. 


BASALT. 


Birmiiif;ham  for  convortiiig  tliis  rock  into  an  opaque 
glass  lor  various  economic  uses. 

The  remarkable  columnar  structure  which  B.  fre- 
quently a.ssumes,  is  its  most  striking  characteristic. 
The  columns  vary  in  the  number  of  their  angles  from 
three  to  twelve ;  but  they  have  most  commonly 
from  five  to  seven  sides.  They  are  freijucntly 
divided  transversely  by  joints  at  nearly  equal  dis- 
tances. The  direction  of  the  columns  is  always  at 
right  angles  to  the  greatest  extension  of  the  mass, 
60  that  when  B,  occurs  as  a  bed,  either  overlying,  or 


intcrstratificd  with  the  regular  strata,  the  columi:s 
are  perpendicular,  while  they  are  horizontal  when 
the  B.  exists  as  a  dike. 

The  columnar  structiu'c  was  at  first  believed  to 
be  owing  to  a  modification  of  the  crystalline  force. 
Such  a  supposition  was  favoured  by  the  external 
form  of  the  columns  ;  Imt  the  total  absence  of  inter- 
nal structure  showed  that  the  explanation  mu.st  be 
sought  elsewhere.  In  1 804,  Mr.  Gregory  Watt  pro- 
pounded a  theory  of  the  origin  of  the  structure, 
ascribing   it   to  the  pressure   of    numerous  spheres 


on  each  other,  during  the  process  of  cooling,  such 
spheres  being  produced  in  planes  of  refrigeration 
or  absorption.  They  increase  by  the  successive 
formation  of  exteriuil  concentric  coats,  until  their 
growth  is  prevented  by  the  contact  of  neighbouring 
spheres  ;  and  as  in  a  layer  of  equal-sized  spheres, 
each  is  pressed  on  by  six  others,  the  result  is  that 
each  sphere  will  be  squeezed  into  a  regular  hexagon, 
Watt  published  this  theory  as  the  result  of  his 
celebrated  observations  on  the  cooling  of  a  mass  of 
molten  basalt,  in  which  he  noticed  the  production 
of  numerous  spheroids,  having  a  radiate  structure. 
JIany  greenstones,  in  weathering,  present  such  a 
structiu'e,  giving  often  to  the  rock  the  appearance 
as  if  it  were  composed  of  a  mass  of  cannon 
balls,  and  Watt's  experiments  satisfactorily  explain 
this  iihenomenon ;  but  they  will  not,  go  further. 
Anxious,  however,  that  tliey  should  throw  some 
light  on  the  structure  of  basaltic  columns,  he 
manages  it  by  the  following  remarkable  assump- 
tion: 'In  a  stratum  composed  of  an  indefinite 
number  in  superficial  extent,  but  only  one  in  height, 
of  impenetrable  spheroids,  with  nearly  equidistant 
centres,  if  their  peripheries  should  come  in  contact 
in  the  same  jilane,  it  seems  obvious  that  their 
mutual  action  would  form  them  into  hexagons  ;  and 
if  these  were  resisted  below,  and  there  was  no 
opposing  cause  above  them,  it  seems  equally  clear 
that  they  would  extend  their  dimensions  upwards, 
and  thus  form  hexagonal  prisTus,  whose  length  might 
be  i:;dennitely  greater  than  their  diameters.  The 
further    the    extremities  of  the  radii   were   removed  ^ 


from  the  centre,  the  greater  would  be  their  approach 
to  parallelism  ;  and  the  structm-e  would  be  finally 
propagated  by  nearly  paralled  fibres,  still  keeping 
within  the  limits  of  the  hexagonal  prism  with  which 
their  incipient  formation  commenced ;  and  the 
prisms  might  thus  shoot  to  an  indefinite  length  into 
the  undisturbed  central  mass  of  the  fluid,  till  their 
structure  was  deranged  by  the  superior  influence  of 
a  counteracting  cause.'  Unfortunately,  such  dreams 
too  often  meet  with  more  acceptance  than  the  drier 
deductions  from  observed  facts  ;  which  must,  how- 
ever, in  the  end,  form  the  only  basis  of  all  geologic 
science.  But  there  is  no  occasion  here  to  urge  even 
the  most  imaginative  to  resort  to  hypothesis,  for  the 
formation  of  columns  in  other  substances  than  B. 
is  quite  familiar,  and  their  producing  causes  evident. 
In  starch,  columns  having  the  external  prismatic 
appearance,  and  the  internal  earthy  structure,  are 
produced  simply  from  the  escape  of  vapour,  and 
consef|uent  shrinking  of  parts.  We  have  seen 
singularly  regular  joints  produced  in  the  argillaceous 
ironstone  at  Wardie,  near  Edinburgh,  on  its  expo- 
sure on  the  beach,  the  contractions  forming  the 
columns  evidently  resulting  from  the  escape  of  the 
moisture  retained  by  the  bed  while  it  was  covered 
by  other  strata.  The  same  occurs  in  beds  of  fine 
clay  that  have  been  recently  exposed.  But  the 
most  regular  series  of  columns  that  have  been 
noticed  by  us,  were  produced  on  bricks  which 
formed  the  bottom  of  a  public  oven.  The  long- 
continued  and  powerful  heat  to  which  they  had 
been  subjected,  though  it  had  not  caused  fusion,  had 

-723 


BASCINET— BASE  OF  OPERATIONS. 


so  affected  them  as  to  produce  a  beautiful  series  of 
legular  hexagonal  prisms.  The  cokmins  had  a  dia- 
meter of  nearly  half  an  incli.  Their  direction  was  at 
right  angles  to  the  oven  floor.  The  earthy  structure 
of  tlie  brick  remained.  Tlie  columns,  in  short,  were 
in  every  respect,  except  the  material  of  which  they 
were  formed,  true  basaltic  columns.  It  is  surely 
better  to  look  for  an  explanation  of  this  structure  in 
causes  similar  to  those  which  have  produced  the 
examples  adduced,  than  to  iind  it  in  such  ground- 
less assumptions  as  are  at  the  foundation  of  the 
generally  received  theory  of  Watt.  The  columnar 
structure  of  B.  seems  to  have  ))een  produced  subse- 
quently to  the  cooling  of  the  mass,  by  changes  in 
the  solid  rock,  probably  from  t4ie  escape  of  some 
volatile  matter. 

The  two  best  known  and  most  beautiful  examples 
of  columnar    B.    are    Fingal's    Cave,    in    the    island 
of  Stafta,  on  the    west  coast  of  Scotland,  and    the 
Giants'  Causeway,  on  the  north  coast  of  Ireland. 
BA'SCINET.     See  Helmkt. 

BASE,  in  Heraldry,  the  lower  portion  of  the 
shield  is  called  (he  B.  ;  there  is  a  dexter  base,  middle 
base,  and  sinister  Ijase,  marked  by  the  letters 
,;^ G,  H,  I,  in  the  accompanying  dia- 
gram, in  which,  for  the  covenience 
of  the  heraldic  student,  the  other 
points  of  the  escutcheon  are  also 
indicated.  The  (7r//;/'or  principal  part 
of  the  escutcheon  is  the  top,  marked 
A,  B,  C  The  dexter  or  right-hand 
side  is  that  marked  AG  ;  the  sinister 
side,  CI,  an  arrangement  which  is 
explained  when  we  cousider  that  the  shield  is 
always  supposed  to  be  on  the  arm  of  the  wearer, 
and  that  it  is  his  right  and  left  hands,  not  those 
of  the  spectator,  which  are  kept  in  view.  The 
r/round  or  surface  of  the  shield,  on  which  all  the 
charges  or  figures  are  depicted,  is  called  the  Jicld. 

In  Base. — When  any  figure  is  placed  in  the  B. 
part  of  the  shield,  it  is  said  to  be  mi  base. 

BASE  (Fr.  and  Ital.),  the  foot  or  lower  memljcr 
of  a  pillar,  on  which  the  shaft  rests.  Of  the  classical 
orders,  the  Doric  column  alone  had  no  base.  The 
height  of  the   B.  is   usually  about    half  the   lower 


ABC 


Base, 
or   left   hand 


Tuscan  Base. 

diameter  of  the  shaft ;  and  it  is  divided  into  the 
plinth,  or  flat  projecting  square  block  or  blocks, 
immediately  above  the  ground,  and  the  vionlditif/s 
(q.  v.),  or  fillets,  Avhich  surround  the  colinnn,  and 
are  usually  circular.  In  tiie  early  Norman  style,  the 
bases  of  pillars  still  retained,  from  the  Romanesque, 
forms  closely  resembling  the  Tuscan  order.  As 
Gothic  architecture  advanced,  and  emancipated 
itself  from  the  arbitrary  rules  by  which  the  classical 
orders  were  governed,  bases  became  infinitely  varied 
in  detail,  though  sometliing  approaching  to  the 
original  conception  of  a  strong  and  firm  foundation 
for  the  column,  adhered  to  them  throughout. 

BASE,    in    Chemistry,    is  a  term    applied    to    a 
compound    body,    generally    consisting   of    a   metal 
724 


united  with  oxygen.  Thus,  tlie  metal  potassium 
(K),  when  it  combines  with  oxygen  (0),  forms  the 
13.  potash  (KG);  sodium  (Na)  and  oxyeu,  the  B.  soda 
(NaO);  l(>ad  (Pb)  and  oxygen,  the  B.  oxide  of  lead 
or  litharge  (PbO).  A  distinguishing  feature  of  a 
B.  is  that  it  unites  with  an  oxygen  acid,  such  as 
sulphuric  acid  (S03)to  form  a  salt  (q.  v.).  Thus,  the 
B.  potash  (KO)  combines  with  sulphuric  acid  (SOj) 
to  ma!  ?  the  salt  sulphate  of  potash  (KOSO3)  ; 
potash  with  nitric  acid  (NOr,)  to  form  the  salt  nitrate 
of  potash,  or  nitre  (KONOs).  Occasionally  sulphur 
replaces  the  oxygen  in  a  base.  Thus,  the  metal 
potassium  (K)  unites  Avith  sulphur  (S)  to  form  the 
sulphur  base,  sulphuret  of  potassium  (KP),  which 
can  unite  with  a  sulphur  acid  like  sulj^harsenious 
acid  or  orpiment  (AsSs)  to  make  the  salt  sulphar- 
senite  of  potash  (KS,AsS3).  The  metal  half  of 
a  B.  need  not  be  a  simple  element,  but  may  be  a 
compound  body  which,  for  tlie  time,  plays  the 
part  of  a  simple  substance.  Thus,  the  compound 
ethyl  (C4II5)  can  combine  with  oxygen  to  form 
ordinary  ether  ([CiHejO);  and  the  B.  thus  pro- 
duced can,  in  its  turn,  combine  with  acids  to 
form  salts.  A  base  may  be  soluble  or  insoluble  in 
water.  Thus,  the  bases  potash  (KO),  soda  (NaO), 
ammonia  (NH.1O),  baryta  (BaO),  strontia  (StO),  lime 
(CaO),  and  magnesia  (MgO),  are  more  or  less  soluble 
in  water ;  whilst  the  oxide  of  iron  or  rust  (J^e.jOs), 
the  red  oxide  of  lead  (PbjOj),  the  red  oxide  of 
mercury  (HgO),  are  insoluble  in  water,  but  soluble 
in  acids. 

BASE,  or  BASS  (from  basis,  the  foundation),  in 
Music,  is  the  dei'pest  or  lowest  part  by  whatever 
instrument  it  may  be  performed.  The  B.,  next  to 
the  upper  part,  is  the  most  striking,  the  freest  in 
its  movements,  and  richest  in  effect.  Its  movement 
downwards  is  unfettered,  unconcealed,  and  uiidis- 
turbed,  whereas  the  middle  parts  are  circumscribed 
and  concealed.  In  respect  to  harmony,  the  B.  is  the 
most  impoitant  part  in  music,  containing  more  fre- 
quently the  fundamental  notes  of  the  chords,  while 
on  it  is  formed  that  most  important  and  effective 
figure  in  music  called  'organ-point'  (q.  v.). — B.  is 
also  the  name  of  the  lowest  ar.d  deepest  quality  of 
the    human  voice.     The  compass  of    a  B.   voice   is 


generally  from    < )' 


I 


which  should  all  be 


chest-notes,  except,  perhaps,  the  highest.     The  most 


useful    range,  however,  is    from  ^'.       I ! — K     In 


i 


± 


the  characteristic  use  of  the  B.  voice,  the  old  masters 
were  unquestionably  the  greatest,  especially  Handel 
and  Bach.  The  B.  voice  only  begins  to  shew  itself 
at  tlie  years  of  manhood,  and  is  generally  a  change 
from  the  alto  voice  of  a  boy. — B.  is  also  the  name 
of  an  old  stringed  instrument,  with  from  five  to  six 
strings,  tuned  variously  to  suit  the  music,  and  played 
with  a  bow.  It  was  a  sort  of  middle  instrument 
between  the  contra-bass  and  violoncello,  but  is  now 
out  of  use.  Double  B.  (contra-bass)  is  the  deepest- 
toned  of  stringed  instruments. 

BASE  OF  OPERATIONS,  in  Military  Man- 
oeuvres, is  some  spot  or  line  which  the  general  of  an 
army  relies  upon  as  a  stronghold  and  magazine.  An 
army  cannot  take  with  it  all  the  food,  forage,  and 
ammunition  for  a  long  war  ;  the  consumption  is 
enormous,  and  a  constant  supply  is  indispensable. 
Again,  the  sick  and  wounded  cannot  accompany  the 
army  through  toilsome  marches ;  the  commander 
endeavours  to  send  them  back  to  some  place  of 
safi'ty.  Furthermore,  fresh  troops  must  have  some 
spot  from  which  they  can  safely  advance  through  the 
enemy's  country.     To  secure  all  these  advantages,  a 


BASE-COURT— BASEL. 


B.  of  O.  is  necessary.  It  may  be  a  port,  a  stretch 
of  sea-coast,  a  river,  a  mountain-range,  according 
to  circumstances ;  but  it  must  be  such  as  to  serve  as 
a  magazine  of  supply,  a  place  for  retreat  under 
disaster,  and  the  end  of  a  line  of  open  communi- 
cation extending  to  the  spot  occupied  by  the  army. 
When  Lord  Raglan  and  Marshal  St.  Arnaud 
advanced  from  the  Alma  towards  Sebastopol,  in 
September  18.54,  they  intended  to  attack  the  great 
fortress  on  the  north  side  ;  but  the  tactics  of  the 
Russians  prevented  this  ;  and  the  allies,  changing 
their  plan,  resolved  on  the  celebrated  flank-march  to 
ISalaklava,  by  which  they  secured  the  whole  coast 
from  Balaklava  to  Kamiesch  as  a  B.  of  O.  during 
the  siege  of  Sebastopol.  See  Balaklava.  In 
the  military  contests  arising  out  of  the  Indian 
mutiny,  in  1857  and  18.58,  Cawnpore  was  the  chief 
B.  of  0.  whence  Havelock,  Outram,  and  Clyde  made 
those  advances  towards  Lucknow  which  led  ulti- 
mately to  the  suppression  of  the  revolt.  In  the 
Italian  war  of  185',i,  the  Austrian  B.  of  0.  was  very 
fluctuating,  owing  in  part  to  the  disaifected  state 
of  the  Lombard  population  around  the  great  for- 
tresses of  Mantua,  Peschiera,  &c. ;  and  indeed  the 
only  reliable  base  was  furnished  by  the  Eastern  and 
Tyrolese  Alps.  The  French  and  Sardinian  base,  in 
the  same  war,  was  virtually  Genoa,  and  the  line 
of  country  extending  thence  to  the  great  stronghold 
of  Alessandria. 

BASE'COURT  (bas^e-cour),  the  outer  court  of 
a  feudal  mansion,  which  contained  the  stable-yard 
and  accommodation  for  servants.  It  was  distinct 
from  the  principal  quadrangle,  and  was  sometimes 
constructed  of  timber. 

B.\'SEDOW,  Jon  Berxh.  (properly  Joli.  Berend 

Bassedau,  or  Bernh.  von  Nordalbingen,  as  he  is 
often  called),  a  remarkable  educationalist  of  the  18th 
c,  was  born,  8th  September  1723,  at  Hamburg, 
where  his  father  was  a  peruke-maker.  He  attended 
the  Johanneum  there  from  1741  to  1744,  and  after- 
wards studied  philosophy  and  theology  in  Leipsic, 
from  which  he  went  in  1746  as  a  private  tutor  to 
Holstein.  In  the  year  1753,  he  was  appointed  a 
master  in  the  academy  for  young  noblemen  at 
Soriie.  In  17C1  he  was  removed  from  the  Gymna- 
sium at  Altona  on  account  of  heterodox  opinions. 
Rousseau's  Emile  awakened  in  him,  in  1762,  the 
thought  of  improving  the  method  of  education,  and 
of  reducing  to  practice  Rousseau's  maxims  and  tiiose 
of  Comenius.  Contributions  IVom  princes  and  private 
persons,  amounting  to  15,000  thalers  (about  £2171 
sterling),  covered  the  cost  of  his  Elcmentarwerk, 
which,  after  the  most  pompous  announcements, 
appeared  as  an  Orbis  Picfus,  with  100  copper-plates 
by  Chodowiecki,  and  was  translated  into  French 
aud  Latin.  Therein  the  young  receive  a  large  num- 
ber of  representations  of  the  actual  world,  whereby 
B.  sought  at  once  to  delight  the  eyes,  and  to  awaken 
a  sentiment  of  cosmopolitanism,  at  which  his  whole 
method  aimed.  As  a  model  school  on  tiiis  method, 
lie  established  in  1774  the  Philanthrojiin  at  Dessau, 
to  which  place  he  had  been  called  in  1771.  His  rest- 
lessness of  disposition,  and  the  quarrels  in  which  he 
was  involved,  especially  with  his  active  but  capri- 
cious coadjutor  Wolke,  caused  him  to  leave  the 
Philiinthropin  ;  but  he  proceeded  with  as  much 
eagei'iiess  as  ever  in  endeavours  to  give  effect  to 
his  ideas  by  educational  works,  which,  however, 
aimed  more  at  popularity  than  solidity,  until,  after 
many  changes  of  residence,  he  died  at  Magdeburg, 
25th  July,  1790.  His  influence  on  the  public  mind 
of  his  age,  particularly  in  Germany,  was  very 
great.  He  has  been  justly  reproached  with  disparag- 
ing the  ancients,  a  consequence  chiefly  of  his  own 
want  of  sound  scholarship,  and  with  a  multitude  of 


exaggerations,  mistakes,  and  conceits ;  yet  it  cannot 
be  disputed  that  his  numerous  philosophical  and 
educational  works  powerfully  awakened  attention 
and  interest  in  the  much-neglected  subject  of  educa- 
tioti,  and  that  he  set  many  excellent  ideas  and 
weighty  truths  in  r.ipid  circul.ition  among  men. 

BA'SEL,  or  BA'SLE  (Fr.  Bale),  a  city  and  canton 
of  Switzerland.  The  canton  was  divided  in  1833 
into  two  sovereign  half-cantons,  called  Basel-city 
(Basel-stadt,  or  Basle-ville)  and  Basel-country 
(Basel-landschaft,  or  Basle-campagne),  each  having 
half  a  vote  in  the  diet.  The  half-canton  of  Basel- 
city  consists  only  of  the  city,  with  its  precincts,  and 
three  villages  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine  ;  the 
remainder  of  the  canton  forms  the  half-canton  of 
Basel-country.  The  canton  of  B.  is  bounded  by 
F'rance  and  Baden,  and  by  the  cantons  of  Aargau, 
Soleure,  and  Berne,  and  has,  according  to  different 
estimates,  an  extent  of  from  170  to  about  2(>0  square 
miles.  Lying  on  the  northern  slope  of  the  Jura,  it 
is  a  country  of  hills  and  valleys.  The  mountains 
attain  an  elevation  of  from  20(i0  to  3000  feet.  The 
chief  rivers  of  B.  are  the  Rhine  (which  flows  through 
the  north  part  of  the  canton)  and  its  tributaries,  the 
Birz,  and  Ergloz.  The  soil  is  fertile  and  well  culti- 
vated. The  climate,  except  in  elevated  situations, 
is  very  mild.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  employed 
in  agriculture,  the  cultivation  of  fruit-trees  and  of 
the  vine,  cattle-husbandry,  fishing,  salt-works,  the 
manufacture  of  ribbons  (which  are  manufictured  to 
the  value  of  £400,000  sterling  annually),  paper, 
woollens,  linens,  and  leather.  The  transit  trade  is 
very  considerable. 

The  city  of  B.  arose  out  of  the  Roman  fortified  post 
of  Basilia  or  Basiliana,  near  Augusta  Rauracorum, 
of  which  once  more  important  place  the  little  village 
of  Augst,  near  B.,  exhibits  a  few  ruins.  On  the  divi- 
sion of  the  Frank  Empire,  the  district  of  B.  fell  to 
Louis  or  Ludwig  the  German.  The  Emperor  Henry 
I.,  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  10th  c.,  rebuilt  the 
town,  which  had  been  destroyed.  It  then  became  a 
place  of  importance,  and  belonged  for  a  time  to  Bur- 
gundy, but  after  lu32  formed  part  of  the  German 
empire.  It  became  at  an  early  period  the  seat  of  a 
bishop,  who,  from  the  11th  c,  shared  in  the  supreme 
power  with  the  imperial  governor,  a  number  of 
noble  families,  and  the  burgesses.  Amidst  many 
internal  and  external  disturbances,  the  power  of  the 
nobility  was  gradually  broken,  that  of  the  bishop 
restricted,  and  the  authority  of  the  burgesses 
extended.  Surrounding  towns  were  also  destroyed, 
or  conquered,  and  purchased,  along  with  their  terri- 
tories, so  that  the  city  extended  its  dominion  over  a 
country  district  which  until  very  recently  was  kept 
in  a  state  of  dependence  and  subjection.  Involved 
in  many  feuds  with  the  House  of  Hapsburg,  B. 
closely  allied  itself  to  the  Swiss  confederacy  ;  and 
after  the  peace  between  the  Emperor  Maximilian  I. 
and  the  confederacy,  B.  formally  joined  it  in  1501. 
From  1519  onwards,  the  writings  of  Luther  were 
printed  in  B. ;  and  at  the  end  of  twenty  years  from 
that  time,  the  reformed  doctrine  had  become  gene- 
rally prevalent,  the  chapter  of  the  cathedral  had 
left  the  city,  and  the  convents  had  been  suppressed. 
After  the  union  with  Switzerland,  the  triumph  of  the 
burgess  party  became  also  more  complete,  part  of  the 
nobility  emigrated,  and  those  who  remained  were 
placed  upon  the  same  level  with  the  freemen  of  the 
municipal  corporation.  Orderly  industry,  economy, 
and  an  external  severity  of  manners,  became  the 
characteristics  of  the  citizens  ;  but  the  peace  of  the 
city  was  not  unfrequently  disturbed  by  strifes  con- 
sequent upon  the  assertion  of  what  was  deemed 
undue  authority  by  the  magistrates.  The  govern- 
ment of  the  city,  to  which  the  whole  canton  was 
subject,    was    intrusted    to   a  Great    aud   a    Little 

725 


BASEL. 


Couiii'ii,  under  the  presidency  of  alternate  burpo- 
niasters  and  chief  wardens  of  the  guilds  ;  but  the 
Little  Council,  uniting  legislative  and  judicial  func- 
tions with  the  highest  executive  authority,  became 
gradually  more  and  more  preponderant.  AH  parties 
ill  the  city,  however,  remained  always  well  coin- 
liincd  against  the  country  district ;  and  persons 
belonging  to  the  city  were  appointed  to  all  offices, 
civil  and  ecclesiastical,  whilst  the  depression  of 
the  country  district  was  completed  by  the  neglect 
of  a  proper  provision  for  education.  This  state  of 
things  caused  great  dissatisfaction,  which  repeatedly 
l>roke  out  in  fruitless  lebellion.  Under  the  impulse 
communicated  by  the  French  Revolution,  equality  of 
rights  was  conceded  in  1798;  but  in  1814,  although 
the  equality  of  rights  remained  apparently  intact, 
the  new  constitution  of  the  canton  was  so  framed, 
and  the  representation  so  distributed,  as  virtually  to 
make  the  city  again  supreme.  The  discontent 
of  the  country  district  became  so  great  that,  after 
unsuccessful  attempts  to  obtain  redress  of  grievances 
by  petition,  civil  war  broke  out  in  IS-Tl,  which  did 
not  cease  till  the  troops  of  the  Swiss  Confederation 
took  possession  of  the  canton,  and  the  diet  recognized 
the  separation  of  the  city  and  the  country  districts, 
as  sovereign  half-cantons,  in  1838.  The  constitu- 
tions of  the  two  half-cantons  are  in  most  respects 
similar,  and  are  framed  on  the  basis  of  the  old  con- 
stitution, modified  in  accordance  with  the  principle 
of  universal  suffrage.  According  to  the  census  of 
I860,  the  halt-canton  of  Easel-city  contained  40,683 
inhabitants,  of  whom  more  than  "33,000  wei-e  Prot- 
estants, and  the  rest  Roman  Catholics ;  Basel- 
country,  51,582,  of  whom  10,000  were  Roman  Catho- 
lics. Each  division  sends  one  member  to  the  diet, 
but  they  have  only  one  vote  between  them,  and  that 
does  not  count  at  all  when  the  deputies  take  oppo- 
site sides,  which  as  a  rule  they  do.  The  capital  of 
Basel-country  is  Licstal.  Since  its  separation  from 
the  city,  more  ample  provision  has  been  made  for 
education,  and  there  has  been  a  rapid  increase  of 
material  prosperity.  Both  Roman  Catholic  and 
Protestant  clergy  are  paid  by  the  state,  and  the 
parishes  of  the  Reformed  Church  have  received  the 
right  of  choosing  their  own  pastors. 

The  city  of  B.  was  much  more  populous  in  the 
middle  ages  than  it  is  now.  Its  population  in 
1860  was  37,918.  In  the  14th  c.,  the  number 
of  its  inhabitants  was  greatly  reduced  by  the 
plague,  or  'black  death'  (q.  v.),  which  raged  in 
it  with  terrible  severity,  alid  is  sometimes  men- 
tioned as  the  '  death  of  Ba.sel.'  It  is  well-built 
and  clean,  but  its  appearance  does  not  proclaim 
it  the  wealthiest  city  in  Switzerland,  which,  how- 
ever, it  is.  Amongst  its  buildings  are  a  cathedral, 
founded  in  the  beginning  of  the  11th  c,  by  the' 
Emperor  Henry  II.,  and  a  bridge  over  the  Rhine, 
built  in  1226.  The  Rhine  divides  the  city  into  two 
p.irts — Great  B.,  on  the  south  side,  and  Little  B.,  on 
the  north.  B.  is  connected  by  railway  with  Stras- 
burg  on  the  one  hand,  and  Berne,  Lucerne,  Zurich, 
etc.,  on  the  other.  It  has  many  benevolent  and 
educational  institutions,  among  which  are  an  orphan 
asylum,  and  an  institution  for  deaf  mutes  ;  a  univer- 
sity, founded  in  1459,  which  has  a  library  of 
5o,000 — 60,000  volumes,  and  a  very  valuable  collec- 
tion of  manuscripts,  a  numismatological  collection,  a 
botanic  garden,  and  a  museum  of  natural  history  ; 
tlie  new  museum,  in  which  there  are  several  pictures 
of  the  younger  Holbein,  who  was  long  resident  in 
B.  (some  accounts  say,  he  was  born  here) ;  a  public 
library  of  70,000  volumes.  During  the  Reforma- 
tion, the  university  was  a  central  point  of  spiritual 
life,  and  it  has  numbered  among  its  professors 
men  of  great  eminence  in  learning  and  science, 
including  Erasmus,  who  died  here  in  15S0,  and  the 


mathematicians  Euler  and  Bernouilli,  who  were 
natives  of  B.  ;  but  it  is  now  one  of  the  least 
frequented  of  the  universities  of  Switzerland. 

BA'SEL,  Council  of,  a  memorable  and  important 
ecclesiastical  council,  held  in  the  city  of  Basel.  It 
was  summoned  by  Pope  Martin  Y.,  and  his  successor 
Eugenius  IV.,  in  accordance  with  an  announcement 
made  at  the  Council  of  Constance,  and  was  opened 
on  14th  December,  1431,  under  the  presidency  of  the 
Cardinal  Legate  Julian  Cesarini  of  St.  Angelo.  The 
hall  in  which  it  met  is  still  shown  at  Basel.  It 
addressed  itself  to  the  reconciliation  of  the  Hussites 
with  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  to  the  reform 
of  abuses  in  the  church  itself.  But  the  first  attempt 
to  conciliate  the  Hussites,  whom  an  army  of  cru- 
saders had  in  vain  sought  to  subjugate,  was  met 
with  resistance  by  the  pope,  who  not  only  refused 
his  sanction,  but  empowered  the  cardinal  legnte  to 
dissolve  the  council.  The  council  strongly  repelled 
the  pope's  pretension  of  right  to  dissolve  it,  and  pro- 
ceeded with  its  business.  His  injunctions,  that  it 
should  remove  to  Italy,  were  equally  disregarded. 
It  renewed  the  decree  of  the  Council  of  Constance, 
asserting  the  right  of  a  General  Council  to  e.xercise 
authority  over  the  pope  himself,  and  on  his  perse- 
vering to  issue  bulls  for  its  dissolution,  caused  a 
formal  process  to  be  commenced  against  him,  and 
cited  him  to  appear  at  its  bar.  It  assumed  the 
papal  powers,  and  exercised  them  in  France  and 
Germany,  where  its  authority  was  acknowledged. 
It  concluded  a  peace,  in  name  of  the  church,  with 
the  Calixtincs,  the  most  powerfid  section  of  the 
Hussites,  by  the  Prague  Compact  of  20th  November 
1433,  granting  them  the  use  of  the  cup  in  the  Lord's 
Supper.  By  tiiis,  the  Emperor  Sigismund  was  much 
helped  in  obtaining  possession  of  Bohemia  ;  and  he  in 
return  sought  to  reconcile  the  council  with  Eugenius 
lY.,  who,  being  hard  pressed  by  insurrections  in  the 
States  of  the  Church,  and  afraid  of  losing  his  whole 
influence  in  Franco  and  Germany,  solemnly  ratified 
all  its  decrees,  by  a  bull  dated  lath  December,  1433. 
Desirous,  however,  of  limiting  the  papal  prerogatives, 
the  council  restored  to  the  chapters  of  cathedral  and 
collegiate  churches  the  free  right  of  election  to  stalls 
and  benefices,  of  which  the  pope  liad  assumed  the 
right  of  disposing  ;  and  with  a  view  to  the  reforma- 
tion of  gross  abuses,  restricted  the  power  of  granting 
interdicts,  and  prohibited  annats  and  other  grievous 
exactions.  It  left  the  pope  the  right  to  dispose  of 
those  benefices  only  which  belonged  to  the  diocese 
of  Rome,  and  prohibited  the  bestowal  of  reversions 
to  ecclesiastical  offices.  It  also  appointed  punish- 
ments for  certain  immoralities  in  the  clergy  ;  and 
prohibited  Festivals  of  Fools,  and  all  the  inde- 
cencies which  had  been  commonly  practised  in 
churches  at  Christmas.  It  adopted  decrees  concern- 
ing the  election  of  popes,  and  for  the  regulation  of 
the  College  of  Cardinals. 

Eugenius,  exasperated  to  the  utmost,  com- 
plained loudly  to  all  sovereign  princes.  At  this 
time,  a  prospect  was  opened  up  of  the  union  of  the 
distressed  Greeks  with  the  Church  of  Rome  ;  and 
both  the  pope  and  the  council  endeavoured  to  make 
use  of  this  for  the  advancement  of  their  own  inter- 
est and  influence.  Both  despatched  galleys  for 
the  Greek  deputies,  but  through  the  intrigues  of  his 
agents,  the  pope  was  successful,  and  brought  the 
Greek  deputies  to  Ferrara.  The  Archbishop  of 
Tarentum,  a  papal  legate  at  B.,  circulated  an  ordi- 
nance in  name  of  the  council,  and  sealed  with  its  seal, 
recommending  LTdine  or  Florence  as  the  place  of 
conference.  The  ordinance  was  a  forger;v,  and  this 
proceeding  put  an  end  to  forbearance  on  the  part  of 
the  council,  which,  on  July  31,  1437,  again  cited  the 
pope  to  its  bar  ;  and  not  only  on  his  failing  tw  appear, 
declared  him  contumacious,  but  on  his  opening  an 


BASEL— BASIL. 


opposition  council  at  Ferrara,  went  fo  far  as,  on 
January  '24,  1438,  to  decree  his  suspension  from  the 
functions  of  the  popedom.  His  party,  however,  w  is 
so  stronj;  that  tiiis  decree  could  not  be  carried  into 
effect ;  and  some  of  those  who  had  been  among  ilie 
most  influential  members  of  the  council,  the  Cardinal 
Legate  Julian  himself,  and  the  greater  number  of 
the'ltalians,  left  B.,  and  went  over  to  his  side.  All 
the  more  resolutely  did  Cardinal  Louis  Allemand, 
Archbishop  of  Aries,  a  man  of  most  superior  under- 
standinff,  courage,  and  eloquence,  now  guide  the 
proceedings  of  the  council,  whicli,  on  May  16,  1439, 
declared  the  Pope  a  heretic,  for  his  obstinate  disobe- 
dience to  its  decrees;  and  in  the  following  session, 
formally  deposed  him  for  simony,  perjury,  and  other 
offences.  On  this  occasion,  tlie  holy  relics  whicli 
were  in  B.  were  deposited  in  the  places  from  which 
the  Spanish  and  Italian  members  of  the  eouncil  had 
disappeared  ;  and  the  sight  of  them  produced  much 
emotion,  and  reanimated  the  courage  of  the  assem- 
bly, still  consisting  of  400  prelates,  priests,  and 
doctors,  mostly  French  and  German.  On  November 
17,  1430,  the  council,  notwithstanding  the  still  fur- 
ther diminution  of  its  numbers,  caused  by  the 
plague  in  B.,  elected  Duke  Amadeus  of  Savoy  to  be 
pope,  who  then  Uved  as  a  hermit  in  Ripaglia,  on  the 
Lake  of  Geneva.  He  accordingly  styled  himself 
Felix  v.,  but  was  recognised  only  by  a  few  princes, 
cities,  and  universities.  The  Emperor  Sigismund 
was  dead,  and  even  France  and  Germany,  although 
they  accepted  the  reforming  decrees  of  the  council, 
thought  proper  to  remain  neutral  in  the  question 
regarding  the  popedom.  Tlie  friendship  of  the 
Emperor  Frederick  III.  strengthened  the  party  of 
Eugenius;  and  the  council  gradually  melted  away, 
till  careful  only  for  personal  security,  its  members, 
after  tliree  years  of  inactivity,  held  its  last  session 
at  B.  on  May  16,  1443,  and  removed  its  seat  to 
Lausanne.  Here  a  few  prelates  still  remained 
together  under  the  presi<lency  of  Cardinal  Alletnand, 
till  in  1440,  after  the  death  of  Eugenius,  and  the 
resignation  of  the  anti-pope  Felix,  an  amnesty  was 
offered  to  them  by  the  new  pope,  Nicholas  V.,  which 
they  joyfully  accepted.  The  B.  reforming  decrees 
are  contained  in  no  Koman  Catholic  collection  of 
decrees  of  councils,  and  are  held  to  be  invalid  by 
the  canonists  of  Rome;  yet  they  are  of  authority  in 
canon  law  in  France  and  Germany,  where  they 
were  included  in  pragmatic  sanctions,  although 
their  application  has  been  modified  by  more  recent 
concordats. 

BA'SEL,  Treaty  of.  Basel  gives  its  name  to 
two  imporiant  treaties  of  peace,  concluded  there  on 
5th  April  and  22d  July  1*195,  between  the  represent- 
atives of  the  French  Republic,  Prussia,  and  Spain, 
by  which  Prussia  withdrew  from  the  coalition  against 
France,  took  under  her  protection  all  the  states  of 
Northern  Germany  which  should,  like  herself, 
relinquish  the  war  in  which  the  German  empire  was 
engaged,  and  also  gave  up  to  the  victorious  republic 
her  possessions  beyond  the  Rhine  ;  whilst  Spain  gave 
up  her  portion  of  St.  Domingo,  and  prepared  the  way 
for  that  alliance  with  France  which  was  afterwards 
productive  of  consequences  so  important. 

BASE'LLA,  a  genus  of  plants,  generally  regarded 
as  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Chenopodlacece 
(q.  v.),  but  by  some  botanists  as  the  type  of 
a  distinct  order,  Basellaceic.  The  species  are  all 
tropical.  B.  alba  and  E.  rubra  are  known  in 
Britain  as  stove  biennials.  They  are  plants  with 
twining  stems,  in  common  use  as  pot-herbs  in  the 
East  Indies,  and  cultivated  in  China.  In  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Paris,  they  are  raised  on  hot-beds, 
transplanted  into  warm  borders,  and  furnish  a  sub- 
stitute for  spinach  in  summer.      B.  rz<bra   yields  a 


very  rich  pnrple  dye.  The  gfeat  fleshy  root  of  B. 
tubcrona,  a  south  American  species,  also  with  a 
twining  stem,  is  edible. 

BA'SEMENT-STORY.  See  Stort. 
BA'SIIAN,  or  BATAN.EA,  a  country  of  Palestine, 
stretching  Irom  Mount  Ilermon  in  the  Anti-Libaiuis 
on  the  north,  to  tiie  brook  of  Jabbok  on  the  south, 
and  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Jordan,  its  eastern 
limits  not  being  very  clearly  defined.  Ashtaroth 
and  Edrei  were  its  chief  cities,  and  the  residence  of 
its  kings  during  the  Amoiitish  dynasty.  The  last 
of  its  Amorite  rulers  was  Og,  who  with  all  his 
sons  was  killed  by  the  Israelites  under  Moses,  at 
the  battle  of  Edrei;  and  the  half  tril)e  of  Manas.seh 
settled  in  the  land.  The  men  of  B.  were  remarkable 
for  their  stature,  its  pastures  for  their  richness,  and 
its  sheep  and  oxen  lor  their  size  and  fatness.  B. 
belonged  to  the  tetrarchy  of  Philip,  and  afterwards 
to  that  of  Agrippa  II, 

BASHAW  (Turkish,  basch  ;  Arahic,  bnsha ;  Persian 
pas/ia,  the  way  in  which  the  word  is  now  commonly 
written)  signifies  head,  or  master,  a  Turkish  title  of 
honour  given  to  viceroys,  provincial  governors,  gene- 
rals, and  other  distinguished  public  men.  The  term 
B.  is  also  used  to  characterise  a  man  of  an  arrogant 
and  domineering  disposition. 

BASHEE'  or  BASHI'  ISLANDS,  a  small  cluster 
in  the  line  between  Luzon,  the  chief  of  the  Philip- 
pine chain,  and  Formosa,  the  hit.  and  long,  being 
respectively  21°  N.  and  122°  E.  Politically,  they 
are  a  dependency  of  the  Philippines,  having  been 
colonised  by  the  Spaniards  in  1783.  Phy.sically, 
they  form  a  link  in  the  vast  archipelago  which, 
from  Formosa  to  Sumat.-a  inclusive,  connects  the 
south-east  of  China  with  the  west  of  Malacca. 
They  were  discovered  in  1687  by  Dampicr,  who 
called  them  the  Bashi  Islands,  on  account  of  the 
popularity  among  the  islanders  of  an  intoxicating 
liquor  of  that  name. 

BASHI-BAZOU'KS  are  irregular  troopers  in  the 
pay  of  the  Sultan.  Very  few  of  them  are 
Europeans  ;  they  are  mostly  Asiatics,  from  some  or 
other  of  the  pashalics  in  Asiatic  Turkey.  They  are 
wild  turbulent  men,  ready  to  enter  the  Sultan'a 
service  under  some  leader  whom  they  can  under- 
stand, and  still  more  ready  to  plunder  whenever  an 
opportunity  offers.  During  the  Russo-Turkish  war 
of  1854,  &c.,  they  had  many  encounters  with  the 
eneinv  in  that  kind  of  irregular  warfare  which  the 
Rtissians  intrust  to  Cossack  horsemen ;  but  the 
peaceful  villagers  had  almost  as  much  distrust  of 
the  B.-B.  as  of  the  Russians.  When  the  British 
government  resolved,  in  1855,  to  take  into  pay  a 
Turkish  contingent,  to  aid  in  the  operations  of  the 
war,  they  intrusted  to  General  Beatson,  an  officer 
who  had  seen  much  Indian  service,  the  collecting 
and  drilling  of  a  corps  of  bashi-bazouk  irregulars; 
but  it  was  a  troublesome  and  unpleasant  duty,  and 
the  war  came  to  an  end  before  the  men  were  fit 
for  service. 

BASIDO'H,  or  BASSADO'RE,  the  principal 
station  for  British  ships  in  the  Persian  Gulf,  situated 
at  the  west  end  of  the  Island  of  Kishm. 

BASIENTO,  or  BASENTO,  a  river  of  Naples, 
which,  rising  in  the  Apennines,  west  of  Potcnza, 
flows  in  an  east-south-east  direction  through  the 
province  of  Basilicata  to  the  Gulf  of  Taranto,  which 
it  enters  25  miles  west-south-west  of  Taranto  city. 
Near  its  mouth  are  the  remains  of  the  once  famous 
city  of  Jlctapojiium,  where  Pythagoras  ended  his 
days. 

BA'SIL,  surnamed  The  Great,  and  c-Jled 
St.  B.,  one  of  the  most  eminent  and  eloquent  of  the 
Greek  Fathers,  was  born  about  329  at  Cissarea,  in 

727 


BASIL  T.— BASILICA. 


of  being  a   palliative   of  the   pains    of  childbirth. — 
BcsH  B.    (0.  minimum),  also  a  native  of  the  East 


Cappadocia  ;  studied  under  the  heathen  philosophers 
at  Athens,  and  became  an  advocate  in  his  native 
city,  but  afterwards  founded  a  monastic  society  ;  was 
ordained  a  presbyter  in  3G2  ;  and  succeeded  Eusebius 
as  Bishop  of  Ca?sarea  in  370,  in  which  office  he  con- 
tinued till  his  death  in  ."79.  He  resolutely  resisted 
invitations  to  the  court  of  Julian  the  Apostate,  with 
whom  he  had  contracted  an  intimacy  as  a  fellow- 
student  at  Athens,  and  displayed  great  constancy 
when  the  Emperor  Valens  began  to  persecute  him, 
on  account  of  Ins  opposition  to  Arianism.  He  was 
engaged  in  most  of  the  controversies  of  his  time, 
but  conducted  controversy  in  a  peaceful  and  gene- 
rous manner.  His  rules  of  monastic  life  are  still 
followed  in  the  Greek  and  other  oriental  churches, 
in  which  he  is  highly  honoured  as  one  of  the  great- 
est of  saints.  In  tlie  Roman  Catholic  Church,  also, 
they  are  followed  in  a  few  convents,  styled  of  the 
order  of  Basilians.  The  influence  of  B.  was  greatly 
felt  in  the  promotion  of  monasticism  throughout  the 
West  as  well  as  the  East,  and  to  him  is  ascribed  the 
introduction  of  the  three  universal  monastic 
vows  of  obedience,  chastity,  and  poverty.  The  best 
editions  of  his  works  are  that  of  the  Benedictines 
(3  vols..  Par.  1721—1730,  fol.),  and  that  of  the 
brothers  Gaume  (3  vol?.,  Par.  183,"— 1840,  Svo); 
but  the  authenticity  of  many  of  the  moral  and 
ascetic  pieces  is  doubtful.  His  anniversary  is  cele- 
brated, in  the  Greek  Church,  on  the  1st  of  January 
— the  day  of  his  death ;  in  the  Latin  Church,  on  the 
14th  of  June — the  day  of  his  ordination. 

BA'SIL  I.,  the  Macedonian,  Emperor  of  the  East, 
was  born  in  a  village  of  Macedonia,  in  813  a.  d.,  or, 
according  to  others,  in  826.  His  early  life  is  differ- 
ently related,  but  his  biographers  agree  that  he  came 
to  Constantinople  when  still  a  young  man,  and  was 
appointed  chamberlain  to  the  Emperor  Michael 
in  801.  Subsequently,  the  emperor  made  him  his 
colleague  in  the  sovereignty.  B.  now  used  his 
influence  to  restrain  Michael  from  commilting  those 
excesses  which  rendered  him  hateful  to  the  people; 
but  when  he  found  his  remonstrances  unavailing, 
he  headed  a  conspiracy  against  him,  the  result  of 
which  was  the  assassination  of  the  emperor  in  867. 
His  first  care  was  to  heal  the  wounds  both  of  the 
church  and  the  State.  He  replaced  Ignatius  upon 
the  patriarchal  throne,  and  dismissed  Photius, 
whom,  however,  he  re-established  in  his  authority 
the  year  after.  His  valour  made  him  the  terror 
of  the  Saracens,  fiom  whom  he  reconquered  Asia 
Minor.  The  prodigality  of  Michael  had  exhausted 
the  public  treasury ;  by  a  wise  economy,  B.  refilled 
it.  All  extortioners,  moreover,  were  sought  out  and 
punished.  The  profligate  companions  of  the  late 
monarch  were  condemned  to  disgorge  one  half  of 
the  largesses  which  Michael  had  showered  upon  them. 
B.  also  entered  into  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  the 
Russians  of  Kiew,  to  whom  he  sent  missionaries 
to  preach  the  Gospel,  and  who,  from  that  time, 
began  to  embrace  Christianity,  and  acknowledge 
the  authority  of  the  Greek  Church.  He  died  in  886, 
from  wounds  which  he  received  while  hunting  a 
stag.  Several  letters  of  his  are  still  extant,  besides 
a  book  full  of  wise  advice  addressed  to  his  son. 

BA'SIL  {0' cymum),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Lnbiatoe  (q.  v.).  The  species  are  all 
natives  of  the  tropics,  or  of  the  warmer  temperate 
parts  of  the  world,  and  are  generally  characterized 
by  a  pleasant  aromatic  smell  and  taste.  They  are 
reckoned  among  f.weet  herbs. — Sweet  B.  (0.  Basili- 
cum)  is  an  annual  plant,  a  native  of  the  East  Indies, 
about  one  foot  high,  with  ovate  or  oblong  leaves, 
and  flowers  in  whorls  of  six,  which  has  long  been 
cultivated  in  Europe  for  culinary  purposes,  being  used 
as  a  seasoning.  It  has  also  enjoyed  the  reputation 
728 


Basil  ( Oeymum  Basilicum!) 

Indies,  is  cultivated  for  the  same  purposes,  and 
possesses  the  same  qualities.  It  is  a  plant  about 
six  inches  high,  with  an  orbicular  bushy  head.  In 
Britain,  the  seed  of  both  species,  obtained  from  the 
south  of  Europe,  is  generally  sown  on  a  hot-bed, 
from  which  the  plants  are  afterwards  removed  to  the 
open  ground. — A  native  British  plant  of  the 
same  order  [Clinopodium  vulr/are)  bears  the  name 
of  Wild  B.,  and  another  {Acinos  vith/aris,  for- 
merly Tliymus  Acinox)  is  known  as  13.  Thyme. 
Both  are  fragrant  and  aromatic. — B.  Vinegar  is  made 
in  the  same  manner  as  Mint  Vinegar,  by  steeping 
the  leaves  in  Vinegar.  It  is  used  for  seasoning,  in 
winter,  when  the  fresh  plant  cannot  be  obtained. 

BASI'LICA,  a  code  of  laws  of  the  Grecian  empire, 
the  compilation  of  which  was  begun  in  the  reign 
of  the  Emperor  Basil  I.,  the  Macedonian,  who  died 
in  886 — from  whom  it  is  generally  supposed  to  have 
derived  its  name ;  completed  by  his  son  Leo,  the 
Philosopher;  and  revised  in  946,  by  order  of  Con- 
stantine  Porphyrogenitus,  the  son  of  Leo.  There 
is  some  doubt  whether  the  work  has  come  down 
to  us  as  completed  by  Leo,  or  as  revised  by  Con- 
stantiiie,  and  unfortunately  wc  do  not  possess  the 
whole  of  the  sixty  books  of  wliich  it  originally 
consisted.  It  was  very  much  an  adaptation  of  the 
code  of  Justinian  to  altered  circumstances,  and  is 
of  great  value  for  the  interpi'etation  of  the  Corpus 
Juris.  The  principal  edition  are  that  of  Fabrott 
(7  vols,  fol..  Par.  1647),  and  the  recent  one  of 
Heimbach  (vols.  1 — .5.  Leip.  1833 — 1850),  which 
includes  portions  discovered  since  Fabrott's  time. 
The  B.  has  been  the  subject  of  many  connnentaries. 

BASI'LICA  (Gr.  Basilike  from  Basileus,  a 
king).  Originally,  the  B.  seems  to  have  been  the 
hall  or  court-room  in  which  the  king  administered 
the  laws  made  by  himself  and  the  chiefs  who  formed 
his  council.  When  monarchy  was  iil)olishcd  at 
Athens,  the  second  of  the  magistrates  who  succeeded 
to  the  kingly  power  was  called  the  Arcbon-basileus, 


BASILICA. 


the  first  being  stvled  the  Archon  by  pre-cnimence  ; 
and  it  is  as  the  court  or  hall  (stoa)  in  which  the 
Aichon-b:isik"US  administered  justice,  that  the  li. 
hrst  apt.cars  in  authentic  history.  But  it  was 
amo.K'st  the  Romans  that  the  B.  attained  its  chief 
importance  ;  and  in  addition  to  its  original  use  as 
a   court    of   justice,   became    a    nuukct-place,    an 


exchange,  a  place  of  meeting  for  men  of  business 
generally.  It  was  not  till  a  comparatively  late 
period,  however,  that  a  B.  was  erected  at  Rome. 
The  first  we  hear  of  is  the  B.  Porcia  in  182  i).  c. 
From  this  period  till  the  time  of  Constantine,  they 
were  constructed  in  great  numbers.  Some  twenty 
iiro  known  to  have  existed  in  Rome,  and  latterly, 


Section  of  Trajan's  Basilica,  Rome. 


every  provincial  town,  even  those  of  small  extent, 
had  "each  its  B.,  as   that  of  Pompeii,  which   is  now 
the  most  perfect  example,  still  testifies.     The  nio-^t 
frequented   part    of    the    city    was   always    selected 
for  the  si;e  of  a  B.  ;  and  as  this  was  almost  always 
the    Forum,  the   words   Forum    and   B.     are   occa- 
sionally  used    as    synonymous   by    ancient   writers. 
The   earliest   basilicas    were    entirely    open   to    the 
external     air.       It    was    usual,    for    this    reason,    as 
well  as  for  the  convenience  of  those  who  might  be 
compelled    to    frequent     them    in    bad    weather,_  to 
select  for  them  a  siieltered  and  convenient  position. 
Latterly,     an    external    wall     was    substituted    for 
the  peristyle  of  columns   with   which   the   original 
basilicas  were  surrounded  ;  the  external  columns,  if 
continued  at   all,  being   used   only  as  a  decoration, 
and  confined  generally  to  the  vestibule.     It  was  in 
this  form    that  the  B.   suggested   the   idea   of    the 
Christian    Church,    as    has    already  been    explained 
under  Apse  (q.  v.) ;  and   the  readiest  mode   of  ex- 
plaining the  structure  of  the  B.  to  a  modern,  is  to 
imagine    the    process    which    was    then     performed 
reversed,  and   in   place  of  converting  the   B.  into  a 
church,  to  convert  the  church  into  a  basilica.     This 
will  be  effected   by  .simply  removing   the   roof  from 
the   nave,  the   aisles   remaining   covered,   and    even 
being    frequently     furnished    with    galleries,    as    in 
Protestant  churches.     The  judge's  seat  was  generally 
in  a  circular  portion  of  the  building  which  protruded 
from  its  furtlier  end,  in  which   the  altar  was  after- 
wards placed  (see  Apse),  the  great  entrance  to  the 
B.  fronting  it,  as   the  western   door  of  a  cathedral 
fronts  the  high-altar.      The  space  required    by   the 
prajtor    for    his    court    was    separated    by   a    railing 
from  the   other  portions  of  the  building,  which  were 
devoted  to  the  various  purposes  we  have  mentioned. 
It  must  not  be   supposed  from  this  description,  that 
the  form   of  the  B.   was  always  the  same.     Some- 
times  there  was   no  hemicycle  or  apse,  as  in  the  B. 
at  Pompeii,  in   which   case    the   tribunal  was  cut  oil" 
from  the  nave  ;  sometimes  there  were  two,  as  in  tlie 
B.  of  Traj^in.     Again,  the  B.  was  sometimes  entered, 
not  from   the   end,   but  from   the   sides,   where   the 
transepts  of  a  modern   church  are  situated ;  and  at 
the  end  opposite  that  in  which    the    tribunal  was 
placed,  there  was   often  a  row  of  small  chambers, 
the  uses  of  which  do  not  seem  to  be  very  accurately 
ascertained,    and     probably    were     not    invariable. 
in    the    plan    of  the    B.   of  Pompeii,   there  was   an 
tmtside  stair  which  led  to   the  upper  gallery,  which 
in   this   case    passed   entirely  round    the    building. 


The  gallery  was  the  place  to  which  loiterers  usually 
resorted  for  the  purpose  of  watching  the  businese 


Ground-plan  of  Basilica  of  St.  Paul,  Rome. 

proceedings  below  ;  and  the  one  half  of  it  is  said 
to  have  been  devoted  to  men,  the  other,  to  women. 
Of  the  vast  size  of  some  of  these  buildings,  we  may 
form  a  conception  from  the  accommodation  which 
must  have  been  required  for  the  tribunal  alone, 
where,  in  addition  to  the  curule  chair  of  the  praetor, 
and  space  required  by  the  suitors  and  their  advo- 
cates, scats  had  to  be  provided  for  ihc  judicea  or 
jurymen,  who  occasionally  amounted  to  as  many  as 

uo'. 

Many  of  the  principal  churches  in  Italy,  and 
particularly  in  Rome,  are  still  called  Basiliche. 

The  term  B.  was  also  applied  in  the  middle  ages 
to  the  large  structures  erected  over  the  tombs  of 
persons  of  distinction,  probably  from  their  resem- 
blance to  small  chuvchcs  ;  thus,  the  tomb  of  Edward 
the  Confessor,  in  Westminster,  is  called  a  B.  (see 
chronicle  of  the  Mayors  of  Loudon,  quoted  by 
Parker). 

729 


BASILICATA— BASILISK. 


BASILICA'TA,  a  province  of  Naples,  including 
nearly  the  same  territory  as  ancient  Lucania.  Capi- 
tanata  and  Principato  Ultra  bound  it  on  the  N. ; 
Bari  and  Otranto,  on  the  N.E.  and  E. ;  the  Gulf 
of  Taranto  and  Calabria  Citra,  8.E.  and  E.  ;  and  the 
Principato  Citra  and  the  Mediterranean,  on  the  W. 
Its  area  is  4000  square  miles,  and  its  population 
505,240.  The  capital  is  Potenza ;  the  other  chief 
towns  are  Francavilla  and  Tursi.  B.  lies  mainly  on 
the  east  side  of  the  main  ridge  of  the  Apennines, 
between  it  and  the  Gulf  of  Taranto.  The  interior  is 
wild  and  mountainous,  and  though  there  are  some 
large  forests  in  the  province,  one  near  Atella  covering 
a  surface  of  20,000  acres,  the  general  aspect  is  bare 
and  barren.  Four  considerable  rivers — the  Basiento, 
Brandano,  Agri,  and  Sinno — flow  through  it  from  the 
west  in  an  east-south-east  direction,  forming  as  many 
valleys,  which  slope  gradually  into  an  exceedingly 
fertile  plain,  varying  in  breadth  from  4  to  10  miles. 
Here  corn  is  raised  in  abundance,  also  wine,  hemp, 
tobacco,  and  liquorice.  Swine,  sheep,  and  goats  are 
reared  in  the  mountainous  districts,  and  silk  forms  a 
product  of  the  valleys.  B.  is  greatly  in  need  of  good 
roads,  and  is  nmch  subject  to  earthquakes. 

BASI'LICON  (Gr.  'royal,'  or  of  great  virtue),  a 
name  given  to  an  ointment  composed  of  yellow  w^ax, 
black  pitch,  resin,  and  olive  oil.  Hence  it  was 
called  Uncjuentum  Tetraphannacum  {tetra  phar^naka, 
four  drugs).  The  resin,  wax,  and  pitch  arc  melted 
together  over  a  slow  fire ;  the  oil  is  then  added,  and 
the  mixture,  while  hot,  strained  through  linen.  The 
straining  is  directed  in  consequence  of  the  impurities 
which  resin  often  contains.  B.  ointment,  or  resin 
cerate,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  is  much  used  as  a 
gently  stimulant  application  to  blistered  surfaces, 
indolent  ulcers,  burns,  scalds,  and  chilblains. 

BASI'LICON  DO'RON  (Gr.  royal  gift),  a  cele- 
brated prose  work  of  King  James  VI.  of  Scotland, 
■written  for  the  instruction  of  his  son.  Prince  Heniy, 
a  short  time  previous  to  his  accession  to  the  English 
throne.  It  consists  of  three  books.  The  first  treats 
'  Of  a  King's  Christian  Duty  towards  God  ; '  the 
second,  '  Of  a  King's  Duty  in  his  Office ; '  and  the 
third,  '  Of  a  King's  Behaviour  in  Indifferent  Things.' 
It  was  first  pubhshed  in  1599  ;  afterwards  in  London 
in  1603,  Svo;  and  translated  into  Latin  by  Henry 
Peacham,  who  presented  it,  richly  illuminated,  to  the 
prince.  This  Latin  version  was  published  in  London 
in  1004,  Svo.  A  French  edition  appeared  in  Paris 
in  1603,  Svo,  and  another  in  1604,  16mo.  Like  the 
royal  author's  famous  work  on  Dcmonology^  and  his 
Counterblast  to  Tobacco,  the  B.  D.  is  now  only  con- 
sidered as  a  literary  curiosity. 

BASI'LIDES,  an  Alexandrian  Gnostic,  who 
flourished  during  the  reigns  of  Trajan,  Hadrian,  and 
Antoninus  Pius.  Regarding  his  life,  Httle  is  known. 
He  is  said  to  have  taught  in  Antioch  ;  afterwards  in 
Persia  ;  and,  finally,  in  Egypt,  where  he  is  supposed 
to  have  died  shortly  before  the  middle  of  the  2d  c. 
He  was  a  disciple  of  one  Glaucias,  not  elsewhere 
mentioned  in  history,  but  whom  he  terms  an  inter- 
preter of  St.  Peter,  and  from  whom  he  alleges  that 
he  had  received  the  esoteric  faith  of  that  apostle. 
B.  proViably  considered  himself  a  Chiistian,  but  his 
fantastic  speculations  bore  a  greater  resemblance  to 
the  doctrines  of  Zoroaster,  and  in  some  points  to 
the  Indian  philosophy,  than  to  the  religion  of 
Christ.  According  to  the  system  of  B.,  there  are  two 
eternal  and  independent  principles — the  one,  good ; 
the  other,  eviL  Whatever  exists,  emanates  from 
these.  The  good  principle — i.  e.,  the  Supreme  God, 
or  Father — constitutes,  with  his  seven  perfections, 
viz.,  the  Mind,  the  Word,  the  Understanding,  Power, 
Excellences,  Princes,  and  Angels,  the  blessed  ogdoad 
(combination  of  eiglit).  These  seven  perfections,  or 
730 


powers,  in  which  the  Supreme  God  is  reflected,  are 
in  their  turn  themselves  reflected,  but  more  feebly, 
in  seven  other  angelic  powers,  which  emanate 
from  them ;  and  so  on  through  the  whole  circle 
of  emanations,  which  amount  to  365,  the  mystic 
number  so  often  insciibed  on  the  symbolical  stones 
in  the  Gnostic  schools  (see  Abraxas  Stonks).  Each 
of  these  angelic  powers  governs  a  world.  There 
are,  consequently,  365  worlds,  to  each  of  which  B. 
gave  a  name.  The  head  of  the  365th,  or  lowest 
world,  rules  the  material  universe,  which,  along 
with  other  angels,  he  also  created.  He  is  the  God 
or  Jehovah  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  Avhen  the 
earth  was  divided  among  the  rulers  of  the  material 
universe,  the  Jewish  nation  fell  to  the  share  of  him- 
self, who  was  the  prince  of  the  lowest  class  of 
angels.  But  wishing  to  absorb  all  power  himself,  he 
strove  against  the  other  angels,  and  to  make  them 
subject  to  his  '  chosen  people,'  the  result  of  which  was 
war,  strife,  division  in  the  world,  together  with  the 
loss  of  the  true  religion,  to  restore  which  the  Supreme 
God  sent  the  first  Mow  (Nous,  or  Intelligence),  who 
united  himself  to  the  man  Jesus  at  his  baptism,  and 
so  taught  men  that  the  destiny  of  their  rational 
spirit  was  to  return  into  God.  This  Nous,  however 
(who  was  the  true  Christ),  did  not  really  suffer  cruci- 
fixion, for,  changing  forms  with  Simon  of  Cyrene,  he 
stood  by  laurjhhtff  while  Simon  suffered,  and  after- 
wards returned  to  heaven.  B.  also  taught  the  doc- 
trine of  a  purgatorial  transmigration  of  souls  in  the 
case  of  the  wicked.  His  disciples  (Basilidians)  were 
numerous  in  Egypt,  Syria,  Italy,  and  even  in  Gaul, 
where  they  continued  to  exist  till  the  4th  c.  They 
were  accused  by  their  enemies  of  Antinomianism 
and  '  magic,'  but  whether  on  good  grounds  or  not, 
cannot  be  ascertained. 

BA'SILISK,  according  to  ancient  and  medieval 
authors,  a  terrible  creature,  which,  however,  may 
be  regarded  as  entirely  fabulous — the  fables  con- 
cerning it  being  so  many  and  so  monstrous,  that  it 
is  vain  to  seek  for  any  foundation  of  truth,  or  to 
inquire  if  any  of  them  originally  had  reference  to 
any  particular  creature  whatever.  The  ancients, 
as  Dioscorides,  Galen,  and  Phny,  describe  it  as  a 
serpent :  in  the  middle  ages,  it  was  generally  repre- 
sented as  more  of  a  hzard  appearance,  but  pro- 
vided with  eight  instead  of  four  feet.  It  appears 
to  have  been  at  last  pretty  completely  identified 
with  the  Cockatrice  (q.  v.),  which  was  believed  to 
be  generated  in  a  very  wonderful  manner,  being 
produced  from  an  egg  laid  by  an  extremely  old 
cock,  and  hatched  by  a  toad ;  for  which  reason  we 
find  the  B.  sometimes  figured  with  something  Hke  a 
cock's  head.  The  B.  was  the  king  of  dragons  and 
serpents,  all  of  which  left  their  prey  to  it  whenever 
it  approached  ;  whence  its  name,  bndliscus  (Gr.), 
diminutive  of  basileiis,  a  king — sometimes  exactly 
translated  into  Latin  by  reffidns.  It  had  some  pro- 
minences on  its  head,  which,  when  it  was  figured 
in  books,  assumed  very  exactly  the  appearance  of 
a  crown.  It  inhabited  the  deserts  of  Africa,  and, 
indeed,  could  only  inhabit  a  desert,  for  its  breath 
burned  up  all  vegetation ;  the  flesh  fell  from  the 
bones  of  any  animal  with  which  it  came  in  contact, 
and  its  very  look  was  fatal  to  life;  but  brave  men 
could  venture  into  cautious  contest  with  it  by  the  use 
of  a  mirror,  which  reflected  back  its  deadly  glance 
upon  itself. — These  things  are  still  necessary  to  be 
mentioned,  were  it  only  on  account  of  the  alhisions 
to  them  by  poets  and  other  writers.— The  blood  of 
the  B.  was,  of  course,  extremely  valuable  to  magi- 
cians. It  occupies  an  important  place  in  some  of 
the  legends  of  the  saints,  and  Pope  Leo  IV.  is  said 
to  have  delivered  Rome  from  a  B-  whose  breath 
caused  a  deadly  pestilence. 

The  word  B.,  and  its  equivalent  rejulns,  are  some- 


BASILISK— BASKET. 


tiiiH's  used  in  the  Latin  Vulfjate,  where  the  authorised 
En^Usli  version  of  the  Old  Testament  sometimes  has 
adder,  and  sometimes  cockatrice  ;  but  no  trace  of  any 
of  the  marvels  concerning  the  B.  is  to  be  found  there. 
BA'SILISK  (Basiliscun),  in  modern  Zoology,  a 
genus  of  saurian  reptiles  of  the  family  of  Ifnuntidw 
(see  Icuana),  differing  I'lom  the  igu:uias  in  the 
want  of  the  dewlap  or  api)endage  of  skin  under  the 
throat,  and  of  the  series  of  pores  on  the  inside  of 
each  thigh ;  also  in  having  a  continuous  elevated 
crest  along  the  back  and  tail,  capable  of  being 
erected  or  depressed  at  pleasure,  and  apparently 
intended  to  aid  the  motions  of  the  animal  in  water 
like  the  corresponding  lin  of  a  fish. — The  basilisks 
are  remarkably  adapted  both  for  climbing  trees  and 
for  swimming.  Their  feet  are  not  webbed,  their  toes 
rather  long.  They  are  perfectly  harmless  creatures, 
very  active  and  lively,  and  it  is  difficult  to  say  why 
they  should  have  received  the  name  of  the  fabulous 
monster  of  antiquity,  unless  because  their  ajipear- 
ance  is  far  from  agreeable  to  those  unaccustomed  to 
it,  and  perhaps  because  an  appendage  at  the  back  of 
the  head  may  have  been  thought  to  represent  the 
crown  of  the  dragon  king.  This  appendage  is  most 
conspicuously  developed  in  the  Mitred  or  Hooded 
B.  (B.  mitrntus),  a  native  of  the  tropical  parts  of 
America,    and    consists    of  a   liood  or  membranous 


Ilooded  Bd^lIlbk 

bag,  capable  of  being  dilated  with  air,  and  then 
about  the  size  of  a  pullet's  egg,  which  is  supposed, 
notwithstanding  its  extremely  different  situation,  to 
have  a  use  somewhat  analogous  to  that  of  the  air- 
bladder  of  fishes.  The  mitred  B.  is  from  2.5  to  3(J 
inches  long,  including  the  long  and  very  tapering  tail. 
— a  similar  reptile  of  the  family  of  Agamidre,  of  a 
green  colour,  (^Histiiirus  arnhoincnsis),  inhabits  the 
islands  of  the  Indian  ArchiiJelago,  and  is  much  used 
there  for  food.  Its  flesh  is  said  to  be  very  white  and 
tender.  It  is  often  seen  on  the  branches  of  trees 
above  water,  into  which  it  dro])S  when  alai-med. 

BA'SIN,  a  geographical  term  of  considerable 
importance.  The  B.  of  a  river  is  the  Avhole 
tract  of  country  drained  by  that  river,  and  is,  of 
course,  more  or  less  concave.  The  line  or  boundary 
which  separates  one  river-basin  from  another  is 
called  the  water-shed.  By  tracing  these  water- 
sheds, the  whole  of  a  country  or  continent  may  be 
divided  into  a  number  of  distinct  basins;  and  this 
is  one  of  the  most  instructive  elements  in  the  phvsi- 
cal  geography  of  a  country.  The  B.  of  a  lake  or 
sea,  again,  is  made  up  of  the  basins  of  all  the  rivers 
that  flow  into  it. 

BA'SIN,  in  Geology,  is  a  term  apjjlied  to  depres- 
sions in  the  strata,  in  which  beds  of  a  later  age 
have  been  deposited.  Thus,  the  London  B.,  con- 
sisting of  tertiary  sands  and  clays,  occupies  a  hollow- 
in  the  chalk,  which  is  bounded  Jiy  the  North  Downs 
on  the  south,  and  by  the  chalk-hills  of  Berks,  Wilts, 
Bucks,  and  Herts  on  the  north.  The  term  has  also 
been  applied  to  synclinal  depressions  of  strata,  which 
have  been  produced  by  the  elevation  or  depression 
of  all  the  strata  contained  in  the  B.,  as  the  coal-B. 
of  South  Wales. 


BA'SINGSTOKE,  a  town  in  the  north  of  Hamp- 
shire, 46  miles  west-south-west  of  London.  It  is  a 
place  of  much  activity,  being  situated  at  the  junction 
of  five  main  roads  to  London  from  the  south  and  west 
of  England.  The  country  around,  is  fertile  and 
w  ooded.  The  chief  trade  is  in  corn,  malt,  coal,  and 
timber.  Near  the  town  is  a  tract  of  108  acres,  on 
which  every  householder  has  the  right  of  pasturage. 
There  is  also,  not  far  from  the  town,  an  ancient 
camp,  Ritrrounded  by  an  irregular  oval  embankment, 
11(jO  yards  in  circumference,  with  an  entrance  on 
the  east  and  west  sides.  Basing  House  Castle, 
beloiiging  to  the  Marquis  of  Winchester,  long  with- 
stood the  forces  of  the  Commonwealth,  l;ut  Cromwell 
at  last  took  it  by  storm,  and  burned  it  to  the  ground 
in  lt)45.     Pop.  4263. 

BA'SKERVILLE,  Joiix,  a  celebrated  English 
printer  and  letter-founder,  was  born  in  1TU6  at 
Wolverlcy,  in  Worcestershire.  He  became  a 
w-riting-master  in  Birmingham,  and  afterwards 
carried  on  the  business  of  ja])anning  there  with 
great  success.  He  began  about  175()  to  make 
laborious  and  costly  experiments  in  letter-founding, 
and  succeeded  in  making  types  which  have  scarcely 
yet  been  excelled.  He  printed  an  edition  of  Virgil 
at  Birmingham  in  1756,  which  was  followed  by 
other  Latin  Classics,  a  few  English  and  Italian 
authors,  and  a  New  Testament  (Oxf.  1763),  much 
admired  as  specimens  of  printing,  although  not  other- 
wise possessing  high  merit.  His  services  to  the 
art  of  printing  met  with  little  encouragement  and 
no  requital.  He  died  in  1775.  He  was  a  man  of 
obliging  disposition,  but  of  a  gloomy  temperament, 
and  condemned  all  religious  service  as  superstition. 
B.  was  buried  in  a  tomb  of  masonry  in  the  shape  of 
a  cone,  under  a  windmill,  in  his  garden  :  but  the 
ground  becoming  valuable  for  building  purposes,  his 
remains  were  exhumed  in  the  summer  of  IS'21,  and 
deposited  in  the  vaults  of  Christ  Church,  in  the 
i-rcighbourhood  of  the  spot  where  they  were  originally 
interred.  Baskerville  editions  of  works  are  now 
prized  by  persons  of  taste. 

BA'SKET  (Welsh,  basged,  or  has^gawd,  a  netting 
or  weaving  of  splinters),  a  domestic  utensil,  usually 
made  of  willows,  reeds,  or  chips,  interwoven, 
although  sometimes  the  materials  are  gold,  silver, 
iron,  glass,  &c.  Baskets  have  been  in  use  from  very 
early  ages.  The  Israelites  were  commanded  (Deut- 
eronomy xxvi.  2)  to  offer  unto  the  Lord,  as  soon 
as  they  came  into  possession  of  the  land  of  Canaan, 
'  the  first  of  all  the  fruit  of  the  earth '  in  a  banket. 
The  baskets  used  on  such  occasions  by  the  rich  Jews 
were  made  of  gold  and  silver,  and  were  returned  to 
the  offerei's:  but  those  used  by  the  majority  of  the 
j)eople  were  of  barked  willow,  and  were  retained  by 
the  priests.  The  ancient  Britons  were  remarkably 
expert  in  the  manufacture  of  baskets,  which  were 
much  prized  by  the  Romans  for  their  neatness  and 
elegance.  The  process  of  B.-nuiking  is  very  simple, 
and  appears  to  be  well  known  among  the  rudest 
peoples — oven  among  the  aborigines  of  Van  Diemen's 
Land.  In  this  country  the  willow  is  chiefly  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  baskets.  In  several  parts  of 
England  and  Scotland,  great  attention  is  paid  to  the 
cultivation  of  the  willow  ;  and  judging  from  the 
statements  of  some  of  the  cultivators,  the  returns 
yielded  are  very  satisfactory.  One  calculates  his 
profits  at  £18,  10s.  per  acre,  and  another  at  £10 
per  acre.  The  tools  required  being  few  and  inex- 
pensive, a  large  number  of  poor  persons  are  engaged 
in  the  manufacture  Of  baskets,  that  are  hawked 
about  the  streets  by  their  wives  and  children.  B.- 
making  also  forms  a  part  of  the  industry  of  almost 
all  blind  asylums.  Baskets  are  of  all  shapes  and 
sizes,  and  their  uses  are  so  well  known  to  all  as  to 

731 


EASNAGE  DE  BEAUVAL— BASS  ROCK. 


obviate  the  necessity  of  description  here.  Baslvcts 
to  the  value  of  £30,000  or  £-iO,000  are  annually 
imported  from  tlie  continent. 

BASNAGE  DE  BEAUVAL,  Jaques,  the  most 
distinguished  of  a  distinguished  French  family, 
mostly  supporters  of  the  Protestant  cause,  was  the 
son  of  Henry  Basnage,  an  able  advocate  in  tiie 
parliament  of  Normandy,  and  was  born  at  Rouen, 
August  8,  IG.53.  Having  studied  theology  at  Geneva 
and  Sedan,  he  became  pastor  of  the  reformed  church 
in  Rouen  (1676).  That  church  being  interdicted  in 
1(585,  B.  obtained  leave  to  retire  to  Holland,  where 
he  finally  settled  as  stipendiary  minister  of  the 
Walloon  Church  in  the  Hague,  having  gained  the 
friendship  of  the  Grand  Pensionary  Heinsius.  Here, 
while  zealously  discharging  his  religious  duties,  he 
was  called  upon  to  take  an  active  part  in  state 
affairs,  particularly  in  negotiating  the  defensive 
alliance  concluded  between  France,  England,  and 
the  States-general,  14th  February  1717.  Amid  all 
these  duties  and  distractions,  B.  cultivated  litera- 
ture with  ardour,  and  was  no  less  distinguished  for 
his  extensive  learning  than  for  the  polish  of  his 
manners  and  the  integrity  of  his  character.  B., 
who  commanded  in  a  singular  degree  the  esteem 
both  of  Protestants  and  Catholics,  died  on  the  2'2d 
September  1723. 

His  chief  works,  which  have  been  frequently  laid 
\mder  contribution  without  being  named,  are  La 
Communion  Sainte  (Rott.  1GS8),  a  work  approved 
even  by  Catholics,  and  often  reprinted  ;  Traite  de 
la  Conscience  (Anist.  1006,  2  vols.);  Histoirc  de 
VEfjlise  (Rott.  1699,  2  vols,  fol.) ;  Jlintoire  dcs  Juifs 
(Rott.  17o6,  5  vols.)  one  of  B.'s  best  productions, 
and  translated  into  Pmglish  by  Th.  Taylor  (Lond. 
1708) ;  Dissertation  Ilistorique  sur  Ics  Duels  ct  Ics 
Ordrcs  de  Chevalerie  (An)st.-  1720). 

BASQUE  PROVINCES,  a  district  of  Spain, 
in  lat.  42°  25'— 43°  28'  N.,  and  long.  1°  44'-— 3°  25' 
W.,  and  comprising  the  three  provinces  of  Biscay, 
Gu'ipuzcoa,  and  Alava,  which  constituted  the  ancient 
Cantabria.  They  form  a  sort  of  triangle,  the  base 
of  which  is  the  Bay  of  Biscay  on  the  north,  and  the 
apex  the  towns  of  Logrono  in  the  south  ;  the  bound- 
ary-lines of  Navarre  on  the  east,  and  Santander  and 
Burgos  on  the  west,  forming  the  two  sides.  The 
total  area  of  the  provinces  is  about  3000  square 
miles,  and  the  population  in  1864,  448,366.  The 
surface  of  the  B.  P.  is  very  mountainous,  particu- 
larly that  of  Alava,  which  is  everywhere  cut  up  into 
deep  narrow  valleys  by  offsets  from  the  main 
chain  of  mountains.  The  rivers  of  Biscay  and  Gui- 
puzcoa,  none  of  which  are  important,  empty  them- 
selves after  a  short  course  into  the  Bay  of  Biscay; 
those  of  Alava  flow  down  the  opposite  slopes  into 
the  Ebro,  which  carries  their  waters  to  the  Medi- 
terranean. The  climate  in  all  the  three  provinces 
is,  on  the  whole,  mild  and  salubrious.  The 
general  aspect  of  the  country  is  very  picturesque, 
the  hills  in  most  cases  being  covered  with  wood  to 
the  very  summit.  The  principal  trees  are  oak, 
beech,  and  chestnut.  The  fruit  of  the  chestnut 
forms  an  article  both  of  diet  and  of  export.  The 
soil  in  the  valleys  and  plains,  though  not  very  rich, 
has  been  rendered  productive  by  the  energy  of  the 
people,  who  spare  no  labour  in  the  cultivation.  But 
as  yet,  science  or  machinery  have  done  little  or 
nothing  to  assist  nature  and  manual  exertion.  A 
spade,  or  prong-fork,  is  the  chief  mechanical 
aid  the  Basque  peasant  has.  The  farms  are  small, 
usually  only  about  four  or  five  acres,  and  rarely 
more  than  can  be  managed  by  the  farmer  and  his 
family.  Notwithstanding,  the  roads  and  agriculture 
of  these  provinces  contrast  very  favourably  with 
those  of  Spain  generally.  The  products  are  wheat, 
732 


barley,  maize,  flax,  hemp,  &c.  ;  the  wheat,  how- 
ever, only  ripening  in  the  most  favoured  localities. 
Pasture-land  occupies  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
surface  ;  and  a  poor  wine,  called  c/iacoli,  is  made  in 
large  quantities,  and  forms  the  chief  beverage  of  the 
inhabitants,  who  appear  to  relish  it,  although  it  is 
disliked  by  all  travellers. 

There  are  numerous  rich  veins  of  iron  in  the  hills, 
which  are  extensively  wrought;  and  copper  and  tin 
are  also  obtained,  as  well  as  marble  of  various  Kinds, 
por[)hyry,  and  jasper.  The  fisheries  employ  a  goodly 
numl)cr  of  people  on  the  coast,  and  many  are 
engaged  in  the  preparation  of  charcoal.  The  Basques 
are  said  to  be  the  first  Europeans  v.ho  went  to  the 
whale-fishing. 

The  Bascpies  are  a  simple,  brave,  and  independent 
people,  willing  to  undergo  any  hardships  rather  than 
surrender  their  mountain-freedom.  None  of  their 
many  invaders  were  ever  able  to  effectually  subdue 
or  expel  them.  The  B.  P.  still  retain  a  separate 
constitution,  guaranteeing  them  many  political  and 
fiscal  privileges  not  possessed  by  the  rest  of  Spain. 
They  have  freedom  from  conscription,  and  free-trade 
in  salt  and  tobacco,  upon  which  a  heavy  duty  is 
levied  in  the  adjoining  provinces.  The  Basques  are 
even  prouder  than  Spaniards,  and  the  mere  fact  of 
being  liorn  in  their  territory  secures  the  ])rivilege  of 
'  universal  nobility.'  Eusculdunac  is  the  name  the 
Basques  give  themselves ;  their  coiuitry  they  call 
Euscalcria;  and  their  language,  which  is  peculiarly 
their  own,  Kuscara — the  prefix  JEusc  being  '  the 
old  0.sr,  Vesc,  I'a.s-i/  of  Italy  and  Iberia.'  The 
origin  of  the  Ba.sques  is  doubtful.  Ilimiboldt 
considers  them  descendants  of  the  ancient  Iberi, 
who  once  occupied  the  whole  of  the  peninsula, 
and  spoke  the  language  now  confined  solely  to  the 
B.  P.  ;  while  Mr.  Borrow's  opinion  is,  that  the 
language  is  of  Tartar  origin.  The  Basques  are  fond 
of  music,  and  on  their  chief  holiday,  Sunday,  they 
indulge  in  singing,  dancing,  and  single-stick,  which 
they  enjoy  immensely.  For  a  more  particular 
account  of  the  B.  P.,  we  would  refer  to  that  excel- 
lent manual.  Ford'' s  Hand-book  of  Spain. 

BAS-RELIEF.     See  Alto-kilievo. 

BASS.     See  Base. 

BASS  ROCK,  a  remarkable  island-rock  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Firth  of  Forth,  about  2  miles  from 
Canty  Bay,  Haddingtonshire,  opposite  the  ruined 
castle  of  Tantallon.  It  is  composed  of  fine  granular 
greenstone  or  clinkstone,  and  is  about  a  mile  in 
circumference,  nearly  round,  and  350  feet  high.     It 


is  inaccessible  on  all  sides  except  the  south-west., 
where  it  shelves  down  to  the  water,  and  there  tht> 
landing  is  difficult,  and  almost  imposs'.ble,  when 
there  is  any  swell     On  the  west,  north,  and  east. 


BASSA— BASSE. 


the  precipices  rise  perpendicularly  out  of  the  sea, 
often  to  the  height  of  200  feet.  These  are  the 
aboile  of  immense  numbers  of  solan  peese  (it  is 
estimated  that  10,000 — 15,000  of  these  fowls  resort 
here  annually)  and  other  aquatic  birds,  which  give 
to  the  surfiice  of  the  rock  quite  a  snowy  appearance 
in  the  distance.  A  huge  cavern  traverses  the  rock 
from  north-west  to  south-east,  and  is  accessible  at 
low  tide.  There  is  a  spring  on  the  island,  and  a  few 
sheep  are  pastured  on  it,  the  mutton  of  which  is 
much  prized.  How  early  the  Biiss  was  tenanted,  is 
doubtful  ;  but  there  is  a  tradition  to  the  effect  that 
St.  Baldicd  resided  on  it  as  early  as  the  7th  c.  It  is 
also  not  very  certainly  known  when  the  Bass  was 
first  fortified,  but  it  formed  a  retreat  for  the  son  of 
Robert  III.,  afterwards  Jiimes  I.  of  Scotland,  before 
his  nineteen  years'  captivity  in  England.  James  VI, 
visited  the  Bass  in  1581,  and  was  anxious  to  obtain 
it  for  state  ptU'poses  ;  but  its  owner,  '  Lauder  of  the 
Bass,'  refused  to  part  with  it.  The  Registers  of  the 
Church  of  Scotland  were  sent  to  the  Bass  in  1051, 
for  preservation  from  Cromwell  ;  but  the  Protector 
forced  tlieir  surrender  in  the  following  year.  In 
1671,  Charles  II.  purchased  the  rock  for  £4000, 
and  within  its  dreary  dungeons  many  of  the  most 
eminent  of  the  Covenanters  were  confined  during 
that  and  the  following  nign.  It  is  a  somewhat 
curious  fact,  that  the  Bass  was  the  last  spot  in  the 
British  Islands  which  held  out  for  the  Stuarts. 
A  mere  handful  of  adventurers  in  the  Jacobite 
interest,  24  in  number,  had  the  address  to  capture 
the  island,  and  to  retain  it  in  the  name  of  King 
James,  from  June  1091  till  April  1694,  against  all 
the  forces  which  the  government  of  William  III. 
sent  against  them  ;  at  last,  the  spirited  little 
garrison  surrendered  on  honourable  terms,  and 
only  from  a  consciousness  of  failing  previsions. 
For  an  account  of  this  romantic  incident,  see 
Pictwial  His^tory  of  Encilnnd,  vol.  iv.,  p.  16,  new 
edition.  In  1701  the  fortifications  were  demolished 
by  order  of  William  III.  Five  years  afterw^'irds, 
the  Bass  passed  into  the  possession  of  Sir  Hew 
Dalryniple,  to  whose  lineal  descendant  it  now 
belongs.  The  king  of  the  Belgians  (then  Prince 
Leopold)  visited  the  rock  in  1819,  and,  three 
years  afterwards,  George  IV.,  on  passing  it  on  his 
voyage  to  Scotland,  was  honoured  with  a  royal 
salute  from  some  guns  then  on  it.  The  Bass  is  let 
to  a  '  keeper,'  who  pays  a  considerable  sutn  for 
it  annually,  the  rent  being  made  up  by  the  money 
obtained  for  the  young  geese,  which  is  used  as 
food,  and  by  the  fees  extracted  from  visitors  to  the 
rock.  There  is  an  interesting  volume  on  the  Bass, 
historical,  geological,  and  botanical,  the  joint  pro- 
duction of  Dr.  M'Crie,  jun.,  Hugh  Miller,  and  Pro- 
fessors Fleming  and  Balfour. 

BA'SSA,  or  BA'FFA,  an  excellent  port  on  the 
Grain  Coast,  Guinea,  formerly  nmch  resorted  to  by 
trading  vessels  for  coarse  pepper  ;  latterly,  for  slaves. 
Tiie  country  around  produces  lemons,  oranges,  and 
bananas  in  abundance. 

BASSA'XO,  a  town  in  the  province  of  Venice, 
Italy,  19  miles  north-enst  of  Vicenza,  on  the  Brenta, 
with  a  population  of  about  12,000.  It  is  situated 
on  a  rising  ground  in  an  extensive  plain,  and  has  a 
considerable  trade  in  wine,  olives,  silk,  leather,  &c., 
as  well  as  a  great  printing  establishment.  It  has 
30  churches,  and  a  number  of  fine  palaces.  One  of 
its  gates,  the  work  of  Palladio,  is  greatly  admired. 
It  is  famous  for  a  victory  of  Bonaparte  over  the 
Austrian  field-marshal,  Wurmser,  on  Sth  September 
1796,  and  was  the  scene  of  other  battles  between 
the  French  and  Austrians  in  the  wars  of  that  period. 

BASSA'NO  (or,  more  properly,  Giacomo  da 
Po.xtk),  an   artist  of  great   eminence,  was  born  at 


Baasano,  in  the  north  of  Italy,  in  lolO.  He  was 
first  educated  in  the  jjrinciples  of  his  art  by  hi.'^ 
father,  Francesco  da  Ponte,  who  was  himself  a 
painter  of  considerable  merit,  and  afterwards  visited 
Venice,  where  he  became  a  pupil  of  Bonifazio 
Veneziano.  Here  he  enjoyed  opportunities  of 
studying  the  design.*"  of  Parinegiano,  Titian,  Tintor- 
etto, and  others.  The  earlier  stages  of  his  pro- 
fessional career  clearly  indicate  that  these  great 
painters  had  kindled  a  rich  and  emulative  enthu- 
siasm in  B.,  for  his  works  display  a  loftier  genius, 
both  as  regards  conception  and  execution,  than  at 
a  later  period.  His  principal  effort,  belonging  to 
this  higher  epoch,  is  a  fiesco  painted  on  the  front  of 
the  house  of  the  Michelli  family.  It  represents 
Samson  destroying  the  Philistines ;  the  figure  of 
the  mighty  Israelite  being  considered  not  unworthy 
of  Michael  Angelo.  .After  his  father's  death,  he 
returned  to  Bassano,  where  he  devoted  himself  to 
a  simple  style  of  art.  From  this  time,  however, 
dates  his  celebrity.  He  may  even  be  said  to 
have  founded  a  school,  whose  peculiarity  was 
the  delineation  of  common  things,  markets,  fairs, 
country  inns,  farm-yards,  &c.  He  had  a  passion 
for  introducing  cattle  into  his  pictures,  even  under 
the  most  inappropriate  circumstances.  The  special 
merits  of  this  lower  style,  into  which  B.  finally 
lapsed,  are  its  vigorous  and  picturesque  colouring, 
and  its  accurate  imitation  of  nature.  B.'s  land- 
scapes, however,  betray  a  comparative  ignorance 
of  perspective.  Occasionally,  during  his  later  years, 
B.  showed  that  his  early  love  of  the  sublime 
was  not  wholly  extinguished,  by  painting  several 
altar-pieces,  which  exhibit  a  noble  grandeur  of 
execution,  sucii  as  the  '  Entombing  of  Christ,'  in 
the  church  oF  St.  Maria,  Padua  ;  a  '  Nativity,'  now 
in  the  Louvre,  Paris ;  '  St.  Roche  interceding  with 
the  Virgin  for  a  People  infected  with  the  Plague,' 
at  Vicenza ;  'The  Wise  Men's  Offering,'  and  the 
'  Seizure  of  Christ  in  the  Garden.'  His  rural  pic- 
tures are  abundant  in  the  Italian  galleries  and 
iu  English  collections.  B.  also  painted  heads  of 
several  of  his  contemporaries,  Tasso,  Ariosto,  &c., 
and  was  in  high  favor  with  the  Emperor  Rudolph  11., 
for  whom  he  also  executed  several  works.  He  died 
in  1592.  He  left  four  sons,  who  all  followed  their 
father's  profession,  but  were  not  marked  by  any  spe- 
cial oiiginality  of  manner. 

BASSE  {Labrnx\  a  genus  of  sea-fishes  of  the 
Perch  (q.  v.)  family,  distinguished  from  the  true 
perches  (Perca)  by  having  the  tongue  covered  with 
small  teeth.  The  species  are  found  on  the  shores 
both  of  Europe  and  America.  The  only  British  one 
is  the  Common  B.  {L.  hipux),  a  fish  which  in  its  fins, 
scales,  &c.,  much  resembles  a  perch,  but  has  a  more 
elongated  and  salmon-like  form.  It  is  pretty  abisn- 
dant  on  some  parts  of  the  British  coasts,  and  is  not 
unfrequently  taken  by  angling  from  the  rocks  or  by 
small  seine-nets  on  sandy  shores  ;  often,  also,  by 
the  hand-line  and  by  the  long  line.  It  is  a  strong, 
active  fish,  and  ivas  well  known  to  the  ancients ; 
lahrax  is  its  Greek  name  ;  the  Romans  called  it 
lupus  (i.  e.,  wolf),  from  its  remarkable  voracity.  It 
is  much  esteemed  for  the  table.  It  sometimes 
attains  a  large  size,  fifteen  pounds  or  more  in  weight, 
but  is  generally  much  smaller.  It  not  unfrequently 
a.sccnds  rivers  tc  some  distance,  and  the  experiment 
of  keeping  it  in  a  fresh-water  pond  has  even  been 
tried  with  success. — The  Striped  B.,  or  Rock-fish  of 
the  United  States  (/>.  lineatus),  very  nearly  resembles 
the  conmiou  B.,  but  attains  a  larger  size,  and  is  mark- 
ed by  seven  or  eight  longitudinal  black  lines.  The 
name  Stone  B.  is  given  to  the  Foli/prion  cernium,  a 
fish  very  rare  on  the  coasts  of  Britain,  but  abundant 
in  more  southern  parts  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  as  far 
as   the   Cape   of    Good   Hope,   and   found    on   the 

133 


BASSE-CIIANTANTE— BASSOMPIERRE. 


American  coasts  and  in  tlic  Mcrliterranoan.  In 
general  appearance,  it  resembles  the  common  perch 
more  nearly  than  tlie  B.,  but  differs  from  both  in 
having  only  a  single  elongated  dorsal  fin.  It  some- 
times follows  ships  of  which  the  bottom  is  covered 
with  barnacles,  is  easily  taken,  and  is  esteemed  ex- 
cellent for  the  table. 

BASSE-CHANTANTE,  in  Music,  the  higher  of 
the  two  basses  in  a  score,  partaking  of  more  melody, 
and  performed  by  the  violoncello. 

BASSE-CONTEAIXTE,  a  French  term  in  musics 
meaning  a  bass  melody  of  a  few  bars  repeated 
throughout  the  piece,  while  the  other  parts  vary. 

BASSEFN",  tbe   name   of  two  cities   in    India. — 

1.  B.,  in  Pegu,  the  capital  of  a  district  of  the  same 
name,  stands  on  the  loft  bank  of  an  arm  of  the  Irra- 
waddy,  which  joins  the  Bay  of  Bengal  a  few  miles 
to  the  south  of  Cape  Negrais.  It  lies  in  lat.  16°  45' 
N.  and  long.  94°  50'  E.  ;  and  though  it  is  90  miles 
from  the  sea,  yet  it  is  easily  and  safely  accessible  to 
the  largest  ships.  In  a  military  view,  also,  the  place 
is  important,  as  it  completely  commands  the  navi- 
gation of  the  stream.  It  was  captured  by  its  present 
masters,  the  British,  in  1852,  the  first  year  of  the 
pecond  Burmese  war.  Its  estimated  population  is 
about  oOOO. — 2.  B.,  in  the  presidency  of  Boinbai/,  is 
situated  on  an  island  of  the  same  name  ;  lat.  of  the 
inland,  19°  20'— 19°  28'  N.,  and  long.  'F2°48'— 72°54' 
E.  It  appears  to  be  the  mere  wreck  of  former  gran- 
deur, having  been  found  by  Bishop  Ileber,  in  1825, 
with  many  churches  and  convents,  to  be  altogether 
uninliabited  and  desolate.  In  1534,  it  was  ceded  to 
the  Portuguese ;  in  1765,  after  a  possession  of  2R1 
years,  it  was  wrested  from  them  by  the  Mahrattas  ;  in 
1780,  it  surrendered  to  the  British,  after  a  regular  siege 
of  twelve  days.  The  island,  wliich  contains  about  35 
square  miles,  is  separated  fiom  the  continent  by  a 
narrow  channel,  which,  as  a  shelter  for  shipping, 
constituted  its  value  in  the  eyes  of  the  Portuguese. 
Historically,  B.  is  of  some  interest,  having  been 
promised,  though  never  delivered,  as  part  of  the 
dowry  of  Charles  II.'s  Portuguese  consort. 

BA'SSES,  two  ledges  of  rocks  to  the  south-east  of 
Ceylon,  distinguished  as  Great  a,nd  Little — the  former 
group  being  more  to  the  south-west,  and  the  latter 
more  to  the  north-east.  They  lie  in  N.  lat.  6°  11' — 
6°  26',  and  in  E.  long.  81°  4()'— 81°  59'.  Their  im- 
portance arises  merely  from  their  position,  which  is 
in  a  great  thoroughfare  of  traffic. 

BASSE-TERRE,  a  French  term,  equivalent  to 
the  English  Lowlands,  or,  rather.  Lowland,  appro- 
priately applied  to  several  localities  iu  the  West 
Indies. — 1.  The  capital  of  St.  Kitt's,  on  the  we.st 
coast,  in  lat.  17°  17'  N.,  and  long.  62°  42'  W.  It 
is  a  low,  hot,  dusty  place,  standing  at  the  outlet 
of  a  lovely  valley  of  the  same  name.  Its  popu- 
lation is  about  7000  ;  and  its  trade,  as  the  port 
of  the  island,  is  considerable.  The  designation  of 
the  valley  and  town  is  a  memorial  of  the  former 
occupation  of  the  half  of  St.  Kitt's  by  the  French. — 

2.  The  capital  of  Guadeloupe,  giving  its  name  to  the 
larger  of  the  two  islets  into  which  Guadeloupe  is 
divided  by  an  arm  of  the  sea,  known  as  Salt  River. 
B.  stands  on  the  south-west  coast,  in  lat.  16"  N.,  and 
long.  Gl°  44'  W.,  having  nothing  worthy  of  the  name 
of  harbour,  but  merely  a  roadstead.  It  contains 
about  6000  inhabltants.-^3.  The  chief  town  of  Marie 
Galante,  a  dependency  of  Guadeloupe,  which  is  about 
12  miles  to  the  north-west.  It  is  otherwise  ambi- 
tiously called  Grand  Bom-g. 

BA'SSET    HORN   (corno  di  basetto),  the   richest 

and    safest    of    all    wind-instruments,     invented    in 

Passau,  in  1770,  improved  by  Lotz  in  Presburg,  in 

1782.       It   is   similar   to   a   clarionet   in   tone    and 

734 


fingering  ;  its  compass  is  two   and   a  half  octaves, 

Rv. 

JX <2 . 

the  notes  written  for  it  being  form 


but  the  instrument  sounds  a  fifth  lower  than  the  notes 
are  written. 

BA'SSIA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Snpotacece  (q.  v.).  The  species  are  trees,  tropical  or 
sub-tropical,  the  flowers  of  which  are  remarkable 
for  their  fleshy  corolla,  and  for  the  abundance  of  oil 
or  l^utyraccous  fat  which  the  seeds  contain,  and 
which  is  used  for  many  purposes  by  the  inl)al)itants 
of  the  countries  to  which  they  are  indigenous.  The 
fruit  has  a  pulpy  rind,  and  3  or  4  1-secded  cells. 
The  ovary  lias  8  cells;  but  some  of  them  are  always 
abortive.  The  Bctter-Tree,  described  by  Mungo 
Park  as  growing  in  the  interior  of  Africa,  in  the 
country  of  Bambarra,  has  been  supposed  to  belong 
to  this  genus,  and  named  B.  Parkii.  According 
to  the  eminent  botanist  Bobert  Brown,  however, 
the  seed  of  the  butter-tree,  as  figured  by  Park, 
scarcely  belongs  to  the  genus  B.,  but  rather  to  the 
nearly  allied  genus  Vifellaria  Lncuma.  It  pro- 
duces the  Galnnt  Butter,  also  called  Shea  Buffer  (i.  e. 
Tree  Butter),  which  is  highly  valued,  and  forms  an 
important  article  of  internal  commerce  in  the  interior 
of  Africa.  The  seeds  of  the  fruit,  which  resembles 
an  olive,  are  dried  in  the  sun,  or  in  a  peculiar  kind 
of  oven,  and  the  kernels  are  then  boiled  in  water,  in 
order  to  obtain  the  butter  from  them,  which  not 
only  keejjs  for  a  whole  year  without  salt,  but  is  also 
whiter,  more  solid,  and  more  pleasant  to  the  taste 
than  the  butter  of  cow's  milk.  This  butter  is  used 
both  as  an  article  of  food  and  of  medicine.  It  has 
been  supposed  that  tin;  introduction  of  this  tree 
might  be  of  great  importance  in  other  tropical 
countries. — The  MAimrcA,  Maiiwa,  or  Mahowa 
Tree  of  the  East  Indies  (B.  latifolia)  is  described  as 
resembling  a  good  oak  in  size,  and  is  a  valuable 
timber-tree.  It  is  found  in  the  mountainous  parts  of 
the  Circars,  Bahar,  Bengal,  &c.  Its  flowers  arc  eaten 
raw,  and  a  kind  of  arrack  or  spirit  is  distilled  from 
them.  The  seeds  yield,  by  expression,  a  consider- 
able quantity  of  a  concrete  greenish-yellow  oil, 
which  is  used  for  lamps,  and  occasionally  for  frying 
articles  of  food.  —  The  Indian  Buttkr-Trek,  or 
PnuLWARA  or  FuLWA  Tree  {B.  hutyracea),  is  found 
in  some  of  the  more  mountainous  parts  of  India,  and 
attains  a  height  of  50  feet.  Its  timber  is  light  and 
of  no  value.  The  leaves  are  6 — 12  inches  long.  The 
fruit  is  of  the  size  of  a  pigeon's  egg,  and  although 
eaten,  is  not  much  esteemed  ;  but  from  the  seed, 
a  concrete  oil  or  butter  is  obtained,  by  expression, 
of  a  delicate  white  colour,  much  valued  for  medicinal 
uses,  and  as  an  unguent.  It  keeps  for  many  months 
without  becoming  rancid. — The  seeds  of  the  Illupik- 
Tree,  or  Indian  Otl-Tree  (/>.  lonciifoUa),  a  native 
of  Coromandel,  yield  a  large  quantity  of  oil,  which 
is  used  for  lamps,  for  soap-making,  and  also  V)y  the 
poorer  classes  in  cookery.  The  fleshy  flowers  are 
eaten,  and  are  much  esteemed ;  and  the  timber  is 
very  hard  and  durable,  so  much  so,  indeed,  as  to  be 
compared  in  (puilitv  to  teak. 

BA'SSINET.     See  Helmet. 

BASSOMPIERRE,  FRANgois  pe,  Marshal  of 
France,  was  born  in  1579  at  Harnel,  in  Lorraine. 
Belonging  to  one  of  the  oldest  French  families,  he 
came,  at  the  age  of  20,  to  the  French  court,  where 
he  gained  the  favom-  of  Henry  IV.  After  the 
murder  of  Henry  IV.,  he  attached  himself  to  the 
party  of  the  queen,  who  appointed  him  colonel  of 
the  Swiss  Guards  ;  but  on  the  murder  of  Concini,  he 
sought  to  establish  himself  in  the  favour  of  the  young 
king,    and   when    the   quarrel    broke    out    betwixt 


BASSOON— BAST. 


mother  and  son,  he  particularly  contrilmtoil  to  the 
overthrow  of  the  former.  He  was  raised  to  the 
rank  of  Marshal  of  France  in  ICi^i;  was  sent  on 
embassies  to  Spain,  Switzerland,  and  England  ;  was 
actively  employed  in  the  siege  of  La  Rochelle ; 
took  the  pass  of  Siiza  by  storm  in  liViy  ;  and  com- 
manded for  a  little  while  the  troops  raised  in 
Langnedoc  against  the  Huguenots.  He  became, 
however,  an  object  of  suspicion  and  dislike  to 
Kichelicn,  who  caused  him  to  be  cast  into  the 
ISastile  in  February  IGol,  from  which  he  was  not 
liberated  until  the  death  of  Richelieu,  in  IC.i.",  after 
he  had  been  twelve  years  imprisoned.  He  died  in 
](U6.  He  was  an  accomplished  courtier,  extra- 
vagant, and  excessively  addicted  to  gallantries.  At 
the  time  of  his  arrest,  he  destroyed  Oiitio  love-letters. 
His  Mhnoircs  (2  vols.,  Cologne,  KUlo  ;  4  vols., 
Amst.  172o),  written  in  the  Bastile,  are  rendered 
interesting  by  their  .spirited  style. 

BASSOON  (Ital.  Fagotto),  a  well-known  wind- 
instrument  of  the  reed  species,  made  of  majjle-wood 
or  plane-tree.  The  B.  is  an  Italian  invention ;  its 
name  fagotto,  meaning  a  bundle,  probably  from  its 
being  made  in  dilferent  pieces  laid  one  against  the 
other.  The  French  call  it  Baaaon  <le  hautbois ;  the 
Germans  retain  its  Italian  name.  Its  invention 
is  attriluited  to  Canonicus  Afranio,  in  Ferrara,  in 
1539.  In  the  middle  of  the  16th  c,  it  had  already 
reached  great  perfection.  Sigmund  Schnitzer,  in 
Xiirenbcrg,  who  died  in  1.578,  was  a  celebrated 
maker.  The  B.  consists  of  a  bored-out  tube  of 
wood  in  several  pieces,  fixed  together  alongside 
each  other,  so  as  to  bring  the  holes  and  keys 
within  the  reach  of  the  fingers  of  each  hand.  The 
B.  has,  in  general,  not  less  than  8  holes  and  10 
keys.  In  the  narrow  end  of  the  wooden  tube  is 
fixed  a  small  tapering  brass  tube  in  the  form  of  an 
S,  on  the  end  of  which  is  placed  the  reed  for  pro- 
ducing the   tone.     The   compass  of  the   B.   is  from 


,  but  the  best  tones  arc  those 


from 


The  lowest  C  sharp,  and 


B  natural,  are  wanting. 
The  notes  for  the  B.  are  written  on  the  bass  clef  for 
the  lower  part,  and  on  the  tenor  clef  ibr  tiie  hitrher. 
The  best  keys  for  the  B.  are  E  flat,  B  flat,  F,  C,  G, 
P,  and  A ;  all  the  other  keys  are  more  or  less 
difficult.  For  military  bands  there  are  ditVerent 
sizes  of  bassoons — one  a  fourth  lower  ;  another,  the 
contra  B.,  an  octave  lower ;  and  a  third,  the  tenor 
B.,  a  fifth  higher — all  of  the  same  construction.  The 
best  instruction  books  for  the  B.  are  by  Almenriider, 
Friihlich,  Ozi,  and  l>y  the  i  aris  Consr rvatorium.  B. 
is  also  the  name  of  an  organ-stop,  the  pipes  of  which 
are  made  to  imitate  the  tones  of  the  instrument. 

BASSO  RA,  BUSSORA,  or  BASRAH,  a  town  of 
Asiatic  Turkey,  pashalic  of  Bagdad,  is  situated  on 
the  western  bank  of  the  Euphrates,  here  called  the 
Shat-el-Arab,  about  midway  between  the  mouth  of 
the  Tigris  and  the  Persian  Gulf,  from  which  it  is 
70  miles  distant.  Lat.  30°  3u'  N.,  long.  47°  31'  E. 
There  are  many  gardens  within  the  walls  of  the 
city,  and  many  plantations  of  roses  around  it,  but  it 
is  very  dirty.  The  river,  which  is  navigable  up  to  B. 
for  ships  of  500  tons,  is  there  divided  into  a  number 
of  channels,  and  by  evaporation  and  frequent  over- 
flowing, makes  the  climate  very  unhealthy.  The 
inhabitants,  (>0,000  in  number,  are  for  the  most  part 
poor  Arabs  and  Persians;  the  officials  and  military 
alone  are  Turks.  Commerce  is  in  the  hands  of 
Armenians.     Most  of  the  houses  arc  low  huts,  built 


of  unburned  bricks.  An  extensive  trade  is  carried 
on  in  the  exchange  of  the  productions  of  Turkey  and 
Persia  with  those  of  India,  and  also  in  European 
goods,  particularly  articles  of  British  manufacture. 
Amongst  the  exports  are  strong  and  beautiful 
horses.  Caravans  travel  to  Persia,  and  also  by 
Bagdad  and  Aleppo  to  Constantinople.  To  guard 
against  the  incursions  of  the  Arabs,  a  wall  of  about 
i)4  miles  in  length  has  been  erected  in  the  neigliliour- 
ing  desert,  at  all  the  gates  of  which  a  watch  is 
maintained.  B.  was  founded  in  (530  by  the  Calif 
Omar,  and  soon  became  one  of  the  most  famous  and 
opulent  cities  of  the  East.  The  possession  of  it  has 
been  the  stdiject  of  many  contests  between  the 
Turks  and  the  Persians.  It  is  a  ]ilace  of  great  note 
in  the  history  of  Arabic  literature.  A  number  of 
Arabian  poets  and  scholars  derive  from  it  the 
surname  of  Basri. 

BASSORA  GUM,  a  whitish  or  yellowish-opaque 
substance  resembling  gum-arabic,  but  differing 
from  it  by  being  mostly  insoluble  in  water.  Its 
source  has  not  been  satisfactorily  ascertained. 

BASSO-RILIEVO.     See  Alto-rilif.vo. 

BASS'S  STRAIT  separates  Tasmania  from 
Australia.  It  contains  many  islands,  chiefly  in  its 
southern  section,  and  is  greatly  beset  by  coral-reefs. 
It  runs  almost  due  cast  and  west,  has  an  average 
breadth  of  about  '2<i0  miles,  and  is  pretty  nearly 
bisected  by  the  parallel  of  40°. 

B.  S.  deservedly  bears  the  name  of  its  explorer, 
who,  without  having  been  professionally  a  seanum, 
is  entitled  to  a  very  high  place  among  niaritime 
discoverers.  After  having  made  shorter  excursions 
from  Port  Jackson,  in  a  mere  wherry  of  8  feet  in 
length,  Mr,  Surgeon  Bass  resolved  to  settle,  in  a 
whaling-boat,  the  tiuestion  as  to  the  connection  or 
separation  of  New  Holland  and  Tasmania.  In  his 
frail  craft,  he  penetrated  as  far  as  Western  Port,  near 
the  entrance  of  Port  Philip,  where,  from  the  treiuling 
of  the  land  and  the  swell  of  the  sea,  he  inferred  that 
he  had  most  probal)ly  reached  the  open  ocean.  He 
did  not  rest  contented,  however,  until,  in  a  tiny  bark 
of  25  tons,  he  actually  circumnavigated  Tasmania. 
The  discovery,  so  deliberately  prosecuted,  and  so 
satisfactorily  completed,  soon  proved  to  be  fertile 
of  results;  for  in  18<V2,  only  l^our  years  after  the 
exploration  of  Bass,  Port  Philip  was  entered ;  in 
1804,  Tasmania  was  colonised  ;  and  now  the  strait 
is  the  highway  for  a  trade  of  a  million  sterling 
between  Victoria  and  Tasmania — a  trade  which  has 
very  recently  received  an  additional  impetus  trom 
the  laying  of  a  telegraphic  cable  between  the  two 
colonies  at  their  joint  expense. 

BAST,  or  BASS,  also  called  hmrr  Bark,  Liber,  or 
EndophJwnm  (see  Bark),  the  fibrous  inferior  layer 
of  the  bark  in  the  stems  of  exogenous  plants,  which 
is  particularly  conspicuous  in  exogenous  trees,  as  a 
peculiar  substance  interposed  between  the  true  bark 
and  the  wood.  It  consists  in  great  part  of  sap- 
vessels  (laticiferous  vessels,  see  Latkx  and  Sap) 
lying  close  together,  and  assuming  the  appearance 
of  tough  fibres.  In  a  fresh  state,  it  has  generally  a 
whitish  colour  ;  and  it  is  often  composed  of  several 
layers,  to  which,  however,  the  collective  name  of 
B. -layer  is  very  often  applied.  The  uses  of  this  part 
of  plants  in  the  arts  are  very  ntmierous ;  the  fibres 
of  hemp,  flax,  jute,  kc,  are  nothing  else  than  bast. 
The  name  B.,  however,  is  more  commonly  applied 
to  the  inner  bark  of  trees,  and  is  originally  Russian, 
designating  the  inner  bark  of  the  lime-tree  (q.  v.)  or 
linden-tree,  which  is  employed  for  making  a  coarse 
kind  of  ropes,  mats  well  known  as  B.-niats,  and  a 
kind  of  shoes  much  worn  by  the  Russian  peasantry. 
The  trees  are  cut  when  full  of  sap  in  spring.  For 
B.  to  be  plaited   into  shoes,  young  stems  of  about 

735 


BASTARD  BAR—BASTAnDS  AND  BASTARDY. 


three  years  old  are  preferred;  and  it  is  said  that 
two  or  three  are  required  to  nialce  a  single  pair  ot 
shoes.  Trees  of  six  or  eight  years  oldaie  cut  dowu 
for  the  better  kind  of  mats,  which  are  exported  in 
large  quantities  from  Russia,  and  parliodarly  from 
the  port  of  Archangel,  and  so  much  used  for  pack- 
ing fniniturc,  for  covering  tender  plants  in  gardens, 
supplying  strands  with  which  plants  are  tied,  &c. 
The  trees  from  which  the  B.  is  taken  are  very  gener- 
ally burned  for  charcoal.  After  the  bark  is  dried,  its 
layers  are  easily  separated  by  steeping  in  water. 
The  finest  layers  are  the  inner,  and  the  coarser  are 
the  outer  ones. — The  manufacture  of  B.-mats  is 
nearly  confined  to  Russia  and  Sweden.  Not  fewer 
than  3,51)0,0(10  are  annually  exported  from  Russia, 
and  from  .500,000  to  80i),0nb  are  annually  imported 
into  Britain.  A  few  are  made  in  Monmouthshire. 
Lime-tree  B.  is  used  in  the  south  of  Europe  for 
making  hats.  The  name  B.-hat  is,  however,  very 
often  given  to  a  hat  made  of  willow-wood  planed  off 
in  thin  ribbons,  and  plaited  in  the  same  manner  as 
straw-hats.  The  inner  bark  of  Grfvia  didyjiia,  a 
tree  of  the  same  natural  order  with  the  lime-tree,  is 
used  for  making  ropes  in  the  Himalaya  Mountains. 

BA'STARD  BAR.  In  popular  speech  we  fre- 
quently hear  of  a  Bar-sinister,  as  a  mark  of  bastardy. 
But  a  bar-sinister,  strictly  speaking,  is  an  impossi- 
bility, inasmuch  as  the  Bar  (q.  v.)  is  not  formed  of 
diagonal  but  of  horizontal  lines.  A  Bend-sinister 
(q.  v.),  which,  by  the  French,  is  called  a  bar,  has 
with  more  reason  been  confused  with  the  true  mark 
of  illegitimacy,  and  has  on  that  account  been  avoided 
even  l)y  heralds.  But  the  real  B.  B.  differs  very 
essentially  from  the  bend-sinister,  being  half  of 
the  scarp,  which  again  is  half  of  the  bend  sinister. 
'  The  half  of  the  scarp,'  says  Nisbet, 
'  with  the  English,  is  called  a  Batton- 
sinister  ;  by  the  French,  Baston- 
sinister  ;  it  is  never  carried  in  arms 
but  as  a  mark  of  illegitimation,  com- 
monly called  the  Bastard-barr.'  In 
^  „       modern  practice,  the  baton   does  not 

Bastard  liar.  ^^^^^^  ^j^^  extremities  of  the  shield,  or 
of  the  quarter  in  which  the  paternal  arms  are 
placed,  but  is  couped — that  is,  cut  short  at  the 
ends.  In  this  form  the  baton,  when  used  as  a 
mark  of  illegitimacy,  is  placed  over  the  paternal 
coat  of  the  bastard,  whether  used  singly  or  in  a 
quartered  shield.  Nisbet  informs  us  that  the  baton- 
sini.ster,  both  in  England  and  Scotland,  is  compara- 
tively of  modern  invention,  natural  children  in 
earlier  times  not  having  been  permitted  to  assume 
the  arms  or  even  the  names  of  their  fathers.  '  The 
unlawful  children  of  John  of  Gaunt,  Duke  of 
Lancaster,  begot  on  Katharine,  daughter  of  Sir 
Payen  Roat  Guyn,  King  of  Arms,  did  not  carry  the 
arms  of  their  father  the  king,  though  nobilitate, 
with  a  baton-sinister,  as  now  used  ;  .  .  .  but  after 
the  legitimation  of  these 
three  natural  sons  by  act 
of  parliament,  they  then 
assumed  the  sovereign 
ensigns  of  England,  with- 
in a  bordure  gobbonated 
(q.  v.),  argent  and  azure.' 
According  to  the  practice 
of  France,  which  probably 
was  followed  in  England 
also,  the  bastard  could  not 
cancel  or  alter  the  baton 
without  the  consent  of  the 
chief  of  the  family,  or  the 
authority  of  the  sovereign. 
Earl  of  Murray's  Arms.  Even  where  the  baton  was 
not  removed,  it  was  com- 
mon for  the  sovereign  to  grant  his  permission  to 
736 


carry  it  dexter^  in  place  of  sinister.  Charles  VII. 
of  France  allowed  John,  the  Bastard  of  Orleans, 
for  his  valour  against  the  English,  to  turn  his  sinister 
traveise  to  the  dexter,  with  which  he  and  his  issue 
afterwards  liruised  the  arms  of  Orleans,  as  dukes 
of  Longueville.  The  same  privilege  was  granted 
to  James,  Earl  of  Murray,  natural  son  of  King 
James  V.  of  Scotland,  by  his  sister  Queen  Mary, 
and  he  thenceforth  carried  the  Lion  and  tressure 
of  Scotland  thus  bruised,  quartered  with  the  feudal 
arms  of  the  earldom  of  Min-ray,  The  general  prac- 
tice of  the  milder  heraldry  of  our  own  day  is  to 
substitute  the  gobbonated  bordure  for  the  B.  B., 
not  only  in  the  ease  of  the  legitimate  children  of 
bastards,  but  of  bastards  themselves. 

BASTARD  EIGNE  is  the  name  given  in  Eng- 
lish law-books  to  an  eldest  son  illegitimate  by  birth, 
but  whose  father  and  mother  were  subsequently 
nuirried,  and  had  other  children  born  in  wedlock. 
See  Bastards  and  Bastardy. 

BA'STARDS  and  BASTARDY.  Bastards,  as 
described  by  Blackstone,  are  such  children  as  are 
not  born  either  in  lawful  wedlock,  or  within  a  com- 
petent time  after  its  determination.  The  Scotch 
lawyers,  again,  true  to  their  peculiar  law  of  marriage, 
define  a  bastard  as  a  child  born  of  a  woman,  who 
was  not  married  to  the  father  at  the  time  of  concep- 
tion, and  u'ho  vus  nevtr  thcrcaftir  viai-ried  to  him.  It 
was  at  one  time  the  law  of  England,  when  divorces 
a  Diensa  et  thoro  were  adjudged  l)y  the  ecclesiastical 
courts,  that  if  the  wife  had  children  during  the 
legal  separation  occasioned  by  the  former  kind  of 
divorce,  such  children  were  pr/md  facie  bastards — 
for  the  law  presumed  the  parties  to  live  conform- 
ably to  the  sentence  of  sefinration.  But  in  modern 
times,  the  presumption  has  changed,  and  now  always 
favours  legitimacy. 

Bastards  are  incapable  of  inheriting  real  property, 
nor  can  they  claim  any  share  of  personal  estate  as 
next  of  kin  to  a  party  dying  intestate.  They  are 
said  to  be  ^filii  nulliux,  or  Jilii  populi,  the  sons  of 
nobodv,  or  the  sons  of  the  people,  having  no  inherit- 
able blood  in  them.  As  laid  down,  however,  in 
many  authorities,  and  among  others  in  the  last  (1th) 
edition  of  Stephen's  Coimneiiiaries,  there  is  an  excep- 
tion to  this  rule  in  the  case  of  a  bastard  ei(j7ie  and 
mulicr  puisne,  and  where,  it  may  be  observed,  the 
principle  of  the  Scotch  law  of  legitimation  appears 
to  some  extent  to  be  admitted.  Thus,  where  a  man 
has  a  bastard  son,  called  a  Imstard  eigne  (q.  v.),  and 
afterwards  marries  the  mother,  and  by  her  has  a 
legitimate  son,  who,  in  the  language  of  the  law,  is 
called  a  mnlier  puisne — if  the  father  dies,  and  the 
bastard  eigne  enters  upon  his  land,  and  enjoys  it  to 
his  death,  and  dies  seised  thereof,  whereby  the 
inheritance  descends  to  his  issue,  the  innlier  puisne 
and  all  other  heirs  are  totally  barred  of  their  right, 
because  the  laws  of  England  pay  such  a  regard  to  a 
person  in  the  situation  of  the  bastard  eigne,  that 
after  the  land  had  descended  to  his  issue,  they 
would  not  unravel  the  matter  again,  and  suffer  his 
estate  to  be  shaken.  But  this  indulgence  was  shewn 
to  no  other  kind  of  bastard ;  for  if  the  mother  was 
never  married  to  the  fiither,  such  bastard  could  have 
no  colourable  title  at  all.  And  the  above  exception 
would  almost  appear  to  be  the  law  of  England  at 
the  present  day.  But  a  recent  statute  renders  this 
opinion  somewhat  doubtful,  for  by  the  3  and  4  Will. 
IV.  c.  27,  s.  39,  it  is  enacted  that  no  descent  east,  after 
the  31st  day  of  December  1833,  .shall  defeat  any  right 
of  entry  or  action  for  the  recovery  of  land.  By  descent 
cast  is  meant  an  heir  of  a  party  who  had  contrived 
illegally  to  enjoy  the  land  without  challenge  during 
his  life,  and  was  thereby  enabled  to  transmit  it  to 
his  heir,  who  thenceforward  had  a  title  which  could 


BASTARDS  AND  BASTARDY. 


not  be  impeached  either  by  the  original  rightful 
owner,  or  by  any  of  his  descendants.  The  above 
statntc,  however,  has  cnt  off  the  rights  in  his  behalf 
of  all  such  descents  cast,  and  the  true  owner  can  now, 
under  the  provisions  of  the  act,  always  recover.  But 
is  the  son  of  a  bnstard  cujne  such  a  '  descent  cast'  as 
is  contemplated  by  the  3  and  4  Will.  IV.  c.  27  ? 
It  may  be  doubted  whether  he  is.  The  expression 
'descent  cast'  is  generally  applied  in  law-books  to 
the  case  of  a  stranr/er  who,  under  a  forcible,  wrong- 
ful, and  illegal  entry  on  tiie  land,  had  succeeded  in 
diverting  the  inheritance  from  the  direct  and  origi- 
nal channel.  But  such  is  not  the  position  of  a 
/xistard  eigne.  He  is  not,  in  any  sense  of  the  word, 
a  stranger;  nor  is  the  above  privilege  or  favour 
allowed  him  and  Ins  fannly  at  all  in  respect  of  his 
])Osition  towards,  or  of  anything  that  can  be  called 
liis  title  to  the  lavd,  but  such  privilege  and  favour 
ai'c  given  liim  solely  because  of  Ina peculiar  bastardi/. 
In  fact,  it  is  just  because  he  is  itot  a  stranger,  but 
his  father's  eldest  son  by  birth,  that  the  law  from 
ancient  times  decided  that  he  should  not  be  alto- 
gether deprived  of  what  otherwise  would  have  been 
his  natural  rights.  The  rule,  as  we  have  suggested, 
appears  to  he  founded  on  the  principle  of  the  Scotch 
law  of  subsequent  legitimation  ;  and  the  intention 
probably  was  to  give  effect  to  the  good  feeling  of 
the  second  or  other  legitimate  son,  who,  from  a 
regard  to  his  mother's  character,  as  well  as  his 
In'Other's  position,  might  find  himself  excused  from 
asserting  his  claims.  Whether  the  above  statute 
can,  by  its  general  terms,  be  understood  arbitrarily 
to  alter  such  a  reasonable  and  natural  law  of  family 
succession,  is  a  question  for  lawyers  and  law-courts. 
The  point,  however,  is  important  for  popular  expla- 
)iation.  In  all  other  cases,  the  law  of  England 
appears  to  be  as  distinct  as  it  is  severe.  It  has 
even  been  decided  that  a  child  born  before  wed- 
lock in  a  foreign  country,  and  according  to  whose 
law  such  child  was  legitimate,  could  not  inherit 
land  in  England  where  his  bastardy  was  indelible. 

There  can  be  no  collateral  succession  through 
bastards;  for  as  they  cannot  be  heirs  themselves, 
so  neither  can  they  have  any  heirs  but  those  of  their 
own  bodies.  A  bastard  is  not  entitled  to  the  name 
either  of  his  reputed  father  or  of  that  of  his  mother, 
though  he  may  acquire  for  himself  a  surname  by 
reputation ;  nor  can  he  take  property  by  the  mere 
description  of  c/iild  of  his  reputed  parent,  until 
he  lias  acquired  the  reputation  of  standing  in  that 
relation  to  him.  Nor  does  a  bastard  follow,  as 
legitinnito  children  do,  his  father's  place  of  paro- 
chial settlement  under  the  poor-laws,  but  he  has 
and  follows  the  settlement  of  his  mother  until  he 
attains  the  age  of  1(5,  or  until  he  acquires  a  settle- 
ment in  his  own  right,  although  in  general  his 
})rimary  settlement  is  in  the  parish  where  he  was 
born.  Another  peculiarity  of  the  status  of  bastardy 
is,  that  a  bastard  being  Jilius  nnllius,  the  consent  of 
his  father  or  mother  to  Ins  marriage  is  not  reqidred, 
and  is  of  no  avail;  but  a  guardian  may  be  appointed 
by  the  Court  of  Chancery  for  the  purpose,  or  a 
licence  may  be  granted  upon  oath  made  that  there 
is  uo  person  authorised  to  give  consent.  To  this 
may  be  ailded,  that  although  in  general  a  father 
may  by  deed  or  will  appoint  a  guardian  for  his 
infant  child  in  the  event  of  his  decease,  he  has  no 
such  privilege  if  the  child  be  illegitimate. 

Such  may  be  stated  to  be  the  principal  peculiari- 
ties attaching  to  bastardy  in  the  law  of  England.  In 
other  respects,  a  bastard  is  very  nnich  in  the  same 
position  as  a  legitimate  person.  Thus,  he  can  hold 
land  in  fee-simple,  and  can  dispose  of  it  as  he  may 
think  proper,  making  an  unlimited  alienation  of  it ; 
and  of  course  he  can  make  a  will  bequeathing  his 
personal  estate ;  a  simple  and  reasonable  privilege 
47 


however,  which,  strange  to  say,  was  not  conceded 
to  bastards  in  Scotland  dying  without  lawful  issue, 
till  the  year  ISIiti,  when  an  act  of  parliament  was 
passed,  the  G  Will.  IV.  c.  22,  which,  on  the  pro- 
amble  that  'it  is  jtist,  humane,  and  expedient,' 
empowered  bastards  in  that  country  to  dispose  of 
their  personal  property  by  testament  or  will  in  like 
manner  as  other  persons  might  do,  any  law  or  prac- 
tice to  the  contrary  notwithstanding!  In  regard 
to  personal  estate,  although  the  crown  is  entitled 
to  sucli  in  the  case  of  a  bastard  dying  intestate,  the 
royal  claim  is  not  strictly  enforced  ;  but  upon  jjctition, 
the  crown's  right  will  be  transferred  to  the  nearest 
member  of  the  deceased  bastard's  family.  In  the 
Scotch  law,  also,  the  crown  may,  by  what  is  called 
a  ffi/t  of  baxtanl;!^  grant  not  only  the  personal,  but 
the  real  estate  of  an  intestate  bastard  to  the 
'donatory,'  or  person  similarly  entitled,  as  in  the  case 
of  personal  property  in  England.  It  is  also  to  be 
observed,  that  the  prohibitions  as  to  marriage  which 
extend  to  collaterals,  and  to  those  related  by  the 
half-blood  only,  also  apply  although  one  of  the 
parties  be  a  bastard.  Again,  the  laws  relative  to 
incest  apply  to  a  bastard  with  equal  force  as  to 
others ;  the  principle  of  the  two  latter  points  being 
that,  although  the  bastard  be  filiiia  ntdlius  as  to 
many  civil  consequences,  his  relationship  to  his 
natural  parent  is  recognised  for  moral  purposes. 
Of  course,  it  need  not  be  added  that  a  bastard  may 
be  made  legitimate  by  an  act  of  parliament  for  all 
purposes,  even  for  that  of  inheriting  land,  'as  was 
done,'  says  Blackstone,  'in  the  case  of  John  of 
Gaunt's  bastard  children  by  a  statute  of  Richard  II.' 

The  paternity  of  a  bastard  or  illegitimate  child  in 
England  is  ascertained  by  the  regulations  of  these 
three  statutes — the  4  and  5  Will.  IV.  c.  76,  the  7 
and  8  Viet.  c.  101,  and  the  8  and  9  Vict.  c.  10  ;  and 
the  father  so  discovered  is  bound  to  make  a  proper 
allowance  to  the  mother  in  the  meantime.  But  it 
is  on  the  mother  herself  that  the  maintenance  of  the 
child  in  the  first  instance  devolves.  She  is  for  this 
purpose  entitled  to  its  custody  in  preference  to  its 
father;  and  she  is  bound  to  maintain  it  as  part  of 
her  family  while  she  remains  unmarried,  or  until 
the  child  attains  the  age  of  16,  or  gains  a  settle- 
ment in  its  own  right,  or  (being  a  female)  is  married; 
and  in  the  event  of  the  mother's  marriage,  the  same 
lialdlity  attaches  to  her  husband.  If  the  mother  be 
of  sufficient  ability  to  maintain  the  bastard,  while 
he  is  so  dependent  on  her,  and  neglect  that  duty,  so 
that  he  becomes  chargeable  to  a  parish,  she  is 
liable,  by  7  and  8  Vict.  c.  101,  s.  6,  to  be  punished 
under  the  provisions  of  the  Vagrant  Act  (q.  v.).  If, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  mother  be  not  of  sufficient 
ability,  the  law  affords  her  the  means  of  compelling 
the  father  of  the  bastard  to  supply  a  fund  for  its 
maintenance. 

Besides  the  points  in  the  Scotch  law  to  which  we 
have  adverted,  it  is  to  be  observed  that  in  that 
system,  the  maintenance,  or  'aliment,'  as  it  is  called, 
of  illegitimate  children,  is  a  joint  burden  upon  both 
parents.  The  mother  is  entitled  to  the  custody  of 
the  child,  but  it  does  not  appear  whether  she  is  to 
have  such  custody  for  any  fixed  time.  It  is  in  the 
discretion  of  the  Court  of  Session  to  determine  this, 
and  it  would  seem  that  the  period  may  vary  accord- 
ing to  circumstances,  from  seven  to  fourteen  years. 
During  this  time,  the  father  is  bound  to  contribute 
his  proportion  of  the  expense ;  and  if  neither  the 
father  nor  mother  can  support  the  child,  it  must  be 
maintained  by  the  parish  in  which  the  mother  has  a 
settlement. 

There  is  a  nice  and  curious  difference  in  the  laws 
of  England  and  Scotland  as  to  the  mode  of  ascer- 
taining the  paternity  of  a  bastard  child.  According 
to  the  statutes  we  have   referred  to,  that  fact  may 

737 


BASTARDY— BASTILLE. 


be  proved  in  England  by  the  evidence  of  the  mother, 
provided  her  statement  is  supported  in  '  some 
material  particular'  by  other  testiniony.  But  in 
Scotland,  the  order  of  the  inquiry  is  reversed ; 
the  woman's  evidence  in  that  country  being  taken 
laf<t,  and  only  where  the  other  and  independent 
evidence  amounts  to  what  is  called  a  semiplcna 
probatio — that  is,  such  evidence  as  induces  a  reason- 
able belief,  although  not  complete  evidence,  in  which 
case  she  is  admitted  to  give  what  is  called  her  oath 
in  siipplcynevt. 

Both  in  England  and  Scotland,  the  widow  of  a 
bastard,  whether  there  be  issue  or  not  of  the 
marriage,  is  entitled  to  dower,  terce,  jus  rdictai,  and 
all  the  other  legal  rights  of  widows.  See  Legiti- 
macy, Separation,  Divorce,  Marriage,  Descent 
Cast,  Inheritance,  Fee-Simple,  Succession, 
Parish  Settlement,  Ultima  II^res,  Vagrant 
Act,  Oath  in  Supplement,  and  Semiplena  Pro- 
batio. 

BA'STARDY,  Gift  of.     See  preceding  article. 

BA'STARDY,  Declarator  of.  This  is  a  suit 
which  may  be  instituted  in  the  Court  of  Session  in 
Scotland,  for  having  it  declared  that  the  lands  or 
efTects  which  belonged  to  the  deceased  bastard, 
belong  to  the  donatory  in  virtue  of  the  gift  from  the 
crown.  The  '  defender,'  or  person  against  whom 
the  suit  is  formally  brought,  is  the  party  who  would 
haA^e  succeeded  to  the  bastard,  had  he  been  legiti- 
mate. B.  can  also  be  judicially  declared  by  a 
similar  mode  of  proceeding  at  the  suit  of  a  party 
who  has  any  other  interest,  or,  indeed,  any  interest 
whatever,  to  have  such  illegitimacy  determined. 

By  a  recent  act  of  parliament,  the  21  and  22 
Vict.  c.  93,  the  same  conclusion  may  be  substan- 
tially obtained  by  the  adoption  of  the  proceedings, 
directed  by  the  act  in  the  Court  for  Divorce  and 
Matrimonial  causes.  The  act  in  question,  it  is 
declared,  may  be  cited  for  all  purposes,  as  the 
'Legitimacy  Declaration  Act,  1858.' 

BASTI'A,  the  former  capital  of  Corsica,  is  pictu- 
resquely situated  on  the  slope  of  a  mountain,  rising 
from  the  sea  in  the  form  of  an  amphitheatre,  in 
the  north-eastern  part  of  the  island,  in  lat.  42° 
42'  N.,  and  long.  9°  27' E.  It  has  about  16,000 
inhabitants.  The  streets  are  narrow  and  crooked. 
It  has  a  harbour  suitable  for  small  vessels,  defended 
by  a  mole,  at  the  mouth  of  which  is  a  rock  resem- 
bling a  lion  couchant,  and  designated  'II  Leone.' 
There  is  a  considerable  trade  in  leather,  skins, 
wine,  oil,  figs,  and  pulse  ;  arid  many  stilettos  and 
daggers  are  manufactured  here,  which  are  principally 
exported  to  Italy.  Until  recently,  the  printing- 
presses  of  B.  were  actively  employed  in  the  produc- 
tion of  Italian  publications  that  would  not  have  been 
permitted  to  appear  in  that  country  itself.  B.  was 
founded  in  1380  by  the  Genoese  Leoncl  Lomcllino. 
During  last  century,  it  was  oftener  than  once  taken 
by  the  British.  It  was  made,  in  1791,  the  capital  of 
the  French  department  of  Corsica,  which  rank  was 
afterwards  transferred  to  Ajaccio.  It  is  the  seat;  of 
the  highest  courts  of  the  island. 

BASTIAT,  Frederic,  an  eminent  political 
economist,  was  born  at  Bayonne  on  the  29th  of 
June  1801.  His  father  was  a  merchant,  and  edu- 
cated his  son  with  a  view  to  the  same  profession. 
After  completing  his  studies,  B.  entered  the  com- 
mercial house  of  one  of  his  uncles,  established  at 
Bayonne,  and  employed  his  leisure  hours  in  the 
study  of  political  economy.  Circumstances  called 
him  into  Spain  and  Portugal  in  1840,  where  he  took 
advantage  of  the  opportunity  afforded  him  to  study 
the  customs  and  institutions  of  these  two  countries, 
which  have  still  much  to  learn  before  they  can  be 
on  a  fooling  of  equahty  with  other  nations  in 
738 


matters  of  finance  and  political  economy.  His  first 
appearance  as  an  author  was  in  1844,  when  he  pub- 
lished, in  the  Journal  des  EconomhtcR,  an  article  '  On 
the  Influence  of  French  and  English  Tarifl's  on  the 
Respective  Futures  of  the  two  Peoples.'  It  contained 
in  germ  B.'s  theory  of  political  economy,  who,  from 
that  moment,  was  a  decided  opponent  of  the  system 
of  protection.  Subsequently,  in  the  same  journal, 
lie  combated  the  economic  fallacies  of  Socialism, 
and  the  rights  of  labour.  During  a  visit  to  England, 
he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Cobden,  and  on  his 
return  to  France,  he  translated  (1845)  the  speeches 
of  the  free-traders,  which  he  published  with  an 
introductory  preface,  entitled  Cobden  and  the  Lca(/7ie, 
or  t/ie  Eiifjlinh  Afjitation  in  Favour  of  Free  7Vade,  in 
which  he  gathered  up  in  one  solid  mass  the  incon- 
veniences of  the  protective  system.  B.  now  went 
to  reside  in  Paris,  where  he  continued  to  propagate 
his  views  with  considerable  success ;  he  became 
secretary  of  the  societies,  and  chief  editor  of  the 
journal,  established  to  vindicate  the  principles  of 
iVec  trade.  After  the  revolution  of  1848,  he  was 
elected  successively  a  member  of  the  Constituent 
and  Legislative  assemblies.  In  1850,  he  came  for- 
ward as  the  antagonist  of  the  Socialist  writer, 
Prudhon.  Suffering  from  pulmonary  disease,  he 
repaired  to  Italy  for  change  of  climate,  but  died  at 
Rome  on  the  24th  December  1850. 

Besides  the  writings  mentioned,  B.  published 
Sophisuics  Economiqiicx — Propriele  et  Loi,  Justice  ct 
Fratcrnite — Protect  ioni.wie  et  Conaiinnlsvie^  Har- 
monica Economupies,  and  several  other  important 
tractates,  all  of  which  exhibit  extensive  knowledge  of 
the  subjects  discussed,  convincing  logic,  and  a  power 
of  sprightly  and  biting  satire.  The  Harmonies 
Economiques  has  been  translated  into  English  by 
P.  .J.  Stirling  {Harmonies  of  Political  Econonui, 
Murray,  Loud.  ISGO).  The  soundness  of  the  prin- 
ciples which  the  writings  of  B.  uphold  is  now  largely 
admitted  in  France,  and  the  government  is  moving 
slowly  but  surely  in  the  direction  they  indicate. 

BASTIPE,  Jules,  a  French  journalist  and  politi- 
cian, Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  in  1848,  and  member 
of  the  Constituent  Assembly,  was  horn  at  Paris  in 
1800.  In  1821,  he  became  one  of  the  first  members 
of  the  French  Carbonari;  and  after  the  July  revo- 
lution, he  was  conspicuous  among  the  writers  of 
the  radical  opposition.  On  the  reconstitution  of 
the  National  Guard,  B.  was  elected  conimandant- 
in-chief  of  the  legion  of  artillery,  in  which  the 
republicans  were  grouped,  and  took  part  in  two 
insurrectionary  movements,  for  the  second  of  which 
— the  eineutc  at  Paris,  5th  June  1832 — he  was  con- 
demned to  death,  but  escaped  to  London.  Pardoned 
in  1834,  he  returned  to  Paris,  and  again  devoted 
himself  to  politics  in  the  columns  of  the  National. 
B.,  however,  being  one  of  those  Neo-catholic  re- 
publicans who  regarded  the  Church  of  Rome  as  the 
religious  synonym  of  democracy,  could  not  heartily 
sympathise  Tvith  the  tone  of  that  newspaper  on  reli- 
gions topics,  and  in  1847  he  founded  the  Revue 
Rationale,  in  which  he  advocated  his  peculiar 
opinions.  During  the  revolution  of  1848,  he  became 
Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  was  a  consistent  supporter 
of  General  Cavaignac,  and  a  firm  opponent  of 
Socialism.  Since  the  Empire,  he  has  ceased  to  take 
a  prominent  part  in  public  aff;xirs. 

BA'STILLE  was,  in  France,  a  general  term  for 
a  strong  fortress,  defended  by  towers  or  bastions 
(q.  v.),  and  in  tlys  sense  it  was  used  in  England  also 
after  the  Norman  Conquest.  The  famous  prison  to 
which  the  name  latterly  was  appropriated,  was 
originally  the  castle  of  Paris,  and  was  built  by 
order  of  Charles  V.,  between  1370  and  1383,  by 
Hugo  Aubriot,  Prevot   or  Provost  of  Paris,   at  the 


BASTINADO— BAT. 


Porte  St,  Antoine,  as  a  defence  against  the  English. 
Afterwards,  when  it  came  to  be  nsed  as  a  state- 
prison,  it  was  provided,  (lining  the  16th  and  17th 
centuries,  with  vast  bulwaiks  and  ditches.  On  each 
of  its  longer  sides  the  B.  had  four  towers,  of  five 
stories  each,  over  which  there  ran  a  gallery,  which 
was  armed  with  cannon.  It  was  partly  in  these 
towers,  and  partly  in  cellars  nndcr  the  level  of  the 
ground,  that  the  prisons  were  situated.  The  unfor- 
tunate inmates  of  these  abodes  were  so  eifectually 
removed  from  the  world  without  as  often  to  be 
entirely  forgotten,  and  in  some  cases  it  was  found 
impo.ssible  to  discover  either  their  origin  or  the 
cause  of  their  incarceration.      The  B.  was  capable 


The  Bastille. 

of  containing   70   to    80    prisoners,  a  number  fre- 
quently reached  during  the   reigns  of  Louis  XIV. 
and    Louis    XV.     Though    small    compared   to    the 
number  which  an  ordinary  prison   contains,  these 
numbers  were   considerable,    when  we   reflect   that 
they  rarely  consisted  of  persons  of  the  lower  ranks, 
or  such  as"  were  guiltv  of  actual  crimes,  but  of  those 
who  were   sacrificed"  to    political    despotism,    court 
intrigue,  ecclesiastical  tyranny,  or  had  fallen  victuns 
to  family  quarrels— and"  were  lodged  here  in  virtue 
of  lettre's  de  cachet  (q.  v.)— noblemen,  authors,  savans, 
priests,  and  publishers.     On  the  14th  of  July  1789, 
the    fortress    was    surrounded   by    an    armed    mob, 
which    the    reactionary    policy    of    the    court    had 
driven  into  fury,  and  to  the  number  of  which  every 
moment     adde'd.      The    garrison    consisted    of    8'i 
invahds    and    3'2    Swiss.       The    negotiations    which 
were    entered    into    with    the    governor   led    to    no 
other  result  than  the  removal  of  the  cannon  pointed 
on  the  Faubourg  St.  Antoine,  which  by  no  means 
contented    the    exasperated   multitude.       Some    cut 
the   chains   of  the   first   drawbridge,  and  a  contest 
took   place,  in   which   one  of  the  besieged  and  150 
of  the    people   were   killed,   or    severely   wounded; 
but  the  arrival  of  a  portion  of  the  troops  which  had 
already  joined   the    people   with   four    field-pieces, 
turned  the  fortune  of  the  conflict  in  favour  of  the 
besiegers.     Delaunav,  the  governor— who  had  been 
prevented   by    one    of    his   officers,    when   on   the 
point  of  blowing  the  fortress  into  the  air— permitted 
the  second  drawbridge  to  be  lowered,  and  the  people 
rushed  in,  killing  Delaunay  himself  and  several  of 
his  officers.     The  destruction  of  the  B.  commenced 
on  the  following  dav,  amid  the   thunder   of  cannon, 
and  the  pealing  of  the  Te  Deum.     This  event,  in 
itself  apparently  of  no  great   moment,  leading  only 
to   the  release  of  three  unknown  prisoners — one  ot 
whom  had  been  its  tenant  for  thirty  years— and  four 
forgers,  and  in  which  it  is   said  only  the  65-i  per- 
son's whose  names  now  appear  on   the   column  in 
the    Place  de    la   Bastille,  took   part,   nevertheless 
finally    broke    the    spirit   of    the   court-party,    and 
changed  the  current  of  events  in  France. 


BASTIXA'DO  (from  the  Fr.  baston  or  baton,  a 
cudgel),  the  name  given  by  Europeans  to  the  punish- 
meia  in  use  over  the  whole  East,  which  consists  in 
blows  with  a  stick,  generally  upon  the  soles  of  the 
feet,  but  sometimes  upon  the  back. 

BA'STION,  in  Fortification,  is  one  of  the  principal 
defence-works  in   a  fortilied   place.     It  is  a  kind  of 
tower,   very  broad   in   relation   to  its   height.     The 
iilain  wall,  called  the  curtain,  which  often  surrounds 
a  fortified  town,  is  usually  a  polygon  of  many  sides ; 
iuul   in  that  case,  bastions  occupy  all,  or  nearly  all, 
the  salient  angles.     Bastions  are  mostly  five-sided : 
the  two  outermost  sides  are  the /aces,  meeting  in  an 
an"-le  towards  the  enemy;  the  two  on  either  side 
of  these  are  the  fartH,  meeting   two   curtains  or 
portions  of  wall;    and  the  fifth  side,  open  to  the 
interior  of  the  fortified  place,  is  the  gorge.     Bastions 
mav  be  regarded  as  projections,  which   enable  the 
defenders   to  watch  the  approach  of  the  enemy  to 
the  foot   of  the   wall,  and  to  frustrate  them  by  a 
flanking  fire.     Taking  the  average  range  of  modern 
ordnance  and  muskets  as  a  basis,  engineers  decide 
on  a  distance  of  300  to  400  yards  between  B.  aiid 
B. ;  but  if  Armstrong  or  Napoleon  guns,  and  Enfield 
or   Minie    rifles,  should  hereafter    be    employed    in 
attacking  and  defending  fortified  places,  these  figures 
will    probably  need   modification.      The   length  of 
each  face  and  flank  of  a  B.  is  so  regulated,  that  two 
bastions  can  defend  each  other  and  the  intermediate 
portion   of  wall.       This  principle  was   partly   acted 
upon  in  the  middle  ages ;  but  some  of  the  Italian 
military  engineers  of  the   16th  c.  first  constructed 
the   B.   proper.     The  main   substance  of  a  B.  is  an 
immense    mound    of  earth,    capable    of   supporting 
heavy  guns,  and  of  receiving  the  fire  of  the  enemy ; 
but  it  is  faced  and   strengthened  in  many  parts  with 
brick  and  stone.     The  top  is  broad  enough  to  allow 
room    for   the    large    guns,    and   for    infantry    and 
artillery  soldiers.     A  hoUow  B.  has  the  space  within 
it  kept    down  to    the  level  of  the  town  or  natural 
ground;  but  a  solid  B.,  filled  up  to  the  top  with 
firm  materials,  is  considered  to  be  the  best  defensive 
construction.     Vauban,  the   great  French  engineer, 
devised  the   plan  of  having  large  detached  bastions 
opposite  the  chief  angles  of  the  place,  with  a  ditch 
behind  each ;  a  tower  or  small  B.  being  placed  at 
the     real    angle    of    the    wall    behind.       This    was 
intended  to  enable   the   besieged   to   hold   out  for 
some  time,  even  after  the  great  bastions  were  taken. 
The   relation  which  bastions  bear  to  the  general 
system  of    attack   and   defence,    is   noticed    under 
Fortification    and    Sif.gk;    while   various   detads 
on  the  subject  will  be  found  under  Battkry,  Cask- 
mate,  Curtain,   Ditch,  Emdrasure,  Escarp,   Para- 
PKT,  Rampart,  &c.     In  wood-cuts  illustrating  many 
of  these  articles,  the  relative   position  of  the  B.  will 
be  better  shewn  than  by  any  diagram  in  this  place. 

BA'SYLE  is  the  name  given  by  Graham  to  a 
simple  and  compound  substance  which  can  unite  with 
oxygen  to  produce  a  base  (q.  v.).  Thus,  all  the 
metals  ate  examples  of  simple  basyles,  and  ammo- 
nium (NH4),  ethvle  (C4H5)  methyle  (C^H^),  &c.,  repj 
resent  compound  basyles.  Another  property  which 
a  B.  possesses  is,  that  it  can  unite  with  a  salt  radical 
(q.  v.),  like  chlorine  or  cyanogen,  to  form  salts. 
Thus,  the  B.  sodium  (Na)  combines  with  chlorine  to 
produce  a  salt— in  fivet,  common  salt  (NaCl);  and 
mercury  (Ilg)  unites  with  cyanogen  (Cy)  to  form  the 
salt  cyanide  of  mercury  (UgCy). 

BAT,  the  common  name  of  all  animals  of  the 
class  Mammalia  which  are  furnished  with  true 
wings,  and  so  are  capable  of  really  flying  or  propel- 
ling themselves  in  the  air.  They  were  all  included 
by°Linna3us  in  the  genus  Vespertilio  (old  Latin 
name),  now  subdivided  and  forming  the  family 
"  739 


BAT. 


Vespertilionidte,  which  is  very  generally  regarded 
as  of  precisely  equal  extent  with  the  sub-order 
Cheiroptera  (Gr.  hand-wingcc?),  although  some  natur- 
alists still  follow  Cuvier  in  regarding  the  Galeo- 
pithccidce   (Colugos  or    Flying   Lemurs)  as    another 


Long-cared  Bat  {Pleeotus  auritus). 

family  of  Cheiroptera.  But  besides  other  characters 
which  connect  the  Colugos  with  Lemurs  rather  than 
with  bats,  they  greatly  differ  from  bats  in  having  a 
mere  extension  of  the  skin  of  the  flanks  attached 
to  the  limbs — as  in  the  Flying  Squincls  and 
Petaurists  or  Flying  Phalangcrs,  and  in  the  Flying 
Dragon  among  saurian  reptiles — capable  of  sus- 
taining them  in  the  air  like  a  paraclmte  in  a  very 
extended  leap,  but  not  of  being  expanded  and  closed 
by  a  succession  of  strokes  for  true  flight.  The 
power  of  true  flight,  bats,  on  the  contrary,  possess; 
and  some  of  them  not  only  fly  rapidly,  but  wheel 
about  very  nimbly  in  the  air,  in  pursuit  of  their 
insect  prey. 

It  is  very  interesting  to  compare  the  organs  of 
flight  in  bats  with  those  of  birds,  both  as  to  the 
points  in  which  they  agree,  and  those  in  which  they 
differ.  They  beat  the  air,  as  birds  do,  with  their 
anterior  members ;  but  the  requisite  extension  of 
surface  is  not  obtained  by  quills,  but  by  a  great 
elongation  of  the  arms  and  fingers,  upon  which 
a  thin  membrane  is  stretched,  folding  close  to  the 
body  by  means  of  their  joints,  when  the  wing  is  not 
in  use.  A  little  attention  to  the  accompanying 
figures  of  the  skeleton  of  a  bat  and  of  a  bat  flying, 
will  make  plainer  than  mere  words  can  the  relation 
of  the  bones  of  a  bat's  wing  to  the  bones  of  the 
human  arm  and  hand,  or  to  the  ordinary  bones  of 
the  anterior  extremities  in  quadrupeds  which  have 
lingers  or  toes.  The  thumb,  a  (in  figure  of  skeleton), 
is  short,  armed  with  a  strong  nail,  and  not  at  all 
included  in  the  wing-membrane,  nor  used  in  flight. 


Skeleton  of  Bat. 

The  bones  most  elongated  of  all  are  the  metacarpal 
bones,  or  bones  of  the  hand,  b  ;  the  true  finger-bones, 
740 


c,  are  not  so  much  so.  The  fore-arm,  d,  lias  not  two 
bones  (radius  and  ulna),  but  only  one  (the  ulna), 
with  a  sort  of  rudiment  of  the  other  ;  the  rotatory 
motion,  of  which  these  two  bones  afibrd  the  means, 
being  not  only  unnecessary  to  bats,  but  at  variance 
with  the  purpose  chiefly  designed  in  this  part  of 
their  structure,  of  a  powerful  stroke  in  one  particular 
direction.  For  a  similar  reason,  'the  fingers  of  this 
strange  hand  are  incapal)le  of  closing  towards  the 
palm,  as  ours  do,  when  grasping  an  object  :  their 
only  movements  are  such  as  ibid  up  the  wing 
against  the  side  of  the  body,  by  laying  the  fingers 
close  along  the  side  of  the  fore-arm,  as  in  closing  a 
fan.'  Great  strength,  however,  was  requisite  in  the 
shoulder  ;  and,  accordingly,  we  find  an  analogy  to 
birds  in  the  size  and  solidity  of  the  bones  in  this 
part,  as  well  as  in  the  thickness  of  the  muscles  by 
which  the  wings  are  moved,  and  still  more  in  the 
great  dimensions  of  the  sternum,  or  breast-bone,  to 
which  they  are  attached.  The  sternum  is  also 
furnished  with  a  medial  ridge,  as  in  birds,  for  the 
better  attachment  of  the  muscles.  The  ribs  are 
large  ;  but  the  other  bones  generally,  as  those  of 
the  head  and  of  the  pelvis,  are  delicate,  and  appear 
designed  for  lightness. — The  wing-membrane  of 
bats  extends  along  the  flanks  to  the  hind-legs, 
although  these  aid  little  in  flight ;  but  it  is  attached 
to  them  so  as  to  leave  the  feet  free,  which  are  much 
like  the  feet  of  ordinary  small  quadrupeds  with  toes 
and  claws,  and  are  employed  along  with  the  thumbs 
of  the  anterior  limbs  in  creeping  upon  the  ground, 
in   climbing   perpendicular   rough   surfaces,    or   for 


Bat  in  repose. 

hanging  with  the  head  downward  in  that  remark- 
able posture  of  repose  in  which  bats  pass  great 
part  of  their  lives,  and  in  which  they  differ  from  all 
other  animals. 

In  the  greater  number  of  species  of  B.,  the  wing- 
membrane  extends  not  only  to  the  hind-legs,  but 
lieyond  them  to  the  tail,  which  is  included  in  it,  a 
peculiar  bone  (e  in  fig.  of  skeleton)  also  arising 
from  each  heel  to  afford  further  support  to  this 
part  of  it,  which  seems  to  serve  purposes  analogous 
to  the  tail  of  birds,  acting  as  a  rudder,  and  enabling 
the  animal  to  make  those  rapid  evolutions  in  the 
air,  which  it  is  so  pleasing  to  see  as  bats  flit  about 
in  the  summer  evening.  The  fruil-eating  bats  of 
tropical  regions,  which  have  no  need  to  perform 
such  evolutions,  are  destitute  of  this  interfemoral 
part  of  the  membrane  ;  and  according  to  the  hal)its 
for  which  each  species  has  been  designed,  the  tails 
are  long  or  short,  entirely  included  in  the  membrane, 
or  only  for  part  of  their  length,  or  produced  a  very 
little  beyond  it,  and  terminating  in  a  hard  tip,  so 
that  the  tail  is  capable  of  being  used  to  aid  in 
creeping  or  climbing,  evidently  possessing  consider- 
able   power,    and   being   curved   and   moved   in    a 


BAT. 


manner   which    suggests   a    shght  analogy    to   the 
nrehensile  tails  of  monkeys.  .       , .  j      1 

^Bats   were     placed    by    Linnosus     m    b.s    order 
Primates,  along   ^vith    monkeys   and   lemurs,    >v.th 
wh  ch   they    agree    in    their   pectora     teats   and  in 
ot  or   characters,     particularly    of    the    organs    of 
reprodicdon      In  one  genus  (Z>,.sop„,s),  there  is  an  | 
additional     resen>blance    to     the     1  rnna  es    ui     he  j 
partially  opposable  thumbs  of  the  hind-teet    and  a 
trace  of  this  character  is  to  be  found  in    he  fore- 
thumbs,  ah-eadv  noticed.     Bats  arc  now,  however, 
generally  placed  by  naturalists  in  the  order  ferte 
or   Carnaria,  although,  like  many  other  animds  of 
that  great  order,    most  of  them  are    by  no  means 
exclusively  carniyorou.^.     The  greater  part  of  them 
feed    chiefly    on    insects,    some    chiefly    on   truits. 
They    exhibit     considerable     variety   both     in   the 
number   and  character  of  their  teeth,  as  might  be 
expected  in  animals  which  differ  so  much  lu  their 
food      All  of   them  have  four    rather  hirge  canine 
teeth  ;  the  incisors  vary  much  in  size  and  form    as 
well  as  in  number.     The  digestive  apparatus  exhibits 
a    variety    corresponding    with    that    of  the    teeth ; 
the  intestinal  canal  of  the  Vampyres  (q.  v.),  which 
Hve   by  sucking  the   blood  of  animals,    proceeding 
almost  in  a  straight  line  from  one  extremity  of  the 
body   to     the     other,    whilst   that    some    of    the 


mentioned,  the  stretch  of  wing  is  5  feet.  Of  British 
species,  the  largest  is  the  Noctule  B.  ( Vespertiho 
noctula),  a  very  local  species,  found  chiefly  in  the 
south  of  England  ;  the  Pipistrelle  B.  (  V.  Pipistrellm) 
is  perhaps  the  most  coiniuon.  It  was  long  con- 
founded by  British  naturalists  «ilh  the  common  B. 
of  the  continent  of  Europe  ( T'.  vinrinus),  which  is 
much  larger,  and  very  rare  in  Britain.  In  some  parts 
of  the  country,  the  long-eared  B.  (Plecotm  auritu,s) 
is  verv  common.  It  is  distinguished  by  its  enor- 
mously large  and  very  beautiful  ears,  which,  when  it 
is  asleep,  are  folded  up  in  a  remarkable  manner  under 
the  arm,  the  long  tragus  then  resembling  a  slender 


HeadofPteropus. 


frugivorous  bats,  as  the  Kalong  (q.  v.)  {Pteropus)  of 
Java,  is  seven  times  as  long  as  the  body. 

Except  in  the  power  of  flight  and  things  essential 
to  it,    bats    present  no  resemblance  to  birds.     The 
old    English    name    Flitter  mouse,   and    the    German 
Flederwaus,    indicate    an    early  popular  recognition 
of  their  true  place  in  creation.     They  are  generaUy 
nocturnal  anini;ds,    or,  at  least,  prefer  the  twilight, 
although  one  of  the  British  species  may  occasionally 
be  seen   pursuing  insects  during  winter  at  mid-day. 
They  generally  spend  the  day  in  caves,  hollow  trees, 
and  otber  dark  recesses,  often  under  roof's  of  houses, 
and    in  crannies  of   ruined    or    deserted    buildings. 
They  are  found  in    almost  all    parts  of   the  world, 
except  the  very  coldest,  but  are  most  numerous  and 
of  greatest  size  within  the  tropics.     Those  of  tempe- 
rate climates  generally  spend  the  winter  in  a  state 
of  torpidity,  in  which,  although  circulation  continues 
very  languidly,  respiration  does   not  ordinarily  take 
place.     °The    whole     number    known    to    LinniEus 
amounted  to  a  very  f  w  species,  not  half  so  many 
a-s  are   now  known  "to  inhabit   Great  Britain  alone. 
Upwards  of  1:^)0  species  have  been   described,   and 
there    is  great  probability  that    the   actual  number 
existing  is    very  much    greater.     It    is  not  unlikely 
that  soTne  exaggerated  accounts  of  the  great  bats  of 
warm  climates  gave  rise  to  the  fable  of  the  Harpies, 
which  Virgil  introduced  into  the  ^Eneid.     The  bats 
of  Europe  are  all  small ;  the  body  of  the  largest  British 
one  is  not  so  large  as  a  mouse,  and  the  fullest  stretch 
ofitswingsabout  15  inches,  whilst  the  common  British 
species  are  much  smaller ;  but  in  the  Kalong,  already 


a  Great  Bat  or  Noctule  Bat  (  Vespertilio  noctula). 

h  Greater  Horseshoe  Bat  {Rhinolophus  Fei-rumeqvtr 

niim).  „  .  .  , 

Botb  Brilish. 

ear      This  great  development  of  the  ears  is  charac- 
teristic of  certain  genera  of  B.,  that  part  of  the  ear 
called  the  trains  attaining  also  a  remarkable  size,  60 
that  it  seems 'like  a  smaller  ear  in  front  of  each  large 
one.     In  many  species,  only  two  of  which  are  found 
in  Britain,  there   is  a  still  more   remarkable  mem- 
branous or  leaf-like  appendage  on  the  nose,  which 
in  some  is  simple,  in  some,  complex,  and  often  of 
lar-'-e  size   giving  an  extraordinary  appearance  to  the 
face.     Some  of  the   larger  species,    having  a  nasal 
crest,   are   called   Spectre    Bats  (q.  v.).      Only   two 
species   of  B.    {Rhinolophus\    possessing   such   an 
appendaf-e,  are  found  in  Britain,  both  of  them  very 
rare-  from  the   form   which    it   assumes,    they  are 
called   Horseshoe  Bats.      It  is  supposed   that   this 
nasal  app.'ndage  is  of  use  as  a  very  delicate  organ  of 
touch    perhaps  also  of  smell ;   as  the  great  ears  may 
be  of  use  both  for  touch  and  hearing.     These  senses 
must  often  guide  bats  when  that  of  sight  cannot  be 
employed;  and  the  sense  of  touch  appears  to  be 
possessed  in  no  ordinary  degree  even  by  the  wing 
membrane.     Bv  supposing  it  to  be  affected  by  the^ 
pulsations  of  the  air,  Cuvier  accounted  for  the  power 
displayed   by  bats  which  had  been  cruelly  deprived 
of  sight,  of  avoiding  objects  amongst  which  they  flew 
without  the  necessity  of  ascribing  to  them,  as  Spal- 
lanzani  had  done,  the  possession  of  a  sixth  sense. 

It  deserves  to  be  here  noticed  that,  amongst  the 
peculiarities  which  distinguish  certain  genera  of 
bats  is  the  absence  not  only  of  the  upper  cutting 
teeth  in  the  East  Indian  and  African  genus  Mffja- 
dcrma  but  even  of  the  bone  in  which  these  teeth 
are  usually  placed  ;  and  that  another  tropical  genus, 
Nycteris,  "of  which  the  species  are  found  in  Africa 
and  Java,  have  the  skin  attached  to  the  body  only 
at  a  few  points,  and  capable  of  being  blown  up  like 
a  bladder,  at  the  pleasure  of  the  animal,  by  means 
of  air  which  is  iidialed  through  the  nostrils  into 
cheek-pouches  communicating  by  small  apertures 
with  the  general  skin-bag.  The  use  of  this  is  wholly 
unkno\vu. 

Bats  walk  or  creep  awkwardly  upon  the  ground, 
one  side  of  the  body  being  jerked  forward,  and  then 
the  other,  yet  ihcv  run  with  considerable  celerity. 
There  is  a, "common  notion,  that  they  cannot  rise 
easily  from  a  level  surface,  but  must  find  some 
eminence  from  which  to  throw  themselves.  Of  the 
fallacy  of  this,  anv  one  will  soon  be  convinced 
•'  741 


BAT— BATAVI. 


who  gets  a  B.  and  places  it  upon  the  floor. — Bats 
commonly  produce  one  or  two  young  at  a  birth. — 


Bat  walking  {Plccotus  aurihis). 

Some  of  the  species  are  very  gregarious;  others 
often  fly  about  in  pairs;  great  numbers,  and  of  dif- 
ferent species,  are  often  found  congegrated  in  their 
places  of  hybernation  or  repose. — Some  of  the  species 
are  easily  tamed,  and  become  very  familiar ;  but 
their  odour  is  disagreeable,  and  it  is  generally  found 
difficult  to  keep  them  long  alive. 

Fossil  remains  of  CJieirnptcra  are  occasionally 
found  in  eocene  rocl;3,  but  owing  to  tlie  delicacy  of 
the  bones,  great  difficulty  has  been  experienced  in 
the  determination  of  the  genei'a  and  species. 

BAT,  orBAT  (Fr.),  in  military  matters,  was  origin- 
ally the  name  of  a  kind  of  pack-saddle  ;  and  hence  a 
bat-horse  was  a  baggage-horse  bearing  a  bat  or  pack, 
and  a  bat-man  was  a  servant  in  charge  of  the  horse 
and  bat.  By  a  modification  of  meaning,  a  bat-man 
is  now  any  soldier  allowed  to  act  as  servant  to  an 
officer.  When  British  troops  are  sent  on  foreign 
service,  bat-horses  or  nmlcs  are  provided  (if  carriages 
are  not  forthcoming)  for  carrying  the  regimental 
books,  the  kettles  and  tents,  the  medicine-chest, 
the  veterinary  medicine-chest,  intrenching  tools, 
armourers'  stores,  saddlers'  stores,  &c. — about  22 
such  horses  or  mules  to  each  battalion.  Bat-liorses 
and  bat-men  are  also  provided  for  carrying  officers' 
camp-equipage.  An  allowance  for  procuring  these 
accommodations  is  usually  called  Bat-money. 

BATA'NGAS,  a  seaport  town  of  the  Philippines, 
island  of  Luzon,  and  capital  of  the  province  of  the 
same  name.  Lat.  13°  45'  N.,  long.  121°  5'  E. 
Distance  from  Manilla,  50  miles  S.  ;  founded  1581. 
Pop.  of  town  and  district,  17,000.  B.,  which  is  well 
built,  and  has  an  elegant  appearance,  is  finely  situ- 
ated on  an  extensive  bay  which  opens  into  the 
Strait  of  Mindoro.  Considerable  advantage  is  taken 
of  its  facilities  for  commerce. 

BATARDEAU',  a  strong  wall  of  masonry,  built 
across  the  outer  ditch  of  a  fortress,  to  sustain  the 
pressure  of  water  when  one  part  of  the  ditch  is  dry 
and  the  rest  wet.  It  is  built  up  to  an  angle  at  the 
top,  and  is  armed  with  spikes,  to  prevent  the  enemy 
from  crossing ;  and  sometimes  a  stone  tower  is 
provided  to  strengthen  the  defence.  There  is  a 
sluice-gate  to  regulate  the  admission  of  water. 

BATATAS,  or  SWEET  POTATO  {Convolvulus 
Batatas,  or  Batatas  ediilis,  the  genus  Batatas  having 
recently  been  separated  from  Covvolvulus  [q.  v.], 
chiefly  upon  account  of  the  four-celled  ovary),  a  per- 
ennial plant  with  long  creeping  stems,  heai't-shaped 
leaves  on  long  stalks,  and  variously  lobed,  large 
purple  flowers  much  resembling  those  of  the  best 
known  species  of  Convolvulus,  and  very  large  oblong 
acuminated  tubers.  It  is  a  native  of  the  East 
Indies,  but  is  now  cultivated  in  all  tropical  and  sub- 
tropical countries  for  its  tubers,  which  are  highly 
esteemed  as  an  article  of  food,  and  are  eaten  either 
roasted  or  boiled;  they  are  sweet,  wholesome,  and 
nutritious,  but  somewhat  laxative.  The  B.  forms, 
next  to  maize,  the  ])rincipal  food  of  the  poorer  classes 
in  some  parts  of  America.  Its  cultivation  is  very 
742 


easy ;  it  is  readily  propagated  by  tub(  rs  or  by 
cuttings  of  the  stem,  requires  little  attention,  and 
soon  produces  its  tubers.  In  hot-houses  in  Britain, 
tliese  are  without  difficulty  obtained  of  1  lb.  or  2  lbs. 
weight.  The  cultivation  of  the  B.  has  been  intro- 
duced into  the  south  of  Europe.  It  is  extensively  cul- 
tivated in  the  U.  States  bordering  on  the  Atlantic 
as  far  north  as  middle  New  Jersey,  where  it  is  of 
superior  quality.  It  is  the  B.,  or  sweet  potato, 
which  is  usually  meant  by  the  older  English  writers, 
when  they  mention  potatoes.  Its  tubers  were 
imported  into  England  by  way  of  Spain,  and  sold  as 
a  delicacy,  before  the  potato  was  known. — Batatas 
paniculata,  or  Convolvulus  panieidatus,  a  nearly  allied 


Batatas. 

species,  is  cultivated  in  the  same  way  as  the  common 
B.,  and  its  tubers  are  similar  in  quality. — To  the 
new  genus  Batatas,  has  been  referred  also  tlie  plant 
formerly  known  as  Ipomaa  macrorhiza,  now  Batatas 
jalapa,  so  called  from  supposed  purgative  quali- 
ties of  the  root,  which,  however,  it  is  found  not  to 
jiossess,  being  white,  insipid,  saccharine,  and  farina- 
ceous, and  of  great  size,  50 — 00  lbs.  in  weight.  The 
plant  inhabits  sandy  soils  in  Georgia  and  Carolina. 

BATA'VI  (or,  according  to  some  MSS.,  Vatavi), 
the  name  of  a  German  people,  who  anciently 
inhabited  a  part  of  tlie  present  Holland,  particularly 
the  island  which  was  called  after  them,  Batavia, 
formed  by  the  branch  of  the  Illiine  which  falls 
into  the  sea  at  Leydcn,  the  Waal,  and  the  Mouse. 
Their  country,  however,  extended  across  tlie  Waal, 
but  its  boundaries  cannot  now  be  precisely  deter- 
mined. According  to  Tacitus,  they  were  origin- 
ally a  branch  of  the  Chatti,  who  emigrated  across 
the  Ehine.  They  were  conquered  by  Germanicus  ; 
became  subject  to  the  Romans,  and  served  them 
so  well,  that  they  obtained  the  honorary  title  of 
friends  and  brothers  of  the  Roman  people ;  were 
exempted  from  taxes  and  assessments,  being  oidy 
required  to  provide  a  proportion  of  troops ;  and 
were  permitted  to  choose  their  commanders  from 
amongst  tliemselvcs.  Their  cavalry  were  jiarticu- 
larly  good,  and  were  often  employed  by  the  Romans. 
The  first  who  terms  the  insular  district  inhabited  by 
these  Gauls,  Batavia,  is  Zosimus,  who  also  informs 
us  that  in  the  time  of  Constantius  (iJoS  a.ii.)  it  had 
fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  Salii,  a  Frankish  tribe. 


BAT  AVIA— BATH. 


B^TA'YIA,  properly  the  name  of  the  island 
occupied  by  the  ancient  Batavi,  became  at  a  later 
Sa?e  he  litin  nan.e  for  Holland  and  the  whole 
kii'do.u  of  the  Netherlands.  The  name  BATAyiAN 
Repubuc  was  Riven  to  the  Netherlands  on  then- 
neTo  ganisati^nof  IGth  May  179.5,  and  they  con- 
tinued To  bear  it  till  they  were  converted  n>to  the 
kingdom  of  Holland,  under  Louis  Bonaparte,  5th 
June  ISOG. 

BATi'VIA    the  capital  of    the    empire    ot    tlie 
Nethcrfands  in  the  East   Indies,  an  empire  almost 
as  predominant  in  the  islands  as  that   ot  Bntan    is 
on  the  mainland.     It  stands    on  the  north  coast  of 
Java,  about    50    miles    from  Bantam,  at    its  north- 
west  extremity,  both    Bantam   and  B   having  been 
founded,  the  ibrmcr  in  1602,  and  the  latter  in  1619 
while    the    Dutch    republic    was    stdl    struggling    at 
home  for  existence   against  the  Spanish  monarcliy. 
The   chosen    site    was  a  flat,  half  land    halt    water 
at  the   mouth  of  the  Jaccatra,    which,    with   good 
anchorage  for  large  ships  in  the  offing,  was  navi- 
o-able  for  smaller  vessels   towards  the  interior  ;  and 
This   natural   marsh,  as  if  to  render  the    name  still 
more    appropriate-B.    still     mo^'^^^Batavian-was 
gradually   intersected   by  canals.     The  influence  of 
t   yertic:al   sun   on   this   Holland   in   miniature  was 
such  as   might   have   been    anticipated;  it  became 
proverbial   as  the   grave   of    Europeans.     Latter  y, 
however,  the  climate  has  been  greatly  improved  by 
drainin-.     The   temperature,    though   not   extreme 
for   so ''low    a  latitude,  is   yet  oppressive   from  its 
unyielding   uniformity,    the   mean   of  winter   being 
78-1    F.,    and    that    of    summer   only    1b-&.     lie 
lat    is  6°  8'   S.,    and   the   Ion-.    106°  50    E.     The 


population  in  1832  was   118,300-2800  Europeans 
25  000  Chinese,  80,000  aborigines,  1000  Moors  and 
\rabs     and    9500     slaves.       Notwithstandmg    the 
growing   prosperity  of  Singapore,   B.  continues  to 
be  the  commercial  emporium  of  the  far  East      Its 
markets  present  at  once  all  the  productions  of  Asia 
and  all  the  manufactures  of  Europe,  and  its  trade 
must  be  as  considerable  as  it  is  various,   employing, 
at  it  does,  25,000  Chinese  male  adults   as  labourers 
and  artisans.     B.  has  a  bank,  a  newspaper,  a  school 
of  arts  and  sciences;  and  it  is   also   the  seat  o    a 
supreme   commission  of  public   instruction   tor  the 
Dutch  East  Indies.     In  1811,   while    Holland  was  a 
vassal   of    France,    B.    fell   into   the  hands   of  the 
En"-hsh  by  whom,  however,   it   was  restored  to  its 
former   owners  in  1816.     Latterly,  B.  has    found  in 
Sin'-apore    a   formidable   competitor   for   the  trade 
between  East  and  West.     Apparently,  however,  the 
rise  of  its  rival  has  given  it  a  new  trade,  as  a  com- 
pensation for  any  diminution  in  the  old  ;  and  accord- 
insly   the    Dutch    government   has   recently    laid  a 
tefegraphic  cable,  along  a  line  of  600  miles,  from  B. 
to  Singapore. 

BATAWA'  PALM.  See  (Enocarpus. 
BA'TENBURG,  a  town  of  the  Netherlands,  in 
the  province  of  Gelderland,  situated  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Macse,  9  miles  west  of  Nymegen.  _  It  is 
worthy  of  notice  only  on  account  of  its  association 
with  the  Romans,  whose  Oppidum  Batavorum  it 
was. 

BATH,  the  county  town  of  Somersetshire,  Eng- 
land, is  beautifully"  situated  in  a  wooded  valley 
in  the  north-east  part  of  the  county,  on  the  Avon 
20  miles  from  its  mouth,  J.nd  106  miles  west  ot 
London.  The  houses  are  built  chiefly  ot  white 
freestone,  '  Bath  oolite,'  worked  in  the  neighbouring 
quarries.  The  citv  has  a  finer  appearance  than  any 
other  in  England,  the  variety  of  level  giving  very 
commanding  sites  for  its  flne  and  regular  streets 
crescents,  and  public  buildings.  The  beauty  and 
sheltered  character  of  its  situation,  the  mildness  ot 


its  climate,  and  especially  the  curative  eflicacv  ot 
its  hot    saline    springs,    have    long    '■^^"'^^^^^'^d^  B    J, 
favourite    lashionable    resort.     The    springs     ^^lllch 
•ire  ibur   in   number,  were  known   to  the  Romans 
who  built  baths  on  the  spot  in  the  1st  c,_o.  winch 
extensive  remains    were    discovered  in   1  m o       Ihc 
temperature  of  the  springs   varies  from  97    to  117 
F  •  thev  rise   on   the    river   bank   near   the  centre 
of 'the  citv,  and  discharge  184,320  gallons  of  water 
daily      The  water  is  most  useful  in  bihous,  nervous, 
and"  scrofulous  complaints,  palsy,  rheumatism,  gout, 
and   cutaneous   diseases.     Though  the  gaiety  of  B. 
has   greatly    waned   since  the  days  of  the    Prince 
Re-ent,  there  has   been  a   great  general   improve- 
ment  in   the   city,  and  an   increase  of  population, 
ft  has  a   park,  and   many   public   walks  and  open 
places;  theatre,  concert-rooms,  and  other  places  oi 
amusement;  subscription  library  club  house   educa- 
tional institutions,  &c.     The    Abbey  Church    is    a 
cruciform    structure    in    the    latest     perpendcular 
'vie   with  a  fine  central  tower  150  feet  high.  Abou 
;  mile   to  the  north-west  is   ^eckford  Tower   buil 
by  the  eccentric  author  of  Vathek.     It  is  lo-l  feet 
hich      B.  returns  two  members  to  parliament.    1  op. 
59 .508    at   times   much    increased   by   visitors      H. 
'\,Z  no    manufactures    of    any  note.     Coal  is  found 
in  the  neighbourhood.     The  city  is   of  gveat  anu- 
auity  •  it  was  a  Roman  station,  called  Aqute  bolts, 
at  the'  intersection  of  the   great   Roman  ways  from 
T  ondon  to  Wales,    and   from    Lincoln  to  the  south 
^oasfof  England.'    Richard  I.  granted  B.  the  earliest 
extant  charter,  which  was  subsequently  confirmed  by 
Henry  111.,  and  greatly  extended  by  George  ill.    A 
greater  number  of  Roman  remains  hav^e  been  foi.nd 
in   and    near   B.  than   elsewhere   in   Britain;    they 
form  a  collection   unrivalled   in   extent  and  value. 
B   was  also  the  seat  of  an  ecclesiastical  community 
from  the  earliest  Christian  times.    The  diocese  o   B. 
and  Wells  includes  all  Somersetshire,  but  the  cathe- 
dral ch.irch  and  episcopal  residence  are  at  ^^  f\ 

B\TH  Knights  of  the.  The  name  ot  this 
order  is' derived  from  the  ceremony  of  bathing, 
which  used  to  be  practised  at  the  inauguration  oi  a 
knight,  as  an  emblem  of  the  purity  henceforth 
required   of  him    by   the    laws   of    chivalry.     Th« 


Collar  and  Badge  of  the  Bath. 

ceremony  is  of  unknown  antiquity,  and  is  spoken 
of  by  writers  of  the  13th  c.  as  an  ancient  custom 
See  "Knight.  The  earliest  authentic  instance  ot 
its  observance  which  we  have  in  this  countrv,  is  m 
the  time  of  Henry  IV.,  who,  in  preparing  ior  Ins 
coronation,  made  forty-six  knights  at  the  Tower  of 
London,  who  had  watched  all  the  night  belore,  and 


BATH.  BATHING. 


bathed  themselves.  The  last  knights  of  the  B. 
created  in  the  ancient  form  were  at  the  coronation 
of  Charles  II.  in  1661.  From  that  period  till  the 
accession  of  the  House  of  Hanover,  the  order  fell 
into  oblivion.  It  was  revived  by  George  I.  in  1725, 
and  is  now  the  second  oider  in  rank  in  England, 
the  first  being  the  Garter.  By  the  statutes  then 
framed  for  the  government  of  the  order,  it  was 
declared   that,   beside    the    sovereign,  a   prince   of 


Star  of  the  Bath. 

the  blood,  and  a  great  master,  there  should  be 
thirty-five  knights.  At  the  conclusion  of  the 
great  war,  it  was  thought  expedient,  with  a  view 
to  rewarding  the  merits  of  many  distinguished 
officers,  both  military  and  naval,  to  extend  the 
limits  of  the  order,  which  was  effected  on  the  2d 
January  1815.  But  the  order  was  still  purely 
military,  and  it  was  not  till  1847  that  it  was  placed 
on  its  "present  footing  by  the  admission  of  civil 
knights,  commanders,  and  companions.  The  fol- 
lowing is  its  present  organization. 

Fh-Kt  Class. — Knights  Grand  Cross  (K.  G.  C.) ;  the 
number  not  to  exceed,  for  the  military  service,  50, 
exclusive  of  tlie  royal  family  and  foreigners ;  and 
for  the  civil  service,  25. 

Second  Class. — Knights  Commanders  (K.  C.  B.) ; 
military,  l(i2,  and  civil,  50,  exclusive  of  foreigners. 
These, "like  the  first,  have  the  title  Sir,  and  take 
precedence  of  Knights  Bachelors. 

Tltird  Class. — Companions  (C.  B.) ;  military,  525, 
and  civil,  200.  They  take  precedence  of  Esquires, 
but  are  not  entitled  "to  the  distinctive  appellation  of 
kniglitbood.  No  officer  can  be  nominated  to  the 
military  division  of  this  class  unless  his  name  has 
been  mentioned  in  the  London  Gazette  for  distin- 
guished services  in  action ;  and  the  order  has 
never  been  conferred  on  an  officer  below  the  rank  of 
a  major,  or  commander  in  the  navy. 

BATH,  BATHING.  By  bathing  is  usually 
understood  the  immersion  of  the  body,  or  a  part  of 
it,  in  water.  In  a  more  extended  signification,  it 
means  the  surrounding  of  the  body  with  any  medium 
differing  in  nature  or  temperature  from  its  usual 
medium  ;  thus  we  speak  of  a  blood-bath,  a  vapour- 
bath,  a  cold-air  bath,  a  compressed-air  bath  (q.  v.), 
an  earth-bath.  A  fourfold  division  may  be  made 
of  baths  :  1.  According  to  the  substance  with  which 
the  body  is  surroimded — into  water,  oil,  milk,  gas, 
sand,  and  other  baths;  2.  According  to  the  manner 
of  application — into  river,  slipper,  plunge,  shower, 
dropping,  vapour,  and  douche  i)aths  ;  3.  According 
to  the  parts  of  the  body  subjected  to  the  applica- 
tion— into  whole,  half,  sitz,  foot,  hand,  and  eye 
baths;  and  4.  According  to  the  temperature  of  the 
substance  applied — into  cold,  tepid,  warm,  and  hot 
baths. 

The  practice  of  bathing  undoubtedly  reaches  back 
744 


to  the  earliest  times  in  the  existence  of  the  human 
race,  and  the  most  ancient  liistorical  accounts  as 
well  as  popular  myths  make  mention  of  it.  Among 
the  Egyptians,  the  bath  was  practised  as  a  religious 
rite ;  and,  in  general,  we  find  the  opinion  prevailing 
throughout  antiquity,  that  purification  of  the  body 
induced  or  signified  moral  purity.  Man,  it  was 
thought,  ought  to  present  himself  pure  in  Ijody  and 
soul,  when  he  engageil  in  the  service  of  his  god, 
or  in  any  transaction  that  brought  liim  into  immedi- 
ate contact  with  that  being.  In  making  the  bath 
a  religious  ordinance,  Moses  may  have  had  in 
view  the  prevention  or  more  speedy  cure  of  those 
skin-diseases  so  prevalent  in  the  East.  The  Mosaic 
Law  prescribes  expressly,  in  some  cases,  the  use 
of  running  water,  which  has  given  rise,  through  a 
misunderstanding,  to  the  deleterious  cellar-baths  of 
the  Jews.  lu  Palestine,  the  weallhier  Jews  had 
private  baths  in  their  houses,  and  ponds  in  their 
gardens,  an  arrangement  which  prevailed  in  all 
the  civilized  parts  of  the  East,  and  which  does  so 
still.  There  were,  besides,  public  bath-houses  among 
the  Jews,  as  among  other  nations.  Among  the 
Greeks,  also,  bathing  was  very  early  in  use.  The  prac- 
tice is  often  alluded  to  in  Homer.  Bathing,  among 
the  Greeks,  as  among  other  nations,  was  counted 
a  religious  rite,  and  was  connected  with  the  prepara- 
tions for  sacrifice,  for  the  reception  of  oracles,  for 
marriage,  &c.  We  possess,  however,  no  detailed 
accomits  of  the  construction  and  arrangements  either 
of  private  or  of  public  baths  in  Greece,  which  last 
were  mostly  connected  with  the  gymnasia.  The 
men  bathed  together;  that  there  were  public  baths 
for  women,  appears  probable  from  various  indica- 
tions. 

Among  the  Romans,  although  warm  baths 
(therina)  were  in  use  from  the  earliest  times,  yet 
it  was  only  at  a  late  period  that  they  were  so  exten- 
sively adopted  ;  and  tlien  the  increase  and  universal 
spread  of  luxury  had  driven  the  primitive  object 
of  bathing  into  the  background,  so  that  the  public 
baths  were  looked  upon  as  places  of  general  resort 
for  pleasure.  The  most  of  these  pul)lic  baths  were 
built  under  the  emperors.  They  were  numerous 
in  Rome  and  in  the  provincial  cities.  Their  con- 
struction may  be  gathered  from  their  numerous 
remains,  and  from  the  descriptions  of  them  given 
by  Roman  writers  ;  they  resembled  the  Turkish  and 
Russian  baths. 

The  essential  parts  of  a  Roman  bath  were  as 
follows. —  1.  The  Ju/pocaust,  orstove,  in  the  basement- 
story,  for  heating  both  the  bath-rooms  and  the 
water.  The  water  was  contained  in  three  recep- 
tacles or  boilers,  so  arranged  that  the  undermost, 
immediately  over  the  fire,  contained  the  hot  water; 
the  one  in  the  middle,  the  tepid  water ;  and  the 
uppermost,  the  cold  water.  These  vessels  were  so 
connected  by  pipee,  both  with  the  bath- rooms  and 
with  one  another,  that  the  hot  water  that  flowed 
from  the  lowest  boiler  was  replaced  by  tepid  water 
from  the  one  above  ;  and  that,  again,  by  cold  from 
the  uppermost. — 2.  The  apodj/fermm,  or  room  for 
undressing. — 3.  The  friffidarutm,  a  room  with  a 
basin  for  cold  bathing. — 4.  The  tepidnrium,  the 
purpose  of  which  cannot  be  exactly  dcternuned, 
but  which  seems  to  have  been  intended  for  bathing 
in  tepid  water,  and  also  for  allowing  the  body  to 
cool  down  in  a  mild  temperature. — 5.  The  calda- 
rhim,  in  which  sometimes  the  sndaiio,  or  sweating- 
batii,  and  sometimes  the  real  hot-water  bath,  were 
taken.  Tiiis  room  had  hollow  walls,  and  the  floor 
rested  on  low  pillars  over  the  hypocaust,  so  that 
it  was  surrounded  on  all  sides  with  heated  air. 
The  lacoviuni,  which  is  spoken  of  as  a  part  of  the 
caldarium,  was  probably  a  kind  of  stove  that  was 
heated    from    the    hypocaust,   and   contributed   to 


BATH,  BATHING. 


raise  the  temperature.  In  the  bath-rroms  there 
were  basins  {aivci)  ibr  holding  the  water,  and  round 
the  walls  were  benches  or  seat?,  which,  in  the 
caldariutn,  were  raised  as  in  an  amphitheatre  in 
order  to  give  the  bathers  the  choice  ot  the  higher 


temperature  of  the  upper  part  of  the  room,  or  of  the 
more  moderate  of  the  lower.  The  ealdanum  con- 
tained ako  a  lahrum  or  vase  of  several  feet  diameter, 
(illcd  with  cold  water,  into  which  the  bathers  dipped 
after  the  hot  bath.     With  these  essential  parts  of 


Roman 


Bath,  from  a  Painting  on  the  Walls  of  the  Therma.  of  Titus  at  Rome. 


a  bath,  there  were  usually  connected  an  tinctuaninn 
or  ekeothcsium —\.  e.,  an  anointing-room,  and  olten 
gardens,  covered  walks,  rooms  for  games,  &c. 

The  process  of  bathing  was  this :  Alter  undress- 
in-  in  the  apodyterium,  the  bather  was  anointed  in 
th?  elasothesium  with  a  cheap  coarse  oil,  and  then 
proceeded  to  a  spacious  apartment  devoted  to 
exercises  of  various  kinds,  among  which  games  at 
ball  held  a  prominent  place  (hence  the  hall  w.as 
called  spharuterium).  After  exercise,  he  went  into 
the  caldarium,  eitlier  merely  to  sweat  or  to  take  he 
hot  bath  ;  and  during  this  part  of  the  process,  the 
body  was  scraped  with  instruments  called  drtgilcs 
Being  now  dried  with  cloths,  and  slightly  anointed 
all  over  with  perfumed  oils,  he  resumed  his  dress, 
and  then  passed  a  short  time  successively  in  the 
tepidarium  and  the  frigidarium,  which  softened  the 
transition  from  the  great  heat  of  the  caldarium  into 
the  open  air.  .    . 

The  public  baths  for  women  were .  of  similar 
construction,  and  were  much  frequented  even  by  the 
most  respectable.  The  women  bathed  in  company, 
like  the  men.  The  irregularity  of  men  and  women 
bathing  together  is  also  alluded  to  by  anc.ent 
writers-  and  in  later  times,  the  baths  in  general 
became  the  scenes  of  all  sorts  of  debauchery,  as  was 
the  case  at  Baitc. 

The  most  remarkable  remains  of  Roman  baths  are 
those  of  the    baths  of  Titus,  of   Caracalla,    and  of 
Diocletian   in   Rome,    and    the   recently    excavated 
thermae  at  Pompeii :  remains  of  the  kind    are  also 
to    be    found    in    Germany,    France,    and    England.  , 
The  extent  and  mngniiiccnce  of  those  edihces  it  is  I 
difficult  for  us  now  to  conceive.      Spe.aking  of  the 
baths  of  Caracalla,  Mr.  Ferguson,  in  his  Hand-book 
of  Architecture,  says:  'St.  George's  Hall,  at  Liver- 
pool, is  the  most  exact  copy,  in  modern  times,  ot  a 
Jart  of  these  baths.     The  hall  itself  is  a  reproduction 
both    in    scale    and    design,   of  the    central    hall  ot 
Caracalla's  baths,  but  improved  in  detail  and  design, 
havhig  five  bays  instead  of  only  three.     >\  ith    the 
two   courts   at   each   end,    it   makes  up   a   smt   ot 
apartments    very   similar    to    those   found    in    tlie 
Roman  examples.     The  whole  building,  however,  is 
less  than  one-fourth  of  the   size  of  the  central  mass 
of  a  Roman  batli,  and  therefore  gives  but  little  idea 
of  the  magnificence  of  the  whole.' 


The  ancient  Germans  seem,  according  to  Tacitus 
and  other  writers,  to  have   been  fondest  of  the  cold 
river-bath.     When    Roman    luxury    was    driven  out 
by    German  habits,    and   the  north  of  Kuiopc  got 
tlie  upper  hand  of  the  south,  baths  ceased  to  be  of 
public  importance,  and  amid  the  tempestuous  irrup- 
tions and  fluctuations  of  the  different  r.ations,  those 
splendid  edifices  fell  into  ruins.       Christianity,  how- 
ever  by  the  institution  of   baptism,  had  preserved 
for  the  bath  its  religious  signification:  and  in  the 
n.iddle  ages,  among  the    ceremonies  preceding  the 
solemnity  of  conferring  the  honour  of   knighthood 
the    bath    was    held    essential.      The    Arabians    and 
the   Mohammedans    generally  had  more  completely 
adopted   bathing  into  their  manners   and   customs. 
Islam   enjoins   on    the    believer    the    careful   pre- 
servation of  corporal  purity ;  and  for  this  purpose, 
prescribes  repeated  daily  ablutions.     Besides  these, 
certain  circumstances  and  times  make  the  use  ot  the 
B.  ritually  obligatory  on  both  men  and  ^vomen.    lor 
this  end,  not  only  did  the   rich  erect  splendid  baths 
in  their  houses  and  gardens,  but,  bath-houses  for  the 
people  in    general  were  established  in  every  town 
in  which  there  was  a  mosque.      The    public   baths 
of  the   Turks   of  the   present   day    are   a   copy  ot 
those  ancient  Arabian  baths.     The  construction  of 
those  oriental  baths,  imitations  of  which  are  now  to 
be    found    in    some  European   cities,  is    as  follows: 
The  building  is  of  stone,  the  \)ath-rooms  have  a  floor 
of  marble,  which  is  heated  from  below,  and  tubes  m 
the  walls  conduct  the  heat  in  all  directions.      The 
bather  undresses,  wraps   himself  in  a  bhmkct,  puts 
on  wooden  slippers  to  protect   him  from  the  heat  ot 
the  floor  and  enters  the  bath-room.     Here  a  general 
perspiration  soon  breaks  through  the  skin,  winch  is 
washed   off  with    cold    water.      The   body    is   then 
rubbed    with  woollen   cloths,  and    smeared  with   a 
«oap  or  salve  beneficial  to  the  skin.     This  is  gener- 
ally  accompanied   by  the    operation  of  '  kneading. 
The  bath-attendant  stretches  the  bather  on  a  table, 
pours  warm    water  over  him,  and    then    begins    to 
press   squeeze,  and  twist  his  whole  body  with  won- 
derful dexterity.       Every  limb  is    straightened  and 
stretched    and'when    he  has  finished   one    side,  he 
be-ins  on  the  other.     He  kneels  upon  the  bather ; 
he^seizes  him  by  the  shoulders,  makes  his  backbone 
1  crack,   and  every  vertebra  quiver,    or  applies   sott 

745 


BATH,  BATHING. 


blows  to  Ihe  flesliy  paits.  He  then  takes  a  hair- 
clotli,  and  rubs  the  whole  body,  rubs  off  the  hard 
skin  of  the  feet  with  puniice-stoue,  anoints  the 
bather  with  soap  and  peri'unies,  and  finishes  by  cut- 
ting his  hair  and  beard.  This  treatment  lasts  some 
three-quarters  of  an  liour  ;  and  the  feeling  after  it  is 
as  of  being  born  anew.  An  inexpressibly  deUcious 
sensation  of  comfort  pervades  tlie  body,  and  soon 
ends  in  a  sweet  sleep.  After  bathing,  people  repose 
in  a  cooler  room,  stretched  on  couches,  and  finally 
partake  of  coffee,  slierbet,  or  lemonade. 

In  England,  France,  and  Germany,  public  estab- 
lishments for  bathing  weie  long  unknown.  It  was 
during  the  Crusades,  which  brought  the  East 
and  West  into  contact,  that  Europeans  first  became 
acquainted  with  the  baths  of  the  Asiatics  :  and 
the  want  of  such  institutions  came  to  be  more 
sensibly  felt  from  the  leprosy  and  other  skin- 
diseases  wliich  intercourse  with  Asia  introduced  into 
Western  Europe.  The  evil  was  at  first  souglit  to  be 
met  by  establishing  liospitals ;  but  as  these  were 
found  insufficient,  baths  and  bath-rooms  were  erect- 
ed, which  gradually  became  pubhc  establisliments. 

Besides  the  kinds  of  baths  already  described, 
there  are  now  to  be  found  in  the  larger  ciiies  of 
Europe,  generally  in  connection  with  water-baths, 
imitations  of  the  vapour-baths  which  have  been 
long  in  common  use  in  Russia.  The  Russian 
Bath  consists  of  a  small  apartment  built  of  wood, 
with  broad  benches  running  round  it,  on  which 
the  people  lie  undressed.  By  throwing  water 
upon  glowing  hot  pebbles,  a  dense  hot  steam  is 
produced,  which  envelopes  the  bathers,  and  throws 
them  into  such  a  heat,  that  the  perspiration  breaks 
out  over  tlie  whole  body.  In  this  atmosphere  of 
steam,  the  thermometer  often  rises  to  ]12" — 140"  F. 
After  they  have  sweated  for  some  time,  and  from 
time  to  time  cooled  themselves  again  by  having 
cold  water  poured  over  them,  the  skin  is  rubbed  witli 
soap,  and  with  towels  made  of  inner  bark,  or  with 
brushes;  they  are  fiogged  with  softened  i)irch-twigs, 
and  then  washed  with  tepid,  and  afterwards  with 
cold  water;  and  at  lust  have  cold  water  dashed  over 
them.  A  bather  will  also  go  direct  from  the  sweat- 
ing-bath, and  plunge  into  a  river  or  pond,  or  roll 
himself  in  the  snow.  These  baths  are  a  necessary 
of  life  in  Russia,  and  are  to  be  found  in  every 
village.  The  German  vapour-bath  differs  in  this, 
that  the  steam  is  produced  in  a  boiler,  and  that  the 
bather  remains  for  some  time  in  an  adjoining  room 
of  moderate  temperature,  wrapped  in  blankets,  to 
allow  the  perspiration  to  go  on,  and  the  blood  to 
become  calm.  A  ruder  kind  of  sweating-bath,  in  a 
hole  in  the  earth,  or  in  a  baking  oven,  is  practised 
among  many  nations  ;  among  the  Finns,  the  natives 
of  Mexico  and  South  America,  &e. 

As  regards  detergence,  the  vapour-bath  is  the 
only  kind  of  bath  that  is  really  effectual.  Seated 
naked  in  a  room  filled  with  hot  vapour  (which  pro- 
duces no  inconvenience  in  breathing),  the  scurf, 
which,  notwithstanding  all  sorts  of  previous  ablu- 
tions, has  accumulated  on  the  skin,  is  gradually 
softened  and  loosened,  and  is  rubbed  off  in  a  sur- 
prising manner  by  the  hands  of  the  bath-man  who 
is  in  attendance  at  these  establishments.  As  in 
the  Turkish  bath,  the  person  is  cooled  down  by 
being  dashed  with  tepid  and  cold  water.  After 
this  kind  of  bathing,  the  sensation  is  exceedingly 
agreeable.  The  process  just  mentioned  may  be  said 
to  resemble  that  in  use  by  the  Romans  ;  the  hands 
of  the  operator  having  much  the  same  effect  as  the 
strigiles  of  the  ancients.  Few  of  the  ordinary  bath- 
ing establishments  in  Great  Britain  have  vapour- 
baths,  at  least  not  on  a  proper  footing  ;  and  the 
great  value  of  this  species  of  bath  as  a  purifier  of  the 
skin  is  little  known. 
746 


Bathing  is  a  very  important  agent  in  the  preser- 
vation and  restoration  of  health.  Besides  promot- 
ing cleaidiness,  the  refreshing  and  invigorating 
efl'ects  of  cold  bathing  in  its  various  forms  have 
always  been  more  or  less  understood,  as  have  also 
the  soothing  effects  of  the  warm  bath.  But  the 
virtues  of  water  as  a  curative  agent  have  been  more 
fully  developed  in  modern  times,  since  the  lise  of 
the  system  of  therapeutics  known  as  the  water-cure 
or  hydropathy.  With  that  exaggeration  which  is 
incident  to  everything  new,  the  first  promoters  of 
this  system  gave  it  out  as  a  panacea  '  for  all  the 
ills  that  flesh  is  heir  to.'  But  now  that  these 
quackish  pretensions  are  all  but  universally  given 
up,  it  is  very  generally  admitted  that  water  is 
capable  of  a  large  range  of  effects,  some  of  them 
apparently  of  the  most  opposite  kinds ;  while  the 
mode  of  action  is  nothing  mysterious,  but  capable  of 
explanation  on  the  recognised  principles  of  ))hysi- 
ology.  The  fuller  exposition  of  this  part  of  the 
subject  will  be  more  conveniently  considered  under 

IlYDnOPATIIY. 

A  MKniCATEn  Bath  is  one  in  which  some  sub- 
stance, intended  to  act  as  a  medicine,  has  been 
mixed  with  the  liquid.  This  is  one  of  the  most 
important  methods  known  to  medical  art  of  bring- 
ing remedies  to  bear  upon  the  system.  The  skin  is 
by  no  means  impervious  to  foreign  suljstanccs  ;  and 
no  other  organ  presents  at  once  so  large  a  surface  to 
the  matter  to  be  imbibed  ;  at  times,  also,  tlio  other 
channels  h\  which  remedies  are  introduced  into  the 
body  cannot  be  used.  Baths  of  this  kind  are  partly 
imitations  of  natural  mineral  waters,  and  partly 
other  remedial  mixtures.  The  mineral  substances 
used  are  common  salt,  chloride  of  lime,  nitric  acid, 
corrosive  sulilimate,  potash  or  soda  caustic  or  car- 
bonated, ashes,  soap,  iodine,  sulphur,  iron,  &c.  ;  the 
vegetable  are  wine,  vinegar,  solutions  of  essential- 
oils,  infusions  of  thyme,  rosemary,  lavender,  worm- 
wood, willow,  oak,  and  Peruvian  bark,  &c.  ;  such 
animal  substances  as  milk,  blood,  bouillon  of  meat, 
&c.,  are  also  sometimes  employed  as  baths,  with  a 
view  to  impart  nourishment,  but  whether  much  is 
taken  up  into  the  system,  is  doubtful.  In  the  case, 
also,  of  vapour-baths,  medicaments  are  added  to  the 
water  with  good  effect  ;  these  must,  of  course,  be 
volatile.  If  the  whole  body  is  to  be  immersed  in  the 
vapour,  nothing  must  be  used  that  might  injure 
the  organs  of  respiration;  when  the  application  is 
partial,  and  by  a  special  apparatus,  this  precaution 
is  less  necessary.  In  connection  with  this  may  be 
mentioned  the  so-called  Smoke-baths,  or  medicated 
fumigations,  in  which  the  whole  body,  with  excep- 
tion, of  course,  of  the  liead,  or  particular  parts  of  it, 
are  brought  in  contact  with  the  vapours  of  dry 
medicinal  substances.  Resinous  aromatic  substances, 
incense,  myrrh,  benzoin,  amber,  sulphur,  cinnabar, 
and  mercury  are  used  for  this  purpose.  The  appli- 
cation must  be  made  in  what  is  called  a  funiigating- 
box,  in  which  the  particular  part  of  the  body  alone 
is  enclosed  along  with  the  vapour,  in  order  that  the 
respiratory  organs  may  not  be  incommoded.  The 
utmost  precaution  is  requisite  with  the  vapours  of 
sulphur  and  mercury,  as  they  are  apt  to  occasion 
serious  accidents. 

Another  species  of  vapour-bath  is  what  is  called 
an  Animal  Bath,  which  was  known  to  the  ancients, 
and  was  in  great  reputation  in  cases  of  lameness. 
Either  the  whole  body  of  the  patient  is  wrapped  in 
the  skin  of  a  newly  slaughtered  animal,  or  an  opening 
is  made,  and  the  diseased  limb  inserted  into  the 
breast  or  belly  of  the  animal  while  yet  alive,  or 
into  the  newly  drawn  blood.  Sometimes  smaller 
animals  are  killed,  split  up,  and  immediately  applied 
to  the  diseased  part. 

Of  Gas  Baths,  the  most  generally  used  are  those 


BATHS  AND  WASH-HOUSES. 


of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  and  carbonic  acid  pas, 
which  arc  to  be  had  at  certain  niineial  springs.  The 
first,  mixed  in  small  quantity  with  atmospheric  air, 
lowers  the  irritability  of  the  air  tubes,  and  atlbrds 
relief  in  many  diseases  of  the  respiratory  organs.  A 
stronger  mixtuie  of  it,  brought  in  contact  with  the 
outer  surface,  is  of  use  in  disorders  arising  from 
dej)ression  of  the  functions  of  the  skin.  Carbonic 
acid  gas  gives  a  gentle  stimulus  to  the  skin,  pro- 
motes menstruation,  and  is  much  used  in  many 
places  in  the  (bnn  of  half-baths.  In  recent  times, 
at  Ischl  and  other  places,  the  vapours  that  arise 
from  the  niiuoral  springs  loaded  with  saline  j)articles, 
are  received  in  close  rooms,  in  which  the  patients 
walk  about,  and  allow  the  vapours  to  act  uijon  the 
lungs  and  skin. 

The  terms  water-hath  and  sand-hath  have  been 
adopted  in  chemistry,  to  signify  a  contrivance  by 
which  vessels  that  are  to  be  heated  to  a  certain 
temperature  are  not  brought  into  inimcdiatc  con- 
tact with  the  fire,  but  receive  their  heat  through  the 
medium  of  hot  sand  or  water,  so  that  the  heating 
takes  place  uniforndv,  and  overheating  is  avoided. 

BATHS  AND  WA'SH-HOUSES,  Public.  The 
last  few  years  have  witnessed  the  erection  of 
a  number  of  public  establishments,  at  which  the 
masses  may  enjoy  a  bath  for  the  merest  trifle 
of  their  weekly  earnings.  Where  steam-engines 
are  employed  in  connection  with  cotton  factories 
or  other  works,  there  is  usually  a  certain  quantity 
of  waste  steam  or  waste  hot  water  at  disposal, 
which  could  at  an  insignificant  cost,  be  directed 
into  baths  for  the  use  of  the  workmen  of  the 
establishment.  We  are  aware  of  one  instance  where 
seven  baths  were  comfortably  fitted  up  at  the 
small  expense  of  £80,  in  which  the  njcn  and  women 
bathe  on  alternate  days,  to  the  number  of  from 
thirty  to  eighty  a  week — paying  a'mere  trifle  to  the 
keeper,  who  attends  an  hour  and  a  half  each  even- 
ing, and  finds  towels,  soap,  &c.,  nothing  being 
chargc'd  by  the  proprietors  ior  the  original  outlay. 
But  this  is  only  a  small  part  of  the  cure  for  a  great 
evil.  Where  the  masses  are  densely  packed  in  lanes 
and  alleys,  where  house-accommodation  is  dear  and 
limited,  where  the  necessaries  of  life  have  to  be 
continually  struggled  for,  and  these  conventional 
evils  increased,  in  too  many  instances,  by  improvi- 
dence— the  house  is  but  a  night-sheller,  aifording 
little  or  no  convenience  for  the  necessary  operations 
of  the  housewife.  Independent  of  this,  a  public 
wash-house  is,  in  point  of  economy,  preferable  to  any 
number  of  isolated  cflbrts.  By  co-operations,  supe- 
I'ior  acconiniodation,  better  apparatus,  and  a  cheaper 
and  more  satisfactory  result  can  be  obtained ;  and 
thus  the  public  wash-house,  where  self-paying  and 
self-supported,  may  be  classed  among  the  co-oper- 
ative arrangements  which  characterise  the  social 
features  of  the  age. 

Mrs.  Catherine  Wilkinson  of  Liverpool,  in  a  year 
of  cholera,  bravely  offered  the  use  of  her  snuill 
house,  and  the  value  of  her  personal  superintend- 
ence, to  her  poorer  neighbours,  to  facilitate  the 
washing  of  their  clothes  at  a  time  when  cleanliness 
was  more  than  usually  important.  The  success 
attending  the  exertions  of  a  single  individual  led 
to  the  formation  of  a  bcnevoli'nt  society,  and 
ultimately  to  important  municipal  arrangements. 

In  1844,  a  public  meeting  was  held  at  the  Mansion 
House,  attended  by  many  persons  of  wealth  and 
influence,  to  encourage  the  Ibrination  of  B.  and  W. 
in  London ;  hence  resulted  an  '  Association  for  Pro- 
moting Cleaidiness  amongst  the  Poor.'  Independ- 
ently of  this  movement,  a  reform  had  already  been 
commenced  by  a  '  Committee  for  the  Houseless  Poor,' 
who,  among  other  things,  purchased  or  rented  an  old 
roomy  building  in  Glasshouse  Yard,  surrounded  by 


the  poor  and  dense  population  of  the  London  Docks 
district.  A  bath-house  and  a  wash-house  were 
fitted  up;  baths,  cisterns,  boilers,  cold  and  hot  water, 
towels,  soap,  soda,  were  provided;  and  (he  poor 
were  invited  to  come  in,  and  wash  and  bathe  with- 
out expense  to  themselves.  There  were  also  pro- 
vided pails,  brushes,  and  whitewash,  to  those  who 
woidd  take  the  trouble  to  give  a  little  cleaidiness  to 
their  poor  dwellings.  This  was  efl'ectcd  mainly 
through  the  benevolent  exertions  of  Mr.  Bowie,  a 
surgeon,  who  applied  himself  with  earnestn(>ss  to  the 
subject.  The  association,  afterwards  founded  at  tho 
city  meeting,  sought  two  objects — to  induce  a  wish 
for  cleanliness  among  the  poor;  and  to  render  public 
B.  and  W.  self-pa>iing,  as  a  guarantee  for  their 
permanency.  Having  obtained  plans  and  estimates 
from  architects,  the  association  built  a  model  estab- 
lishment in  Goulston  Square,  Whitechapel ;  but  the 
outlay  unfortunately  reached  £2G,U(lO.  In  the 
meantime,  another  society  had  succeeded  in  estab- 
lishing B.  and  W.  in  George  Street,  Hampstead 
Road,  favoured  by  a  liberal  arrangement  on  the 
part  of  the  New  River  Company  in  the  supply  of 
water:  this  establishment  was  opened  in  August 
1846.  In  the  same  year,  parliament  passed  an  act 
to  enable  borough-councils  and  parish  vestries  to 
establish  public  B.  and  W.,  supported  by  borough 
and  parish  rates,  if  the  householders  should  sanction 
such  a  proceeding.  In  1847,  another  act  strength- 
ened the  former ;  and  the  two  together  contain  the 
necessary  clauses  for  defining  the  details  of  the 
plan  (see  the  following  article).  The  paiish  of  St. 
Martin's-in-the-Fields  was  the  first  to  take  advan- 
tage of  the  new  act;  and  before  the  close  of  1852, 
six  parishes  had  erected  public  B.  and  W.  At  the 
beginning  of  18.56,  the  list  had  nearly  doubled.  The 
original  free  but  humble  building  in  Glasshouse 
Yard  had  been  abandoned ;  but  the  model  establish- 
ment in  Goulston  Square,  and  the  separate  under- 
taking in  Hampstead  Road,  remained  ;  giving  a  total 
of  thirteen  public  B.  and  W.  in  the  metropolis  at  the 
beginning  of  1856. 

It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  these  efforts  have 
been  confined  to  London.  Liverpool  took  precedence 
in  date,  and  has  since  worthily  maintained  her 
interest  in  the  matter.  Manchester,  Oldham,  Hull, 
Bristol,  Birmingham,  Preston,  Bath,  Wolverhampton, 
Coventry,  Plymouth,  Chester,  Sunderland,  Bolton, 
Macclesfield,  Oxford,  Maidstone,  Exeter,  Rother- 
ham,  Colchester,  South  Shields,  Dublin,  Belfast, 
Glasgow,  Dundee,  Aberdeen,  and  other  towns,  have 
since  adopted  a  similar  course  ;  and  it  may  safely  be 
predicted  that  borough  and  parochial  B.  and  W. 
will  increase  in  number  year  by  year  ;  for  if  they 
do  not  actually  pay  their  full  expenses  at  the  low 
tariff  charge,  the  deficiency  will  be  so  small  as  to  be 
practically  unfelt  by  ratepayers. 

When  the  lcgislat\n-e  took  up  the  subject,  the 
purpose  of  the  comnnttce  appointed  in  1844  was  in 
great  part  answered  ;  but  that  conmiittee  continued 
to  exist  until  1855  ;  and  the  exertions  of  its  mem- 
bers were  attended  with  very  beneficial  results,  in 
drawing  the  attention  of  influential  persons  in 
various  countries  to  the  advantage  of  public  B. 
and  W.  The  French  government  voted  600,000 
francs  to  assist  the  promotion  of  such  institutions  in 
France,  after  the  plan  of  the  model  establislunent  ; 
and  a  scheme  was  set  on  foot  for  erecting  i'ourteen 
establishments  in  Paris,  for  which  2,<iO0,<i(>0  francs 
would  be  required.  The  municipality  of  Venice 
marked  out  an  expenditure  of  £33,000  in  the 
erection  of  B.  on  the  same  plan.  The  Norwegian 
government  a))plied  to  the  committee  for  the  plans, 
&c.,  of  their  wash-house  at  Goulston  Square,  as  a 
guide  for  the  erection  of  one  at  Christiania  ;  and  a 
subscription  was  made  for  the  erection  of  B.  and  W- 

747 


BATHS  AND  WASH-HOUSES. 


at  Copciiliagen.  The  Belgian  government,  and  the 
authorities  at  Hamljurg,  Turin,  Munich,  Amster- 
dam, Lisbon,  New  Yori;,  and  other  places,  iverc  in 
like  manner  furnished  with  information  on  the 
Bubject. 

In  nearly  all  the  London  establishments,  which 
may  also  be  taken  as  types  of  those  in  tlic  country, 
the  characteristic  features  arc  as  follows  :  The  B. 
for  males  and  females  are  on  opposite  sides  of  the 
buildinjr.  The  separate  B.,  in  large  well-lighted 
and  well-ventilated  rooms,  arc  shut  in  by  walls, 
generally  of  slate  :  and  the  B.  themselves,  sup- 
plied with  fifty  or  sixty  gallons  of  water  for  each 
bather,  are  either  of  zinc  or  enamelled  iron.  There 
are  two,  three,  or  four  classes  of  B.,  charged  diifer- 
ently  according  to  the  amount  of  accommodation 
aflforded.  At  the  St.  Martin's  establishment,  where 
there  are  oidy  two  classes  of  B.,  it  has  been  found 
that  the  second-class  bathers  are  thrice  as  numerous 
as  the  first.  Arrangements,  slightly  varying  in 
difTerent  establishments,  afford  means  for  conveying 
hot  and  cold  water  to  every  bath.  In  some  instances, 
there  are  tepid  as  well  as  cold  swimming  or  plung- 
ing B. ;  while  two  or  three  of  them  afford  facilities 
for  shower  and  vapour  baths.  The  washing-rooms, 
in  most  of  these  establishments,  are  provided  with 
numerous  small  compartments,  doorless  and  roofless, 
each  for  one  person.  Each  compartment  contains  a 
boiler  and  washing  tub,  with  taps  for  hot  water, 
cold  water,  waste  water,  and  steam;  all  unlimited 
in  quantity,  wilful  waste  of  course  being  guarded 
against.  An  American  washing-board  assists  the 
operations  ;  and  a  rack-work  stand  protects  the 
feet.  The  steam  from  all  the  compartments  is 
carried  upwards  to  one  great  ventilating  shaft.  The 
'  wringing '  of  the  wet  washed  linen  is  effected  by 
putting  the  articles  into  a  sort  of  perforated  cylinder, 
which  is  then  rotated  with  great  velocity  ;  the  cen- 
trifugal force  drives  out  the  water  through  the  per- 
forations and  interstices,  leaving  the  linen,  though 
damp,  much  drier  than  it  can  be  made  by  the  fami- 
liar laundry  process.  The  clothes  are  then  taken  to 
the  drying-room,  where  they  are  hung  on  frames  or 
'horses'  in  small  chambers  heated  with  hot  air  to 
about  200°  or  210°.  10,000  or  12,000  articles  of 
washed  clothing  can  now  be  dried  with  £1  worth 
of  fuel,  or  much  le.ss  in  the  towns  of  the  north. 
In  some  of  the  improved  establishments,  there  is 
a  drying  compartment  belonging  to  each  washing 
compartment,  effecting  a  manifest  saving  of  time 
to  the  washers  ;  in  some  of  them,  too,  there  is  an 
ironing-board  to  each  compartment  ;  but  the  general 
plan  is  to  have  a  large  ironing-room,  well  provided 
with  irons,  ironing-blankets  and  boards,  and  heating 
arrangements.  The  charge  is  from  Id.  to  24f/.  per 
hour,  according  to  the  class  and  the  accommodation. 

A  few  words  ooncerning  one  of  the  establish- 
ments of  recent  construction,  may  here  be  added. 
The  establishment  was  opened  at  Manchester  in 
1858.  There  is  a  men's  swimming  bath,  70  feet 
by  25,  with  a  pavement  of  polished  York  stone 
on  a  foundation  of  concrete  and  cement  ;  the  sides 
are  of  porcelain  tiles  laid  in  cement.  There  are  32 
enclosed  dressing-closets.  Over  these,  on  iron  pillars, 
are  17  men's  warm  l)aths,  each  8  feet  by  7.  Separ- 
ated from  this  gallery  by  an  open  passage  are  5 
extra  first-class  baths,  larger  in  size,  and  ha\ing 
shower-baths.  There  is  a  second-class  swimming- 
bath  nearly  like  that  for  the  first  class  ;  with  its 
gallery  of  small  baths  over.  The  women's  baths, 
in  a  din'erent  part  of  the  building,  comprise  4 
first,  and  7  second  class.  The  laundry  is  at  one 
end  of  the  building.  The  washing-room  is  64 
feet  by  38  ;  it  comprises  6  first-class,  and  30 
second-class  compartments,  each  of  the  former  pro- 
vided with  three  tubs,  and  each  of  the  latter  with 
748 


two.  There  is  provision  for  drying  any  amount  of 
clothes  in  twenty  minutes  after  the  washing  and 
wringing  are  completed.  AH  the  women  have  accesi^ 
to  two  patent  wringing-machincs.  There  is  an 
ironing-room  adjoining,  fitted  up  with  stoves.  The 
watcr-taid<  has  a  capacity  of  SdOO  gallons  ;  the 
baths,  if  all  full,  would  hold  t)i\(»H)  gallons. 

Since  the  taking  up  of  this  subject  by  the  muni- 
cipal authorities  of  various  towns,  and  the  close  of 
the  associat'on,  there  have  been  few  reliable  statis- 
tics obtainable  relating  to  the  extent  to  which  these 
valuable  establishments  are  used.  At  a  time  when 
there  were  13  public  B.  and  W.  in  London — there 
are  now  (1860)  about  20 — there  were  1,200,000 
bathers  and  420,000  washers  in  one  year,  paying 
.£24,500,  or  about  oid.  each  on  an  average.  This 
average  is  found  to  be  nearly  the  same  in  the  pro- 
vincial towns.  The  washers  of  comse  pay  more 
than  the  b.ithers  at  each  average  visit.  The 
Gonlston  Street  establishment  has  always  been  in 
an  unsatisfactory  state,  on  account  of  having  com- 
menced operations  mainly  with  borrowed  money. 
The  B.  and  W.  established  by  the  several  parishes 
either  pay  their  working  expenses  wholly,  or 
approach  so  near  to  it  as  to  encroach  very  little 
on  the  parish  rates.  The  establishment  of  St.  Giles's- 
in-thc-Fields  and  St.  (Jeorge,  Bloomsbiu-y,  in  Endell 
Street,  cost  £20,000  for  land,  building,  and  fittings  ; 
in  the  four  years  ending  with  18.57,  the  working 
expenses  and  interest  were  £10,200,  and  the  receipts 
£13,0(!0,  leaving  £2800  to  aid  in  paying  off  the 
original  cost. 

The  least  satisfactory  part  of  the  system  in  its 
practical  operation,  is  that  which  relates  to  the  wash- 
houses.  Laundresses,  boarding  and  lodging  house 
kccjiers,  and  families  in  the  middle  ranks  of  life,  use 
these  W.  rather  than  really  poor  families ;  they  do 
so  because  the  expense  is  very  low,  not  because  they 
are  unable  to  pay  higher.  It  is  sometimes  believed 
that  those  for  wliose  benefit  the  system  was  estab- 
lished arc  ashamed  to  bring  their  scanty,  coarse, 
and  much-worn  apparel  to  a  place  where  it  may 
meet  the  eyes  of  others  :  if  this  be  so,  ourely  a 
remedv  might  be  applied! 

BATHS  AND  WASH-HOUSES,  Acts  Regard- 
IXG.  The  establishment  of  public  B.  and  W.  is 
regulated  in  England  and  Wales  by  two  acts  of 
parliament — the  9  and  10  Vict.  c.  74,  and  10 
and  11  Vict.  c.  61 — which  are  to  be  considered 
as  one  act.  The  sanitary  regulations  so  legalised 
are  merely  permissive,  and  in  no  respect  made 
compnlsory  on  the  pnblic :  but  their  wisdom,  bene- 
volence, and  consideration  for  the  health  of  the 
people,  strongly  recommend  their  adoption.  The 
provisions  of  the  act  may  be  adopted  for  any  incor- 
porated borough,  or  for  any  parish  not  within  any 
such  incorporated  borough  ;  subject,  however,  in  the 
case  of  a  parish,  to  the  approval  of  one  of  Her 
Majesty's  principal  secretaries  of  state.  In  the 
case  of  a  borough,  the  adoption  of  the  act  is  left 
to  the  discretion  of  the  council  of  the  borough :  and 
the  expense  is  to  be  charged  upon  the  borough 
fund,  the  council  being  empowered  to  levy,  either 
as  part  of  the  borough  rate,  or  by  a  separate  rate, 
such  sums  as  may  from  time  to  time  be  necessary. 
In  the  case  again,  of  a  parish,  it  is  left  to  the 
vestry,  with  tiie  sanction  of  one  of  the  secretaries 
of  state,  to  decide  on  the  adoption  of  the  act  ;  and 
in  such  case,  the  vestry  shall  appoint  not  less  than 
three,  and  not  more  than  seven  persons,  ratepayers, 
to  be  CominisRioners  for  carrying  out  the  provisions 
of  the  act.  Regulations  for  the  proceedings  of 
these  commissioners  are  prescribed  in  the  act.  The 
expense  is  to  be  charged  upon  the  poor-rate.  The 
vestries  of  any  two  or  more  parishes  may  concur  in 
carrying  out  the  act. 


BATHGATE— BATIIURST. 


The  act  contains  numerous  other  provisions  and 
regulations  relating  to  the  facilities  required  for  the 
op^e^ations  of  the  borough  councils  and  parish  com- 
missioners :  thus,  they  may  borrow  money  with  the 
woval  of  the  Treasury;    they  n.ay   have  money 

aSrnced  to  them  by  t'-.  I'f  -  ^  -'^^^/X  S" 
missioners  ;  they  may  avail  themse  ves  of  the  Rail 
.vay  Companies  Clauses  Consolidation  Act  ot  lS4o 
for  certain  limited  purposes,  such  as  borr^vng 
money  on  mortgage,  the  accountability  of  officers 


of  the  IGth  century.  Her  diabolical  cruelty  has  con 
demned  her  memory  to  eternal  infamy,  by  means 
of  lar-rc  bribes,  she  induced  an  old  man-servant  anU 
two  female  servants  to  kidnap  and  convey  to  her, 
either  by  stratagem  or  force,  young  guls  Irom  tlic 
neighbouring  country,  whom  she  slowly  put  to  death 
in  tlie  dungeons  of  her  castle  by  the  most  horrible 
tortures.  It  is  related  that  on  a  certain  occasion 
having  violently  struck  one  of  her  viclims  the  blood 
spirted  np  into  her  own   face,  and,    as  she  fonc.ed, 


._...,    ^  S^,    '""  ,""'"7f  "T.'v  i'.wV   subiectlleft    the    skin    whiter    when  it   was  wiped   off. 

of  the    con.pany,    the   making  of    ^)-'*^^/  ^'^''J^'M  ^"   ''^f  ^         instantly  possessed  her.     She   invited 

to  other  provisions,  and  the  recovery  of  ^'^^^S^^'llf^lf^Ji^^^^^^ 

and  penalties. ^,_  _    _,    L„.i   ,.nMsoH  ?.00  of  them  to   be  put  to  death,  being 


id  penalties.                _                             tl.^n^t    nro-  and  caused  300  of  them  to   be  put  to  death,  being 

After   these   preliminary   ^^^^^I't'^^f' /^^"J*   Ss  Ser       ^                     that  a  bath   of  blood  won  d 

ceeds  to  specify  the  powers  ot  tl'«J^°;°;'g  \~ t  Tenel  her  you'^h.     So  monstrous  a  story  is  probably 

and  parish  commissioners   as  to  ^''^^^'^'^^^    1™  f '  'xatlerated   but  it  at  least  shews  that  she  wa 

of  buildings,    &c.,    for   the  P-'POf  ^^^..^-^  ^^^    '  ."^^  ^U^^'^r^^able  of  it.     Inquiry  was  at  length 


Among  other  things,  it  is  provided  that  the  number 
of  batlis  and  the'number  of  washing-tubs  for  e 
labouring-classes  shall  not  be  less  than  twice  the 
number  of  those  for  any  higher  class  or  classes 

The  council  and  commissioners  respectively  arc 
empowered  to  make  by-laws  for  regulating  the  use 
of  the  B.  and  W.,  which,  however,  shall  not  be 
enforced  until  they  have  been  approved  by  a  secre- 
tary of  state.  Thesp  by-laws  must  make  sufficient 
pulsion  ibravariety  of  purposes  specified  in  the 


s  con- 
;ei^^l  capable  of  it.  Inquh^was  at  leni^th  made 
into  the  appalling  rumours,  when  u  was  discovered 
that  this  female  fiend  had  murdered,  m  cold  olood, 
not  fewer  than  G50  maidens.  The  domestics  who 
assisted  her  were  either  beheaded  or  burned  alive  ; 
but  the  countess,  whose  crimes  merited  infinitely 
the  greater  punishment,  was  merely  imprison- 
ed for  life  in  her  fortress  of  Esej,  where  she  died 
in  1614. 

BATHOS  (Gr.  hatJws,  depth)  is  a  term  employed 


^T:S^^m^:^-"9S  1  v!Xc:47  ;h;L;^„iirto^d;;Sna;e  a  ludicrous  descent  IVom  a 
Itntoi  thtie  purposes  being  to  secure  order,  clean-  i/ft^  thought  to  a  mean  one,  or  a  s.nk.ng  below  the 
Uness  and  decS  The  charges  for  the  use  of  the  ordinary  level  of  thought  in  a  ridiculous  effort  to 
liness,  ana  utccucj.     ^  »     „„„fi,„p    s,^hf>,bie    ..„„;.,„      Q^n  r.,i\,^x.     It  is  of  the  es 


aspire.  See  Climax.  It  is  of  the  essence  of  B.  that 
he  who  is  guiltv  of  it  should  be  unconscious  of  Ins 
fall  and  while  giovelling  on  the  earth,  should  imagine 
that  he  is  still  cleaving  the  heavens.  A  good  example 
of  B.  is  the  well-known  couplet : 

And  thou,  Dalhoime,  the  great  god  of  '^r, 
Lieutenant-general  to  the  £aH  of  Mar  . 

BV'TH-STONE  a  building  -  stone  extensively 
used  in  England  on  account  of  its  beauty  is  obtained 
?rom  quarries  in  the  Lower  Oolite,  in  \V  lUshire  and 
Somersetshire.  It  is  fine  grained,  of  a  rich  cream 
colour,  and  is  composed  of  about  S)4j  per  cent,  of 
carbonate  of  lime,  and  2i  per  cent,  ot  carbonate  of 
magnesium,  but  is  free  from  silica.  _  It  is  easily 
wrou-ht  in  the  quarry,  some  beds  cutting  almost  as 
readiiV  as  chalk,  and  har.lens  on  exposure  to  the 
ai  but  is  not  very  durable.  Within  Uyenty-five 
ve^rs  after  the  reparation  of  Henry  ^  II.'s  chapel 
in  Westminster  Abbey,  with  this_  stone,  U  had 
be-un  to  decompose.  The  name  is  derived  from 
the  neighbourhood  of  several  of  the  quarries  to 
Bath. 

BA'THURST,     Earl     (Henry     BATHrRsx),     an 

eminent  Torv  statesman,  born  22d  May  n|>2   son  of 

^ATF     a  town  in  the  centre    ot     l.miun-    second  eari  (Lord  Chancellor  from  1<71  to  17 /«),  was 

.owshire    'n   miles    we  t-outh-west    of  Edinburgh,    in  1804  appointed  Master  ^^0lJer  of    .     Min^.^^I^^ 

Se  old 'town  lies  on  a  steep  slope,  and  the  new  on    1807,  he  becatne  /^sident  o    ^- ^^^^^l^  J^^^ 

a  more  level  site.     Freestone,  coal,  and  carbon.termjs  |  and  --«  Severe  tap  ^ot^  ''If^^J",';//^^,- _     Appointed, 

limestone,  are  wrought  in   the  vicinity.      In   lOb-  , 

King  Charles  II.  granted  B.  a  charter,  since  which 

time  it  has  been  a  free  burgh  of  barony      In  the 

vicinity   is    the    site   of    an    ancient   castle     which 

Margaret,   daughter  of  Robert  the  Bruce    brought 

as    a    part    of  her    dowry  to  her  husband,   Walter, 

creat  steward  of  Scotland,  who  died  here.     The  cele- 
brated  gas  coal  called  Torban  Hill  mineral,  which 

has  been  the  subject  of  so  much  litigation,  and  oi 

discussion  and  difference  of  opinion  among  scientific 

men     is   worked    here.       B.   has    manufactures    of 

cotton  goods,   but  mining   is    the  chief  occupation 

of  the  inhabitants.     Pop.  3341. 

BA'THORI     Elizabeth,    the    niece   of    Stephen 

Bathori,  king'of  Poland,  and  wife  of  Count  Nadasdi 
a  Hungarian  nobleman,  was  born  in  the  latter  halt 


B  and  W.  are"  regulated  by  another  schedule 
attached  to  the  act  10  and  11  Vict.  c.  Gl  In  the 
baths  for  the  labouring-classes,  a  single  cold  bath  is 
not  to  exceed  one  penny;  a  single  warm  or  vapour 
bath  is  not  to  exceed  twopence.  B.  for  any  highei 
class  are  not  to  exceed  three  times  the  charges  for 
those  of  the  labouring-classes.  In  the  wash-houses 
for  the  labouring-classes,  the  use  of  a  single  washing- 
tub  and  other  conveniences,  is  not  to  be  charged 
more  than  one  penny  for  one  hour,  or  threepence 
for  two  hours  together. 

It  remains  to  be  added,  that  the  borough  coun- 
cillors and  parish  commissioners  are  declared  not 
to  be  personally  liable  for  or  in  respect  of  anything 
done  or  suffered  to  be  done  by  them  officially  ;  and 
the  acts  and  proceedings  of  the  latter  are  to  be  valid 
notwithstanding  informalities.  But  persons  may 
appeal  against  any  by-law,  order,  direction,  or 
appointment  by  the  council  or  commissioners,  to  the 
general  quarter-sessions,  as  under  the  Companies 
Clauses  Consolidation  Act,  1845.  The  conduct  of 
the  officers  employed  by  the  council  and  commis- 
sioners is  also  regulated  and  restrained  by  penalties 
and  disabilities,  in  case  of  their  extortion  or  mis- 
conduct. 

T5\'THGATE    a  town  in  the  centre    of    Linlith- 


11th  October  to  6th  December  18i)9.  Appointed 
ml,  June  1812.  Secretary  for  the  Colonics,  in  he 
administration  of  the  Eari  of  Liverpool,  he  held  tha 
office  for  sixteen  years.  In  1828,  m  the  We  ington 
adlninistration,  he  became  President  of  the  Coi.ncil, 
.vhich  office  he  retained  till  the  resignation  of  the 
ministry  in  1830.  He  died  26th  J"  Y  ^S^^.  ^^ 
the  time  of  his  death,  he  was  a  teller  of  the 
Exchequer,  clerk  of  the  Crown  and  elder  brother 
of  the  Trinity  House,  K.  G.,  D.  C.  L.,  I.  R.  S.,  F.  S.  A., 
&c  In  his  various  public  employments  he  was 
attentive  to  business,  and  much  esteemed  by  his 
par'y  His  son,  Henry  George,  succeeded  as 
fourth  earl. 

BA'THURST,  a  name    applied  to  various    locah- 
ties  in  honour  of  Eari  Bathurst,  Colonial  Secrj^tary 


BATIGKOLLES— BATRACHIA. 


at  the  time. — 1.  B.  in  new  South  Walesa,  the  first 
county  that  was  settled  beyond  the  Bhie  Mountahis 
(q.  v.),  long  believed  to  be  impassable.  It  was 
not  before  1813  that  a  practicable  route  was  found, 
or  rather  formed  ;  and  in  April  1815  Governor 
Maequarie  crossed  the  range  by  the  newly  made 
road  with  his  lady  and  a  numerous  retinue,  in 
order  to  mark  with  becoming  '  pomp  and  circum- 
stance' so  important  an  epoch  in  the  growth  of 
the  colony.  B.  has  been  still  further  distinguished 
in  the  history  of  New  South  Wales  as  the  seat  of 
its  gold-fields.  As  early  as  1844,  the  precious  metal 
had,  on  geological  grounds,  been  supposed  to  exist 
in  Australia;  but  it  was  only  on  I2th  February 
1S51  that  Mr.  Ilargreaves,  a  digger  of  California 
experience,  washed  tlie  glittering  prize  out  of  a 
tin-dish  of  gravel  on  the  B.  Plains.  The  county  is 
bounded  on  the  N.  E.  by  the  Maequarie,  and  on  the 
S.  W.  by  the  Lachlan.  The  whole  district  is  admir- 
ably adapted  to  pastoral  pursuits.  It  is  well  watered, 
and,  being  1070  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  it 
has  a  moderate  temperature.  Its  chief  town,  which 
in  1858  had  a  ]ioi)u]ation  of  3927,  bears  the  same 
name. — 2.  B.  Island,  off"  North  Australia,  about  lat. 
12°  S.,  and  long.  130°  E.  It  is  fully  2°  due  west  of 
Port  Essington,  with  Melville  Island  between.  Its 
area  may  be  estimated  at  1000  square  miles.  Except- 
ing the  west  end,  wdiich  is  barren,  the  island  is 
densely  wooded. — 3.  B.,  the  principal  settlement  of 
the  British  colony  on  the  Gambia.  It  is  situated 
on  a  small  island  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  in  lat. 
13°  28'  N.,  and  long.  10°  82'  W.  Its  population  in 
1836,  chiefly  of  negroes,  was  2825.  The  principal 
buildings  are  the  government  house,  a  hospital 
for  liberated  Africans,  and  Wesleyan  schools.  The 
exports  consist  of  gum,  wax,  hides,  ivory,  gold, 
tortoise-shell,  rice,  cotton,  teak,  palm-oil,  and  native 
cloths. — 4.  B.,  in  Upper  Canada,  a  district  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Ottawa,  which  is  here  the 
boundary  between  the  two  Canadas.  It  contains 
the  Rideau  River  and  Canal,  thus  occupying  an 
important  position  with  regard  to  the  inter- 
provincial  trade ;  while  the  contemplated  removal 
of  the  seat  of  government  to  Bytown,  now  Ottawa, 
will  tend  still  further  to  augment  the  influence,  and 
promote  the  prosperity,  of  the  district. — 5.  An 
island  in  the  Arctic  Ocean,  intersected  by  the  100th 
meridian,  and  situated  immediately  beyond  the  75th 
parallel.  Sherard  Osborn  here  found  the  vertebraj 
of  an  ichthyosaurus — one  of  the  few  instances  of 
organic  remains  occurring  on  the  American  side  of 
the  polar  basin.     See  Arctic  Ocean. 

BATIGNOLLES,  a  thriving  town  of  France,  in 
the  department  Seine,  north-east  of  Paris,  of  which 
city  it  forms  a  suburb.     Pop.  43,302. 

BATX-EL-HA'GAR  (Womb  of  Rocks),  a  stony 
district,  stretching  along  the  Nile,  in  lat.  21° — 22° 
N.,  and  long.  30°  40'— 31°  10'  E.  The  Nile,  in  the 
upper  portion  of  the  district,  is  often  forced  by 
the  approaching  rocks  into  a  very  narrow  channel, 
and  its  navigation  is  frequently  interrupted  by 
small  islands,  rocks,  and  cataracts.  The  district  is 
peopled  by  Beduins,  and  other  Arabs,  who  go 
naked  and  derive  a  scanty  subsistence  from  beans 
and  the  fiuit  of  a  wild  shrub  called  kcrkcdan,  and 
from  another  plant  called  the  symka,  the  oil  of 
which  they  use  as  butter. 

BA'TON — variously  written  Battoon,  Batune,  and 
in  old  French  Baston— is  the  figure  in  heraldry 
commonly  known  as  the  Bastard  Bar  (q.  v.). 

BA'TON  is  the  name  of  a  short  staff,  presented 
by  the  sovereign  to  each  field-marshal,  as  a  symbol 
of  his  newly  bestowed  authority.  It  is  also  the 
name  of  the  long  staff  carried  by  "the  drum-major  of 
an  infantry  regiment. 
750 


BATON  ROUGE,  bat'on-rooz.h,  a  city,  cajntal  of 
the  state  of  Louisiana,  and  seat  of  justice  of  the  parish 
of  East  Baton  Rouge,  is  situated  on  the  left  or  K.  bank 
of  the  Miss.,  129  miles  above  N.  0. ;  lat.  30"  28'  N., 
Ion.  85°  11'  W.  The  seat  of  government  was  estab- 
lished herein  1847.  Since  that  period  the  business 
of  the  place  has  become  more  active,  and  the  value  of 
property  has  been  greatly  enhanced.  It  contains  an 
elegant  state-house,  situated  immediately  on  the  bank 
of  the  river,  Baton  Rouge  College,  4  churches,  an  ar- 
senal and  barracks  of  the  United  States,  2  newspaper 
oflfices,  and  a  penitentiary.     Pop.  in  1860,  5428. 

BATRA'CHIA  (from  Gr.  ba'trachos,  a  frog),  in 
Zoology,  one  of  the  nine  classes  of  the  Vertebrata, 
formerly  referred  to  the  Reptilia,  but  quite  as  nearh' 
allied  to  the  fishes.  It  is  characterized  by  the  jircs- 
ence  of  a  single  membrane  bone  as  the  axis  of  the 
basis  of  the  cranium,  two  occipital  condyles,  and 
want  of  allantois  in  the  embryo,  and  the  hi-  or  tripar- 
tite heart.  An  important  difference  is  also  that 
the  young  B.  undergo  metamorphoses,  and  breathe 
by  gills  alone,  in  the  early  ])art  of  their  life ; 
whilst  in  their  adult  state  they  either  breathe 
by  lungs  alone,  or  possess  at  once  both  lungs  and 
gills.  The  body  is  also  covered  with  a  soft  naked 
skill,  through  which  water  is  imbibed,  and  tlirough 
which  the  aeration  of  the  blood  appears  to  be  in 
part  carried  on.  The  B.  are  all  oviparous;  their 
eggs  are  not  covered  with  a  hard  shell,  but  merely 
with  a  soft  membrane.  Fecundation  commonly 
takes  place  after  the  eggs  have  been  deposited.  It 
is  sometimes  given  as  a  distinctive  character  of  B., 
that,  iu  their  adult  state,  they  have  limbs,  but  in 
sotnc  genera  these  are  very  rudimentary,  and  they 
are  altogether  wanting  in  Ccedlia  (q.  v.),  a  genus 
which  is  now  decidedly  referred  to  this  order,  because 
it  has  been  found  to  undergo  the  metamorj)hosi3 
from  a  gill-breathing  to  a  lung-breathing  state,  and 
which  Cuvicr,  with  hesitation,  placed  among  ser- 
pents, because  the  fact  of  its  metamorphosis  had 
not  then  been  ascertained.  The  ordinary  number  of 
limbs  is  four,  but  in  the  Siren  ((j.  v.)  there  are  only 
two. — Another  character  frequently  given  as  distinc- 
tive of  the  B.,  that  their  feet  are  destitute  of  claws, 
is  in  like  manner  only  general,  and  r.ot  universal. 

In  the  earlier  period  of  fife,  the  form  of  the  B. 
is  fish-like,  of  which  the  common  tadpole,  the  young 
of  the  frog,  is  a  familiar  example;  and  this  form 
some  of  them  retain  with  comparatively  little 
modification,  while  some  of  them  ultimately  acquire 
a  form  resembling  that  of  lizards,  with  which  the 
newts  were  indeed  ranked  by  Linnasus  as  a  species  of 
the  same  genus;  and  others,  as  frogs  and  toads, 
assume  a  peculiar  quadruped  form,  the  tail  entirely 
disappearing,  except  in  the  elongated  coccygeal 
bone  which  represents  it  to  the  anatomist. 

In  their  anatomy,  the  adult  B.  present  some 
important  points  of  resemblance  to  fishes  ;  in  some 
important  points,  they  differ  both  from  fishes  and 
from  other  reptiles.  The  skull  resembles  that  of 
fishes  in  its  general  form,  although  rather  agreeing 
with  other  reptiles  in  the  parts  of  which  it  is  com- 
posed. Teeth  are  often  entirely  wanting,  sometimes 
they  are  present  only  in  one  jaw;  when  present, 
they  are  generally  small  and  numerous,  either  in  a 
single  row  or  aggregated.  In  some  of  the  fossil 
genera,  however,  which  are  referred  to  this  order, 
the  teeth  are  of  large  size. — The  B.  have  either  no 
ribs,  or  they  have  mere  rudimentary  ribs.  They 
have,  however,  a  breast-bone,  often  in  great  part 
cartilaginous,  to  which  some  of  the  most  important 
muscles  are  attached.  They  breathe  air  by  a  sort  of 
gulping. — The  heart  of  the  B.  was  long  believed  to 
have  only  one  auricle  and  one  ventricle,  but  the 
apparently  single  auricle  is  now  known  to  consist  of 
two  divisions.      As  in  the  other  reptiles,  only  a  part 


BATRACHIA. 


of  the  blood  received  from  the  circuhvting  system  is 
sent  to  the  organs  of  respiration,  and  another  part 
returns  immediately  into  the  circuhition.  See 
Reptiles. 

In  the  wonderful  transformations  which  the  B. 
undergo,  tlie  circulation  of  the  blood  is  changed  in 
accordance  with  the  change  in  the  organs  of  respir- 
ation. These,  in  the  earliest  stage,  ai-e  external  gills, 
which  appear  as  long  coloured  fringes,  hanging 
loosely  upon  each  side  of  the  neck.  In  some  B., 
these  external  gills,  which  resemble  those  of  the 
aquatic  nioUusca,  remain  till  the  lungs  are  suffi- 
ciently developed  for  respiration;  in  some,  as  the 
Axolotl  (q.  v.),  of  which  a  description  and  figure 
have  already  been  given  in  this  work,  they  are 
permanent  during  the  whole  of  life.  In  tlie  greater 
part  of  the  B.,  however,  the  external  gills  soon 
disappear,  and  are  replaced  by  internal  gills,  when 
the  tadpole  exhibits  its  most  perfectly  fish-like  form, 
its  mode  of  progression  also  corresponding  with  that 
of  fishes.  Its  respiration  is  carried  on  essentially 
as  in  fishes,  water  entering  the  cavity  of  the  mouth, 
and  being  forced  out  through  the  gill  openings,  so  as 
to  come  in  contact  with  the  minute  filaments  of  the 
gills.  The  gills  are  attached,  as  in  fishes,  to  arches 
connected  with  the  hyoid  bone.  In  this  stage  of 
existence,  the  large  arterial  trunk  which  proceeds 
from  the  ventricle  of  the  heart,  sends  forth,  from  a 
bulbous  enlargement  which  it  forms,  as  in  fishes, 
an  artery  to  each  of  the  gills,  and  the  blood  after 
being  aerated  in  them,  is  collected  into  an  aorta, 
and  proceeds  into  the  general  circulation.     But  an 


Newt,  in  successive  stages. 

artery  is  also  provided  on  each  side  for  the  convey- 
ance of  blood  to  the  lungs,  both  the  lungs  and  their 
arteries  being  at  first  rudimentary,  but  increasing, 
whilst  the  gills,  on  the  contrary,  diniinish  along 
with  the  blood-vessels  connected  with  them ;  and 
the  gill-breathing  is  gradually  transformed  into  a 
lung-breathing  animal,  no  longer  perfectly  aquatic, 
as  at  first,  or  capable  of  existence  only  in  water, 
but  amphibious,  or  almost  entirely  terrestrial,  and 
incapable  of  remaining  long  under  water  without 
coming  to  the  surface  to  breathe. — Whilst  these 
changes  take  place,  others  no  less  extraordinary  are 


also  going  on.  The  tadpole  which  subsisted  on 
vegetable  food,  and  possessed  a  mouth  adajited  to 
the  purpose  of  feeding  on  it — a  small  horny  beak — 
acquires  a  mouth  fitted  for  seizing  and  swallowing 
small  insects,  slugs,  &;c.,  upon  which  the  adult  B. 
chiefly  or  exclusively  feed,  and  its  habits  change 
accordingly.  The  mouth  of  the  Siroi,  however, 
always  retains  a  character  somewhat  similar  to  that 
of  the  tadpole. — In  the  course  of  translbrmation,  a 
pelvis  is  formed,  and  limbs  sprout  forth,  which  in 
some  B.,  as  frogs,  become  very  perfect  and  powoi'ful. 
Whilst  the  limbs  grow,  with  all  their  bones,  joints, 
muscles,  blood-vessels,  and  nerves,  the  vertebra^,  in 
many  B.,  diniinish  in  number,  and  the  tail  gradually 
shortens  and  disappears. 

The  extremely  different  characters  of  the  adult 
B.,  suggest  the  idea  of  an  arresting  of  the  metamor- 
phosis at  different  stages  ;  but  whilst  this  idea  may 
be  helpful  to  our  understanding  of  the  close  affinities 
which  really  pervade  the  whole  order,  it  must  be 
remembered  that  it  does  not  equally  apply  to  all 
parts  of  the  animal  system  ;  and  that  even  as  to 
those  which  have  been  particularly  mentioned  in 
the  brief  account  above  given  of  the  metamorphosis 
of  the  B.,  some  in  their  perfect  state  appear  to  have 
one  part  in  what,  for  convenience,  may  be  termed  a 
more  advanced  state  than  another;  whilst  all  are 
adapted  wilh  equal  perfection  to  the  situations  in 
which  they  are  appointed  to  live,  both  with  reference 
to  the  Avants  of  their  own  existence  and  the  preser- 
vation of  that  of  their  species. 

If  the  limbs  of  the  tadpole  or  the  frog  are  injured 
or  destroyed  during  their  growth,  the  loss  is  won- 
derfully repaired.  This  power  of  reproducing  lost 
limbs  continues  to  be  possessed  in  an  extraordinary 
degree  by  the  adult  newt  (q.  v.). 

B.  are  generally  inhabitants  of  warm  or  temperate 
climates.  Those  which  inhabit  temperate  climates 
generally  become  torpid  duiing  winter.  They  are 
either  almost  entirely  aquatic  or  are  found  in  moist 
situations.  The  British  species  are  very  few.  In 
some  of  the  Scottish  isles  they  are  unknown. 

B.  are  commonly  divided  into  two  sub-orders — 
Caducibranchiata,  in  which  the  gills  {brancJdce)  dis- 
appear (are  caducous),  and  Perennibraiichiata,  in 
which  they  are  persistent  {perennial).  The  Perenni- 
branchiate  B.  are  comparatively  few.  Axolotl, 
Siren,  and  Proteus  are  examples.  The  Caduci- 
branchiate  B.  are  subdivided  into  Tailless  or 
Anoiirous,  as  Frogs,  Toads,  &c. ;  and  Tailed,  as 
Newts,  Salamanders,  &c.  Some  of  the  frogs  and 
toads  of  warm  climates  are  much  larger  than  those 
of  Britain;  but  the  largest  known  B.  are  the 
Sicboldia  iiia-rinm  of  Japan,  and  Protonopsis  horrida 
of  the  Ohio  (variously  styled  Hellbender,  Mud 
Devil,  Ground  Puppy,  Young  Alligator,  and  Fish 
Salamander),  both  creatures  of  the  newt  or  sala- 
mander form,  the  latter  of  which  is  two  feet  long, 
and  the  former  is  of  still  greater  size. 

Fossil  remains  and  footprints  in  rock  attest  the 
existence,  in  former  geological  periods,  of  B.  of  large 
size.  '  It  is  only  in  tertiary  and  post-tertiary  strata 
that  extinct  species  rcferrible  to  still  existing  genera 
or  families  of  this  order  have  been  found.'  These 
occur  both  of  the  tailed  and  tailless  form.  One  of 
them  has  been  a  subject  of  particular  interest, 
because  its  remains,  when  first  discovered  by 
Scheuchzer,  in  the  beginning  of  the  ISth  c,  were 
mistaken  for  the  remains  of  a  human  being,  and 
the  discoverer  enthusiastically  urged  them  upon 
the  attention  of  his  contemporaries  as  a  proof  of 
the  deluge.  To  this  salamandroid  fossil  the  name 
Andrias  (from  the  Gr.  for  man)  Scheuchzeri  has  been 
given. — Footmarks  in  the  sandstones  and  shales  of 
the  coal-measures  in  Pennsylvania  seem  to  have 
belonged  to  B.  resembling  frogs  or  toads,  but  of 

751 


BATRACnOMYOMACIIIA— BATTEL. 


great  size,  sonic  of  the  footpriuts  being  two  inches 
in  diameter,  and  a  breadth  of  nearly  four  inches 
between  the  right  and  left  footprints. — Some  of  the 
older  batrachiaii  fossils  differ  so  widely  from  all 
existing  types,  that  new  sub-orders  liave  been 
formed  for  thein.  Those  of  the  sub-order  Gano- 
cephala — of  which  Arc/ier/omzirus  (q.  v.)  is  the  best 
known — are  remarkable  for  having  the  head  covered 
with  bony  plates ;  those  of  the  order  Labyrintho- 
dontia,  for  the  labyrinthic  structure  exhibited  in 
the   tr:inversc  section  of  the  teeth.     See  Ladyrix- 

THODON. 

BA'TRACIIOMYOMA'CIIIA  (the  War  of  the 
Frogs  and  the  Mice),  a  Greek  mock-heroic  poem, 
erroneously  ascribed  to  Homer,  with  whose  works  it 
lias  been  generally  ]irinted.  Pigres  of  Caria,  who 
lived  in  the  times  of  the  Persian  wars,  was  named 
amongst  the  ancients  as  its  author.  It  is  a  parody 
on  the  Jltad,  in  which  the  military  preparations  and 
contests  of  beasts,  with  single  combats,  intervention 
of  the  gods,  and  other  Homeric  circumstances,  are 
described  with  much  humour. 

BA'TRACHUS.     Ske  Frog-fisii. 

BATSIIIA'N,  one  of  the  Moluccas,  lying  to  the 
south-west  of  Gilolo.  It  belongs  to  the  Dutch,  who, 
in  1010,  took  it  from  Spain,  or,  rather,  from  Portugal, 
then  a  portion  of  the  Spanish  monarchy.  Its  area 
is  estimated  at  900  square  miles.  It  is  almost  inter- 
sected by  the  equator,  being  only  35'  S.,  with  a  long. 
of  127°  85'  E.  B.  produces  large  sago  and  cocoa 
palms,  good  rice,  and  the  best  cloves  in  the  Moluccas. 
Chief  town,  Batshian,  near  the  centre  of  the  island, 
with  a  pop.  of  1100. 

BA'TTA,  in  relation  to  the  Briti.sh  army  in  India, 
is  an  allowance  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  pay  of 
officers.  The  pay  is  fixed ;  but  the  B.  varies  accord- 
ing to  the  part  of  the  country  in  which  the  troops 
are  placed,  and  also  depends  on  the  circumstance  of 
their  being  in  the  field  or  in  cantonments.  If  in  the 
field,  or  more  than  200  miles  from  the  presidential 
government  cities,  the  officers  receive  full  B. ;  if  in 
garrison,  or  in  cantonment  within  that  distance,  half 
batta.  During  the  troubles  of  1857  and  1858,  the 
government  was  frequently  embarrassed  in  deter- 
mining whether  particular  officers  were  entitled  to 
full  or  half  B.,  owing  to  the  confusion  into  which  the 
whole  military  system  was  temporarily  thrown. 

BATTA'LION  is  the  unit  of  command  in  infantry. 
It  comprises  the  largest  number  of  men  who,  when 
drawn  up  in  array,  can  conveniently  hear  the  word 
of  command  from  an  officer.  In  whatever  ways  the 
armies  of  Europe  dificr  in  other  particulars,  they 
seldom  depart  very  far  from  a  mean  of  1000  men 
per  battalion.  Two  or  more  of  those  units  combine 
to  form  a  regiment  (with  exceptions  presently  to  be 
noticed) ;  and  those  regiments  are  further  aggregated 
into  brigades,  divisions,  and  corpa  d'armee,  or  other 
large  groupings.  The  unit,  or  B.,  is  divided  into 
wings,  and  these  into  companies  and  squads.  The 
continental  regiments  are  for  the  most  part  so 
large  as  to  comprise  several  battalions  each  ;  but 
the  British  infantry  regiments,  in  time  of  peace, 
have  mostly  only  one  B.  each.  The  usual  Avay  of 
increasing  the  British  infantry  in  war-time  is,  not 
by  creating  new  regiments,  but  by  increasing  the 
number  of  battalions  per  regiment,  and  of  com- 
panies per  battalion.  In  the  beginning  of  1860, 
there  were  a  100  regiments  of  line-infantry  ;  of  these, 
more  than  half  have  only  1  battalion  each,  several 
have  2  battalions,  and  1  has  as  many  as  4.  The  full 
complement  of  a  B.  is  usually  10  companies;  and 
when  these  are  drawn  up  on  parade,  two  ranks 
in  depth,  the  two  choice  companies,  called  the 
'grenadier'  and  the  'light-infantry'  companies, 
are  placed  at  the  right  and  left  extremities  of  the 
752 


whole  line  ;  the  other  eight  companies,  each  desig- 
nated by  a  number,  being  between  them.  In  this 
form,  the  front  of  a  B.  of  1000  men  is  about  390 
yards  in  length. 

An  English  B.  of  900  private  soldiers  approaches 
near  llDO  strong  when  the  officers,  &c.,  are  included. 
The  following  may  be  taken  as  the  component 
elements,  under  the  ordinary  average  arrangements 
of  the  British  service :  9  regimental  stall-officers 
(lieutenant-colonel,  major,  adjutant,  surgeon,  assist- 
ant-surgeon, paymaster,  quartermaster) ;  36  com- 
pany officers  (captain,  lieutenant,  ensign);  1  warrant 
officer  (regimental  schoolmaster);  7  non-commis- 
sioned staff  officers  (staff  and  chief  sergeants);  100 
non-commissioned  company  offici'is  (ordinary  ser- 
geants and  corporals) ;  925  rank  and  file  (25  drummers 
and  900  privates). 

The  relation  which  the  B.  bears  to  the  regiment, 
in  various  details  of  discipline  and  service,  will  be 
better  noticed  under  Rkgiment  ;  while  a  few  related 
matters  of  a  more  general  nature  will  be  found 
treated  under  British  Army. 

BA'TTAS,  the  name  of  a  race  of  people  inhabit- 
ing that  part  of  Sumatra  between  the  e(iuator  and 
the  parallel  of  2°  3ii'  N.  kit.  They  have  regular  and 
fine  features,  like  those  of  the  ordinary  Malays;  but 
they  speak  a  peculiar  Malayo-Polynesian  language, 
have  an  alplial)et  of  their  own,  a  peculiar  reckoning 
of  time,  and  even  a  peculiar  set  of  figures  for  the 
signs  of  the  zodiac.  They  formerly  w  rote  on  paper 
made  of  bark,  but  now  generally  on  bamboos.  The 
B.  have  evidently  fallen  back  in  civilization,  and 
there  ai'e  traditions  among  them  of  a  former  higher 
civilisation  derived  from  India.  Some  consider  them 
to  be  of  Hindu  origin.  Their  whole  country  is  in  a 
state  of  anarchy,  every  village  is  independent,  with 
a  hereditary  rajah  of  its  o\Vn,  who  has  very  little 
power  except  in  time  of  war.  Their  religion  con- 
sists in  an  adoration  of  good  and  evil  spirits.  They 
arc  cannibals,  yet  they  have  high  notions  of  the 
sacred  rights  and  duties  of  hospitality.  They  are 
said  to  eat  their  .aged  and  infirm  relatives,  as  an 
act  of  pious  duty,  the  victim  himself  inviting  the 
guests  to  the  feast !  They  are  passionately  addicted 
to  cock-fighting,  and  betting  upon  it. 

BATTASZE'K,  a  market-town  of  Hungary, 
county  Tolna,   on  the  west  of  the   Danube.     Pop. 

5370. 

BA'TTEL,  Trial  hy,  or  WAGER  OF  BATTEL. 
This  relic  of  our  legal  barbarism  is  happily  of  the 
things  of  the  past,  having  been  abolished  by  act 
of  parliament,  the  59  Geo.  III.  c.  46,  and  might 
have  been  passed  over  with  a  brief  notice,  had  it 
not  been  for  a  circumstance  which  we  shall  presently 
mention,  and  which  affords  a  curious  and  striking 
illustration  of  a  principle  peculiar  to  the  character 
of  English  law,  as  distinguished  from  the  legal  sys- 
tems of  other  countries. 

The  trial  by  B.  was  a  proceeding  by  way  of  appeal, 
and  it  obtained  in  civil  and  criminal  cases,  and  also 
in  military  matters,  to  which,  indeed,  it  was  more 
appropriate.  It  consisted  of  a  personal  combat 
between  the  parties  in  presence  of  the  court  itself; 
and  it  was  grounded  on  the  impious  idea  of  an 
appeal  to  Providence,  the  expectation  being,  that 
Heaven  would  give  the  victory  to  the  innocent  or 
injured  party.  la  civil  cases,  the  B.  was  waged  by 
chamjiions,  and  not  by  the  parties  themselves ;  but 
in  criminal  cases,  the  parties  fought  in  person, 
unless  the  appellor  were  a  woman,  a  priest,  an 
infant,  or  a  man  of  the  age  of  sixty,  or  lame,  or 
blind,  all  of  whom  might  refuse  the  wager  of  B., 
and  compel  the  trial  by  jury.  Peers  of  the  realm 
also  could  not  be  challenged  to  wage  B.,  on  account 
of  their  personal  dignity,   nor,  by  special  charter, 


BATTEN— BATTERSEA. 


could  the  citizens  of  Loudon,  fighting  being  con- 
sidered foreign  to  their  education  and  employ- 
ment. Whether  by  champions  or  in  person,  the 
mode  of  proceeding  was  the  same.  The  appellee, 
or  defendant,  as  he  might  be  called,  threw  down 
his  glove,  and  declared  that  he  would  prove  his 
right,  or  defend  himself  with  his  body.  The  appellor, 
or  prosecutor,  in  accepting  the  challenge,  took  up 
the  glove,  and  replied  that  he  was  ready  to  make 
good  his  appeal,  body  for  body;  and  thereupon 
the  parties,  holding  each  other's  hands,  joined  issue 
before  the  court  in  a  very  formal  and  solemn 
manner.  The  weapons  used  were  batons  or  staves 
an  ell  long,  and  a  four-cornered  leathern  target,  and 
the  combatants  were  obliged  to  swear  that  neither  of 
them  would  resort  to  sorcery  or  witchcraft !  The 
B.  lasted  till  the  stars  appeared  in  the  evening,  and 
the  party  who  by  tiiat  time  had  either  killed  or  got 
the  better  of  his  opponent,  was  considered  the  suc- 
cessful suitor  of  justice.  In  a  charge  of  murder,  if 
the  accused  was  slain,  it  was  taken  as  proof  of  his 
guilt,  and  his  blood  was  attainted;  and  if  so  far 
vanquished  as  not  to  be  able  or  willing  to  fight  any 
longer,  he  was  adjudged  guilty,  and  sentenced  to  be 
hanged  immediately ! 

So  late  as  the  year  1818,  this  barbarous  procedure 
■was  solemnly  decided  by  the  Court  of  King's  Bench 
to  be  a  valid  and  legal  mode  of  trial,  which  the 
king's  subjects  were  free  to  adopt!  Of  course,  the 
principle  was,  that  all  laws,  no  matter  how  unsuit- 
able to  the  times,  could  be  enforced,  unless  expi-essly 
repealed  by  act  of  Parliament.  As  a  matter  of 
curiosity,  we  may  give  the  names  of  the  parties  (they 
were  of  the  laboring-class)  who  seriously  submitted 
their  contention  in  the  above  form  before  Lord  Chief- 
justice  Ellenborough  and  his  brother-judges  of  the 
period.  The  case  is  that  of  Ashford  %k  Thornton, 
and  is  reported  in  the  first  volume  of  Barnwall  and 
Alderson's  Reports,  p.  405.  As  we  have  stated,  the 
court  decided  in  favour  of  the  validity  of  the  trial, 
one  of  the  judges  remarking  that  sufficient  had  not 
been  stated  to  induce  their  Lordships  to  refuse  the 
B.,  and  another  more  plainly  and  unequivocally 
observed  that  the  defendant  was  '  entitled  to  this 
his  lav'ful  mode  of  trial.'  But  Lord  Ellenborough 
put  the  matter  more  clearly  by  stating  that  '  the 
general  law  of  the  land  is  in  favour  of  the  wager  of 
B.,  and  it  is  our  duty  to  pronounce  the  law  as  it  is, 
and  not  as  we  may  wish  it  to  be;  whatever  preju- 
dices, therefore,  may  justly  exist  against  this  mode 
of  trial,  still,  as  it  is  the  law  of  the  land,  the  court 
must  pronounce  judgment  for  it.'  Happily,  the  pug- 
nacious litigant  who  obtained  this  judgment  was 
induced  to  go  no  furtlier,  and  the  above  statute,  the 
59  Geo.  III.  c.  40,  was  passed,  by  which  the  shock- 
ing ordeal  was  wholly  abolished. 

In  Scotland,  we  believe  the  matter  would  have 
been  differently  disposed  of;  for  the  judges  there, 
following  the  doctrine  of  the  Roman  law,  would 
have  held  the  proceedings  to  have  been  in  desuetude 
and  obsolete,  and  there  the  matter  would  have 
ended.  Mr.  Rush,  the  then  American  envoy  to 
the  British  court,  thus  justly  remarks  on  this 
case  in  his  Residence  at  the  Court  of  London 
(published  18.33).  'To  repeal  laws  belongs  to  the 
legislature.  Courts  expound  and  apply  them.  Free 
government  is  complex  and  works  slowly  ;  tyranny 
is  simple,  and  does  its  work  at  once.  An  absurd 
law  may  sleep  in  a  free  code,  because  overlooked  ; 
but  whilst  there,  it  is  the  law.  It  is  so,  I  suppose, 
that  we  must  reason  ;  and  generally,  the  reason 
would  be  right.  Yet  it  might  have  been  thought 
that,  in  a  case  like  this,  long  disuse,  added  to  obvi- 
ous absurdity,  would  have  worked  the  silent  repeal 
of  the  law,  according  to  the  doctrine  of  desuetude 
under  the  Roman  code.' 
48 


Montesquieu,  in  his  S>j,ir'd  of  Laws,  book  28, 
chapters  20  and  22,  very  ingeniously  and  plausibly 
deduces  the  modern  practice  of  duelling  and  the 
so-called  laws  of  honour  from  the  above  barbarous 
judicial  combat.     See  Oude^l. 

BATTEN,  or  LAY,  or  LATHE,  is  the  swing 
utensil  of  a  loom,  by  which  the  weft  or  woof  is 
struck  home,  and  in  which  the  shuttle  runs.  B.  and 
lay  are  synonymous,  B.  being  the  English  name,  and 
lay  the  Scotch.     See  Weaving. 

BATTENS,  a  species  of  sawn  fir  timber,  of 
smaller  dimensions  than  the  kind  called  ])lunks.  B. 
are  usually  from  12  to  14  feet  long,  V  inches  broad, 
and  2i  inches  thick.  Cut  into  two  boards  {\\  inch 
thick),  they  are  used  for  flooring ;  cut  into  three 
boards,  they  are  put  on  roofs  below  slates;  in 
narrower  pieces,  they  are  put  upright  on  walls  for 
fixing  the  laths  for  plastering.  The  best  B.  are 
brought  from  Norway,  and  sold  wholesale  by  wood- 
merchants. 

BA'TTER,  in  Architecture,  used  as  a  verb  to 
express  the  manner  in  which  the  walls  of  towers, 
which  are  smaller  at  the  top  than  the  bottom  slope 
inwards.  The  walls  of  wharfs,  and  those  built  to 
suppo/t  embankments  and  the  like,  usually  batter. 

BATTERING-RAM,  an  engine  of  war  used  in 
ancient  times,  and  in  the  middle  ages.  It  consisted 
of  a  beam  of  wood,  with  a  mass  of  bronze  or  iron  on 
one  end,  resembling  the  head  of  aram  (inLat.  aries). 
In  its  simplest  form  it  was  borne  and  impelled  by 


Battering-ram. 

the  hands  of  the  soldiers  ;  afterwards,  it  was  sus- 
pended in  a  frame,  and  made  to  swing.  Another 
form  moVed  on  rollers.  The  alternating  motion  was 
communicated  by  ropes.  To  protect  those  working 
it,  a  wooden  roof  {testudo)  was  constructed  over  it, 
and  the  whole  was  mounted  on  wheels.  The  beam 
of  the  ram  varied  from  60  to  120  feet  in  length,  the 
head  sometimes  weighed  above  a  ton,  and  as  many 
as  100  men  were  employed  in  impelling  the  machine. 
When  the  blows  were  long  enougli  continued,  hardly 
any  wall  could  resist.  When  or  where  it  was  in- 
vented is  unknown.  It  is  mentioned  by  Ezekiel. 
The  Romans  derived  it  from  the  Greeks. 

BA'TTERSEA,  a  south-west  suburb  of  London, 
situated  in  Surrey,  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Thames, 
at  the  bridge  to  Chelsea,  which  is  nearly  opposite. 
It  lies  in  B.  parish,  which  is  chiefly  laid  out  in 
market-gardens  for  London.  Population,  including 
Penge,  24,615.  The  church  has  a  monument  to  the 
celebrated  Lord  Bolingbroke.  The  flats,  called  B. 
Fields,  once  famed  as  a  rich  botanical  station,  are 
now  formed  into  a  public  park.  In  addition  to  the 
old  bridge  called  B.  Bridge,  crossing  the  river  near 
the  centre  of  the  park,  there  has  been  erected  an 
elegant  suspension-bridge  at  its  east  end,  called  the 
Chelsea  Bridge.  The  first  asparagus  raised  near 
London  was  grown  by  the  market-gardeners  of 
Battersea. 

753 


BATTERY, 


BATTERY,  in  criminal  law,  means  the  beating  or 
wounding,  or,  more  correctly,  an  assault  by  beating 
or  wounding  of  another.  Violence  or  force  is  not  a 
necessary  element  in  this  offence,  but  the  least 
touching,  however  trifling,  of  another's  person  in 
an  angry,  rude,  insulting  manner,  is  a  B.  ;  for  the 
law,  says  Blaclvstoue,  cannot  draw  the  line  between 
different  degrees  of  violence,  and  therefore  totally 
prohibits  the  first  and  lowest  stage  of  it,  every  man's 
person  being  sacred,  and  no  one  having  a  right  to 
meddle  with  it  in  any  the  slightest  manner.  The 
remedy  for  an  injury  of  this  kind  may  be  either  by  a 
civil  action  as  for  damages,  or  by  indictment,  as 
for  a  misdemeanour.  Where  the  B.  is  on  a  man's 
wife,  the  former  may  sue  for  damages  by  action  of 
trespass,  and  it  must  be  brought  in  the  names  of  the 
husband  and  wife  jointly;  but  if  the  maltreatment 
be  so  serious  as  to  have  deprived  the  husband  for 
any  time  of  his  wife's  company,  the  law  then  gives 
him  a  separate  remedy,  by  an  action  in  which  he  may 
recover  special  damage,  on  the  ground  of  the  loss 
of  his  wife's  society,  whilst  suffering  from  the 
beating.  By  the  Common  Law  Procedure  Act,  the 
15  and  16  Vic.  c.  76,  the  remedy  for  such  ill  usage 
is  further  varied,  for  by  section  40  of  that  act,  it  is 
provided  that  in  any  action  brought  by  a  man  and 
his  wife,  for  an  injury  done  to  the  latter,  it  shall  be 
lawful  for  the  husband  to  add  thereto  claims  in  his 
own  right,  and  separate  actions  brought  in  respect 
of  such  claims  may  be  consolidated,  if  the  court  or  a 
judge  shall  think  fit. 

It  is  a  good  defence  to  prove  that  the  alleged 
B.  happened  by  accident,  or  that  it  was  not  in  anger, 
or  that  it  was  merely  the  correction  which  a  parent 
or  master  is  entitled  to  use  to  a  child,  or  scholar,  or 
servant,  or  that  it  was  done  in  self-defence,  or  in 
defence  of  a  wife,  a  husband,  a  parent,  a  child,  a 
master,  or  a  servant ;  or  that  it  was  such  personal 
force  as  a  proper  officer  was  entitled  to  employ,  or 
that  the  defendant  has  already  been  summarily 
proceeded  against  under  the  9  Geo.  IV.  c.  31,  by 
sections  27  and  28  of  which  act  it  is  provided  that 
further  proceedings  shall  be  barred  where  the 
complaint  has  been  disposed  of  by  two  justices 
either  by  conviction  or  dismissal  of  the  case,  pro- 
vided, in  the  former  case,  the  defendant  has  paid 
the  penalty,  and  suffered  the  imprisonment  awarded  ; 
and,  in  the  latter,  the  magistrates  have  dismissed 
the  case,  because  it  was  justified,  or  so  trifling  as 
not  to  merit  punishment,  and  this  be  forthwith  cer- 
tified under  their  hands. 

In  the  Scotch  law,  there  was  what  was  called  a 
B.  pendente  lite,  whicli  consisted  in  assaulting  an 
adversary  in  a  lawsuit  during  its  dependence.  This 
peculiar  offence  was  created  by  two  old  Scotch 
statutes,  passed  respectively  in  1584  and  1504 — and 
which  curiously  provided  as  a  punishment  the  loss 
of  the  cause  to  the  offender — but  they  were  repealed 
in  1826  by  the  7  Geo.  IV.  c.  19. 

BA'TTERY,  in  military  language,  has  two  mean- 
ings :  the  one  relating  to  field  operations ;  the  other, 
to  fortification.  A  battery  in  Field-operations  con- 
sists of  from  4  to  8  (in  the  British  army,  usually  6) 
pieces  of  ordnance,  together  with  the  necessary  gun- 
carriages,  ammunition-wagons,  horses,  artillerymen, 
and  officers.  A  B.  of  foot-artillery  (see  Artillery, 
Royal  Rkgiment  of)  is  usually  called  aJield-B.,  as 
distinguished  from  a  liorse-B.  There  are  also  lieairy 
and  light  batteries,  according  to  the  weight  of  the 
ordnance.  The  term  B.  is  also  applied  in  a  narrower 
sense  to  the  personnel,  or  complement  of  men  and 
officers  attending  such  a  set  of  guns.  The  desig- 
nation for  this  used  to  be,  in  tlie  foot-artillery,  a 
company,  and  in  the  horse-artillery,  a  troop  ;  but 
by  an  order  issued  in  1859,  both  these  terms  are 
now  nearly  superseded  by  the  word  B.,  thereby 
754 


giving  comjilcxity  to  a  term  already  used  in  two 
different  meanings.  The  personnel  of  a  field  B. 
of  five  12-pounder  guns,  and  one  24-pounder  how- 
itzer, may  be  thus  composed :  2  captains,  3  sub- 
alterns, 1  surgeon,  2  staff-sergeants,  3  sergeants,  3 
corporals,  8  bombardiers,  96  gunners,    1   trumpeter, 

1  farrier,  1  carriage-smith,  5  shoeing-smiths,  2 
collar-makers,  2  wheelers,  1  driver  (sergeant),  4 
drivers  (corporals),  93  drivers  (privates) — in  all, 
228.  For  a  similar  B.  of  5-pounders,  the  number 
may  be  178. 

The  materiel  for  a  12-pounder  B.  of  6  guns  com- 
prises 6  carriages  for  the    guns,    1    spare    carriage, 

2  store-wagons,  1  store-cart,  1  forge-wagon,  and 
12  ammunition  wagons.  To  draw  these  guns  and 
vehicles  are  required  about  160  horses,  together  with 
80  saddle-horses,  and7  bnggagc-horses.  The  vehicles 
and  boxes  are  prepared  for  the  reception  of  about 
600  round-shot,  80  case-shot,  320  shrapnel  shells,  50 
or  60  common  shells,  and  4  carcasses.  There  is  also 
carried  a  supply  of  empty  cartridges,  port-fires,  fuses, 
quick  match,  slow  match,  and  an  immense  numlier 
of  tools  and  small  articles,  besides  stores  for  the 
wheelers,  shoeing-smiths,  and  collar-makers.  Nearly 
all  these  supplies  are  equally  divided  among  the  six 
guns,  so  as  to  make  each,  as  far  as  convenient,  inde- 
pendent of  the  other  ;  but  some  of  the  stores  are  in 
reserve  for  the  u.se  of  the  whole  battery.  When  on 
the  field  of  battle,  9  gunners  are  actually  concerned 
with  the  firing  of  each  gun,  besides  officers  and 
others. 

A  l)attery,  in  Fortification,  is  a  row  of  large  guns 
of  any  number,  from  two  to  twenty  or  upwards, 
mounted  on  an  earth-work  or  other  platform.  It 
differs  from  an  artillery  or  field  B.  in  having  no 
horses  or  vehicles  immediately  belonging  to  it. 
Siege-guns  are  mostly  placed  in  or  on  such  batteries  ; 
and  when  an  army  is  preparing  to  resist  the  occu- 
pation of  a  particular  place  by  an  enemy,  a  B.  of 
position  is  frequently  one  of  the  defensive  means 
adopted.  On  the  other  hand,  the  fortifications  on 
and  within  the  walls  of  a  stronghold  generally  ob- 
tain other  names  than  that  of  B. ;  although  par- 
ticular rows  of  guns  in  certain  places  may  be  so 
called.  Military  engineers  distinguish  many  differ- 
ent kinds  of  batteries,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
duty  which  they  are  to  fullil,  or  of  the  ground  on 
which  they  are  placed.  An  elevated  B.  has  the 
parapet  raised  above  the  ground ;  the  earth  for 
forming  it  being  obtained  from  a  ditch  in  front.  A 
lialf-simken  B.  has  the  interior  slope  sunk  a  little 
below  the  surface.  A  sitnkcn  B.  has  the  base  from 
24  to  42  inches  below  the  level  of  the  ground.  The 
guns  mounted  on  these  three  kinds  of  batteries 
partake  in  the  varying  elevations  of  the  batteries 
themselves,  and  are  adapted  to  different  modes  of 
firing  on  the  enemy.  A  siege-Q.  consists  of  a  range 
of  heavy  guns,  for  silencing  the  enemy's  fire,  ruining 
parapets  and  buildings,  and  making  a  breach  through 
which  infantry  may  enter.  A  cavalier-B.  is  especially 
elevated,  to  fire  over  a  parapet  without  embrasures. 
Enfilade,  en  rcvers,  en  echarpe,  ricochet,  cross,  o^iliquc 
batteries,  and  others  variously  named,  differ  chiefly 
in  the  direction  in  which  they  pour  out  the  fire  of 
their  guns  upon  the  enemy.  The  distinction  between 
^gzm-batteries,  /t02(iitee?'-batteries,  and  mortar-h^X,- 
teries,  depends  on  the  kind  of  ordnance  employed. 
A  mortar-B.  has  a  ditch  of  extra  width,  to  afford 
spare  earth  for  a  platform  of  extra  strength  and 
solidity.  A  military  engineer,  in  planning  a  B., 
imitates  a  civil  engineer  in  planning  a  lailway  ;  he 
makes  his  calculations  in  such  form  that  the  quan- 
tity of  earth  taken  out  at  one  spot  may  about  equal 
that  heaped  up  in  another. 

These  batteries  are  all  nearly  alike  in  the  gene- 
ral  principle    of  their   construction.     They    consist 


BATTERY-BATTLE. 


. ^                .  yarcb  1S48      Hi^  al)ility  was  not   equal 

pri.nurily  of  an  cpaulement,  or  built-«P  shelter  behind    its   own  ;^^   ^^  ins 'intentions,  and   the   circum- 

which  the   guns^arc  placed;  ^^'^^^^f ""  °"j;'' ^    ',t,  fees  in  which   he   was  called  to  act  were  very 

the  guns  act^ually  rest  mayor  may  not  be  a^^^^^^^^^  embarrassing.     He  did    not    hold    the 


parapet. 


""•n     nil   the    eX    Par^l;    whle  others  may  be    unjust. 

.vith   all   the   f^"^   P:^"/;'J^\  or  of  a  polvgon,  and        ra'TTLE,  a  town  in  East  Sussex,  8  miles  north' 
S^  :."rthl  k   l"°  ot  crtrueted'acco^ding^^  .vhere  the  country  rises  in  woo  ed 

T  leret^enimlly  a  ditch  from  12  to  20  feet  wide,  ,„.,iis.  Consisting  of  one  street,  ^"^^  ^f  "|^  ^^^ 
\  ;io  +W  earthwork  •  and  the  depth  from  the  ^g„ji„„  from  north-west  to  south-east.  Pop.  32 J^. 
elis  of  tt  parap  t  to  the  bottom  if  the  ditch  is  J^^^^  ,, ted  for  its  manufacture  of  g-PO^^^^^J^ 
10  to  16  feet  Fo'^'  gun  and  howitzer  batteries,  there  j  i,,^,,,„  to  sportsmen  as  B.  powden  It  ^/^/^"cient^j 
le  embrasures  through  which  the  firing  tal«>s  place  ;  ^.^^d  Iletheland  or  Epiton,  and  d«"yes  its  present 
Srori-batteries  are  without  those  openings.  „^,„,e  from  the  battle  (usual  y  called  ^be  l^^iUle  «t 

^r,?.tbnes  the  eniulement  is  thrown  up  loosely,  Hastings),  fought  on  the  heath  between  it  and  Hast- 
•  ^r  but  for  Ue  better  kinds  of  batteries,  ^,t',  on  14th  October  lo06,  when  the  Normans,  under 
fo.cin  Gabions,  and  Lnd  bags  are  largely  employed.  "^^  the  Conqueror,  finahy  overthrew  the  Saxon 
The  main  sructu-e  is  lined  with  fascines  9  feet  long,  ^  ty  in  England.  William,  to  commemo.  ate  his 
lud  Th"  emb  -asure  lined  with  other  fascines  18  feet  ^,f^tor/,  founded  in  1067,  on  the  spo  -h-^^e  H'" o^  . 
fon.^Oor  50of  the  two  kinds  being  required  per  standard  ,,-,,  taken,  a  ^Pl'^"^'^  ,=!^'^7:  "„^  ^Vit 
lun  The  fascines  here  spoken  of  are  long  bundles  1  flowed  .-uh  all  the_  land  within  ^ J^eag«^ /^  ^  ^ 
f\^.,J  .vnofl  -ft-eio-hin"-  30  to  200  lbs.  each,  borne-  -jj  ^bbey  had  the  privileges  of  a  sanctuai>,  ana 
less;u^-?4r  re  uled  instead  of  fascines,  each  Jhe  Conqueror's  sword  and  a  roll  of  1- '--ns  were 
containing  about  a  bushel  of  sand  or  earth  ;anc  ^ited  in  it.  The  existing  ^'^^^^'^^^^J^^^^^S 
'ometknes  gabions,  which  are  wicker  cylinders  filled  to\a  building  erected  subsequently  to  the  on  mal 
wTth  earth  A  6-gun  sand-bag  B.,  made  wholly  of  L^^bp,.^  occupy  three  sides  of  a  quadrangle,  and  ait 
these  materials   requires  nearly  8000  sand-bags.     •       ^bout  a  mile  in  circumference. 

The  fate  of  a  field-B.  often  decides  a  battle.     At  .^^^E  is  a  combat  between  large  masses  of 

the  battle  of  the  Alma,  when  once  the  ^uarcls  and        l^A  1  ^^^^.^^_     ^^.^..^  j^  i,t  to  have 

Highlanders  had  reached  the  ^f  ^'^^  J '^  ^'^"^^^i  f™.  i  s  object  the  determination,  if  possible,  ot 
on°the  hill,  the  day  was  won  At  ^!^«b-^"l%J^  J^  whole  contest,  or  at  least  the  effecting  of  some 
Inkermann,    the    issue    depended    mainly    on     he     he  ^^^  It  is  therefore  the  aim 

possession  of  a  small  2-gun  sand-bag  ^Z'  ^,^'^ J  o7a  general  to  bring  about  an  engagement  at  the 
"emained,   after  many  vicissitudes,  m  the  h^^^^^^  "^  I  ^^1"^    point.      This    constitutes    Strategy,    while 

Tactic  is  concerned  with  the  handling  of  the  trooj>s 
in  the  actual  battle.  Victory  on  the  ba  tic-field  is 
not  enough  for  a  general ;  it  is  only  by  fo^lo-ing  p 
his  victory  to  the  annihilation,  if  possible,  of  the 
beaten  army,  that  its  fruits  are  secured.  Order  of 
B  i'the  particular  way  in  which  the  several  corps 
of  different  arms  are  disposed  fm;  entering  into  an 


the  allies 

BATTERY,  Floating.     See  Floating  Battery. 

BA'TTERY,  Electric  and  Galvakio.  See  Elkc- 
TRiciTY  and  Galvanism. 

■RiTTHY^'NYI  one  of  the  oldest,  richest,  and 
„,„''sf™I:"dYA,i..e.  of  .he  H"..p.™  .«^-»;    "^J^l^r./T  SnrSJff^^r.imc.l  ana  is 

which   has  given   to   Hungary  many  warriors    and 
statesmen.     The    surname    is   derived    from    land. 


obtained  in  the  14th  c.-Baltliasar  von  B  who  was 
the  head  of  the  family  in  the  latter  half  ot  the  16th 
c  fought  with  distinction  in  the  Turkish  wars  and 
con«taStly  maintained  at  his  own  expense  1200 
infantry  and  500  cavalry.— Charles,  Pnnce  of  B., 
a  Lieutenant-field-marshal  of  the  Empire,  distin- 
'..uished  himself  in  the  Bavarian  War  of  Succession 

and  particularly  by  a  victory   oyer  the  French  and 

Bavarians    at    Pfaffenhofen    on   15th    April    1'745.- 

Count  Casimir  B.,  a  member  of  the  principal  branch 

of  the   familv,w'as  born  4th  June  1807      He  was    '^^^!;^'^'^-—;f^{,-^^cncs\iuiinenceon 

^^!-L^  j^^:^  ^^i:^in^^SlSS£  !  ^J^w;to^Ll  SJ^Tpolitical  Jdltion,  wl^^  we  can 


No  -eneral  account  of  a  B.  can  be  given.  Into  - 
matiou  on  the  various  elements  of  which  a  B.  consists 
will  be  found  described  under  such  heads  as  Attack, 
Artillery,  Cavalry,  Infantry,  Charge,  Ileet, 
GrxNERY  Tvctics,  &c.  The  more  important  indi- 
vidual battles  will  be  found  described  in  their 
causes  and  results,  under  the  names  of  the  places 
with  which  they  are  associated. 

Considered  in  their  poUtical  relations,^  the  import- 
ance of  battles  is  not  always  in  pro]3ortion  to  their 
ma-nitude.  'There  are  some  battles  which  claim 
Tr^lttention,  independently  of  the  moral  worth  of 
the  combatants,  on  account  of  their  endurn^  import- 


iaiinsier  ui   xyji^'-^^'    "- ,     ,        ,''     •,.  ..        •  T.^^1  ^„v  r>wn  snpin    and  DOiuicai  cuiii.ui.iuii,  ..ia.>-"  ..- — - 

insurrection  in  1849,  in  which  he  ^1^  f  -f-^^^  1  ^^^^^^^J    ^  resuSs  of  those  engagements.     They 

himself    as    a   military  governor.     ^^'^.^    the   ca  a        race  up  to  ^^^  ^^  .^^^^^^^^  ^^^th 

trophe    of  Yilagos,    he   fled,    along   -f  ^   WUM 1^^^^^^ 

into    the    Turkish    territory,   where    he    ^^7^    f,J  ^^'^    "i/^they  have  helped  to  make  us  what  we 

till    1851.     He     then    ^"ent    *«   France,    and    ch.^  ^^.P  .^^,^te    on   what    we 

at  Paris,  13th  July  1854.     Count  ^ouisB.,  belong-    aie      and   a  .^  ^^^   ^^  ^^^^^ 

ing  to   another   branch  of    the    same    fami  y     ^"^M  P~^  ^.^J'^l  to  a  different  termination.'-Pro- 

bom   at   Presburg   in    1809,   having    <^^PO"-;d   th«    ^  ^^^^^^ 

national   cause,  yet  seeking   to   mamtain   ^^'^''^n^^^^^^^^  i    Waterloo.     The   fifteen   battles 

nection    with    Austria    and    his    fl^S'^-l^^ /«   ^^  l-^^.^^^^^^ 

SS,  XraS^rSS^rtnLt^;  ^:;f  1  ^^eclslve  infiuence.  are  the  loUowing:     ^^^ 


BATTLE— BATURIN. 


B.C. 

490.  Battle  of  Marathon. 

413.  Defeat  of  the  Athenians  at  Syracuse. 

331.  Battle  of  Arbela. 

207.       "       "    the  Metaurus. 

A.D. 

9.  Defeat  of  the  Romans  under  Varus. 
451.  Battle  of  Chalons. 
732.       "       "  Tours. 
1066.       "       "  Hastings. 
1429.  Joan  of  Arc's  victory  at  Orleans. 
1588.  Defeat  of  the  Spanish  Armada. 
1704.  Battle  of  Blenheim. 
1709.       "       "  Pultowa. 
1777.  Defeat  of  Burgoyne  at  Saratoga. 
1792.  Battle  ofVulmy. 
1815.       "       "  Waterloo. 
BATTLE,  Wa'ger  of.     See  Battel. 
BA'TTLE-AXE  was  a  weapon  much  used  by  the 
early   northern    nations,    Celtic    and    Scandinavian, 
requiring   great   strength   in    its   use.     Some   were 
held  with  one  hand,   some   with  two  ;    the  former 
kind  could   be  wielded  equally  by  horse  and  foot, 
but   the    latter    was  for  foot-soldiers  only.     The  B. 
had  a  longer  handle,  and  a  Ijroader,  stronger,  and 
sharper  blade  than  the  common  axe.     During   the 


Battle-axes. 

middle  ages,  and  somewhat  earlier,  it  was  much 
used  in  sorties,  and  to  prevent  the  escahuling  of  a 
besieged  fortress.  The  pole-arc  differed  but  little 
from  the  battle-axe.  The  black  bill  and  hroivn  hill 
were  a  sort  of  halbert,  having  the  cutting  part 
hooked  like  a  woodman's  bill,  with  a  spike  project- 
ing from  the  back,  and  another  from  the  head. 
The  glaive  was  a  kind  of  pole-axe  or  bill  used  by 
the  Welsh. 

BATTLEMENT,  a  notched  or  indented  parapet 
used  in  fortifications.     The  rising  parts   are  called 


Early  English  Traceried  Battlement. 

cops  or  merlons ;  the  spaces  by  which  they  are 
separated,  crenels,  embrasures,  and  sometimes  loops. 
The  object  of  the  device  is  to  enable  the  soldier  to 


Simple  form  of  Battlement. 

shelter  himself  behind  the  merlon,  whilst  he  shoots 
through  the  embrasure.     The  bas-reliefs  of  Nineveh, 
and  the  Egyptian  paintings,  testify  to  its  antiquity, 
756 


and  there  is  perhaps  no  nation  by  which  it  has  not 
been  adopted. 

BATTLEriECES  are  paintings  representing 
battles.  The  modern  mode  of  warfare  is  less 
favourable  for  this  branch  of  art  than  the  ancient, 
where  personal  valour  had  more  room  to  display 
itself.  Among  the  greatest  paintings  of  this  kind 
are  the  l)attle  of  Constantinc,  sketched  by  Rafael, 
and  executed  by  Giulio  Romano ;  Lebrun's  battles 
of  Alexander;  and  the  battle  of  the  Amazons  by 
Rubens.  In  smaller  scenes,  such  as  skirmishes  and 
surprises,  Antonio  Tempeste,  Hans  Snellink,  Pet. 
Snvders,  Fulcone,  Phil.  Wouverman,  &c.,  are  distin- 
guished. The  most  eminent  of  recent  battle-painters 
is  Iloi'ace  Yernet. 

BATTUE  (from  Fr.  battrc,  to  beat).  The  B.  is  a 
method  of  killing  game  on  a  great  scale,  by  causing 
animals  to  be  driven  forward  to  a  point  where  a 
number  of  shooters  are  waiting  to  shoot  them.  The 
driving  is  effected  by  beating  the  bushes;  hence 
the  term  battue.  This  term,  like  the  practice  which 
it  imports,  is  only  of  modern  date  ;  vet  a  plan  of 
killing  deer  by  driving  them  forward  in  herds  in  an 
ever-narrowing  circle  to  a  place  where  they  are  to 
be  shot,  is  an  old  usage  in  the  Highlands,  where  it  is 
called  the  tinchcl.  Tlie  B.  is  at  best  a  common-place 
and  butcherly  amuscniont,  for  it  can  scarcely  be 
said  to  have  the  inerit  of  being  attended  with  even  a 
reasonable  degree  of  exercise  and  excitenient.  It  is 
practised  chiefly  in  extensive  preserves  of  pheasants 
and  hares  during  the  autumn  and  winter  months, 
when  country  gentlemen  invite  acquaintances  to  their 
mansions  for  the  sake  of  field-sports.  The  B.  takes 
plnce  early  in  the  day,  and  with  good  arrangements, 
it  is  attended  with  neither  fatigue  nor  danger.  The 
number  of  shooters  is  usually  eight  or  ten,  each  pro- 
vided with  at  least  two  guns,  which  are  loaded  by 
an  assistant  as  quickly  as  they  are  discharged. 
When  the  shooters  are  stationed  at  safe  distances 
from  each  other,  and  ready  to  commence  work,  the 
beaters  begin  theirs  by  driving  the  game  before  them. 
Sometimes,  however,  pheasants  will  run  a  long  way 
before  rising  on  wing,  and  to  make  them  take  to 
flight  on  approaching  the  guns,  a  low  net  is  stretched 
across  their  path.  It  should  be  stated,  however, 
that  in  the  B.,  hares,  rabbits,  &c.,  are  shot  as  readily 
as  pheasants  ;  and  at  length  tli;  ground  is  covered 
with  slain,  like  a  field  of  battle.  By  means  of  the 
B.,  large  quantities  of  game  are  killed,  and  sent  to 
market;  the  profits  derived  from  this  species  of  stock 
on  some  estates  amounting  to  no  inconsiderable  sum 
annually.  For  an  account  of  B. -shooting,  we  refer  to 
The  Shot-gun  and  Sporting  Hijlea,  also,  Manual  of 
British  liurul  Sports  (London,  1859). 

BATU'M,  BATOO'M,  or  BATOU'M,  a  maritime 
town  in  the  Turkish  pashalic  of  Tre))izond,  from 
which  city  it  is  108  miles  northeast  (lat,  41°  39'  N., 
long.  41°  37'  E.),  with  about  3000  inhabitants, 
mostly  Turks  and  Lasians,  or  Laz.  The  harbour 
is  one  of  the  best  on  the  east  coast  of  the  Black 
Sea.  A  pretty  extensive  trade  is  carried  on. 
Hides,  wax,  honey,  and,  above  all,  oak  for  ship- 
building, are  the  principal  exports.  Great  ruins 
of  Greek  churches  and  other  buildings  are  found 
in  the  neighliourhood,  which  belong  to  a  period 
in  the  middle  ages  when  B.  was  a  place  of  great 
conseqtience. 

BATURI'N,  a  town  of  Russia,  in  the  government 
of,  and  78  miles  east  from,  the  city  of  Tchernigov,  on 
the  Seim.  It  was  founded  by  Stephen  Bathory,  king 
of  Poland,  and  was  at  one  time  the  favourite  resi- 
dence of  the  Hetmnns  of  the  Cossacks,  of  whom 
Mazeppa,  who,  in  1708,  sold  himself  to  the  Swedes, 
is  the  most  notorious.     The  place  of  the  Hetmans. 


BAUDEKYN— BAUMGARTEN. 


with  its  once  beautiful  grounds,  is  now  going  rapidly 
to  decay.  ,  •     r        ^ 

BAU  DEKYN,  a  corruptiou  of  Baldacluu  (q.  v.). 

BYUER    Bruno,   a    celebrated    Biblical     critic 
and  "philosopher,  belonging  to  the  extreme  school 
of  German  rationalism,   was  born  at  Eisonberg    in 
tl,e  duchy  of  Saxe-Altenburg,  on  the  Ctli  Scptembo 
1S09       He   is  the  son  of  a  porcelam-pamter,   and 
studied    at    the    university    of    Berlin,    where    he 
became    doctor   of  theology    in    1834.     from   this 
period,  he  has  devoted  himself  exclusively  to  ^^hat 
is  termed   in   Germany  the  scientific    criticism    ot 
Scripture— that  is  to  say,  a  criticism  based  on  the 
conviction,  that  the  contents  of  the  Bible  have  a 
natural,   and  not   a  supernatural   origin,   and   ough 
to  be  sul)icctcd  to  the  same  process  ot  philosophical 
analysis    as    other     human    productions  _  are._      In 
\H'^^   B  became  a.  privat-doccHt  in  the  university  ot 
Bonn    but  in  1842   was   forbidden   to    deliver   any 
more    theological    lectures.     He    then   removed   to 
Berlin,  where  he  has  since  resided.     He  has  passed  , 
through  various  stages  of  anti-supcrnaturahsm      At 
first   he  contented  himself  with  believing  that  the 
substance  of  the  Christian  religion  might  be  extri- 
cated from  the   entanglements  of    a  confused  and 
erroneous    system   of    interpretation.     Such   is  the 
idea  that  runs  through  his  earliest  works,  his  _  <7r?<*- 
cism   of  Strauss' s  Life  of  J..5MS,  published   in   the 
Berlin     Year-book    of    Scientific    Criticism      ^^o- 
1830)    his   Journal  of  Speculative  Ihcolorpj  (IS.^b— 
\A?A    and  his   Critical  Exposition  of  the  Religion 
of  the  Old  Testament  (Berlin,  1838).     He  soon,  how- 
ever advanced  so  far  in  his  '  scientific'  demands,  that 
it  became   quite    clear  the  Scriptures,  in  his  eyes, 
had  lost  even  the  moderate  authority  which  he  origi- 
nally supposed  them  to  possess.  To  this  period  belong 
\u&    Doctor    Hencstenberg    (Berlin,    1839),    and    ^c 
Evanqelical   Church  of  Prussia  and  Science   (Leip. 
1840)      In  the  former  of  these  works,  B.  appears 
as  an  opponent  of  the  school  of  apologetic  theolo- 
o-ivns    and    exposes   what    he  conceives  to   be  the 
weakness  of  their   system   as  a   method   of  appre- 
hending characteristic    differences  in  the  historical 
development  of  Christian  doctrine;    in   the   latter, 
he  wished  to  prove  that  true  philosophic  union  is 
the  dissolution  of  the  outward   dogmatic   church  in 
the  realm  of  the  universal  and  free  self-consciousness 
—lanrniage    which   is   not  very   intelligible   to  the 
finite  ° Anglo-Saxon  mind.      In   his   Criti(]ue   of  the 
Evangelical  History  of  John  (Brem.  1840),  and  C'r^- 
tioue  of  the  Evangelical  Si/no2)ticists  (Leip.    1840) 
he  attempted   to   shew  that  the  so-called  facts  ol 
the  "ospel  never  really  had  a  historical  existence, 
andlhat  those  artistic  compositions  which  we  term 
the  n-o^pels,  were  simply  the  product  of  the  human 
self-consciousness.       B.    considers   Strauss   a   mere 
apologetical   theologian,  a   comparativ.dy   orthodox 
w-riter  '  and  regards  his  conclusions  with  the  super- 
cilious  contempt   of    one   who   has   reached   a   lar 
hi<-her  elevation,  while  he  conceives  that  his   o«n 
special  work  in  this  world  has  been  to  strike  off  the 
last  head  of  the  Hydra  of  the  Tradition-hypothesis 
The   persecutions   to  which   he  was  now  subjected 
brou-ht  about  a  complete  rupture  between  him  and 
the   'church;    the    consequence    of    which    was    a 
brochure  entitled  The    Question  of  Liberty,  and   my 
own  Private  .4 /fa»-s  (Zurich,  1843).     Then  followed 
his  Christianity  [Tnveiled  {7.nv\ch,  1843),  in  which  he 
expressed  the  same  conviction  that  he  had  previously 
done  in  two  ironical  treatises— viz.,  that  a  dogmatic 
'cli"-ion  was  opposed  to  our  self-consciousness.  About 
this^time  he  broke  with  his  old  friends,  the  liberals 
by  writing  a  pamphlet  against  the  emancipation  oi 
the  Jews,  Die  Judenfrage  (Brunswick,  1843).       This 
tractate  forms  the  transition  point  to  the  third  period 


of  B's  intellectual  activity,   in  which  he  seems  to 
have   abandoned  theology  altogether  as  something 
hopeless.     He  now  occupied  himself  exclusively  with 
literature  and  political  philosophy.     The  number  of 
his    writings    in    this     department    is    very   great. 
The   principal  are    History    of  the    Politics,   Civil- 
isation,   and   Enlightenment    of    the    ISth     century 
(Charlottenburg,   1843—1845);   History  of  Germany 
durinq  the  French  Revolution   and  the  Reign  of  J^a- 
pokon   (Charlottenburg,   1846),  -Mx^k   History  of  the 
French    Revolution   until   the    Establishment   of  the 
Republic  (Leip.  1847).     The  prominent  idea_  m  the 
whole  of  his  works  belonging  to  tins   period  is,   that 
the  failure  of  the  popular  and  national  struggles  m 
the  l')th  c   results  from    the  essential  weakness  ot 
the    '"cnhghtenment'  of  the   18th  c.      More  lately, 
B  has  again  returned  to  theology.     In   18o0--1851, 
appeared' his  Critique  of  the  Gospels  and  the  History 
of  their  Origin,  and  his  Critique  of  the  Epistles  of  bt. 
Paul    the    latter   of    which   the    author   considers 
wholly    apocryphal,    and    written   during  the  2d  c 
Besides   the    works    mentioned,    B.    has    composed 
various   other    treatises    on    important    points    ot 
history,  theologAS  and  politics.     He  is  distinguished 
for  the  recklessness  of  his  biblical  criticisms,  which 
are  completely  antagonistic  to  the  received  opinions 
in  theology,  or  to  any  form  of  evangelical  religion. 
He  is  o-enerallv  admitted  to  be  quicker  m  the  dis- 
covery of  error  than  of  truth,  and  to  have  a  greater 
talent  for  overthrowhig  than  for  building  up_.     Bv 
his   adversaries,  he   is  regarded   as  the  Voltaii-e  ot 
modern  Germany. 


B  iUGE,  a  town  in  the  department  of  Maine- 
et-L*oire,  France,  23  miles  east-north-east  of  Angers. 
The  Eun-lish,  under  the  Duke  of  Clarence,  were  de- 
feated here  in  1421.  Pop.  3189,  who  are  engaged 
in  the  manufacture  of  hnens  and  woollens. 

BAUHl'NIA,  a  genus  of    plants  of    the   natural 
order  Leguminosce,  sub-order  Ccesalpinece.    The  upper 
petal  is  somewhat  remote  from  the  rest.     The  leaves 
are  crenerally  divided  into  two  lobes.     The  species 
are  natives    of  the    warmer  regions   of  both  hemi- 
spheres   and  some   of  them  are  remarkable  for  the 
size  and  beauty  of  their  flowers.     Most  of  them  are 
twining  plants,"  or  lianas,  stretching  from  tree  to  tree 
in  the  tropical  forests  ;  but  some  are  small  trees,  as 
B    norrecca,    the   Mountain  Ebony  of   Jamaica    so 
called  from  the  colour  of  its  wood.     The  inner  bark 
of  B.  racemosa  (the  Maloo   Climber),  of  B.  scandens 
and  o?B.  parviflora.  East  Indian  species,  is  employed 
for   making  ropes.     B.  retusa   and   B.  emarginata 
also  East  Indian,  exude  a  brownish  coloured  mild 
"<Tum  •  whilst  the  astringent  bark  of  B.  mricgata  is 
Ssed  in  Malabar  for  tanning  and  dyeing  leather,  and 
also  in  medicine.     The  leaves  of  various  species  are 
used  in  Brazil  as  demulcent  medicines,  having  mucU- 
a-inous  properties.— Livingstone  mentions  a  species 
of  B.  in  South  Africa,  called  the  Mopane  Tree,  it  is 
remarkable  for  the  httle  shade  which  its  leaves  afiord. 
They  fold  together,  and  stand  nearly  erect  during 
the   heat   of    the    day.     On  them   the   larvae    of    a 
species  of  Psi/lla  cause  a   saccharine    secretion,    in 
circular  patches,  beneath  which  the  pupa  ot  the  in- 
sect is  found.     The  natives  scrape  it  ofl,  and  cat  it 
as  a  dainty. 

BiUMGARTEN,  Alexander  Gottlieb,  a  clear 
and  acute  thinker  of  the  school  of  Wolf,  was  bora 
at  Berhn  on  the  llth  of  July  1714,  studied  at  Halle, 
and  in  1740  became  Professor  of  Philosophy,  at 
Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  where  he  died  on  the  26th 
of  May  1762.  He  is  the  founder  of  Esthetics  (q.  v.) 
as  a  systematic  science  of  the  beautiful,  though  his 
mode  "of  treatment  is  objected  to  by  the  more  trans- 
cendental Germans,  as  being  purely  psychological; 
that  is  to  say,  he  makes  aesthetics  only  a  portion  ot 

157 


BAUMGARTEN-CRUSIUS— BAUR. 


the  philosophy  of  the  senses,  and  contrasts  it  with 
logic,  whicli  feclongs  to  the  sphere  of  the  reason. 
The  idea  of  a  science  of  the  beautiful  first  appears 
in  his  treatise,  i)e  Nonnullis  ad  Poema  Pertincntlbus, 
pubhshed  at  Halle,  1735.  In  1750 — 1758,  he  issued 
two  volumes  oilus  yEst/tctica,  but  his  death  hindered 
the  completion  of  tlie  work.  His  writings  in  other 
departments  of  philosophy  are  marked  by  clear- 
ness and  precision;  his  Jfeiaphi/sica  ((Halle,  1739; 
7th  edition,  1779)  is  still  considered  one  of  the 
most  useful  books  for  the  study  of  the  Wolfian 
philosophy. 

BAUMGARTEN-CRUSIUS,  LrnwiG  Friedrich 
Otto,  a  German  tiieologian,  born  at  Merseburg, 
17S8,  and  died  at  Jena,  31st  jMay  1843.  He  studied 
theology  at  Leip-^ic,  and  in  1810  bccauie  university 
preacher.  In  1817,  he  was  appointed  Professor  of 
Theology  at  Jena,  and  always  distinguished  himself 
as  a  champion  of  religious  liberty,  on  behalf  of  which 
he  wrote  various  treatises.  In  1820  appeared  his 
Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Docpnatics  (Leip.  1820), 
a  work  of  considerable  originality  and  richness  of 
thought.  More  complete  exhibitions  of  his  opinions 
are  to  be  found  in  his  Mmmal  of  Christian  Etliics 
(Leip.  1827);  Outlines  of  Biblical  Thcolociy  (Jena, 
1828);  and  Outlines  of  Protestant  Dogmatics  {ien2t,, 
1830).  In  1831— 1832,  he  pubUshed,a  Text-book  of 
the  History  of  Doctrines;  in  1834,  a  work  on 
Schleiermacher,  his  Method  of  Thouylit,  and  his  Value; 
and  also  Considerations  on  certain  Writinr/s  of 
Lamennais.  After  his  death,  Kiiiinicl  pnl)lished  the 
whole  of  his  exogotical  prelections  on  the  Gospels 
and  Pauline  Epistles. 

B.  was  conspicuous  for  the  breadth  and  solidity 
of  his  learning,  the  originality  of  his  spirit,  and  the 
acutencss  of  his  understanding,  but  was  nevertheless 
deficient  in  clear  and  vivid  expression.  He  attached 
himself  to  no  school  theological  or  philosophical. 
At  an  early  period,  he  had  been  greatly  influenced 
by  the  metaphysics  of  Schelling,  from  which  how- 
ever, he  ultimately  emancipated  himself.  His  think- 
ing was,  to  a  certain  extent,  rationalistic,  but  on 
the  whole  approached  more  closely  to  the  direction 
of  the  spiritual  Schleiermacher. 

BAUMGARTNER,  Andreas  Ritter  ton,  or 
Chevalier  de,  was  born  at  Friedberg,  in  Bohemia, 
23d  November  1793,  and  studied  at  Vienna,  where, 
in  1823,  he  became  Professor  of  Natural  Philosophy, 
having  previously  distinguished  himself  in  mathema- 
tical and  physical  science.  Whilst  filling  this  office, 
he  gave  popular  lectures  on  Sundays  upon  mechanics, 
&c.,  for  artisans  and  operatives,  which  met  with 
much  approbation.  A  result  of  these  lectures  was 
his  Mechanik  in  ihrer  Anwenduny  auf  Kunste  tend 
Geiverbe  (2d  ed.  Vienna,  1823),  and  his  Katurlehre 
(Vienna,  1823),  a  work  which  has  done  much 
to  popularise  the  natural  sciences,  and  is  much 
used  in  the  educational  institutions  of  Germany. 
An  obstinate  ailment  of  the  throat  induced  him  to 
resign  his  professorship  in  the  university,  but  he 
was  immediately  appointed  director  of  the  Imperial 
Porcelain,  Mirror-glass,  and  Suialt  Manufactories, 
and  afterwards  superintendent  of  tobacco  manufac- 
tories. In  the  year  184G,  the  setting  up  of  tlie 
electric  telegraph  was  committed  to  him,  and  he 
was  afterwards  intrusted  with  the  principal  charge 
of  the  making  of  the  Austrian  railways.  After  the 
events  of  March  1848,  he  was  for  a  short  time  Minis- 
ter of  Mines  and  of  Pubhc  Buildings,  and  afterwards 
chief  of  one  of  the  Departments  in  the  Ministry  of 
Finance.  In  May  1851,  he  was  appointed  Minister 
of  Commerce,  Trade,  and  Public  Buildings.  At  the 
same  time,  he  was  appointed  president  of  the 
Austrian  Academy  of  Sciences,  of  which  he  had  been 
vice-president  for  a  number  of  years. 
758 


BAUR,  Ferdinand  Christian,  the  founder  of  the 
'  New  Tiibiiigen  School  of  Theology,'  was  born  on 
the  21st  of  June  1792.  In  1817,  he  became  profes- 
sor in  the  seminary  of  Blaubeuren,  where  he  gave 
the  first  indications  of  his  remarkable  abilities  by  the 
publication  of  his  Synibolisni  and  Mythology^  or  the 
Nature-religion  of  the  Ancients  (Stuttgart,  3  vols., 
1824 — 1825),  a  work  which  indicates  the  influence  of 
Schleiermacher  over  the  author.  In  1826,  he  was 
called  to  Tubingen,  where  he  still  holds  the  chair  of 
Protestant  theology.  His  whole  life  has  been  con- 
secrated to  religious  studies — the  history  of  doc- 
trines, the  symbolism  of  the  church,  and  biblical 
exegesis.  On  account  of  the  universality  of  his 
culture,  the  wonderful  activity  and  fertility  of  his 
mind,  his  rare  combination  of  speculative  thought 
with  solid  knowledge,  and  that  faculty  of  historic 
divination  or  insight,  which  enables  him  to  draw 
decisive  results  from  separate,  obscure,  and  neglect- 
ed data — he  has  been  regarded  by  many  in  Germany 
as  the  most  massive  theological  intellect  since 
Schleiermacher.  Unlike  Bruno  Bauer,  he  makes 
comparatively  little  use  of  the  Hegelian  philosophy 
in  his  writings ;  and  when  he  does,  it  is  professedly 
only  that  he  may  more  clearly  understand  historical 
phenomena  in  their  internal  spiritual  connection, 
and  be  enabled  to  represent  the  logical  process  of 
their  development.  His  method  of  investigating  the 
progressive  history  of  religious  opinion  has,  however, 
incurred  the  reproach  of  formalism  from  its  adver- 
saries, who  say  that  he  applies  it  too  rigorously,  and 
makes  dogmas  develop  themselves  with  a  kind  of 
abstract  inevitable  regularity  from  previous  histori- 
cal conditions,  without  allowing  for  iunnediate  and 
extraordiiuiry  providences.  His  most  important 
works  in  the  history  of  doctrine  are — Die  ehristliche 
Gnosis  oder  die  ehristliche  Peligionsphilosophie 
(Tiibingen,  1835),  (The  Christian  Gnosis,  or  the 
Christian  Philosophy  of  Religion);  a  work  which 
makes  the  Christian  Gnosis  of  the  2d  and  3d  cen- 
turies the  starting  point  of  a  long  series  of  religio- 
philosophical  productions  traceable  iminterruptedly 
down  through  middle-age  mysticism  and  theosophy 
to  Schelling,  Hegel,  and  Schleiermacher ;  Die  ehrist- 
liche Lehre  von  der  VcrsOhnung  (Tiibingen,  1838), 
(The  Christian  Doctrine  of  the  Atonement) ;  and  Die 
ehristliche  Lehre  von  der  Dreienigkeit  und  Ifensch- 
werdung  Gottes  (Tiibingen,  1841— 1843),  (The  Chris- 
tian Doctrine  of  the  Trinity  and  the  Incarnation).  In 
reply  to  MiJhler,  the  celebrated  Roman  Catholic 
theologian,  who  had  attacked  the  Protestant  Church, 
he  wTote  Der  Gegcnsatz  des  Catholicisinus  und  J'ro- 
testa7itism2is  (Tiibingen,  1836),  (The  Opposition 
between  Catholicism  and  Protestantism).  Besides 
those  works,  based  on  historical  treatment  of  rehgion, 
to  which  class  also  belongs  his  Lchrbuch  der  christ- 
lichen  Dogwengeschichfe  (Compendium  of  the  Histoiy 
of  Christian  Dogmas),  (Stuttgart,  1847),  he  has  pub- 
lished various  critical  treatises  on  parts  of  the  New 
Testament ;  such  as  Die  Christuspartei  in  der  Kor- 
inthischen  Genieinde  ;  der  Gegcnsatz  des  Paidinischen 
und  Petrinischen  Christenthxims  ;  der  Apostcl  Pctrus 
in  Rome  {\%Z\),  (The  Christ-party  in  the  Corinthian 
Community ;  the  Opposition  of  the  Pauline  and 
Petrine  Christianity  ;  the  Apostle  Peter  in  Rome)  a 
work  in  which  the  author  endeavours  to  demonstrate 
the  existence  of  deep-rooted  differences  in  that 
sphere  of  primitive  Christianity,  in  which  wo  are 
accustomed  to  see  nothing  but  unity  and  harmony. 
His  inquiries  concerning  the  Gnosis  led  him  to 
study  minutely  the  pastoral  epistles,  the  result  of 
which  study  was  Die  sogenannten  Pastor albricfe  des 
Apostcls  Paulus  (Stuttgart,  1835),  (The  So-called 
Pastoral  Epistles  of  the  Apostle  Paulj  in  AvMch  he 
combats  the  idea  that  St.  Paul  was  their  author, 
and  refers  them  to  the   2d  c.     Of  a  similar  nature 


BAUTAI}^— BAVARIA. 


is  nis  Pn'diis,  der  A]i>>ste/  Jem  Christi  (Stuttgart, 
1845),  (Paul,  the  Apostle  of  Jt'sus  Christ).  His 
work  on  the  Gospel  of  John  produced  a  start- 
ling effect,  :is  up  to  B.'s  time  that  gospel  had 
generally  been  held  prior  in  date  to  the  three 
synoptic  gospels,  whereas  B.  strove  hard  to  shew 
that  it  was  of  post-apostolic  origin.  In  1847,  ap- 
peared his  Kritufhc  Untemwhungen  iihcr  die  canon- 
ischcn  Evangelicn,  iJir  Vcrhdltnixs  zuehmvder,  ihren 
Ui'xpnmg  und  Charakter  (Critical  Inquiry  Concern- 
ing the  Canonical  Gospels ;  their  Relation  to  each 
other;  their  Origin  and  Character).  In  1851,  he 
published  Dan  Markus-evangelium  nach  seinem  Ur- 
sprnng  und  Charakter  (The  Origin  and  Character  of 
St.  Mark's  Gospel).  In  these  and  other  works  of  a 
similar  nature,  B.  maintains  that  we  must  extend 
our  notions  of  the  time  within  which  the  canonical 
writings  were  composed  to  a  period  considerably 
post-apostolic,  and  which  can  only  l)e  determined 
approximately  by  a  careful  investigation  of  the 
motives  which  apparently  actuated  their  authors. 
The  chief  characteristic,  therefore,  of  the  '  Tiibingen 
School,'  as  exhibited  in  the  works  of  its  founder,  is, 
the  union  of  a  subjective  criticism  with  a  strong 
conviction  of  the  historic  reality  of  the  Ts^ew  Testa- 
ment writings.  The  most  distinguished  adherents 
of  this  new  school  of  German  theology  are  Zeller, 
Schwegler,  Kostlin,  and  Hilgenfeld.  He  died  in  1861. 

BAUTAIN,  Loci.s-Eugene-Marie,  a  French 
philosopher  and  theologian,  born  at  Paris,  February 
17,  r79G.  He  studied  under  Cousin  at  the  Normal 
School.  In  1816,  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
philosophy  in  the  College  of  Strasbourg,  and  soon 
distinguished  himself  by  the  influence  he  exerted 
over  the  earnest  youth  of  that  city,  who  carried  their 
admiration  even  to  the  length  of  imitating  his  Avalk 
and  dress.  The  religious  tendencies  of  his  character, 
however,  not  finding  a  satisfactory  expression  in 
philosophy,  he  threw  himself  into  the  arms  of  the 
church,  and  became  a  priest  in  1828.  After  the 
events  of  1830,  he  resigned  his  professorship,  which 
imtil  then  he  had  retained ;  but  his  reputation  for 
orthodoxy,  never  very  strong,  had  been  destroyed  in 
the  eyes  of  his  bishop  by  his  work  La  Morale  de 
V JEvangile  coviparee  a  la  Morale  des  Philosophes, 
published  a  few  years  before,  and  he  was  in  conse- 
quence suspended  from  sacred  offices  for  several 
years,  but  reinstated  in  1841.  In  1838,  he  was  made 
dean  of  the  Faculty  of  Letters  at  StrasVjourg,  and 
afterwards  director  of  the  College  of  Juilly.  At  a 
still  later  period,  he  was  translated  to  Paris,  and 
appointed  vicar-general  of  the  metropolitan  diocese. 
In  1848,  he  attempted  to  give  a  religious  direction  to 
the  revolution.  He  has  recently  been  selected  as  one 
of  the  professors  of  the  Theological  Faculty  of  Paris, 
is  also  an  extremely  poptdar  preacher,  and  has 
gathered  round  him  a  large  number  of  disciples.  His 
principal  works  are — Pliilosophic-psi/chologie Explr'i- 
rneiUale {\SZ9),  F/rUosophie  Morale  (1842),  Fhiloso- 
phie  du  C'hristianisme  (1835),  La  Religion  et  la 
Liberie  considerees  dans  leurs  Rapports  (1848). 

BAUTZEN,  or,  in  official  language,  BU'DISSIN, 
capital  of  the  circle  of  the  same  name,  kingdom 
of  Saxony.  It  has  a  population  stated  at  from 
9000 — 12,000,  including  many  Wends,  remnants 
of  the  old  Vandals.  It  is  situated  in  a  rising- 
ground  overlooking  the  river  Spree,  and  is  the 
seat  of  the  chief  offices  of  justice  in  the  circle, 
which  has  a  population  of  about  300,000,  includ- 
ing 30,000  Wends.  It  has  several  churches,  a 
royal  palace — formerly  the  residence  of  the  mark- 
grafs  of  Meissen — numerous  schools,  and  two 
public  libraries  and  a  hospital.  The  chief  branches 
of  industry  are  manufactures  of  woollens,  fustian, 
linen,    hosiery,    leather,    and   gunpowder.     B.  is    a 


place  of  considerable  anti(|uity,  and  was  known  in 
the  time  of  Henry  I.  ('.1;>1),  but  was  first  made  a  town 
under  Otho  I.  Its  several  privileges,  and  the  repti- 
tation  of  certain  holy  relics  preserved  in  St.  Peter'.s 
Church,  made  the  place  important.  It  suffered 
greatly  in  the  war  with  the  Hussites,  and  still  more 
during  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  Meissner,  th.e  poet, 
who  died  in  18o5,  was  born  here.  B.,  however,  is 
chiefly  celebrated  as  the  place  where  Napoleon,  with 
an  army  of  150,000  men,  after  an  obstinate  resistance, 
won  a  barren  victory  over  90,000  of  the  allied  Rus- 
sians and  Prussians,  May  20 — 21,  1313.  The  allies 
lost  in  the  two  days  15,000  in  killed  and  wounded; 
in  addition  to  1500  prisoners,  mostly  wounded,  which 
the  French  captured.  The  French  left  5,000  dead 
upon  the  field,  and  upwards  of  20,000  were  w'otmded. 
The  result  of  the  battle,  and  the  splendid  retreat  of 
the  allies,  were  most  disheartening  to  the  French 
army,  and  even  to  Napoleon  himself. 

BAVA'RIA  (Ger.  Baiern,  and  officially,  Bayern), 
one  of  the  confederated  states  of  Germany  ;  accord- 
ing to  its  size,  the  third  in  importance.  B.  is  divided 
into  two  unequal  parts,  which  are  separated  by  the 
Baden  and  Hesse-Darmstadt  dominions.  The  east- 
ern portion,  comprising  fully  eleven-twelfths  of  the 
whole,  is  situated  between  lat.  47"  2<»',  and  50° 
41'  N.,  and  long.  9°  and  13°  48'  E.  It  is  bounded 
N.  by  Hesse-Cassel,  Saxe-Meiningen,  Weimar,  the 
principality  of  Reuss,  and  the  kingdom  of  Saxony ; 
E.,  by  Bohemia  and  Austria  ;  S.,  by  the  Tyrol;  and 
W.,  by  Wiirtemburg,  Baden,  and  Hesse-Darmstadt. 
The  Western  part,  occupying  the  Rhine  Palati- 
nate, on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  lies  between 
lat.  48°  57'  and  49°  50'  N.,  and  between  7°  5'  and 
8°  27'  E.  Rhenish  Prussia,  Hesse-Darmstadt,  and 
Baden  bound  it  on  the  W.,  N.,  and  E.,  and  France 
on  the  S. 

B.  is  divi<led  into  eight  circles,  the  area  and 
population  of  wliich  the  following  table  shews. 

Circles.  Area  in  sq.  miles.         Pop.  in  1867. 

Upper  Bavaria,  .         .     6,614  827,669 

Lower  Bavaria,      .  .         4,113  594,511 

Palatinate,         .  .         .     2,206  626,066 

Upper  Palatinate, .  .         4,198  491,295 

Upper  Franconia,  .         .     2,226  535,060 

Middle  Franconia,  .         2,798  579,688 

Lower  Franconia,  .         .     3,604  584,972 

Swabia,          .         .  .         3,858  585,100 


Total,         .         .         .29,617  4,824,421 

Surface,  Hydrographg,  Railtvai/s,  &c. — B.  may  be 
described  as  a  mountainous  country.  It  is  walled 
in  on  the  south-east,  north-east,  and  north-west  by 
mountains  ranging  from  3o00  feet  to  upwards  of 
10,000  feet  in"  height.  The  highest  elevation  is 
reached  on  the  south,  the  Zugspitz  of  the  Noric  Alps 
being  10,160  feet  high.  On  the  east,  the  highest 
points  of  the  Buhmerwald,  dividing  B.  from  Bohemia, 
are  the  Arbcr  and  Rachelberg,  which  are  respectively 
4613  feet  and  4561  feet  high.  On  the  North-east,  the 
Schneeberg,  in  the  Fichtelgebirge  range,  attains  a 
height  of  3481  feet.  A  branch  of  this  chain,  which 
is  connected  on  the  north-west  with  the  Thuringer- 
wald,  extends  south  between  the  rivers  Regnitz  and 
Vils.  The  Rhiuigebirge,  the  greatest  height  of  which 
is  3000  feet,  forms  the  northernmost  chain  of  Bavaria. 
In  the  Rhine  Palatinate,  the  principal  mountain 
is  the  Hardt,  whose  culminating  peak  is  about  2300 
feet  high.  In  the  interior,  B.  is  intersected  in  several 
directions  by  various  less  elevated  ranges,  alternat- 
ing with  extensive  plains  and  fertile  valleys.  B.  is 
rich  in  wood,  nearly  one-third  of  its  surface  being 
covered  with  forests,  mostly  of  pine  and  fir. 

As  to  its  hi/drographg,  B.  has  the  Rhine  flowing 
along  the  whole   eastern   boundary  of  the  cir(de  of 

759 


BAVARIA. 


llie  rahitinate,  wbkh  is  also  watered  by  the  Speyer, 
the  Lamer,  aod  the  Queich.  The  Danube  enters 
B.  Proper  at  Ulm,  where  it  is  joined  by  the  lUer, 
and  pursues  its  course  in  an  east-north-cast  direction 
through  the  centre  of  the  country,  until  it  passes 
out  at  Passau  into  the  Austrian  dominions.  Includ- 
ing its  windings,  the  length  of  the  Danube  in  B. 
is  about  270  miles,  which  can  be  navigated  through- 
out. In  its  passage  through  B.,  it  receives  no  fewer 
than  38  rivers,  the  chief  of  which,  on  the  right  bank, 
are,  besides  the  Iller,  already  mentioned,  the  Lech, 
the  Isar',  and  the  Inn;  and  on  the  left,  the  AViJrnitz, 
the  Altmiihl,  the  Kocher,  the  Nnab,  the  Regen, 
and  the  Ilz.  The  north  part  of  B.  is  in  the  basin  of 
the  Main,  which,  rising  in  the  north,  flows  with 
many  windings  through  the  kingdom  in  a  south- 
west direction  to  the  Rhine,  with  which  it  unites 
at  Mayence.  Its  most  important  tributaries  are  the 
Regnitz,  the  Rodach,  the  Tauber  and  the  Saale. 
B.  has  several  lakes,  the  principal  of  which  are  the 
Chiem,  which  has  a  circumference  of  35  miles;  the 
Wurm,  with  a  length  of  l-±  miles,  and  a  breadth 
of  4  miles;  and  the  Annner,  with  a  circuit  of  27 
miles.  These  lakes  are  situated  in  the  south,  at  the 
foot  of  the  northern  slope  of  the  Noric  Alps.  A 
corner  of  Lake  Constance  also  belongs  to  Bavaria; 
The  lakes  and  Rivers  abound  in  fish.  There  are 
a  few  canals  in  the  country,  the  most  important 
of  which  is  the  Ludwigs-Kanal,  which,  taking 
advantage  of  the  rivers  Main,  Regnitz,  and  Altmiihl, 
unites  the  Rhine  and  Danube,  and  through  them, 
the  German  Ocean  with  the  Black  Sea.  This  canal 
was  executed  by  government  at  a  cost  of  upwards  of 
£800,000.  B.  has  altogether  only  about  330  miles 
of  railway  in  operation.  The  longest  is  that  between 
Augsburg  and  Lindau  on  Lake  Constance,  a  distance 
of  80  miles.  These  lines  join  Munich  with  Augs- 
burg, Donauwiirth,  Niirnberg,  Bamberg,  L'lm,  and 
Kufstein.  B.  has  nearly  6000  miles  of  public  roads, 
but  many  of  these  are  in  very  bad  condition. 

Climate,  Soil,  Products,  &c. — The  temperature  of 
B.  varies  considerably,  being  cold  and  bleak  in  the 
mountainous  regions,  and  very  hot  in  summer 
in  the  plains  and  valleys.  The  climate  may  be 
described  generally,  however,  as  mild  and  salubrious. 
The  soil,  particularly  in  the  valleys  of  the  Upper 
and  Lower  Danube,  is  very  fertile,  k^cond  to  none 
in  Central  Germany  ;  but  its  capabilities  as  yet  have 
not  been  fully  developed,  although  even  now  the 
wealth  of  the  country  consists  almost  wholly  of 
its  agricultural  produce.  The  plain  south  of  Munich 
has  been  described  as  the  granary  of  Germany,  in 
consequence  of  its  great  productiveness,  while  the 
circles  of  Upper  and  Middle  Franconia  are  styled 
the  hop-garden  of  Bavaria.  Wheat,  rye,  oats,  and 
barley  are  the  chief  articles  of  produce,  but  buck- 
wheat, maize,  and  rice  are  also  grown  to  a  small 
extent.  The  vine,  as  well  as  the  hop-plant,  is  culti- 
vated extensively  in  Franconia,  and  the  wine  is  held 
in  great  esteem.  Rhenish  B.  also  produces  good 
wine.  The  quantity  annually  produced  in  B.  is 
estimated  at  upwards  of  7,000,000  gallons.  Fruit, 
tobacco,  flax,  hemp,  linseed,  liquorice,  and  beet-root 
are  cultivated.  Cattle-rearing  forms  the  exclu- 
sive occupation  of  the  inhabitants  on  the  slopes 
and  at  the  foot  of  the  Alps,  pasturage  being  found 
at  an  elevation  of  8.500  feet.  Sheep,  goats,  and 
pigs  are  reared  in  Middle  and  Upper  Franconia, 
jind  horses  chiefly  in  Upper  B.  and  Swabia,  bat  the 
live-stock  is  far  from  being  adequate  to  the  extent 
and  capacity  of  the  country.  The  forests  of  B. 
annually  furnish  large  quantities  of  timber.  The 
soil  is  rich  in  mineral  wealth,  which  as  yet  has  not 
been  drawn  upon  to  anything  like  its  full  extent. 
The  chief  minerals  are  salt — which  is  a  government 
monopoly,  and  obtained  by  evaporation,  principally 
7  GO 


from  the  rich  mines  in  the  south-east  corner  o*'  the 
Alps — coal,  and  iron,  which  is  worked  almost  every- 
where throughout  the  territory.  In  Rhenish  B., 
copper,  manganese,  mercur}',  and  cobalt  are  found; 
quicksilver  and  black-lead  are  obtained  in  some 
places ;  marble  in  great  variety  is  common,  so  also 
are  gypsum,  alabaster,  and  some  of  the  finest  porce- 
lain clay  in  Europe. 

Manufactures,  &c. — The  manufacturing  industry 
of  B.,  like  its  agriculture,  is  generally  in  an  undevel- 
oped state,  and  not  centered  in  the  hands  of  capital- 
ists, who  can  largely  take  advantage  of  new  inven- 
tions to  prosecute  it  with  energy  and  success,  but 
distributed  among  numerous  small  manufacturers. 

This  is  not  the  case  with  beer,  the  manufacture  of 
which  is  carried  to  great  perfection  in  B.,  and  to  an 
extent,  if  we  take  population  into  account,  quite 
unparalleled  in  Europe.  There  are  upwards,  of 
5G(jO  brew'eries  in  B.,  making  nearly  100  million 
gallons  of  beer  annually,  which  are  mainly  con- 
sumed in  the  country,  the  quantify  of  beer  that  a 
Bavarian  can  imbibe  being  c|uite  marvellous.  Nearly 
two-tliirds  of  the  revenue  of  the  state  are  said  to 
be  derived  from  this  source  alone.  Next  to  beer, 
coarse  linen  is  the  most  important  product  of  manu- 
facturing industry,  and  of  late  years  some  consider- 
able cotton-factories  have  been  erected;  but  the 
supj)ly  of  cotton,  woollen,  and  worsted  goods  is  not 
etjual  to  the  home  consumption.  Leather  is  pretty 
extensively  manufactured,  so  also  arc  paper,  articles 
of  straw  and  wood,  porcelain,  glass,  nails,  needles, 
jewellery,  beet-root,  sugar,  and  tobacco.  The 
mathematical  and  optical  instruments  of  Munich 
are  held  in  high  repute.  The  exports  consist  of 
timber,  grain,  wine,  cattle,  wool,  salt,  hops,  fruits, 
beer,  leather,  glass,  jewellery,  optical  and  mathe- 
matical instruments,  butter,  cheese,  &c.  The  annual 
value  of  these  is  estimated  at  about  £1,230,000.  The 
principal  imports  are  sugar,  coifee,  woollens,  silks, 
stufts,  drugs,  hemp,  and  flax.  The  position  of  B. 
gives  it  the  transit  trade  between  North  Germany 
and  Austria,  Switzerland  and  Italy. 

Population,  RcVujion,  Education. — The  growth  of 
the  population  of  B.  is  much  checked  by  the  regula- 
tions which  relate  to  marriages.  No  marriage  can 
take  place  until  the  authorities  who  superintend  the 
relief  of  the  poor  are  fully  satisfied  that  the  persons 
wishing  to  marry  have  adequate  means  to  support 
a  wife  and  family ;  and  certain  military  obliga- 
tions have  also  to  be  fulfilled  before  a  man  can 
enter  into  wedlock.  These  restrictive  laws  have 
another  consequence  besides  that  of  preventing  a 
rapid  increase  of  the  population  ;  they  have  tended 
to  increase  inordinately  the  number  of  illegitimate 
children.  B.  has  a  very  bad  pre-eminence  in  this 
respect  on  the  Continent.  In  the  capital,  the  illegi- 
timate births  about  equal  the  legitmate ;  and  over 
the  whole  kingdom  the  proportion  ranges  from  1  iu 
4'5  to  1  in  5  of  the  total  Ijirths,  equal  to  a  percentage 
of  from  22i  to  20  illegitimate  births.  In  1817, 
the  population  was  3,504,757;  in  1833,4,187,390; 
and  in  1855,  it  had  only  increased  to  4,541,556. 
During  the  last  few  years,  however,  the  increase 
has  been  more  rapid,  the  population  in  1864 
amounting  to  4,807,440.  The  Bavarians,  notwith- 
standing their  beer-bibbing  propensity,  are  essen- 
tially a  sober  and  industrious  people.  Though  all  of 
German  origin,  they  differ  materially  in  character. 
The  Franconians  are  intelligent,  diligent  and  steady  ; 
the  Swabians  good-naturedly  indolent;  and  the 
inhabitants  of  the  Palatinate,  lively  and  enter- 
prising ;  while  the  Bavarians  proper  are  dull  and 
superstitious. 

As  to  religion,  in  1852,  the  Roman  Catholics 
numbered  3,176,333;  Protestants,  l,28Sj894;  Jews 
56,033 ;    and  other  minor  sects,  5.560-    The  state 


BAVARIA. 


allows    perfect    toleration,    guaranto..ing   the    sume 
civil     riKl.ts     to     Catholic    and    Proicstant    ahke. 
Individuals   of  every   sect   have    the    privilege    of 
worshipping  privately  .vithout  fear  of  n.olestation 
and    on    application    to    the   king   by   a   sufficient 
number  of  families,  the  right  of  public  Avorslup  can 
be  secured.     A  concordat  ^vith  Rome   divides  the 
state  into  2   archbishoprics  and  G  bishoprics.     The 
consistories  of  Anspach,  Baireuth,  and  Speycr,  under 
the    superior    consistory    of    Munich,    govern    the 
Lutheran  Church,  the  Munich  consistory  being  in 
some  degree  subject  to  a  section  in  the  home  depur  - 
ment,  which  manages  the  temporal  concerns  ot  all 
the  churches.     The  president  of  the  Mumcli  consis- 
torv  has  a  seat  and  vote  in  the  councd  of  the  state 
The  revenues  of  the  Church  of  Rome  are   dcnvejl 
from  lauds  and  endowments,  the  Trotestaut  Church 
is  supported  by  the  state,  which  also  contributes  to- 
wards the  maintenance  of  the  poorest  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  priests.  .  ,       +i,„ 

B  has  a  good  system  of  education,  under  the 
supreme  direction  of  a  minister  of  public  instruc- 
tion to  whom  certain  members  of  the  provmcml 
crovernments,  specially  instructed  to  watch  the  edu- 
cational interests  of  the  communities,  are  subordi- 
nate They,  again,  have  numerous  inspectors  under 
them,  who  make  systematic  reports  as  to  the  state 
of  education  in  the  country.  It  is  obligatory  on  all 
children,  whose  parents  have  not  received  permis- 
sion to  have  them  educated  at  home,  to  attend 
school  until  they  are  14  years  of  age,  and  they  are 
then  required  to  attend  a  Sunday  school  for  two 
vears  lon-er.  B.  has  three  universities,  Munich  and 
"Wiirzburg,  which  are  Catholic,  and  Erlangen  Pro- 
testant "These  universities  are  well  attended  both 
bv  natives  and  foreigners.  Munich  has  the  greatest 
repute  both  at  home  and  abroad,  Erlangen  the  least. 
There  are  numerous  schools  for  special  instruction 
in  the  kingdom.  .  , 

Government,  Revenue,  &c.— E.  is  a  constitutional 
monarchy,  the  throne  hereditary  in  the  male  line. 
Its  constitution  dates  no  further  back  than   lb  1», 
when  it  was  declared  a  part  of  confederated  Ger- 
many.    The  king  is  the  executive.     The  legislature 
consists   of  a   chamber   of  senators,    and    one    ot 
deputies.     The   senators   are  hereditary,  the  king, 
however,  having  the  power,  within  cert.am  limits 
to   nominate   members   for   life.     The   Chamber  ot 
Deputies  consists  of  five  different  classes— one-eighth 
of  the   whole  members  being  chosen  from_  landed 
proprietors,    who   exercise  judicial  powers  in  right 
of  their  property,   and  have  no  seat  in  the  upper 
house;    another    eighth    from    ecclesiastics   of  the 
Protestant  and  Roman  Catholic  churches;  a  iourth 
from   the  inhabitants  of  cities  and  market  towns  ; 
and   a  half  from   landed   proprietors   who   neither 
possess   judicial   rights,    nor    a   seat   in   the   other 
chamber      There  are,  besides,  three  members  Irom 
the   universities-one   from    each.      There    Is    one 
member  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  for  every   /  OUU 
families,    or   35,000   inhabitants.     In   the  event  ot 
there  not  being  a  dissolution,  the  chamber  lasts  ior 
six  Years      The  usual  length  of  the  annual  session  is 
two"  months.     The    chambers,   in  ordinary  circum- 
stances, meet  once  a  year  for  the  dispatch  of  busi- 
ness   and  it  is  compulsory  on  the  king  to  summon 
them   once   in   three   years.     No    deliberation    can 
take   place   unless   two-thirds   of    the   deputies   are 
present.     All  matters   relating   to   public    burdens, 
&c      come   first   under    the    consideration    ot    the 
Chamber    of    Deputies;    with    reference    to    other 
Questions,  the  king  exercises  his  own  discretion  as 
to   which   chamber   shall   first   discuss   them.      No 
alteration  in  taxation,  and  no  new  law,  can_  be  pro- 
mulgated without  the  consent   of  the   legi-slature ; 
but 'the  roval  prerogative  is  loosely  defined. 


The  cabinet  consists  of  seven  members,  chiefs  of 
the  departments  of  foreign  affairs,  justice,  home 
affairs  public  worship  and  instruction,  finance,  com- 
merce,  and  public  works  and  war.  They  are  not 
necess'arily  members  of  the  chambers,  though  they 
are  privileged  to  be  present  at  the  deliberations. 
The  privy  council  is  composed  of  the  king,  certain 
royal  princes,  the  ministers  of  State,  and  six  coun- 
cillors nominated  by  the  king. 

The  annual  reve7iue  of  B.  for  the  financial  period 
of  1861-67  amotmted  to  46,720,957  florins  of  the 
Rhine  (£3,893,383),  of  which  9,333,037  llonus  were 
raised  by  dii-ect  taxation,  18,260,343  florins  by  indi- 
rect taxation,  the  rest  chiefly  from  domains  and  state 
monopolies.  Of  this  revenue,  the  interest  on  the 
national  debt  swallowed  up  about  30  per  cent. ;  the 
army  about  2.5  per  cent. ;  and  the  educational  estab- 
lishments, about  18  per  cent.  In  1855,  the  public 
debt  amounted  to  134,045,964  florins  (£11,170  497), 
and  the  debt  on  railways  to  72,369,700  florins 
(£6  030,808).  Total,  £17,201,305.  In  1858,  the 
public  debt  had  decreased  to  122,839,495  florins,  and 
the  debt  on  railways  had  increased  to  88,643,834 
florins-  and  in  1867,  the  public  debt  amounted  to 
209,874,601  florins,  and  the  debt  on  railways  to 
Ue'l 56,600  florins. 

The  armed  force  of  the  kingdom  of  B.  comprises 
the  permanent  army,  the  army  of  reserve,  and  land- 
wehr  or  militia,  and  is  raised  by  conscnptipn.  Every 
male  in  the  kingdom— with  the  exception  ot  the 
clero-y  and  the  sons  of  parents  who  have  lost  three 
sons''  in  the  ser^•ice,  or  the  only  surviving  son  of 
those  who  have  lost  two  in  a  smular  way,  and 
rrenerallv  those  upon  whom  the  maintenance  ot  a 
family  "entu-ely  depends-is  liable  to  be  balloted 
The  period  of  serv-ice  is  four  years— from  the  age  ot 
91  to  25  Tlie  militia  includes  all  between  the  ages 
c*'  19 'and  60  who  have  not  been  drafted  into  the 
ranks  of  the  active  or  reserve  armv.  Tlie  anny  m 
1865  was  composed  of  156,673  infantry,  20  655 
cavalrv  24,988  artiUerv,  with  136  guns  and  2191 
engineers-total,  204,507.  The  composition  of  the 
permanentarmy  on  Jan.  1, 1869,  was,  infantry,  34,1. 4; 
cavab-y  7  290;  52  batteries  ot  artillery  with  6361 
men  ;  engineers,  1212  ;  sanitary  and  victualling  troops, 
812.     Army  of  reserve,  30,000. 

History— '^hQ  Boii,  a  race  of  Celtic  origin,  were 
the    first    inhabitants    of    B.    of    whom    tradition 
furnishes   any   account.      From   them,   its   German 
name   Baiern,  as  well  as  its  old  Latin  name,  Boiaria, 
is   said   to   have   been   derived.      They   appear    to 
have  conquered  the   country  about  600  b    C,  and 
they  retained  it  until  shortly  before  the  Christian 
era,  when  they  were  subjugated  by  the  Romans; 
the   country   being   made   an   integral   part   of  the 
Roman   empire,    under    the    names    of    Vindehcia 
and   Noricum.      After   the    decay    of    the    Roman 
power,  the  Ostrogoths  and  Franks  successively  held 
possession  of  it,   until   Charlemagne    conquered   it 
\fter  his  death  it  was  governed  by  lieutenants  of 
the  Frank  and  German  kings,  until  10  <0,  when  it 
passed  into  possession  of  the  Guelph  fanii  y  ;  and  it 
was  transferred  by  imperial  grant,  in  llbO  to  Otho, 
Count     of     Wittlesbach,     whose     descendant    now 
occupies  the  throne.     The  Rhenish  Palatinate  ^yas 
conferred  on  this  family  by  the  Emperor  Frederick 
III    in  I'ne      Now  followed  quarrels  between  rela- 
tives' and  divisions  of  territory,  until  the  dulcedom 
of  B     was   severed  from  the   Rhenish  and   Upper 
Palatinates  (see  Palatinate);    of  the  latter,  how- 
ever,  it   repossessed   itself  in    1621— the    peace    of 
Westphalia,   in    1648,   confirming   the    title    ot    its 
prince  to  that  possession,  as  well  as  its  right  to  tlie 
electoral    dignity    to    which    it   had   been   raised  m 
164'^      In  the   war    of  the    Spanish    Succession,    B. 
supported    France,    and    suffered    considerably    m 


BAVARIA— BAXTER. 


consequence ;  but  in  1777,  on  the  extinction  of  the 
younger  Wittlesbach  line,  it  received  the  accession 
of  the  Rhine  Palatinate.  In  ISWi,  B.  was  erected 
into  a.  kingdom  by  Napoleon  I.  The  king  assisted 
Napoleon  in  his  wars,  and  in  consideration  of  his 
aid  received  large  additions  of  territory.  In  1813, 
however,  the  Bavarian  king  opportunely  contrived 
to  change  sides,  and  thus  managed  to  have  con- 
firmed to  him,  by  the  treaties  of  1814 — 1815,  an 
extent  of  territory  nearly  as  valuable  as  the  posses- 
sions which  the  treaties  of  Prcsburg  and  Vienna  had 
given  him,  and  which  he  had  now  to  restore  to 
Austria. 

In  1818,  as  already  intimated,  the  new  constitu- 
tion came  into  existence,  but  owing  to  various 
causes,  it  did  not  secure  that  measure  of  popular 
freedom  and  contentment  that  had  been  expected. 
In  182.5,  Louis  I.  ascended  the  throne.  He  was 
a  well-meaning,  liberal,  and  intellectual  monarch, 
and  was  favourable  to  the  liberty  of  the  people 
and  the  press ;  but  he  lavished  the  wealth  of  the 
kingdom  to  an  extravagant  degree  on  the  embellish- 
ment of  the  capital,  and  on  works  of  art,  while  he 
neglected  to  a  considerable  extent  works  of  practi- 
cal value,  that  would  have  tended  to  enrich  the 
country,  diminish  the  public  burdens,  and  conse- 
quently increase  the  welfare  of  his  people.  In  18:^0, 
a  wave  from  tlie  French  revolution  swept  over  the 
country,  disturbing  its  equanimity,  but  not  to  any 
serious  extent.  The  Bavarian  government,  however, 
took  alarm,  and  restricted  the  freedom  of  the  press. 
These  restrictions  excited  so  much  opposition,  that 
they  were  soon  after  rescinded,  Init  new  dissatisfac- 
tion was  created  by  the  imposition  of  new  taxes. 
The  Jesuits  now  obtained  an  immense  influence  with 
the  king,  which  they  used  to  the  detriment  of  popu- 
lar rights.  The  wrath  of  the  people  was  further 
moused  against  their  monarch  by  his  connection 
with  the  notorious  Lola  Montez,  who  was  looked 
upon  as  an  agent  of  the  Ultramontanists — an 
imputation  which  that  lady,  in  her  autobiography, 
published  in  1858,  indignantly  repudiates.  In  March, 
1848,  the  people  of  Munich  seized  the  arsenal,  and 
demanded  reforms  and  the  expulsion  of  Lola  IMontez. 
The  king  had  to  consent ;  but  in  the  same  month 
abdicated  in  accordance,  says  Lola  Montez,  -with  a 
promise  made  by  him  to  her  before  she  fled  the 
countiy.  His  son,  Maximilian  II.,  ascended  the 
throne;  and  on  his  death,  Maixh  10,  1864,  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  sou,  Ludwig  II.  In  consequence  of  the 
war  of  18G6,  several  small  districts  north  of  the 
Maine,  embracing  a  territory  of  291  English  square 
miles  with  a  pop.  of  32,470,  were  detached  from 
Bavaria  and  annexed  to  Prussia. 

BAVA'RIA,  a  colossal  female  statue  at  Munich, 
which  bears  the  name  of  the  country  of  which  it  is 
a  personification,  is  said  to  be  second  in  size  only  to 
the  famous  Colossus  of  Rhodes.  It  was  erected  by 
the  late  king,  Louis,  the  model  having  been  executed 
by  Schwanthaler.  Externally,  the  figure  bears  a 
German  aspect.  A  long  folding  garment  reaches  from 
the  middle  to  the  naked  foot;  over  the  half-naked 
breast  a  skin  is  cast,  and  the  hair  falls  freely  over 
the  back.  The  brow  is  adorned  with  sprigs  of  oak  ; 
in  the  left  hand,  which  is  raised,  she  holds  a 
wreath  of  o:ik ;  and  in  the  right,  which  is  bent 
towards  the  breast,  a  sword  ;  at  her  side  reposes  the 
Bavarian  lion,  the  guardian  of  her  kingdom,  in  a 
sitting  attitude.  The  statue  is  65  feet  high,  the 
pedestal  being  ,30,  so  that  the  whole  monument  has 
a  height  of  95  feet.  The  statue  was  cast  from  the 
bronze  of  Turkish  and  Norwegian  cannon.  Inter- 
nally, it  is  very  remarkable.  Through  the  back 
part  of  the  pedestal,  a  door  leads  to  a  stone  stair- 
case, consisting  of  60  stops.  The  figure  itself  is 
hollow,  and  resembles  a  mine,  with  side-passages 
762 


which  lead  into  the  lion.  A  staircase  of  cast  iron, 
of  68  steps,  leads  through  the  neck  up  into  the  head, 
where  there  are  two  sofas,  and  several  openings  for 
the  enjoyment  of  the  view.  At  the  higliest  part  of 
the  head,  there  is  the  following  inscription  :  '  This 
Colossal  figure,  erected  by  Louis  I.,  King  of  Bavaria, 
was  designed  and  modelled  by  L.  von  Schwanthaler, 
and  cast  in  bronze,  in  the  years  1844  to  1850,  by 
Ferdinand  ]\Iiller.'  The  head  contains  standing- 
room  for  thirty-one  persons.  The  whole  figure 
consists  of  seven  pieces,  and  the  lion,  of  five.  The 
montiment  was  formally  micovered,  amidst  great 
rejoicings,  on  the  7tli  August  1S50. 

BA'VINS,  in  the  pyrotechny  of  warfare  are  smalh 
bundles  of  easily  ignited  brushwood,  from  two  to 
three  feet  in  length.  They  are  made  by  arranging 
the  bush-ends  of  the  twigs  all  in  one  direction, 
tying  the  other  ends  with  small  cord,  di]>ping  the 
bush-ends  into  a  kettle  containing  an  intlannnable 
composition,  and  drying  them.  They  are  employed 
among  the  combustible  materials  in  fire-ships. 

BAWBEE',  or  BA'BEE',  the  popular  designation 
of  a  half-penny  in  Scotland,  now  dropping  out  of 
use.  The  origin  of  the  term  is  obscure ;  but  it 
is  most  probably  a  corruption  of  ban  billon,  Fr., 
ap]ilicable  to  debased  copper  money.  In  the  plural 
form,  the  word  is  often  popularly  used  in  Scotland 
to  signify  money  generally.  In  Scottish  song,  B. 
is  synonymous  with  a  girl's  fortune  or  marriage- 
portion — as,  Jennifs  Bawbee. 

BA'XTER,  RiCFiARD,  one  of  the  most  eminent  of 
the  Nonconformist  divines,  was  born,  November  12, 
It'll  5,  of  poor  but  genteel  parents,  at  Rowton,  in  Shrop- 
shire. His  early  education  was  somewhat  neglected. 
Instead  of  attending,  as  he  wished,  one  of  the  uni- 
versities, he  was  obliged  to  content  himself  with  a 
course  of  private  study,  in  the  midst  of  which  he 
was  induced,  singularly  enough,  for  he  was  habit- 
ually Fcrious,  to  try  his  fortune  at  court.  Hither 
he  accordingly  hied,  fortified  with  an  introduction 
to  the  Master  of  the  Revels.  A  month  sufficed 
to  convince  him  that  he  was  out  of  his  element  at 
Whitehall,  and  a  protracted  illnrss  after  his  return 
helped  to  deepen  the  earnestness  of  his  religious 
convictions.  Soon  after,  at  the  age  of  2.S,  he  was 
ordained,  and  entered  on  the  Mastership  of  Dudley 
Grammar  School,  from  which  he  removed  to  act  as 
assistant  to  a  clergyman  at  Bridgenorth,  where  he 
resided  nearly  two  years.  In  1(J40,  he  was  invited 
to  become  parish  clergyman  of  Kidderminster,  an 
offer  which  he  accepted ;  and  within  a  compar- 
atively brief  period,  not  only  did  he  establish  his 
reputation  as  one  of  the  most  remarlvable  preachers 
of  the  time,  but  what  was  better,  succeeded  in 
effecting  a  wonderful  improvement  in  the  manners  of 
the  people.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war, 
his  position  became  somewhat  peculiar.  Sincerely 
attached  to  monarchy,  his  religious  sympathies  were 
almost  wholly  with  the  Puritans;  and  though  a 
Presbyterian  in  principle,  he  was  far  from  admitting 
the  unlawfulness  of  episcopacy.  These  views,  which, 
some  time  before  the  Restoration,  became  extremely 
popular,  were  now  too  catholic  for  the  general  taste, 
and  the  open  respect  shewn  by  Baxter  to  some 
leading  Puritans  exposed  him  to  some  danger  from 
the  mob.  He  accordingly  retired  to  Conventry, 
where  he  ministered  for  two  years  to  the  garrison 
and  inhabitants.  He  afterwards  accepted  the  office 
of  chaplain  to  Colonel  Whalley's  regiment,  and  was 
even  present  at  the  sieges  of  Bridgewater,  Exeter, 
Bristol,  and  Worcester.  His  influence  was  at  all 
times  exerted  to  modify  the  intolerance  of  partisan- 
ship, and  to  promote  '  the  spirit  of  love  and  of  a 
sound  mind.'  On  the  urgent  invitation  of  his  parish- 
ioners,   be    returned    to    Kidderminster,   when   ill 


BAXTERIANS— BAYA. 


health  forced  hhn  to  leave  the  army,  and  continued 
to  labour  there  for  ?omc  time.  During  this 
period,  he  greath'  extended  his  fame  by  the  pub- 
lication of  his  Saints''  Rest  and  Call  to  the  Uncon- 
verted. He  never  dissembled  his  sentiments  with  re- 
gard to  the  execution  of  the  king  and  the  usur- 
pation of  Cromwell,  even  in  the  presence  of  the 
Protector  himself,  who  endeavoured,  without  success, 
to  enlarge  his  ideas  on  the  subject  of  revolutions. 
On  the  return  of  Charles,  B.  was  appointed  one  of 
his  chaplains,  and  toolc  a  leading  part  in  the  con- 
ference held  at  the  Savoy  to  attempt  a  reconciliation 
between  the  contending  church  factions,  a  project 
defeated  by  the  bigoted  obstinacy  of  the  bishops. 
B.  was  tempted  with  the  offer  of  the  see  of  Hereford, 
but  declined  the  honour,  praying  instead  to  be  per- 
mitted to  return  to  his  beloved  flock  at  Kidder- 
minster. He  asked  no  salary,  but  his  request  was 
refused.  The  Act  of  Uniformity  at  length  drove 
him  out  of  the  English  Cliurch,  and  in  July  1603  he 
retired  to  Acton,  in  Jliddlesex,  where  he  spent  the 
greater  part  of  nine  years,  chiefly  occupied  in  the 
composition  of  some  of  the  most  important  of  his 
numerous  works.  These  he  produced  with  a  rapid- 
ity unparalleled  in  modern  generations,  at  least  in 
Ihis  one  respect,  that  the  quality  was  not  always 
in  the  inverse  ratio  of  the  quantity.  The  Act  of 
Indulgence  in  1672  permitted  him  to  return  to 
London,  where  he  divided  his  time  between  preach- 
ing and  writing.  At  length,  in  1685,  he  fell  into 
the  brutal  chitclies  of  Judge  Jefferies,  who  condemned 
him,  for  alleged  'sedition'  in  his  Paraphrase 
of  the  Neio  Testament.,  to  pay  a  fine  of  500  marks, 
and  in  default,  to  lie  in  the  King's  Bench  Prison  till 
it  was  paid.  The  circumstances  of  the  trial  are 
graphically  described  by  Macaulay  in  the  second 
volume  of  his  History.  After  a  confinement  of 
nearly  eighteen  months,  B.  was  released  and  par- 
doned on  the  mediation  of  Lord  Powis.  He  lived 
after  this  to  see  better  times,  and  died  on  the  8th 
December  1691,  in  the  seventy-fifth  year  of  his  age. 
B.  is  said  to  have  preached  more  sermons,  engaged 
in  more  controversies,  and  written  more  books 
than  any  other  Nonconformist  of  his  age ;  and  Dr. 
Isaac  Barrow  has  said  of  him,  that  '  his  practical 
writings  were  never  mended,  and  his  controversial 
seldom  confuted.'  The  total  number  of  his  publi- 
cations exceeded  160.  Of  these,  by  far  the  most 
popular  and  celebrated  are  his  Saints'  Rest,  Call  to 
the  Uheonverted,  and  Dying  Thoughts — 20,000  copies 
of  which  were  sold  in  a  twelvemonth,  and  it  was 
translated  into  all  European  languages.  More  import- 
ant, however,  in  a  theological  point  of  view,  are  his 
Methodus  Theologice,  and  Catholic  Theology,  in  which 
his  peculiar  system — a  compromise  between  Armin- 
ius  and  Calvin — is  embodied.  His  autobiographical 
narrative  is  historically  valuable  ;  the  review  of  his 
religious  opinions  is  spoken  of  by  Coleridge  as  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  pieces  of  writing  in  religious 
literature.  A  complete  edition  of  his  works,  in 
25  vols.,  with  a  life  by  Orme,  was  published  in  1830. 
His  Practical  Works,  in  i  vols.,  were  published  in 
1847. 

BAXTE'RIANS  is  the  term  that  was  formerly 
applied  to  those  who  adhered  to  Baxters  theo- 
logical system,  the  peculiar  doctrines  of  which  were  : 
1st,  that  though  Christ  died  in  a  special  sense  for 
the  elect,  yet  he  also  died  in  a  general  sense  for 
all ;  2d,  The  rejection  of  the  dogma  of  reprobation  ; 
3d,  That  it  is  possil)le  even  for  saints  to  fall 
away  froni  saving  grace.  The  tendency  of 
Baxter's  views  was  towards  a  more  liberal  theology, 
but  they  are  deficient  in  logical  consistency.  Never- 
theless, they  have  been,  and  still  are,  embraced  by 
many  pious  people — especially  among  the  dissenters 
— who    shrink    from    accepting    what  they  consider 


the  hard  conclusions  of  Calvinism,  or  the  latitu- 
dinarian  views  of  Arminianism.  The  two  most 
eminent  B.  are  Dr.  Isaac  Watts  and  Dr.  Philip 
Doddridge. 

BAY  (from  a  Saxon  root,  'to  bond')  is  properly 
applied  to  an  indentation  of  the  sea  into  the  land, 
with  an  opening  wider  than  the  depth.  A  gulf  is 
understood  to  be  deeper  than  a  bay,  and  has  often  a 
narrow  opening.  These  terms  are  often  loosely 
apphed  ;  Battin's  Bay,  e.  g.,  is  really  a  gulf.  When 
the  body  of  water  is  large,  and  the  entrance  narrow, 
it  becomes  a  shut  sea,  as  the  Baltic,  the  Red  Sea, 
&c.  Hudson's  Bay,  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  might  with  propriety  be  termed  seas. 

BAY,  a  name  given  to  a  number  of  trees  and 
shrubs  more  or  less  resembling  the  Laurel  or  Vic- 
tor's Laurel  {Lanrus  nohilis),  which  is  also  called 
Sweet  Bay  (see  Laurel);  the  name  Baye,  which 
was  once  exclusively  applied  to  the  fruit,  having 
been  extended  to  the  whole  plant.  The  Common 
Laurel  or  Cherry  Laui-el  {Primus  Laurocerasus)  is 
sometitiies  called  Bay  Laurel.  See  Laurel. — The 
Red  Bay  of  the  southern  states  of  America  is 
Lam-US  Caroliniensis.  See  Laurel. — The  White 
Bay  of  America  is  Magnolia  glauca  (see  Magnolia), 
and  the  Loblolly  Bay  of  the  same  country  is 
Gordonia  Pasianthus.     See  Gordoxia. 

From  early  times,  bay-leaves  have  been  associated 
with  popular  superstitions  and  usages.  Along  with 
other  evergreens,  they  have  adorned  houses  and 
churches  at  Christmas";  and  in  token  of  rejoicing  or 
of  some  meritorious  deed,  sprigs  of  bay,  as  well  as 
of  laurel,  have  been  worn  in  the  hat,  or  wreathed 
around  the  head.  There  appears  to  have  been  a 
notion  that  the  B.  was  an  antidote  against  the  effects 
of  thunder.  In  an  old  play.  The  White  Devil, 
Cornelia  says : 

'  Reach  the  bays  : 
I'll  tie  a  garland  here  about  his  head, 
'Twill  keep  my  boy  from  lightning.' 

According  to  Shakspeare,  the  withering  of  bay-trees 
was  reckoned  an  omen  of  death.  Thus  Richard  says: 
'  'Tis  thought  the  king  is  dead  ;  we'll  not  stay 
The  bay-trees  in  our  country  are  withered.' 
The  following  passage  occurs  in  Parkinson\i  Garde''^ 
of  Flowers,  1629,  p.  598:  '  The  bay-leaves  are  neces- 
sary both  for  evil  uses  and  for  physic,  both  for  the 
sick  and  for  the  sound,  both  for  the  living  and  the 
dead.  It  serveth  to  adorn  the  house  of  God,  as  well 
as  man ;  to  crowne  or  enriche,  as  with  a  garland,  the 
heads  of  the  living  ;  and  to  strike  and  decke  forth 
the  bodies  of  the  dead ;  so  that  from  the  cradle  to 
the  grave,  we  have  still  use  of  it,  we  have  still  need 
of  it.'  For  other  notices  of  this  kind  respecting  the 
B.,  we  refer  to  Brand's  Popular  Antiquities,  also  to 
Hone's  Year  Book.  Bay-leaves  are  sometimes  used 
in  cookery  for  the  sake  of  flavouring. 

BAY  I'SLANDS,  a  small  group  in  the  Bay  of 
Honduras,  about  150  miles  to  the  south-cast  of 
Bahze,  embracing  only  25' of  lat.,  and  1°  15'  of  long- 
The  cluster  was  proclaimed  a  British  colony  in  1852- 
The  chief  island  is  Ruatan  (q.  v.)  ;  and  the  others 
of  any  consequence  are  Bonacca,  Utila,  Burburet, 
Helena,  and  Morat. 

BAY  OF  I'SLANDS,  near  the  northern  extrem- 
ity of  New  Ulster,  the  more  northerly  of  the  New 
Zealand  Isles.  Lat.  35°  14'  S.,  long.  174"  11'  E.  On 
its  coasts,  which  are  pretty  nearly  the  antipodes  of 
the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  are  the  British  settlements 
of  Russell  and  Kororarika. 

BA'YA  {Ploccus  Philippinus),  a  small  East  Indian 
bird,  of  the  great  family  of  the  Fringillidw  (q.  v.), 
and  of  a  genus  to  some  of  which,  from  their  remark- 
able manner  of  constructing   their  nests,  the  name 

763 


BAYADERES— RAY  ARD. 


Weavei'  Bird  (q.  v.)  is  often  given.  It  is  described 
by  the  older  orniriiologists  under  the  name  of  the 
Philippine  Grossbcak,  or  Loxia  Philippina.  It  is 
yellow,  spotted  with  brown,  the  throat  black,  the 
beak  conical  and  large.  Its  nest  is  very  curious. 
Suspended  from  a  slender  twig  of  a  lofty  branch,  so 
that  monkeys,  squirrels,  and  serpents  may  not  reach 
it,  it  is  rendered  still  more  secure  liy  its  form,  which 
is  very  like  that  of  a  common  Florence  flask,  the 
entrance,  however,  being  from  beneath,  and  not 
from  above,  with  lateral  openings  to  separate  cham- 
bers, in  one  of  which  the  female  sits  upon  the  eggs, 
whilst  another  is  occupied  by  the  male,  who  there 
pours  forth  his  song.  It  is  composed  to  fine  fibres 
of  leaves  and  grass.  The  B.  is  very  easily  tamed, 
will  perch  on  the  hand,  and  can  be  trained  to  fetch 
and  carry  at  command. 

BAYADE'RES  (from  the  Portuguese  bailndeira, 
that  is,  dancing-girl)  is  the  name  given  by  Euro- 
peans to  the  dancing-girls  and  singers  in  India,  who 
are  divided  into  two  great  classes,  each  comprising 
many  subdivisions.  The  first  of  these  cliisses,  who 
are  called  Devadasi — that  is,  slaves  to  the  gods — 
are  divided  into  two  distinct  grades,  according  to 
the  rank  of  the  families  whence  they  have  sprung, 
the  dignity  of  the  idol  to  which  they  are  devoted, 
and  the  authority  and  riches  of  the  temple  to  which 
they  belong.  Those  of  the  first  rank  are  chosen 
from  the  most  influential  families  of  the  Yaisya 
caste,  to  which  the  rich  landed  proprietors  and 
merchants  belong.  Those  of  the  second  class  are 
chosen  from  the  chief  Sudra  families,  who  correspond 
to  our  mechanics.  No  girls  can  be  admitted  among 
the  Devadasis  but  such  as  are  still  in  childhood, 
and  free  from  any  bodily  defect.  The  parents  of  the 
girl  must  renounce  by  a  solenm  agreement  all  right 
to  their  child,  who  then  receives  the  necessary 
instruction.  The  employment  of  the  Devadasis  is 
to  sing  the  praises  of  their  god  at  festivals  and 
solemn  processions,  to  celebrate  his  victories  and 
great  deeds,  and  to  dance  before  him,  to  weave  the 
wreaths  with  which  the  images  are  adorned,  and  in 
general  to  perform  subordinate  ofliccs  in  the  temple 
and  for  the  priests.  On  the  other  hand,  they  are 
excluded  from  the  celebration  of  such  rites  and 
ceremonies  as  are  accounted  peculiarly  sacred,  as, 
for  example,  at  sacrifices  for  the  dead,  suttis,  &c. 
The  Devadasis  of  the  first  rank  live  within  the 
enclosure  of  the  temple,  which  they  are  not  per- 
mitted to  leave  without  the  special  permission  of 
the  high  priest.  They  must  remain  unmarried  for 
life,  but  are,  notwithstanding,  permitted  to  choose  a 
lover,  either  in  or  out  of  the  temple,  provided  he 
belongs  to  one  of  the  high  castes.  A  connection 
with  a  man  of  low  rank  would  be  punished  with  the 
utmost  severity.  If  they  have  children,  the  girls 
are  brought  up  to  their  mother's  profession,  and  the 
boys  are  educated  for  musicians.  The  Devadasis  of 
the  second  rank  differ  but  little  from  those  of  the 
first,  but  they  have  more  freedom,  as  they  live 
without  the  temple.  A  certain  number  of  them  must 
attend  daily  at  the  temple  service,  but  at  public 
processions  they  are  all  obliged  to  appear.  They 
not  only  dance  and  sing  before  the  images — for 
which  they  receive  a  fixed  allowance  of  rice-money — 
but  when  summoned  by  the  nobles,  they  perform  at 
marriages,  banquets,  &c.  All  the  Devadasis  rever- 
ence, as  their  special  patroness  and  protectress,  the 
goddess  Rambha,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  dancers 
in  the  paradise  of  Indra.  They  bring  a  yearly 
off'ering  in  spring  to  her  and  to  the  god  of  love. 
The  singing-girls  who  travel  about  the  country  are 
of  an  essentially  different  class  from  the  Devadasis. 
They  perform  only  at  private  feasts,  entertain 
strangers  in  the  tschultris,  or  public  inns,  and  get 
different  names  according  to  the  special  arts  in 
764 


which  they  excel.  Some  of  them  live  independently 
in  bands,  consisting  of  from  10  to  12  persons.  They 
travel  about  the  country,  and  divide  their  gains 
with  the  musicians  who  accompany  them.  Others 
are  under  the  authority  of  dai/as,  or  old  dancing- 
women,  who  receive  all  the  money  they  gain,  and 
give  the  girls  only  enough  for  food  and  clothing. 
Some  are  really  the  slaves  of  such  old  women,  who 
have  procured  them  in  their  infancy  either  by  pur- 
chase or  by  capture,  and  have  instructed  them  in 
their  art.  To  one  of  these  classes  belonged  those 
B.  who  visited  several  of  the  European  capitals  in 
1839.  The  costume  of  the  B.  is  not  without  a  cer- 
tain alluring  charm.  Their  dances  do  not  resemble 
what  we  are  accustomed  to  call  dancing,  but  are 
rather  a  species  of  pantomime,  which  is  explained 
by  the  songs  recited  by  the  accompanying  musi- 
cians. The  themes  of  these  songs  are  usually  cither 
happy  or  dcsi)airing  love,  jealousy,  &c.  Europeans 
have  spoken  with  much  enthusiasm  of  the  charms 
of  these  jnintomimes;  but  to  judge  by  the  perform- 
ances of  the  above-mentioned  B.  during  their  visit 
to  Europe,  these  descriptions  must  be  looked  upon  as 
very  nuich  exaggerated  ;  for  although  these  dasicers 
possessed  great  physical  agility,  their  movements 
were  wanting  in  dignity  and  grace. 

BAYARD,  Pierre  du  Teurail,  Ciikvalifr,  the 
knight  sanspcuret  sansrcproche,  born  147G,  at  Castle 
Bayard,  near  Grenoble,  was  perhaps  the  only  hero 
of  the  middle  ages  who  deserved  the  unminglcd 
praise  and  admiration  bestowed  upon  him.  Simple, 
modest,  a  sterling  friend  and  tender  lover,  pious, 
humane,  and  magnanimous,  he  held  together  in  rare 
symmetrical  union  the  whole  circle  of  the  virtues. 
After  acting  as  page  to  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  B. 
entered  the  service  of  Charles  YIII.,  whom  he 
accompanied  to  Italy,  and  gained  renown  in  the 
battle  of  A'erona,  where  he  took  a  standard  from 
the  enemy.  At  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of 
Louis  XII.,  B.  was  engaged  in  a  battle  near  Milan, 
where  he  followed  the  defeated  and  retreating  forces 
with  such  impetuosity  that  he  entered  the  city  with 
them,  and  was  made  a  prisoner,  but  the  Duke  Ludo- 
vico  Sforza  released  him  without  ransom.  At  Bar- 
letta,  in  1502,  B.,  with  ten  other  French  cavaliers, 
fought  a  tournament  with  an  equal  number  of 
Spaniards,  in  order  to  decide  their  respective  claims 
to  superiority ;  and  although  seven  Frenchmen 
were  overthrown  in  the  first  charge,  the  residt, 
chiefly  through  B.'s  bravery,  after  a  six  hours' 
combat  was  declared  equal.  Next,  we  find  him 
fighting  bravely  in  Spain,  and  against  the  Genoese 
and  Venetians.  When  Pope  Julius  II.  declared 
war  against  France,  B.  hastened  to  support  the 
Duke  of  Ferrara ;  but  failed  in  his  scheme  for 
making  the  pope  a  prisoner.  Subsequently  he 
won  fresh  laurels  in  Spain.  In  the  war  with  Henry 
VIII.  of  England — ^who  had  threatened  Picardy,  and 
besieged  Terouane,  in  1513 — when  the  French,  on 
one  occasion,  were  about  to  lay  down  their  arms,  B. 
made  a  sudden  attack  on  an  English  officer,  and, 
pointing  his  sword  at  his  breast,  said :  'Surrender, 
or  I  take  your  life.'  The  Englishman  gave  his 
sword  to  B.,  who  returned  his  own,  saying:  '  I  am 
Bayard,  your  prisoner;  and  you  are  mine.'  The 
emperor  and  the  king  of  England  exchanged  their 
prisoners  without  any  demand  of  ransom  for  Bayard. 
"When  Francis  I.  had  ascended  the  throne,  B.  was 
sent  into  Dauphino  to  make  a  way  for  the  army 
over  the  Alps  and  through  Piedmont.  In  this 
expedition  he  made  Prosper  Colonna  a  prisoner. 
Next,  B.  gained,  at  Marignano,  a  victory  for  the 
king,  who,  in  consequence  submitted  to  receive  the 
honour  of  knighthood  from  Bayard.  When  Charles 
V.  broke  into  Champagne,  at  the  head  of  a  large 
army,  B.  defended  Mezieres  against  all  assaults,  and 


BAYAZID— BAYEUX  TAPESTRY. 


on  his  entry  into  Parin,  ho  was  hailoJ  as  the  saviour 
of  his  country,  was  made  knight  of  tlie  order  of  St. 
Michael,  and  appointed  over  a  company  of  10i»  men, 
led  ill  his  own  name,  an  lionour  wliicli  until  tlien 
had  been  confined  to  princes  of  the  blood-royal. 
He  was  slain  by  an  arrow  from  an  arquebuss,  while 
crossing  the  Sesia,  April  30,  1.5'2-i.  So  highly  was  he 
esteemed  for  all  noble  qualities,  that  his  death  was 
lamented  not  only  by  the  French  king  and  nation, 
but  also  by  his  enemies.  His  love  of  virtue,  espe- 
cially of  that  kingliest  of  virtues,  jusf.icfi,  was  so 
passionate,  that  he  was  wont  to  declare  that  all 
empires,  kingdoms,  and  provinces  where  justice  did 
not  rule,  were  mere  forests  filled  with  brigands. 
His  body  was  taken  by  the  enemy,  but  was  restored 
to  France,  and  interred  in  the  church  of  the  Mino- 
rites' monastery,  near  Grenoble. 

BAYAZIDI,  or  BAYEZEE'D,  a  town  of  Turkish 
Armenia,  in  the  pashalic  of  Erzeroom,  from  which 
place  it  is  distant  east-south-east  about  150  miles. 
It  is  situated  about  15  miles  to  the  south-west  of  the 
foot  of  Mount  Ararat ;  is  fortified  ;  and  has  a  popula- 
tion of  about  5000,  mostly  Kurds.  Prior  to  18-30,  its 
population  was  estimated  at  upwards  of  15,000,  and 
it  had  a  brisk  trade  ;  but  since  that  time,  on  account 
of  Russian  interference,  its  commerce  and  inhabit- 
ants have  gradually  decreased.  Being  near  the 
Russian  frontier,  it  has  been  the  scene  of  several 
conflicts ;  during  tlie  Crimean  camj)aign,  the  Rus- 
sians gained  a  victory  over  the  Turks  here. 

BAYAZI'DI.     See  Bajazid. 

BAYBERRY.     See  Candleberry. 

BAY'ER,  .JoHANN,  a  German  constructor  of  charts 
of  the  stars,  was   born,  either  at  Augsburg   or   at 


Rhain,  in  Bavaria,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  16th  c.i 
and  fulfilled  the  duties  of  a  Protestant  pastor  in  sevc" 
ral  places.  His  zeal  for  the  Protestant  Church  was 
so  conspicuous  that  he  obtained  the  cognomen,  Os 
Protcntantuuii  (the  Mouth  of  Protestants) ;  other 
accounts  state  that  he  was  an  advocate  at  Augsburg. 
It  matters  little  which,  as  he  is  now  remcnibored 
only  on  account  of  his  Uranorncfna  (160:i,  and  '^d 
ed.  1639),  in  which  he  gave  51  maps  of  the  heavens, 
constructed  from  the  observations  of  his  predeces- 
sors, and  followed  by  explanations  in  his  ExpUcatio 
Caractcrum  ^'Encis  Tahulis  Insculptormii  (Stras.  1624) 
Although  his  maps  are  not  remarkable  for  accuracy, 
even  for  his  time,  he  has  the  merit  of  introducing 
the  simple  plan  of  distinguishing  the  stars  of  a  con- 
stellation by  means  of  letters.  The  largest  star  of 
the  constellation  he  named  by  the  first  letter  of  the 
Greek  alphabet  (a),  and  the  rest  in  the  order  of 
their  apparent  brilliancy,  by  the  following  letters 
This  convenient  plan  is  still  follow^ed. 

BAYEU'X,  a  city  of  Normandy,  in  France,  dep. 
Calvados,  situated  on  the  Aure,  not  far  from  its 
mouth.  Pop.  9483.  B.  is  chiefly  built  of  wood  and 
plaster,  is  famous  for  its  porcelain,  and  has  also 
manufactories  of. lace,  linen,  calicoes,  leather,  and 
hats.  It  is  a  town  of  great  antiquity — its  cathedral 
being  said  to  be  the  oldest  in  Normandy.  In  it  was 
preserved  for  centuries  the  famous  Bayeux  Tapestry 
(q.  v.),  now  in  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  of  the  place.  B.  is 
the  seat  of  a  bishop,  and  has  a  college. 

BAYEU'X  T'APESTRY,  a  web  of  canvas  or 
linen  cloth,  214  feet  long  by  20  inches  wide,  pre- 
served in  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  Bayeux,  upon  which  is 
embroidered,  in  woollen  thread  of  various  colours. 


Bayeux  Tapestry. 
H.irolJ  coming  to  anchor  on  the  coast  of  Normandy. 


a  representation  of  the  invasion  and  conquest  of 
England  by  the  Normans.  Tradition  asserts  it  to 
be  the  work  of  Matilda,  wife  of  William  the  Con- 
queror, and  it  is  believed  that  if  she  did  not  actually 
stitch  the  whole  of  it  with  her  own  hand,  she  at  least 
took  part  in  and  directed  the  execution  of  it  by  her 
maids ;  and  afterwards  presented  it  to  the  cathedral 
of  Bayeux,  as  a  token  of  her  appreciation  of  the 
effective  assistance  which  its  bishop,  Odo,  rendered  to 
her  husband  at  the  battle  of  Hastings.  Some  anti- 
quaries contend  that  it  was  the  work  not  of  Queen 
Matilda  (the  wife  of,  the  Conqueror),  who  died  in 
1083,  but  of  the  Empress  Matilda  (the  daughter  of 


King  Henry  I.),  who  died  in  1167.  According  to 
Mr.  Bruce  the  latest  authority  on  the  subject,  the 
tapestry  contains,  besides  the  figures  of  505  quadru- 
peds, birds,  sphinxes,  &c.,  '  the  figures  of  623  men, 
202  horses,  55  dogs,  37  buildings,  41  ships  and  boats, 
and  49  trees — in  all,  1512  figures.'  The  tapestry  is 
divided  into  72  distinct  compartments,  each  repre- 
senting one  particular  historical  occurrence,  and 
bearing  an  explanatory  Latin  inscription.  A  tree  is 
usually  chosen  to  divide  the  principal  events  from 
each  other.  This  pictorial  history — for  so  it  may 
be  called,  and  indeed,  in  several  particulars,  it 
is    more    minute     than    any    written    historv    we 

765 


BAYEUX  TAPESTRY— BAYLE. 


have — opens    with    Harold,  prior  to    liis    departure 
for   Normandy,   taking  leave    of  Edward    the  Con- 


Baycux  Tapestry. 
Tho  crown  offered  to  Harold  by  the  people. 

fessor.     Harold  is  next  observed,  accompanied  by 


his  attendants,  riding  to  Boshaui  with  his  hawk  and 
hounds;  and  he  is  afterwards  seen,  successively, 
embarking  from  the  Sussex  coast  ;  anchoring  in 
France,  and  being  made  prisoner  by  Guy,  Earl  of 
Ponthicu;  redeemed  l)y  William  Duke  of  Normandy, 
and  meeting  with  liim  at  his  court ;  assisting  him 
against  Conan,  Earl  of  Bretagne  ;  swearing  on  the 
sacred  relics  never  to  interfere  with  William's 
succession  to  the  Saxon  throne,  &c. ;  and  finally 
re-embarking  for  England.  The  tapestry  then 
represents  Harold  narrating  the  events  of  his 
jouincy  to  Edward  the  Confessor,  whose  death  and 
fuiieial  olisequies  we  next  see.  Harold  then  receives 
the  crown  from  the  Saxon  people,  and  ascends  the 
throne ;  and  next  we  have  the  news  brought  to 
William,  who  takes  counsel  with  his  half-brother, 
Odo,  Bishop  of  Bayeux,  as  to  the  invasion  of 
England.  Then  follow  representations  of  the 
active  war  preparations  of  the  Normans ;  their  em- 
barkation ;  disembarkation  ;  march  to  Hastings, 
and  formation  of  a  camp  there  ;  the  battle,  and 
death  of  Harold,  with  which  the  tapestry  finishes. 

Tlie  B.  T.  gives  an  exact  and  minute  portraiture  of 
the  manners  and  customs  of  the  times  ;  and  it  has 
been  remarked  that  the  arms  and  liabits  of  the 
Normans  are  identical  with  those  of  the  Danes  as 


Bayeux  Tapestry. — Battle  of  Hastings. 


they  appear  in  the  miniature  paintings  of  a  manu- 
script of  the  time  of  King  Cnut,  preserved  in  the 
British  Museum. 

M.  Lancelot  appears  to  have  been  the  first  to 
direct  attention  to  the  existence  of  this  curious 
monument,  by  a  description  of  an  illuminated  draw- 
ing of  a  portion  of  it  he  had  discovered,  in  a  paper 
presented  to  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  and  Belles- 
Lettres,  in  1*724.  This  led  to  the  discovery  of  the 
tapestry  itself,  in  the  Bayeux  Cathedral,  by  Pere 
Montfoucon,  who  published  an  engraving  of  it  in 
1730,  with  a  commentary  on  the  Latin  inscriptions. 
In  1767,  Dr.  Ducarel  gave  an  account  of  it  in  his 
Anrilo-Xoriiiaii  Antiquities.  From  that  time  until 
18113,  when  Napoleon  had  it  conveyed  to  Paris,  the 
B.  T.  excited  little  attention.  Its  exhibition,  how- 
ever, in  the  National  Museum  there  awakened 
public  curiosity  concerning  it,  and  gave  rise  to 
various  speculations  as  to  its  age,  intention,  &c. 
The  discussion  satisfactorily  established  it  to  be 
what  tradition  asserted  it — a  contemporary  pictorial 
record  of  the  events  of  the  Norman  Conquest.  The 
Society  of  Antiquaries  (London)  published  an  engrav- 
ing of  the  whole  in  the  sixth  volume  of  the  Vetusta 
Monumerda.  The  B.  T.  would  have  been  destroyed 
at  the  Revolution,  had  not  a  priest  fortunately  suc- 
ceeded in  concealing  it  from  the  mob,  who  demanded 
it  to  cover  the  guns.  It  was  formerly  preserved  in 
the  cathedral  of  Bayeux,  where  it  was  wont  to  be  i 
exhibited,  on  certain  days  every  year,  in  the  nave  of 
the  church,  round  which  it  exactly  went.  Bruce's 
Bayeux  Tapestry  Elucidated  (Lovi<!Km  1S55);  Archcpo- 
logia^  vols,  xvii.,  xviii.,  xix.  ;  Vetusta  Monumcnta, 
vol.  vi. ;  Pictorial  history  of  England. 
766 


BAYLE,  Pierre,  one  of  the  most  independent 
thinkers  in  the  17th  c,  was  born  in  1047  at  Carlat, 
in  the  old  county  of  Foix,  France,  and  studied  philo- 
sophy under  the  Jesuits  at  Toulouse.  The  arguments 
of  his  tutors,  but  especially  his  friendly  intercourse 
and  quiet  disputation  with  a  Catholic  clergyman,  who 
lived  in  his  neighbourhood,  led  him  to  doubt  the 
orthdoxy  of  Protestantism,  and  shortly  prevailed 
so  far  that  he  openly  renounced  his  father's  creed, 
and  adopted  the  Catholic  one.  In  the  course  of  about 
17  months,  however,  the  conversation  of  his  rela- 
tives brought  him  back  to  the  Protestant  profession. 
To  escape  ecclesiastical  censure,  he  now  went  to 
Geneva,  and  thence  to  Coppct,  where  he  studied  the 
philosophy  of  Descartes.  After  a  few  years,  he 
returned  to  France,  and  in  1675  was  elected  to  fill  the 
chair  of  philosophy  in  the  L^^niversity  of  Sedan.  In 
this  office  he  remained  until  1681,  when  the  univer- 
sity was  disfranchised.  His  next  appointment  was 
that  of  professor  of  philosophy  at  Rotterdam.  The 
appearance  of  a  comet  in  1680  having  given  occa- 
sion to  a  widely-spread  alarm,  B.,  in  1682,  published 
his  Pei^sees  Divei'ses  sur  la  Covicte,  a  work  full  of 
learning,  and  treating,  in  discursive  style,  many 
topics  of  metaphysics,  ethics,  theology,  history,  and 
politics.  This  was  followed  by  his  Critique  Ghierale 
de  '  r  Histoire  du  Cahmiisme  de  Maimbourg.^  In 
1684,  he  commenced  a  periodical,  Nouvellcs  de  la 
Republiquc  des  Lettres.  The  religious  persecutions 
in  France  gave  B.  occasion  to  write  his  Commentaire 
Philosophique  sur  ces  Paroles  de  VEvnngile:  '  Con- 
traivs  les  d'entrer,^  which  professed  itself  to  be 
a  translation  from  the  English,  and  contained  a 
strong  defence  of  the  principle   of  toleration.     In 


BAYLEN— BAYONNE. 


consequence  of  the  accusations  brought  for\v;inl  by 
the  thuologian,  Jurieu,  wlio  regarded  B.  as  an  agent 
of  Fnince,  and  the  enemy  of  Protestiints,  B.,  though 
he  skilfully  defended  himself,  was  dejjrived  of  his 
license  to  teach  (in  1()93).  lie  now  assiduously 
devoted  his  leisure  to  the  Dictlounaire  JJiftorirjiie  ct 
Critique  (1st  edition,  2  vols.  Kotterd.,  lCi»() — last  edi- 
tion, 16  vols.,  Paris,  1820).  This  was  the  first  work 
published  under  his  own  name.  Again  Jurieu  came 
forward  as  B.'s  adversary,  and  induced  the  consistory 
of  Rotterdam  to  censure  the  Dictionary,  chiefly  on 
account  of  the  supposed  irreligious  tendency  of  the 
article  on  '  David,'  and  the  commendation  bestowed 
on  the  moral  character  of  certain  atheists.  B.  pro- 
mised to  expunge  all  the  objectionable  matter ;  but 
afterwards,  when  he  found  that  the  public  entertained 
a  different  and  more  favourable  opinion  of  the  pecu- 
liar passages  than  the  RotterdaTu  Consistory,  he 
judged  it  best  to  allow  them  to  remain  as  they  were, 
or  made  only  .slight  alterations.  Xew  opponents 
were  called  into  the  arena  by  his  liesponxc  mix 
Questions  </'««  Provincial,  and  the  continuation  of 
his  Pensees  sur  la  Co)netc.  Jacquelot  and  Leclerc 
now  attacked  his  religious  opinions,  while  others 
persecuted  him  as  the  enemy  of  Protestantism  and 
of  his  adopted  country,  Holland.  These  literary 
and  theological  controversies  had  a  bad  effect  on 
his  failing  health,  and  a  disease,  for  which  he  lefuscd 
to  employ  medical  aid,  proved  iiital.  He  died, 
December  28,  1706. 

B.  stands  at  the  head  of  modern  sceptics  and 
logicians.  Accustomed  to  view  every  question 
scrupulously  on  all  sides,  he  was  apparently  led  to 
doubt  on  religious  matters  generally ;  at  least,  it 
is  not  to  be  denied  that  his  scepticism  carried 
him  the  length  of  doubting  the  worth  or  the 
wisdom  of  the  religious  dogmatism  that  ruled  both 
Catholics  and  Protestants  in  his  day.  B.  w.is  thus 
the  antithesis  of  a  bigot,  but  his  hostility  to 
bigotry  rather  originated  in  his  indifference  to  the 
doctrines  about  which  theologians  quarrelled,  than 
in  any  clear  or  high  perception  of  the  iniquity  of 
religious  persecution.  With  great  eloquence  and 
persistency,  he  vindicated  the  doctrine  that  moral 
characteristics  and  convictions  may  exist  and  flourish 
independently  of  particular  religious  opinions ;  and 
considering  the  barbarous  manner  in  which  the 
rival  churches  in  B.'s  time  sought  to  enforce 
conformity  of  sentiment,  and  crush  the  liberty  of 
private  judgment,  it  is  not  to  be  w'ondered  at  that 
this  doctrine,  however  objectionable  abstractly, 
should  have  formd  a  wide  acceptance  in  Europe. 
Voltaire  culls  him  'a  more  admirable  logician  than 
a  profound  philosopher ; '  and  adds  that  '  he  knew 
almost  nothing  of  physics.'  This  probnbly  means 
no  more  than  that  he  was  ignorant  of  the  then 
recent  discoveries  of  Newton ;  for  the  scientific 
articles  in  the  Dictionary  presuppose  a  knowledge 
of  the  theories  of  Descartes  (q.  v.),  with  which  ho 
was  conversant  enough.  The  style  of  B.  is  clear  and 
natural,  but  diffuse,  and  often  impure.  The  articles 
in  the  Dictionary  seem  to  have  been  chosen  merely  as 
vehicles  to  introduce  numerous  digressions  in  notes, 
many  of  which  are  prolix  and  uninteresting ;  but 
the  greater  number  of  the  articles  are  characterised 
by  good  sense,  logic,  critical  acumen,  and  great 
learning.  Though  it  is  impossible  to  detect  the 
presence  of  a  religious  or  philosophical  system  in 
the  work,  it  evei-ywhere  gives  indications  of  the 
high  intelhgence,  honest  principle,  and  universal 
knowledge  of  the  author.  It  was  proscribed  both 
in  France  and  Holland,  and  was  consequently  very 
widely  diffused  in  both  countries,  and  has  exercised 
an  inunense  influence  over  the  literature  and  philos- 
ophy of  the  continent.  It  was  the  dawn  of  scepti- 
cism in  the  18th  c,  and  may  be  historically  regarded 


as  the  protest  of  the  enlightened  human  intellect 
against  the  irrational  dogmatism  of  the  churches. 
In  his  personal  character,  B.  was  aniiable,  obliging, 
disinterested,  and  modest,  but  at  the  same  time 
morally  courageous  and  indej)cndent.  His  (Euvres 
Diverges  were  published  in  four  volumes  at  the 
Hague,  1725 — 1731.  Sec  life  of  B.  by  Des  Maizeaux 
(Amsterdam,  1712). 

BAYLE'N,  a  town  in  the  province  of  Andalusia, 
Spain,  situated  22  miles  north-north-east  of  Jaeu. 
It  has  manufactures  of  linen,  glass,  bricks,  tiles, 
soap,  «Scc.  Pop.  4976.  B.  is  celebrated  as  the 
place  where  the  Spaniards  won  their  first  and  only 
victory  over  the  French  in  July  18o8,  and  that 
more  by  accident,  and  the  errors  of  the  French  com- 
mander, Dupont,  than  by  good  generalship  on  their 
part.  About  18,000  French  soldiers  laid  down  their 
arms  at  B.,  the  only  condition  being,  that  they 
should  be  sent  to  France ;  and  other  detachments 
of  French  troops  afterwards  offered  their  submis- 
sion. The  Spaniards,  however,  basely  broke  faith 
with  them,  and  sent  them  to  the  hulks  at  Cadiz. 
The  capitulation  had  the  worst  effect  on  the  French 
arms.  Joseph  Bonaparte  at  once  fled  from  Madrid, 
and  Napoleon  could  find  no  words  strong  enough 
to  express  his  indignation  at  the  folly  and  pusilla- 
nimity of  the  surrender. 

BA'YONET,  supposed  to  be  named  froniBayonne, 
as  the  place  of  its  invention,  is  a  dagger  or  small  spear 
flxcd  at  the  end  of  a  musket  or  similar  weapon.  The 
first  bayonets,  used  in  France  in  1671,  called  bai/o)icts- 
d-manche,  had  handles  wdiicli  fitted  into  the  nnizzle 
of  the  guns;  bvit  at  a  later  date  were  introduced 
the  baijoncts-d-douillc,  or  socket-bayonet,  having  a 
socket  which  enabled  the  B.  so  to  be  used  as  not  to 
interrupt  the  firing.  The  use  of  pikes  went  out 
when  that  of  bayonets  came  in.  It  seems  very 
probable  that  the  first  B.  was  a  dagger,  which  the 
musketeer  stuck  by  means  of  its  handle  into  the 
muzzle  of  his  weapon,  to  shield  him  from  a  cavalry 
chai'ge ;  and  that  the  usefulness  of  the  contrivance 
suggested  a  permanent  arrangement.  Bayonets  are 
now  made  with  great  rapidity  at  the  government 
rifle  factory  at  Enfield.  Two  pieces  of  metal  are 
first  selected — viz.,  a  piece  of  the  very  best  cast 
steel,  7  inches  long  by  f  inch  square ;  and  a  piece 
of  the  best  wrought-iron  rod,  4  inches  long  by 
about  one  inch  in  thickness.  The  steel  is  to  form 
the  blade,  and  the  iron,  the  socket-handle.  The 
steel  being  pi'operly  shaped  at  one  end,  is  joined  to 
the  iron  by  welding.  A  forging-machine  is  next 
employed  to  give  a  rough  outline  of  the  required 
shape.  Then  comes  the  action  of  a  swagirig- 
machine,  with  dies  which  come  down  upon  the 
metal  in  great  force,  and  counter-dies  beneath  the 
metal.  The  metal  is  then  annealed;  turned  in  a 
cutling-machine  to  remove  a  wire-edge  throw  i  up 
in  the  act  of  stamping;  cut  to  a  proper  length,  jui 
the  socket  end  made  square;  drilled  and  bored, 
to  make  the  socket  hollow  ;  shaped  and  furrowed 
along  the  blade  ;  bent  at  the  neck  ;  hardened  and 
tempered ;  and  finished  by  a  numerous  train  of 
minor  operations.  The  B. -charge  is  now  one  of 
the  most  terrible  mancKuvres  of  trained  infantry,  in 
which  each  nation  fancies  itself  to   excel  all  othei's. 

BAYOXNE,  one  of  the  most  strongly  fortified 
towns  of  France,  in  the  department  of  the  Basses- 
Pyrenees,  situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  Adour  and 
Nive,  about  three  miles  from  the  mouth  of  their  united 
waters  in  the  Bay  of  Biscay.  These  rivers  divide 
the  town  into  three  parts — Great  and  Little  B.,  and 
the  suburb  of  St.  Esprit.  Population  in  1861, 
2.5,011.  Bayonne  is  beautifully  situated  at  the 
foot  of  the  PjTenees,  and  is  itself  a  handsome 
place.     It  has  extensive  ship-yai-ds,  rope-walks,  glass- 

767 


BAY-SALT— BAZOCHE. 


mannfoctorics,  sugar-refineries,  and  distilleries,  and 
a  brisk  export  trade  in  hams,  for  which  it  is  famous, 
chocolate,  liqueurs,  timber,  tar,  and  cork.  Its  chief 
imports  are  wool,  olive-oil,  and  Hquorice.  It  is  the 
see  of  a  bishop,  has  a  cathedral,  a  mint,  and  schools 
of  commerce  and  navigation.  B.  is  also  historically 
interesting.  It  is  said  that  here  Catharine  de' 
Medici  and  the  Duke  of  Alba  planned  the  massacre 
of  the  Huguenots,  which  took  place  on  St.  Bartholo- 
mew's day,  1572.  Here  the  great  Napoleon  cozened 
Charles  IV.  out  of  the  crown  of  Spain,  after  he  had 
ineffectually  endeavoured  to  get  Ferdinand  VII., 
to  whom  Charles  had  previously  resigned  it,  to  give 
it  up.  The  forcing  of  the  passage  of  the  Nive, 
immediately  in  this  vicinity,  by  the  British,  in 
December,  1813,  occasioned  some  of  the  most  bloody 
conflicts  of  the  Peninsular  campaign.  The  place 
was  invested  by  the  British  early  in  the  following 
year,  and  a  sally  from  it  by  the  French,  on  April  14, 
Mas  only  repulsed  after  great  loss  on  the  side  of  the 
British.  B.  is  also  famous  as  the  place  where  the 
bayonet  was  invented  about  the  year  1G70. 

BAY'-SALT  is  the  name  applied  to  common  salt 
which  is  obtained  from  sea-water  by  solar  evapor- 
ation. It  is  extensively  obtained  from  salt-mar.^hes, 
which  exist  along  the  coasts  of  France  and  on  the 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean.     See  Salt. 

BAY-WI'XDOW,  or  (corruptly)  BOW-WI'N- 
DOW,  a  window  peculiar  to  Gothic  architecture,  so 
called,  because  it  forms  a  bay  or  projecting  space 
outwards  from  a  room.  The  external  walls  of  bay- 
windows  are,  for  the  most  part,  either  rectangular  or 
polygonal,  the  semicircular  form  from  which  the  term 
bovj  was  probably  derived  having  been  unknown 
previously  to  the  introduction  of  the  debased  Gothic. 


Bay-TViudow,  at  Compton,  "Wingate,  "\^'■anvickshire. 

Though  mentioned  by  Chaucer,  bay-windows  are 
not  found  in  any  of  the  styles  before  the  perpen- 
dicular, during  the  prevalence  of  which  they  were 
frequently  introduced,  particularly  in  halls.  Bay- 
windows  generally  reach  to  the  floor,  and  are  fre- 
quently supplied  with  a  seat,  which  is  called  the 
hay-stall.  There  are  many  very  beautiful  examples 
of  bay-windows  in  the  colleges  and  halls  of  Oxford 
and  Cambridge.  When  used  in  upper  stories,  such 
windows  are  supported  on  corbels,  or  large  project- 
ing mouldings.     See  Oriel. 

BA'ZA  (the  Baxti  of  the  Romans),  a  town  of 
Spain,  in  the  province  of  Granada,  and  about  50 
miles  east-north-east  of  the  city  of  that  name.  It 
lies  in  a  rich  plain,  is  generally  ill-built  and  irregular, 
with  no  feature  of  architectural  interest.  Popula- 
tion about  11,000,  who  are  chiefly  engaged  in  agri- 
cultural pursuits,  but  who  also  manufacture  to  some 
768 


extent  hats,  linens,  and  earthenware.  B.  is  famous 
for  its  red  wines;  and  its  women,  according  to  Ford, 
are  among  the  prettiest  in  Spain.  In  early  times,  B. 
was  a  place  of  considerable  note,  and  many  remnants 
of  antiquity  are  still  found  in  its  vicinity.  In  1480, 
Isabella  captured  it  from  the  Moors,  after  a  seven 
months'  siege,  and  some  of  the  rough  iron  cannon 
used  by  her  army  still  ornament  the  town.  In 
November  1810,  the  Spaniards,  under  Blake  and 
Freire,  were  beaten  in  front  of  B.  by  the  French 
under  Soult. 

BAZAR,  or  BAZAA'R,  an  oriental  market- 
place, either  open  or  covered,  where  various  articles, 
including  slaves,  are  exposed  for  sale,  and  where 
eastern  merchants  meet  for  transaction  of  business, 
as  on  'Change  or  at  the  Bourse  in  England  and 
Franco.  The  B.  of  Ispahan  is  one  of  the  most 
splendid,  and  that  of  Tauris  is  the  largest  In 
London,  Pai-is,  and  other  European  cities,  several 
jilaces  opened  for  the  sale  of  various  articles 
(chiefly  fancy  goods)  are  now  styled  bazars, 

BAZARD,  AjiAxn,  the  founder  .  of  French 
Carbonarism  (q.  v.),  and  subsequently  an  earnest  dis- 
ciple of  St.  Simon,  was  born  at  Paris  on  the  19th 
of  September  1791.  After  the  Restoration,  along 
with  several  other  '  patriots,'  he  established,  under 
the  disguise  of  freemasonry,  the  revolutionary 
society  of  the  'Friends  of  Virtue;'  and  in  1820,  in 
concert  with  his  friends  Dugied  and  Joubert,  who 
had  brought  from  Naples  the  statutes  of  the  associa- 
tion of  Italian  Carbonari,  he  founded  a  similar 
association  in  France,  which  in  the  course  of  a  year 
had  extended  over  the  departments,  and  contained 
200,000  members.  He  was  the  leading  conspirator 
in  the  'plot  of  Befort,'  which,  however,  proved  a 
failure,  and  nearly  cost  him  his  life.  After  some 
time,  a  change  passed  over  Bazard.  Experience 
seems  to  have  taught  him  the  worthlessness  of  mere 
political  agitation  and  reform.  Impressed  with  the 
narrow  and  one-sided  character  of  common  democ- 
racy, and  the  necessity  of  a  total  reconstruction  of 
the  conditions  of  society,  before  any  radical  improve- 
ments could  become  possible,  he  attached  himself  to 
the  school  of  St.  Simon,  and  along  with  Enfantin, 
undertook  to  elaborate  the  theoretical  and  specula- 
tive portion  of  the  system.  In  1825,  he  became  one 
of  the  editors  of  a  St.  Simonian  journal,  termed  Le 
Producteur.  In  1828,  he  delivered  at  Paris  a  series 
of  prelections  on  his  politico-religious  creed,  which 
met  with  extraordinary  success.  His  socialistic 
views  were  afterwards  published  in  tlie  chef- 
(Tauvre  of  the  sect.  Exposition  of  the  Doctrine  of  St. 
Simon  (1828 — 1830),  of  which 'only  the  first  part 
was  by  B.,  the  second,  containing  the  principles 
of  the  new  social  religion,  being  the  composition  of 
Enfantin.  After  the  July  revolution,  a  larger  scope 
was  afforded  to  the  St.  Simonians.  The  masses  were 
attracted  by  the  flattering  doctrine,  that  'all  social 
institutions  ought  to  have  for  their  end  the  moral, 
intellectual,  and  physical  amelioration  of  the  poor.' 
In  a  short  time,  B.  and  his  coadjutors  had 
'  created  a  new  society,  living  in  the  midst  of  the 
old,'  with  peculiar  laws,  manners,  and  doctrines. 
But  B.'s  connection  with  it  was  of  short  dura- 
tion. He  differed  from  Enfantin  on  the  doctrine  of 
a  'community  of  wives,'  and  in  November  1831 
seceded  in  disgust.  His  efforts  to  found  a  school  of 
his  own  proved  unsuccessful,  and  during  a  heated 
discussion  with  his  former  friend  Enfantin,  he  was 
struck  with  apoplexy,  from  the  eftects  of  which  he 
never  recovered.  He  died  at  Courtry,  near  Mont- 
fermeil,  on  the  29th  July  1832. 

BAZOCHE,  or  BASOCHE,  a  kind  of  burlesque 
translation  into  French  of  the  Latin  word  basilica, 
i.  e.,  royal  palace.      When  the  French  parliament 


BDELLIUM— BEACON. 


ciasc'd  to  l)o  the  j:^t;uul  council  of  the  king,  and 
conlinoil  itself  exclusively  to  adniinisteiing  justice, 
a  distinction  of  name  necessarily  sprang  up  between 
those  nol)leaien  who  formed  the  royal  train  and  the 
habitni's  of  the  court  of  justice.  The  former  were 
called  courliers ;  the  latter,  basochians,  or  parlia- 
mentary clerks.     But  inasmuch  as  the  word  basilica 


whilst  the  Sicilian  B.,  formerly  used  in  medicine, 
is  produced  by  Datteus  r/wmni/vr,  a  species  of  the 
same  genus  to  which  the  caiKjt  belongs,  growing 
on  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean  — The  B. 
mentioned  in  Gen.  ii.  12  is  ])robably  not  a  gum-resiu 
at  all;   but  what  it  is,  is  uncertain. 

BEA'CIIES,    Raised.      Modern    geology    tcache.^ 


necessardy  presupposed  a  king,  the  basockiatts,  to  ^^^^^  ^i^^.  frame  of  the  land  is  liable  to  risings  and 
keep  up  their  dignity,  gathered  round  a  moek  one  jepression-s,  even  in  the  present  age.  Several 
of  their  own   making,  who  resided  at  the   Chateau    ji^tricts  in  different  parts  of  the  w  orld  have  been 


des  Tournellos  or  the   Hotel   St.    Pol,  just   as    the 
courtiers    did    round    the    reality    at    the     Louvre. 
Such  was  the    origin    of    the    Basochian    king    and 
kingdom.     Their  historical  existence  can  be  traced 
to  the  beginning  of  the  14th    c,  when    Philip    the 
Fair   conferred    on    the   brotherhood  certain    privi- 
le'^es.     The    principal   authorities  in    this   harndess 
monarchy,    after    the    sovereign    himself  were,    the 
chancellor,  the  master  of  requests,  the  referendary, 
and    the    attorncv-gcneral.     Henry    IIL   suppressed 
the  title  of  king,  and  conferred  all  the  privileges  and 
rights    attached    to    that    office    on    the    chancellor. 
StUl  the  B.  continued  to  exist  as  a  kingdom,  minus 
its  head,  and  atfected  on  all  occasions  the  language 
of  royalty.     Its  jurisdiction  included  the  considera- 
tion and  decision  of  all  processes  and  debates  that 
arose    among    the    clerks.     It    administered    justice 
twice  a  week,  and  also  caused   a  species  of  coin  to 
be  struck  which  had  currency  among  its  members; 
but  if  we  are  to  judge  from  the   proverb    about    la 
monnaie   de    basoche,  it   did  not  enjoy  an   immense 
credit  in  the  outer  world  of  hard  cash.     The  mock- 
monarch  also  possessed   the   extensive   privilege    of 
selecting  at    his  pleasure,  yearly,   from  the  French 
royal   forests,  a    tall    tree,    which    his  subjects,    the 
clerks,  were  in  the  habit  of  planting,  on  the  tirst  of 
May,  before  tlie  grand   court   of  the  palace,  to  the 
sound  of  tambourines  and  trumpets.     But  this  was 
not  all.     In  the  public  sports,  this   fantastical  little 
kingdom  was  worthily  honoured;  its  chancellor   had 
rooms  at  the  Hotel  de  Bourgogne  ;  at  the  carnival, 
the  baxochiaiis  joined  themselves  to  the  corps  of  the 
Prince  of  Fools,  and  to  the  performers  of  low  farces 
and  '  mysteries.'     They  acted  in  their  turn  a  species 
of  satirical 'morality '"(q.   v.),   in  which  they   made 
extensive  use   of  the  liberty   granted   to   them,    in 
ridiculing  vices  and  the  favourites  of  fortune.     Of 
course,  they  could  not  fail  to  provoke  enmity  and 
occasion    serious  scandal.       Louis    XII.    patronised 
these  amusements.     In   1500,  he  gave  the  brother- 
hood   of    the    B.    permission    to    perform    plays    in 
the    grand    saloon  of  the  royal  palace.     Francis  I. 
witnessed   them  in   1538;  but  in   1540,    they  were 
interdicted    as    incorrigible.      This    iijterdict    only 
applied  to  those  of  Paris,  for  several  years  after, 
we  read  of  the   Basochian  farces  of  Bordeaux.     In 
their  later  development,  they  seem  to  have  resemldcd 
the    Fastuachtxpiclcn    (Shrovc-Tuesday    Spectacles), 
so  popular  in   Germany   both  before  and   after   the 
Reformation.     They  were  the  beginning  of  French 
comedy. 

BDE'LLIUM,  a  gum-resin  resembling  myrrh 
(q.  V.)  in  appearances  and  qualities,  but  weaker,  and 
at  the  same  time  more  acrid.  High  medicinal  virtues 
were  ascribed  to  it  by  the  ancients,  but  it  is  now 
little  used.  It  is  supposed  to  be  the  produce  of 
BahamodcnJron  RoxhuvrjUii  in  India,  and  of  B. 
Africaimm  (also  called  Ihndelotia  Afrlcana)m  Seiie- 
giil — trees  or  shrubs  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Aniyridaceie  {i\.  v.),  so  remarkable  for  the  number  of 
similar  substances  which  it  produces. — Egyptian  B., 
however,  is  obtained  from  the  Doom  (q.  v.)  palm, 
Hyphcrne  Tliebaica.  A  similar  sub.stance  is  yielded 
also  by  Ccradia  furcata,  a  half-succculent  plant  of 
the  natural  order  Composltcc,  inhabiting  the  inost 
sterile  regions  of  the  south-west  of  Africa; 
49 


raised,    in   consequence   of  eaitluiuakes,   within   the 
remembrance  of  the  present   generation.     There  is 
good  proof  that   certain    parts  of  Eastern  Sweden, 
bordering  on  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,   have   been   ele- 
vated about  three  ieet  within  the  last  hundred  years. 
These    facts   prepare    us  to  learn    that,  around   the 
British  Islands,  and  in    other    parts    of    the    earth, 
there    are    tracts   of  ground    at    various    elevations 
above  the   present  sea-level,  which   have    evidently 
been    sea-B.    at    a    former    time.     The    evidences 
consist  of,  first,  the  levclness  of  the  ground  in   the 
general    direction  of   the  present  shores   over  con- 
siderable spaces;    second,   the  alternating  beds  of 
sand  and  gravel,  such    as   we   see   composing    the 
present   B. ;    and,    third,    the    presence    of    marine 
shells,  which,  in  our  countrj',  are  generally  of  species 
now  living  in  the  boreal  seas.     There   are  also  what 
may    be    called    terraces    of  erosion — indentations 
made  in  a    rocky  coast   by  the    lip    of  the   sea  in 
ancient  times — usually  consisting  of  a  flat  platform 
presenting  patches  of  gravel,  and  of  a  backing  wall 
or  sea-cliff,  the    latter    sometimes     penetrated    with 
deep  eaves.     In  Scotland,  there   is  a   very  decided 
terrace  of  erosion  all  round  the  bold  coasts  of  the 
West  Highlands  and  Western  Islands,  at  an  eleva- 
tion of  about  25  feet  above  the  level  of  the  similar, 
but  scarcely  so  well-marked  indentation  which   the 
sea  is  now  making.     In  Lapland,   there   is  a  similar 
terrace,  but    stooping  from    220  to   85    feet  in  the 
course  of  thirty  miles.     There   is  also  a  clear  and 
well-marked  terrace  of  the  same  kind,  at  about  520 
feet  above  the  present  sea-level,  behind  Trondhjem 
in  Norway.     The  whole  subject  is  treated  elaborately 
in    Ancient    Sea-margins,    by    R.    Chambers,    1848, 
where  a  series  of  gravelly  terraces  are  described  as 
existing  in  Scotland  at  'various  heights  above  the 
sea,  telling  of  an  uprise  of  the  frame  of  the  land  in 
stages,  and  indicating  by  their  uniformity  of  level 
that  tins  movement  was  equable. 

BEACIIY  HEAD,  the  loftiest  headland  on  the 
south  coast  of  England,  projecting  into  the  English 
channel,  2-i-  miles  south-south-west  of  Eastbourne, 
Sussex.  It'eonsists  of  perpendicular  chalk-elitVs,  564 
feet  high,  forming  the  east  end  of  the  South  Downs. 
Several  caverns  have  been  cut  out  in  the  rock,  for 
shipwrecked  seamen  to  take  refuge  in ;  but  ship- 
wrecks have  been  far  fewer  since  1828,  when  the 
Bell-Tont  Light-house  was  built  here.  This  light- 
house is  285  feet  above  the  sea,  in  lat,  50°  44'  24" 
N.,  long.  0°  12'  42"  E.,  and  is  .seen  above  20  miles 
off.  The  view  from  B.  II.,  in  clear  weather,  extends 
to  Hastings,  the  Isle  of  Wight,  and  France.  The 
cliffs  are  the  resort  of  myriads  of  sea-fowl.  Off  this 
point,  the  French  ilect  beat  the  combined  English 
and  Dutch  fleets  in  1(390. 

BEATON  (allied  to  beck  or  beckon,  to  give  a 
signal)  denotes  any  signal  set  upon  a  height,  but 
especially  the  alarm-fires  at  one  time  ufed  to  spread 
the  inteiligenco  of  foreign  invasion  or  other  great 
event.  These  fire-signals  were  in  use  in  the  earliest 
times,  and  notices  of  them  are  found  in  the  literary 
remains  of  ancient  Persia,  Palestine,  and  Greece. 
They  were  made  by  kindling  a  pile  or  bale  of  wood 
on  the  tops  of  lofty  mountains,  and  keeping  the 
flame  bright  bv  night,  or  having  the  fire  so  covered 

769 


BEACON— BEADS. 


ns  to  emit  a  dense  smoke  by  day.  There  were 
various  pret-oncerted  modes  of  exhibiting  the  light 
or  smoke,  so  as  to  indicate  the  nature  of  the 
intelligence.  Thus,  an  act  of  the  parliament  of 
Scotland,  in  1445,  directs  that  one  bale  on  fire  shall 
be  warning  of  the  approach  of  the  English  in  any 
manner  ;  two  bales  blazing  beside  each  other,  that 
they  arc  coming  indeed;  and  four  bales,  that  they 
are  coming  in  great  force. 

An  early  instance  of  B.-signals  is  found  in  the 
book  of  the  prophet  Jeremiah,  in  liis  call,  in  chap. 
vi.  1,  to  the  people  of  Benjamin  to  kindle  a  fire- 
signal  on  one  of  their  mountains:  'Set  up  a 
sign  of  fire  in  Beth-haccerem ;  for  evil  appeareth 
out  of  the  north,  and  great  destruction.'  An 
instance  of  the  use  of  a  lino  of  beacons  in  very 
ancient  times  is  given  in  a  passage  of  the  tragedy 
of  Agamemno7i,  by  the  Greek  poet  j^^schylus.  The 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Greek  army  at  the  siege 
of  Troy  is  represented  as  communicating  the  intel- 
ligence of  the  fall  of  the  city  to  liis  queen,  Clytem- 
nestra,  at  Mycence,  in  the  Peloponnesus.  The 
line  consists  of  eight  mountains,  and  the  news  is  sup- 
posed to  be  conveyed  in  one  night  from  Troy. 

In  England,  the  beacons  were  kept  up  by  a  rate 
levied  on  the  counties,  and  had  watches  rcgulaily 
stationed  at  them,  and  horsemen  to  spread  the 
intelligence  during  the  day,  when  the  beacons 
could  not  be  seen.  They  were  carefully  organised 
while  the  Spanish  Armada  was  expected.  In  the 
beginning  of  1856,  an  old  B.-work  on  Malvern  Hill, 
in  Worcestershire,  which  had  done  its  part  in 
former  days  in  spreading  the  intelligence  of  the 
appearance  of  the  Armada,  of  the  approach  of  the 
Young  Chevalier,  and  of  that  of  tiic  Dutch  fleet 
afterwards,  dealt  with  by  Admiral  Blake,  was  lighted 
up  in  anticipation  of  the  close  of  the  Crimean  war, 
and  afforded  an  interesting  amusement  to  scientific 
persons  in  estimating  the  distance  at  which  the  blaze 
could  be  seen  from  distant  mountains. 

BEA'CON,  in  maritime  affairs,  is  a  signal  for 
warning  against  dangers,  or  for  indicating  the  proper 
entrance  into  a  channel,  harbour,  or  river.  Gener- 
ally speaking,  a  B.  is  fixed ;  whereas  a  huoy  floats. 
The  power  of  constructing  these  beacons  rested  at  one 
time  in  the  sovereign;  but  in  1505  an  act  of  parlia- 
ment empowered  the  Trinity  House  corporation  to 
erect  them  on  such  parts  of  the  sea-coast  and 
forelands  as  appeared  to  be  most  in  want  of  those 
safeguards;  and  tolls  were  levied  on  the  maritime 
counties  for  their  maintenance.  In  recent  times, 
the  construction  of  Jioating  beacons  has  occupied 
a  good  deal  of  attention,  as  it  is  conceived  that 
they  might  in  many  cases  supply  the  place  of 
much  more  costly  light-houses.  Messrs  Brown  and 
Lenox  have  constructed  for  the  Trinity  Board  a 
B.  for  the  Goodwin  Sands — comprising  a  hollow 
wrought-iron  floating  vessel,  with  6  water-tight 
compartments;  a  tower  28  feet  high,  tapering  in 
diameter  from  7  to  3^  feet ;  and  a  ball  at  the  top 
of  3^  feet  diameter.  This  B.  was  visible  from  a 
considerable  distance ;  but  some  leakage  frustrated 
its  continued  use.  Mr.  Herbert,  in  1854,  introduced 
a  new  B.,  intended  to  float  upright  in  all  states  of 
the  winds,  tides,  and  currents.  It  consists  of  a 
wrought-iron  pear-shaped  body,  circular  in  plan, 
with  an  apex  at  the  top,  and  the  weight  so  distri- 
buted that  the  centre  of  gravity  shall  be  situated  a 
little  below  the  centre  of  the  plane  of  flotation;  the 
bottom  is  made  concave,  and  raised  up  internally  so 
as  to  form  a  cone,  to  the  internal  apex  of  which  the 
mooring-chain  is  to  be  attached.  Many  beacons  are 
now  made  in  which  a  bell  is  sounded  instead  of  a 
light  shewn,  as  a  warning.  One  of  the  most  recent 
is  Messrs.  Brown  and  Lenox's,  patented  in  1858,  and 
so  constructed  as  to  yield  a  continuous  bell-ringing, 


so  long  as  tide  or  current  is  flowing.  There  is  a 
keel  at  the  bottom,  to  make  the  B.  turn  with  the 
tide.  There  are  channels  below  the  line  of  flotation, 
through  which  the  tide-water  or  current  flows  ;  the 
water  causes  two  undershot  wheels  to  revolve  ;  and 
this  revolution,  by  means  of  axes,  cranks,  rods,  guides, 
and  levers,  is  made  to  bring  the  force  of  a  hammer 
to  bear  on  a  liell.  Some  beacons  on  tiiis  principle 
have  already  bt'cn  constructed  with  a  bell  of  2  cwt. 
The  distinction  between  these  and  other  sea-marks 
is  further  illustrated  under  Buoy  and  Light-house. 

BEAD,  BEADE,  or  BEDE  (allied  to  'bid'),  in 
Anglo-Saxon  and  Old  English,  signified  '  a  prayer,' 
and  hence  came  to  mean  the  small  perforated  balls 
of  gold,  silver,  glass,  ivory,  hard  wood,  &e.,  used  for 
keeping  account  of  the  number  of  prayers  re- 
peated. A  certain  number  strung  on  a  thread 
makes  a  rosary  (q.  v.).  A  bcdcsmaH  or  bedcs- 
wo)iian  is  one  who  prays  for  another.  Persons  of 
station  and  wealth  in  old  times  '  had  regularly 
appointed  bedesmen,  who  were  paid  to  weary  Heaven 
with  their  supplications.'  Bedesmen  appointed  to 
pray  for  the  king  and  state,  sometimes  lived 
together,  and  hence  hcdehoiise  is  synonymous  with 
an  almshouse.  A  common  form  of  signature  at  one 
time  was:  'Your  bounden  bedesman,'  or  'Your 
humble  bedesw  oman '  instead  of  the  modern,  '  Your 
obedient  servant.' 

BE.VD,  in  Architecture,  a  small  round  moulding, 
sometimes  called  an  astragal.  It  is  of  frequent 
occurrence  in  architecture,  particulaily  in  the  classical 
styles,  and  is  used  in  picturc-lranies,  and  other 
objects  carved  in  Avood. 

BEA'DLE  is  an  inferior  parish-officer  chosen  and 
appointed  by  the  vestry.  His  business  is  to  attend 
the  vestry,  to  give  notice  of  its  meetings  to  the 
parishioncr.s,  to  execute  its  orders,  to  assist  the 
parish  constable,  and  generally  to  do  and  execute 
all  the  orders  and  business  of  the  Aestry  and  of  the 
parish,  as  their  messenger  or  servant.  Shaw's  Parish 
Law,  c.  19.  Sec  Parish;  Vkstrt.  The  B.  holds 
his  office  during  '  pleasure,  and  he  may  therefor  be 
dismissed  at  any  time  for  misconduct  by  the  parish- 
ioners assembled  in  vestry.' 

BEADS,  small  perforated  ornaments,  usually  of 
a  globular  shape,  worn  by  women  in  necklaces, 
bracelets,  head-dresses,  &c.  ;  and  also  used  in  the 
ornamentation  of  slippers,  purses,  watch-guards,  and 
a  variety  of  fancy  articles.  B.  are  made  of  various 
materials — gold,  diamond,  amber,  pearl,  coral,  garnet, 
crystal,  steel,  paste,  glass,  wood,  &c. ;  but  incom- 
parably the  greatest  quantity  are  of  glass  manufac- 
ture. Glasi  B.  seem  to  have  been  manufactured 
by  the  Pluenicians  more  than  3000  years  ago.  The 
Egyptians,  how-ever,  as  would  appear  from  the 
adornment  of  their  mummies  with  them,  were  also 
early  acquainted  with  the  manufacture  of  glass  B., 
which  was  introduced  into  Europe  on  the  revival  of 
civilization  by  the  Italians.  Glass  B.  are  commonly 
manufactured  over  the  blowpipe,  the  glass,  which 
had  been  previously  drawn  out  into  a  tube,  being, 
when  sufficiently  heated,  blown  into  a  bulb  of  the 
size  required  for  the  head.  AtMurano,  near  Venice, 
where  there  are  extensive  manufactories,  the  process 
is  somewhat  different.  There,  glass  tubes  of  various 
colours  having  been  cut  into  small  uniform  pieces, 
the  pieces  are  thrown  into  a  mixture  of  wood-ashes 
and  fine  sand,  and  stirred  about  until  their  cavities 
are  filled ;  they  are  thence  transferred  to  an  iron 
pan,  heated  by  a  moderate  fire,  and  agitated  until 
they  assume  a  smooth  rounded  form.  Taken  out, 
and  their  bores  cleared,  they  form  beads. 

When  the  glass  is  not  originally  coloured,  a  colour- 
ing matter  is  applied  to  the  inside  of  the  tube. 

In  commerce,  B.   arc  known  af   the  hollow,  the 


BEADS— BEAMING. 


common,  the  tube  and  the  bugle.  The  hollow  are 
the  most  expensive  kind,  and  include  a  great  variety 
of  colour,  tlie  price  varying  from  '2.t.  to  10s.  the 
bunch  of  12  strings.  Common  bluck  B.  are  sold  at 
from  I'lJ.  to  l.t.  per  pound. 

Larce  quantitie.^  of  B.  used  for  dolls'  eyes  arc 
manufactured  at  Birmingham.  (Hass  B.  are  imported 
into  this  country  from  the  (.'ontiuent  to  the  annual 
value  of  £8,000  to  £10,000- 

BEADS,  St.  Citthbert'.'^,  a  title  popularly  given 
to  the  single  joints  of  the  articulated  stems  of  En- 
crinites  (q.  v.).  The  sentrul  perforation  permitted 
them  to  be  strung  as  beads ;  and  from  the  fancied 
resemblance,  in  some  species,  of  this  perforation  to 
a  cross,  they  were  formerly  used  as  rosaries,  and 
associated  with  the  name  of  St.  Cuthbert : 

On  a  rock  by  Lilidisfarn 
St.  Cuthbert  sits,  .and  toils  to  friuie 
The  eea-born  beads  that  bear  his  name. 

Tbey  are  also  known  as  Entrochites,  or  wheel- 
stones. 

BEAGLE,  a  small  variety  of  hound,  formerly 
much  used  in  England  for  hare-hunting.  It  ha^now 
been  almost  wholly  superseded  by  the  harrier(q.  v.), 
to  which  its  name  is  also  sometimes  given.  The 
true  B.  is  smaller  than  the  harrier,  not  above  ten  or 
eleven  inches  in  height  at  the  shoulder,  sometimes 
considerably  smaller,  stout  and  compact  in  make, 
with  long  pendulous  ears,  smooth-haired,  sometimes 
dark-brown,    with  a   streak  or  spot  of  white  about 


the  neck,  sometimes  white  with  black  or  reddish 
spots.  There  appears  to  have  been  also  a  rough- 
haiied  variety.  The  B.  is  remarkable  for  its  ex- 
quisite scent  and  perseverance ;  and  although  much 
distanced  by  the  iiare  at  first,  is  almost  sure  to  kill 
it.  It  was  customary  in  England  in  former  times, 
when  beagles  were  used,  to  follow  the  chase  on  foot, 
a  hunting-pole  being  employed  to  assist  in  leaping. 
During  the  chase,  the  B.  gives  utterance  to  a  cry 
which  has  been  regarded  as  particularly  musical ; 
and  Queen  Elizabeth  had  little  'singing-beagles,'  one 
of  which  could  be  placed  in  a  man's  glove.  The 
smaller  breeds  were  preferred,  perhaps  at  first,  for 
the  prolongation  of  the  chase ;  and  the  diminutive 
size  of  a  pack  or  'cry'  of  beagles  became  a  boast. 
The  smallest  are  sometimes  called  lap-dog  beagles. 
The  origin  of  the  name  B.  is  uncertain. 

BEAK.     See  Bill. 

BEA'KED,  BECQUE.  When  the  beak  of  a  fowl 
is  of  a  different  tincture  from  the  body,  it  is  then 
said,  in  heraldry,  to  be  beaked  of  such  a  tincture.  If 
its  legs  are  of  the  same  tincture,  it  is  then  beaked, 
and  membered  so  and  so.  In  place  of  B.,  Guillim 
commonly  says  '  armed.' 

BEA'KER,  a  term  formerly  in  use,  signifying  a 
kind  of  drinking-bowl  or  cup,  derived  from  the  same 
root  as  the  German  lecher^  the  Italian  bicchiere,  or 
the  barbarous  Latin  barcarium.  The  Scotch  call  a 
hooped  wooden  dish  a  '  bicker.' 


BEAM  (Ger.  bawn,  Dut.  boom,  Ang-Sax.  beam, 
signify  '  a  tree'),  any  piece  of  wood  long  like  a  tree. 
In  tlie  arts,  the  word  ha.s  many  special  technical  ap- 
plications. It  is  the  name,  for  instance,  for  three 
|)arts  of  a  weaving-loom  (q.  v.),  for  a  part  of  the 
balance  (q.  v.),  and  for  a  part  of  the  steam-engine 
(q.  v.).  In  ship-building  ((j.  v.),  it  is  jippliod  to  any 
of  the  transverse  pieces  of  framing  extending  across 
the  hull.  lu  ship-measurement,  it  means  breadth 
at  the  wales.  See  Tonnage.  B.,  in  engineering  is 
a  strong  stay  of  wood  or  iron,  for  supporting  lateral 
pressure.     Sec  Stuengtii  of  Materials. 

BEAM,  of  a  ship,  is  one  of  the  main  timbers 
which  aid  in  supporting  the  decks.  Beams  stretch 
across  from  side  to  side,  aiding  to  strengthen  and 
uphold  the  sides  of  the  hull  as  well  as  the  decks; 
and  they  are  themselves  supported  at  the.  ends  by 
massive  pieces,  called  knees,  standards,  and  clamps. 
Each  is  made  of  one  fine  piece  of  timber,  if  possible ; 
but  if  the  length  be  too  great  for  this,  two  or  more 
timbers  are  scarfed  together.  Wherever  it  is  prac- 
ticable, the  beams  are  upheld  at  or  near  the  nuddle 
by  pillars.  In  the  Great  Eastern  steam  ship,  the 
beams  are  of  iron,  and,  like  most  other  parts  of 
the  vessel  are  cellular  in  construction.  In  the  old 
timber-built  sailing  ships-of-war,  now  rapidly  be- 
coming obsolete,  the  beak-head  B.  was  the  broadest 
in  the  ship;  the  wu(/.s/(i/>  was  the  longest ;  the  orlop 
was  that  which  supported  the  orlop  deck,  and 
strengthened  the  hold.  The  old  74-gun  ships  had 
each  24  beams  under  the  lower  deck.  Many  of  these 
characteristics  still  prevail;  but  others  have  given 
way  to  change,  owing  to  the  incieased  length  of 
war-steamers,  and  to  the  necessity  of  making  room 
for  the  machinery.  The  beams  of  all  ships  are 
generally  made  deeper  in  the  middle  than  at  the 
ends,  in  order  that  the  decks  supported  by  them 
may  have  a  slight  convexity  on  the  upper  surface,  to 
carry  off  the  rain-water  readily,  and  to  lessen  the  re- 
coil of  the  guns. 

The  position  of  the  beams  stretching  across  a 
ship  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  the  keel, 
has  given  origin  to  many  technical  phrases  used 
on  shipboard.  '  On  the  starboard  B.'  is  applied  to 
any  distant  point  out  at  sea,  at  right  angles  to  the 
keel,  and  on  the  starboard  or  right  hand — as  viewed 
from  the  stern — side  of  the  ship.  '  On  the  larboard 
B.'  similarly  applies  to  the  left  hand.  '  On  the 
weather  B.'  is  that  side  of  the  ship  which  receives 
or  is  towards  the  wind.  '  Before  the  B.'  is  the 
bearing  of  any  object  when  seen  more  in  advance 
than  on  the  beam.  '  Abaft  the  B.'  is  the  reverse 
of  the  expres.sion  just  noted.  'On  her  B. -ends' 
is  applied  to  the  position  of  a  ship  when  so  much 
inclined  to  one  side  that  the  beams  become  nearly 
vertical. 

BEA'MING  is  a  handicraft  process  in  the  cloth- 
manufacture  preliminary  to  weaving,  and  was  for- 
merly done  by  the  weaver  himself,  but  has  long 
since  become  a  special  employment,  followed  by 
workmen  trained  to  the  business  as  beaniers,  and 
like  hand-weaving,  is  tending  to  extinction  by 
machinery — warping  and  beaming,  in  weaving  by 
power,  being  conjoined  into  one  operation.  See 
Warping.  13.  is  simply  the  art  of  winding  the 
web  on  the  weaver's  beam  in  a  manner  suitable 
for  weaving — the  two  essential  requirements  being 
firmness  in  the  winding  on  of  the  web  sufficient  to 
withstand  the  reaction  of  weaving,  and  evenness  in 
the  spreading  of  the  yarn  at  the  required  width. 
This  is  effected  by  what  is  called  a  beaming 
machine,  which  is  simply  a  kind  of  roller-mill 
extending  from  end  to  end  of  the  beamer's  shop. 
The  Weaver's  beam  on  which  the  web  is  to  be 
wound,  is  set  horizontally  on  two  upright  standards 

771 


BEAM-TREE— BEAN. 


lit  the  one  end  of  tlie  shop,  and  at  the  other  end 
there  13  a  Iriction-roller,  set  likewise  level  in  a  heavy 
frame,  fixed  to  the  floor,  on  which  the  web  is  wound 
like  a  rope,  with  the  thrnni-end  out. 

The  number  of  pins  or  strands  in  the  web  being 
known,  the  beamer  has  merely  to  take  a  ravel  (a 
comb-like  utensil)  w  ith  the  corresponding  immber  of 
teeth  in  the  breadth  required  for  the  web,  and  fill- 
ing each  tooth  successively  with  its  respective  pin, 
the  spreading  is  completed ;  and  tlie  web  being  at- 
tJiched  to  the  beam,  tlie  winding  on  of  the  web  is  a 
eounnon  crane  operation,  in  wliich  the  tension  on 
the  yarn  is  regulated  by  the  friction  on  the  friction- 
roller.  The  beamer  may  tlius  beam  for  400  weavers. 
The  price  of  beaming  a  web  varies  from  '6d.,  to  per- 
haps 8d.  or  lOd. 

BEAM-TREE,  White  (Pi/rus  Aria,  see  PYRrs), 
a  tree  of  20 — 40  feet  in  height,  a  native  of  almost 
all  parts  of  Eui-ope  and  of  corresponding  cUmates  in 
Asia,  not  uncommon  in  the  mountainous  districts 
of  Britain,  and  frequently  planted.  It  has  been 
variously  referred  by  botanists  to  several  allied 
genera,  Sorbus,  Cratcec/us,  and  Jfespilus.  It  has  a 
straight  erect  trunk,  and  a  round  or  oval  head;  the 
leaves  are  ovate,  cut  and  serrated  (in  some  varieties, 
deeply  looped),  white  and  downy  beneath ;  the 
flowers  in  large  terminal  corymbs  ;  tlie  fruit  scar- 
let, of  the  size  of  small  peas.  The  fruit  is  acid  and 
astringent,  but  becomes  agreeable  by  incipient  de- 
cay ;  it  is  sometimes  called  Sorb  or  Service-berry, 
and  resembles  the  true  Service  (([.  v.)  in  quality, 
although  much  smaller.  Beer  is  made  of  it  by  fer- 
mentation. The  wood  is  very  hard  and  fine-grained  ; 
it  is  used  for  cogs  for  the  wheels  of  machinery.  The 
whiteness  of  the  foliage  makes  the  tree — sparingly 
introduced — ornamental  in  plantations. 

BEAN  (Faba),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Leguminosse,  sub-order  Papilionacea\  included 
by  Linnajus  and  many  other  botanists  in  the  genus 
Vicia  (see  Vetch),  from  which  it  is  distinguished 
chiefly  by  the  leathery  tumid  pods,  spongy  within, 
and  by  the  large  scar  on  the  end  of  the  seed. — The 
Common  B.  i^F.  vulgaris,  Vicia  Faba  of  Linnajus)  is 


Bean  leaves  and  flovfer. 

somewhat  doubtfully  supposed  to  be  a  native  of 
the  borders  of  the  Caspian  Sea;  it  has  been  in 
cultivation  from  remote  antiquity  in  Europe  as  well 

T72 


as  in  Asia.  It  is  an  annual  plant,  generally  from 
two  to  four  feet  high,  with  thick  angular  stem, 
leaves  with  2 — 5  oval  leaflets,  and  destitute  of 
tendrils.  The  pods  are  thick,  long,  and  woolly 
within  ;  the  seeds  more  or  less  ovate  and  flattened. 
The  flowers,  which  are  almost  without  stalks,  are 
ordinarily  white,  with  a  black  spot  in  the  middle  of 
the  wing  ;  but  there  is  a  variety  with  flowers  en- 
tirely white,  and  another  in  which  they  are  scarlet. 
The  flowers  are  deliciously  fragrant.  Burns  alludes 
to  this  in  the  lines — 

The  zephyr  wantoned  round  the  bean, 
And  boro  its  fragrant  sweets  alang. 

A  field  of  beans  perfumes  the  summer  air  for  a 
considerable  distance.  The  varieties  and  sub- 
varieties  in  cultivation  are  very  numerous,  differing 
in  the  size  and  form  of  the  seed,  the  colour  of  the 
flower,  the  period  which  they  require  for  growth, 
the  lieight,  the  stem  in  some  unbranched,  in  others 
divided  at  the  base  into  a  number  of  stalks — the 
pods  in  some  mostly  solitary,  in  others  clustered, 
&c.  The  B.  is  cultivated  botli  in  fields  and  gardens, 
and  the  seeds  (beans)  are  used  for  feeding  cattle, 
also  for  making  a  sort  of  meal  for  human  ibod,  and 
in  a  green  state  are  \>ut  into  broths  or  boiled  for 
the  table.  They  are  very  nutritious,  containing 
when  ripe,  about  36  per  cent  of  starch,  and  23  per 
cent,  of  leguinine,  a  nitrogenous  substance  analogous 
to  the  caseine  of  milk.  AVhether  for  man  or  for 
cattle,  however,  they  particularly  require  to  be 
mixed  with  other  food.  The  straw  is  used  for  fodder, 
and  is  very  nutritious  when  cut  before  it  is  fully 
ripe.  The  B.  succeeds  best  on  a  dry  and  moderately 
rich  soil.  A  well-drained  clay  is  very  suitable  for  it. 
Its  tapering  and  deeply  penetrating  root  unfits  it  for 
shallow  soils.  The  varieties  of  B.,  grown  in  P^nglish 
gardens,  are  generally  much  larger,  both  plant  and 
seed,  than  those  cultivated  in  the  field.  The  Wind- 
sor B.  has  seeds  of  flattened,  almost  circular  shape, 
fully  an  inch  in  diameter ;  whilst  those  of  the  Horse 
B.,  or  Tick  B.,  cultivated  as  a  field  croj),  arc  often 
not  more  than  half  an  inch  in  length,  and  not  quite 
three-eighths  of  an  inch  in  breadth.  Garden-beans, 
in  America,  are  usually  sown  in  sjiring,  in  rows  two 
feet  or  more  apart ;  and  sow  ings  are  made  at  differ- 
ent dates,  that  there  may  be  a  succession  of  unripe 
beans  for  culinary  use.  The  Valentine,  Carolina, 
Lima  and  Wax  bean  are  among  the  most  approvecl 
garden  varieties. 

The  roots  of  the  B.  are  diuretic,  and  a  decoction 
of  them  has  been  used  with  advantage  in  cases  of 
dropsy. 

B.  crops  are  very  liable  to  be  injured  by  a  species 
of  Aphis  (q.  v.),  A.  Fabce,  sometimes  called  from  its 
colour  the  Collier  Aphis,  and  sometimes  the  Black 
Dolphin  Fly,  which  destroys  the  leaves,  and  so 
renders  the  plants  incapable  of  bringing  the  ordina- 
ry amount  of  seeds  to  perfection.  The  most  effec- 
tual remedy  known  is  to  cut  off"  the  tops  of  the  plants, 
which  are  always  first  attacked,  as  soon  as  the 
Aphis  appears,  and  so  to  prevent  its  multiplication. 
The  topping  of  beans  is  regarded  by  many  gardeners 
as  a  good  practice,  even  when  they  arc  quite  free 
of  the  Aphis. 

The  Kidney  B.  (q.  v.),  or  Haricot  (Phaseohis  vul- 
garis), is  an  entirely  different  plant  from  the  Com- 
mon Bean. 

BE.\N,  in  Agriculture.  The  B.  was  cultivated 
to  a  small  extent  at  least  in  ancient  times,  both  in 
Palestine  and  Egypt.  The  Roman  family  of  the 
Fabii  are  said  to  have  derived  their  name  from  this 
plant.  It  requires  a  rich  or  alluvial  land  to  grow 
the  bean  in  perfection,  and  hence  it  is  only  found 
entering  into  a  regular  rotation  of  cropping  upon 
soils  of  the  best  class.     Since   the  introduction  of 


BEAN-CAPER— BEAX-KIKG'S  FESTIVAL. 


iiKiizo  into  tlic  south  of  Eiuope,  the  land  under  this 
phint  has  been  consideraLil)'  restricted.  The  maize 
thrives  better,  and  is  far  more  pioductive  than  the 
B.,  in  warm  eii^late^'.  In  the  north  of  Europe,  too, 
the  potato,  flax,  beet,  and  other  fallow  crops  are 
more  productive  and  certain.  Indued,  the  hif:li 
summer  tenif)erature  of  the  continents  of  Europe  and 
America  is  by  no  means  favourable  to  the  growth  of 
the  beau.  In  the  west  of  England,  the  summers  are 
rather  too  moist  for  its  yielding  its  seeds  in  abund- 
ance. The  straw  and  haulm  are  apt  to  be  developed 
too  much,  and  the  blossoms  do  not  set  well.  Beans 
are  largely  cultivated  on  all  the  better  descriptions 
of  clay  soils  in  the  eastern  counties,  such  as  Kent  and 
Suffolk.  The  variety  most  generally  grown  there 
is  the  Common  7'ick  or  Field  Jj.,  having  much 
resemblance  to  the  Scofrh  or  Jlorne  Bean. 

The  modes  of  cultivation  are  very  various,  and  a 
large  breadth  is  still  sown  broad-cast.  The  great 
objection  to  this  mode  is  the  liability  of  weeds  to 
spring  up  and  check  the  growth  of  the  crop.  Beans 
are  considered  one  of  the  fallow  crops;  but  the  soil, 
after  it  hns  Ijorne  a  crop  of  beans,  is  little  fitted 
for  a  cereal  crop,  unless  it  has  been  hoed  and  kept 
clean  in  summer.  To  effect  this  end,  beans  are 
usually  sown  in  rows,  and  hoed  during  their  early 
growth  either  by  the  hand  or  horse  hoe.  In  pre- 
paring the  land  for  a  bean  crop  in  England,  the 
etubbl(\  alter  being  liberally  dressed  with  farm-yard 
nuuiure  in  aiitiinin,  receives  a  deep  furrow,  so  as 
to  expose  the  soil  to  the  winter  frosts.  The  surface 
is  then  scariticd,  and  after  being  harrowed,  the 
beans  are  sown  in  drills  of  18  inches  in  width,  at 
the  rate  of  3  to  !H  bushels  per  acie.  The  sowing 
begins  as  soon  after  the  month  of  January  as  the 
soil  admits  of  the  necessary  operations,  and  may 
be  practised  up  to  the  middle  of  March.  The  earlier 
the  crop  is  put  in,  the  better  in  general  is  the 
chance  of  its  being  pi  oductivc.  The  greater  liability 
of  the  eastern  counties  to  diought,  rendeis  the  crop 
more  suiiject  to  the  attacks  of  insects,  such  as  the 
'black  dolphin,'  or  B.  Aphis,  which  usually  makes 
its  appearance  as  soon  as  the  plant  suffers  from  the 
want  of  moisture.  For  this  reason,  the  B.  crop  is 
rather  an  uncertiiin  one  in  the  climate  of  the  eastern 
counties,  and  other  crops  are  gradually  encroaching 
on  the  breadth  which  it  used  to  occupy.  The 
Russian  or  winter  beans  are  sown  in  these  counties 
to  some  extent  in  autumn,  and  from  ripening  earlier, 
often  escape  the  attacks  of  vermin,  and  sufler  less 
from  the  drought. 

Perhaps  East  Lothian  is  as  favourable,  in  respect 
both  of  soil  and  climate,  to  the  cultivation  of  the 
field  bean,  as  any  part  of  Europe.  The  summers 
are  comparatively  cool,  and  the  rains  generally 
moderate,  and  pretty  well  diffused  over  the  growing 
season.  The  crops  are  less  liable  to  depredations 
of  the  'black  dolphin,'  and  the  long  period  over 
which  the  growth  of  the  plant  is  extended,  is  favour- 
able to  large  crops.  Sometimes  the  crop  is  sown  broad- 
cast, when  the  land  is  clean  and  well  maimred;  and 
It  is  said  that  as  large  ciops  have  been  raised  in 
this  way  as  by  sowing  in  rows.  The  produce 
by  this  mode  of  cultivation,  however,  is  much  more 
irregidar,  and  the  lai.d  is  often  left  in  a  foul  con- 
dition. Drilling  is  therefore  the  general  practice  in 
cultivating  this  crop  in  the  Lothian-.  The  stubble 
is  usually  manuied  and  i)loughe(l  in  autunm,  and 
when  the  weather  admits,  in  sjiring  it  is  jiloughed 
again,  and  t!;e  beans  are  sown  by  a  small  machine 
in  every  third  furrow  ;  or  the  land  is  merely  ploughed 
in  autumn,  and  formed  into  drills  or  ridges  by  the 
double  mould-board  plough  in  spring.  Into  these 
the  farm-yard  manure  is  put  and  spread,  and  the 
beans  are  sown  aliove  it  either  broad-cast  or  by  a 
ctiree-barrelled  machine.     The  seed  is  then  covered 


by  the  double-moulded  plough,  as  in  the  planting  of 
potatoes.  By  this  mode,  the  plants  receive  a  ]>Ien- 
tiful  supply  of  nutriment  in  their  early  stages 
of  growth.  When  land  is  out  of  condition,  or 
when  the  crop  is  sown  upon  lighter  and  inferior 
descriptions  of  soil,  this  is  perhaps  the  most  advis- 
able method  to  follow.  Mr.  Hope  of  Fenton  barns 
has  lately  introduced  the  English  method  of  culti- 
vating the  B.  into  East  Lotliian.  The  stubble  ra 
dunged  and  ploughed  in  autumn,  and  as  soon  as  the 
land  is  dry  in  spring,  about  3  bushels  of  beans  are 
drilled,  18  inches  apart,  by  means  of  Garrett's 
machine.  As  soon  as  the  crop  appeals  above  ground, 
(iari-ett's  lever  horse-hoc  is  put  over  the  ground, 
to  stir  the  surface,  and  keep  it  free  from  weeds. 
During  the  spring  and  early  summer,  the  horse  and 
hand  hoeing  are  repeated  as  often  as  it  is  deemed 
advisable,  until  the  crop  covers  in  the  land  by  its 
abundant  foliage  and  keeps  down  all  weeds.  Mr. 
IIopi^'s  experiments  indicated  that  the  yield  of  grain 
is  greater  by  the  narrow  than  by  wide  drilling. 

In  England,  the  crops  of  beans  vary  from  20 
to  40  bushels  per  acre ;  but  in  dry  and  warm 
seasons,  the  produce  often  falls  below  the  first- 
named  quantity.  The  weight  per  bushel  is  from  60 
to  64  lbs.  On  some  of  the  best  soils  in  Fife,  and  in 
the  Lothians,  as  many  as  60  busiiels  per  acre  are 
obtained  in  favourable  seasons,  and  the  weight  of 
the  bushels  is  sometimes  as  nmch  as  06  lbs.  In 
Scotland,  the  straw  is  more  abundant  than  iu 
England.  It  forms  good  fodder  both  for  cattle 
and  horses,  as  well  as  supplying  material  for  the 
dung-heap.  Beans  are  usually  cut  by  the  sickle, 
allowed  to  lie  a  few  days  unbound  to  winnow,  and 
when  bound,  put  up  into  Mooka.  In  late  seasons, 
when  there  has  been  a  considerable  growth  of  leaves, 
they  are  often  long  before  they  are  ready  lor  carry- 
ing to  the  stack.  Xotwithstanding  the  relatively 
high  price  of  beans,  the  breadth  under  this  crop 
has  been  diminishing  also  in  Scotland.  It  is 
said  that  the  draining  of  the  soil  has  not  betai  so 
beneficial  to  the  B.  as  to  other  crops.  The  greater 
returns  which  the  land  gives  under  potatoes  in  the 
B.  soils  of  J'ife  and  the  Lothians  since  the  open- 
ing of  the  railways,  has  encroached  upon  the  extent 
formerly  assigned  to  it  in  the  six-course  rotation. 
In  the  Carse  of  Stirling  and  Falkirk,  it  retains  its 
hold  much  better,  and  forms  the  chief  preparation 
for  the  wheat-crop.  The  field  B.  is  now  little  used 
as  an  article  of  human  food.  It  is  considered  to  be 
specially  adapted  for  the  feeding  of  horses  which 
are  subjected  to  hard  work.  For  this  purpose,  it  is 
usually  roughly  giour.d,  and  mixed  with  a  little 
bran.  In  the  winter  season,  a  portion  is  often  boiled, 
and  given  to  them  at  night.  When  the  price  is  mode- 
rate, a  mixture  of  ground  beans  and  oilcake,  or 
linseed,  is  much  esteemed  for  milch  cows,  as  well  as 
for  fattening  cattle  and  sheep.  Special  or  light 
manures  are  less  applied  to  the  B.  crop  than  to  any 
other.  In  many  instances,  nitrate  of  soda  and 
sul[)hate  of  lime  have  been  used  with  advantage, 
l)ut  farm-yard  manure  is  almost  essential  to  its  free 
growth. 

BEAN-CAPER,     See  Zygophyllace^. 

BEAN  GOOSE.     See  Goose. 

BEAN-KING'S  FESTIVAL,  a  social  rite  princi- 
pally observed  in  France,  from  which  country  it 
would  Seem  to  have  been  transplanted  to  Germanv. 
On  the  evening  of  Twelfth  Day  (q.  v.),  or,  as  tlie 
Germans  call  it  (in  allusion  to  the  legend,  that  the 
wise  men  of  the  East  who  came  to  worship  Christ 
were  three  kings),  Three  Kings'  Day  {Dreikdnixtac/). 
companies  assemble  to  spend  a  few  hours  in  mirthful 
relaxation.  A  large  cake  is  baked,  with  a  liean 
hidden  somewhere  in  it.     The  cake  is  then   divided 


BEAN— BEAR. 


into  pieces,  each  person  present  receiving  one,  and 
wlioever  obtains  the  piece  with  the  bean  is  king  for 
the  year.  In  this  capaoitv,  he  holds  a  inock-coin-t,  and 
receives  the  homage  of  the  company,  who  also  amuse 
themselves  witii  other  diversions.  The  Bean  King, 
however,  is  compelled  to  pay  for  his  dignity,  for  he 
has  to  give  an  entertainment  on  the  next  Twelfth 
Night,  that  an  opportunity  may  be  afforded  to 
choose  another  king.  In  France,  this  custom  was 
at  an  earlier  period  so  common,  that  even  the 
court  indulged  in  it,  although  the  church,  in  the 
I'ith  c,  e.xerted  itself  zealously  for  its  suppression. 
The  opinion  that  the  B.  K.  F.  owes  its  origin  to  the 
Roman  saturnalia,  when  even  the  children,  partaking 
in  the  universal  glee,  were  wont  to  elect  a  king,  is 
not  destitute  of  probability. 

BEAN,  St.  Igxatius's.     See  STRT(;nN0S. 

BEAR  (Ursus),  a  genus  of  quadrupeds,  the  type 
of  a  family  called  UrsiJce,  belonging  to  the  order 
Ferce,  sub-order  Carnivora,  and  tribe  Plantigrada. 
In  the  Ursidte  or  B.  family,  are  included  not  only 
the  true  bears,  but  also  badgers,  gluttons  and 
wolverines,  racoons,  coatimondis,  bintuiongs,  the 
kinkajou,  the  panda,  &c.  (See  these  articles.)  Walk- 
ing on  the  whole  sole  of  the  foot  (plantigrade),  the 
animals  of  this  family  are  not,  in  general,  capable  of 
running  very  swiftly;  and  the  nearly  equal  length 
of  their  foie  and  hind  legs  unfits  them  for  leaping; 
most  of  them  are  also  heavy  both  in  form  and  gait. 
But  whilst  thus  deficient  in  the  powers  which  other 
carnivorous  animals  possess  for  obtaining  prey,  they 
really  exhibit  the  same  beautiful  mutual  adaptation 
of  endowments  and  wants;  they  are,  in  fact,  by  no 
means  strictly  carnivorous;  no  animals  are  more 
thoroughly  omnivorous  than  some  of  them  ;  whilst 
others,  even  of  the  true  bears,  always  give  a  decided 
preference  to  vegetable  food  when  it  can  be  obtained, 
and  their  teeth  and  digestive  organs  arc  in  exact 
accordance  with  such  tastes.  Their  jaws  are  much 
more  elongated  than  those  of  feline  animals,  and 
their  bite  proportionally  less  powerful,  although 
some  of  the  bears  are  still  very  formidable  from 
their  great  general  strength  and  the  size  of  their 
canine  teeth.  Their  claws  are  not  retractile,  and 
are  adapted  for  digging  in  the  earth,  or  for  climbing 
trees,  rather  than  for  seizing  prey.  All  animals  of 
the  family  have  five  toes  to  each  both  of  the  fore 
and  hind  feet. 

Bears  have  six  cutting  teeth  above,  and  six  below, 
one  canine  tooth  on  each  side  in  each  jaw,  with 
four  false  molars  and  two  molars  (or  grinders)  on 
each  side  above,  and  four  false  molars  and  three 
molars  below.  The  false  molars  are,  in  general, 
soon  lost  by  the  more  carnivorous  species.  The 
true  molars  are  very  large  and  tuberculous,  the 
false  molars  comparatively  small.  The  tuberculous 
crowns  of  the  molars  exhibit  the  adaptation  to 
vegetable  food. — The  tail  in  all  species  of  B.  is  very 
short,  so  that  some  of  them  almost  appear  tailless. 
Most  of  them  may  be  described  as  nocturnal  in 
Uieir  habits. 

Bears  arc  found  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  North  and 
South  America,  and  both  in  warm  and  cold  climates, 
the  species  belonging  to  cold  climates  being  in 
general  the  most  fierce  and  cainivorous.  The 
ancients  mention  them  as  occurring  in  Africa  ;  it 
must,  therefore,  be  regarded  as  a  curious  circum- 
stance that  no  recent  accounts  make  certain  the 
existence  of  any  species  in  that  continent.  Nor  is 
any  known  to  belong  to  Australia. 

The  common  B.  of  Europe,  or  Brown  B.  {Ursus 
Arctos),  was  at  one  time  a  native  of  the  British 
islands.  Bears  .vere  carried  from  Britain  to  Rome, 
for  the  cruel  sports  in  which  the  Romans  delighted, 
and  they  certainly  were  not  exterminated  in  Scotland 
774 


before  the  latter  part  of  the  11th  c.  The  Brown  B. 
is  usually  about  lour  feet  long,  and  t«o  and  a  half 
feet  high.  Its  claws  are  about  two  inches  long,  and 
nmch  curved.  It  has  a  convex  forehead,  and  gene- 
rally a  brown  fur,  which  is  somewhat  woolly  in  the 
younger  animals,  but   becomes  smoother  with  age. 


Brown  Bear. 

It  produces  from  one  to  three  young  ones  at  a  birth, 
which  remain  blind  for  about  four  weeks.  It  is 
generally  believed  to  be  the  oidy  European  species, 
although  different  varieties  occur ;  and  one,  the 
Black  B.,  has  been  regarded  by  some  naturalists 
as  specifically  distinct.  The  common  B.  is  very 
widely  distributed  over  the  whole  of  Europe  and 
of  the  north  of  Asia,  Japan,  and  North  America. 
In  America,  it  is  known  as  the  Barren  Ground 
Bear.  It  is  a  solitary  animal,  and  generally  inhabits 
mountainous  regions  or  thick  forests.  It  some- 
times preys  on  lambs,  kids,  &c.,  is  fond  of  fish, 
which  in  some  countries,  as  in  Kamtchatka,  consti- 
tute a  great  part  of  its  food ;  climbs  trees  in  quest 
of  honey,  eats  also  fruits  and  vegetables,  and  in  con- 
finement, exhibits  a  strong  appetite  for  bread.  It 
usually  prefers  vegetable  to  animal  food.  The  skin 
is  valued  for  making  fur-cloaks,  etc.  ;  the  flesh  is 
used  as  food,  often  in  the  shape  of  hams,  as  is  that 
of  the  Atiierican  Black  B.  ;  the  paws  are  esteemed 
a  delicacy.  The  fat  (bear's  grease)  is  in  great 
request  as  an  unguent  for  the  hair.  The  intestines 
are  used  in  Kamtchatka,  instead  of  glass,  for 
windows.  To  the  people  of  Kamtchatka,  indeed, 
bears,  which  are  there  very  abundant,  afford  many 
of  the  necessaries  and  comforts  of  life. — The  com- 
mon B.,  like  others  of  the  genus,  in  cold  climates, 
usually  spends  the  winter  in  a  torpid  state.  It 
selects  a  cavern  or  the  hollow  of  a  tree  for  its  hyber- 
nation, or  makes  a  hole  for  itself  by  digging ;  it  is 
also  said,  but  this  needs  confirmation,  sometimes  to 
construct  a  sort  of  hut  with  branches  of  trees,  lined 
with  moss.  The  winter  being  spent  without  food, 
it  is  said  to  be  very  lean  on  the  return  of  spring. 
This  and  other  species  of  B.  are  very  often  killed  in 
their  winter  dens. 

The  American  Black  B.  (Ursus  Americanus)  is 
found  in  all  parts  of  North  America.  Its  total 
length  seldom  exceeds  5  feet.  The  fur  is  soft  and 
smooth,  and  generally  of  a  glossy  black ;  but  there 
are  varieties  of  other  colours,  as  the  Cinnamon  B., 
the  yellow  B.,  kc.  Tiie  American  Black  B.  usually 
exhibits  a  timid  disposition  ;  seldom  attacks  man ; 
feeds  chiefly  on  berries,  w  hen  they  can  be  obtained ; 
occasionally  visits  gardens  for  the  sake  of  cabbages 
and  other  vegetables ;  and  strongly  prefers  vegetable 
to  animal  food,  but  has  recourse  to  the  latter  when 
pressed  by  hunger,  and  in  such  circumstances  occa- 
sionally approaches  human  habitations  and  captures 


Vol.  1.,  pajje  77* 


^^f 


JAPAN  KSK    15KARS. 
IFiiiiu  liviiiK  spwiiiiHiis  in  tlio  Zonlocriml  (;:ir.lHu«  at  Kottenlaiu.l 


BEAR— BEAR-BAITING. 


pigs,  which  it  endeavours  to  carry  off.  In  such 
cases  the  B.  walks  on  its  hind-legs,  the  pig  being 
firmly  squeezed  between  its  fore-paws  and  breast, 
making  a  noise  which  frequently  leads  to  a  rescue. 
This  and  other  species  of  B.,  when  assailed,  not 
unfrequcntly  hug  their  adversaries  in  tlve  manner 
here  described,  when  their  strength  renders  them 
very  dangerous.  The  skin  of  the  American  Black 
B.  is  used  lor  caps,  rugs,  &c.,  and  great  numbers  arc 
annually  killed  upon  this  account,  chiefly  by  the 
Indians  in  the  employment  of  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Company.  Almost  10,000  skins  are  annually  im- 
ported into  Britain,  of  which,  however,  the  greater 
part  are  again  exported.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
19th  c,  the  number  imported  was  more  than  twice 
as  great  as  now  ;  the  skins  were  also  of  much  higher 
price.  A  B.'s  skin  is  still  worth  from  £1  to  £3. — 
The  Grisly  B.  ( U.  ferox)  of  North  America,  found 
chiefly  on  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  plains  to 
the  eastward  of  them,  from  Mexico  to  lat.  61°  N., 
is  much  larger  than  either  of  the  species  already 
noticed,  and  much  more  fierce  and  carnivorous.  It 
sometimes  measures  more  than  9  feet  from  nose  to 
tail,  and  the  claws  of  the  fore-feet  more  than  6 
inches  in  length.  It  has  a  lengthened  and  narrow 
muzzle,  a  very  short  tail,  and  long  grisled  hair.  No 
animal  of  the  New  Woild  is  more  formidable  than 
the  Grisly  B.  It  is  capable  of  ovarpowering  the 
bison,  and  dragging  away  the  huge  carcass.  It 
feeds,  however,  also  on  fruits  and  roots. — The 
Arctic  B.,  or  Polar  B.,  also  called  the  White  B. 
U  marifhnus),  resembles    this   species  in  size  and 


Polar  Bear. 

fierceness,  but  is  very  distinctly  characterised  by 
its  flat  head  and  comparatively  long  neck.  It  has 
a  smooth  while  fur.  It  is  the  only  known  species 
of  B.  which  is  strictly  marine  in  its  habits,  never 
being  found  far  iVom  the  sea.  It  inhabits  the  most 
northerly  shores  of  Asia  and  America,  Spitzbeigen, 
&c.,  where  it  pm-sues  seals,  both  in  the  water  and 
upon  the  ice,  and  preys  upon  fishes,  biids,  &c. 
Amongst  the  articles  of  its  food  arc  eggs  and  berries 
in  their  season,  and  in  continement  it  will  subsist 
long  on  bread  and  other  vegetable  food.  Like  other 
species  of  the  genus,  it  displays  great  affection 
for  its  young,  and  will  brave  all  dangers  in  their 
defence. — Of  other  species  of  B.,  the  Syrian  B. 
{JJ.  Si/riacnx)  may  be  mentioned,  as  perhaps  the 
species  particularly  intended  by  the  name  B.  in  the 
Old  Testament.  It  is  generally  of  a  dingy-white 
or  brown  colour,  and  has  a  stiff  mane  of  erect  hairs 
between  tlic  shoulders.  Flocks  are  not  safe  from 
it,  yet  it  more  fretiuently  commits  ravages  on  crops 
of  pulse.  In  its  habits  generally,  it  much  resembles 
the  common  B. ;  as  do  also  the  Tibet  B.  {If.  Tibet- 
anus),  and  the  Spectacled  B.  ( U.  ornatus),  so  called 


from  semicircular  yellow  marks  above  its  eyes,  a 
native  of  the  Andes  of  Chili. — The  Long-lipped  B., 
or  Sloth  B.  ( U.  labiatus),  of  the  East  Indies,  is  the 
kind  commonly  led  about   by  Indian  jugglers.     Its 


Syrian  Bear. 

long  hair,  short  limbs,  high  back,  peculiarly  uncouth 
appearance,  and  gentleness  of  disposition,  recommend 
it  ibr  this  purpose.  In  a  wild  state,  it  is  said  to  feed 
chiefly  on  fruits,  honey,  and  ants.  It  possesses  in 
a  remarkable  degree  the  power,  common  in  some 
measure  to  all  the  bears,  of  protruding  the  lips  in 
order  to  lay  hold  of  food. — Some  other  East  Indian 
species,  which  feed  chiefly  on  fruits  and  honey,  are 
known  as  Sun-bears,  as  the  Malayan  B.  {U.  Malaij- 
anus)  and  the  Bornean  B.  {(/.  Jiuri/spilus).  They 
are  characterised  by  an  extremely  long  extensile 
tongue.  They  are  of  gentle  disposition,  and  liecome 
very  affectionate  when  tamed.  Sir  Stamford  Raffles 
had  a  Malayan  B.,  which  was  very  playful  and  quite 
liarmless,  although  a  powerful  animal,  and  which 
shewed  refinement  of  taste  in  refusing  to  eat  any 
fruit  but  the  mangosteen,  or  to  drink  any  wine  but 
champagne.  This  species  in  a  wild  state  does  much 
damage  to  cocoa-nut  plantations,  by  climbing  the 
trees,  and  eating  off  the  terminal  bud,  when  it  is  said 
also  to  drink  the  sap  (toddy)  which  flows  out  in 
abundance. 

Remains  of  several  extinct  species  of  B.  have  been 
discovered  in  caves  in  Germany,  England,  and  other 
countries,  some  of  w  hich  appear  to  have  been  larger 
than  the  present  bears  of  Europe,  and  of  more  decided 
carnivorous  propensities.  Of  these,  the  U.  spcluus, 
or  Great  Cavei'u  B.,  has  the  skull  of  considerable 
vertical  elevation  from  the  upper  end  of  the  muzzle, 
and  larger  than  that  of  the  biggest  Brown  B.  The 
U.  arctoideua  has  a  skull  nearly  of  the  configuiation 
of  that  of  the  U.  Amcricanus,  and  of  the  size  of  that 
of  U.  speheus.  The  If.  priscns,  or  ancient  B.,  li.as 
the  skull  of  a  smaller,  size  and  differing  less  from 
that  of  living  bears. 

Ant  B.  is  a  name  of  the  Great  Ant-eater  (q.  v.). 

BEAR,  BERE,  or  BEER.     See  Barley. 

BEAR,  GnEAT  and  Little.  See  Ursa  Major 
AND  Minor. 

BEAR-BAITIXG.  In  different  countries,  bears 
were  formerly  made  objects  of  cruel  sport,  by  being 
baited  with  dogs.  In  England,  B.  was  one  of  the 
establislied  amusements,  not  only  among  the  com- 
mon people,  but  among  nobles,  and  even  royalty 
itself;  it  is  related  that  Queen  Elizabeth  did 
not  consider  it  unl)efitting  her  sex  or  rank  to 
attend  these  rude  entertainments.  Pennant,  in  his 
Zooloay,  quoting  from  The  Household  ll(>ok  of 
the  Earls  of  Korthuinbcrlnnd,  says  :  '  Our  nobility 
also  kept  their  bearward ;  twenty  shillings  was 
the  annual  reward  of  that  officer  from  his  lord, 
the  fifth  Earl  of  Northumberland  (who  died  ]527), 

775 


BEARBERRY— BEARD. 


"when  lie  comyth  to  my  lorde  in  Christmas,  with 
his  lortlsliippe's  beests  for  mailing  his  lordschip  pas- 
tyme  tlio  said  twelve  days." '  The  places  where 
bears  were  kept  and  publicly  baited  were  called  bear- 
gardens. There  is  a  spot  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  court  at  Westminster,  which,  until  lately,  was 
known  as  the  Bear-garden.  B.,  like  bull  and  badger 
baiting,  has  long  been  unknown  in  England. 

BEARBERRY.     See  Aubutos. 

BEAR  LAKE,  Great,  in  British  America,  in 
N.  lat.  65°— 67°,  and  W.  long.  117°— 123°.  It  is  the 
most  northerly  of  that  chain  of  fresh-water  seas — 
Huron,  Superior,  Winnipeg,  Athabasca,  Great  Slave, 
Great  Bear — which  mark  a  continuous  hollow  in  the 
middle  of  the  continent.  Great  Bear  Lake  is  irregu- 
lar in  shape,  with  a  surfiice  estimated  at  14,()00 
square  miles,  equal  to  about  half  the  area  of  Scot- 
land. It  sends  forth  a  river  of  its  own  name  to  the 
Mackenzie.  Its  height  above  the  ocean  is  computed 
at  230  feet.  The  climate  is,  of  course,  severe.  The 
rigour  of  the  winter  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact, 
that  boats  are  sometimes  blocked  up  by  solid  ice, 
after  the  crews  have  begun  to  suffer  from  the  heat 
and  the  mos([uitoes. 

BEAR-LEADER.  In  former  times,  bears  were 
led  about  with  a  chain,  muzzled,  and  made  to  dance 
or  staiul  on  their  hind-legs  for  popular  entertain- 
ment; small  dancing-dogs  being  usu;dly  added  for 
the  sake  of  attractiveness.  As  a  measure  of  police, 
these  somewliat  dangerous  and  painful  exhibitions 
are  now  stopped.  From  this  old  practice  has  been 
taken  the  phrase,  B.,  now  used  jocularly  to  signify 
a  discreet  person  who  takes  charge  of  a  youth  of 
rank  on  his  travels  to  see  the  world. 

BEAR-PIT,  a  pit  prepared  for  the  keeping  of 
bears,  usually  seen  in  zoological  gardens.  A  pit  of 
this  kind  is  circular,  measuring  about  25  feet  in 
diameter,  and  20  feet  deep.  The  sides  are  built 
with  brick ;  the  bottom  is  level,  and  paved  with 
stone;  and  around  are  vaults  with  doors  lor  the  re- 
sidence of  the  bears.  From  the  centre  of  the  pit 
rises  a  stout  and  tall  pole,  on  which  are  cross-spars 
at  proper  distances,  to  enable  the  bears  to  climb  to 
the  top.  As  is  well  known,  the  animals  are  fond  of 
climbing  up  these  poles,  and  catching  morsels  of 
bun  from  the  visitors.  The  polCiS  are  sufficiently 
distant  from  the  sides  to  prevent  the  bears  from 
leaping  out.  The  vaulted  receptacles  require  to  be 
cool  and  dry. 

BEAR'S  GREASE.  Under  this  name  there  arc 
sold  l)y  perfumers  and  others,  large  quantities  of 
pomades,  tastefully  done  up  for  the  toilet,  and 
which  are  represented  to  be  of  great  efficacy  in 
nourishing  anil  promoting  the  growth  of  hair.  Theee 
60-calk'd  preparations  of  B.  G.  are  for  the  most  part 
composed  of  purified  beef-marrow,  hog's-lard,  or  fat 
of  veal,  and  S[)ermaceti,  along  with  almond  oil,  and 
some  scenting  ingredients.  The  genuine  bear's  fat 
or  B.  (}.  wotdd  appear  to  possess  the  virtue  of 
encouniging  the  growth  of,  and  strengthening  the 
hair,  in  an  eminent  degree  ;  but  the  scarcity  of  the 
commodity  is  such  that  substitute  fats  are  employed 
to  supi)ly  the  demand.     See  Hair. 

BEARD,  the  hair  which  grows  on  the  upper  lip, 
and  on  the  chin  slnd  cheeks  of  the  male  sex.  It  is 
usually,  though  not  always,  of  the  same  colour  as 
the  hair  of  tlie  head,  but  soniewhat  shorter,  stronger, 
and  more  wiry  ;  it  is  invariably  the  colour  of  the  hair 
on  the  eyebrows.  The  B.  is  the  distinctive  sign  of 
manhood.  In  women,  an  incipient  B.  sometimes 
appears  in  the  later  years  of  life.  Instances  also 
occur  of  women  with  a  B.  almost  equal  to  that  of 
the  male  sex,  but  these  are  recorded  as  prodigies. 
The  B.  is  generally  luxuriant  in  persons  of  the 
776 


Slavic  and  Celtic  races.  The  aboiighies  of  Americai 
who  are  naturally  almost  beardless,  make  them- 
selves entirely  so  by  plucking  out  the  haiis  of  the 
beard.  In  early  times,  the  B.  was  considered  by 
almost  all  nations  a  sign  of  strength  and  an  orna- 
ment of  manhood,  was  carefully  cherished,  and  even 
regarded  as  sacred.  Among  the  Turks,  Aral)S,  Per- 
sians, and  many  other  nations,  the  removal  of  the 
B.  was,  and  is  yet  to  a  very  great  extent,  regarded 
as  a  severe  punishment  and  an  extreme  degradation. 
The  case  of  David's  ambassadois,  recorded  in  2 
Samuel,  chap,  x.,  illustrates  tiie  same  feeling  as 
prevalent  among  the  ancient  Jews.  The  Moslems 
carry  combs  constantly  about  with  them  for  the  pur- 
pose of  dressing  the  beard.  It  is  common  to  do  so 
immediately  after  prayers,  the  devotee  remaining  on 
his  knees  during  the  operation.  The  hairs  that  fall 
out  arc  then  carefully  picked  np  and  preserved  for 
entombment  with  their  owner  when  he  dies;  fre- 
quently he  himself  deposits  them  beforehand  in  his 
destined  tomb.  The  ancient  Jews  did  not  dye  their 
beai'ds,  and  the  Turks  rarely,  but  the  practice  was 
common  among  the  Arabs  and  Persians.  The 
Arabs  dyed  the  B.  red,  not  only  because  dye  of 
that  colour  (being  merely  a  paste  of  heuva  leaves) 
was  easily  obtainable,  but  because  it  was  an  approxi- 
mation to  golden  yellow,  the  colour  reconnuended 
by  their  ])roi)h(j(.  Mohammed,  who  hated  black,  tho 
colour  the  Persians  preferred.  The  Persian  kings 
arc  said  to  have  interwoven  their  beards  with  gold 
thread.  It  is  customary  among  the  Turks  to  anoint 
the  B.  with  pcrfiune,  and  to  smoke  it  with  incense. 
The  Jews  also  anointed  their  beards.  The  Moslems 
commonly  clipped  their  whi.skers,  the  Jews  did  not. 
The  Egyptians  shaved  their  beards  e.xoept  in  time  of 


Egyptian  Beard-caso. 
From  the  Memnon's  head  in  the  British  Museum. 

mourning,  when  they  let  them  grow.  From  some 
of  the  ancient  Egyptian  statues,  however,  it  would 
appear  that  beard-cases  were  worn,  which  would 
seem  to  indicate  that  the  practice  of  shaving  was 
not  universal.  The  fashions  of  beards  have  been 
very  difierent  at  different  times  and  in  different 
countries. 

A  neglected  B.  was  a  sign  of  mourning  among 
the  Jews.  According  to  Levi's  Succinct  Account 
of  the  Rites  and  Ceremonies  of  the  Jews  at  this 
J^rcsent  Time,  they  are  forbidden  to  shave  or  cut 
their  nails,  or  batlie  for  thirty  days  afier  the  death 
of  a  father,  mother,  brother,  sister,  son,  daughter, 
wife,  or  husband.  In  Greece,  the  B.  was  uni- 
versally worn  till  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
who  ordered  shaving,  that  the  beards  of  his  soldiers 
might  not  be  laid  hold  of  by  their  enemies  in 
battle.     Shavin;:;  was  introduced  among  the  Romans 


BEARD  MOSS— BE  AS. 


about  300  B.C.  Pliny  says  Scipio  Africaiius  was 
the  first  Rouuia  who  shaved  every  day.  Subse- 
quently, the  first  day  of  shaving  was  regarded 
by  the  Konians  a.s  the  entrance  upon  maniiood, 
and  celebrated  with  great  f'estivites.  Under 
Hadrian,  the  15.  was  allowed  to  grow  again;  and 
this  fasldon  prevailed  till  the  time  of  Constantine 
the  Great,  when  it  was  discontinued.  Peter  the 
Great  compelled  shaving  in  Russia  by  imposing  a 
heavy  tax  upon  the  B.,  .ind  further,  by  having  the 
beards  of  all  whom  he  found  wearing  them  pluclccd 
out  by  the  roots,  or  shaved  with  a  blunt  razor. 
The  B.,  was  commonly  worn  in  France  till  the 
time  of  Louis  Xlll.,  when,  because  the  monarch  was 
young  and  beardless,  the  fashion  changed  at  the 
court  and  throughout  the  kingdom.  A  sindlar 
change  took  place  in  S[)ain  on  the  .nccession  of 
Philip  V.  With  regard  to  our  own  country,  the 
Anglo-Saxons  wore  beards  for  a  considerable  time 
after  their  invasion  of  Britain  ;  and  the  B.  appears 
to  have  been  general  among  the  people  at  the  time 
of  the  Xorman  Conquest.  But  the  Normans  not 
only  shaved  themselves,  but  compelled  the  con- 
quered to  do  so  likewise ;  and  many  of  the  English 
preferred  to  leave  the  country  rather  than  submit 
to  have  their  whiskers  shaved.  It  would  appear, 
however,  from  the  sculptured  representations  on  the 
tombs  of  kings  and  nobles,  that  not  very  long  after 
the  Conquest  some  of  the  Normans  adopted  the 
custom  they  had  prohibited  among  the  vanquished. 
Edward  III.  is  represented  on  his  tomb  in  West- 
minster Abbey  with  a  very  long  beard.  In  the  time 
of  Elizabetii,  Ijcards  were  of  the  most  varied  aiul  fan- 
tastic cut.  Taylor,  the  '  Water-poet,'  thus  satirises 
the  extravagance  of  beards  prevailing  in  that  and 
the  succeeding  reign : 

Some  seem  as  they  were  starched  stiff  and  fine, 
Like  to  the  bristles  of  some  angry  swine; 
Some  cut  and  pruned  like  to  a  quick-set  hedge 
Some  like  a  spade,  some  like  a  fork,  some  square, 
Some  round,  some  mowed  like  stubble,  some  stark 

bare ; 
Some  sharp  stiletto-fashion,  dagger-like, 
That  may  with  wliispering  a  man's  eyes  out-pike, 

Some  with  the  hammer-cut,  or  Roman  T 

*  *  *  * 

That  heights,  depths,  breadths,  triform,  square,  oval, 

round. 
And  rules  geometrical  in  beards  are  found. 

The  B.  gradually  declined  under  Charles  I. ;  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  II.,  whiskers  and  moustaches  only 
were  worn ;  and  the  practice  of  shaving  the  whole 
face  soon  became  general  all  over  Euro|ie ;  and  it  is 
only  within  the  last  GO  years  that  the  B.  has  been 
in  some  measure  restored,  the  soldiers  of  Bonaparte 
setting  the  example.  But  until  witluD  the  last  two  or 
three  years,  it  was  regarded  by  some  of  the  continen- 
tal governments  as  a  badge  significant  of  democratic 
sentiments,  and  as  such  was  interfered  with  by 
police  regulations.  Physicians  recommend  that  the 
B.  should  be  allowed  to  grow  on  the  chin  and 
throat  iu  cases  of  liability  to  inflammation  of  the 
larynx  or  of  the  bronchiic  ;  and  moustaches  and 
whiskers  are  leckoned  useful  for  prevention  of  tooth- 
aches and  nervous  diseases  of  the  face.  The  British 
soldiers  in  the  Crimea  were  allowed  to  wear  their 
beards ;  and  with  some  limitations,  the  British 
army  generally  are  now  permitted  to  do  so.  The 
wearing  of  tlie  B.  has,  in  short,  been  a  matter  of 
fashion  in  all  ages  and  countries — an  extrenie  in 
one  way  usually  leading  to  an  extreme  in  the  other. 
At  present  (ISOO),  the  tendency  in  England  and 
elsewhere  is  to  let  the  B.  grow,  though  in  a  way 
suggested  by  the  taste  of  the  individual.  The  B 
is  itself  liable  to  the  same  diseases  with  the  hair 
of  the  head,   and  to  a  peculiar  disease  (mentar/ra) 


occasioned  or  kept  up  by  shaving,  consisting  in 
a  bark-like  exudation  from  the  inliamcd  sebaceous 
llands  of  the  hair.  For  detaileil  information,  see 
Kitto's  Pictorial  Bible  ;  Bulwcr's  ^b  <//?'(■<«/  Chant^e- 
liufj  (Lond.  1G.53);  llotoman's  Por/onias  (Leyden, 
L')St;),  reprinted  in  the  Lexicon  of  Pitiscus;  Taylor's 
Whip  of  Satire  ;  &c. 
BEARD  MOSS.     See  Usnk.v. 

BEARDIE.  By  this  name  is  the  little  fish  called 
the  loach  known  in  Scotland.     See  Loach. 

BEARING,  of  a  .ship  at  sea,  is  the  direction  in 
which  she  sails,  in  reference  to  the  points  of  the  com- 
])ass.  Or,  in  a  more  comprehensive  sense,  it  is  the 
direction  in  which  each  of  two  objects  is  .^^ituated  in 
reference  to  the  other.  When  the  latitudes  and 
longitudes  of  two  places  are  known,  their  respective 
bearings  from  each  other  can  be  calcidated  by 
trigonometry.  On  shipboard,  seaman  often  con- 
veniently refer  the  B.  of  another  ship,  or  of  an 
object  on  shore,  not  to  the  points  of  the  compass, 
but  relatively  to  the  line  followed  at  the  iuom(>nt  by 
the  ship's  keel.  Thus,  the  B.  of  the  distant  object 
may  be  ahead,  astern,  on  the  slarhoard  bow,  on  the 
larboard  quarter,  &c.  ;  the  i)Ow  being  between  the 
head  and  the  midship,  and  the  quarter  between  the 
midship  and  the  stern. 

Bearing,  or  rather  the  verb  to  bear,  is  much  used 
as  a  technical  direction  on  shipboard.  Thus,  to 
'  bear  in  with  the  land,'  to  '  bear  off  from  the  land,' 
to  'bear  up,'  to  'bear  away,'  &c.,  arc  nearly  equiva- 
lent to  sailing,  or  steaming,  or  steering,  in  such  and 
such  directions. 

BEARING  THE  BELL,  a  phrase  which  signifies 
to  take  the  lead  or  first  place  iu  anything,  or  to 
carry  away  the  prize.  This  old  collocjuial  jjhrase  is 
said  to  have  originated  in  a  ])ractice,  at  the  early 
part  of  the  seventeenth  c,  of  giving  a  small 
golden  or  silver  bell  as  a  prize  to  the  winner  at 
horse-races.  In  Dudley  Lord  North's  Forest  of 
Varieties,  p.  175,  we  read  : 

Jockey  and  his  horse  were  by  their  masters  sent 
To  \mt  iu  for  the  bell — 
Thus  right,  and  each  to  other  fitted  well. 
They  are  to  run,  and  cannot  misse  the  bell 

BEARN,  formerly  one  of  the  thirty-two  pro- 
vinces into  which  France  was  divided,  and  now 
forming  the  greatest  portion  of  the  Basses-Pyrenees. 
B.  was  a  portion  of  Aquitania  under  the  Romans, 
and  after  the  downfall  of  that  empire,  under  its 
ruling  dukes,  it  was  a  country  of  considerable  im- 
]iortiincc.  From  the  inteiinarriage  of  the  ruling 
family,  the  Counts  of  Foix,  with  that  of  Navarre, 
sprang  the  French  monarch  Henry  lY.,  who,  because 
he  was  born  and  brought  up  in  B.,  was  derisively 
called  the  Bearnois.  When  he  ascended  the  throne 
of  France,  it,  of  course  virtually  became  a  part  of 
that  countiy ;  but  was  only  formally  incorporated 
witliitii!  1()20  by  Louis  XIII.  In  "iSlo,  after  the 
Rritish  had  crossed  the  Nive,  and  established  them- 
selves in  Urogue,  St.  Jean  de  Luz,  &:c.,  the  rich 
fields  ofB.  furnished  them  ample  supplies,  the  pea- 
sants taking  their  produce  for  which  they  were  well 
paid,  as  regularly  to  the  British  statjonsas  to  market. 

BE'AS,  anciently  Ht/phnxix,  one  of  the  five  rivers 
which  give  name  to  the  Punjab,  or  land  of  five 
waters— Jelum,  Chenab,  Ravee,  Beas,  and  Sutlej. 
It  rises  on  the  verge  of  the  Ritanka  Pass  of  the 
Himalaya,  in  lat  .Sii°  .34'  N.,  and  long.  77°  12'  E., 
its  source  being  13,200  feet  above  the  sea-level. 
After  a  course  of  about  220  miles,  it  joins  the  Sutlej, 
35  miles  to  the  south-south-east  of  Amritsir.  It  is 
subject  to  periodical  rises  and  falls,  being  in  the 
dry  season  generally  fordable ;  but  after  the  rainy 
months,    it    is    sometimes    nearly   half   a  mile    in 

777 


BEAT— BEATING  AND  WOUNDING. 


breadth    about   20   miles  above  the  point   of  con- 
fluence. 

BEAT,    in    Music,    a   species    of    embellishment, 

written  thus:  yly ^ 1,  and  played  as  follow?, 


.  Beat  al?o  means  a  signal  given  by 
—»  ^  ^'"^  hand  or  foot  in  music  to  insure 
simultaneous  performance — the  hand  or  foot  being 
raised  on  the  unaccented,  and  lowered  on  the  accen- 
ted part  of  the  bar. 

BEAT  OF  DRUM,  in  military  matters,  is  a 
signal  or  instruction  conveyed  by  a  particular 
mode  of  drum-beating.  It  is  an  aiidiblc  sema- 
phore, a  telegraph  that  speaks  to  tlie  ear  instead 
of  tiie  eye.  There  arc  many  varieties,  known  by 
the  names  of  the  general,  the  reveille,  the  assembly 
the  foot-march,  the  grenadiers'  march,  the  retreat, 
the  taptoo  or  tattoo,  tlie  call  to  arms,  the  call  to 
church,  the  pioneers'  call,  the  sergeants'  call,  the 
drummers'  call,  the  chamade,  the  rogue's  march,  the 
long  roll,  &e.  Some  of  the  same  instructions  or 
commands  are  also  given  by  the  bugle,  and  some  by 
the  trumpet. 

BEATIFICATION  is  a  solemn  act  in  the  Catholic 
Church,  by  which  the  pope,  after  scrutinising  the 
life  and  services  of  a  deceased  person,  pronounces 
him  blessed.  After  this  he  may  be  worslii|)ped  in  a 
specified  portion  of  the  church,  and  tlie  act  holds 
out  the  prospet  of  future  canonisation,  which  entitles 
him  to  general  worship  in  the  church  universal.  B. 
was  introduced  in  the  l'2lh  c.  It  may  be  regarded 
as  an  inferior  degree  of  canonisation  (q.v.). 

BEATING  ANn  WOUNDING,  or  simply  woundivg 
is  tlie  name  sometimes  found  in  law-books 
for  the  offence  of  inflicting  on  another  some 
dangerous  hurt  or  wound  ;  and  it  has  been  other- 
wise described  as  an  aggravated  species  of  Battery 
(q.v.).  A  still  more  aggravated  and  atrocious 
offence  of  this  kind  is  explained  in  the  category 
of  offences  against  the  criminal  law  of  England 
under  the  term  Mayhem,  which  is  a  violently 
depriving  another  of  the  use  of  a  member  proper 
for  his  dci'ence,  such  as  an  aim,  a  leg,  a  finger,  an 
eye,  a  fore-tooth,  and  some  others;  but  it  is  laid 
down  quaintly  enough,  that  the  loss  of  one  of  the 
jaw  teeth,  the  ear,  or  the  nose,  is  no  mayhem  in 
common  law,  because  these  members  can  be  of 
no  use  in  fighting. 

The  offences  to  which  we  have  referred — viz., 
battery,  bcatincf  and  u'oundiiif/,  and  inaylieni — can, 
however,  be  i)est  considered  under  the  important 
and  ivell  known  term  Assault,  which  is  indeed 
often  used  to  express  the  above  injuries,  and  wliicli 
is  implied  in  them  all.  The  above  offences,  it  will 
have  been  observed,  all  involve  an  actual  attack  on 
and  injury  to  the  person  of  the  party  assaulted. 
But  there  may  be  an  assault  without  such  actual 
hurt.  This  is  a  common  assault,  and  hence  in  crimi- 
nal law,  assaults  are  distinguished  by  their  being 
common  or  aijgravated.  A  common  assault  has  been 
defined  as  an  attempt  or  offer  to  do  a  corporal  hurt 
to  another,  as  by  striking  at  another  with  a  stick 
or  weapon,  or  without  a  weapon,  though  the  party 
striking  misses  his  aim.  The  principle  is,  that  it  is 
sufficient,  in  order  to  constitute  such  an  ollence,  that 
there  has  l)een  such  an  exiiibition  of  a  violent  and 
offensive  aniinua  as  to  shew  at  once  the  intention, 
and  an  attempt,  to  commit  it.  So,  drawing  a  sword 
or  bayonet,,  or  even  holding  up  a  fist  in  a  menacing 
manner,  throwing  a  bottle  or  glass  with  intent  to 
wound  or  strike,  presenting  a  gun  at  a  person  who 
is  within  the  distance  to  which  the  gun  will  carry, 
V78 


pointing  a  pitchfork  at  a  person  wiio  is  within 
reach,  or  any  other  similar  act,  accompanied  with 
such  circumstances  as  denote  at  the  time  an 
intention,  coupled  with  a  present  ability,  of  using 
actual  violence  against  the  person  of  another,  will 
amount  to  an  assault. — Russell  on  Ciinics  and  Mis- 
deincano%<rs,\o\.  i.  p,  760.  It  has  even  been  laid  down 
that  to  present  a  pistol,  purporting  to  be  loaded,  so 
near  as  to  jjroduce  danger  to  life  if  the  jiistol  had 
gone  off,  is  an  assault  in  fioint  of  law,  although,  in 
fact,  the  pistol  was  not  loaded. 

But  no  uords,  however  provoking  or  irritating, 
can  amount  to  an  assault.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  injury  need  not  be  effected  directly  with  the 
hand  of  the  person  making  the  assault.  Thus 
there  may  be  an  assault  by  encouraging  a  dog 
to  bite,  by  riding  over  a  person  with  a  horse, 
or  by  wilfully  and  violently  driving  a  cart,  &c., 
against  the  carriage  of  another  person.  Nor  is  it 
necessary  that  the  assault  should  be  immediate,  as 
where  a  defendant  threw  a  lighted  squib  into  a 
market-place,  which,  being  tossed  from  hand  to 
hand  by  different  persons,  at  last  hit  the  plaintiff  in 
the  face,  and  put  out  his  eye,  it  was  adjudged  that 
this  was  actionable.  And  tlie  same  has  been  held 
where  a  person  wantonly  pushed  a  drunken  man 
against  another,  and  thereby  hurt  him.  A  defend-.int 
put  some  cantharides  into  coffee,  in  order  that  a 
female  niiglit  take  it ;  and  she  did  take  it,  and  was 
made  ill  by  it;  and  this  was  held  to  be  an  assault. 
It  is  also  an  assault,  wilfully  and  of  malice,  to  expose 
another  to  tiie  inclemency  of  the  weather  ;  so  is  the 
taking  indecent  lil)erties  with  females  without  their 
consent,  although  they  did  not  actually  resist;  and 
to  such  indecent  liberties  a  very  wide  appliration 
lias  been  given  even  to  the  extent  of  holding  a 
medical  practitioner  guilty  of  assault  who  stripped 
a  young  girl  of  her  clothes,  on  the  pretence  that  he 
could  not  otherwise  judge  of  her  illness.  I'liilan- 
thropists  and  benevolent  people  will  liliewise  be 
glad  to  be  told,  that  not  only  does  the  striking  that 
takes  place  at  a  prize-fic/ht  constitute  an  assault  as 
between  the  combatants  themselves,  but  all  persons 
present  in  concert  and  co-operation  at  the  odious 
proceeding  are  equally  guilty.  Again,  an  assault 
may  be  committed  by  unlawfully  iinpiisoning  or 
detaining  the  person  of  another;  and  by  such 
detention  is  meant  every  confinement  of  the  person, 
whether  it  be  in  a  conmion  pri.-on  or  in  a  ]>iivate 
house,  or  by  a  forcible  detaining  in  the  public 
streets.  Numerous  other  cases  could  be  stated, 
shewing  how  nicely  and  protectively  the  law  on 
this  subject  has  been  elucidated ;  but  the  expla- 
nation we  have  given  is  sulficient  for  its  popu- 
lar  illustration. 

Generally,  it  may  be  laid  down,  tliat  the  essential 
thing  is  the  intention  with  wliicli  the  alleged  act  is 
done,  so  that  no  matter  how  violent  or  menacing 
the  conduct  of  the  accused  may  have  appeared 
to  be,  nor  even  how  serious  the  injury,  if  it  can 
be  shown  that  the  whole  was  unintentional  or 
accidental  and  undesigned,  there  is  no  assault.  It 
remains  to  be  added  on  the  subject  of  conmion 
assaults,  that  the  party  injured  may  proceed  against 
the  defendant  by  action  and  indictment  for  the 
same  assault;  and  the  court  in  which  the  action 
is  brought  will  not  compel  him  to  make  his  election 
to  ymrsue  either  the  one  or  the  other ;  for  the 
])uiiishment  consequent  upon  the  ciiminal  prosecu- 
tion, and  the  damages  to  the  party  in  the  civil 
action,  are  perfectly  distinct  in  Iheir  natures  ;  but 
by  the  9  Geo.  IV.  c.  31,  a  conviction  for  a  common 
assault  may  be  had  in  a  summary  manner  before  two 
magistrates. 

With  respect  to  aggravated  assaults,  their  special 
character  arises    from   the  great  criminality  of  the 


BEATING  JtlDGES— BEATON". 


object  intended  to  be  cll'eeied.  Thus  attempts  to 
murder,  or  to  do  great  bodily  harm,  to  ravi>li,  and 
to  obstruct  officers  of  the  law  in  the  execution  of 
legal  process,  are  all  of  the  nature  of  acgravated 
assaults  ;  as  are  nlso  attempts  to  commit  robbery,  or 
any  other  felony.  The  remedy  for  an  aggravated 
assault  is  usually  by  indictment  prel'eired,  the 
punishFueiit  in  many  cases  being  imprisonment  with 
hard  labour.  In  certain  cases,  the  ptinisliment  is 
regulated  by  recent  statutes  :  thus,  by  the  14  and  15 
Vict.  c.  11,  ss.  1  and  6,  it  is  enacted  that  per.-ons 
unlawfully  and  maliciously  assaulting  an  apjjrcntice 
or  servant,  whereby  the  life  of  such  ])erson  shall  be 
endangered,  or  the  health  injured,  shall  be  guilty  of 
a  misdemeanour,  and  on  conviction  shall  be  impri- 
soned, with  or  without  hard  labour,  for  any  term 
not  exceeding  three  years;  and  where  the  offence 
shall  be  against  a  young  person  under  the  age  of 
IG  years,  and  shall  amount  in  point  of  law  to  a 
felony,  or  to  an  attempt  to  commit  a  felony,  or 
to  an  assault  with  intent  to  commit  a  felony, 
the  guardians  of  the  union  or  piirish,  or,  where 
there  arc  no  {guardians,  the  overseers  of  the  parish, 
are  authorized  and  required  to  prosecute,  the  costs 
of  the  prosecution  being  paid  out  of  the  com- 
mon fmid  of  such  union  or  j)arish.  Again,  by  an  act 
passed  in  the  same  session,  c.  19,  s.  4,  it  is  declared 
expediertt  to  make  further  provision  for  the  punish- 
ment of  aggravated  assaults,  and  it  is  therefore 
enacted,  that  if  any  person  shall  unlawfully  and 
maliciously  inflict  upon  any  other  person,  either 
with  or  without  any  weapon  or  instrument,  any 
grievous  bodily  harm,  or  unlawfully  and  maliciously 
cut,  stab,  or  woiuid  any  other  person,  every  such 
ofl'ender  siiall  be  guilty  of  a  misdemeanour,  and 
being  convicted  thereof,  shall  be  liable,  at  the  discre- 
tion of  the  court,  to  be  imprisoned,  with  or  without 
hard  labour,  for  a  like  term  of  three  years  :  provided, 
however,  that  nothing  contained  in  the  act  shall  be 
deemed  or  taken  to  repeal  the  29th  section  ol'  the 
10  Geo.  IV.,  c.  34,  by  which  it  is  provided,  that  if  any 
person  shall  unlawfully  and  maliciously  assault, 
beat,  or  wound  any  person,  so  as  thereby  to  endanger 
the  life  of  such  person,  or  so  as  thereliy  to  inflict 
upon  such  person  any  grievous  bodily  harm,  every 
such  offender,  being  convicted  thereof,  shall  be  liable 
to  be  transpoited  beyond  the  seas,  lor  the  term  of 
seven  years,  or  to  be  imprisoned  with  or  without 
hard  labour,  in  the  common  jail  or  iiouse  of  correc- 
tion, for  any  term  not  exceeding  three  years  ;  and,  if 
a  male,  to  be  once,  twice,  or  thrice  publicly  or  pri- 
vately whipped,  in  addition  to  such  imprisonment,  if 
the  court  shall  think  fit.  The  oidy  otlier  statute  we 
may  here  notice  is  an  act  also  passed  in  the  same 
session — viz.,  the  14  and  15  Vict.  c.  lOO,  s.  29 — which 
provides  that  any  person  convicted  of  any  indecent 
assault,  or  any  assault  occasioning  actual  bodily 
harm,  shall  be  imiuisoned  for  any  term  not  war- 
ranted by  law,  with  hard  labour  during  the  whole  or 
any  part  of  such  imprisonment. 

In  Scotland,  the  i)rinciple  of  the  law  of  assault, 
and  of  its  aggravations,  is  very  much  the  same  as 
that  above  stated.  In  the  Scotch  system,  it  is  laid 
down  that  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  in  all  cases 
of  actual  assault  to  ascertain  who  struck  the  first 
blow,  and  the  party  who  receives  it  will  be  excused 
for  retaliating,  if  he  do  not  exceed  the  just  and  fair 
measure  of  resentment.  There,  too,  the  highest  of 
all  aggravations  is  the  assault  with  intent  to  murder. 
It  is  also  an  aggravation  that  the  assault  has  been 
comndtted  in  pursuance  of  an  old  gruilgc,  and  on  a 
principle  of  revenge  ;  where  also  the  oflence  has 
been  accompanied  with  an  intent  to  compel  a  rise  of 
wages,  or  to  deter  from  working  at  a  certain  rate,  or 
in  pursuance  of  a  combination  entered  into  for  these 
illegal  purposes.     Another  aggravation  of  the  offence 


in  Scotland  is  its  being  committed  by  a  child  on  its 
parent,  by  a  husband  on  his  wife,  or  by  any  per.son 
uf>on  another  within  his  own  house,  although  the 
latter  crime  falls  more  strictly  under  the  anti(iiiated 
term  oi'  Jfanicsmken  (q.  v.).  The  remedy  in  Scotland 
is,  as  in  England,  by  civil  action  of  damages,  and  by 
a  criminal  prosecution,  both  being  maintainable,  and 
the  latter  usually  at  the  suit  of  the  Lord  Advocate, 
as  public  prosecutor;  but  the  private  injured  party 
may  prosecute  criminally  should  the  Eoid  Advocate 
decline  to  do  so.  See,  on  the  subject  of  this  article 
generally,  Russell  on  Criwcs  n)i<l  Misjrmennorx, 
ill  England,  and  Alison's  J'rhicijdcs  of  (he  Scotch 
Crinmial  Lav: 

BEATING  JUDGES,  in  the  Scotch  law,  is  the 
striinge  title  of  a  strange  oflence,  according  to  the 
enlightenment  of  the  present  age — namely,  that  of 
committing  a  personal  assault  on  a  judge  ;  but  the 
subject  will  be  found,  along  with  the  corresponding 
law  in  England,  sufficiently  treated  under  Judges 
(q.  v.). 

BEATING  THE  BOUNDS  is  the  popular 
expression  in  England  for  those  periodical  surveys  or 
perambulations  by  which  the  ancient  boundaries  of 
parishes  are  preserved.  The  procedure,  according  to 
common  custom,  is  in  this  wise  :  On  Holy  Thursday, 
or  Ascension  Day,  the  clergyman  of  the  parish,  with 
the  parochial  oflicersand  other  parishioners,  followed 
by  the  boys  of  the  parish  school,  headed  by  their 
master,  go  in  procession  to  the  difl'erent  parish 
boundaries,  which  boundaries  the  boys  strike  with 
peeled  willow-wands  that  they  bear  in  their  hands, 
and  hence  the  expression  beating  the  bounds.  The 
correct  legal  term  is  Percunbulntion  (q.  v.).  See 
Brand's  Popular  Antiqnilkx^  vol.  i.  pp.  174,  175; 
Lyson's  Enctrona  of  London,  vol.  ii.  p.  116;  Hone's 
Evcry-daii  Book\  vol.  i.  p.  651  ;  Steer's  J^arish  Laic, 
by  Hodgson  ;  and  Toulmin  Smith's  Parish  Law. 

According  to  these  and  other  old  authorities,  the 
beating  was  not  confined  to  the  above  peribrnuincc  of 
the  boys  with  their  willow-wands  ;  but  where  it  was 
desired  to  jircserve  evidence  of  i)articular  boundaries, 
the  singular  expedient  was  used  of  whijipin.g  the 
boys  themselves  on  the  spot,  or  one  of  them,  who 
received  a  stated  fee  for  the  permitted  eastigation 
out  of  the  parish  funds — it  being  thought  that  the 
impression  made  on  the  memory  of  the  whipped  boy 
was  calculated  to  have  a  beneficial  effect  on  the 
preservation  of  his  evidence.  A  similar  ceremony 
appears  anciently  to  have  ]u-cvailed  in  Scotland,  and 
lor  the  same  ])urpose.  See  Lord  Stair's  hixtilnics  of 
the  Scotch  Lmw,  book  iv.,  title  4.",  s.  7,  whore  it  is 
stated  that  the  boys  were  '  sharply  whipped.' 

BEATON,  or  BETIIUNE,  Datip,  Cardinal  and 
Primate  of  Scotland,  a  zealous  opponent  of  the 
Ivcformation  in  that  country,  descended  from  a 
celebrated  Erench  family,  was  a  younger  son  of 
John  Beaton  of  Baltbur,  Fifeshire.  IJorii  in  1494, 
he  became,  in  October  1511,  a  student  at  the 
university  of  St.  Andrews,  and  afterwards  studied 
theology  and  the  canon  and  civil  laws  at  Paris. 
Early  entering  the  church,  he  was  preferred  by  his 
uncle,  James  Beaton,  Archbishop  of  Glasgow,  to  the 
rectory  of  Campsie,  Stiilingshire.  His  tact  and 
general  abilities  recommended  him  to  the  Duke  of 
Albany,  regent  during  the  minority  of  James  V., 
who,  in  1519,  appointed  him  resident  for  Scotland  at 
the  F'rench  court.  In  1525,  he  took  his  seat  in  the 
Sco's  ])arliament  as  Abbot  of  Arbroath  ;  his  uncle, 
on  being  translated  two  years  l)efore  to  the  arch- 
bishopric of  St.  Andrews,  having  resigned  to  him 
that  abbey,  with  the  half  of  the  "rents.  In  1528,  B. 
was  appointe<l  Lord  Piivy  Seal,  and  is  said  to  have 
been  the  adviser  of  James  V.  in  instituting  the 
College  of  Justice  or  Court  of  Session  in  Scotland, 

779 


BEATTIE— BEAUCAIRE. 


the  idea  of  wliich  was  suggested  by  the  constitu- 
tion of  tlie  parliament  of  Paris.  B.  subsequently 
became  Prothonotary  Puhlic,  and  was  twice  sent 
ambassador  to  France,  to  negotiate  James's  two 
marriages — first,  witii  the  Frcncli  Idng's  daughter. 
Princess  Magdalene,  who  died  six  montlis  after  her 
nuptials;  and,  secondly,  with  Mary,  Duchess  of 
Longtioville,  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Guise.  The 
king's  union  with  the  latter  he  solemnized,  in  151^7, 
in  the  cathedral  clun-ch  of  St.  Andrews.  During  his 
residence  at  the  French  court,  he  was  admitted  to 
all  the  privileges  of  a  French  citizen,  and  appointed 
by  Francis  I.  Bishop  of  Mirepoix  in  Lnnguedoc. 
After  his  return  he  became  coadjutor  to  his  uncle 
in  the  see  of  St.  Andrews,  and  on  28tli  December, 
1538,  on  tlio  recommendation  of  the  king  of  France, 
was,  liy  Pope  Paul  III.,  elevated  to  the  dignity  of  a 
cardinal.  On  his  uncle's  death,  in  153!),  he  suc- 
ceeded him  as  Archbishop  of  St.  Andrews  and 
Primate  of  Scotland,  and  soon  commenced  a  fmious 
persecution  of  the  Beformcrs,  already  numerous 
and  increasing.  That  he  might  be  invested  with 
supreme  authority  in  all  matters  ecclesiastical,  he 
obtained  from  the  pope  the  appointment  of  legatus 
a  latere  in  Scotland,  and  induced  the  king  to 
institute  a  Court  of  Dniuisition,  to  inquire  after 
heretics  in  all  parts  of  the  kingdom.  To  maintain 
the  French  influence,  and  prevent  all  clanger  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  in  Scotland  by  a  friendly 
connection  with  England,  I:c  contrived  to  frustrate 
a  proposed  meeting  of  King  Jiimes  with  his  uncle, 
Henry  VIII.,  ami  even  pievailed  on  the  former  to 
declare  war  against  his  royal  relative.  On  the 
death  of  James,  after  the  disastious  overthrow  of 
the  Scots  at  Sohvay  Moss,  December  14,  154'2,  B. 
produced  a  forged  will  of  the  late  king,  appointing 
liimself,  with  three  others,  regent  of  the  kingdom 
during  the  minority  of  the  infant  Queen  Mary. 
The  noliility,  however,  rejected  the  fictitious  docu- 
ment, and  elected  the  Earl  of  Arran  regent,  who 
then  professed  the  reformed  faith.  The  ibllowing 
month,  B.  was  arrested  and  imprisoned,  accused, 
among  other  charges,  of  a  design  to  introduce 
French  troops  into  Scotland,  in  order  to  stop  the 
negotiations  then  in  progress  with  Henry  of  Eng- 
land for  a  marriage  between  the  young  Prince 
of  Wales,  afterwards  Edward  VI.,  and  the  infant 
Queen  of  Scots.  He  was  soon  after  libeiated, 
and  reconciled  to  the  regent,  whom  he  induced  to 
abandott  the  English  interest,  and  publicly 
to  abjure  the  reformed  religion.  On  the  young 
queen's  coronation  in  1543,  B.  was  again  admitted 
of  the  coinicil,  and  apjiointed  Chancellor.  He 
now  renewed  his  ])ersecutioiis  of  the  Reformers; 
and,  in  J:iiui,iry,  1546,  accompanied  l)y  the  regent, 
he  nuide  a  diocesan  visitation  of  the  counties  under 
his  jinisdiction,  and  punished  with  the  utmost 
severity  all  the  Protestants  he  could  find.  At 
Perth,  a  number  of  persons,  accused  of  heresy,  were 
banished  the  city,  otiiers  were  imjjrisoned;  three 
men  were  cruelly  hanged,  and  one  \\  oman  drowned, 
by  his  directions.  During  a  Provincial  Council  of 
the  clergy  held  at  Edinhiugh,  at  which  he  presided, 
he  caused  the  celebrated  evangelical  preacher, 
George  Wishart,  to  be  apprehended,  and  conveyed 
to  the  castle  of  St.  Andrews,  where  he  was  burnt 
at  the  stake,  B.  and  other  prelates  witnessing  his 
sufferings  from  a  window.  A  conspiracy  having 
been  formed  against  him,  at  tlie  head  of  which  were 
Kornian  Le.'^lie  and  his  brother,  B.  was  assassinated 
in  his  own  castle  of  St.  Andrews,  29th  May,  1546. 
Though  endowed  wiih  great  talents,  B.  possessed 
little  learning.  He  is  said,  however,  to  have  written 
Itlemnirs  of  his  own  Einhasxiefi ;  a  treatise  on  *SY. 
Peter's  Supreiiiacy;  and  Letters  to  Several  Persons,  of 
which  Dempster  observes  there  are  several  copies 
780 


extant  in  the  Imperial  Library  at  Paris.  Haughty, 
cruel,  and  intolerant,  he  was  also  licentious  in  the 
extreme.  He  had  six  natural  children,  three  sons 
and  three  daughters — the  latter  nuirried  into  fami- 
lies of  distinction.  One  of  his  sons  became  a  Pro- 
testant. His  death  was  scarcely  lamented  by  any 
party  in  the  state. 

BEATTIE,  Jamks,  poet  and  moral  philosopher, 
was  born,  '25th  October  1735,  at  Lam-enc(ddrk, 
Kincardineshire,  Scotland.  He  studied  at  Marischal 
College,  Aberdeen,  where  he  acquired  a  high  reputa- 
tion as  a  classical  scholar.  In  1758,  he  was  atjpointed 
one  of  the  masters  of  the  granmiar  school  in  that 
city,  and  in  1700,  Professor  of  Moral  Philosophy  in 
Marischal  College.  Ten  years  afterwards  appeared 
B.'s  famous  Essay  on  Truth,  which  met  with  most 
extravagant  success.  It  was  intended  as  an  antidote 
to  Hume,  whose  penetrating  scepticism  had  found 
its  way  into  all  the  enlightened  circles  of  Scotland, 
and  alarmed  the  friends  of  revealed  religion.  Drs. 
Rcid  ami  Canii)l)ell  had  pveviously  attempted  to 
refute  the  scepticism  of  the  great  historian,  but,  in 
the  opinion  of  many,  too  deferentially.  B.,  whose 
nature  was  poetically  vehement,  and  whose  zeal 
was  consequently  very  ardent,  assaulted  Hume 
more  violently,  if  not  more  powerfully,  than  his 
prcdecessoi-s.  The  author  himself  natiu'ally  shared 
the  iiopularity  of  his  essay.  He  was  inlioduced  to 
George  III.,  and  solicited  by  dignitaries  of  the 
English  Church  to  take  orders;  high  preferments 
were  also  promised,  which,  however,  he  magnani- 
mously refused,  shrinking  with  delicacy  from  doing 
anything  ■which  might  give  his  adversaries  a 
chance  of  saying  that  he  had  written  on  behalf  of 
religion  for  hire.  It  was  thought  for  a  time  that  B. 
had  demonstrated  'the  immutability  of  Truth,'  and 
exposed  the  'sophistry  of  scepticism  ;'  but  if  we  may 
judge  from  the  neglect  which  has  overtaken  his 
treatise  during  the  last  fifty  years,  his  achieve- 
ments had  been  overestimated.  B.  was  deficient 
in  logical  acumen  and  in  extent  of  i)hilosophic 
erudition,  but  his  poetical  fancy,  pure  enthusiasm, 
and  pious  intentions,  rccounncnded  the  essay  to 
multitudes.  In  1771,  appeared  the  first  part  of 
The  Miiistirl,  and  in  1774,  the  second  part.  It 
is  a  delightful  poem.  Time  has  dealt  gently  with 
it,  for  it  still  retains  the  freshness  of  its  youth.  It 
overflows  with  a  sweet  poetic  emotion,  and  is  rich 
in  picturesque  descriptions,  while  the  versification 
has  a  quiet  fulness  of  melody.  The  author's  gentle 
yet  fervent  spirit  beats  in  every  line.  The  i>oem 
describes  '  the  progress  <if  a  poetical  genius  born  in 
a  rude  age,  from  the  first  dawning  of  fancy  and 
reason,  till  that  period  at  which  he  may  be  supposed 
capable  of  appearing  in  the  world  ;, i  a  minstrel.' 
B.  intended  to  have  added  a  third  part,  but  circum- 
stances hindered  him.  In  1776,  he  ]iublished  a  series 
of  essays  on  Poetry,  Music,  &c.  ;  in  1783,  Disserta- 
tions, Moral  and  Critical ;  in  1786,  The  Eviilences  of 
the  Christian  Rcliyion  brief  y  and  plainly  stated,  and 
in  1790 — 1793,  The  Elements  of  Moral  Science  ;  all 
of  which  works  are  written  in  a  clear  and  elegant 
stvle,  and  with  a  high  appreciation  of  whatever  is 
beautiful  and  good.  He  died  August  18,  1803. 
His  life  has  been  written  by  bis  friend,  Sir  William 
Forbes. 

BEAUCAIRE,  a  well-built  commercial  town  of 
Fi'ance,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhone, 
in  the  department  of  Gard,  opposite  Tarascon,  m  ith 
which  it  is  coiinectcd  by  a  magnificent  suspension 
bridge.  Population  in  1861,  9544.  The  har- 
bor is  commodious  for  A'essels,  which  enter  it  by 
a  canal  communicating  with  the  Mediterranean, 
and  avoiding  the  saml-banks  at  the  mouths  of 
the    Rhone,      llie    main    feature    o£    Beaucirire    is 


BEAUCIIAMP— BEAUHAIIN'AIS. 


its  great  fair,  established,  it  is  saiil,  as  early  as  the 
r2th  c.  It  is  held  annually,  beginning  '2'2d  July, 
and  lasting  six  days.  In  former  times,  when  this 
fair  was  free  from  duties,  it  was  attended  by  mer- 
chants and  manufacturers  fiom  almost  all  parts  of 
Europe,  from  the  Levant,  ai.d  even  from  Persia  and 
Armenia  ;  and  as  the  small  town  could  not  contain 
the  vast  concourse  of  traders,  tlioiisands  of  wooden 
huts  and  of  tents  were  erected  in  the  neighbouring 
valley.  But  the  numerous  imposts  demanded  since 
1632,  foreign  Avars,  and  the  competition  of  Marseille, 
Lyon,  and  other  large  places,  reduced  the  traffic  of 
B.,  which  sank  slill  lower  in  the  days  of  the  Kevo- 
hition.  Tl;e  fair,  however,  is  still  held  in  much 
repute,  the  number  attending  it  being  estimated  at 
100,000,  and  the  amount  of  property  changing  hands 
at  £240,00(1.  The  chief  articles  of  connnercc  are 
silks,  wines,  oil,  almonds,  and  other  fruits,  spices, 
drugs,  Iciither,  wool,  and  cotton.  B.  appears  to  have 
been  known  in  ancient  times  as  Ugernum,  which,  in 
the  7 til  c,  was  a  place  of  importance  in  a  military 
point  of  view. 

BEArCIIAMr,  Alpiionse  pe,  a  French  histo- 
rian and  publicist,  born  at  Jlonaco,  ITOT  ;  died  in 
Paris,  June  4,  1832.  He  received  his  education  in 
Paris,  and  entered  the  Sardinian  inilitai-y  service. 
At  the  outbreak  of  the  war  with  France,  he  refused 
to  bear  arms  against  his  country,  and  obtained 
his  discharge  ;  but  being  suspected  of  treasonable 
designs,  he  was  imprisoned  for  some  months.  After 
his  liberation,  he  returned  to  Paris,  where  he  took 
part  against  Robespierre ;  and  on  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Directory,  obtiiined  a  situation  in  the 
office  of  the  minister  of  police,  and  had  the  surveil- 
lance of  the  press.  Here  he  commenced  his  Iliatoirc 
de  la  Vendee  ft  des  C/iouans  (3  vols.,  Par.  18(i6  ;  4th 
ed.,  1820),  for  which  Fouchc  supplied  the  materials. 
As  this  work  dis])lcased  the  emperor,  B.  was  ban- 
ished to  Rhcims,  but  was  recallecl  in  lSll,and  again 
received  a  sul)ordiuate  appointment  (on  condition 
that  he  should  publish  nothing  concerning  his  politi- 
cal contemporaries),  which  he  lost  in  1814.  Un^'er 
the  Restoration,  he  received  a  pension  (1820),  and 
wrote  for  the  Mnnitcur,  the  Gazette  dc  France  and  the 
Bior/rnp/iie  dcs  I/ounncfi  Vivatit.f,  edited  by  ilichaud. 
The  numerous  historical  writings  of  B.  are  inter- 
esting, but  bear  the  impress  of  p.iity-spirit ;  but  in 
his  llistoire  dn  Brisil  (Par.  1815),  and  Ilintoirc  de  la 
Conquete  du  Perou  (Par.  1807),  he  found  no  oppor- 
tunity of  ex|)rcssing  his  political  partialities.  Among 
his  other  works  may  be  mentioned  the  lUatoire  de  la 
Campagne  de  1814—181.5  (2  vols.,  Par.  1818),  the 
Hintoirc  de  la  Rcvohdion  dn  Piemont,  directed 
against  I)e  la  Rosa  (Par.  1823),  and  Vie  de  Louis 
XVIII.  (Par.  182.5).  After  the  July  revolution,  he 
was  employed  on  several  legitimist  journals  ;  and 
the  supposititious  Memoires  of  Fouche  (4  vols..  Par. 
1828 — 1829)  have,  with  good  reason,  been  ascribed 
to  Beauchamp. 

BEAUFORT,  an  inland  district  of  the  west 
division  of  the  Cape  Colony,  divided  into  12  field- 
cornetcies.  It  is  chiefly  used  for  pasturage,  its  oxen 
being,  in  seasons  of  abundant  rain,  decidedly  the 
fattest  in  the  colony.  Its  area  is  about  13,(),")0 
square  miles  ;  and  its  population,  in  1849,  was  7131. 
Its  ca[)ital,  of  the  same  name,  is  on  the  (Jamka, 
being  3(i3  miles  to  the  cast  of  Cape  Town,  and  144 
to  the  west  of  Graaflfreinet. 

BEAUFORT,  Cardinal,  and  Bishop  of  Winches- 
ter (born  about  1370),  was  a  natural  son  of  John  of 
Gaunt,  Duke  of  Lancaster,  and  was  half-brother  to 
King  Henry  IV.  He  was  educated  in  England  and 
Germany,  and  in  1404  became  Bishop  of  Winchester. 
He  repeatedly  filled  the  oflice  of  Lord  Chancellor, 
and  was  involved  in  all  the  most  important  political 


movements  of  his  times.  He  was  present  at  the 
Council  of  Constance,  and  voted  for  the  election  of 
Po[)C  Martin  V.,  by  whom  he  was  subsequently 
made  a  cardiiuil.  When  the  cardinal's  nephew 
Henry  V.  of  England,  proposed  to  levy  a  new  impose 
on  the  clergy,  in  order  to  raise  money  for  carrying 
on  the  War  against  France,  B.  was  the  chief  oppo- 
nent of  the  measure  ;  but  nevertheless  he  lent  the 
monarch,  out  of  his  own  private  jjurse,  £"J8,000 — an 
almost  incrcdil)ly  large  sum  in  those  days,  and 
one  which  justifies  the  belief  that  he  was  the 
wealthiest  subject  of  his  time  in  all  England.  Hia 
service  in  this  affair  was  soon  recognized  by  the 
pope,  who  sent  him  as  legate  into  G(>iinany,  there  to 
organize  a  crusade  against  the  followers  of  John 
Iluss.  This  undertaking  failed  ;  and  the  cardinal, 
having  expended,  in  levying  an  English  army  against 
France,  the  moneys  granted  from  Rome  for  other 
purposes,  now  fell  under  papal  displeasure.  In  1431, 
B.  conducted  the  young  king,  Henry  VI.,  to  France, 
to  be  crowned  in  Paris  as  king  of  France  and  Eng- 
land. Here  he  also  endeavoured,  but  vainly,  to 
reconcile  the  Duke  of  Bedford,  Regent  of  Fiance, 
with  the  offended  Duke  of  Burgun(ly.  Cardinal  B. 
died  at  Winchester  in  1447.  His  memory  is  stained 
by  his  suspected  participation  in  the  murder  of  his 
grent  political  rival,  the  Duke  of  Gloucester,  who 
headed  the  lay  opposition  to  the  despotism  of  eccle- 
siastical statesmen ;  and  by  the  fact,  that  he  presided 
over  the  tribunal  which  sentenced  the  Maid  of 
Orleans  to  perish  at  the  stake. 

BEAUGEXCY,  an  ancient  town  of  France, 
in  the  department  Loiret,  and  situated  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Loire,  15  miles  south-west  of 
Orleans.  B.  was  at  one  time  surrounded  by  walls, 
flanked  with  towers  and  bastions,  and  defended 
by  a  strong  castle,  now  ruined.  In  the  history  of 
the  wars  of  France,  B.  occupies  a  conspicuous 
place.  It  was  successively  in  the  hands  of  the 
Huns,  Saxons,  Normans,  and  English,  but  it  sus- 
tained most  damage  during  the  religious  wars  of  the 
IGth  c.  B.  manufactures  woollens,  leather,  &c ,  and 
has  a  trade  in  wine,  wool,  and  corn.     Pop.  5052. 

BEAUHARNAIS,  Alexandre  Vicomte  he, 
born  17G0,  in  the  island  of  Martinique,  served, 
under  Jlarshal  Rochambeau,  in  the  American  war 
of  Independence.  Afterwards,  he  went  to  France, 
but  though  well  received  by  the  French  com-t,  lie 
embraced  the  popular  cause.  Elected  deputy  to 
the  States-general  by  the  nobility  and  the  jus- 
ticiary authorities  of  Blois,  he  was  among  the 
first  of  his  order  to  fraternise  with  the  Tiers  Etat, 
or  democratic  party.  On  the  night  of  August 
4,  1789,  he  voted  for  the  abolition  of  all  privi- 
leges, and  the  political  equality  of  all  citizens. 
As  a  reward  for  his  constancy  to  the  cause  of 
liberty,  he  was  named  Secretary  of  the  National 
Assembly,  and  subsequently  member  of  the  military 
committee,  but  lost  his  popularity  considerably  by 
venturing  to  praise  and  defend  the  conduct  of 
General  Bouille  in  the  sanguinary  suppression  of 
the  insurrection  of  Nancy.  The  manner  in  which 
he  received  the  news  of  the  flight  of  Louis  XVI. 
exhibits  a  curious  mixture  of  contempt  and  dignity. 
'  Gentlemen,'  said  he  to  the  Assenildy  over  which 
he  presided,  '  the  king  has  just  gone  off;  let  us  pass 
to  the  order  of  the  day.'  In  1793,  he  declined  the 
office  of  Minister  at  War,  and  tendered  his  resigna- 
tion as  general  of  the  Army  of  the  Rhine,  because 
it  had  been  determined  to  exclude  the  nobility  from 
the  service.  During  the  Reign  of  Terror,  his  ene- 
mies revived  the  report  that  he  had  participated  in 
the  surrender  of  Mentz,  because  he  had  remained  idle 
with  his  troops  for  15  days.  In  consequence  of  this 
accusation,  he  was  called  from  his  country  residence 

781 


BEAUHARNAIS— BEAUMONT. 


at  Fert6-IiTibault  to  Paris,  where  he  was  tried  and 
sentenced  to  death  by  the  revohitionary  trihunals. 
He  submitted  to  liis  fate  with  firmness,  and  died  on 
the  scaffold,  July  23,  1704,  aged  34  years.  Ills 
widow,  Josephine,  married  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  who 
adopted  Eugene  and  Hortensia,  sou  and  daughter  of 
Beauharnais.  Hortensia  was  married  to  Louis  Boiu\- 
parte,  king  of  Holland,  and  became  the  mother  of 
the  present  Emperor  of  the  French. 

BEAUHARNAIS,  Elgeke  DE,  Viceroy  of  Italy 
during  the  reign  of  Napoleon  I.,  and  afterwards  Duke 
of  Leuchtenberg,  and  Prince  of  Eichstadt,  was  born 
September  R,  1781,  and  was  the  son  of  the  Viscount 
Eeaulmruais.  After  his  mother's  marriage  with  Bona- 
parte, he  accompanied  him  in  his  c:impaigns  in  lualy, 
and  in  the  expedition  to  f^gypt.  He  rapidly  rose  to 
the  highest  military  rardv  ;  and  in  180o,  after  the 
erection  of  the  imperial  throne,  he  was  made  a 
Prince  of  France  and  Viceroy  of  Italy.  In  1800,  he 
married  the  Princess  Amalie  Augusta  of  Bavaria,  and 
not  long  afterwards  was  created  Prince  of  Venice, 
and  declared  by  Nnpolcon  his  adoptive  son,  and  heit 
of  the  kingdom  of  Italy.  Although  his  political 
power  was  much  limited,  he  conducted  himself  in 
Italy  with  much  prudence,  energy,  and  moderation, 
and  in  all  the  various  scenes  of  his  life  maintained 
an  honourable  and  virtuous  character.  It  is  to 
be  regretted,  however,  that  he  considered  himself 
so  entirely  a  vassal  of  Na[)oleon,  and  bound  to 
carry  out  the  often  harsh  decrees  of  the  latter 
in  regard  to  Italy.  His  military  talents  were 
great,  and  were  displayed  particularly  in  the 
Italian  campaigns,  in  the  wars  against  Austria,  and 
in  the  retreat  from  Moscow,  in  which  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  French  army  from  total  destruction 
was  very  much  to  be  ascribed  to  the  skill  and 
resolution  of  the  viceroy  and  of  Ney.  The  victory 
of  Liitzen  was  decided  by  his  conduct  in  that  battle. 
Napoleon  sent  him  from  Dresden  to  Italy,  which 
he  ably  defended,  even  after  Austria  had  joined 
the  coalition,  and  Murat  had  deserted  the  cause  of 
the  French  Empire.  After  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  he 
entered  into  a  convention  with  Count  Bellegardc. 
In  the  affairs  of  the  Hundred  Days,  he  took  no  part; 
and  in  the  treaty  of  Fontainbleau  and  Congress  of 
Vicuna,  he  was  allowed  to  retain  his  possessions  in 
the  March  of  Ancoua  ;  and  large  sums  were  granted 
to  him  in  compensation  for  his  other  Italian  posses- 
sions, with  which  he  purchased  from  his  father-in- 
law  the  landgraviate  of  Leuchtenberg  and  princi- 
pality of  Eichstadt,  and  took  his  place  as  Duke  of 
Leuchtenberg  among  the  nobles  of  Bavaria.  He 
died  at  Munich  on  the  •21st  February,  1824. — His 
eldest  son,  Charles  Augustus  Napoleon,  Duke  of 
Leuchtenberg,  married  the  Queen  Donna  Maria  of 
Portugal  on  the  2oth  January,  1835,  but  died  on  the 
2.ith  of  March  in  the  same  year. — Another  son,  Max 
Eugene  Joseph  Napoleon,  who  succeeded  his  brother 
as  Didve  of  Leuchtenberg,  married  the  Grand 
Duchess  Maria  Nikolajewna,  a  daughter  of  the 
Emperor  Nicholas  of  Russia  ;  and  his  children  bear 
the  name  of  Romanowski,  and  are  ranked  among  the 
members  of  the  Russian  imperial  famih*.  He  died 
1st  November,  18.52,  of  disease  of  the  lungs,  conse- 
quent upon  a  scientific  toiu'  in  the  Ural.  He  was  a 
zealous  mineralogist,  and  left  large  collections,  which 
arc  preserved  at  St.  Petersburg. 

BEAUMARCHAIS,  Pierre  Acgustin  Caron  de, 
a  French  poet,  born  in  Paris,  January  24,  1732; 
died  May  17,  1799,  was  the  son  of  a  watchmaker, 
and  was  brought  up  to  his  father's  trade.  He  soon 
displayed  a  remarkable  taste  for  music,  attained 
proficiency  as  a  player  on  the  harp  and  the  guitar, 
and  was  appointed  music-master  to  the  daughters 
of  Louis  XV.  ^his  was  the  beginning  of  his  course 
'782 


of  good-fortune.  He  acquired  considerable  property 
by  marriage,  and  to  dignify  the  somewhat  ambij^u- 
ous  position  in  which  his  calling  placed  him,  he 
devoted  his  talents  to  literature.  His  first  play, 
EiKjcn'ic  (I7(i7),  was  successful,  and  was  followed  by 
Les  ])fnx  Amis  (1770).  Having  become  involved  in 
lawsuits  with  Lablachc  and  Gotzman,  he  revenged 
hiiirself  on  the  latter — who  was  a  member  of  the 
so-called  Parlament  Afanpeoii — by  publishing  his 
famous  Mhnoircn  (Paris,  1774),  which  united  the 
l)itt(>rest  satire  Avith  the  sharpest  logic,  and  gained 
for  him  a  reputation  that  made  even  Voltaire  uneasy, 
who  could  not  bear  a  rival  in  his  own  department. 
Despite  his  wit,  however,  he  lost  his  suit.  His  fame 
now  rests  on  his  two  operas,  Le  Barbier  de  S<i<ille 
(1776),  and  Le  Mariage  de  Figaro.  Of  liis  later 
works  we  may  mention  Mes  Six  Epoques,  in  which 
he  describes  the  perils  thiough  which  he  iiad  passed 
in  the  first  period  of  the  Revolution.  During  the 
American  War  of  Indc])cndence,  he  entered  into  a 
speculation  for  supplying  arms,  Arc,  by  which  he 
realised  a  considerable  profit,  but  was  a  great 
loser  by  his  expensive  edition  of  Voltaire '.s  ivorks, 
and  other  speculations.  The  desire  of  gain  and 
love  of  distinction  were  the  leading  motives  which 
actuated  Beaumarchais.  His  literary  merits  have 
been  difTerently  estimated.  The  most  judicious  critic 
of  his  writings  and  character  is  M.  de  Lomenie, 
whose  B.  and  his  Times  is  fidl  of  interesting  literary 
anecdotes.  An  edition  of  B.  was  published  at  Paris 
in  18(»9. 

BEAUMA'RIS,  a  seaport  and  chief  town  of 
Anglesea,  North  Wales,  is  situated  on  the  west  side 
of  the  picturesque  Bay  of  B.,  near  the  north  entrance 
to  the  Men:(i  Strait,  3  miles  north  of  Bangor,  and 
239  miles  north-west  of  London.  B.  has  the  ivy- 
covered  remains  of  a  castle,  erected  by  Edward 
I.,  and  a  free  grammar-school,  and  as  a  favourite 
sea-bathing  resort.  The  bay  is  a  safe  anchorage  in 
stormy  weather.  B.  miites  with  Amlwch,  Holyhead, 
and  Llangefin  in  sending  one  member  to  parliament. 
It  exports  copper  and  other  ores,  slates,  marble,  &c. 
Pop.  2558.  Vessels  belonging  to  port,  in  1857,  2G9  ; 
tons,  28,141.  In  1858,  3403  vessels,  of  455,884  tons, 
entered  and  cleared  the  port. 

BEAU  MONT,  Francis,  poet  and  dramatist  ; 
FLETCHER,  John,  poet  and  dramatist.  These 
writers  were  so  closely  associated  in  their  lives  and 
labours,  that  their  luimes  have  become  indissolubly 
united. — Francis  Beaumont,  the  third  son  of  Sir 
Francis  Beaumont,  one  of  the  justices  of  the  Com- 
mon Pleas,  was  born  at  Graccdieu,  in  Leicestershire, 
in  1586,  ten  years  after  Fletcher  ;  and  died  in  1G15, 
ten  years  before  him.  When  ten  years  of  age,  he 
became  a  gentleman-commoner  of  Broadgate  Hall 
(now  Pembroke  Hall),  and  in  1605  was  admitted 
a  memVier  of  the  Inner  Temple.  Two  years  there- 
after, he  published  certain  translations  from  Ovid. 
When  about  nineteen  years  of  age,  he  became  the 
friend  of  Ben  Jonson,  and  wrote  commendatory 
verses  to  some  of  his  dramas.  At  the  theatre,  which 
attracted  to  its  service  most  of  the  intellect  and 
wit  of  the  time,  he  became  acquainted  with 
Fletcher,  and  drawn  together,  they  lived  in  the 
same  house  till  B.'s  marriage  in  1613.  He  married 
Ursula,  daughter  and  coheir  of  Henry  Islcy  of 
Sundridge,  in  Kent,  by  whom  he  had  two  daughters. 
He  died  at  the  early  age  of  thirty,  and  was  interred 
in  Westminster  Abbey.  Poetry  seems  to  have  run 
in  the  blood  of  the  Beaumonts.  Several  members 
of  B.'s  immediate  family  wrote  verses,  and  the  elder 
brother  of  the  dramatist,  Sir  John  Beaumont,  is 
said  by  the  critics  to  have  much  improved  our 
rhyme  couplet. 

John  Fletcher  was  born  in  1576.    His  father  'vas  a 


BEAUMONT— BEAUNE. 


cU'rgyman,  and  appears  to  have  inherited  many  of  I 
the  lienors  of  the  church.  Ho  was  for  some  time 
incuMibeiit  of  Kye,  in  Sussex ;  therciifter,  he  was 
appointed  Dean  of  Peterborough,  and  is  said  to 
have  attended  Queen  Mary  on  the  scaftohl,  and  to 
have  embittered  her  hist  hours  with  irrelevant 
exhortation.  On  his  elevation  to  the  see  of  London, 
he  married  a  second  time,  and  thereby  piocured  the 
disfavour  of  the  Virjiin  Queen.  II<!  died  shortly 
after,  some  maintaiuhig;,  of  a  queen's  fiown,  others, 
of  the  iiuuioilerate  use  of  tobacco.  John  F.  entered 
Bennet  College,  Cambridge,  on  the  15th  October, 
loyl,  where  he  acquired  some  reputation  for  classical 
erudition.  It  is  uncertain  how  long  he  renuiined  at 
the  university,  or  whether  he  took  a  degree.  The 
Wornan-hater,  produced  in  160G — 1607,  is  the  earliest 
play  of  his  which  is  known  to  exist.  It  is  not 
known  precisely  in  what  circumstances  F.  passed 
his  Ufe.  He  asserts  his  independence  iti  some  verses 
introductory  to  1'he  Faithful  S/iep/icnIcsXy  published 
about  IGIO,  yet  he  wrote  more  rapidly  than  most 
men  then  writing  for  bread.  The  last  four  years 
of  his  life  produced  eleven  new  plays — a  swiltness 
surpassing  that  of  Shakspeare  himself.  Tarrying 
in  London,  it  is  said,  for  a  suit  of  new  clothes,  he 
caught  the  plague,  and  died.  His  death  occurred 
in  1C25,  and  he  was  buried  in  the  church  of  St. 
Saviour's.  F.  also  could  boast  of  j)oetic  descent  and 
connection.  Dr.  Giles  Fletcher,  the  bishop's  younger 
brother,  has  been  called  '  an  excellent  poet ; '  and  two 
sons  of  his,  Giles  and  Phincas,  distinguished  them- 
selves by  their  verses.  The  one  wrote  C/'vixt's  Vic- 
ton/  and  Triumph ;  the  other.  The  Purple  Island. 

The  works  of  B.  and  F.  comprise  in  all  fifty-two 
plays,  a  masque,  and  several  minor  poems;  but  it 
js  dilficult  to  allocate,  in  any  satisfactory  manner, 
the  authorship  of  these.  F.,  being  the  longer  lived 
and  more  prolific  writer,  of  course  contributed  the 
largest  share.  Rowley  assisted  F.  in  The  Maid  of 
tlie  Mill.  Some  critics  think  that  the  hand  of 
Shakspeare  may  be  detected  in  The  Two  Noble 
Kinsmen,  and  not  without  some  show  of  reason. 
There  is  a  tone  of  music  and  a  step  of  thunder 
in  some  of  the  passages  to  which  no  j^arallel  could 
be  found  in  any  of  the  companion-dramas.  Two 
plays  left  unfinished  at  F.'s  death  were  com- 
pleted by  Shirley.  Out  of  the  fifty-two  plays, 
B.  is  supposed  to  have  had  a  share  in  the  composi- 
tion of  seventeen,  and  only  three  out  of  that  small 
number  were,  during  F.'s  lifetime,  published  as 
joint  productions.  Two  of  these — Philaster,  and 
The  Maid's  Tragedy — are,  with  the  exception  of 
the  great  passages  in  The  Two  Noble  Kinsmen^ 
the  glory  of  the  collection.  The  question  has 
been  often  discussed,  why  these  plays  are  called 
by  the  name  of  B.  and  F.,  thus  giving  prece- 
dence to  the  younger  and  less  voluminous  writer. 
Mr.  Dyce  thinks,  that  of  the  three  plays  published 
as  joint  productions  during  F'.'s  life,  B.  had  cither 
the  greater  share,  or  that,  tlirough  feelings  of  natural 
courtesy,  F.  placed  the  name  of  his  deceased  associate 
before  his  own,  and  that  future  editors  naturally 
followed  the  arrangement  which  they  found  to  their 
hand.  Mr.  Darling  is  inclined  to  give  no  reason 
at  all,  and  ascribes  the  whole  thing  to  accident. 
From  all  that  can  be  gathered,  it  would  appear  that 
B.  possessed  the  deeper  and  more  tlioughtful  genius ; 
F.,  the  gayer  and  more  idyllic.  There  is  a  strength 
as  of  granite  rock  in  Tlie  Maids  7'rar/edi/ ;  there 
is  a  glad  exuberant  music,  and  a  May-morning  light 
and  freshness,  in  The  Faithful  Shepherdess,  which 
Milton  did  not  disdain  to  accept  as  a  model  in  the 
lyrical  portions  of  Comus,  and  of  which  the  Fndi/mion 
of  Keats  is  but  an  echo.  Li  these  plays,  B.  and  F.  are 
the  cleverest,  gayest  gentlemen.  They  never  sound 
the  deep  sea  of  passion;  they  disport  themselves, 


dolphin-like,  on  its  surface.  They  have  no  power 
of  serious  characterisation,  and  their  numerous  crea- 
tions are  seldom  consistent ;  but  they  say  the 
most  clever,  pleasant,  ami  glancing  things.  Morally, 
little  can  be  said  in  tlicir  j)raise.  Xo  audience  of 
the  present  day  could  sit  out  the  representation 
of  their  purest  plays.  Some  of  the  impurest  are 
almost  beyond  conception,  yet  there  is  always  an 
air  of  good-breeding  about  them,  and  the  tilth  is 
handled  in  the  most  gentlemanly  manner.  It  was 
a  great  intellectual  period  in  which  B.  and  F.  lived; 
but  Shakspeare  stands  altove  them  and  the  rest  of 
that  dramatic  brotherhood  like  Mont  Blanc  above 
the  summits  of  the  Lower  Alps — conspicuous  not 
only  from  his  altitude,  but  from  his  purity. 

BEAUMONT,  Gustave  de,  a  distinguished 
French  publicist,  born  February  6,  1802,  at  Beau- 
mont la-Cliartre,  in  the  department  of  Siirthe.  He 
studied  law,  and  was  made  procurator-substitute  in 
the  superior  tribunal  of  the  Seine,  but  lost  this  office 
after  the  July  Revolution.  In  1831,  B.  and  Tocque- 
ville  were  commissioned  by  the  French  govern- 
ment to  study  the  prison-discipline  of  America. 
When  B.  returned  to  Paris,  he  received  a  place 
under  government,  but  was  soon  deposed,  as  he 
refused  to  conduct  the  prosecution  in  the  scandalous 
process  against  the  Baroness  de  Feucheres.  In  1840, 
lie  was  elected  deputy  for  the  department  Sarthe, 
and  distinguished  himself,  as  a  member  of  the 
O[)pcsition,  by  his  information  and  readiness  on  all 
political  questions.  After  the  February  Revolution, 
1848,  he  was  returned  as  member  of  the  Legislative 
Assembly,  and  here  maintained  the  character  of  a 
sincere  but  moderate  republican.  After  the  2d 
December,  18.51,  he  was  arrested  and  imprisoned  for 
some  time  in  the  fortress  of  Mont  Valerien.  On 
regaining  his  liberty,  he  retired  to  his  patrimonial 
estate,  where  he  has  since  resided.  B.  is  the  grand- 
son of  Lafiiyette,  and,  in  1836,  married  his  cousin, 
the  daughter  of  Georges  Lafayette.  The  writings 
on  which  B.'s  reputation  is  founded  are — Note  sur  le 
Systeme  Penitentiare  (1831),  iJii  Si/stemc  Pinitentiare 
anx  Etats-unis  et  de  son  Application  en  France  (2 
vols.,  1832;  partly  by  Tocqueville),  Marie  on  VEs- 
clavage  aux  Etats-Unis  (2  vols.,  1835),  and  VIrlande, 
Sociale,  Politique,  et  Religieuse  (2  vols.,  183P). — 
Beaumont-Vassy,  Edouard  Vicomte  de,  a  relation 
of  the  former,  has  acquired  a  reputation  as  the 
writer  of  a  romance,  Une  Marquise  d''a.utrefois  {ISoSi), 
and  some  historical  works,  especially  a  History  of 
the  European  States  since  the  Congress  of  Vienna 
(vols.  1—4,  Par.  1843—1847). 

BEAUMONT,  Jean  Baptiste,  Chief  Engineer 
and  Professor  of  Geology  in  the  School  of  Mining 
at  Paris,  as  well  as  in  the  College  de  France,  was 
born  at  Canon,  in  the  department  of  Calvados,  Sep- 
tember 25,  1798.  He  has  gained  distinction,  not 
merely  as  a  practical  geological  investigator,  but 
also  as  a  clear  and  acute  speculator.  The  theory 
which  prevails  regarding  the  elevation  of  mountain 
systems  has  been  elaborated  chiefly  by  him.  His 
views  of  the  separate  periods  of  elevation,  which  he 
reckons  as  twelve,  he  has  imparted  to  the  world  in 
several  treatises.  All  later  criticism  has  left  the 
theory  unsliaken  in  its  basis.  The  chief  writings  of 
B.  are  :  Coup  dCEil  stir  les  Mines,  1824  ;  Observations 
Geologiqucs  sur  les  Diffirentes  Formations  dans  le 
Systeme  dcs  Vosges,  1829;  Extrait  dune  Serie  de 
Recherches  sur  quelques-tmes  des  Revolutions  de  la 
Surface  dn  Globe,  1835;  and  Voyage  Metallurgique 
en  Angleterre  (2d  ed.,  1837 — 1839). 

BEAUNE,  capital  of  an  arrondissement  in  the 
French  department  Cote  d'Or,  formerly  included  in 
the  Duchy  of  Burgundy,  is  situated  in  a  pleasant 
district   on  the    river   Bouzeoise,    about   23    miles 

783 


BEAUNE— BEAVEB. 


south-soutli-wcst  of  Dijon.  TIic  town  is  well  built; 
has  a  tine  purisli  clmreli,  Notie  Dame,  founded  in 
976  by  Duke  Henri  of  Burgundy;  and  a  splendid 
hospital,  founded  in  1443  by  Nicholas  RoUin, 
Chancellor  of  Philip,  Duke  of  Burgundy.  There  are 
several  manufactories  of  serges,  woollen  cloth,  and 
cutlery.  A  considerable  trade  is  carried  on  in 
Burgundy  and  Champagne  wines.  B.  gives  its 
name  to  one  of  the  best  of  the  Burgundy  wines. 
Pop.  in  1861,  10,719. 

BEAUNE,  FLoniMOND,  a  distinguished  mathema- 
tician, and  friend  of  Descartes,  was  born  in  IGOl,  at 
Blois,  in  Fi-anee,  where  he  died  in  1052.  His  labours 
and  discoveries  contributed  greatly  to  the  improve- 
ment of  the  modern  analytical  geometry  first  intro- 
duced by  Descartes.  Algebra  was  also  enriched 
by  B.'s  shewing  that,  in  equations  to  the  fourth 
degree,  tlie  limits  of  positive  roots  might  be  lound 
from  the  coefficients.  B.  may  be  regarded  as  the 
proper  founder  of  the  Integral  Calculus,  as  he 
first  endeavoured  to  deduce  the  nature  of  curved 
lines  from  tlie  properties  of  their  tangents.  The 
so-called  'B.'s  Problem'  (which  lias  been  completely 
solved  only  by  Jean  Bernoiiilli),  still  given  in  the 
Integral  Calculus,  was  for  his  time  new  and  remark- 
able, it  turns  also  on  the  determination  of  the  nature 
of  a  curved  line  from  a  property  of  its  tangent. 
The  only  work  of  his  we  possess  is  De  u^quationum 
Limitibus  Opitscula  duo,  ct  XoUe  Breves. 

BEAUTY.     See  ^Esthetics,  Aut. 

BEAUVAIS,  an  important  manufacturing  French 
town,  capital  of  the  department  of  Oisc.  It  is  situ- 
ated in  the  valley  of  the  Thcrain  (a  tributary  to  the 
Oise),  al)0ut  41  miles  north-north-west  of  Paris, 
and  surrounded  by  rising  woodlands.  Formerly,  B. 
was  included  in  the  old  province,  Ho  de  France. 
It  is  now  the  seat  of  government  for  the  department, 
and  the  residence  of  a  bishoji,  and  contains  a  literary 
and  economical  society,  a  public  library,  a  museum, 
&c.  Among  its  several  fine  buildings,  the  most 
noteworthy  is  its  uncompleted  cathedral,  the  choir 
of  which  is  the  loftiest  as  well  as  one  of  the  finest 
specimens  of  Gothic  in  France.  The  manufactures 
of  B.  include  woollen  cloths,  shawls,  carpets.  Gobelin 
tapestry,  kc.  Pop.  1.5,.364.  B.  is  a  very  ancient 
town.  It  was  included  in  the  country  of  the  power- 
ful Bclloraci,  in  Gallia  Belgica,  and  was  known  by 
the  Romans  as  Ca'saroiiiagux,  afterwards  as  Bellov- 
acum.  In  the  middle  ages,  it  was  styled  Belvacum. 
In  850,  and  at  other  times,  B.  was  desolated  by  the 
Normans.  The  Jac(pierie,  or  Peasants'  War,  broke 
out  in  the  neighbourhood  of  B.,  March  21,  1358.  In 
1443,  B.  was  besieged  by  the  English,  who  were 
repulsed  by  the  heroic  self-sacrifice  of  Jean  Ligniere. 
Again,  in  1472,  it  was  besieged  by  Charles  the  Bold 
of  Burgundy,  with  an  army  of  80,000  men,  when 
the  women  of  B.,  under  the  leadership  of  the  heroine 
Jeanne  Laine,  surnamed  La  Hachette  for  her  daring, 
displayed  remarkable  valour.  The  standard  which 
the  Burgundians  had  ]>lanted  on  the  wall  was  torn 
down  by  Jeanne  Laine,  and  borne  off  by  her  in 
triumph.  The  banner  is  preserved  in  the  town  hall, 
and  a  procession,  in  which  it  is  carried  by  young 
girls,  annually  commemorates  the  heroic  deed.  B. 
is  the  birthplace  of  the  learned  Dominican  Vincent 
de  Beauvais  (Vincentius  Bellovocensis). 

BEA'VER  {Castor  Fiber),  a  quadruped  of  the 
order  Glires,  or  Rodeniia  (q.  v.),  valued  for  its  fur, 
and  for  the  peculiar  substance  called  Caxtoreuin 
(q.  v.),  which  it  yields,  and  also  much  noted  for  its 
instincts.  Some  naturalists  regard  the  American 
B.  as  distinct  from  that  of  Europe  and  Asia ;  but 
the  differences  observable  either  in  external  or 
anatomical  characters  are  very  inconsiderable ;  and 
the  opinion  that  a  great  difference  exists  in  instincts 
784 


and  habits,  appears  to  have  been  too  hastily  adopted. 
If  thcie  is  only  one  species  of  B.,  it  is  very  widely 
distiibuted  in  the  northern  regions  of  the  world, 
reaching  in  America  almost  as  far  south  as  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  It  once  existed  in  the  British 
islands,  where,  however,  it  has  long  been  extinct; 
and  it  has  become  rare  in  Europe,  in  many  parts  of 
which  it  was  once  common.  It  has  ijeconic  rare 
also  in  the  United  States,  disappearing  before  man ; 
but  is  nowhere  so  abundant  as  in  that  wide  region 
of  lakes  and  rivers  whicli  l;es  to  the  north  and  west 
of  the  settled  parts  of  North  America.  Considerable 
numbers  of  beavers  are  found  on  the  banks  of  the 
Obi  and  other  rivers  of  Siberia,  and  in  Kamtchatka. 
The  incisors  or  cutting  teeth  of  the  B.  are  remark- 
ably strong,  and  exhibit  in  the  highest  degree  the 
distinctive  character  of  the  order  to  wliich  it  belongs 
— tlie  i'ront  of  hard  enamel,  which  in  the  B.  is  of  a 
bright  orange  colour;  the  back  of  the  tooth  formed 
of  a  softer  substance,  more   easily  worn   down,  so 


Beaver. 


that  a  sharp,  chisel-like  edge  is  always  preserved ; 
the  bulbs  being  also  persistent,  so  that  the  teeth  arc 
continually  growing,  as  by  their  employment  in 
gnawing  wood,  they  are  continually  being  worn 
away.  There  are  four  flat  molar  teeth  (or  grindeis) 
on  each  side  in  each  jaw.  Each  foot  has  five  toes: 
those  of  the  fore-feet  are  short,  and  not  connected  by 
a  wel) ;  those  of  the  hind-feet  are  long,  spreading 
out  like  the  toes  of  a  goose,  and  webbed  to  the  nails. 
In  accordance  with  this  remarkable  peculiarity,  the 
B.,  in  swimming,  makes  use  of  the  hind-feet  alone, 
the  fore-feet  remaining  motionless  and  close  to  the 
body.  Another  character,  to  which  nothing  similar 
appears  in  any  other  rodent,  is  the  large,  horizon- 
tally flattened  tail,  which,  except  at  the  root,  is  not 
covered  with  hair,  like  the  rest  of  the  body,  but  with 
scales.  The  caudal  vertebr£e,  however,  do  not  ex- 
hibit a  flattened  form. 

The  B.  is  usually  at  least  two  feet  in  length,  from 
the  nose  to  the  root  of  the  tail;  the  tail  is  of  an  oval 
form,  about  ten  inches  in  length,  fully  three  inches 
in  greatest  breadth,  and  scarcely  an  inch  in  thick- 
ness. These  dimensions  are  sometimes  exceeded. 
The  general  form  of  the  animal  is  thick  and  clumsy, 
thickest  at  the  hips,  and  then  narrowing  abruptly, 
so  that  it  seems  to  taper  into  the  tail.  The  head  is 
thick  and  broad,  the  nose  obtuse,  the  eyes  small,  the 
ears  short  and  rounded.  The  fur  consists  of  two 
kinds  of  hair;  the  longer  hair  comparatively  coarse, 
smooth,  and  glossy ;  the  under  coat  dense,  soft,  and 
silky.  The  colour  is  generally  chestnut,  rarely 
black,  spotted,  or  nearly  white. 

The  B.  is  very  aquatic  in  its  mode  of  life,  and  it 
seldom  wanders  far  from  some  lake  or  river.  In 
consequence  of  its  habits,  it  is  also  limited  to  wooded 
districts,  and  the  northern  range  of  the  species  i.s 
everywhere  terminated  by  the  limits  of  the  wood 
upon  the  river-banks. 


BEAVER. 


The  food  of  the  B.  consists  of  the  bark  of  trees 
and  shrubs  (birch,  poplar,  willow,  &c.),   and  of  the 
roots    of  water-lilies    {Naphar    lutemn)    and    other 
aquatic    plants.       In  summer,  it   eats  also    berries, 
leaves,  and   various  kinds   of  herbage.       There    is 
reason  to  think  that  it  never,  as  has  been  supposed, 
kills  or  cats  fish.     Like  some  other  rodents,  it  lays 
up     stores    of  provisions    for   winter  ;     but    these, 
in  the  case  of  the  B.,  consist  chiefly  of  bark,  or  of 
branches,  and  even  trunks  of  trees.     Its   extraordi- 
nary powers  of  gnawing    are  exerted  to  cut    down 
trees  of  several  inches  in  diameter,  both  for  food, 
and  for  the  construction  of  those  houses  and  dams 
which  have  rendered  it  so  much  an  object  of  admi- 
ration to  mankind.     A  tree  of  18  inches  in  diameter 
has  been  found  thus  cut  down  by  beavers,  although 
smaller    ones    are    usually  preferred;     and  when  a 
tree  of  this  size  is  cut,  the  branches  only,  and  not 
the  trunk,  are  employed  in  the  architectural  opera- 
tions   of  the    animals.     These  operations    are  very 
wonderful,  although  the  statement,  at  one  time  com- 
monly made,    that    beavers    drive  stakes    into    tlie 
ground,  has  no  foundation  in  fact;   and  some  of  the 
other  particulars  which  passed  current  along  with  it, 
were    equally  fabulous.     The    houses   or  lodges  of 
beavers  are  grouped  together  near  the  edge  of  the 
water,  the  mud  being  scraped  away  from  the  front, 
80   that  there   may   be   found  a  sufficient  depth  of 
water  there  to  allow  free  egress,  even  during    the 
most  severe   frost.     The  winter  stores   of  the   ani- 
mals, consisting  of  piles  or  heaps  of  wood,  are  also 
always  under  water,  at  such   a   depth  that  they  can- 
not be  locked  up  in  ice.     When  the  depth  of  water 
is  not  sufficient,  the  beavers  construct  a  dam  across 
the    stream,    by  the   side    of   which    the   lodge    is 
placed ;  the  dam  is  sometimes  as  much  as  300  yards 
in   length,  convex  towards    the    current,    and  most 
convex  in  the  strongest  currents,  sometimes  extend- 
ing on  both  sides  beyond  the  natural  channel  of  the 
stream.     The  materials  of  which  it  is  composed  are 
sticks,  roots,  and  branches,  with  stones,  moss,  grasses, 
and  mud  strangely  commingled,  but  in  such  a  manner 
that  the    structure    becomes  absolutely  water-tight. 
Branches,  of  which  the  bark  has  been  used  for  food, 
or  taken  off  for  winter  provender,  are  very  gener- 
ally employed  for  building  purposes.     In  their  build- 
ing, beavers  interlace  small  branches  with  each  other 
an'd  with  the  larger  ;    and  a  B.  kept  in  confinement 
has  been  known  to  manifest  this  instinct,  by  inter- 
lacing branches  with  the  bars  of  its  cage,  whilst  it 
also   tilled  the    interstices   with    carrots    and    other 
ve"-etab!es  given  it   for   food,    nicely  bitten   to  the 
proper  size,  and  packed  in  snow,    to    protect    itself 
from    the  cold.       B.  dams  are  built  with  the  sides 
inclining  towards  one  another,  so  that  although  ten 
or  twelve  feet  wide  at  bottom,  they  have  a  narrow 
top.     The  dams  and    houses    are  annually  repaired, 
before  winter  comes  on,  the  work  being  performed 
by  night.     '  In   places,'  says    Hearne,  '  which   have 
been  long  frequented  by  beavers  undisturbed,  their 
dams,  by  frequent  repairing,  become   a  solid  bank, 
capable  of  resisting  a  great  force,  both  of  water  and 
ice;  and  as  the  willow,  poplar,  and  birch   generally 
take  root  and  shoot  up,  they  by  degrees  form  a  kind 
of  regular  planted  hedge,  which  I  have  seen  in  some 
places  so  tall  that  birds  have  built  their  nests  among 
the  branches.'    A  broad  ditch  is  often  dug  all  around 
the  lodge,  so  deep  that  it  cannot  freeze  to  the  bot- 
tom, and  into  it  the  beavers  make  the  holes  by  which 
they  go  out  and  bring  their  food.     The  larger  lodges 
are  in  the  interior,  about  seven  feet  in  diameter,  and 
between  two  and  three  feet  high.    The  top  is  formed 
of  branches  of  trees,  matted  with  mud,  grass,  moss, 
&c.     The  walls  are  very  thick,  and  the  whole  struc- 
ture not  only  secures  much  warmth,  but  is  a  sufficient 
protection  from  wolves,  wolverines,  and  other  beasts 
50 


of  prey.  Different  apartments  have  often  one  com- 
mon i-oof,  but  they  have  usually  no  internal  coin- 
nmnication.  The  sleeping-places  of  the  animals  are 
around  the  wall  of  their  lodge,  the  centre  lieing  lefl 
free;  they  are  formed  merely  of  a  little  grass  or 
tender  bark  of  trees.  A  single  house  seldom  con- 
tains more  than  ten  or  twelve  beavers,  but  many 
such  families  are  often  congregated  in  one  place. 
Beavers,  both  in  a  wild  state  and  in  confinement,  are 
scrupulously  clcanlv  in  their  habits. 

Beavers  "often  sit  on  the  hind  feet  and  tail,  and 
eat  in  this  posture,  holding  up  the  food  in  their 
fore-paws.  They  also  walk  on  the  hind-feet,  with 
support  of  the  tail,  when  they  carry  materials  to 
their  buildings,  except  branches,  which  are  dragged. 
They  have  considerable  power  in  the  tail,  and  not 
unfreciuentlv  flap  it,  which  has  given  rise  to  an 
opinion,  perhaps  not  altogether  erroneous,  that 
they  use  their  tails  for  plastering  their  builduigs,  or 
beating  and  adjusting  the  mud  which  is  employed  m 
them. 

Beavers  do  not  usually  eat  in  their  lodges,  but  in 
holes  or  burrows  in  the  bank  of  the  river,  the  en- 
trance to  which  is  from  beneath  the  water,  and 
which  thence  proceed  obliquely  upwards,  often  to  a 
distance  of  manv  feet.  To  these  holes  the  beavers 
also  flee  when  their  lodge  is  broken  up ;  and  it  ;.s 
therefore  a  common  practice  of  the  B.  hunters  to 
break  up  the  B.  lodges,  that  they  may  take  the  ani- 
mals in  their  holes  or  vaults.  Beavers  are  also  taken 
bv  nets  and  traps. 

'it  is  chiefly  in  winter  that  beavers  congregate 
together.  During  summer,  they  wander  about  a 
little.  The  young  are  generally  produced  in  April 
or  May,  from"two  to  seven  at  a  birth.  Their  eyes  are 
open  when  thev  are  born. 

Single  beavers  are  frequently  met  with,  which  live 
apart  from  all  others  of  their  species.  All  of  thes<! 
are  males,  which,  it  is  supposed,  have  been  con- 
quered, and  driven  away  by  others  of  their  sex. 

In  the  parts  of  North  Aiiierica  where  beavers  have 
now  become  rare,  they  live  mostly  in  burrows  in  thu 
river-banks,  like  those  which  are  still  found  in 
Europe.  Circumstances  prevent  them  from  follow- 
ing out  their  gregarious  tendencies.  That  the 
beTivers  of  Europe  and  Asia  construct  lodges  and 
dams,  when  they  have  opportunity  of  congregating 
in  sufficient  numbers,  appears  to  be  no  less  certain 
than  that  those  of  America  do  so. 

Large  glandular  pouches,  two  in  number,  closely 
connected  with  the  organs  of  reproduction,  contain 
the  substance  called  Casioreurn  (q.  v.).  Its  uses  in 
the  animal  economy  are  by  no  means  well  known; 
they  are  probably  analogous  to  those  of  musk,  civet, 
&c. ;  but  its  peculiar  pungent  odour  is  so  attractive 
to  beavers,  that  use  is  made  of  it  as  a  bait  for  B. 
traps. 

The  B.  is  very  easily  tamed  ;  but  no  wooden  cage 
will  keep  one  confined.  Except  in  the  extraordinary 
building  instincts  already  noticed,  the  animal  exhibits 
no  remarkable  sagacity.  The  use  of  the  B.'s  fur  for 
making  hats  is  well  known.  See  Hat.  An  act  of 
the  English  Parliament,  in  1638,  prohibiting  the  use 
of  any^'other  material  for  hat-making,  contributed  to 
the  rapid  diminution  of  the  number  of  beavers  in 
the  parts  of  North  America  from  which  their  skins 
were  then  obtained.  During  great  part  of  the  18th 
and  the  earlier  part  of  the  19th  c,  the  number  of  B. 
skins  annually  exported  from  America  appears  to 
have  been  not  less  than  200,000.  It  is  now  greatly 
diminished,  but  is  still  large.  The  flesh  of  the  B.  is 
much  esteemed  as  an  article  of  food  by  trappers  and 
others  who  frequent  the  fur-countries,  but  it  is  very 

oilv. 

Fossil  remains  of  beavers,  apparently  of  the  same 
species   with   that   now  existing,  are   found   iu   the 


BEAVER— BECHER. 


deposits  referred  by  geologists  to  the  pliocene  and 
pleistocene  periods.  Other  remains  are  also  found 
of  a  much  larger  animal  of  the  B.  kind,  which  nmst 
have  existed  in  Europe  and  Asia  along  with  the  pre- 
sent species,  but  which  seems  to  have  become  ex- 
tinct before  the  historic  period.  They  were  different, 
however,  not  merely  in  size  but  in  other  particulars 
so  important,  that  Owen  has  constituted  for  the 
'  great  B.'  a  distinct  genus,  TrogontJurium  (  Gr.,  a 
chewing  or  gnawing  beast).  Of  existing  animals, 
the  most  closely  allied  to  the  B.  is  the  Coypu  (q.  v.), 
Bometimes  called  the  Chilian  B.  {Mijopotamus  Coy- 
pus),  which  yields  the  fur  called  Racoonda  (q.  v.). 
i>tc  Morgan's  American  Beaver,  Philadel])hia,  1867. 

BEA'VER.     See  Helmet. 

BEA'VER  WOOD.     See  Magnolia. 

BEBEE'RINE  is  one  of  the  alkaloids,  and  is  ob- 
tained from  the  greenheart  bark  or  hebeeru  ol' 
Demerara.  It  is  used  in  medicine  in  place  of 
quinine,  which  it  resembles  in  properties,  though  it 
is  not  so  powerful  in  its  action  as  a  tonic  and 
febrifuge.  The  condition  in  which  it  is  generally 
sent  into  market  is  as  the  sulphate  of  B.,  occurring 
in  shining  scales  of  a  pretty  brown  colour,  and  soluble 
in  water. 

BEBEE'RU,  BEEBEERU,  or  BIBFRI.  See  Green- 
heart. 

BECCArrCO  {Sylvla  hortcttsia,  or  Curruca  hnr- 
tensis),  a  little  bird  of  the  family  of  the  Si/lviadce, 
or  Warblers  (q.  v.),  sometimes  called  the  Pettychaps, 
and  sometimes  the  Garden  Warbler,  rather  rare  in 
Britain,  but  abundant  in  some  of  the  more  fiouthern 
parts  of  Europe,  and  in  great  demand  for  the  table 
in  Italy,  its  flesh  being  regarded  as  of  peculiar 
delicacy.  It  is  a  mere  summer  bird  of  passage,  how- 
ever, not  only  in  Britain,  but  even  in  the  south  of 
Europe.  The  upper  parts  are  mostly  of  a  brown 
colour,  the  lower  parts  whitish.  It  is  a  bird  of  very 
pleasing  song.  B.  is  an  Italian  name,  and  is  some- 
times extended  to  other  birds  of  the  same  family 
used  for  the  table. 

BECCAMOSCHI'NO  {Sylvia  cisti'cola),  a  httle 
bird  of  the  family  of  the  Warblers,  found  in  Italy, 
and  remarkable  for  its  nest,  which  resembles  that  of 
the  tailor-birds,  being  usually  placed  in  a  bush  of 
lengthened  herbage,  the  leaves  and  stalks  drawn 
together  over  it,  and  a  flooring  formed  for  it  by 
leaves  curved  across  below,  and  sewed  together 
generally  with  some  kind  of  vegetable  fibres. 

BECCARI'A,  Cesare  Bonesana,  a  political  and 
philanthropic  writer,  was  born  at  Milan  1735  or 
1738.  The  opinions  of  the  French  encyclopiedists, 
especially  those  of  Montesquieu,  had  the  greatest 
influence  in  the  formation  of  his  principles  and  senti- 
ments. The  work  which  most  favourably  exhibits 
the  character  and  genius  of  B.  is  his  Trattalo  dei 
Delitti  e  delle  Pene  (Treatise  on  Crimes  and  Punish- 
ments), first  published  in  17G4,  in  which  he  argues 
against  the  severities  and  abuses  of  criminal  law, 
especially  capital  punishment  and  torture.  The 
work  was  extremely  popular,  and  was  translated 
into  several  European  languages.  It  is  marked  by 
eloquence,  sensibility,  and  lively  power  of  imagina- 
tion. Kant  unfairly  accuses  the  author  of  an  affected 
humanity,  though  it  must  be  admitted  that  the 
German  philosopher  has  exposed  the  invalidity  of 
some  of  the  arguments  brought  forward.  On  the 
whole,  however,  the  work  of  B.  is  acknowledged  to 
have  done  great  good,  and  the  subsequent  reforms 
in  the  penal  code  of  European  nations  have  generally 
taken  the  direction  he  has  pointed  out.  He  was 
among  the  first  to  advocate  the  beneficial  influence 
of  education  in  lessening  crime.  This  naturally 
brouglu  upon  him  the  hatred  of  the  priesthood,  who, 


according  to  their  usual  formula  of  persecution, 
accused  him  of  impiety  ;  but  their  malice  was  frus- 
trated by  the  efforts  of  Count  Firmian,  the  Austrian 
governor  of  Lombardy,  a  man  of  liberal  and  enlight- 
ened sentiments.  In  1768,  B.  was  appointed  Pro- 
fessor of  Political  Philosophy  at  Milan,  and  achieved 
great  success  as  a  lecturer.  He  died  of  apoplexy  in 
November  17i)3.  In  the  course  of  his  life  he  pub- 
lished several  works. 

BEC-FIX,  the  common  French  name  for  different 
species  of  birds  of  the  family  of  Si/lrindiv,  or  Warb- 
lers (q.  v.).  It  is  sometimes  to  be  met  with  in  Eng- 
lish books. 

BECHE-DE-MER,  or  TREPANG,  an  article  of 
luxury  among  the  Chinese,  consisting  of  the  dried 
bodies  of  several  species  of  Holothuria  (q.  v.),  or 
Sea-cucumber,  which  are  found  in  great  abundance 
in  the  shallow  waters  of  lagoons,  and  on  reefs,  from 
the  south-eastern  coasts  of  Asia  to  New  Holland. 
The  traffic  in  B.  is  very  extensive,  and  the  Malays 
catch  the  animals,  and  prepare  them  in  large 
quantities  for  the  Chinese  market.  They  are 
usually  about  8  or  9  inches  long,  but  some  are  2 
feet  in  length,  and  7  or  8  inches  in  girth.  They  are 
often  found  nearly  buried  in  the  coral  sand,  their 
feathered  tentaeula  alone  floating  above  it.  The 
larger  ones  are  sometimes  speared  in  shallow  water  ; 
but  most  of  them  are  taken  by  divers  in  depths  of 
from  3  to  5  fathoms.  An  expert  diver  will  bring 
up  8  or  10  at  a  time.  They  are  split  down  one 
side,  boiled,  pressed  flat  with  stones,  dried  in  the 
sun,  and  afterwards  in  smoke,  and  packed  in  bugs, 
in  which  state  they  are  bought  by  the  Chinese,  and 
conveyed  in  junks  to  China.  Fleets  of  Malay  proas 
are  employed  in  the  search  for  this  curious  produc- 
tion of  the  sea.  Macassar  is  the  great  staple-place 
of  the  trade,  and  from  it  above  80110  cwt.  of  B.  are 
annually  sent  to  China,  the  price  varying,  according 
to  the  kind  and  quahty,  Trom  thirty  shillings  to 
twenty  guineas  per  cwt.  There  is  also  a  consider- 
able export  of  B.  from  Manilla.  B.  is  extremely 
gelatinous,  and  is  very  much  used  by  the  Chinese  as 
an  ingredient  in  rich  soups. 

BECHER,  JoiiANN  Joachim,  author  of  the  first 
theory  of  chemistry,  was  born  at  Speier  in  1625. 
In  his  youth,  he  had  many  difficulties  to  contend 
with,  but  his  zeal  and  perseverance  overcame  them 
all.  He  acquired  an  extensive  knowledge  of  medi- 
cine, physics,  chemistry,  and  even  politics,  and  in 
1660,  was  made  a  member  of  the  Impei'ial  Council 
at  Vienna.  While  residing  in  this  city,  he  assisted 
in  establishing  several  manufactures,  and  drew  up 
the  plan  of  an  East  Indian  commercial  society,  but 
unfortunately  he  fell  into  disgrace,  and  had  to  leave 
the  city.  He  next  went  to  Mainz,  and  subsequently 
lived  in  Munich,  Wiirzburg,  Haarlem,  and  finally 
London,  where  he  died  in  1682.  He  had  many 
enemies,  and  was  accused — not  altogether  unjustly 
— of  charlatanry.  Nevertheless,  he  rendered  im- 
portant services  to  chemistry.  His  Plii/Hka  Suhter- 
ranca  was  the  first  attempt  made  to  bring  physics 
and  chemistry  into  close  relation  ;  in  these  two  he 
sought  the  causes  of  all  the  inorganic  phenomena  in 
the  world.  He  at  the  same  time  began  to  construct 
a  theory  of  chemistry,  and  also  investigated  the  pro- 
cess of  combustion.  B.  taught  that  every  metal  was 
composed  of  an  earthy  substance  common  to  all 
metals ;  of  a  combustible  principle  also  identical  in 
ail ;  and  was  differentiated  from  other  metals  only  by 
the  possession  of  a  peculiar  mercurial  clement ;  when 
a  metal  was  heated,  until  it  had  changed  its  form, 
the  mercurial  substance  was  discharged,  and  nothing 
remained  except  metallic  calx.  Herein  lies  the  first 
germ  of  Stahl's  phlogistic  theory,  which  obtained 
tiniversal  currency  until  the  time  of  Lavoisier. 


BECHUANS— BECKERATH. 


BECHUANS.     See  Betjuans.  1  Liser,    in  the   old    electorate    of    Treves,    in    1775. 

BECKER,    Gottfried    Wilhelm,    a    Germiin  au- 1  ^^^  fi'"f*_a  ^^e'^t''"^i'._  I'f   afterwards  studied  ^medicine, 
thor,   born  at  Leipsic  in  1778,  entered   the  univer- 
sity of   that  city  with  the. view  of  studying  medi- 
cine,   and    having     taken    his   doctor's   degree    in 


1801,  settled  there  as  a  practising  physician  and 
a  writer  of  medical  works,  several  of  which  I 
reached  many  editions.  The  wars  of  the  period 
led  him,  however,  to  turn  his  attention  to  history 
and  modern  languages,  and  he  became  well  known 
by  his  contributions  to  periodicals,  his  series  of 
popular  histories,  and  his  translations  from  the 
English,  French,  and  Italian.  In  1833,  B.  entirely 
relinquished  practising  medicine,  and  devoting  him- 
self to  literature,  became  a  fertile  and  admired  con- 
tributor to  many  of  its  more  po[)uIar  branches.  He 
died  at  Leipsic,  I7th  January,  1854.  He  published 
several  attractive  volumes  of  travels  in  his  own 
country,  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  young,  among 
which  we  may  instance  his  Tour  to  the  Hartz,  S/cctc/ies 
of  Southern  Germany,  &c.  His  historical  writings, 
which  are  not  less  numerous,  chiefly  narrate  the 
events  of  his  own  time.  Amongst  them  we  may 
particularise  Andreas  Hofcr,  Eflf/pt  ax  it  Now  is. 
The  Fate  of  Spain  mi  3Iodern  Times,  &c.  In  light 
literature,  also,  he  was  very  successful  as  a  translator. 
All  his  works  have  been  published  at  Leipsic. 

BECKER,  JoHX  Philip,  one  of  the  most  active 
Radical  politicians  of  late  years,  was  born,  March 
1809,  at  Frankenthal,  in  the  Palatinate,  and  brought 
up  as  a  brushmaker.  The  French  revolution  of 
July  1830,  gave  a  political  bias  to  his  native  ten- 
dencies, and  he  took  an  active  part  in  the  political 
agitations  of  the  day,  in  consequence  of  which  he  was 
imprisoned;  but  in  1833  he  was  released,  and  exerted 
himself  warmly  on  behalf  of  his  brothers  in  opinion. 
In  1837,  he  settled  in  Switzerland,  taking  a  part  in 
several  radical  publications,  and  organizing,  in  1838 
and  1845,  volunteer  corps.  In  the  autumn  of  1847, 
he  was  summoned  to  the  military  bureau  at  Berne,  j  - 
and  being  chosen  adjutant  of  Oclisenbein's  divi-  ' 
sion,  fought  against  the  Sonderbund  with  acknow- 
ledged bravery.  Upon  the  failure  of  Hecker's 
attempt  to  revolutionise  Baden  in  1848,  B.,  who 
had  organised  troops  for  his  support,  returned  to 
Switzerland,  to  plan  an  expedition  of  German  and 
Swiss  auxiliaries,  to  support  the  cause  of  freedom  in 
Rome  and  Sicily.  Their  movements  being  frus- 
trated, he  led  his  troops  in  the  summer  of  1849 
into  the  Palatinate  and  the  Duchy  of  Baden,  where 
a  rising  had  taken  place,  and  acted  a  prominent  p:irt 
in  many  engagements.  Subsequently,  he  settled  in 
Geneva,  and  .engaged  successfully  in  commerce.  A 
history  of  the  revolution  of  1849,  in  Southern  Ger- 
many, has  been  published  by  him  and  Esselen.  B. 
is  a  man  of  strong  and  hardy  frame,  and  for  prudence 
and  decision,  ranks  high  among  the  leaders  of  the 
revolutionary  party. 

BECKER,  Karl  Ferdixaxd,  born  at  Leipsic 
in  181)4,  may  be  named  with  Kiesewetter  and 
Winterfeld  as  one  of  the  best  German  writers  on 
the  history  of  music,  and  also  as  an  excellent 
composer  for  the  organ,  as  is  proved  by  his  trios 
and  other  compositions  well  adapted  to  the  genitis 
of  the  instrument.  Among  his  works  may  be 
mentioned  :  a  Chnral-book,  or  collection  of  psahn 
and  hymn  tunes  (Leipsic,  1844)  ;  Choral  Melodies 
for  Spitta's  Psalter  and  Harp,  1S41  ;  a  Catalogue  of 
his  nmsical  library,  one  of  the  most  extensive  in  Ger- 
many ;  On  the  Choral  Collections  of  Various  Christian 
Churches,  1841  ;  The  Choral  Compositions  of  the  \%th 
and  11  th  Centuries,  1847  ;  and  Tfie  Comjwscrs  of  the 
19th  Century,  1849. 

BECKER,  Karl  Ferdinand,  one  of  the  most 
distinguished     German     philologists,    was     bOrn  at 


and  ultimately  settled  as  a  practitioner  at  OflFenbach. 
Here  he  educated  his  own  children  with  such  suc- 
cess that  several  families  induc<'d  him  to  take  charge 
of  theirs,  and  thus  his  house  was  converted  into  an 
academy  (1823),  which  he  conducted  till  his  death 
in  1849.  This  gave  scope  to  his  early  predilection 
for  linguistic  studies,  to  which  his  scientific  training 
led  him  to  give  a  quite  new  direction.  B.  contem- 
plates language  as  an  organism,  pervaded  by  strict 
logical  laws.  From  this  point  of  view,  he  wrote  his 
Deutsche  Gramma/ikQld  ed.,  1842).  He  neglects  too 
much  the  historical  development  of  language,  and 
thus,  as  might  be  expected,  comes  at  times  into 
conflict  with  the  results  of  comparative  philology  ; 
yet  his  work  is  valuable  for  its  logical  consequence, 
and  for  its  leading  idea  of  organism  in  language. 
Besides  a  Sch ulgrammatik  (6th  ed.,  1846),  which  is 
an  outline  of  his  larger  w(>rk,  he  published  several 
other  treatises  on  the  German  language. 

BECKER,  WiLiiELM  Adolf,  a  distinguished 
German  author,  was  born  at  Dresden  in  1796. 
Originally  intended  for  conimerci;il  life,  he  soon 
al)anduned  a  pursuit  which  he  found  uncongenial  to 
his  tastes,  and  devoted  his  time  to  the  acquisition  of 
learning.  In  1816,  he  came  to  Leipsic,  where  he 
studied  theology,  and  more  particularly  philology. 
In  1840  he  travelled  through  Italy;  and  in  1842, 
was  appointed  Professor  of  Archaeology  at  the 
university  of  Leipsic,  where  his  prelections  on  the 
Latin  authors  were  numerously  attended.  He 
died  at  Meissen,  30th  September! 846.  His  lively 
fancy,  aided  by  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  classic 
languages,  enablcid  him  to  make  quite  a  novel  use  of 
antiquity.  In  his  Charicles  (Leip.  1840),  he  ventured 
to  reproduce  the  social  life  of  old  Greece ;  and  in 
his  Gallus  (Leip.  1838),  to  give  sketches  of  the 
Augustan  age  at  Rome.  The  learning  which  he 
has  contrived  to  stuff  into  his  picturesque  sentences 
is  marvellous,  net  to  speak  of  the  quantity  buried 
in  his  excursus,  or  disquisitions,  which,  in  the 
English  translation  of  the  works  by  Metcalfe,  are 
transferred  from  the  text  to  the  end  of  the  volumes. 
Lockhart's  Valerius  is  the  only  thing  in  English 
literature  which  corresponds  to  these  compositions 
of  the  German  author.  B.'s  treatise,  I)e  Comicis 
Bonianoruni  FabuHs  (Leip.  1837),  is  a  valuable 
contribution  to  the  history  of  Roman  dramatic 
poetry.  His  most  important  work,  in  a  scholastic 
point  of  view,  is  his  Hand-book  of  J\oma7i  Anticjuities 
(1843 — 1846),  which,  after  his  death,  was  continued 
by  Marquardt. 

BECKERATH,  Hermann  vox,  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  public  characters  of  Germany,  was  born 
at  Krefeld  (in  Prussia),  December  1801.  He  sprang 
from  a  conunercial  family,  and  nuide  a  considerable 
fortune  as  a  banker.  But  he  gave  himself  also  to 
pursuits  of  a  more  intellectual  character,  and  espe- 
cially to  the  studies  of  jurisprudence  and  politics. 
The  accession  of  Frederick-William  IV.  to  the  throne 
roused  B.  to  a  sense  of  the  political  condition  of  his 
country,  and  he  devoted  himself  to  work  out  its 
constitutiomil  freedom.  In  1843,  he  was  elected 
representative  of  his  native  town  Ln  the  provincial 
diet,  and  continued  for  several  years  to  take  a  pro- 
minent part  in  Prussian  politics.  He  was  a  deputy 
in  the  National  Assembly  which  sprang  up  in  the 
eventful  year  1848,  and  held  its  sittiugs  at  Frankfort. 
His  eloquence  exercised  considerable  influence  on 
this  assembly.  He  was  appointed  minister  of  finance, 
and  shortly  after  called  to  Berlin  to  construct  a 
cabinet  ;  but  in  this  he  failed.  His  strictly  consti- 
tutional advice  was  not  apparently  agreeable  to  the 
court,  and  he  returned  to  Frankfort.     An  advocate 

787 


BECKET— BECKFORD. 


for  German  unity,  it  was  he  who  made  use  of  the 
expression  :  '  This  waiting  for  Austria  is  death  to 
tlie  union  of  Germany.'  But  zealous  as  he  was  for 
constitutional  freedom  and  German  unity,  he  refused 
his  assent  to  any  measure  of  a  revolutionary  ten- 
dency. When  the  retrograde  movement  set  in,  he 
resigned  such  posts  as  he  held  under  government, 
but  continued,  as  a  member  of  the  second  Prussian 
chamber,  a  vigorous  opposition  to  the  Manteuffel 
ministry,  which  had  deserted  the  cause  of  German 
unity,  and  returned  to  the  old  traditional  poHtics  of 
the  court. 

BECKET,  Thomas  a.  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
was  the  son  of  a  merchant,  and  was  horn  in  London 
in  1119.  The  story  which  makes  his  mother  a  Sara- 
cen is  charmingly  romantic,  but  there  are  doubts  if  it 
has  any  historical  basis.  He  studied  theology  at 
Oxford  and  Paris,  and  afterwards  law  at  Bologna, 
and  at  Auxerre,  in  Burgundy.  Having  been  recom- 
mended to  Henry  II.  by  Theobald,  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  who  had  had  experience  of  his  abihties, 
B.  was  promoted  to  the  office  of  high  chancellor, 
and  thus  (according  to  Thierry)  resuscitated  the 
hopes  of  the  English  as  the  first  native  Englishman, 
since  the  Conquest,  who  had  filled  any  high  office. 
The  sympathies  of  his  countrymen  gathered  round 
him,  for  in  him  (it  is  alleged)  they  once  more  rose 
to  honour  and  power.  His  duties  as  high  chancellor 
were  numerous  and  burdensome,  but  he  discharged 
them  vigorously.  He  was  magnificently  liberal  in 
his  hospitality.  Henry  himself  did  not  live  in  a 
more  sumptuous  manner.  As  yet,  B.  seems  to  have 
regarded  himself  as  a  mere  layman,  though,  in  point 
of  fact,  he  was  a  deacon,  and  to  have  considered  the 
splendour  of  his  household  neither  unlawful  nor 
unbecoming;  but  in  1162,  when  he  was  created 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury  (an  office  which,  as  it 
then  involved  the  abbacy  of  the  cathedral  monastery, 
had  never  but  twice  before  been  held  by  any  but 
a  monk  or  canon-regular),  a  remarkable  change 
became  manifest  in  his  whole  deportment.  He 
resigned  the  chancellorship,  threw  aside  suddenly 
his  luxurious  and  courtly  habits,  assumed  an  austere 
religious  character,  exhibited  his  liberality  only 
in  his  '  charities,'  and  soon  appeared  as  a  zealous 
champion  of  the  church  against  all  aggressions  by 
the  king  and  the  nobility.  Several  noblemen  and 
laymen  were  excommunicated  for  their  alienation 
of  church  property.  Henry  II.,  who,  like  all  the 
Xorniau  kings,  endeavoured  to  keep  the  clergy  in 
subordination  to  the  state,  convoked  the  nobility 
with  the  clergy  to  a  council  in  11G4,  at  Clarendon 
(near  Salisbury),  where  the  so-called  '  constitutions' 
(or  laws  relative  to  the  respective  powers  of  church 
and  state)  were  adopted.  To  these,  the  primate,  at 
first,  declared  he  would  never  consent ;  but  after- 
wards, through  the  efforts  of  the  nobles,  some  of 
the  bishops,  and,  finally,  of  the  pope  himself,  he  was 
induced  to  give  his  unwilling  approbation.  Henry 
now  began  to  perceive  that  B.'s  notions  and  his 
were  utterly  antagonistic,  and  clearly  exhibited  his 
hostility  to  the  prelate,  whereupon  B.  tried  to  leave 
the  country.  For  this  offence  the  king  charged  B. 
with  breach  of  allegiance,  in  a  parliament  sinnmoned 
at  Northampton  in  11(14,  confiscated  his  goods,  and 
sequestered  the  revenues  of  his  see.  A  claim  was 
also  made  on  him  for  not  less  than  44,000  marks, 
as  the  balance  due  by  him  to  the  crown  when  he 
ceased  to  be  chancellor.  B.  appealed  to  the  pope, 
and  next  day  leaving  Northampton  in  disguise,  fled 
to  France,  where  he  spent  two  years  in  retirement 
at  Pontigny,  in  Burgundy.  The  French  monarch 
and  the  pope,  however,  now  took  up  his  cause. 
B.  went  to  Rome,  pleaded  personally  before  his 
holiness,  who  reinstated  him  in  the  see  of 
Canterbury.     B.    now  returned   to   France,    whence 


he  wrote  angry  letters  to  the  English  bishops, 
threatening  them  with  excomuuinication.  Several 
efforts  were  made  to  reconcile  Henry  and  B.,  wiiich, 
however,  proved  futile;  but  at  length,  in  1170,  a 
formal  agreement  was  come  to  at  PVetville,  on  the 
borders  of  Touraine.  The  result  was,  that  B. 
returned  to  England,  entering  Canterbury  amid  the 
rejoicings  of  the  people,  who  were  unquestionably 
proud  of  B.,  and  regarded  him  —  whether  wisely 
or  not  is  another  question — as  a  shield  from  the  op- 
pressions of  the  nobility  ;  but  he  soon  manifested  all 
ins  former  boldness  of  opposition  to  royal  authority. 
At  last,  it  is  said,  the  king,  while  in  Normandy, 
expressed  impatience  that  none  of  his  followers 
would  rid  him  of  an  insolent  priest.  The  fatal 
suggestion  was  immediately  understood,  and  carried 
into  effect  by  four  barons,  who  departed  by  separate 
ways  for  England.  On  the  evening  of  the  29th 
December,  1170,  they  entered  the  cathedral,  and 
having  failed  in  an  attempt  to  drag  him  out  of  the 
church,  there  slew  B.  before  the  altar  of  St.  Benedict, 
in  the  north  transept.  Henry  was  compelled  to 
make  heavy  concessions  to  avoid  the  ban  of  excom- 
mimication.  The  murderers,  having  repaired  to 
Rome  as  penitents,  were  sent  on  a  pilgrimage  to 
Palestine  ;  and,  two  years  after  his  death,  B.  was 
canonised  by  Pope  Alexander  III.,  and  the  anniver- 
sary of  his  death  was  set  apart  as  the  yearly  festival 
of  St.  Thomas  of  Canterbury.  In  12'20,  his  bones 
were  raised  from  the  grave  in  the  crypt  where  they 
had  been  hastily  buried  two  days  after  his  murder, 
and  were  by  order  of  King  Henry  III.  deposited  in  a 
splenilid  shrine,  ■which  for  three  centuries  continued 
to  be  the  object  of  one  of  the  great  pilgrimages 
of  Christendom,  and  still  lives  in  English  literatun* 
in  connection  with  Chaucer's  CanterbHry  Tales.  An 
the  Reformation,  Henry  VIII.  despoiled  the  shrine, 
erased  B.'s  name  from  the  calendar,  and  caused  hi^ 
bones  to  be  burnt  and  scattered  to  the  winds.  It; 
is  extremely  difficult  to  estimate  properly  the  char- 
acter of  Becket.  We  do  not  know  what  his  ultimate; 
aims  were,  whether,  as  some  suppose,  they  were; 
patriotic,  i.  e.,  Saxon,  as  opposed  to  Norman,  or,  aji 
others  believe,  pui-ely  sacerdotal.  At  all  events,  thoi 
means  he  tised  for  the  attainment  of  them  was  a  des. 
potic  and  irresponsible  ccclesiasticism.  He  admitted 
nothing  done  Ijy  churchmen  to  be  secular,  or  within 
the  jurisdiction  of  civil  courts,  not  even  murder 
or  larceny.  Fortunately,  the  Plantagenets  were  as 
dogged  believers  in  their  own  powers  and  privileges 
as  B.  in  those  of  the  church  ;  and  by  their  obstinate 
good  sense,  England  was  ever  kept  in  a  state  of 
wholesome  jealousy  of  the  pretensions  of  the 
Roman  see.  See  Dr.  Giles's  Vita  et  Epistolce  S. 
llioDKB  Canfuariensi.t  (Q  vols.  8vo.);  Canon  Morris's 
Life  of  St.  17ioi}ias  Becket ;  Canon  Robertson's  Life 
of  Becket ;  Canon  .Stanley's  Historical  Memorials  of 
Cantcrburn ;  J.  G.  Nichols's  Filgrhnages  of  Wat- 
singham  and  Catiterbitri/. 

BE'CKETS,  on  shipboard,  a  general  name  for 
any  large  hooks,  short  pieces  of  rope,  or  wooden 
brackets,  used  for  confining  ropes,  tackles,  oars,  or 
spars,  in  a  convenient  place. 

BECKFORD,  William,  the  only  legitimate  son 
of  Alderman  Beckford,  was  born  in  1760.  When 
he  was  about  nine  years  of  age,  his  l\ither  died, 
and  he  inherited  the  larger  portion  of  an  enormous 
property,  consisting  for  the  main  part  of  estates  in 
Jamaica,  and  of  the  estate  of  Fonthill,  in  Wiltshire. 
His  annual  revenue  is  said  to  have  exceeded  £100,- 
000.  Young  B.  evinced  unusual  intellectual  preco- 
citv ;  for  in  1780  he  printed  a  satirical  essay,  entitled 
Biographical  Memoirs  of  Extraordinary  Painters,  in 
which  he  does  not  spare  living  artists,  and  assails 
the  cant  of  criticism  with  the  polished  weapon  of 


BECKMANX— BECSKEREK  NAGY. 


his  wit.  In  IV'ZS  ho  visited  the  continent,  and  met 
Voltaire  at  Paris.  Two  years  thereafter,  he  started 
on  liis  first  great  continental  tour,  and  spent  twelve 
months  iu  i-anibling  through  Flanders,  Germany, 
and  Italy.  In  1782  he  made  a  second  visit  to  Italy, 
and  in  1787  he  wandered  through  Portugal  and 
Spain.  In  1783  he  married  the  Lady  Maigaret 
Gordon,  daughter  of  Charles,  fourth  Earl  of  Aboyne  ; 
and  in  tlic  following  year  he  entered  parliament  as 
one  of  the  members  for  Wells.  In  the  same  year  he 
published  Vathck  in  French.  B.  informs  us  that  he 
wrote  this  tale,  as  it  now  stands,  at  twenty-two  years 
of  age,  and  that  it  was  composed  at  one  sitting. 
'  It  took  me,'  he  says,  '  three  days  and  two  nights  of 
hard  labour.  I  never  took  off  my  clothes  the  whole 
time.  This  severe  application  made  me  very  ill.' 
Immediately  on  its  publication,  Vatl/ek  was  trans- 
lated into  English  ;  B.  professes  never  to  have 
known  the  translator,  but  thought  his  work  well 
done.  In  1790  he  sat  for  Ilindon  ;  in  1794  he 
accepted  the  Chiltern  Hundreds,  and  again  left 
England.  lie  fixed  his  residence  in  Portugal, 
purchased  an  estate,  and  busied  liimself  in  the 
erection  of  the  '  paradise' which  Byron  connnemo- 
rated  in  Childe  Harold.  Tormented  by  unrest,  he 
returned  to  England  ;  and  in  1801  the  splendid 
furnituie  of  Fonthill  was  sold  by  auction,  and  the 
next  year  his  valuable  collection  of  pictures  was 
disposed  of  in  London.  These  dispersions  were  no 
sooner  made  than  he  began  a  new  collection  of 
books,  pictures,  furniture,  curiosities,  and  proceeded 
to  erect  a  new  building  at  Fonthill,  the  most  promi- 
nent feature  of  which  was  a  tower  above  260  feet 
high.  B.  resided  at  Fonthill  till  1822,  when  in 
one  of  those  strange  vagaries  of  feeling,  of  which  his 
life  was  so  full,  lie  sold  the  estate  and  house,  with 
all  its  rare  and  far-gathered  contents,  to  Colonel 
Farquhar  for  £350,000.  Soon  after,  the  great  tower, 
which  had  been  raised  on  an  insecure  foundation, 
came  to  the  ground.  On  tlie  sale  of  Fonthill,  B. 
removed  to  Bath,  and  immediately  proceeded  to 
erect  another  lofty  building,  the  plan  of  which  also 
included  a  tower,  but  this  time  not  more  than  100 
feet  high.  While  residing  there,  he  did  not 
mingle  in  Bath  society,  and  the  most  improbable 
stories  concerning  the  rich  and  morose  genius  in 
their  neighbourhood  were  circulated  among  the  citi- 
zens, and  were  believed  by  them.  During  all  his  life, 
B.  was  a  hard-working  student,  and  was  devoured 
by  a  passion  for  books.  Some  of  his  purchases 
•were  perfectly  imperial  in  their  way.  He  bought 
Gibbon's  library  at  Lausanne,  to  amuse  himself 
when  he  happened  to  be  in  that  neighbourhood.  He 
went  there  ;  read  in  the  fierce  way  tliat  he  wrote, 
three  days  and  two  nights  at  a  sitting;  grew  weary 
of  his  purchase  ;  and  handed  it  over  to  his  physician, 
Dr.  Scholl.  Up  till  1834-  he  had  published  nothing 
since  Vathek;  but  in  that  year  the  literary  silence  of 
half  a  century  was  broken  by  the  appearance  of  a 
eeries  of  letters,  entitled  Itah/,  ivith  Sketches  of 
Spain  and  Portugal,  in  two  volumes.  In  the  same 
year  he  republished  his  Mcvioirs  of  Extraordinary 
Painters;  and  in  1835  he  issued  another  volume, 
entitled  Recollections  of  an  Excttrsion  to  the  Monas- 
teries of  Alcohaca  and  Batallia,  ma.de  in  June  1794. 
From  the  period  of  this  last  publication  till  his  death, 
which  took  place  on  the  2d  of  May  1844,  he  lived  in 
the  deepest  retirement. 

B.,  since  the  publication  of  his  Arabian  tale, 
has  been  a  power  in  English  literature.  His  wit, 
his  sarcasm,  iiis  power  of  graphic  description, 
may  be  seen  in  his  journal  and  letters  ;  and  his 
higher  faculties  of  imaginative  conception  and 
delineation  reign  in  the  unmatched  passages  that 
shadow  forth  in  gloom  and  glory  the  '  Hall  of 
Eblis.' 


BECKMANN,  Joiiann,  a  German  author,  known 
by  his  works  on  natural  history  and  agriculture, 
was  born  at  Hoya,  in  Hanover,  June  4,  1739.  After 
spending  some  time  in  the  study  of  theology,  he 
directed  his  attention  to  the  physical  sciences,  and 
especially  to  their  economical  applications.  After 
holding,  for  about  two  years,  a  professorship  of 
physics  and  natural  history  in  St.  Petersburg,  he  made 
a  tour  through  Swcilen,  where  he  gained  an  acquaint- 
ance with  the  working  of  mines,  and  received  for 
some  time  instructions  from  Linnaeus.  In  17C6  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  philosophy,  and  in  1770 
ordinary  professor  of  political  economy  at  Gottingen, 
where  he  died,  February  4,  1811.  He  was  the  first 
German  author  who  wrote  on  agriculture  in  a  scien- 
tific style.  Among  his  works  may  be  mentioned  : 
Principles  of  German  Agriculture  (6th  ed.  1806), 
Introduction  to  Technology  (5th  ed.  1809),  Intro- 
duction to  the  Science  of  Commerce  (1789),  and  Con- 
tributions to  the  History  of  Inventions  (1780 — 1805). 
This  last-mentioned  work  has  been  translated  into 
English  with  some  abridgment. 

BECQUEREL,  Amoine  Cesar,  a  distinguished 
French  physicist,  was  born  7tli  March,  1788,  at 
Chatillon-sur-Loing,  iu  the  department  of  Loiret. 
In  1808,  he  entered  the  Fiench  army  as  an  officer 
of  engineers,  and  served  with  distinction  in  Spain 
under  Marshal  Suchet.  He  took  part  in  the  sieges 
of  Tortosa,  Tarragona,  Valencia,  and  other  places. 
On  his  return  to  France,  he  was  appointed  inspector 
of  the  Ecole  Polytechnique  ;  in  1814,  he  went  through 
the  campaign  of  France  ;  and  at  the  peace  of  1815, 
retired  from  the  service,  that  he  might  pursue  his 
scientific  studies  with  greater  advantage.  In  1819, 
he  published  a  volume  of  geological  and  minera- 
logical  researches,  after  which,  his  attention  was 
principally  devoted  to  electricity  and  magnetism. 
While  studying  the  physical  properties  of  yellow 
amber,  B.  had  occasion  to  make  experiments  on 
the  liberation  of  electricity  by  pressure.  This  led 
him  to  investigate  the  laws  by  which  the  pheno- 
mena of  liberation  are  governed  in  chemical  action. 
The  result  of  his  inquiries  was  the  overthrow  of 
Volta's  theory  of  contact,  and  the  construction, 
by  him,  of  the  first  constant  pile.  He  next  dis- 
covered a  very  simple  method  of  determining  the 
internal  temperature  of  human  and  animal  bodies 
without  sensibly  injuring  them,  and  by  numerous 
physiological  applications,  demonstrated,  that  when 
a  muscle  contracts,  there  is  a  development  of  heat. 
B.  is  besides  one  of  the  creators  of  electro-chemistry. 
Ilis  labours  in  this  branch  of  science  opened  for  him, 
in  1829,  the  door  of  the  Academic  des  Sciences. 
Since  1828,  he  had  begun  to  apply  electro-chemistry 
in  the  reproduction  of  mineral  substances,  and  in 
the  treatment  by  the  humid  way  of  silver,  lead, 
and  copper  ores  ;  and  in  1837  the  Royal  Society  oi 
London  recognised  his  great  merits  by  awarding  to 
him  the  Copley  Medal.  Among  the  other  works  of 
this  eminent  savant  may  be  specified  his  researches 
on  the  electric  conductibility  of  metals,  on  galvano- 
meters, on  the  electric  properties  of  tourmaline,  on 
atmospheric  electricity,  &c.  In  1847,  he  was  chosen 
a  member  of  the  Council-general  of  the  Loiret,  where 
his  scientific  knowledge  was  found  to  be  extremely 
useful.  He  is  professor  and  administrator  of  the 
Museum  of  Natural  History. 

His  principal  works  are — Traite  de  V Electricite  et 
du  Maynetisme,  1834 — 1840  ;  Traite  d^Electrochimie  ; 
Trait!'  de  Ph;/si(jue  considcree  dans  ses  Rapports  avec 
la  Chimie  et  lex  Sciences  Naturelles,  1844;  IVaite  de 
Pliysiqne  Terrcstre  et  de  Meteorologie,  1847. 

BECSKERE'K  NA'GY,  or  GREAT  BECSKEREK, 
a  town  of  Hungary,  in  the  county  of  Torontal, 
situated  on   the   left   bank   of  the  Bega,    about   45 

789 


BED. 


miles  south-wesit  of  Temesvar,  with  which  place  it  is 
connected  by  canal.  B.  N.  is  an  important  market- 
town,  and  has  a  population  of  about  15,OuO. 

BED  (with  some  variations  in  spelling,  the 
word  is  common  to  all  Germanic  hiuguages),  an 
article  of  household  furniture  on  which  to  sleep. 
JJeds  have  been,  and  are  of  various  forms,  almost 
every  country  having  its  own  kind  of  bed.  In 
ancient  times  in  Palestine,  the  B.  seems  to  have 
been  a  simple  kind  of  coucli  for  reclining  on  during 
the  day,  and  sleeping  on  at  night,  and  readily 
removable  from  place  to  place,  as  is  referred  to  in 
dift'erent  parts  of  Scripture.  About  the  heat  of  the 
day,  Ishbosheth  lay  on  his  B.  at  noon  (2  Sam.  iv. 
5).  In  receiving  visitors,  the  king  bowed  himself 
upon  the  bed  (1  Kings  i.  47).  Jesus  saith,  '  Take 
up  thy  B.,  and  go  unto  thine  house'  (Mat.  ix.  (i).  Yet 
in  these  early  times,  beds  or  couches  must,  in  some 
instances,  have  been  highly  ornamented  :  thus,  '  I 
have  decked  my  B.  with  coverings  of  tapestry,  with 
carved  works,  with  fine  linen  of  Egypt  '  (Prov.  vii. 
]*5).  The  ancient  Greeks  hud  an  elegant  kind  of  beds 
in  the  form  of  open  couches  ;  they  rested  on  a  frame- 
work with  posts ;  their  mattresses  were  stuffed  with 
wool  or  featliers  ;  and  they  had  coverings  of  a  costly 
nature.  The  Romans  had  latterly  beds  of  great 
richness  and  magnificence.  They  were  of  two  kinds 
— the  Icctus  trlcHniari.s,  or  couch  for  reclining  upon 
at  meals ;  and  the  lectus  cubiculari.s,  or  B.  placed  in 
bed-chambers  for  sleeping  in  during  the  night.  In 
eastern  countries,  at  the  present  day,  beds  are  for 
tlie  most  part  simplj- couches  or  mattresses,  which  can 
be  easily  rolled  up  and  carried  away.  In  India,  these 
couches  are  called  charpoys.  It  will  be  understood 
that,  in  hot  climates,  few  bed-clothes  are  used — in 
general,  there  being  only  a  single  sheet  employed  ; 
care  is  taken,  however,  to  use  mosquito-curtains, 
without  which  rest  would  be  impracticable.  See 
MosQriTO. 

Throughout  the  continent  of  Europe,  beds  are  of 
the  open  couch  form,  suitable  in  width  for  one  per- 
son. They  consist  of  a  frame  or  bedstead,  less  or 
more  ornamental,  bearing  one  or  two  hair  or  wool 
mattresses ;  they  are  often  provided  with  curtains, 
which  depend  from  the  ceiling  of  the  room.  In 
French  hotels,  such  beds,  neatly  done  up,  are  seen  in 
sitting-rooms.  In  Germany,  there  is  a  common 
practice  of  placing  large  flat  bags  of  down  above 
the  other  coverings  of  beds,  for  the  sake  of  warmth  ; 
and  sometimes  a  bed  of  down  altogether  supplies  the 
place  of  blankets.  Throughout  America,  the  beds 
are  usually  of  the  French,  or  open  couch,  form.  The 
simplest  kind  of  B.  yet  invented — except,  indeed,  the 
Oriental  rug  spread  on  the  floor — is  one  frequently 
to  be  seen  in  Ameiica.  The  bedstead  consists  of  a 
folding  tressel,  constructed  with  canvas  on  the 
principle  of  a  camp-stool,  with  a  movable  head- 
board at  one  end  to  retain  the  pillow.  With  a 
liair-mattress,  a  pillow,  and  the  necessary  coverings 
laid  on  it,  this  makes  one  of  the  most  comfortable 
beds  imaginable.  Its  great  advantage  consists  in 
it.s  being  easily  folded  up  and  put  away  in  si;iall 
space.  In  some  of  the  hotels  in  the  United  States, 
when  the  arrival  of  guests  exceeds  the  ordinary 
accommodation,  a  number  of  tressel-beds  can  be 
improvised  in  a  few  minutes  in  one  of  the  large 
halls. 

To  prevent  the  foiling  of  dust  on  the  face,  the 
Romans,  in  some  instances,  used  canopies  (aulaa) 
over  their  beds  ;  in  no  country  but  England,  how- 
ever, has  the  canopied  bedstead  been  thoroughly 
perfected  and  naturalised.  The  English  four-posted 
B.,  or  B.  proper,  is  a  gigantic  piece  of  furniture,  to 
which  all  persons  aspire ;  and  when  tastefully  fitted 
up,  it  offers  that  degree  of  comfort  and  seclusion 
which  is  characteristic  of  the  domestic  habits  of  the 
790 


people.  Like  most  English  beds,  it  is  made  of  sufil- 
cient  size  to  accommodate  two  persons — the  husband 
and  wife — and  is  hence  known  as  the  family-bed. 
The  dimensions  of  a  good  family  B.  arc  as  follows  : 
lying  part,  6  feet  ti  inches  in  length,  by  6  feet 
2  inches  in  breadth ;  height  from  the  floor,  2  feet 
9  inches ;  height  of  the  posts  from  the  floor  to  the 
top  of  the  cornice,  9  feet.  The  roof  or  canopy  is 
supported  by  the  four  posts,  which  are  of  mahogany, 
finely  turned  and  carved.  On  rods  along  the  cornice, 
hang  curtains,  which  can  be  drawn  around  the  sides 
and  foot.  The  top  stands  towards  the  wall,  so  that 
the  B.  can  be  approached  on  the  two  sides.  The 
curtains  are  composed  of  silk  or  worsted  damask ; 
in  old  times,  tliey  were  of  tapestry.  With  a  spring- 
mattress  below,  and  a  wool-mattress  above,  the  13. 
is  complete,  all  but  the  blankets,  sheets,  bolster, 
and  pillows.  Ticks  with  feathers,  laid  on  a  hair- 
mattress,  are  also  common.  Fully  equipped,  a  B., 
as  just  described,  costs  from  £50  to  £80.  The  great 
B.  at  Ware,  in  Hertfordshire,  is  one  of  the  curiosities 


Bed  of  Ware. 

of  England,  and  is  referred  to  in  the  Tuelfth  Night 
of  Shakspeare  ;  '  Although  the  sheet  were  V)ig  enough 
for  the  Bed  of  Ware  in  England.'  This  famous  B., 
which  is  still  seen  in  one  of  the  inns  at  Ware, 
measures  twelve  feet  square,  and  is  said  to  be 
capable  of  holding  a  dozen  persons. 

Latterly,  a  species  of  B.  has  been  introduced  into 
England,  called  the  Elizabethan  Bed.  In  point  of 
size,  it  resembles  the  four-poster,  but  it  has  only  two 
tall  posts,  with  a  canopy  and  curtains  at  the  head, 
leaving  more  than  half  of  the  B.  exposed.  The  tent- 
B.  is  an  inferior  kind  of  four-poster  ;  it  has  a  semi- 
circular light  frame  roof,  and  light  calico  curtains. 
A  more  novel  variety  of  bedsteads  are  those  made  of 
iron  or  brass,  formed  like  open  couches,  and  adapted 
for  cottages  in  summer,  but  not  likely  to  come  gener- 
rally  into  use.  The  cold  and  humid  cliniate  of  the 
British  islands,  independently  of  the  habits  of  the 
people,  has  greatly  influenced  the  form  of  the  B. ; 
for  although  it  may  be  more  wholesome  to  sleep 
without  than  with  curtains,  it  will  be  difficult  to 
introduce  the  practice  of  doing  so,  particularly  during 
the  winter  and  spring  months.  In  the  huml)ler  class 
of  rural  cottages  in  Scotland,  there  still  lingers  the 
old  custom  of  sleeping  in  wooden  bedsteads  with 
sliding  doors.  This  box  variety  of  B.  is  considered 
as  unfavourable  to  ventilation,  but  it  is  the  only 
kind  of  sleeping-place  which  is  endurable  where 
there  are  damp  earthen  floors  and  imperfect  ceilings. 
Its  use  is  disappearing  in  the  progress  of  cottage 
improvement. 

In  old  times  in  England,  beds  were  formed  with 
straw  instead  of  wool,  hair,  or  feathers,  as  at 
present ;  hence  the  phrase  of  a  '  lady  in  the  straw,' 
signifying   that    she     is    being   confined.      By   the 


BED— BEDCHAMBER. 


humbler  classes  in  tlic  rural  districts,  straw  is  still 
used  for  beds,  and  also  ticks  stuft'ed  with  chalf. 
According;  to  an  old  superstition,  no  person  could  die 
calmly  on  a  B.  of  feathers  of  frame  birds. 

For  invalids,  there  have  been  invented  air-beds 
and  water-beds,  which  are  now  in  use,  and  justly 
appreciated.     See  Aik-Bed,  also  Watku-Bed. 

BED,  or  STRATUM,  is  a  l.iyer  of  sedimentary 
rock  of  similar  materials,  and  of  some  thiclaiess, 
cohering;  tofjcther  so  as  to  be  quarried  and  lifted  in 
single  blocks.  Bt'ds  are  often  composed  of  many 
line  lamina;  or  plates.  The  lamin:B  are  the  results  of 
intermissions  in  the  supply  of  materials,  produced  by 
such  causes  as  the  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tide,  river- 
floods,  or  the  more  or  less  turbid  state  of  the  water 
under  which  they  were  deposited.  When  the  inter- 
vals between  the  supply  of  materials  were  short, 
the  numerous  lamina;  closely  adhere,  and  form 
a  bed  cut  o!f  from  the  superior  deposit,  by  the 
occurrence  of  a  longer  interval,  during  which  the 
bed  became  consolidated  more  or  less  before  the 
next  was  deposited.  "Wiien  the  lamination  is 
obscure,  or  not  distinct  from  the  stratification,  it 
would  seem  to  indicate  that  the  materials  had  been 
supplied  without  any  intermission. 

BED  OP'  JUSTICE  (Fr.  lit  dc  justice),  literally, 
the  seat  or  throne  occupied  by  the  French  monarch 
when  he  was  present  at  the  "deliberations  of  parlia- 
ment. Historically,  a  B.  of  J.  signified  a  solemn 
session,  in  which  the  king  was  present,  to  overrule 
the  decisions  of  parliament,  and  to  enforce  the 
acceptance  of  edicts  or  ordinances  which  it  had  pre- 
viously rejected.  The  theory  of  the  old  French 
constitution  was,  that  the  authority  of  parliament 
was  derived  solely  from  the  crown;  consequently, 
when  the  king,  the  source  of  authority,  was 
present,  that  which  was  delegated  ceased.  Acknow- 
ledging such  a  principle,  the  parliament  was 
logically  incapable  of  resisting  any  demand  that 
the  king  in  a  B.  of  J.  might  make,  and  decrees 
promulgated  during  a  sitting  of  this  kind  were  held 
to  be  of  more  authority  than  ordinary  decisions  of 
parliament.  Monarchs  were  not  slow  to  take  advan- 
tage of  this  power  to  overawe  any  parliament  that 
exhibited  signs  of  independence.  The  last  B.  of  J. 
was  held  by  Louis  XYI.  at  Versailles  in  September 
1787. 

BEDA,  or  BEDE  (surnamed,  on  account  of  his 
learning,  piety,  and  talents,  Ye.nerable),  the  greatest 
name  in  the  ancient  literature  of  Britain,  and  prob- 
ably the  most  distinguished  scholar  in  the  world 
of  his  age,  was  born  about  the  year  G73  a.  d.  The 
exact  spot  of  his  birth  is  a  point  in  dispute  among 
antiquaries,  but  is  commonly  believed  to  have  been 
in  what  is  now  the  parish  of  Monkton,  near  Wear- 
mouth,  in  Durham.  In  his  seventh  year  he  entered 
the  neighbouring  monastery  of  St.  Peter,  at  Wear- 
mouth,  where  he  remained  for  13  years,  and  was 
educated  mider  the  care  of  the  Abbot  Benedict 
Biscop,  and  his  successor,  Ceolfrid.  His  religious 
instructor  was  the  monk  Trumberct ;  his  music- 
master,  John,  chief-singer  (arcldcantor)  in  St.  Peter's 
Church,  Rome,  who  had  been  called  to  England  by 
t!ie  Abbot  Benedict.  After  these  studies  at  Wear- 
mouth,  B.  removed  to  the  twin-monastery  of  St. 
Paul  at  Gyruum  (now  written  Jarrow),  founded  in 
082  ;  here  iic  took  deacon's  orders  in  his  nineteenth 
year,  and  was  ordained  priest  in  his  thirtieth,  by 
John  of  Beverly,  then  bishop  of  Hexham.  In  the 
shelter  of  his  quiet  and  sacred  retreat,  while  the 
tempest  of  barbaric  strife  raged  without,  and  the 
hearts  of  all  men  in  England  were  torn  by  sangui- 
nary passions,  B.  now  began  earnestly  to  consecrate 
his  life  to  sucli  literature  as  was  possible  in  those 
days,    including    Latin    and    Greek,   and    at   least 


some    aciiuaintanco    with  Hebrew,  medicine,    astro- 
nomy, and  prosody.       He    wrote  homilies,    lives   ot" 
saints,  hymns,    epigrams,   works  on  chronology  and 
grammar,  and  comments  on  the    books  of  the    Old 
and    New  Testament.     His    calm    and  gentle   spirit, 
the    humanizing    character  of  his  pursuits,  and  the 
holiness  of  his    life,    present    a  striking    contrast   to 
the  violence  and  slaughter    which  prevailed    in    the 
wiiole  island.     To  none   is  the  beautiful   anguage  of 
Scripture  more  applicable — '  a  light  shining  in  a  dark 
place.'     When    labouring  under   disease,    and    near 
the  close    of  his    life,  he   engaged  in    a   translation 
of  St.  John's  Gospel  into  Anglo-Saxon,  and  dictated 
his  version  to  his  pupils.     He  died  May  'itj,  7o5,  and 
was  buried  in  the  monastery  of  Jarrow :     long  after- 
wards (in  the  middle  of  the  11th  c),  his  bones  were 
removed  to  Durham.     His  most  valuable  work  is  the 
Ilistoria  Evclesiastu-a   Gentis  Anglorum,  an  ecclesi- 
astical history  of  England,  in  five  books,  to  which  we 
are  indel)ted  for  almost  all  our  information  on    the 
ancient  history  of  England  down    to    731   A.  D.     B. 
gained    the    materials    for    this    work    partly    from 
Roman  writers,   but  chiefly   from    native    chronicles 
and    biographies,  records,    and    public     documents, 
and    oral    and    written    communications    fi-om    his 
contemporaries.    ■  King    Alfred    translated    it    into 
Anglo-Saxon.      In   chronology,    the    labours   of  B. 
were  important,  as  he  first  introduced  the  Dionysian 
reckoning  of  dates    in    his  work,    De    Sex   ui^tatibtis 
Mundi,   which  served   as    a   basis  for  most    of  the 
medieval  chroniclers  of  leading  events  in  the  world's 
history.     Among  the  editions  of  B.'s   History  may 
he  noticed:    the  fiist,  published  at  Strasburg  about 
15i)()  ;  a  much  better  edition,  by  Smith  (Cambridge, 
17"i'i);    one  r.ot  less  valuable,  by  Stevenson  (Lond. 
1838);  another,  by  the  late  Dr.  Ilussey  (Oxf  1816); 
a  fourth    in    the    Mo-iiuincnta   Ilistorica   Eritannica 
(Lond.   18-48);  and  that    included  by    Dr.    Giles    in 
his    edition    of    the    whole    works    of    B.,    with    an 
English  translation  of  the  historical  parts   (6   vols., 
Lond.  1843 — 1844).     Entire  editions  of  B.'s  writings 
have   been   published   in  Paris   (lo44 — 1554),  Basel 
(1563),    and    Cologne    (1612    and    1688).      English 
versions  of  his  Eccli'siaatical  History  were  published 
by  Stapleton,  in   1565;     'v    Stevens,    in    1723;    by 
liursl,  in  1814;  by  Wileock,  in  1818;  and  by  Giles, 
in  1840.      See  Gehle's  De  Bedce   Vencrabilis    Vita  et 
Scriptis.      (Leydcn,     1838) ,     Wright's    Biographia 
Britannica  Litteraria,  vol.  i.  (Lond.  1843) ;  Surtees'a 
History  of  Durham,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  2 — 6,  66 — 69. 

BEDARIEUX,  a  town  of  France,  department  of 
Herault,  situated  on  the  river  Orb,  well  built,  and 
second  to  none  of  its  size  in  industry.  Pop.  9170, 
who  are  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  fine  and 
coarse  cloths,  siutfs,  cotton  and  woollen  stockings, 
hats,  paper,  oil,  soap,  leather,  &c. 

BEDCHAMBER,  Lords  of  the,  officers  in  the 
British  royal  household,  twelve  in  number,  who, 
in  the  reign  of  a  king,  wait  in  turn  upon  the  sove- 
reign's person.  They  are  under  the  groom  of  the 
stole,  wlio  attends  his  majesty  only  on  state  occa- 
sions. There  arc  also  thirteen  grooms  of  the  B., 
whu  take  their  turns  of  attendance.  The  salary 
of  the  groom  of  the  stole  is  £2000 ;  of  the  lords 
of  the  B.,  £1()00  ;  and  of  the  grooms,  £500  a  year. 
These  otiices  in  the  reign  of  a  (pieen  are  performed 
by  ladies.  Corres])onding  to  the  groom  of  tlie  stole 
is  the  mistress  of  the  robes,  and  to  the  grooms  of  the 
B.  are  B.  women.  At  present  (1855),  Her  Majesty 
has  eleven  ladies,  and  extra  ladies  of  the  B.,  and 
eight  B.  women.  These  ofliccs,  which  are  in  the  roy- 
al nomination,  are  objects  of  high  ambition,  from  the 
access  they  give  to  the  person  of  the  sovereign,  and 
are  for  the  most  part  filled  by  '  the  prime  nobility 
of  Eugland.'     They    are   not  usually  vacated   on  a. 

791 


BEDDOES— BEDEGUAR. 


change  of  ministrv,  and  Sir  llobert  Peel's  departure 
from  the  usual  etiquette  on  this  point,  in  1839.  ex- 
cited no  small  commotion. 

BEDDOES,  Thomas,  a  physician  of  remarkable 
talents,  and  a  popular  writer  on  chemistry,  physics, 
physiology,  disease,  &c.,  was  born  at  Shiftnall,  in 
Shropshire,  1760.  In  his  studies  at  Oxford  and 
Edinburgh,  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  know- 
ledge of  ancient  and  niodern  languages — the  modern 
he  acquired  without  the  aid  of  a  teacher — and  by 
his  varied  attainments  in  botany,  mineralogy,  geo- 
logy, chemistry,  &c.  In  Edinburgh  he  attracted 
the  notice  of  Dr.  CuUen,  who  employed  him  to  add 
notes  to  Bergman's  Phyakal  a7id  Clieniical  Ktnai/s. 
In  1785,  he  published  a  translation  of  Bergman's 
£s!<at/s  on  Elective  Attractions,  with  valuable  original 
notes.  In  1787,  he  was  appointed  to  the  chemical 
lectureship  in  the  university  of  Oxford.  Here  his 
lectures  became  exceedingly  popular ;  but  his  un- 
concealed sympathies  with  the  French  revolution- 
ary party  in  England,  a[)pear  to  have  rendered 
his  post  so  uncomfortaljle  that  he  resigned  it  in 
1792,  and  retired  into  the  country.  While  in  retire- 
ment, he  wrote  his  work  On  the  Nature  of  Demon- 
xtrative  Evidence,  icith  an  Explanation  of  Certain 
Difficulties  occurring  in  the  Elements  of  Geometrij, 
which  was  intended  to  show  that  matijematical 
reasoning  proceeds  entirely  on  the  evidence  afforded 
by  the  senses,  and  that  geometry  is  based  on  experi- 
ment. Several  patriotic  pamphlets  ibllowed,  and 
the  History  of  Isaac  Jenhins,  in  wliich  he  laid  down, 
in  a  popular  style,  rules  of  sobriety,  liealth,  &c.,  for 
the  benefit  of  the  working-classes.  Of  this  work, 
40,000  copies  were  sold  in  a  short  time.  In  1798, 
after  having  spent  considerable  time  in  studying  the 
use  of  artificial  or  medicated  gases  in  the  cure  of 
diseases,  especially  consumption,  aitled  by  his  father- 
in-law,  Mr.  Edgeworth,  and  pecuniarily  assisted  by 
his  friend,  Thomas  Wedgwood,  he  opened  a  pneu- 
matic hospital  at  Bristol.  This  institution  did  not 
succeed  in  its  main  object,  which  was  to  shew  that 
all  diseases  being,  as  B.  maintained,  referable  to  an 
undue  proportion  or  deficiency  of  some  elementary 
principle  in  the  human  organism,  could  be  cured  by 
breathing  a  medicated  atmosphere ;  and  B.,  whose 
zeal  had  abated,  retired  from  it  aViout  a  year  before 
his  death,  in  1808.  The  only  results  of  the  enter- 
prise were  several  works  by  B.  on  the  application  of 
medicated  air  to  diseases,  and  the  introduction 
to  the  world  of  Davy  (afterwards  Sir  Humphry), 
who  was  the  superintendent  of  the  institution.  Sir 
Humphry  Davy  says  of  B.:  '  lie  had  talents  which 
would  have  exalted  him  to  the  pinnacle  of  philo- 
sophical eminence,  if  tliey  had  been  npplicd  with  dis- 
cretion.' A  life  of  B.  was  pubhshed  in  ISll  by  Dr. 
Stock. 

BEDDOES,  LovKLL  Thomas,  eldest  son  of  Dr. 
Thomas  B.,  and  of  Anna,  third  daughter  of  Richard 
Lovell  Edgeworth,  of  Edgeworthstown,  Ireland,  sis- 
ter of  Maria  Edgeworth,  the  distinguished  novelist, 
was  born  at  Rodney  Place,  Clifton,  on  the  20th 
July  1803.  In  1809  Dr.  Beddoes  died,  leaving  his 
son  to  the  guardianship  of  Mr.  Davies  Giddy,  who, 
under  his  after-name  of  Sir  Davies  Gilbert,  became 
the  president  of  the  Royal  Society.  By  this  gentle- 
man, young  B.  was  placed  at  the  Bath  grammar 
school ;  from  thence,  in  1817,  he  removed  to  the 
Charter  House ;  and  in  May  1820,  he  entered  as  a 
commoner  at  Pembroke  College,  Oxford.  In  1821 
he  published  the  Lnprovisatore.  On  this,  his  earliest 
poetic  offspring,  he  looked  with  no  favour  at  a 
later  period,  and  was  wont  to  hunt  after  stray 
copies  in  the  libraries  of  his  friends,  and  to  disem- 
bowel them  mercilessly  when  he  effected  a  capture. 
In  1822  he  published  The  Bride's  Tragedti,  which 
792 


achieved  for  its  author  a  great  reputation.  In  1S24) 
he  went  to  Gottingen  to  study  medicine,  and  from 
this  time  forth  continued  to  live  in  Germany  and 
Switzerland,  >\itii  occasional  visits  to  England. 
WHiilc  engaged  at  Frankfort  (1847)  in  dissecting, 
he  received  a  slight  wound,  which  was  the  means 
of  infusing  a  noxious  virus  into  his  system.  His 
health  now  began  to  fail.  In  1848  he  went  to  Basel, 
where  he  fell  from  his  horse,  and  injured  his  leg. 
An  amputation  following,  he  died  on  tlie  2rith  Janu- 
ary 1849,  and  was  buried  in  the  cemetery  of  the 
hospital. 

During  his  wanderings  in  Germany,  B.  Avas  en- 
gaged at  intervals  in  the  composition  of  a  drama 
entitled  Deatlis  Jest-hook.  This  work,  together  with 
his  other  manuscripts,  consisting  chiefly  of  poetry, 
he,  on  his  death-bed,  confided  to  the  care  of  a 
friend  in  England,  desiring  him  to  use  his  discretion 
as  to  their  publication.  In  conseqtience,  in  1851, 
his  poetical  works,  with  a  memoir  attach.ed,  ap- 
peared in  two  volumes.  The  merits  of  these 
dramatic  fragments  arc  quite  peculiar.  The  author 
exhibits  no  power  of  characterisation,  no  ability  in 
the  conduct  of  a  story  ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
crush  of  thought  and  image,  the  tone  of  music,  and 
the  depth  of  colour,  are  quite  wonderful.  Mr.  B. 
never  could  have  become  a  dramatist,  and  of  this, 
during  his  later  years,  he  seems  to  liave  become 
aware.  His  works  pall  with  splendor,  and  are 
monotonous  by  very  richness.  They  are  like  a 
wilderness  where  nature  has  been  allowed  to  pour 
herself  forth  in  all  her  waste  and  tropical  excess, 
unrestrained  by  a  pruning  hand,  and  unpierced  by 
any  path. 

BEDEAU,  Marie  ALriioxsE,  a  distinguished 
French  general,  was  born  at  Vertou,  near  Nantes, 
August  1804.  In  1817  he  entered  the  military 
school  of  La  Flcche  ;  in  1820,  St.  Cyr;  and  in  1825, 
received  a  commission  in  the  army.  In  the  Belgian 
campaign  of  1831 — 1832,  he  was  aide-de-camp  to 
General  Gerard,  and  attracted  notice  at  the  siege  of 
Antwerp.  In  183(5  he  was  sent  to  Algeria,  as  com- 
mandant of  a  battalion  of  the  Foreign  Legion.  Here 
he  acquired  his  great  military  reputation.  He  took 
part  in  most  of  the  military  operations  by  which  the 
dominion  of  France  was  established  over  the  natives, 
and  rose  to  the  rank  of  general  of  brigade.  In  1847, 
he  was  for  a  short  time  Governor  of  Algeria,  but  was 
superseded  by  the  Due  d'Aumale. 

When  the  revolution  of  February  broke  out,  B., 
who  was  in  Paris  on  leave  of  absence,  was  commis- 
sioned by  Marshal  Bugeaud  to  suppress  the  insurrec- 
tion. This  he  found  it  impossible  to  do,  but  his 
conduct  on  the  occasion  has  been  severely  blamed. 
By  the  Provisional  Government  he  was  appointed 
Minister  of  W^ar,  an  office,  however,  which  he 
immediately  changed  for  the  command  of  the  city 
of  Paris.  On  the  formation  of  the  Constituent 
Assembly,  he  was  named  vice-president,  and  always 
voted  with  the  republican  party.  Along  with  Ca- 
vaignac,  Lamoriciere,  and  others,  he  was  arrested 
on  the  2d  December  1851,  and  went  into  exile.  B.  is 
a  Roman  Catholic,  and  the  fervour  of  his  religious 
convictions  gave  rise,  some  time  ago,  to  the  ground- 
less rumour  that  he  had  entered  into  holy  orders. 

BEDEGU'AR,  a  remarkable  gall  (q.  v.),  often 
found  on  the  branches  of  various  species  of  rose, 
particularly  of  the  sweet-brier,  upon  which  account 
it  is  sometimes  called  Sweet-brier  Sponge.  It  i:: 
produced  sometimes  by  Cynips  roscc,  sometimes  by 
other  species  of  gall  insect.  It  is  usually  of  a  round- 
ish shape,  often  an  inch  or  more  in  diameter;  its 
nucleus  is  spongy  and  fibrous,  containing  numerous 
cells,  in  each  of  which  is  a  small  larva ;  externally  it 
is  shaggy,  being  covered  with  moss-like  br>inching 


BEDELL— BEDFORD. 


fibres,  which  arc  iit  first  f^rcen,  afterwards  purple 
or  red.  It  waslbnucrly  in  some  repute  as  a  diurclic 
and  as  a  remedv  lor  stone  ;  it  has  iriore  recently  been 
recOTntncnded  as  a  vermifuge,  and  us  a  cure  for 
toothache. 

BEDELL,  William,  one  of  the  best  prelates 
that  have  adorned  the  English  Church,  was  born  at 
Black  Xotley,  Essex,  in  1.570.  He  was  educated  at 
Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  and  after  his  ordina- 
tion, oliiciated  as  a  clergyman  for  several  years  at 
Bury  St.  Edmunds.  In  16(1-1,  he  accompanied  Sir 
Henry  Wotton  as  his  chaplain  to  Venice.  There  he 
resided  eight  years,  deeply  engaged  in  study,  and 
honoincd  by  the  i'rieiidsliip  of  nuiny  distinguished 
men,  in  particular  of  Fiither  Paul  Sarpi,  then  en- 
gaged in  the  composition  of  his  celebrated  Historji 
of  the  Couvcil  of  Trad.  While  residing  here,  he 
translated  the  English  Common  Prayer  Book  into 
Italian,  which  was  highly  appreciated  by  many 
of  the  Venetian  cler<ry.  On  his  return  home,  he 
resumed  his  pastoral  duties  at  Bury,  where  he  lived 
for  Fome  time  in  such  retirement,  that  when  his 
friend  Diodati  came  to  England,  he  inquired  in  vain 
for  the  admirable  B.,  whose  merits  were  so  well  known 
at  Venice.  He  had  given  up  hopes  of  finding 
him,  when  one  day  ho  encountered  him  in  the 
streets  of  London.  In  IGl.^,  B.  was  presented  to  the 
living  of  Ilorringsheath,  in  Suffolk,  where  he  rem.iined 
twelve  years.  His  retired  life  and  his  Calvinistic 
theology  long  hindered  the  recognition  of  his  merits. 
At  length,  in  1G27,  he  was  unanimously  elected 
provost  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  to  which  the  fame 
of  his  learning  and  piety  had  extended.  lie 
Tefused  to  undertake  the  charge  till  positively  com- 
(nandcd  by  the  king.  At  the  end  of  two  years, 
lie  was  ])romoied  to  the  imited  bisphorics  of  Kihnore 
,ind  Ardiigh,  the  kilter  of  which  he  resigned  in  the 
following  year,  1(530.  He  immediately  set  himself 
to  reform  the  crying  abuses  that  prevailed  in  his 
diocese,  and  with  so  liappy  a  combination  of  wisdom, 
firmness,  and  charity,  that  even  his  enemies  were 
constrained  to  do  homage  to  his  virtues.  Among 
his  other  remarkable  acts,  he  removed  his  lay- 
chancellor,  and  took  upon  himself  the  ancient 
episcopal  jurisdiction  of  heaiing  and  deciding  caufses. 
The  chancellor  obtained  a  decree  against  him  in 
Chancery,  with  costs,  but  was  so  impressed  with 
the  superiority  of  the  bishop's  services  to  his  own, 
that  he  dropped  his  claim,  and  even  appointed  a 
surrogate,  with  orders  to  pay  implicit  obedience  to 
the  authority  of  the  bishop.  The  translation  of 
the  Old  Testament  into  Irish  was  accomplished 
under  B.'s  direction  (the  New  had  been  already 
translated),  as  well  as  some  of  the  homilies  of 
Chrysostom  and  Leo  on  the  reading  of  the  Scrip- 
tures. On  the  breaking  out  of  the  rebellion  in  1(141, 
his  popularity  for  some  time  saved  his  family  from 
violence,  his  being  the  only  English  house  in  the 
county  of  Cavau  that  was  spared.  At  length,  on 
his  refusal  to  dismiss  his  flock,  he  was  seized,  and 
imprisoned  in  the  castle  of  Cloughboughter.  Thence 
he  was  removed  to  the  house  of  a  Protestant  clergy- 
man, where  he  continued  to  minister  officially  till 
his  death,  at  the  end  of  a  few  weeks,  February  7, 
1642,  in  the  seventy-first  year  of  his  age.  The 
rebels  followed  his  body  to  the  grave  in  the  church- 
yard of  Kilmore.  Besides  some  other  works,  B. 
translated  the  last  two  books  of  Father  Paul's 
History.     His  life  was  written  by  Burnet. 

BE'DFORD  (Saxon,  Bedoanford,  town  of  the 
ford),  the  chief  town  of  Bedfordshire,  is  situated  on 
the  Ouse  (which  is  navigable  thence  to  the  sea, 
a  distance  of  74  miles),  about  63  miles  north-north- 
west of  London  by  rail,  and  in  the  midst  of  a  broad 
expanse  of  rich   pasture,  wheat,  and  barley  lands. 


The  town  is  clean  and  well  j^avcd,  but  the  drainage 
is  very  defective.  The  number  of  charitable  and 
educational  institutions  is  remarkable.  These  are 
mostly  due  to  Sir  W.  llarpur,  alderman  of  London,  in 
1561,  who  founded  a  free  school  in  B.,  and  endowed 
it  with  13  acres  of  land  near  the  town.  The  enor- 
mous increase  in  the  value  of  the  property  (from  .£150 
to  £14,000  or  upwards  a  year)  enables  the  trustees 
to  maintain  a  free  grammar  school,  commercial, 
preparatory,  girls',  and  infant  schools,  a  hospital  for 
poor  children,  and  65  alms-houses,  besides  expending 
considerable  sums  of  money  in  marriage-portions, 
apprentice-fees,  donations,  &c.  Much  of  the  charity 
is  under  the  control  of  popularly  elected  trustees. 
The  social  effects  of  so  extensive  a  system  of  elee- 
mosynary aid  are  found  to  be  deeply  injurious,  and 
the  time  wasted  in  public  and  private  debates  on  the 
distribution  of  the  funds  is  almost  incredible.  Party- 
spirit  divides  the  inhabitants  into  the  '  B.-born  '  and 
the  'squatters'  or  recent  settlers,  who  arc  regarded 
by  the  more  intolerant  of  the  old  inhabitants  as 
intruders  on  their  native  preserves.  The  '  educa- 
tional'  and  '  eleemosynary  '  factions  also  divide  the 
government  of  the  charity — the  latter  being  an 
overwhelming  majority.  Parliament  has  more  than 
once  been  called  in  to  regulate  the  distribution 
of  the  charity,  which,  notwithstanding  its  extent, 
owing  to  former  bad  management,  is  in  debt. 
The  only  important  manufacture  of  B.  is  that  of 
iron  goods,  especially  agricultural  implements. 
Lace-making  and  straw-plaiting  employ  many 
poor  women  and  cliildren.  A  considerable  traffic 
in  malt,  timber,  coals,  and  iron  is  maintained 
with  Lynn  Regis,  by  means  of  the  Ouse.  B.  is 
of  great  antiquity,  and  is  mentioned  in  the  Saxon 
Chronicle  under  the  name  of  Bedeanford,  as  the 
scene  of  a  battle  between  the  Britons  and  Saxons 
in  571.  The  Danes  burnt  it  in  lOld.  After- 
wards its  old  castle,  said  to  be  built  by  Edward  the 
Elder,  is  frequently  mentioned  in  history ;  there 
being,  as  Camden  says,  '  no  storm  of  civil  war  th:it 
did  not  burst  upon  it '  as  long  as  it  stood.  B.  has 
returned  two  members  to  parliament  since  1295. 
Pop.  11,693.  John  Bunyan  was  born  near  Bedford. 
He  dreamed  his  immortal  dream  in  B.  jail,  and 
ministered  to  the  Baptist  congregation  in  Mill  Lane 
from  Knl  to  his  death  in  1688.  The  inhabitants 
still  hold  his  memory  in  deep  veneration,  and  some 
relics  of  him  are  carefully  preserved. 

BEDFORD,  DuKK  of.  There  have  been  two 
distinct  dukedoms  of  B.  That  to  be  noticed  here 
existed  in  the  person  of  John  Plantagenet,  Regent 
of  France,  and  third  son  of  Henry  IV.  of  England, 
who  was  born  about  1389.  Duiing  his  father's 
lifetime,  he  was  goiernor  of  Berwick-upon-Tweed, 
and  waiden  of  the  Scottish  marches.  In  1414, 
the  second  year  of  his  brother's  reign,  he  was 
created  Duke  of  B.  ;  and  he  was  made  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  forces  in  England  while 
Henry  V.  was  carrying  on  the  war  in  France.  After 
the  death  of  Henry  V.  (1422),  B.,  in  accordance 
with  the  dying  wish  of  the  king,  left  the  alTairs  of 
England  in  the  hands  of  his  brother  Gloucester, 
and  went  to  France  to  look  after  the  interests  of 
the  infant  prince,  his  nephew.  The  regency  of 
France,  in  compliance  with  a  request  of  his  deceased 
brother,  he  offered  to  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  who 
refused  it;  he  then  assumed  it  himself,  but  not 
without  consulting  Burgundy  as  to  the  best  method 
of  carrying  out  the  treaty  of  Troyes,  by  which 
Charles  VI.  declared  Henry  V.  next  heir  to  the 
French  crown.  On  the  death  of  Charles  VI.,  a 
few  months  after  Henry  V.,  B.  had  his  nephew 
proclaimed  king  of  France  and  England,  as  Henry 
VI.  In  the  wars  with  the  dauphin  which  followed, 
B.    displayed    great    generalship,  and    defeated    the 

793 


BEDFORD  LEVEL— BEDLAM. 


French  ia  several  battles — most  disastrously  at 
Verxieuil,  in  142.4.  But,  in  consequence  of  the  rather 
parsimonious  way  in  which  men  and  money  were 
doled  out  to  him  from  Enp;land,  and  the  withdrawal 
of  the  forces  of  the  Duke  of  Burj;undy,  he  was 
iHiable  to  take  full  advantage  of  his  victories. 
The  appearance  of  Joan  of  Arc,  notwithstanding  the 
utmost  energy  of  B.,  was  followed  by  disaster  to 
the  English  arms;  and  in  ]4;j.5,  B.  was  mortified  by 
the  treaty  of  peace  negotiated  at  Rouen  between 
Charles  YII.  and  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  which 
cftbctualjy  ruined  English  interests  in  France.  The 
death  of  the  regent,  which  took  (ilace  September  10, 
1435,  fourteen  days  before  the  ratification  of  the 
treaty,  was  niaiidy,  if  not  altogether,  occasioned 
by  his  anxiety  and  vexation  on  account  of  the 
union  thus  formed.  B.,  who  was  a  patron  of  letters, 
purchased  and  removed  to  London  the  Royal 
Library  of  Paris,  consisting  of  900  volumes.  For 
the  present  family  of  B.,  See  Russell. 

BE'DFORD  LEVEL,  an  extensive  tract  of  flat 
laud  on  the  east  coast  of  England,  embracing  nearly 
all  the  marshy  district  called  the  Fens.  It  extends 
inland  around  tiie  Wash  into  the  six  counties  of 
Northampton,  Huntingdon,  Cambridge,  Lincoln, 
Norfolk,  and  Suffolk,  and  has  an  area  of  about 
400,000  acres.  Its  inland  boundary  forms  a  horse- 
shoe of  high  lands,  and  reaches  the  towns  of 
Brandon,  Millon — 3  miles  north-north-east  of  Cam- 
bridge— Earith,  Petcrl)orotigh,  and  Bolinghroke.  It 
is  divided  into  three  parts — the  north  level,  between 
the  rivers  Wellnnd  and  Nenc  ;  the  middle,  between 
the  Nene  and  the  Old  Bedford  River;  and  the  south, 
extending  to  Stoke,  Feltwell,  and  Mildenhall.  It 
is  intersected  by  many  artificial  channels,  as  well 
as  by  the  lower  parts  of  the  rivers  Nene,  Cam, 
Ouse  (Great  and  Little),  Welland,  Glen,  Lark,  and 
Stoke.  It  receives  the  waters  of  the  whole  or 
parts  of  nine  counties.  The  substratum  of  the 
Fens  is  a  stiff  clay,  called  gault,  a  newer  tertiary 
deposit,  on  which  rest  earth,  vegetable  matter,  silt, 
and  water.  This  district  seems  to  have  been  a 
great  forest  at  the  time  of  the  invasion  of  the 
Romans,  who  cut  the  forest  down  ;  formed  great 
embankments,  to  exclude  the  tide  ;  and  rendered  the 
tract  for  a  time  a  fertile  inhabited  region.  The 
Emperor  Severus,  in  the  3d  c.,  made  roads  through 
it,  one  of  which  is  now  covered  with  two  to  five  feet 
of  water.  In  the  13th  c,  violent  incursions  of  the 
sea  stopped  the  outflow  of  the  rivers,  and  it  became 
a  morass.  The  practicability  of  draining  this  exten- 
sive region  seems  to  have  been  thought  of  as  early 
as  143G,  and  many  partial  attempts  were  made  after 
this.  The  first  efl'ectual  cftbrt  was  in  1634,  when 
Francis,  Eail  of  Bedford,  after  whom  the  district 
was  thenceforth  called,  obtained,  along  with  13 
others,  a  charter  to  drain  the  level,  on  condition 
of  receiving  95,000  acres  of  the  reclaimed  land.  The 
work  was  partially  accomplished  in  3  years,  at  the 
expense  of  £100,(^00  ;  but  was  pronounced  by  the 
government  to  be  inadequate.  Charles  I.  tried  to 
get  the  work,  with  a  greatly  increased  prenuum, 
into  his  own  hands;  but  the  civil  war  .stopped 
further  progress.  In  1649,  parliament  confirmed 
William,  Earl  of  Bedford,  in  the  rights  granted  to 
his  father ;  and  after  a  fresh  outlay  of  £300,000, 
the  contract  was  fulfilled.  In  1688,  a  corporation 
was  formed  for  the  management  of  the  level,  which 
still  exists.  But  only  within  the  last  30  years  lias 
the  drainage  been  rendered  thoroughly  efficient,  by 
means  of  large  and  small  drains  and  embankments. 
Although  at  great  expense,  a  large  tract  of  country 
has  been  redeemed  from  water,  and  is  now  converted 
into  fertile  pasture,  grain,  flax,  and  cole-seed  lands. 
In  some  parts  of  the  district,  the  annual  increase 
of  property  is  now  equal  to  the  purchase-money  paid 
794 


for  it  60  years  ago.  Steam-engines  and  wind-mills 
are  now  used  to  pump  the  water  into  the  artificial 
channels. 

BE'DFORDSHIRE,  a  midland  county  of  England, 
bounded  N.  E.  bv  Huntingdon;  E.  by  Cambriilge ; 
S.  E.  and  S.  by  Hertford  ;  S.  W.  and  \V.  l)y  Bucking- 
ham ;  and  N.  W.  by  Northampton.  It  stands  37tii 
of  the  40  English  counties  in  size,  and  36tli  in 
population.  Extreme  length,  31  miles;  breadth,  25. 
Area,  463  stpiare  miles,  five-sixths  being  arable, 
meadow,  and  pasture  lauds.  The  general  surface 
is  level,  with  gentle  undidations.  In  the  south,  a 
range  of  chalk-hills,  branching  from  the  Chilterns, 
cros.ses  B.  in  a  north-east  direction  from  Dunstable, 
and  another  parallel  range  runs  from  Ampthill  to 
near  the  junction  of  the  Ivel  with  the  Ouse. 
Between  the  latter  riilge  and  th.c  northwest  part  of 
the  county,  where  the  land  is  also  somewhat  hilly, 
lies  the  corn  vale  of  Bedford.  No  hill  in  B.  much 
exceeds  900  feet  in  height.  The  chief  rivers  are  the 
Ouse  (running  through  the  centre  of  the  county, 
17  miles  in  a  direct  line,  but  45  by  its  windings), 
navigable  to  Bedford;  and  its  tributary,  the  Ivel, 
navigable  to  Sheffbrd.  By  these  rivers,  B.  connimni- 
cates  with  the  counties  of  Cambridge,  Huntingdon, 
and  Norfolk.  The  south  and  south-east  parts  of 
the  county  consist  of  chalk,  and  the  north  and 
north-west  of  oolitic  strata.  Freestone  is  quar- 
ried, as  well  as  chalk  or  clunch,  to  be  burnt  for 
lime.  The  soil  varies  greatly.  In  the  south  of  the 
county,  it  is  chalk  tliinly  covered  with  earth, 
and  fit  only  for  sheep-walks ;  but  three-fourths 
of  the  county  is  clay,  which  is  very  stiff  between 
the  Ivel  and  Ouse.  A  rich  gravelly  loam  exists 
along  the  rivers.  In  the  vale  of  Bedford,  the  soil  is 
chiefly  rich  clay  and  deep  loam  ;  and  to  the  north, 
the  clay  is  stiff,  poor,  and  wet.  There  are  extensive 
market-gardens,  especially  on  the  rich  deep  loams. 
The  chief  crops  are  wheat  and  Ijeans  on  the  clayey 
land,  barley  and  turnips  on  the  chalk  and  sandy 
soil;  B.  is  the  most  exclusively  agricultural  county 
in  England.  The  principal  pro))rietor3  are  the  Duke 
of  Bedford,  the  Marquises  of  Tavistock  and  Bute, 
Earl  de  Grey,  Lords  Holland,  Carteret,  and  St. 
John.  Little  trade  or  manufacture  exists  in  the 
cotmty.  Lace-making  and  straw-plaiting — for  which 
Dunstable  is  celebrated — are  the  only  branches  of 
industry  practised  to  any  extent,  and  they  are 
carried  on  almost  entirely  by  women.  B.  is  divided 
into  9  hundreds,  and  contains  10  market-towns, 
124  parishes,  and  6  poor-law  unions.  In  1861,  pop. 
135,287;  schools,  227,  with  13,003  scholars;  places 
of  worship,  327  (Church  of  England,  133  ;  Methodists, 
96 ;  Baptists,  55).  Two  members  of  parliament  are 
returned  for  the  county  of  B.  and  two  for  the  town 
of  Bedford.  Many  British  and  Roman  antiquities 
exist  in  B.,  as  well  as  the  ruins  of  several  monas- 
teries, and  some  fine  relics  of  Anglo-Saxon,  Early 
English,  and  Norman  architecture  among  the  parish 
churches.  Three  Roman  ways  once  crossed  the 
county,  and  several  earthworth  camps  still  remain. 

BE'DLAM,  a  popular  corruption  of  Bethlehem, 
the  name  of  a  hospital  for  lunatics,  in  St.  George's 
Fields,  London.  It  was  originally  founded  in 
Bishopsgate  Street  Without,  in  1246,  by  Simon 
Fitz-Mary,  one  of  the  sheriffs  of  London,  as  '  a 
privy  of  canons  with  brethren  and  sisters.'  When 
the  religious  houses  were  suppressed  by  Henry  VIII. , 
the  one  in  Bishopsgate  Street  fell  into  the  possession 
of  the  corporation  of  London,  who  converted  it 
into  an  asylum  for  50  or  60  insane  persons.  lu 
the  year  1675,  the  hospital  was  taken  down,  and  a 
new  one,  aftbrding  accommodation  for  about  150 
patients,  was  ei-ected  in  Moorlields,  at  a  cost  of  about 
£17,000.     In    1814,  the    hospital    was    agair   pulled 


BEDMAR— BEDSTRAW. 


down,  and  tlie  patients  tranpfen-cd  to  a  new  hospital 
ill  St.  George's  Fields,  erected  for  198  patients  ;  Init 
ill  18:58  extended  so  as  to  accommodate  IGO  more. 
The  building  with  its  grounds,  now  covers  an  area 
of  1-1  acres,  and  is  lacking  in  nothing  likely  to  insure 
the  comfort  or  piomote  the  recovery  of  patients. 
In  former  times,  the  management  of  B.  was  deplor- 
able. The  patients  were  exhibited  to  the  public, 
like  wild  beasts  in  cages,  at  so  much  per  head,  and 
were  treated  and  made  sport  of  by  visitors,  as  if 
they  had  been  animals  in  a  menagerie.  The  funds  of 
the  hosjjital  not  being  suflicient  to  meet  the  expend- 
iture, partially  convalescent  patients,  with  badges 
allixed  to  their  arms,  and  known  as  Tom-o'-Bed- 
lams,  or  'Bedlam  Beggars,'  were  turned  out  to 
wander  and  beg  in  the  streets.  Edgar,  in  Shak- 
spoare's  Lear,  assumes  the  character  of  one  of  these. 
This  practice,  however,  appears  to  have  been  stopi)ed 
before  1675;  an  advertisement  in  the  io«(/o?i.  6-'a,:e/'<<' 
of  that  date,  from  the  governors  of  B.,  cautions  the 
public  against  giving  alms  to  vagrants  representing 
themselves  as  I'rom  the  hospital,  no  permission  to 
beg  being  at  that  time  given  to  patients.  Now,  the 
moral  and  physical  management  of  the  patients  is  so 
excellent,  that  annually  more  than  one  half  of  their 
number  are  returned  as  cured. 

BEDMAR,  Alfonso  de  Cieva,  Marquis  de,  was 
born  in  157 2.  lie  has  won  an  enduring  notoriety 
on  account  of  his  daring  and  unscrupulous  plot  for 
the  destruction  of  Venice,  to  which  city  he  had 
been  appointed  ambassador  from  the  court  of  Spain 
ia  1607.  It  was  a  difficult  office  to  fill,  for  Venice 
and  Spain  cherished  most  unfriendly  feelings  towards 
each  other.  B.  probably  conceived  that  he  was 
acting  a  patriotic  and  juslitiable  part,  in  taking 
advantage  of  his  position  to  play  the  spy  and  con- 
spirator; but  whether  or  not,  his  scheme  was  con- 
trived with  admirable  ingenuity.  He  first  leagued 
himself  secretly  with  the  Duke  of  Ossuna,  viceroy 
of  Naples,  and  Don  Pedro  of  Toledo,  governor  of 
Milan,  whom  he  made  his  confidants  and  coadjutors. 
He  then  purchased  the  services  of  a  large  number  of 
foreign  mercenaries,  and  scattered  them  through  the 
city,  to  prevent  suspicion.  Ossuna  furnished  him 
with  a  band  of  semi-pirates,  who  were  to  enter  the 
Venetian  fleet,  corrupt  the  sailors,  and  hinder  opera 
lions  ill  any  way  they  could.  The  conspirators  were 
to  set  fire  to  the  arsenal  of  the  republic,  and  seize 
all  the  important  posts.  At  this  precise  moment,  the 
Milanese  troops  were  to  appear  at  the  extremity 
of  the  mainland,  and  those  sailors  who  had  been 
seduced  from  their  allegiance  were  to  convey  them 
rapidly  over  to  Venice.  A  Spanish  fleet  was  to 
ci-eep  up  the  Adriatic,  in  order  to  assist  if  necessary. 
The  city  was  then  to  be  plundered  and  destroyed. 
The  day  chosen  was  that  ou  which  the  doge  wedded 
the  Adriatic,  when  all  Venice  was  intent  on  beholding 
the  august  ceremony.  Fortunately  the  night  belbre 
tlie  crime  was  to  have  been  perpetrated,  one  of  the 
conspirators  betrayed  the  whole.  Several  persons 
v^ere  executed;  but  curiously  enough  B.,  the  areh- 
deliuquent,  was  only  dismissed.  This  has  excited 
the  scepticism  of  many  writers  as  to  the  truth  of  the 
accusation  ;  but  the  evidence  in  favour  of  the  historic 
reality  of  the  plot  is  generally  held  to  be  incon- 
testable. The  event  forms  the  subject  of  Otway's 
[lopular  and  pathetic  play,  Venice  Preserved.  B.  now 
went  to  Flanders,  where  he  became  president  of  the 
council,  and  in  1622,  was  made  a  cardinal  by  tiie 
])ope.  He  then  went  to  Rome,  and  finally  returned 
to  Spain  as  Bishop  of  Oviedo,  where  he  died  in  1655. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  the  author  of  a  pamphlet 
published  in  1612,  directed  against  the  liberties  of 
Venice.  It  is  entitled  Sqxdttino  della  Liber ta.Vcneta. 
BEDOS    DE    CELLOS,    Don   Jean   Francois,   a 


Benedictine  monk  of  the  congregation  of  St.  Maur, 
and  the  most  learned  and  practical  master  of  the 
art  of  organ-buihliug  in  the  IStli  c,  whose  work  on 
the  art  is  to  the  present  day  of  the  great(>st  import- 
ance. He  was  born  about  171-f  at  Chaux,  and 
entered  his  order  in  1726  at  Toulouse,  where  hu 
built  several  large  and  superior  church-organs.  He 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences 
in  1758;  in  177(),  he  completed  for  the  Academy 
his  great  work,  VArt  du  Favteur  d'0?-(/ncs,  in  4 
vols.,  large  folio,  with  137  copperplates,  beautifully 
executed.  This  work  has  never  been  translated  into 
English,  but  the  greater  part  of  it  has  been  translated 
into  German.     B.  de  C.  died  in  1797. 

BE'DSTRAW  (Galitan),  a  genus  of  plants  belong- 
ing  to  the  natural  order  Liubiacece  (q.  v.),  and  dis- 
tinguished by  a  small  wheel-shaped  calyx,  and  a  dry 
two-lobed  fruit,  each  lobe  containing  a  single  sec(l. 
The  leaves,  as  in  the  rest  of  the  order,  are  whorled, 
and  the  flowers  minute;  but  in  many  of  the  species 
the  panicles  are  so  large  and  many-flowered  that 
they  are  amongst  the  ornaments  of  the  banks  and 
other  situations  in  which  they  giow.  The  species  are 
very  numerous,  natives  chielly  of  the  colder  parts  of 
the  northern  hemisphere,  or  of  mountainous  regions 
within  or  near  the  tropics.  About  16  species  are 
found  in  Britain,  some  of  them  very  common  weeds. 
Amongst  these  is  the  Yellow  B.  {G.  ventm) — some- 
times called  Cheese  Rennet,  because  it  has  the 
property  of  curdling  milk,  and  is  used  for  that  pur- 
pose— a  small  jilant  with  linear  deflexed  leaves  and 
dense  panicles  of  bright  yellow  flowers,  very  abuu- 
dant  ou  dry  banks.       The  flowering  tops,  boiled  in 


Yellow  Bedstraw  (GaUiim  venim). 

a,  top  of  stem,  shewing  Ic-avos  nnd  llowcrs ;   b,  c,  two  views 

of  a  flower. 

alum,  afford  a  dye  of  a  bright  yellow  colour,  much 
used  in  Iceland  ;  and  the  Highlanders  of  Scotland 
have  long  been  accustomed  to  employ  the  roots,  and 
especially  the  bark  of  them,  for  dyeing  yarn  red. 
They  arc  said  to  yield  a  red  colour  fully  equal  to 
that  of  madder,  and  the  cultivation  of  the  plant  has 
been  attempted  in  England.  The  roots  of  other 
species  of  the  same  genus  possess  similar  properties, 

795 


BEDSTRAW— BEDUINS. 


as  tliose  of  G.  tinctorium,  a  species  abundant  in  low 
marshy  grounds  in  Canada ;  and  those  of  septcn- 
trio7mle,  another  North  American  species,  used  by 
Kome  of  the  Indian  tribes.  Like  madder,  they 
possess  the  property  of  imparting  a  red  colour  to 
the  bones  aud  milk  of  animals  which  feed  upon 
them.  Medicinal  virtues  have  been  ascribed  to  some 
of  the  species,  as  G.  rigklum  and  G.  II-o!lugo,  which 
have  been  extolled  as  useful  in  epilepsy. — The  roasted 
seeds  of  some,  as  G.  Aparhic,  the  troublesome  Goose- 
grass,  or  Cleavers,  of  our  hedges — remaikable  for  the 
hooked  prickles  of  its  stem,  leaves,  and  fruit — have 
been  recommended  as  a  substitute  for  cofiVe ;  but  it 
does  not  appear  that  they  contain  any  principle 
analogous  to  cafleine.  This  plant  is  a  native  of  the 
northern  parts  equally  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America. 
Its  expressed  juice  is  in  some  countries  a  popular 
remedy  for  cutaneous  disorders. — The  roots  of  G. 
tuberu'mm  are  farinaceous,  and  it  is  cultivated  in 
Ciiina  for  food. — The  name  B.  is  supposed  to  be 
derived  from  the  ancient  employment  of  some  of  the 
species,  the  herbage  of  which  is  soft  and  fine,  for 
strewing  beds. 


I      BE'DUIXS  (Arabic,    Bcdawi,    i.e.,    'dwellers    in 
the  desert')  are  Arabs  who  lead  a  nomadic  life,  and 
I  nre    generally  regarded,   according   to    tradition,  as 
the  descendants  of  Ishmael,  and  the  aborigines  of 
I  Arabia.     The  most  ancient  notices  found  in  [scripture 
agree,  in  their  descriptions  of  the  manners  and  cus- 
toms of  the  E.,  w  ith  the  facts  of  the  present  time. 
As  nomads,  the  Beduin  Arabs  have  no  united  history, 
;  but  only  a  collection  of  genealogies.     They  have  but 
seldom  ai)pearf d  as  a  united  people,  taking   a  pro- 
1  niinent  part  in  the  world's  politics,  and   have  never 
i  been     entirely   held    in    subjection    by  any    foreign 
i  power.     The  desert  of  Arabia,  especially  the  plateau 
i  of  Nedjid,  is  their  central  place  of  abode  ;  but,  even 
in    ancient  times,  they  had  spread  themselves  over 
the  deserts  of  Egypt  and  Syria  ;  and  in  later  times, 
after  the  decay  of  ancient  civilisation,  they  entered 
Pyrin,    Jlesopotamia,    and   Clialda?a.     Ti.e   conquest 
of  Korthcrn  Africa,  in  the  7th  e.,  opened  up  to  them 
!  still    vaster    tracts,   and    they  soon    extended    them- 
selves over   the    Great  Desert  to  the  shores  of  the 
Atlantic  Ocean.     At  present,  they  are  to  be  found 
scattered  over  an  immense  breadth  of  territory — viz., 


Beduins  stripping  a  traveller. 


from  the  western  boundary  of  Persia  to  the  Atlantic, 
and  from  the  mountains  of  Kurdistan  to  the  negro 
countries  of  Sudan.  In  the  cultivated  lands  of 
Mesopotamia,  Chaldsea,  the  Syrian  confines,  Barbary, 
Nubia,  and  the  north  of  Sudan,  the  Arabs  are  found 
intermingled  with  other  nations ;  but  in  the  deserts 
ihey  have  maintained  their  distinct  character  and 
independence.  The  characteristics  of  the  B.,  as 
herdsmen  and  robbers  in  the  desert,  are  intimately 
connected  with  the  nature  of  their  habitation.  Their 
abstinent,  precarious,  and  often  solitary  mode  of  life, 
makes  them  disposed  to  exercise  mutual  hospitality  ; 
but  their  independence,  love  of  liberty,  and  other 
good  qualities,  are  associated  with  violent  passions 
and  an  infamous  love  of  plunder,  which  is  utterly 
reckless  of  the  rights  of  property.  Tiiey  are  gener- 
ally ■well-made  men,  lean,  sinewy,  and  active  ;  but, 
on  account  of  frequent  hardshi|)S  and  privations,  are 
commonly  below  tnidddle  stature.  Their  senses,  espe- 
cially sight,  are  keen,  and  their  carriage  is  free  and 
independent.  The  nose  is  commonly  aquiline,  the 
face  rather  lengthened,  and  the  eyes  are  well  shaped 
ttnd  expressive  of  both  daring  and  cunning.  In 
796 


complexion,  they  have  various  shades  of  brown.  With 
the  exception  of  certain  tribes  in  Syria,  all  the  B.  are 
professedly  Mohammedans,  but  by  no  means  strict 
in  the  observance  of  their  religious  rites  and  duties. 
Their  Marnbouis  (q.  v.) — a  class  of  ascetics — take 
the  place  of  priests,  and  exercise  considerable  influ- 
ence in  all  social  and  public  aflairs.  As  the  Arabs 
have  no  settled  government  or  policy,  religious  tra- 
ditions and  customs  form  the  only  bond  of  order 
and  union  among  them.  Though  their  intellectual 
powers  are  naturally  good,  they  are  miserably  desti- 
tute of  solid  knowledge.  Their  endless  talcs  and 
poetical  elfusions  shew  a  wonderful  activity  of  ima- 
gination and  an  oriental  love  of  hyperbole.  The  re- 
lation of  the  sexes  to  each  other  is  less  constrained 
than  among  the  settled  peoples  of  the  P^ast,  aud  a 
substitute  for  polygamy  is  found  in  a  frequent  inter- 
change of  wives.  Their  favourite  pastimes  are  the 
chase,  ball-play,  dancing,  songs,  stories,  and  the  dolce 
far  niente  (pleasant  laziness)  of  drinking  coffee  and 
'smoking  narghiles.  Their  diet  is  principally  derived 
from  their  herds,  but  includes  a  few  vegetables,  and 
even  locusts  and  lizards.     Houey  is  also  a  principal 


BED\YTX— BEE. 


luxury  with  all  chissesj,  luid,  moreover,  one  which 
has  a  relip;ioiis  sanetion,  lor  it  was  indulged  in  by 
Mohammed  hiniseli",  who  makes  cojjious  mention  of 
it  in  the  Koran.  They  numulacture  their  own 
woollen  clothing,  which  consisla  of  the  haikh — a 
long,  wide  garment  fastened  on  the  head,  and  de- 
scending to  the  feet — and  the  (ncrnoose,  a  large  mantle. 
Only  superior  men  wear  breeches  and  linen  or  cot- 
ton shirts.  The  hair  of  the  head  is  shaven,  but  the 
beard  is  a  favourite  ol)ject  of  cultivation.  The  poli- 
tical condition  of  the  J5.  may  be  styled  patriarchal. 
One  or  more  families,  the  males  of  which  bear  the 
title  of  s/ieik,  form  the  coie  of  a  tribe,  and  along 
with  the  marabouts,  or  priests,  constitute  a  kind 
of  aristocracy.  Out  of  their  number  the  superior 
sfieih,  or  kaid,  is  elected,  who  rules  in  patriarchal 
style  over  the  whole  tribe.  Tliis  general  sketch  of 
the  B.  applies  chiefly  to  the  true  nomads,  or  '  dwellers 
in  the  desert,'  and  is  subject  to  several  modifications 
with  regard  to  tribes  located  in  Barbary,  Syria,  and 
Mesopotamia,  who  practise  agriculture,  and  dwell  in 
houses. 

BE'DWIN,  Great,  a  town  of  Wiltshire,  on  the 
Kennet  and  Avon  Canal,  and  the  Great  Western 
Railway,  C9  miles  west-by-south  of  London.  Pop. 
2193.  A  fierce  but  indecisive  battle  occurred  here 
in  674,  between  the  kings  of  Mercia  and  Wessex. 
St.  Mary's  Church  was  l)uilt  in  the  beginning  of  the 
14th  c,  and  is  constructed  of  flint,  except  the  piers, 
arches,  and  dressings,  which  are  of  freestone.  Jaue 
Seymour,  one  of  the  queens  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  Dr. 
Willis,  an  eminent  physician  of  the  l^th  c,  were 
born  here.  In  the  end  of  last  century,  the  remains 
of  a  Roman  villa  were  discovered,  including  tesserai, 
bricks,  a  tessellated  i)avement,  a  huge  leaden  cistern, 
and  the  foundations  of  baths. 

BEE,  the  common  name  of  a  very  large  family  of 
insects,  of  the  order  Hiimcuoptera  (q.  v.),  belonging 
to  the  section  of  that  order  called  Acnlcala,  in 
which  the  females  are  furnished  not  with  an  ovi- 
positor, but  (usually)  with  a  sting.  Bees  M-ere  all 
included  by  Linnaeus  in  the  genus  Apis  (Lat.  for 
B.),  but  are  now  divided  into  many  genera;  and  the 
name  Anthophila  (Gr.  flower-loving)  or  Mellifera 
(Lat.  honey-bearing)  is  given  to  the  family  which 
they  constitute.  All  bees  in  a  perfect  state  feed 
exclusively  or  chiefly  on  saccharine  juices,  particu- 
larly the  nectar  or  honey  of  flowers  ;  and  the  ordi- 
nary food  of  their  young  in  the  larva  state,  is  the 
pollen  of  flowers,  or  a  paste,  often  called  B.-bread, 
composed  of  pollen  and  honey.  They  evidently 
perform  a  very  important  part  in  the  economy  of 
nature,  in  the  fertilisation  of  flowers,  which  depends 
upon  tlie  contact  of  particles  of  the  ])olleu  with  the 
stigma  ;  ami,  as  if  to  secure  this  oliject  more  per- 
fectly, in  their  search  for  honey  and  pollen,  they 
usually — some  have  perhaps  too  hastily  said  always 
— pass  from  flower  to  flower  of  the  same  kind,  and 
not  to  flowers  of  dirterent  kinds  indiscriminately. 
They  abound  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  world,  l)ut 
particularly  in  the  warmer  paits  of  it.  Not  fewer 
than  250  species  are  known  as  natives  of  Britain. 

To  enable  them  to  reach  their  liquid  food  at  the 
bottom  of  the  tubes  of  flowers,  and  in  the  little 
receptacles  in  which  it  is  produced,  bees  have 
certain  parts  of  the  mouth — the  maxilUe  and  lahimn 
(see  Inskcts),  or  lower  jaws  and  lower  lip,  with  their 
feelers  (pn'pi) — elongated  into  a  sort  of  proboscis ; 
and  the  lir/ula  is  elongated,  sometimes,  as  in  the 
common  Hive  B.,  assuming  the  form  of  a  filament, 
is  capable  of  extension  and  retraction,  and  is  folded 
up  when  not  in  use.  This  is  the  organ  sometimes 
called  the  tongue  of  bees,  although  the  name  can- 
not be  regarded  as  very  appropriate,  it  Ijcing  a  part 
»f  the   labium  or  lower  lip.     The    other   elongated 


parts  of  the  mouth  serve  as  a  sort  of  sheath  for  this 
organ,  when  it  is  folded  up.  It  is  not  tubular,  and 
employed  in  the  manner  of  suction,  as  was  at  one 
time  supposed,  but  is  generally  more  or  less  hairy, 
80  that  the  honey  adheres  to  it  as  it  is  rolled  and 
moved  about,  and  is  conveyed  up  through  the 
mouth  into  the  honey-bag,  sometimes  called  the 
first  stomach,  an  appropriate  receptacle,  in  which 
it  apparently  mulergoes  some  change — witliotit, 
however,  being  subjected  to  any  process  analogous 
to  digestion,  and  is  ready  to  bo  given  forth  again  by 
the  mouth,  according  to  the  habits  of  those  species 
of  bees  which  are  social,  as  food  for  the  mejnbers  of 
the  community  that  remain  at  home  in  the  nest,  or 
to  be  stored  uj)  in  cells  for  future  provision.  See 
IIoNKY.  But  the  mouth  of  bees  is  also  adapted  for 
cutting  and  tearing,  and  to  tliis  purpose  their 
mnnilihles  or  upp(>rjaws  are  especially  appropriated. 
Of  these,  some  of  them,  as  the  common  llumblc  B. 
(q.  v.),  make  use  to  open  their  way  into  the  tubes 
of  flowers  which  are  so  deep  and  narrow  that  they 
cannot  otherwise  reach  the  nectar  at  the  bottom. 
Others  nuike  use  of  tlieir  mandibles  to  cut  out  por- 
tions of  leaves,  or  of  the  petals  of  flowers,  to  form 
or  line  their  nests  ;  the  common  Hive  B.  uses  them 
in  working  with  wax,  in  feeding  larvaj  with  pollen, 
in  cleaning  out  cells,  in  tearing  to  pieces  old  combs, 
in  combats,  and  in  all  the  great  variety  of  purposes 
for  which  organs  of  prehension  are  required.  But 
it  is  not  by  means  of  any  of  the  organs  connected 
with  their  mouth  that  bees  collect  and  carry  to  their 
nests  the  supplies  of  pollen  needful  for  their  young. 
The  feathered  hairs  with  which  their  bodies  are 
partially  clothed,  and  particularly  those  with  which 
their  legs  are  furnished,  serve  for  the  purpose  of  col- 
lecting the  pollen  which  adheres  to  them,  and  it  ia 
brushed  into  a  hollow  on  the  outer  surface  of  the 
first  joint  of  the  tarsus  of  each  of  the  hinder  pair  of 
legs,  this  joint  being  therefore  very  large,  com- 
pressed, and  of  a  square  or  triangular  form — a  con- 
formation to  which  nothing  similar  is  found  in  any 
other  family  of  insects.  It  is  also  worthy  of  obser- 
vation, that  in  the  social  species  of  bees,  the  mak\i 
and  the  queens,  which  are  never  to  be  employed  in 
collecting  pollen,  do  not  exhibit  this  conformation 
adapted  to  it,  but  only  the  sexually  imperfect  females, 
commonly  called  neuters  or  workers. 

Bees,  like  other  hymenopterons  insects,  are  ex- 
tremely well  provided  with  organs  of  sight,  and 
evidently  possess  that  sense  in  very  great  perfection. 
In  the  front  of  the  head,  they  have  two  large  eyes, 
the  surface  of  each  consisting  of  many  hexagonal 
plates,  which  perhaps  may  not  unaptly  be  likened 
to  the  object  glasses  of  so  many  telescopes  ;  and  the 
faculty  wliich  these  insects  certainly  possess,  of  re- 
turning in  a  direct  line  to  their  hive  or  nest,  from 
the  utmost  distance  of  their  wanderings,  has  beeti 
with  greatest  probability  ascribed  to  their  power  of 
sight.  But  besides  these  large  eyes,  they  have,  like 
the  rest  of  the  hymenopterons  order,  three  small 
eyes  on  the  very  top  of  the  head,  which  are  supposed 
to  be  intended  to  give  a  defensive  vision  upwards 
from  the  cups  of  flowers. — They  are  evidently,  how- 
ever, possessed  of  organs  which  enable  them  to 
guide  their  movements  in  tiie  dark  as  accurately  as 
in  the  full  light  of  day,  at  least  within  the  nest  or 
hive;  and  this  power  is  generally  ascribed  to  the 
aidcnncc  (q.  v.),  which  are  sometimes  supposed 
to  be  not  merely  delicate  organs  of  touch,  but 
also  organs  of  hearing,  or  of  some  special  sense 
unknown  to  us.  It  is  certain  that  the  social 
bees  have  some  means  of  communicating  with 
each  other  by  means  of  their  antenna; ;  and  that 
they  avail  themselves  of  these  organs  both  for 
their  ordinary  operations,  for  recognition  of  each 
other,   and    for   what   may   be    called   the  conduct 

797 


BEE. 


of  the  affairs  of  the  hive.  There  can  be  no  doubt 
that  bees  possess  in  a  very  high  deforce  the  sense 
of  smell ;  and  their  possession  of  tlie  senses  of 
taste  and  bearing  is  almost  equally  unquestionable, 
whatever  difficulty  there  may  be  in  determining  the 
particular  organs  of  the  latter  sense. — The  wings  of 
bees,  like  those  of  other  hymenopterous  insects,  are 
four  in  nuniher :  thin  and  membranaceous ;  the 
In'ndor  pair  always  smaller  than  the  others;  and  in 
flight,  attached  to  them  by  a  number  of  small  hooks, 
so  that  tlie  four  wings  move  as  if  ihey  were  two. 

The  sting  of  bees  is  a  very  remarkable  organ.  It 
consists  of  two  long  darts,  with  a  protecting  sheath. 
A  venom  bag  is  connected  with  it,  and  powerful 
muscles  for  its  propulsion.  The  wound  appears  to 
be  first  made  by  the  sheath,  along  which   the  poison 


Bee  Sting,  highly  magnified. 

A.  stinir  of  boo;  S.  sheatli  of  stino;;  F,  end  of  stin?.  jrreatly 
maitnified,  showing  six  barbs  curved  upwards;  B.  srlandsfor 
secreting  j)oison;  C,  ducts  through  whicli  it  flows  to  D, 
where  it  is  kept  ready  for  use;  O.  circular  dilatation  to  pre- 
vent sting  from  being  thrust  too  far  out  of  slicath. 

passes  by  a  groove  ;  and  the  darts  thrust  out  after- 
wards in  succession,  deepen  the  wotnid.  The  darts 
are  each  furnished  with  a  number  of  barbs,  which 
render  it  so  difficult  to  withdraw  them  quickly,  that 
bees  often  lose  their  lives  by  the  injury  which  they 
sustain  in  the  effort. — The  males  are  destitute  of 
Kting. 

The  great  family  of  bees  is  divided  into  two  prin- 
cipal sections  called  AndrencUe  and  Apiariie,  or 
Andrenetcs  and  Apidie ;  the  latter  names,  however, 
being  sometimes  employed  in  senses  more  restricted. 
In  the  first  of  these  sections,  the  lir/ula  is  compara- 
tively short  and  broad  ;  in  the  second,  it  is  lengthened, 
and  has  the  form  of  a  filament.  All  the  Audrenetce 
live  solitarily,  as  well  as  several  subdivisions  of  the 
Apiarice.  These  solitary  bees  do  not  lay  up  stores 
for  their  own  winter  subsistence ;  but  they  display 
very  wonderful  and  various  instincts  in  the  habita- 
tions which  they  constiuct  and  the  provision  which 
they  make  for  their  young.  There  are  among  them 
males  and  perfect  females  only,  and  no  neuters. 
The  work  of  preparing  nests  and  providing  food  for 
the  young,  seems  in  all  of  the  species  to  be  per- 
formed exclusively  by  the  females.  Colletes  .ittccinc/a, 
a  common  British  species  of  the  Andrctietce,  affords 
an  example  of  a  mode  of  nest-making,  which,  with 
various  modifications,  is  common  to  many  species  of 
that  section.  The  parent  B.  excavates  a  cylindrical 
l.ole  in  the  earth,  usually  horizontal,  to  the  depth  of 
about  two  inches,  in  a  dry  bank  or  a  wall  of  stones 
and  earth.  The  sides  of  this  hole  arc  compacted  bv 
798 


means  of  a  sort  of  gelatinous  liqMi<l,  secreted  Tiy  the 
insect,  and  it  is  occupied  with  cells,  formed  of  a 
tran8|)arcntand  delicate  membrane,  the  substance  of 
which  is  the  same  secretion  in  a  dried  state.  The 
cells  are  thimble-shaped,  fitting  into  each  other,  a 
little  space  being  left  at  the  furthest  end  of  each  for 
the  reception  of  an  egg  and  a  little  paste  of  pollen 
and  honey.  The  last  cell  l>eing  completed,  and  its 
projier  contents  deposited  in  it,  the  mouth  of  the 
wliole  is  carefully  stopped  up  with  earth. — F^onie  of 
the  solitary  bees,  po.ssc<sing  great  strength  of  man- 
dibles, excavate  their  nests  in  old  wood.  Xtilocopa 
violaccn,  one  of  the  Apiarim,  not  uncommon  in 
some  parts  of  Europe,  makes  a  tunnel  not  less 
than  twelve  or  fifteen  inches  long,  and  half  an 
inch  wide,  which  is  divided  into  ten  or  twelve 
cells;  an  egg  with  store  of  pollen  and  honey  is 
deposited  in  each  compartment,  and  as  the  lowest 
egg  is  hatched  first,  a  second  orifice  is  provided  at 
that  part  of  the  tunnel,  through  which  each  of 
the  young  ones  in  succession  comes  forth  to  the 
light  of  day,  each  larva,  as  it  is  about  to  change 
into  the  pupa  state,  placing  itself  with  its  head 
downwards  in  the  cell. — Xumerous  species  of  soli- 
tary bees  excavate  their  tunnel-shaped  nests  in  the 
soft  i)ith  of  decayed  briers  or  brambles,  of  the 
particles  of  which  they  also  form  their  cells. — Some 
species  of  3lcf/fjchi/e,  Oxmia,  &c.,  line  them  and 
divide  them  into  cells  with  portions  of  leaves  or 
of  the  petals  of  flowers.  See  LKAF-cfTTEU  Bef;. 
Some  of  the  .solitary  bees  make  their  nests,  not  in 
the  earth,  but  in  cavities  of  decaying  trees,  or  other 
such  situations,  where  they  construct  their  cells  with- 
out the  same  necessity  of  excavation;  but  some  of 
them,  by  a  very  admirable  instinct,  surround  their 
nest  with  down  collected  from  the  leaves  of  plants, 
an  excellent  non-conductor  of  heat,  so  that  a  nearly 
uniform  temperature  is  maintained  in  situations  in 
which  the  cliangcs  would  otherwise  be  great  and 
rapid.  Some  bees  make  their  liitle  nests  in  old 
oak-galls,  and  there  are  species  which  appropriate 
empty  snail-sh'lls  to  that  use. — Some  species  of  the 
genus  Mcgnv}iih  build  their  nests  of  a  sort  of 
mason-work  of  grains  of  sand  glued  together  with 
their  viscid  saliva.  The  nest  of  M.  muraria,  thus 
constructed,  is  .so  hard  as  not  to  be  ca.sily  pene- 
trated by  a  knife,  and  very  nnich  resembles  a  splash 
of  mud  upon  a  wall. 

The  social  bees  live  .n  conmiunities  like  those  of 
ants,  which  also,  like  theirs,  consist  of  males,  females, 
and  neuters — these  last  being  females  with  ovaries 
imperfectly  developed,  and  characterised  by  pecu- 
liarities of  fortn  and  structure,  as  well  as  of  instinct 
and  employments,  remarkably  different  from  those 
of  the  perfect  females.  The  social  bees  are  conve- 
niently divided  into  Humble  Bees  (q.  v.)  and  Honey 
Bees,  of  the  latter  of  which  the  common  Hive  B. 
(see  the  next  section  of  this  article)  may  be  regarded 
as  the  type.  Before  proceeding  to  a  more  particu- 
lar accoimt  of  the  Hive  B.,  it  may  be  proper  to 
remark  that  the  species  of  Honey  B.  (the  restricted 
genus  Apis)  are  not  few,  and  that  they  are  natives 
of  the  warm  parts  of  the  Old  World;  the  Hive  bees 
[Apis  vicllifica)  which  now  abound  in  some  parts 
of  America,  and  which  have  become  naturalised  in 
the  forests  to  a  considerable  distance  beyond  the 
abodes  of  civilised  men,  being  the  progeny  of  those 
which  were  conveyed  from  Euro[)e.  The  Hive  B. 
is  said  not  to  have  been  found  to  the  west  of  the 
Mississippi  before  1797,  but  in  foiu-tecn  years  it  had 
advanced  600  miles  further  in  that  direction.  The 
different  species  of  Honey  E.  in  a  v,ild  sJate  gener- 
ally make  their  nests  in  hollow  trees,  or  among  the 
branches  of  trees,  sometimes  under  ledges  or  in 
clefts  of  rocks ;  and  their  stores  of  honey  arc 
not    only  souirht   after  bv  man,  but  afford   food    to 


BEE. 


numerous  auimals,  some  of  which  equally  delif^ht 
to  prey  upon  their  larvoe.  The  B.  was  amongst 
the  ancient  Egyptians  the  hicroglyphical  emblem 
of  royalty.  The  B.  domesticated  or  cultivated  in 
Egypt  is  not,  however,  our  common  Hive  B.,  but 
another  species  called  Apis  fasciata ;  and  in  Italy  and 
Greece  a  species  called  A.  Ligustica  is  employed, 
whicli  was  first  successfully  introduced  into  the  U. 
States  in  18.59,  by  iMr.  S.  B.  Parsons  of  Flushing,  L.  I., 
and  bred  by  Mr.  Langstroth,  Air.  Quinby  and  others. 
See  Italian  Honey  Bee  or  the  culture  and  Italianiza- 
tiou  of  the  native  or  black  H.  Bee,  by  K.  Colvin, 
in  Hep.  of  Com.  of  A.  for  1863.  A.  'unicolor,  of 
Madagascar  ami  the  Isle  of  France,  yields  an  es- 
teemed honey  of  a  green  colour.  It  is  domestica- 
ted, or  is  the  olyect  of  human  care  and  attention 
there,  as  are  also  A.  Indica  in  some  parts  of  India, 
and  A.  Adansonii  in  Senegal.  We  regret  that  our 
limits  do  not  permit  us  to  give  a  particular  ac- 
count of  any  of  these  species. — The  genus  Melipona 
is  nearly  allied  to  Apis.  The  species  are  natives  of 
South  America,  and  their  honey  is  extremely  sweet 
and  agreeable,  but  very  liquid,  and  apt  to  ferment. 
They  make  their  nests  in  tlie  cavities  or  on  the  tops 
of  trees. 

ITie  Hive  Bee. — Natural  History. — The  instincts 
and  social  economy  of  the  Hive  B.  {Apis  mellifica) 
have  been  studied  with  great  attention  both  in 
ancient  and  modern  times,  and  discoveries — than 
which,  perhaps,  nature  presents  notliing  more 
interesting  and  wonderful — have  rewarded  the 
patient  observations  of  Huber  and  others  who 
have  devoted  themselves  to  this  subject.  Apiarian 
societies  have  been  formed  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
secuting this  single  branch  of  natural  history,  and 
of  promoting  successful  apiculture,  or  the  economical 
keeping  of  bees. 

The  Hive  B.  is  probably  not  a  native  of  Britain, 
and  may  even  have  been  brought  to  Europe  from 
the  East.  Its  communities  seem  ordinarily  to  num- 
ber from  10,OOU  to  6t>,000  individuals,  and  there 
appears  no  reason  to  think  tlint  the  care  bestow- 
ed upon  the  insect  by  man,  or  the  Jdaes  which 
he  has  provided  for  it,  have  made  any  impor- 
tant dift'erence  in  this  respect.  One  member  of 
each  community  is  a  perfect  female — the  queen  or 
mother  B. ;  from  600  to  2000  at  certain  seasons  are 
males ;  and  the  remainder  are  neuters  or  workers, 
the  real  nature  of  which  has  been  explained  in  the 
previous  part  of  this  article. 

The  workers  have  a  body  about  half  an  inch  in 
length,  and  about  one-sixth  of  an  inch  in  greatest 
breadth,  at  the  upper  part  of  the  abdomen.  The 
antennae  are  twelve-jointed,  and  terminate  in  a 
knob.  The  abdomen  consists  of  six  joints  or  rings, 
and  under  the  scaly  coverings  of  the  four  middle 
ones  are  situated  the  wax-pockets  or  organs  for  the  se- 
cretion of  wax.  The  extremity  of  the  abdomen  is 
provided  with  a  sting,  which  is  straight.  The  basal 
joint  of  the  hind  tarsi  is  dilated  to  form  a  pollen- 
basket,  and  the  legs  are  well  provided  with  hairs 
for  collecting  the  j)ollen  and  brushing  it  into  this 
receptacle.  The  males  or  drows,  so  called  from 
the  peculiar  noise  wliich  they  make  in  their  flight, 
are  much  larger  than  the  neuters,  and  thickm- 
in  proportion.  The  antennae  have  an  addi- 
tional joint.  The  eyes  are  remarkably  large,  and 
meet  upon  the  crown. — The  perfect  females  are 
considerably  longer  than  eitiier  the  workers  or 
males ;  they  are  also  distingui.-ued  by  the  yellow 
tint  of  the  under  part  of  tlie  body,  and  very  remark- 
ably differ  from  all  the  other  inmates  of  the  hive 
in  the  shortness  of  their  wings,  which,  instead  of 
reaching  to  the  extremity  of  the  abdomen,  leave 
some  of  its  rings  uncovered.  Neither  males  nor 
queens   have    wax-pockets,    nor    have    they    pollen- 


baskets.  Their  legs  also  are  less  hairy.  The  sting 
of  the  queen  B.  is  curved.  The  mandibles  both 
of  the   males    and  perfect    females    are    notched  or 


Bees. 
],  queen  ;  2,  drone  ;  3,  neuter. 

toothed  beneath  the  tip,  which  those  of  the  workers 
are  not. — It  will  be  seen  from  this  brief  description 
that  the  sexes  differ  so  widely  as  to  appear,  if  the 
contrary  were  not  well  known,  insects  of  different 
species  ;  but  still  more  remarkable  is  the  difference 
between  the  females  and  the  workers  when  we 
consider  that  it  is  all  to  be  ascribed  to  the  different 
ibrms  of  the  cells  in  which  the  eggs  are  hatched 
and  the  young  bees  reared,  and  to  the  different 
kinds  of  food  with  which  they  are  supplied.  All 
doubt  upon  this  point  is  removed  by  the  interest- 
ing discovery  of  Schirach,  that  T\hen  a  hive  is 
deprived  of  its  queen,  the  bees  provide  themselves 
with  another,  if  there  are  eggs  or  very  young  larva 
in  the  cells  appropriated  to  the  breeding  of  workers  ; 
oroceeding  immediately  to  transform,  for  this  pur- 
pose, one  of  these  cells,  and  sacrificing,  without 
scruple,  the  eggs  or  larvaB  in  the  cells  adjoining  that 
selected  for  transformation  and  enlargement.  These 
are  facts  well  ascertained,  but  of  which  science  has 
yet  been  unable  to  give  any  explanation. 

The  greater  part  of  the  life  of  the  queen  or 
mother  B.  is  spent  in  laying  eggs  for  the  increase 
of  the  population  of  the  hive  ;  and  this  increase  goes 
on  at  a  rapid  rate,  as  the  queen  not  luifrequently 
lavs  300  eggs  in  a  day.  The  number,  however, 
varies  greatly.  In  cold  weather  it  is  very  small,  but 
the  invariable  presence  of  brood  in  different  stages, 
in  a  well-stocked  hive,  proves  that  some  eggs  are 
laid  even  in  winter.  During  the  later  spring  months 
the  number  is  very  great ;  many  practical  apiarians 
considering  that  as  many  as  1000,  or  even  2000,  are 
deposited  daily.  The  community,  however,  is  not 
destined  to  an  indefinite  increase  ;  but  in  certain 
circumstances,  swarming  takes  place,  and  new  colo- 
nies are  founded. 

The  impregnation  of  the  queen  takes  place  in  the 
air,  and  usually  within  a  few  days  after  she  herself 
has  emerged  from  the  cell.  It  is  the  only  occasion 
of  her  ever  leaving  the  hive,  except  that  of  swarming, 
and  there  is  no  repetition  of  it  during  her  whole  life. 
The  question  has  therefore  been  asked,  why  there 
are  so  many  males  in  a  B.  community  ;  but  no  very 
satisfactory  answer  has  been  given  to  it.  The  males 
are  not  known  to  fulfil  any  other  ]  urp  ise  than  that 
of  the  propagation  of  their  species  ;  and  after  the 
swarming  season  is  over,  the  greater  part  of  them 
are  ruthlessly  massacred  by  the  workers,  as  if  in 
dread  of  their  consuming  too  much  of  the  common 
store.  The  greater  part  of  the  workers  themselves 
are  supposed  scarcely  to  live  for  a  year;  the  dura- 
tion of  the  life  of  queen  bees  is  often  more  than  three 
vears. 

799 


BEE. 


The  qiu'cn  B.,  when  about  to  begin  to  lay  eggs,  is 
the  obji'Ct    of  great    attention  on   the  part    of  the 
workers,  and  so  continues.     She  moves  about  in  the 
hive,  attended  by  a  sort  of  retinue  of  about  ten  or 
fifteen  workers,  by  some  of  which  she   is   frequently 
supplied  with  honey.     But  the  name  of  queen  B.  ap- 
pears to  have  originated   in  a  mistaken  notion  that 
something  analogous  to  a  monarchy  subsists  in  the  B. 
hive  ;  and  imagination    being  permitted    very    free 
scope,  many  things  have  been  invested  with  a  faUc 
colouring  derived  from  this  analogy.     The  queen  or 
mother  B.  appears  to  be  the  object  of  particular  re- 
gard, as  indispensable  to  the  objects  for  which  the  B. 
community  subsists,  and  to  which  the  instincts  of  all 
its  members  are  vnriously  directed.  She  moves  about, 
depositing  her  eggs  in  the   cells  which  the   workers 
have  prepared,  and  they  are  ready  to  fake  charge  of 
each  egg  from  the  moment  that  it  is  deposited.    Her  , 
employment  requires  that  she    should   be  fed  with 
food  collected  by  others,  and  many  of  the  workers  ! 
are  in  like  manner  supplied  with  food  whilst   busy  [ 
within  the  hive,  as  well  as   the  larvie  in  the    cells ;  ■ 
but  there  is  no  evidence  whatever  of  anything  like  ! 
authority  cxerci.-ed  by  the  queen,  or,  indeed,  of  any  , 
superiority  of  one  over  another  in  the  whole  multi- 
tude. ; 

The  queen  B.   at   first  lays  eggs  which  give  birth 
to  workers,  and  afterwards  there  takes  place  a  lay- 
ing of  eggs  which  become  drones.      With  unerring 
instinct,   she    places    each    egg  in   the  kind  of  cell 
appropriate  to  it ;    whilst  also,  at   the  proper  time,  \ 
cells  of  the  proper  kind  are  prepared  beforehand  by 
the  workers,  the  drones'  cells  being  larger  than  the  | 
workers'  cells.     The   cells  in    which   future   queens 
are  to  be  reared  are  very  unlike  all  the  others,  but  [ 
the  eggs  ditfer  in  no  respect  from  those  deposited  in  , 
workers'  cells.      It   is  a  curious   circumstance,  that 
queens,  of  which  the  fecundation  has  been  prevented 
till  they  are  considerably  older  than  usual,  lay  only 
drone  eggs.     It  occasionally  also  happens  that  some  i 
of  the  worker  bees  lay  eggs,   and  these  invariably 
produce  drones. 

The  eggs  of  bees  are  of  a  long  shape  and  bluish- 
white  colour,  about  one-twelfth  of  an  inch  in  length. 
They  are  hatched  in  about  three  days.  The  larvae 
are  little  worm-like  creatures,  having  no  feet,  and 
lying  coiled  up  like  a  ring  ;    they  are  diligently  fed 


Egg,  Larva,  and  Pupa  of  Hive  Bee. 

a,  e;:?,  and  very  yonng  larva ;  b.  yoan^  l.irva  coiled  up  at  the 
bottom  of  the'  cell ;  c,  lars'a  when  ready  to  underjro  meta- 
morphosis ;  (1,  pupa. 

by  the  working  bees,  until,  in  about  five  days,  when 
large  enough  nearly  to  fill  the  cell,  they  refuse  food, 
upon  which  the  attendant  bees  seal  up  the  cell  with 
wax,  and  the  larva,  spinning  itself  a  fine  silken 
envelope  or  cocoon,  is  transformed  into  a  pupa ; 
and  about  the  eighteenth  day — or,  in  the  case  of 
drones,  the  twenty-fourth  day — from  the  deposition 
of  the  egg,  the  young  B.,  in  its  perfect  state,  breaks 
the  covering,  and  issues  from  the  cell.  It  is  caressed 
and  supplied  with  food  by  the  attendant  bees,  and 
is  beUeved  not  to  try  its  wings  until  the  following 
ia.j.  The  cell  from  which  a  young  B.  has  issued 
800 


is  speedily  cleaned  out,  and  prepared  for  the  recep- 
tion of  another  egg  or  of  honey.  The  fine  silken 
envelope  of  the  pupa,  however,  remains  attached  to 
the  cell,  of  which  the  capacity  thus  becomes  gradu- 
ally smaller,  until  the  cells  of  old  combs  a^e  too  small 
to  receive  eggs,  and  can  be  used  for  honey  alone,  a 
fiict  of  which  the  importance  iu  relation  to  the 
economical  management  of  bees  is  obvious. — The 
siiinneret,  by  means  of  which  the  larva  spins  the 
cocoon,  is  a  small  organ  connected  with  the  mouth. 
— The  food  with  which  the  larvae  are  supplied  \a 
a  mixture  of  pollen,  honey,  and  water,  with  the 
addition,  possibly,  of  some  secretion  from  the 
stomachs  of  the  working  bees,  in  which  it  is  pre- 
pared. It  varies  a  little,  according  to  the  age  and 
kind  of  the  larva,  and  the  peculiarities  of  that  given 
to  young  queens  appear  to  be  indispensable  to 
their  fitness  lor  their  future  functions.  Pollen  is 
constantly  found  stored  up  in  the  cells  of  the  hive, 
and  is  often  called  B. -bread.  Most  people  have  met 
with  such  cells  in  honey-comb,  and  have  observed 
the  bitter  and  peculiar  taste  of  the  contents. 

The  combs  of  a  bee-hive  are  parallel  to  each  other, 
forming  vertical  strata  of  about  .an  inch  in  thickness, 
and  distant  about  half  an  inch  from  each  other.  The 
cells  are  therefore  nearly  horizontal,  having  a  slight 
and  somewhat  variable  dip  towards  the  centre  of  each 
comb.  The  central  comb  is  generally  first  begun,  and 
next  after  it  those  next  to  it  on  cither  side.  Circum- 
stances  frequently  cause  some  departure  from  this 
uniform  and  symmetrical  plan,  which,  however,  still 
remains  obvious.  Each  comb  consists  of  two  sets  of 
cells,  one  on  each  side ;  and  it  may  be  mentioned  as 
an  illustration  of  the  wonderful  industry  of  bees, 
and  the  results  of  their  combined  labours,  that  a 
piece  of  comb,  14  inches  long  by  7  inches  wide,  and 
containing  about  4000  cells,  has  been  frequently 
constructed  in  24  hours.  The  greater  part  of  the 
comb  usually  consists  of  the  kind  of  cells  fitted  fo» 
breeding  workers,  a  smaller  part  of  it  of  the  larger 
or  drone  cells.  After  the  principal  breeding-season 
is  over,  the  cells  of  some  parts  of  the  comb  are  often 
elongated  for  the  reception  of  honey ;  and  sometimes 
comb  of  greater  thickness,  or  with  unusually  long 
cells,  is  constructed  for  that  purpose  alone,  in  which 
case  the  mouths  of  the  cells  are  inclined  upwards, 
more  than  is  usual  with  the  ordinary  brood  cells. 
When  a  cell  has  been  completely  filled  with  honey, 
its  mouth  is  sealed  or  covered  with  wax. 

It  is  impossible  to  look  at  a  piece  of  comb  taken 
from  a  B-hive,  without  admiring,  not  only  its 
beauty,  but  the  perfect  regularity  of  the  size,  form, 
and  arrangement  of  the  cells ;  and  the  niore  care- 
fully that  it  is  examined,  the  more  must  it  be 
admired.  For  in  it  are  practically  solved,  by  an 
instinct  which  can  only  be  referred  to  the  infinite 
wisdom  of  the  Creator,  some  problems  difficult  to 
human  science,  particularly  in  the  combination  of 
the  greatest  economy  of  materials  and  of  space, 
with  the  most  perfect  convenience  and  the  greatest 
strength.  It  appears  even  at  a  glance,  that  the  cells 
are  hexagonal  or  six-sided,  the  hexagons  perfectly 
regular,  and  in  this  way  there  are  no  interstices 
between  the  cells.  Now,  the  mathematician  knows 
that  there  are  only  three  regular  figures,  that  is, 
figures  of  which  all  the  sides  and  angles  are  equal, 
bounded  by  straight  lines,  with  wliich  a  space  can 
be  perfectly  filled  up  in  this  way — the  equilateral 
triangle,  the  square,  and  the  hexagon ;  and  of  these 
the  hexagon  is  at  once  the  most  suitable  for  the 
larva  of  the  B.  in  its  form,  and  the  strongest  in  its 
nearest  approach  to  the  circle.  The  circular  form 
itself  would  have  left  large  interstices.  But  this  is 
not  all :  the  same  wisdom  which  has  given  the 
solitary  bees,  already  noticed,  their  instinct  to 
surround  their  nest  with  a  cottony  substance,  which 


BEE. 


k 


fyniniidal  buttoms 
of  Cells. 


serves  as  a  non-coiiductor  of  heat,  has  directed  the 
hive  B.  to  the  coiistaut  adoption  of  a  mode  of 
constructiiif^  its  conib.*,  which  adds  greatly  to  the 
strength  they  would  have  possessed  with  the  same 
amount  of  materials,  if  the  cells  had  been  merely 
regular  he.xagonal  prisms,  and  the  partition  iu  the 

, ^    middle  of  the  comb,  between 

till-  cells  of  the  one  side  of  it, 
uiid  those  of  tlie  other,  there- 
fore a  simple  plane.  It  is 
so  far  from  being  so,  that 
when  carefully  examiued,  it 
appears,  if  the  expression 
may  be  used,  the  most  in- 
genious part  of  the  whole 
structure.  It  is  composed 
of  a  multitude  of  little 
rhombs,  or  four-sided  figures, 
with  equal  and  parallel  sides,  and  two  obtuse 
and  two  acute  angles,  the  obtuse  angles  being 
invariably  angles  of  10'.)^  28',  and  the  acute  angles 
of  Til"  32',  agreeing  precisely  with  the  results  of 
mathematical  analysis,  applied  to  the  difficult 
question  of  the  form  of  the  facets  of  a  three-sided 
pyramid,  which  should  terminate  a  si.x -sided  ])rism, 
so  as  to  combine  the  greatest  economy  of  luaterials 
with  the  greatest  strength.  On  looking  at  a  piece 
of  empty  honey-comb,  placed  between  the  eye  and 
the  light,  we  readily  perceive  that  the  cells  are  not 
opposite  to  each  other,  cell  to  cell ;  but  that  the 
point  of  meeting  of  three  sides  of  three  cells,  on  one 
side,  is  opposite  to  the  centre  of  a  cell  on  the  other 
side — a  circumstance  which  of  itself  we  cannot  but 
regard  as  calculated  greatly  to  increase  the  strength 
of  the  whole  fabric.  It  follows  also  from  this,  that 
the  terminating  pyramids  of  the  cells  on  the  one  side 
do  not  interfere  with  the  form  of  the  cells  on  the 
other  side,  but  the  three  rhombic  facets,  which 
terminate  each  cell,  belong  likewise  to  three  distinct 
cells  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  comb. 

The  only  dei)arture  from  perfect  regularity  in  the 
form  of  the  cells,  is  in  the  transition  from  the 
smaller  or  workers'  cells  to  the  larger  or  drones' 
cells,  which,  when  it  takes  place,  is  managed  with 
great  simplicity  and  beauty  of  contrivance.  Our 
limits,  however,  do  not  permit  us  to  enter  further 
into  this  subject. 

Tlie  matei'ial  of  which  the  cells  are  built  is 
chiefly  wax  (q.  v.,  and  see  Bkks-Wax),  which  is 
at  first  of  a  white  colour,  but  becomes  brownish- 
yellow  with  age  and,  in  very  old  combs,  almost 
black.  Although  wax  exists  as  a  vegetable  pro- 
duct, yet  bees-wax  is  now  known  to  be  pro- 
duced by  a  chemistry  which  is  carried  on  in  the 
bodies  of  bees ;  and  it  has  been  found  that  they 
produce  wax  and  build  combs  when  supplied  only 
with  honey  or  saccharine  substances.  Tlie  icax- 
pockets  in  the  abdomen  of  working-bees  have  been 
already  referred  to.  The  bees  which  are  about  to  | 
proceed  to  wax-making,  suspend  themselves  in 
clusters  in  the  hive,  attaching  themselves  to  each 
other  by  means  of  hooks  with  which  their  feet  are 
provided;  and  whilst  they  remain  motionless  in  this 
position,  the  wax  appears  to  be  formed,  in  small 
scales,  which  they  afterwards  take  in  their  mouths 
and  curiously  work  up  with  a  secretion  from  the 
mouth  itself,  passing  the  wax.  in  the  form  of  a 
minute  riband,  through  the  mouth,  first  in  one 
direction  and  then  in  the  opposite  one,  and  finally 
depositing 'it  in  its  proper  place  for  the  foundation 
of  the  comb.  One  B.  always  begins  the  comb  alone, 
the  rest,  in  gradually  increasing  numbers,  proceed 
in  accordance  with  what  has  been  already  done. 
The  bees  which  elaborate  and  dei>osit  the  wax,  do 
not,  however,  construct  the  cells,  which  is  done  by 
others,  partlv  at  least  bv  a  process  of  excavation  in 
51 


the  wax  deposited.  It  is  supposed  by  many  natu- 
ralists, that  some  of  the  working-bees  are  exclusively 
wax-workers,  some  nurses,  &c. ;  but  others  think 
that  there  is  only  one  class  of  working-bees,  all 
ready  for  any  kind  of  work  according  to  circum- 
stances. 

But   wax,   although    the  chief,    is   not   the   only 

matt-rial    of    the     comb.       Propolis   (q.   v.)   is   also 

j  employed  in  small  bands  to  give  greater  strength   to 

the     cells,    the    mouths    of    which    are    suiTOunded 

!  with  it,  and  made  thicker  than  their  walls.      Tnis 

substance,  which  is  obtained  by  bees  from  the  viscid 

;  buds   of  trees,    is   also   employed   for   more    firmly 

[  attaching   the   combs   to  the    hive,   for  closing   up 

apertures    iu    the    hive,   for    covering  up  obnoxious 

substances,    intruding    slugs,    &c.,    which    are    too 

large   to    be  leuioved,   and  for  a  variety  of  similar 

purposes. 

It  has  been  already  stated  that  queen-bees  are 
hatched  and  reared  in  cells  diflerent  from  the  rest. 
They  are,  indeed,  very  diftVrent,  being  vertical  and 
not  horizontal  in  their  position — not  hexagonal,  but 
rather  oval  in  form — and  much  larger  than  the  other 
cells,  even  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  animal 
that  is  to  inhabit  them :  they  are  generally  placed 
on  the  edge  of  a  comb,  and  when  they  have  served 
their  purpose,  are  partially  removed,  so  that  during 
winter  they  resemble  acorn-cups  in  appearance. 

Two  queens  cannot  exist  in  the  community 
together.  There  is  implanted  in  them  the  most 
deadly  rivalry ;  and  the  mother  B.,  if  permitted, 
would  even  tear  open  every  queen  cell  of  which 
the  inmate  has  nearly  approached  maturity,  and 
inflict  death  by  her  sting.  One  of  those  wonderful 
instincts,  however,  with  which  bees  are  endowed, 
counteracts  this  at  those  times  when,  upon  account 
of  the  increased  numbers  of  the  community,  and 
in  order  to  the  formation  of  new  colonies,  it  is 
requisite  that  it  should  be  counteracted.  The 
workers  throng  around  the  queen,  hem  her  in,  and 
prevent  the  execution  of  her  purpose.  The  cell 
of  the  young  queen  is  also  carefully  guarded,  and  she 
is  not  permitted  to  leave  it.  At  such  times  pecu- 
liar sounds,  produced  probably  by  the  action  of  the 
wings,  are  emitted  both  by  the  actual  queen  under 
restraint  in  her  movements,  and  by  the  young  one 
in  the  cell,  which  may  be  heard  by  an  ear  applied  to 
the  outside  of  the  hive,  and  are  familiar  to  B.  culti- 
vators as  one  of  the  surest  signs  of  swarming. 
The  queen  now  becomes  restless ;  her  agitation 
communicates  itself  to  those  around  her,  and  extends 
through  the  hive;  the  ordinary  work  of  the  com- 
munity is  in  great  part  neglected;  fewer  bees  than 
usual  are  seen  to  leave  or  return  to  the  hive;  and 
at  last  the  queen  B.  rushes  forth,  preceded  and 
followed  by  crowds  which  press  and  throng  upon 
each  other,  form  a  buzzing  crowd  in  the  air,  and 
very  generally  settle  upon  a  bush  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood, where  they  soon  congregate  closely 
together,  hanging  by  their  claws  iu  a  dense  cluster.- 
Sometimes  they  rise  up  in  the  air,  and  fly  otf  at 
once  to  a  considerable  distance,  apparently  to  some 
previously  selected  place  in  the  thick  top  of  a 
tree — in  the  chimney  or  roof  of  a  house,  where- 
t  hey  happen  to  find  an  aperture — or  in  some  such, 
situation.  More  fre(iuently  they  settle  not  far  from 
the  hive  which  they  liave  left,  often  on  some  very 
humble  plant,  or  even  on  the  grass,  and  soon  rise 
again.  It  is  the  care  of  the  cultivator  to  pre- 
vent this  by  providing  them  immediately  with  a 
suitable  habitation  in  a  new  hive,  invitinglv  placed 
above  them,  or  into  which  he  puts  the  swarm  after 
they  have  congregated  closely  together  as  above 
described.  It  sometimes  happens  that  bees  hurry 
out  of  their  hive  without  their  queen,  in  which  case 
they  do  not  in  general  congregate  so  closelv  together 

8(Jl 


BEE. 


•nhcie  tlifv  settle,  and  soon  return  to  the  hive  again. 
Swarming  generally  takes  place  in  a  fine  day ;  and 
when  the  bees  seem  on  the  very  point  of  coming  off, 
a  cloud  passing  over  the  sun  is  enough  to  retard  it. 
Bad  weather  occasionally  not  only  retards  but  pre- 
vents it,  the  young  queens  being  at  last  killed  in  their 
cells. — When  the  first  swarm  of  the  season  has  left 
the  hive  with  the  old  queen,  as  is  usually,  if  not 
always  the  case,  the  imprisoned  young  queen  is  set 
at  liberty ;  and  if  the  B.  community  is  a  large  and 
prosperous  one,  other  young  queens  also  come  forth 
from  their  cells,  and  leave  the  hive  with  successive 
swarms,  the  number  of  wliich  depends  upon  the 
climate,  the  season,  &c.  In  Britain,  it  is  not  uncom- 
mon for  a  B.-liive  to  send  off  three  swarms  in  a 
sunmier,  the  first  being  almost  always  the  largest, 
and  not  unfrcquently  itself  sending  ofl"  a  swarm 
before  the  season  is  over. 

Bees  left  without  a  queen,  and  with  no  means  of 
supplying  the  want,  appear  to  feel  themselves  cut 
off  from  the  very  purpose  of  their  existence ;  the 
labours  of  the  community  are  relinquished,  and  its 
members  are  dispersed  and  die.  It  has  already, 
however,  been  stated,  that  bees  left  without  a  queen 
can  provide  themselves  with  one,  by  transforming 
and  enlarging  a  worker's  cell  which  contains  an 
egg  or  very  young  larva.  This  process  is  sometimes 
carried  on  as  if  by  several  distinct  parties,  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  hive  at  once  ;  and  as  if  aware  that 
time  will  be  gained,  the  bees  generally  prefer  cells 
containing  larvai  of  two  or  three  days  old  to  those 
containing  eggs. 

Bees  become  partially  torpid  dui'ing  cold  weather, 
consuming  much  less  food  than  they  would  other- 
wise require.  They  are  readily  aroused  from  this 
state,  however,  as  may  at  any  time  be  proved  by 
tapping  on  a  13. -hive,  when  it  will  be  found  that 
the  temperature  of  the  interior  of  the  hive  rises 
rapidly.  Respiration  is  considerably  lessened  in  the 
state  of  partial  torpidity,  and  the  temperature  rises 
when  it  is  resumed.  The  respir.ition  of  bees  takes 
place  by  air-tubes  or  trarhece  (see  Inskcts), 
and  is  very  active  when  the  insect  is  in  a  state 
of  activity.  The  respiratory  movements  are  easily 
seen  in  looking  at  a  bee.  The  consumption  of 
oxygen  by  this  process  might  be  expected  soon  to 
reduce  the  atmosphere  within  a  hive  to  a  state  in 
which  it  could  no  longer  support  animal  life  ;  but 
in  summer,  when  respiration  is  active  and  the  hive 
populous,  a  constant  circulation  of  air  is  maintained 
by  the  insects  themselves,  some  of  which  are 
employed  in  a  rapid  vibration  of  their  wings  for 
this  purpose.  A  greater  or  smaller  number  of 
them,  according  to  circumstances,  may  frequently  be 
seen  thus  engaged  in  fanning  the  air  at  the  mouth 
of  a  bee-hive. 

It  may  well  be  deemed  an  extraordinary  fact, 
that  among  the  enemies  of  bees  are  to  be  reckoned 
certain  species  of  moth,  which,  notwithstanding 
the  danger  of  the  stings  of  the  bees,  enter  the  hives 
and  deposit  their  eggs.  After  the  eggs  are  hatched, 
the  larv£E  feed  upon  the  combs.  Mice  sometimes 
eat  their  way  into  the  hives  in  winter,  and  destroy 
and  plunder  unmolested. 

Bees  are  sometimes  very  destructive  to  each 
other  in  their  combats,  as  when  one  B.  community 
is  assailed  by  others  for  the  purpose  of  plunder. 
To  this  the  weaker  communities  are  liable,  par- 
ticularly when  flowers  are  few,  and  bees  are 
awakened  to  full  activity  in  the  warm  days  of 
early  spring.  The  narrower  that  the  entrances  of 
bee-hives  are  at  this  season,  at  least  of  the  less 
populous  hives,  the  less  likely  is  the  B.  owner  to 
suffer  loss  from  this  cause,  as  the  narrow  entrance 
is  more  easily  defended  even  against  very  numerous 
invaders. 
802 


Management  of  Bees. — We  do  not  think  it  neces- 
sary to  enter  largely  into  the  subject  of  Ajnculturt 
— the  cultivation  or  management  of  bees. 

It  is,  of  course,  necessary  that  the  apiary  or  stock 
of  B.-hives  should  be  situated  in  a  neighbourhood 
where  flowers  sufficiently  abound  for  the  supply  of 
honey.  It  is,  however,  by  no  means  certain  to  what 
distance  bees  roam.  Some  authors  mention  one  mile 
as  the  probable  distance;  but  the  opinion  has  appa- 
rently been  hazarded  on  mere  conjecture,  and  there 
seem  to  be  good  reasons  for  supposing  that  a  much 
greater  distance  might  more  correctly  be  named. 
But  whatever  distance  bees  may  be  capable  of 
travelling  in  quest  of  honey,  it  is  undoubtedly 
of  great  importance  that  they  should  have  good 
feeding-ground  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of 
the  apiary;  and  in  many  parts  of  the  world,  the 
practice  prevails  of  removing  them  from  place  to 
place  according  to  the  season,  in  order  that  advan- 
tage may  be  taken  of  the  greatest  abundance  of 
flowers.  Thus  in  the  .«outh  of  Scotland,  B.-hives 
are  very  frequently  removed  to  heath-covered  tracts 
in  the  beginning  of  August,  and  remain  there  till  the 
heath  is  out  of'  flowers ;  and  this  affords  in  many 
parts  of  the  country  the  most  plentiful  honey-harvest, 
although  in  other  parts,  especially  w  here  white  clover 
aljounds,  the  greatest  quantity  of  honey  is  obtained 
earlier  in  sinnmer.  The  difference  between  Ilenlher 
Honeg  and  Flover  Honey  is  well  known  in  Edin- 
burgh. No  small  number  of  B.-hives  from  that  city 
and  its  immediate  vicinity  are  annually  conveyed 
for  a  few  weeks  to  the  Pentland  Hills.  The  con- 
veyance of  bees  '  to  the  heather'  is  generally  aceom- 
plished  either  by  a  handbarrow  or  a  spiing-cai't  of 
easy  motion,  so  that  the  combs  may  not  be  displaced 
by  shaking;  and  the  mouth  of  the  hive  is  carefully 
closed  with  a  plate  of  perforated  zinc,  or  other  con- 
trivance for  keeping  in  the  bees  and  permitting  cir- 
culation of  air.  Fifty  or  one  hundred  B.-hives  may 
often  be  seen  collected  in  one  place,  and  under  the  care 
of  one  person,  during  the  heather-season. — In  Egypt, 
far  greater  numbers  of  hives  (of  Apix  fasciata)  are 
often  kept  in  a  single  vessel  on  the  Nile,  and  are 
conveyed  from  place  to  place  on  the  river,  according 
to  the  succession  of  flowers  in  the  different  districts. 
A  somewhat  similar  practice  prevails  on  the  Rhone  ; 
and  the  transporting  of  bees  {Apis  Ligustica)  from 
pasture  to  pasture  has  been  usual  in  Greece,  in  Asia 
Minor,  and  in  Persia,  from  remote  antiquity. 

As  to  the  form  of  B.-hives,  and  the  material  of 
wliich  they  should  be  made,  there  arc  great  differ- 
ences both  of  opinion  and  practice.  Glass  hives,  and 
hives  with  glass-windows,  which  can  be  covered  at 
pleasure  with  wooden  slides,  are  employed  by  tht)se 
who  wish  to  observe  the  movenients  and  habits  of 
bees;  but  for  profitable  purposes,  wood  and  straw 
are  in  Britain  the  only  materials  in  common  use. 
A  simple  and  useful  form  of  a  capped  hive  is  shewn 
in  the  accompanying  illustration.  For  the  material 
of  a  hive,  wood  has  the  advantage  over  straw 
in  its  greater  neatness  and  durability ;  but  there 
is  a  disadvantage  in  the  greater  likelihood  that, 
unless  shaded  from  the  sun,  portions  of  the  comb 
may  be  so  much  melted  as  to  fall  in  hot  weather. 
In  some  parts  of  Europe,  cylindrical  cork-hives  are 
much  used,  made  by  removing  the  wood  of  a  portion 
of  the  cork-tree,  and  leaving  the  bark  uninjured ; 
and  hives  of  enrthenware  are  common  in  Greece 
and  Turkey.  The  form  of  hives  is  of  little  conse- 
quence ;  but  it  is  important  that  the  owner  should 
have  facilities  for  giving  increased  room  both  above 
and  below  the  stock-hive:  increased  room  above  is 
required  for  the  reception  of  pure  honey-comb 
unmixed  with  brood,  and  the  capability  of  adding 
to  the  hive  below  by  raising  it  up  an  additional 
story,  is  often  requisite  to  prevent  swarming,  which 


BEE— BEECH. 


is  incompatible  with  tlie  collection  of  a  large  store  of  ^  than  at  otluT  thne 
surplus  honey. 

Bees  require  attention  at  the  time  of  swarming, 


[^-.,'v,/^/]; 


Simple  form  of  Beo-hive, 
With  cap  removed  to  show  glass  top. 


that  they  may  not  fly  away  and  be  lost.  They 
require  also  to  be  fed  during  winter,  when,  on 
account  of  a  bad  season,  the  lateness  of  the  swarm, 
or  other  cause,  they  have  not  enough  of  honey  to 
support  thom.  The  common  rule  is,  that  the  weight  i 
of  the  contents  of  the  hive  must  be  at  least  twenty  ! 
pounds,  that  the  bees  may  survive  the  winter  with- 
out being  fed  ;  and  even  in  this  case  a  supply  of  food 
for  a  short  time  in  spring  promotes  the  activity  of 
the  bees,  and  their  summer  prosperity.  The  food 
ordinarily  supplied  to  bees  is  cither  the  coarser  kind 
of  honey",  or  sugar  and  water.  Strong  ale  and  sugar 
boiled  "are  also  frequently  given  as  food.  The 
practice  has  very  largely  prevailed  in  Britain  and 
elsewhere,  of  killing  bees  by  fumes  of  sulphur,  in 
order  to  take  from  them  their  honey  in  the  end  of 
autumn,  a  portion  only  of  the  increase  of  the  stock 
being  kept  through  the  winter.  This  practice  still 
has  Its  advocates ;  but  many  now  take  only  what 
they  can  by  top  boxes  or  supcr.%  or  by  cutting  out 
combs,  preserving  all  hives  which  are  not  so  light 
that  there  is  no  good  hope  of  their  surviving  the 
winter.  It  may  be  doubted  if,  in  almost  any  part 
of  the  country,  the  number  of  bees  kept  is  so  great 
as  nearly  to  exhaust  the  floral  resources,  and  in  all 
probability  this  may  yet  become  a  much  greater 
source  of  wealth  than  it  is  in  Britain. 

When  honey  is  to  be  taken  from  bees,  the  person 
doing  it  must  be  carefully  protected  from  their 
stings  by  gloves,  veil,  &c.  It  is  best  done  during 
the  heat" of  a  fine  day,  when  the  bees  more  readily 
leave  the  combs  of  the  super  that  is  taken  away,  and 
return  to  their  hive.  A  little  gentle  tapping  gener- 
ally causes  the-n  to  leave  the  combs,  and  a  feather 
is  used  for  brushing  off  those  which  are  slow  to  do 
so.  The  smoke  of  the  common  Puff-ball  ((i-  v.) 
causes  them  to  fall  down  in  a  stuiiefaction  from 
which  they  speedily  recover,  and  its  use  is  very  con- 
venient. It  is  gathered  and  dried  for  the  purpose. 
Chloroform  is  also  sometimes  used  for  the  same 
purpose,  but  the  effect  is  apt  to  be  fatal,  unless  care 
is  taken  to  choose  the  morning  of  a  fine  day,  so  that 
the  stupefied  bees  may  have  time  to  recover  in  the 
air  and  sunshine. 

Bees  are  nmch  less   apt  to  sting  when  swarming 


md  in  general  all  the  neces- 
sarv  operations  are  performed  without  gloves  or 
veil,  and  with  perfect  safety.  The  sting  of  a  B.  is 
to  many  persons  a  thing  of  no  great  consequence, 
although,  in  some,  it  causes  great  local  inflammation 
and  swelling,  and  general  derangement  of  health. 
The  application  of  a  httle  ammonia  usually  relieves 
the  pain,  or  an  onion  or  shallot  cut  through  the 
middle  may  be  applied,  and  li;is  the  same  eflect. 

The  apiary  should,  if  possible,  be  in  a  sheltered 
place,  and  where  it  enjoys  a  good  anount  of  sun- 
shine. The  hives  arc  very  generally  placed  at 
small  distances  in  the  open  ground,  but  some  B.- 
keepers  protect  them  by  a  shed.  In  the  former 
case,  each  hive  is  usually  covered  with  a  straw-hood 
in  winter,  to  keep  away  the  rain,  as  damp  is  par- 
ticularly injurious  to  bees.  For  the  avoidance  of 
damp,  "and  to  prevent  the  bees  from  coming  in 
contact  with  the  ground  when  they  hang  in  a  great 
cluster  at  the  door  of  the  hive — as  they  often  do 
before  swarming,  when  the  weather  is  hot,  and  the 
hive  very  populous — each  hive  is  raised  to  a  height 
of  at  least  fifteen  or  eighteen  mehes  from  the  ground. 
Bkks,  Law  relating  to.  B.  are  stated  by 
Blackstone  to  be  wild  by  nature  {fenc  natune),  but 
when  hived  and  reclaimed,  are  regarded  in  the 
nature  oi  j)'>'<>pfrtii  belonging  to  the  person  on  whose 
ground  or  soil  they  have  swarmed ;  and  in  sup- 
port of  this  doctrine,  he  refers  to  the  Charter  of  the 
Forest,  9  Henry  III.  c.  19,  which  allows  every  free- 
man to  be  entitled  to  the  honey  found  within  his 
own  woods.  The  qualified  property  which  may  be 
thus  held  in  B.  contiimes  while  the  swarm  remains 
on  the  soil ;  and  in  the  event  of  flight,  .«o  long  as 
the  owner  can  pursue  it.  Indeed,  so  clearly  are  they 
considered  in  law  to  be  of  the  nature  of  property, 
that  it  has  been  decided  in  England  that  B.  may  be 
the  subject  of  larceny  (q.  v). 

The  same  appears  to  be  the  Scotch  law.  Mr. 
Erskinc,  who  may  be  described  as  the  Scottish 
Blackstone,  founding  on  the  Roman  law,  lays  down 
that,  when  B.  have  abandoned  their  hive,  not  being 
observed  and  followed,  they  are  understood  to  have 
recovered  their  original  libertv  ;  and  if  thev  light  on 
th 


le  grounds  of  another,  and  are  enclosed  by  him  in  a 
LMv  hive,  they  become  his  property.    See  Pkoi-kuty, 
OwxEKSHip,  Ground,  Soil. 

BEE,  Humble.     Sec  Humble  Bee. 

BEECH  {Foffux),  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural 
order  CUipuliftrce  (q.  v).  The  male  catkins  are 
almost  globose,  stalked,  their  flowers  consisting  of  a 
bell-shaped  5 — 6-cleft  perianth  and  8 — 15  stamens. 
The  female  flowers,  which  grow  on  the  same  trees, 
consist  chiefly  of  a  germen  with  three  awl-shaped 
styles,  and  are  situated  two  or  rarely  three  together 
within  a  stalked  involucre,  which  bears  on  its  outer 
surface  many  fleshy  threads.  This  involucre,  after 
the  flowering  is  over,  closes  and  forms  a  husk  t 
resembling  a  sort  of  capsule,  which  when  lipe  opens 
in  lour  valves,  is  externally  covered  with  soft  spines, 
and  encloses  one  or  two  (rarely  three)  triangular 
nuts,  which  bear  the  name  of  Bccchmast. — The 
species  are  not  numerous;  all  of  them  are  forest- 
trees  of  trreat  beauty.— The  Common  B.  (/•'.  si/lvatica) 
forms  whole  forest's  in  many  parts  of  Europe.  It 
iirows  to  a  height  of  liiO— I'iO  i'eet,  and  a  diameter 
of  4  feet;  and  particularly  when  standing  alone 
becomes  a  very  ornamental  tree  with  far-spreading 
branches,  which  often  droop  gracefully  almost  to 
the  ground.  It  has  thin,  ovate,  obscurely  toothed 
leaves,  finelv  ciliated  on  their  margins.  Its  bark  is 
smooth,  often  of  a  whitish  colour  ;  and  it  is  remark- 
able for  the  fi-eciucncy  with  which  hard  wooden 
knobs — abortive  branches — occur  in  its  bark.  Grass 
does  not  jrrow  readily  under  the  shade  of  the  B.,  bst 

803 


BEECH-DROPS— BEECIIER. 


in  B.  woods  may  somotimcs  be  found  rare  plants 
almost  peculiar  to  such  situations.  Tlie  B.  thrive 
best  in  light  soils ;   and  does  not  send  its  roots  deep 


rix 


Common  Beech. 

into  the  pround,  but  rather  liorizontally  under  the 
surface.  The  wood  is  more  or  less  of  a  reddish- 
bj-own  colour,  as  the  tree  has  grown  in  a  dense 
forest,  or  has  been  freely  exposed  to  sun  and  air. 
It  is  very  hard  and  solid,  but  brittle ;  and  Avhen 
exposed  to  the  open  air,  very  liable  to  rot  and  to  be 
eaten  by  worms.  It  is  therefore  not  adapted  to  the 
purposes  of  the  house-carpenter;  but  when  kejit 
always  under  water,  it  is  very  durable,  and  is 
accordingly  eu)ployed  in  the  erection  of  mills,  and 
for  weirs,  sluices,  &c.  It  is  also  employed  for  many 
purposes  by  cabinet-makers  and  turners.  It  is  very 
much  used  in  France  for  making  the  mh«fs  or 
wooden  shoes  of  the  peasantry,  being  preferred  for 
this  purpose  to  every  other  wood  except  walnut,  on 
account  of  its  property  of  not  absorbing  water.  It 
is  one  of  the  best  kinds  of  firewood  in  Europe.     Its 


Common  Beech. 

a,  part  of  a  branclilet  with  leaves  and  catkins,  rcdnced  ;  &,  a 

single  male  Uower ;  c,  a  single  leinale  Uowor. 

ashes  yield  much  potash  and  of  excellent  quality. 
The  raspings  of  the  wood  are  used  in  the  preparation 
of  vinegar.  See  V'inkgar  and  Pyuolignkous  Acid. 
The  bark  is  sometimes  employed  for  tanning  when 
Oak-bark  is  scarce.  The  B.  bears  lopping  well,  and 
is  often  planted  for  hedges  ;  and  it  is  a  curious  fact, 
8U4 


that  when  it  is  prevented  from  attaining  a  tree-like 
size,  and  is  kept  closely  pruned,  the  wiihercd  leaves 
remain  on  the  br.iiiches  all  winter,  which  is  not 
the  case  in  other  circutu>tauces.  In  some  countries, 
as  Daupliiiiy  and  Switzcrhind,  the  K'aves  of  the  B. 
are  collected  in  autumn  beibre  they  have  been  much 
frost-bitten,  and  are  used  lor  making  beds  or  mat- 
tresses.— Beechmast,  when  fresh,  has  a  sweet  taste, 
like  that  of  a  walnut.  It  contains  in  large  quantity 
a  bland  fixed  oil,  along  with  a  starchy  farina,  a  little 
sugar,  and  an  astringent  substance.  A  volatile,  nar- 
cotic, poisonous  principle,  called  Fayine,  is  also  found 
in  it,  but  more  in  the  rind  than  in  the  kernel;  and 
when  not  only  the  smooth  leathery  outer  rind,  but 
also  the  thin  brown  inner  pellicle  have  lieen  removed, 
it  is  whol(>souie  food.  It  is,  however,  more  generally 
used  for  feeding  swine,  poultry,  &c.,  and  is  much 
employed  in  France  and  other  j)arls  of  Europe  for 
the  nuvnul'acturc  oi' Beech.  Oil,  which,  when  expressed 
without  the  application  of  heat,  and  well  clarified, 
has  an  agreeable  taste,  is  fit  for  use  as  food,  and  keeps 
long  witiiout  becoming  rancid.  Wlie.n  les?i  pure,  it  is 
used  for  lamps  and  in  the  arts.  The  oil-cake  which 
remains  is  good  food  for  poultry,  for  swine,  and  even 
for  oxen,  but  is  injurious  to  horses.  Many  manufac- 
turers of  cocoa  adidteratc  it  with  beccluiuist,  first 
depriving  the  cocoa  of  its  nil,  which  they  sell  separ- 
ately as  cocoa-butter,  and  trusting  to  the  oil  of  the 
B.  for  supplying  its  place. — B.  forests  anciently 
abounded  in  England,  and  great  herds  of  swine 
were  fed  in  them.  The  B.  is  not,  in  general,  found 
in  Europe  north  of  lat.  59°,  although  it  occurs 
two  degrees  further  north  in  the  Scandinavian 
peninsula.  It  is  found  in  the  temperate  parts  of 
Asia  and  in  North  America  ;  the  Wuitk  B.  of  that 
country  being  generally  regarded  as  the  same 
species,  a  very  common  tree  in  some  parts  of  the 
United  States.  In  gardens  and  jjleasuie  grounds  a 
variety  is  very  fre(pietitly  to  bo  seen,  of  which  the 
leaves  have  a  blood-red  colour.  The  same  colour" 
appears  also  in  some  degree  in  the  leaves  of  the 
Red  B.  of  North  America  {F.  ferrngitiitt),  which  is 
distinguished  l)y  elongate-ovate,  coarsely  serrated, 
and  much  acuniinatcd  leaves.  It  forms  extensive 
forests  in  the  North-eastern  States  and  the  adjoining 
British  possessions  ;  and  its  wood,  which  is  of  a  some- 
what red  or  rusty  colour,  is  more  valued  than  that  of 
the  White  B. — Two  sjiecies  of  B.  are  found  on  the 
momitains  of  Java  ;  four  are  natives  of  the  more  ele- 
vated parts  of  the  south  of  New  Zealand ;  several 
belong  to  the  south  of  South  America.  The  genus  is, 
in  fact,  more  characteristic  of  the  colder  latitudes  of 
the  southern  than  of  the  northern  hemisphere.  F. 
betnlo'uks  (also.known  as  F.  Forsferi)  is  the  'myrtle- 
tree  '  of  the  mountains  of  Tasmania. — a  very  large 
tree  with  evergreen  leathery  leaves,  in  form  much 
resembling  those  of  the  birch,  although  the  general 
h;ibit  of  the  tree  agrees  with  that  of  other  beeches. 
The  same  species  is  the  evergieen  B.  of  Terra  del 
Fuego,  where  it  forms  foiests  of  which  the  dark 
green  foliage  conti-asts  strikingly  in  winter  with  tlie 
dazzling  snow.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  it 
will  soon  become  a  favourite  and  common  ornamen- 
tal tree  in  Britain.  The  wood  is  too  heavy  and 
brittle  for  masts,  but  makes  tolerable  planks,  and  is 
carried  to  the  treeless  Falkland  Islamls  for  roofing 
houses.  F.  Antacrfira  ascends  higher  on  the  moun- 
tains about  the  Strait  of  Magellan.  It  has  deciduous 
leaves,  and  much  resembles  the  common  B. — F. 
procera  grows  in  the  Andes  of  Chili,  and  attains  a 
majestic  size.     It  is  a  v.,luable  timl)er-tree. 

BEECH-DROPS.     See  Cancek  Root. 
BEECIIER,   the  name  of.  a  celebrated  Americau. 
family  of  preachers  and  litterateurs. 

Lyman   B.  was  born  at  New  Haven,  Connecticut, 


BEECIIEY— BEE-EATER. 


U.  S.,  October  1775  ;  studied  divinity  under  the  well-  ; 
known  Anieiican  tiicologiun.  Dwi-ilit;  and  obtained  a  I 
church  at  East  Hampton,  Long  Island,  in  1708.  He 
afterwards  removed  to  Litclitield,  Connecticut,  and 
from  thence,  in  1820,  to  Boston.  In  ls:>2,  he_  was 
appointed  president  of  th.'  Lane  Theological  Senu- 
narv  at  Cincinnati,  and  to  tlic  charge  of  the  second 
Presbyterian  church  in  that  city.  In  18-12  he 
returned  to  Boston,  wiierc  I'C  has  since  resided.  lie 
has  written  on  'temperance,'  very  warmly  against 
slavery,  on  theologv,  &c.  His  collected  works,  m 
3  vols".,  revised  by  himself,  have  been  published  at 
Boston.  Four  of  his  sons— Edward,  Charlks, 
Hexry  Ward,  and  Thomas  K.,  arc  also  ministers, 
and  have  written  extensively  on  religious  subjects. 

Henry  Ward  B.,  the  best  known,  was  born  at 
Litchfield,  Connecticut,  in  1813,  and  after  graduating 
at  Amherst  College,  Massachusetts,  he  studied  theo- 
logy under  his  father  at  Lane  Seminary.  After 
ten'  years'  pastorship  of  two  churches  in  the  state 
of  Indiana,  he  removed  to  Plymouth  Church,  Brook- 
Ivn,  New  York,  "an  organization  of  Orthodox 
Cotigi-egational  believers,"  where  he  still  remains. 
He  Ts  said  to  have  the  largest  congregation  in  the 
United  States,  and  his  popularity  as  a  public 
lecturer  is  great.  He  was  one  of  the  foiindcrs  of 
the  iVew  York  Independent,  a  paper  devoting  itself 
chiefly  to  religious  and  social  subjects,  and  was  a 
strenuous  ami  eloquent  opponent  of  slavery.  He 
has  published  several  works,  tlie  most  popular  of 
which  are  Lectures  to  Younq  Men.  (18.50),  and  Life 
Thoughts  (1858),  both  of  which  have  gone  through 
many  editions.  He  is  now,  1868,  engaged  upon  a 
Life  of  Christ. 

Catherine  B.,  eldest  daughter  of  Lyman  B.,  was 
born  at  East  Hampton,  Long  Island,  in  1800.     From 
1822 — 1832,  she  was  principal  of  a  female  seminary 
at  Hartford,  Connecticut,  and  afterwards  of  a  similar 
institution  at  Cincinnati.     She  is  a  fertile  and_  popu- 
lar writer,   chiefly  on  subjects    coming   within    the 
sphere  of  her   own    sex,   but   also   on    physiology, 
theology,  mental  and  moral  philosophy,  &c. 
Harriet  B.     See  Stowe,  H.  B. 
BEECHEY,     Sir    William,    R.A.,     an     English 
portrait-painter    of    high    reputation,    was    born    at 
Burford,  Oxfordshire,  December  12,  1753.  He  entered 
the  Royal  Academy  as  a  pupil  in  1772,  and  devoted 
himself  chiefly  to  portrait-jiainting,  in  which  he  was 
so  successful,"  that  in  17l»3  he  was  chosen   portrait- 
painter  to  Queen  Charlotte,  of  whom  he  painted  a 
full  length.     In   the   same  year  he  was  electeil  an 
associate  of  the   Royal  Academy;  and  in  1798,  he 
received  the  honour  of  knighthood,  and  was  nuide  a 
Royal  Academician  for  his  picture  of  the  Review  of 
the"  Sd  and  loth  Dragoons  in  Hyde  Park  by  George 
HI.    (accompanied    by    the    Prince    of    Wales   and 
Duke   of  York),    which    is   reckoned    B.'s   greatest 
work.     B.  now  received  the  patromige  of  the  royal 
family — most  of  the  members  of  which  s.it  to  him— 
as  well  as  that  of  the  court  nobility.      Among  his 
portraits'are  those  of  Lord  Nelson  (preserved  in  the 
Clothier'H    Hall,    London),     Sir    William    Hamilton, 
Lord  St.  Vincent  (in  Fislimonger's  Hall),  Lord  Corn- 
wallis,  John  Kemble,  and   Mrs.  Siddons.     B.  is  not  a 
portrait-painter  of  first  rank,  but   his   portraits  are 
generally  characterised  by  easy  attitude  and  natural- 
ness of  expression.      He  retired  from  his  profession 
in  1830,  and  died  at  ihimpstead  in  January  1839. 

BEECIIEY,  Frkdkrick  Wn.UAjr,  son  of  Sir 
William  B.,  the  portrait-painter,  was  born  in  London, 
February  17,  1796.  He  entered  the  navy  when  he 
was  ten"  years  of  age,  and  at  the  age  of  fifteen  was 
present  iii  an  engagement  off  the  coast  of  Madagas- 
car, in  which  three  French  frigates  were  captured. 
In  1818,  he  took  part  under  Franklin  in  a  scientific 


voyage  of  discovery  to  t!ic  north  po\<?.  of  which  the 
results  were  pul)lished  by  order  of  the  Admiralty 
(1843).  For  the  services  he  renuered  with  his 
])cncil  during  this  voyage,  B.  received  a  grant  of 
£200  from  iiarliament.  In  1819,  he  was  ci:gaged  in 
another  arctic  expedition  undi-r  Sir  Edward  Parry ; 
and  in  1821,  rendered  other  imi)Orlaut  services  to 
science  by  his  exploration  of  ()art  of  the  north  coast 
of  Africa",  of  which  the  results  were  published  in 
1828.  After  being  appointed  commander.  Captain 
B.,  in  1825,  received  a  commi>si()n  to  proceed  by  the 
Pacific  Ocean  and  Beliring's  Strait  to  the  Polar  Sea, 
in  order  to  connnunicate,  if  po.ssible,  with  Franklin, 
who  was  to  make  the  jouiney  overlami  from  North 
America.  The  explorers  did  not  meet,  although  at 
one  time  they  were  within  150  miles  of  each  other. 
He  returned  "in  1828,  having  been  two  years  and  a 
half  awav,  and  in  1831  published  a  narrative  of  his 
vovage,  which  was  afterwards  followed  by  an  account 
of'tlie  liotaiiy  and  zoology  of  the  Arctic  regions. 
Port  Clarence  and  Port  (irantley,  to  the  south-east 
of  Caj)e  Prince  of  Wales,  were  discovered  by  B.  in 
1827.  He  was  afterwards  engaged  in  surveying  the 
coast  of  Ireland  and  of  South  America ;  and  was 
made  Rear-admiral  of  the  Blue  in  1854.  He  died 
in  1850. 

BEE'DER,  the  capit.al  of  a  district  of  the  saine 
name  in  the  Nizam's  territories.  It  is  about  75 
miles  to  the  north-west  of  Hyderabad,  being  in  lat. 
17°  53'  N.,  and  long.  77°  36'  E.  It  stands  near  the 
right  bank  of  the  Manjera,  a  considerable  tributary 
of^the  Godavery,  and  occupies  a  table-land  about 
2400  feet  above  the  sea,  and  about  100  feet  above 
the  adjacent  country.  Though  B.  was  formerly  a 
place  of  grandeur  and  importance,  yet  it  is  at 
present  remarkalilc  chiefly  for  its  niamil'actnres  in  a 
compound  metal  made  up  of  twenty-four  parts  of 
tin  to  one  of  copper. 

BEE-EATER  (Mcvops),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
order  In scssores  and  n\ho  Fi^:sirostres ;  the  type  of 
a  family,  Meropidce,  neatly  allied  to  that  of  the 
Kin-tisliers.  The  birds  of  the  B.  family  have 
ratlun-  long,  slightly  arched  beaks,  and  long  po-nted 
winsrs:  they  are  mostly  of  a  green  colour;  resemble 
swaflows  in  flight ;  aiul,  like  them,  prey  on  insects, 
but  chiefly  on  bees,  wasps,  and  other  hymenopter- 
ous  insects.     Their  skin  is  very  thick.     The  species 


Common  Bee-eater  {Merops  apiastcr). 

of  the  genus  Merops  are  numerous  in  Africa 
and  Asia;  none  are  known  in  America;  two 
are  Eiu-opean,  one  of  which,  the  Common  B. 
(J/,  apiaster),  is  common  in  the  south  of  Europe 

805 


BEEF — BEER. 


as  a  puiiiinrr  bird  of  passiij;e.  It  is  a  vory  raic 
bird  in  Britain.  It  is  mentioned  by  Aristotle, 
under  the  nunie  Jferops,  as  very  destructive  to 
bees.  It  seizes  them  on  the  wing,  and  also  often 
watches  near  their  hives,  and  at  the  mouths  of 
wasps'  nests.  It  breeds  in  holes,  which  it  excavates 
in  the  banks  of  rivers.  '^Vllen  the  young  arc  partly 
fledged,  but  not  yet  tit  to  fly,  they  creep  to  the  mouth 
of  their  holes,  \\  iiere  they  .^eem  to  enjoy  the  liappy 
sunnner  light  and  genial  sunshine;  but  on  the  least 
alarm,  they  trundle  stern  foremost  into  their  inner 
chambers,  where  they  lie  concealed  until  tranquillity 
again  prevails.'  In  the  banks  of  the  Don  and  Volga, 
the  excavations  made  by  the  flocks  of  bee-eaters 
are  so  numerous,  that  the  bank  in  many  places 
resembles  a  honey-comb.  Livingstone  describes  the 
banks  of  the  Leeba,  in  Soutli  Africa,  as  perforated  in 
a  similar  manner.  The  Hottentots  watch  the  flight 
of  the  bee  eaters,  that  they  may  be  guided  to  the 
nests  of  bees. 

BEEF.     Sec  J'oon,  Animal. 

BEEF-EATER,  a  term  now  applied  jocularly  to 
certain  functionaries  belonging  to  tlie  Yeomen  of  the 
Guard  (q.  v.),  who,  ever  since  the  time  of  Henry 
VII.,  have  formed  part  of  the  train  of  royalty, 
attending  the  sovereign  at  royal  banquets  and  other 
state  occasions.  They  have  maintained  the  same 
costume,  with  a  slight  alteration  made  in  1858,  for 
nearly  four  centuries;  and  this  costume  has  had 
much  to  do  with  their  attractiveness  to  sight-seers. 
The  origin  of  the  term  is  a  case  of  what  Dr.  Latham 
calls  '  words  of  foreign  simulating  a  vernacular 
origin.'  It  was  originally  beanfctler  or  btiffctier{V\'.\ 
one  who  attends  the  buffet  or  side-hoard.  Similar 
instances  of  false  etymology,  arising  from  resem- 
blance in  sound,  are  seen  in  Shot-over  (a  hill  near 
Oxford),  from  Chateau  Vert;  sparrow-tjrass  from 
anparai/xs ;  ancient,  iov  enaign  ;  ilor/-c/ieap,  from  the 
old  English  ffod-kepe,  i.  e.  good-cheap,  meaning  a 
good  bargain  ;  &c. 

BEEF-EATER  (Buphaga),  a  genus  of  birds,  of 
the  order  Inscssores,  tribe  t'onirosfres,  to  which  the 
name  Ox-pecker  is  also  and  more  correctly  given. 
The  beef-eaters  have  short  bills,  square  at  the  base, 
and  rather  swollen  towards  the  point.  Tiiey  are  ac- 
customed to  sit  upon  the  backs  of  buffaloes,  camels, 
and  other  large  animals,  and  to  feed  upon  the  larvfe 
of  gadflies,  which  they  find  m  their  hides.  They 
are  exclusively  African.  One  of  the  species  is  the 
Buff.ilo  Bird  of  South  Africa.  Livingstone  mentions 
that  the  sight  of  the  bird  being  much  more  acute 
than  that  of  the  buft'alo,  it  is  much  more  easily 
alarmed  by  the  approach  of  ("'inger;  but  the  buffaloes 
always  begin  to  look  about  them  when  the  birds  rise 
from  their  backs. 

BEEF-TEA  is  a  light  and  pleasant  article  of  diet, 
obtained  from  the  flesh  of  the  ox.  It  is  generally 
prepared  by  placing  the  meat  (as  lean  as  possible) 
in  cold  water,  winch  is  gradually  heated,  and  then 
allowed  to  dimmer  for  two  hours  or  so;  but  the  best 
method  appears  to  be  to  commence  by  cho]i))ing 
the  meat  small,  adding  the  cold  water,  and  rapidly 
heating  so  as  to  bring  it  to  boil.  A  little  salt 
is  then  added,  to  suit  the  taste.  Either  process, 
by  commencing  with  cold  water,  succeeds  in  dis- 
solving out  of  the  meat  the  savoury  natural  juices 
which  it  contains  to  the  extent  of  about  one-eighth 
of  its  weight.  Occasionally,  hard-toasted  bread, 
in  fragments,  is  added  to  the  tea  just  before 
being  partaken  of,  which  imparts  to  it  some  of 
tlie  nutritious  qualities  of  the  bread.  In  using 
the  B.,  the  bread  may  or  may  not  be  eaten. 
The  popular  notion  is,  that  the  B.  contains  all 
the  nourishing  constituents  of  the  entire  amount 
of  meat  employed  in  its  preparation ;  but  this 
806 


is  erroneous,  as  much  nutritious  matter  is  resident 
in  the  seven-eighths  of  the  original  meat,  left 
as  residuary  fleshy  fibre,  though  the  latter  will  no 
doubt  prove  of  difticult  digestion.  The  chemical 
constituents  of  B.  arc  gelatine ;  albuminous  matter ; 
kreatine,  a  substance  resembling  theine,  the  essen- 
tial principle  of  tea  and  coffee ;  extractive  matters 
(os)i)azo7nc),  to  which  the  tea  owes  most  of  its  odour 
and  flavour,  besides  a  part  of  its  nutritious  qualities; 
lactic  acid;  salts;  a  little  fat ;  sacchariitc  7na't€r,imd 
water.  B.  is  highly  palatable,  and  from  its  very 
easy  dige.«tion,  it  is  recommended  to  invalids  and 
convalescents.  Mutton,  treated  in  a  similar  man- 
ner, yields  a  broth  or  tea  wliicli  is  not  so  easily 
digested,  and  is  hurifid  to  persons  of  weak  stomach, 
especially  if  the  fat  be  not  skimmed  off  from  the 
liipiid.  A  knuckle  of  veal  affords  a  similar  broth  or 
tea ;  but  it  is  not  so  light  as  B.,  and,  moreover, 
gelatinises  on  cooling.  A  broth  or  tea  prepared 
from  a  young  chicken  is,  of  all  decoctions  of 
animal  matter,  the  most  readily  digested,  and  is 
specially  suitable  for  invalids,  where  great  irritability 
of  the  stomach  exists. 

BEEF-WOOD.     Sec  Casuarina. 

BEE  niVE-IIOUSE,  a  name  generally  given 
to  certain  dome-shaped  fmihlings  in  lieland,  which 
are  believed  to  be  among  the  oldest  architect- 
nial  remains  in  that  country.  They  are  round 
edifices,  of  no  great  size  or  height,  built  without 
cement,  of  long  thin  stones  arranged  in  horizontal 
layers,  the  one  .slightly  overlapping  the  other,  and  so 
gradually  converging  until  they  meet  at  the  top. 
The  doorway,  which  is  sc|uarc-hea(led,  is  somewhat 
narrower  at  the  top  than  at  the  bottom,  as  in 
Egyptian  architecture.  Beehive-houses  are  of  two 
kinds — single  or  clustered.  The  former  are  generally 
found  beside  ancient  oratories,  and  are  supposed  to 
have  been  the  dwelling-places  of  the  priests;  the 
latter,  which  are  often  underground,  shew  two  or 
more  hive-sliaped  chambers,  connected  by  a  passage 
or  gallery,  or  opening  from  a  larger  central  apart- 
ment, which  is  also  hive-shaped.  Irisli  antiquaries 
refer  the  beehive-houses  generally  to  the  period 
before  the  Anglo-Norman  invasion  of  the  island,  in 
the  l'2th  c,  and  claim  for  some  of  them  an  antiipiity 
as  high  as  the  7th  and  8th  c.  Ruins  of  single 
beehive-houses  are  found  in  the  Western  Isles  of 
Scotland ;  and  some  of  the  '  Picts'  houses,'  or  'earth- 
houses,'  of  the  east  coast,  seem  to  resemble  the  sub- 
terranean aggregated  beehive-houses  of  Ireland. 

BEE'LZEBUB  (i.e.  'the  god  of  flies').  Under 
this  name  the  people  of  Ekron,  in  Philistia,  wor- 
shipped their  god  I?aal  (q.  v.)  or  Bel.  The  Greeks 
also  had  their  'Zeus  Apomyios'  or  'Myiagros' — 'tlie 
disperser  of  flies.'  As  the  heathen  deities  were  all 
regarded  as  demons  by  the  Jews,  the  name  Beelze- 
bub became,  in  course  of  time,  commonly  applied  to 
the  chief  of  evil  spirits,  and  in  this  sense  it  is 
employed  in  the  Gospels.  The  more  correct  reading 
of  the  word,  as  given  by  the  Evangelists,  ia  Beelze- 
BUL — an  opprobrious  change  of  name,  making  it 
signify  '  god  of  dung,'  to  mark  the  low  and  grovelling 
character  of  the  demon.     See  Baal. 

BEER,  derived  from  the  German  Bier  (see  Ale),  is 
the  term  applied  to  a  fermented  liquid  which  has 
not  undergone  the  process  of  distillation.  It  may  be 
prepared  from  many  varieties  of  vegetable  matter, 
but  in  Britain  the  raw  material  operated  upon  is 
generally  barley,  although  pease,  beans,  wheat,  &c., 
might  be  employed.  In  other  countries,  B.  is  often 
prepared  from  other  sources,  to  which  allusion  is 
made  at  the  close  of  this  article.  The  process 
followed  in  the  manuflicture  of  B.  is  divided  into 
two  parts — viz.,  malting  and  hreiving ;  and  so  dis- 
tinct are  these,  that  very  often  the  malting  proceeda 


BEER. 


in  a  building  at  some  distance  from  that  in  whicli 
the  brewing  is  conducted,  and  in  many  cases  the 
maltin"  is  supciintend.-d  and  accomplished  by  a 
maimer,  as  his  particular  and  only  l)ranch  of  trade 
the  malt  thus  preoared  being  afteiwaids  purchased 
by  the  brewer. 


The  variety  of  barley  preferred  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  finer  kinds  of  B.  is  the  chevalier:  but 
other  varieties  are  extensively  used.     See  Baklky. 

The  process  of  malting,  or  the  conversion  of 
barley  into  malt,  is  accomplished  in  four  successive 
steps      1st,  SteejAncj  of  the  barley,  which  consists  in 


Fi-.  1. 


introducing-  the  gram  into  a  large  wooden  or  stone 
cistern,  a  (fig.  1),  and  adding  thereto  as  much  water 
as  will  cover  it.     On  being  thus  treated  for  twenty- 
four  hours,  the  grains  of  barley  absorb  the  water, 
and    the    contents   of    the    cistern,    near   the   top, 
even  begin  to  feel  drv.     The  barley  swells  up  much, 
so   as   to   increase    considerably   in    bulk,  and   the 
Excise  officers,  if  they  choose,  can  gauge  or  measure 
the  "rain  at  this  stage,  and  charge  by  the  bulk  thus 
indicated.     The  amount  of  water  which  barley  takes 
up  in  the  steeping,  affords  good  evidence  of  the 
excellence   of  the   grain   for   brewing.      Thus,   the 
better   kinds  of  barley,    on   the   average,   take   up 
sufficient    water   to   increase    their   weight   by   one 
half      Occasionallv,    however,    the    increase   is   not 
more   than  a  tenth.      The  time   during   which  the 
grain  lies  in  the  steeping-cistern  is  about  40  hours, 
when  the   excess  of  water  is  drained  off;    but   a 
reo-ulation    exists   that  the   cistern   cannot   have  a 
second  charge  of  barley  till  four  days  have  elapsed 
after  the  introduction  of  the  first  charge.     2d,  Coach- 
inq  —The  grain  is  thrown  out  of  the  steeping  cistern 
in  a  heap  on  the  floor,  b.     At  this  stage,  the  barley 
is  soft   and  when  pressed  between  the  fingers,  it  is 
readilV  bruised.     It  lies  in  the  couch  or  heap  for  26 
hoursor  so,  and  during  that  time,  it  rises  in  temper- 
ature about  Ki"  F.,  and  gives  out  some  of  its  extra 
-water.     This  sweatinrj,  as  it  is  called,  is  the  result  of 
the  partial  germination  or  growth  of  the  barley  ;  and 
little  rootlets  or  fibrils  of  the   radicle,  and  a  primi- 
tive stem  (plumula  or  acrospire),  begin  to  form  and 
present  themselves.     As  the  temperature  rises,  the 
radicles    lengthen    rapidly,    and    means    are    then 
taken  to  check  the  germination.       3d,   Ffooriiu/.— 
The  heated  barley  is  spread  by  the  workmen  with 
spades  on  the  floor  to  the  depth  of  about  1.5  inches  at 
first,  cc.     It  is  repeatedly  turned  and  respread  over 
a  laro-cr  area,  with  a  thickness  of  layer  decreasing  to 
6  inches.     At  this  stage,  the  radicles  have  attained 
their  greatest  length.     4th,  Kiln-flr>ii»g.—The  halt-  ] 
germinated    barley    is   now    introduced    into   a   kiln  I 
(fi-r   -2),  on  the  perforated  floor  of  which  it  is  spread.  | 
Tl^e  apartment   beneath  the  kiln-room  is   fitted  up  j 
with  stoves  or  choff'ers.  A,  which  evolve  much  heat ;  j 
and    this,    rising  and    passing   through   the   shts   or  ; 
perforations  in  the  floor  of  the  kiln,  B,  necessarily  ] 


dries  any  moist  bailcv  laid  th'-reon,  and  the  steam 
escapes  at  the  roof,  C.  The  heat  which  the  barley 
is  subjected  to  in  the  kiln  is,  at  the  commence- 
ment, 90""  F.,  but  this  gradually  is  raised  to  about 
1.50°  F.     While  drying,  the  radicles— called  comings 


Fig.  2. 

or  cM»i»(i:n(7S— break  off"  from  the  grain,  and   are 
afterwards  removed  by  a  wire-sieve.      The   colour 
which  the  barlev  assumes  as  it  becomes  dry  malt 
in   the    kiln   is    determined  by  the  heat  to   which 
it   is   subjected,    the   higher   temperature    yielding 
the  darker-coloured  malt.     Pale  and  amber  coloured 
malt    are    used    in    the    brewing    of    the    lighter 
varieties   of    B.— such    as   bitter-B.,    tablc-B.,    and 
small-B. ;    whilst   a   darker   kind   of    malt   is   used 
in   sweet   ale,   and  a  very   dark   malt   in   the   pre- 
paration   of    porter.      During    the    conversion    of 
barley  into  malt,  a  loss  of  material  occurs.     Thus, 
loo  parts   of  barlev   yield  80  parts  of  malt;    but 
as   the   lOO   parts  of  barley  contain   12  of  water, 
it   follows   that   there    are    present   only   88    parts 
'  of  dry  matter,  and  these  yield  80  pan-ts  of  dry  malt, 
giving  a  loss  of  8  per  cent,  of  the  original  weight  of 
the  barley.     While  there  is  a  decrease  in  weight, 
there  is  aii  increase  in  bulk,  100  measures  of  barley 
becoming  101  to  109  measures  of  malt.      Certain 
chemical  changes   likewise    occur  as  the  barley  is 

807 


BEER. 


tran?formed  into  malt,  which  may  be  noticed  from 
the  followin<?  table. 


Hordein  (q.  v.), 

Starch, 

Sugar,    . 

Gluten, 

Gum, 

Resin, 


Composition  of 

Barley.  Malt. 

65  12 

32  56 

6  15 

8  1 

4  15 

1  1 

Too  100 


The  principal  chemical  change  is,  therefore,  the 
transformation  of  much  hordein  (a  form  of  starch) 
into  starch,  gum,  and  sii^ar.  Tlio  mechanical  con- 
dition of  the  contents  of  the  grain  is  also  altered ; 
the  grain  is  now  of  a  line  niealj'  nature,  and  is 
readily  broken  between  the  fingers,  when  the  flour 
in  the  interior  is  found  to  be  soft  and  distinctly 
sweet  to  taste. 


The  brewing  of  the  malt  cotuprehends  no  less 
than  six  stages.  1st,  Grinding  the  malt,  which  may 
be  accomplished  in  several  ways  :  either  by  placing 
the  malt  between  two  revolving  horizontal  circular 
stones,  such  as  are  employed  in  flour-grinding ;  or 
passing  the  malt  through  a  mill  like  a  large 
coffee-mill ;  or  bruising  it  between  revolving  steel 
rollers.  The  last  plan  is  the  best,  as  it  is  desirable 
that  the  grinding  should  not  be  too  perfect,  which 
would  give  a  fine  flour,  readily  becoming  pasty  on 
the  addition  of  wafer.  When  coarsely  ))riiised, 
however,  the  water  can  find  its  way  into  all  |)arts 
of  the  grain,  and  thoroughly  soak  it.  2d,  Mushing 
the  bruised  ma't. — This  operation  is  conducted  in  a 
large  tun  (fig.  3),  built  up  of  wooden  staves,  and 
surrounded  by  hoops — somewhat  similar  in  con- 
struction to  an  ordinary  domestic  churn.  Water 
which  has  been  previously  heated  in  a  copper,  is 
allowed  to  run  into  the  comparatively  cold  mash- 
tun,  while   the   bruised    malt    at    the    same    time 


Fig.  3. 


descends  by  the  hopper,  cib ;  the  water  thereby 
becoming  reduced  to  160°  F.,  or  slightly  below 
that  temperature.  The  whole  is  then  thoroughly 
agitated  by  long  poles,  g,  worked  by  the  hand  or  by 
machinery,  def\  till  every  particle  of  the  malt  is 
brought  into  contact  with  the  water.  The  result  is 
that  the  malt  absorbs  the  water  in  part,  and  a  very 
active  change  begins  to  take  place.  In  the  malt, 
there  is  developed  a  substance  called  diastase  (q.  v.), 
which  reacts  on  the  starch  of  the  malted  barley, 
and  changes  it  into  the  variety  of  sugar  called 
grape-sugar.  See  Sugar.  So  rapidly  does  this 
transformation  of  starch  into  sugar  occur,  that 
almost  immediately  on  the  mixing  of  the  water 
with  the  bruised  malt,  the  liquid  assumes  a  sweet 
taste.  In  the  space  of  half  an  hour  the  temper- 
ature of  the  mash-tun  will  be  found  to  have 
decreased  to  about  140°  F. ;  and  then  a  second 
quantity  of  water,  at  a  heat  of  190°  F.,  is  run  in,  so 
as  to  raise  the  temperature  to  about  167°  F.,  which 
degree  of  heat  is  found  to  be  the  best  for  enabling 
the  diastase  to  act  most  powerfully  in  transforming 
the  starch  into  sugar.  After  two  to  three  hours' 
action  upon  the  malt,  the  water,  which  is  now  very 
sweet  to  the  taste,  is  drawn  off  into  a  large  vessel 
called  the  itnderback;  and  fresh  water,  at  a  temper- 
ature of  about  190'  F.,  is  admitted  to  the  tun,  and 
808 


allowed  to  soak  the  malt  still  remaining  there.  This 
part  of  the  process  is  styled  the  second  mash ;  and 
as  the  water  is  at  a  higher  temperature  than  in  the 
first  mash,  much  of  the  residuary  matter  in  the  malt 
is  changed  into  sugar,  and  dissolved.  After  some 
hours,  tlie  liquid  from  the  second  mash  is  drawn  off, 
and  added  to  that  of  the  first  mash  already  in  the 
underback  ;  and  a  third  quantity  of  water,  at  a  still 
higher  temperr^ure,  about  2(t0^  F.,  is  run  in  upon 
the  malt,  which  dissolves  out  all  the  remaining  por- 
tions of  any  value,  and  leaves  the  husk  skin  of  the 
grain  and  other  insoluble  matters.  The  liquid  from 
the  third  mash  is  not  strong  enough  to  be  in  general 
nuxed  Avith  the  other  solutions  in  the  underl^ack, 
and  is  cither  employed  in  brewing  sniall-B.,  or  is 
again  heated  and  used  in  treating  new  bruised  malt. 

In  order  that  the  brewer  may  be  enabled  to  pre- 
pare the  same  variety  of  B.  day  after  day,  it  is  re- 
quisite that  the  liquid"  in  the  underback,  and  which 
is  now  called  the  sweet-worts,  should  be  of  a  definite 
strength  ;  and  to  determine  this,  an  instrument  called 
a  sac-charometer,  a  form  of  areometer  (q.  v.),  is  used, 
which  enables  the  brewer  to  determine  the  strength 
of  the  sweet-worts,  and,  if  necessary,  to  add  some 
of  the  liquid  from  the  third  mash,  to  reduce  the 
strength  of  that  in  the  underback. 

In  the  drawing  off  of  the  several  worts  from  the 


BEER. 


is  very  liable  to  pass  into  decomposition,  and  which, 
were  it  to  do  so,  would   destroy  the    beer.     Daring 


niasli-tun,  advantafro  is  taken  of  a  finely  perforated 
false  bottom  of  plate-iron,  which  lies  about  a  foot 
above  the  true  bottom  of  the  tun,  and  the  liiiuids 
bein"  drained  away  through  the  perforations  in  the 
false^'bottoii),  the  iiisolubte  husk  and  other  matters 
are  left  behind.  The  material  left  on  the  false  bot- 
tom callrd  (p;dm  or  draff,  is  used  for  feedinj;  cattle. 
3d,  Bo}li'»qofthc  v'orts  withhopx.—\S'\\Qi\  reduced 
to  the  propVr  strength,  the  worts  are  pumped  up 
from  the  uuderback  into  a  covered-in  boiler  or  cop- 
per AA  (fig.  4),  and  being  mix'-d  with  hops,  are 
raised  to  the  boiling-point,  and  kept  in  a  state  of 
ebullition  for  some  time  During  the  bodnig,  it 
is  necessary  to  keep  the  hops  and  other  sediment 
from  settling  at  the  lower  part  of  the  boiler  near  the 
fire,  DD,  and  for  that  purpose,  a  sort  of  rake  with 
teeth,  lili,  turned  by  a  wheel  ((')  above,  is  kept  turn- 
ing round,  which  tends  to  hold  the  sediment  in  me- 
chanical suspension.  To  economise  heat,  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  have  a  tank  fitted  to  the  upper  part  of  the 
boiler"  in  which  water  or  the  worts  can  be  heated. 

fig.  5. 

the  boiling,  the  excess  of  this  nitrogenous  matter 
separates  as  a  flaky  and  stringy  solid,  called  by  the 
brewer  inudhuje.     The  boiling  is  continued    till   the 
hops  have  vielded  their  aromatic    and  bitter    i)rin- 
ciples,  and   till  the  liquid  has  been  concentrated  to 
the  extent    required  by    the    brewer,  and   then    the 
whole  is  run  into  ihc' hop-bacJc,  a   form   of  cistern 
which  has  a  false  bottom  composed  of  perforated  iron 
plates  (fig.  5),  admitting  of  the  liquid   worts   perco- 
lating   through,  while    all  the    mucilage  and    other 
solid  matters  are  retained  on  the  upper  surface  of 
this  metallic  sieve.     4th,  Cooling  the  wm-(s.—K»  the 
liquor  drains  through  the  false  bottom  of  the   hop- 
back,  it    is    run    on    to  the    cooler  or    refrigerator 
(fig.  6),  which,  in  size  and  appearance,  resenihles  the 
ordinary  wooden  floor  of  a  large  room.     The  ]ilanks 
are   so  closely   connected  together   that   the  liquid 
cannot    run    through,  and  a    wooden  ledge,  B,  runs 
round   the  sides  of  the    room,  which    is   also  tight. 
The  hot  worts,  which  are  spread  to  the  depth   of  a 
few   inches   over  the   floor,  are  very  rapidly  cooled 
down,  by  allowing  a  free  current  of  cold  air  to  pass 
over   the   top   of  the   licpiid,  and   often   by  having 
a  series   of  fan.s,  CC,  revolving  rapidly  immediately 
above    the  liquid,   so    as   to    cau.se    a    more  speedy 
removal  of   the   heated  air  loaded  with  steam,  and 
the    substitution    of    cold    air.      Occasionally,    the 
brewer  is  at  the  expense  of  having  a  coil  of  metal 
pipe,    A,    placed    up  and    down    the    floor   of    the 
cooler,    through   which    metal   pipe    cold    water  is 
allowed    to    run    at   the   time    the   hot    worts    are 
being  cooled  down.     By  these  means,  the  worts  are 
verv  soon    reduced  to  a  temperature  of  about  60° 
F.  "  Tills  step  in  the  process   of  brewing  is  a  very 
„,     ,  ,  .  ,  u.  •      1  <•  T'^^t  .,„/!  Q„=cov    important    one,  as,  if   the  cooling  is  not  conducted 

The  hops  which  are  obtained  from  Kent  and  S      ex        P  -ea  est  rapidity,  the  sugar  ^   the  worts 

are  the  strongest,  and  are  employed  in    tlie  Inewing       ""    "       b  i        ji  a 

of  porter,  while  the  Worcester  hup  is  milder,  and 
is  preferred  for  ale.  The  hojis  are  useful  in  the 
brewing  of  B.  in  imparting  to  the  Tupior  a  volatile 
fragrant  aromatic  oil,  a  bitter  resin,  and  a  little 
tannin.  The  quantity  of  hops  required  to  be 
added  depends  much  on  the  kind  of  B.  which  it  is 
intended  to  brew.  The  stronger  the  B.  is  to  be, 
and  above  all,  the  more  bitterness  is  required,  the 
more  hops  must  be  added  to  the  boiler.  In 
common  ale  or  B.,  the  quantity  of  hops  does  not 
exceed  2  lb.  to  the  quarter  of  malt ;  whilst  in 
bitter-B.,  and  especially  that  intended  for  foreign 
countries,  the  amount  of  hops  is  S  lb.  and  upwards.  ]  will  become  partially  converted  into  acetic  aeid, 
Besides  imparting  to  the  worts  the  active  constitu- 1  or,  as  it  is  termed, /o.rui//  occurs,  which  communi- 
ents  of  the  hop,  the  boiling  operation  serves  other  ,  cates  bad  properties  to  the  worts,  and  ultimately 
important  ends.  In  the  sweet  worts,  there  is  a  j  produces  a  beer  with  an  unpleasant  taste  and 
considerable  quantity  of  nitrogenous  matter,  which  I  flavour.     5th,    Ferinenting    the    worts. — When    the 

809 


BEER. 


liquid  has  been  cooled  down  to  55" — 60°  F.,  it  is 
conveyed  to  the  f'eiineiiting  tun,  wliere  it  is  mixed 
witli  the  yeast  {q.  v.),  and  the  process  of  ferment- 
ation proceeds.  Tlie  tun  or  vat  is  formed  of  strong 
wooden  staves,  and  is  either  circular  or  square. 
The  latter  form  has  recently  been  introduced,  and 
appears  to  be  preferred  by  some  brewers.  The 
yeast  is  added  in  varying  quantitj',  according  to 
the  strength  of  the  worts,  but  tlie  more  common 
amount  is  one  gallon  to  every  KtO  gallons  of  the 
worts.  Very  soon  after  the  yeast  is  mixed  with 
the  worts,  the  whole  contents  of  the  tun  begin 
to  pass  into  a  state  of  commotion,  much  gas  is 
evolved,  and  this,  tending  to  escape,  causes  afrofhinr/ 
on  the  surface  of  the  liciuid  termed  the  rocks,  from 
the  irregular  mountainous  appearance  of  the  masses 
of  froth  piled  upon  each  other.  The  colour  of  the 
froth  at  tliis  period  indicates  the  quality  of  the  beer. 
Thus,  if  the  froth  appears  of  a  yellowish-white  or 
yellow  tint,  the  operation  is  going  on  satisfactorily  ; 
but  if  the  colour  darkens  to  a  brownish-yellow  or  a 
light  brown,  it  is  considered  a  bad  sign,  and  the  lieer 
is  spoiled  as  a  first-class  beverage.  The  chemical 
changes  which  occur  during  the  process  of  fermenta- 
tion (q.  v.)  are  due  to  the  action  of  the  particles  of 
yeast  on  the  sugar  or  saccharine  matter.  This 
action  proceeds  most  satisfactorily  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  72°  F.,  and  care  is  taken  in  the  brewing 
of  the  iincr  varieties  of  beer,  such  as  India  pale 
ale  and  bitter-beer,  that  the  temperature  never 
exceeds  72°  F.  The  grape-sugar  which  is  pre- 
sent in  the  worts  as  they  are  introduced  into  tiie 
fermenting  tun,  is  composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen, 
and  oxygen  in  the  proportion  C12,  IIh,  O14 ; 
and  when  the  yeast  acts  upon  it,  a  greater  or 
less  proportion  of  it  is  converted  into  alcohol, 
carbonic  acid  and  water.  Tims,  one  atom  of  sugar, 
C12H14O14,  is  converted  into  2  atcmis  of  alcohol 
(  C4H6O.J )  =  C8H12O4 ;  4  atoms  of  carl)onic  acid 
(CO2)  =  C4()8 ;  and  two  atoms  of  water  (HO) 
=  H0O2  ;  which,  when  added  together,  give  the 
atom  of  sugar,  C12II14O14.  The  carbonic  acid 
tending  to  escape,  causes  the  frothing  on  rocks,  and 
the  alcohol  and  water  are  left  in  the  fermenting 
tun.  During  the  progress  of  the  fermentation,  a 
considerable  amount  of  new   yeast  is  formed,  which 


for  home  consumption,  5  to  7  per  cent.;  in  East 
India  pale  ale,  lo  per  cent.  In  15.  intended  to  be 
forwarded  to  California  from  Britain,  the  attenuation 
is  carried  so  far,  that  there  is  more  than  lu  per  cent, 
of  alcohol,  and  the  B.  is  then  called  dri/. 

B.  is  adulterated  in  many  ways.  Burned  sugar 
(caramel)  is  added  to  give  colour ;  cocculus  indicus, 
to  supply  an  intoxicating  agent  which  will  give  an 
ai)pearauce  of  strength  to  the  B. ;  (juiissia,  to  impart 
bitterness  in  place  of  hops;  grains  of  paradise  and 
Cayenne  pepj)er,  to  communicate  pungency  ;  cori- 
ander and  caraway  seeds,  to  yield  flavour  ;  liquorice, 
treacle,  and  honey,  to  supply  colour  and  consistence. 
To  stale-beer,  there  is  sometimes  added  green  vitriol 
(sulphate  of  iron),  or  alum  and  common  salt,  which, 
when  agitated  with  the  B.,  connuunicate  a  fine 
cauliflower  head.  It  is  unnecessary  to  state  that 
such  admixtures  are  never  made  in  any  extensive 
brewing  establishment  with  respectable  connections. 

For  the  home-brewing  of  B.,  many  recipes  have 
lieen  published,  and  one  of  the  best  is  that  given 
by  Mr.  Donovan  in  the  Cabinet  Cyclojiadia.  The 
apparatus  he  suggests  is  of  the  roughest  description, 
and  comparatively  inexpensive.  A  porter-barrel 
forms  the  mash-tun  ;  the  upper  end  being  taken  out, 
perforated  with  a  gimlet,  and  lowered  into  the 
liarrel  to  near  the  bottom,  where  it  is  supported 
about  a  couple  of  inches  from  the  true  bottom,  and 
constitutes  the  false  bottom  through  which  the 
li(juid  drains  from  the  bruised  malt.  A  hole  is 
nuule  in  the  side  of  the  barrel,  near  the  bottom, 
and  between  the  true  and  false  bottoms,  which  can 
be  plugged  up  with  a  sjjigot  wfien  not  required  to 
let  the  liquor  run  oil".  A  second  porter-barrel  w^ll 
be  useful  as  an  undcrback  and  i'ermenting  tun.  An 
ordinary  household  boiler,  or  a  large  common  tin- 
plate  one,  will  answer  the  purpose  of  boiling  the  worts. 
The  nuisii-tun  is  first  well  scalded  with  hot  water, 
and  then  is  supplied  with  15  gallons  of  boiling  water 
and  5  gallons  of  cold  water  at  (10°  F.,  2^  bushels  of 
first-class  bruised  ])ale  malt  are  shaken  in,  and  well 
stirred  through  the  water,  the  top  of  the  barrel  being 
in  greater  part  closed  with  a  thick  cloth.  In  an  hour 
or  so,  the  liejuid  which  is  in  the  tun  will  be  clear 
when  allowed  to  run  out  at  the  spigot-hole  ;  and 
immediately  after  it  ceases  to  run,  al)Out  20  gallons 


gets  entangled  in  the  froth  ;  and  when  the  operation  1  of  nearly  boiling  water  are  run  over  the  half-ex- 
slackens,  and  the  frothy  head  begins  to  fall,  the  hausted  malt,  and  this  carries  off  all  the  soluble 
upper   yeast   is   skimmed  oft".     This  process  of  the    matters,    yielding    altogether  about    23    gallons   of 


conversion  of  the  sugar  of  the  worts  into  alcohol  or 
spirit,  is  termed  attenuation  (Lat.  <en?«'.s',  thin);  and 
the  degree  to  which  the  change  is  carried  depends  on 
the  kind  of  B.,  and  the  nuirket  it  is  to  be  sent  to. 
In  sweet  ale  or  B.,  the  attenuation  is  not  allowed  to 
proceed  far,  and  much  sugar  is  left  in  the  beer. 
Bitter-B.,  however,  is  attenuated  to  a  greater  degree, 
and  conse(iuently  there  is  less  saccharine  matter  left 
in  it;  while  in  India  pale  ale,  and  other  beers 
intended  to  be  sent  great  distances,  the  attenuation 
must  be  carried  on  nnich  further,  else  the  liijuor 
would  not  be  preserved  din-ing  its  transit  to  many 
parts  of  the  globe.  6th,  Clearing  and  storing. — The 
B.,  when  properly  fermented,  is  placed  in  casks  like 
hogsheads,  called  roumk,  where  the  remaining  traces 
of  fermentation  proceed,  and  the  B.  ceases  to 
appear  thick    or  drumly,  and  becomes  clear;  when 


sweet-worts.  These  are  placed  in  the  copper,  '4^  lb. 
of  the  best  mild  hops  are  added,  and  boiled  for  20 
minutes.  The  liquor  is  then  strained  through  a 
fine  sieve  into  the  fermenting  tun ;  and  when  it  has 
cooled  down  to  below  a  blood-heat  (98°  F.),  a  quart 
of  yeast  is  added,  and  the  fermentation  allowed  to 
proceed.  When  the  frothy  head  begins  to  droop, 
the  upper  yeast  is  skimmed  off,  the  liquor  put  in 
a  cask,  bunged  up,  and  allowed  to  clear  for  a  fort- 
night, when  it  will  be  ready  for  use. 

The  foregoing  renuirks  on  the  manufircture  of  B. 
apply  to  all  the  varieties  of  B.,  ale,  and  porter  (q.  v.), 
brewed  and  used  in  Britain.  The  liquor  may  differ 
in  strength,  from  difference  in  the  quantity  of  water, 
or  in  colour,  from  the  malt  being  moie  or  less  charred 
in  the  kiln-drying.  There  are,  however,  many  other 
varieties  of  beer.     In  South   America,  the   Indiana 


it  is  pumped  up  into  store-casks  of  great  size,  or  at  prepared  and  drank  a  B.  obtained  from  Indian  corn, 
once  placed  in  the  casks  in  which  it  is  sent  into  1  and  called  c/iica  or  raaize  B.,  long  before  the  Spanish 
market.  During  the  storing  of  the  B.,  an  extra  conquest.  The  process  followed  in  making  chica  is 
quantity    of  hops   is  often  added,  to  increase   the 


bitterness  and  pungency. 


similar  to  that  of  B.  brewing  in  Britain.     The  maize 
is  moistened  with  water,  allowed  partially  to  germin- 


The  principal  constituents  of  the  various  hinds  of  ;  ate,  and  dried  in  the  sun.  The  maize  malt  so  prepared 
B.  are  water,  alcohol,  sugar,  gum,  gluten,  and  the  j  is  bruised,  treated  with  warm  water,  and  set  aside 
bitter  extractive  matter  ofthe  hop.  The  amount  of  j  till  the  fermentation  is  over.  The  chica,  or  maize  B. 
alcohol  varies  :  in  small-B.,  it  is  only  about  one  per  has  a  yellow  colour,  and  a  pleasant  acid  taste.  In 
cent. ;  in  ale,  the  stronger  kinds  of  B.,  and  porter  I  the  valleys  of  the  Sierra,  the  maize  malt  is  chewed 
810 


BEER— BEER  ACTS. 


between  the  teeth  of  the  Indians  ar.d  their  house- 
holds, and  the  chewed  morsel  incorporated  with  the 
saliva  is  put  in  jars  witli  hot  water,  wlien  the 
fermentation  proceeds  more  rapidly  than  hel'ore,  and 
a  more  highly-prized  B.  is  obtained.  The  chica  is 
also  made  from  barley,  rice,  pease,  manioc,  pine- 
apples, and  grapes.  The  Criin  Tatars  jjrepare  a  B. 
from  millet-seed,  called  bou.:a  or  millcl-hecr.  Tiie 
.same  seed  is  uscsd  in  Sililiini,  on  the  souiliern  slopes 
of  the  Lower  Himalaya,  and  yields  B.  there  called 
miirwa.  The  Arabians,  Abyssinians,  and  many 
African  tril)es,  employ  /<;//",  or  the  seeds  of  i'oa 
Ahjj.isiiiica,  and  millet-seed,  as  sources  of  beer.  The 
Russians  prepare  a  B.  from  rye  called  (juass  or  ri/c- 
beer.  The  Tatars  ferment  niilU  into  koumiss  or  milU- 
beer.  The  Arabians  use  the  milk  to  yield  their  ^e6((H, 
and  the.  Turks  to  produce  their  i/doiirf.  In  the  north 
of  Scotland,  the  Orkneys,  and  some  parts  of  Ireland, 
buttermilk,  or  sour-i/iilk,  is  allowed  to  stand  till 
fermentation  begins,  and  an  intoxicating  li(|U<)r 
results.  The  8outli-sea  islander.s  prepare  a  B.  from 
the  root  oi Macropipermcthiisticum,  or  the  intoxicatinfj 
long  pepper,  which  is  called  Ava.  (q.  v.). 

The  successful  brewing  of  B.  depends  much  on  the 
kind  of  water  employed.  The  water  which  is  found 
most  suitable  contains  much  common  salt,  suliihatc 
of  lime,  and  carbonate  of  lime,  in  a  state  of  solu- 
tion. The  waters  employed  in  the  most  extensive 
breweries  contain  at  least  OO  grains  of  earthy  salts 
dissolved  in  each  imperial  gallon.  Great  care  must 
be  taken  to  select  water  which  not  only  has  the 
proper  amount  of  saline  ingiedients,  but  at  the 
same  time  is  free  fiom  organic  matter  either  of 
animal  or  vegetable  oiigin.  Water  containing  such 
is  liable  to  the  decomposition  and  putrefaction  of 
its  constituents,  and  by  contamination,  causes  the 
B.  prepared  by  means  of  it  to  be  more  liable  to 
go  wrong  in  the  brewing,  and  to  possess  ultimately 
an  unpleasant  taste. 

A  variety  of  B.  known  as  Bavarian  stoi-e-beer,  or 
more  generally  as  lafjer  hcer,  is  now  extensively 
manufactured  in  the  large  cities  of  the  northern  U. 
States.  That  made  at  Philadelphia  is  said  to  contain 
3.40  per  cent,  of  alcohol,  4.-36  per  cof  .  of  malt 
extract  and  92.16  per  cent,  of  watei/  Some  sta- 
tistics regarding  the  consumption  of'  different 
kinds  of  B.,  and  other  kindred  bever.,ges,  will  be 
found  under  the  head  of  Feumentkd  Liquors. 

BEER  ACTS.  The  11  Geo.  IV.  and  1  William 
IV.  c.  04,  the  4  and  5  William  IV.  c.  85,  and  the 
3  and  4  Vict.  c.  61,  amended  by  the  11  and  VI  Vict, 
c.  49,  s.  2,  are  commonly  so  called  ;  to  which  may  be 
added  the  18  and  I'J  Vict.  c.  118,  restricting  the 
time  for  the  sale  of  beer  on  Sundays  and  holidays. 
By  the  '  first  three  of  these  acts  (all  relating  to 
England),  every  householder  assessed  to  the  poor- 
rates,  in  any  parish  or  place  (and  not  being  a 
sherilF's  officer,  or  officer  employed  to  execute 
judicial  process),  may,  without  any  licence  from 
the  magistrates,  apjjly  for  and  obtain  an  Excise 
licence,  to  enable  liim  to  sell  l)eer  and  cider,  by 
retail,  at  some  house  situate  within  such  parish  or 
place,  and  specilied  in  such  licence.  But  in  order 
to  obtain  such  licence,  the  applicant  must  produce  aii 
overseer's  certificate  that  he  is  the  real  resident, 
holder,  and  occupier  of  such  house,  and  rated  to  the 
poor-rate  In  a  certain  amount ;  and  must  enter  into 
a  bond  with  one  sniticicnt  surety,  in  the  penal  sum 
of  .£'.i(>,  or  two  sufficient  sureties  in  the  penal  sum  of 
£10  each,  for  the  payment  of  such  penalties  as  he 
may  incur  under  the  acts  ;  and  if  he  is  also  desirous 
for  permission  that  the  lifpior  should  be  drunk  on 
the  premises,  he  nmst,  moreover,  annually  deposit 
with  the  commissioners  of  Excise  (now  the  Board  of 
Inland  Revenue),  or  other  person  authorised  to  giant 
the  licence,  a  certificate  '  of  good  character,'  signed 


by  six  rated  inliabitants  of  the  parish,  of  whom  none 
shall  be  maltsteis,  common  brewers,  or  licensed  pub- 
licans, or  owners  of  licensed  public-houses.  But 
such  ceriificate  is  not  ncces.-ary  when  the  house  to 
be  licensed  is  situate  in  Lontlon  or  Westunnstcr,  or 
within  the  bills  <i/')iiorta/iti/  (q.  v.) ;  or  within  any  city 
or  town  corporate,  or  within  one  mile  from  the  place 
used  at  the  last  pailiamentary  election,  where  the 
pojiulation  of  sucli  city  or  town  exceeds  five  thou- 
sand ;  and  no  licence,  on  the  other  hand,  may  be 
granted,  even  ujion  ceitificate,  to  sell  in  any  such 
city  or  town  (whatever  tlie  jiopulation),  uidcss  the 
house  to  be  licensed  is  of  the  value  of  .£'10  per 
annum.  It  is,  moreover,  required  that  every  person 
obtaining  a  licence  shall  paint  conspicuously  over  the 
door  of  his  premises,  in  such  form  and  manner 
as  the  acts  specify,  his  Christian  name  and  surname 
at  full  length,  and  the  words  'licensed  to  sell  beer 
(or  cider)  l)y  retail,'  with  the  addition  of  'to  be 
drunk  on  the  premises,'  or  'not  to  be  drunk  on  the 
liremiscs,'  as  the  ease  niay  be.  Penalties  are  also 
imposed  on  every  retailer  of  beer  or  cider  who  shall 
transgress,  or  allow  to  be  transgressed,  any  of  the 
conditions  of  his  licence ;  and  the  penalties  are 
generally  recoverable  before  two  justices.  The 
licence  to  sell  beer  is  conlined  to  that  particular 
jjrivilcge  ;  and  persons,  under  cover  of  it,  attempting 
to  sell  wines  or  spirits,  are  not  only  liable  in  a 
heavy  penalty,  but  may  be  deprived  of  their  beer 
licence.  On  the  other  hand,  a  licence  to  sell  wines 
and  spirits  cannot  be  granted  unless  the  party 
applying  for  it  has  previously  obtained  a  beer 
licence. 

Subsequent  legislation  may  be  thus  exjilained : 
The  latest  governing  act  is  the  IS  and  Hi  Vict.  c. 
118  ;  that  act  repeals  in  toto  the  previous  one  of  the 
17  and  18  Vict.  c.  7 'J.  But  the  object  of  the  latter 
is  slated  in  its  preamble  to  be  to  extend  the  benefits 
of  the  11  and  I'l  Vict.  c.  49,  which  at  first  sight 
might  be  inuigined  also  to  be  repealed  by  the  IS  and 
19  Vict.  But  it  is  not  so;  the  11  aiid  12  Vict, 
rcnuiins  in  force,  and  it  is  only  its   extension  by  the 

17  and  18  Vict.,  which  has  been  repealed,  so  that  the 

18  and  19  Vict,  and  the  11  and  12  Vict,  iinist,  as 
regards  the  sale  of  beer  on  Sundays  and  holidays, 
be  read  together.  The  law  thus  enacted  is  as  fol- 
lows :  No  beer  or  other  li(iuor  mentioned  in  these 
acts,  can  be  sold  on  Sundays  or  holidays  before  half- 
past  twelve  in  the  afternoon  of  Sunday,  or  until  the 
conclusion  of  morning  divine  service  in  the  principal 
church  or  place  of  worship  of  the  district.  From 
that  time  until  three  o'clock,  beer  or  other  li([Uors 
can  be  sold  to  the  public.  Between  the  hours  of 
three  and  five,  all  beer-shops  or  other  jjlaces  where 
beer  and  other  liiiuors  may  be  sold,  must  be  closed. 
They  may  be  reoi)ened  at  five,  and  remain  so  open 
till  eleven  o'clock  the  same  (Sunday  or  other  holiday} 
night,  after  which  they  must  be  closed,  and  not 
reopened  again  till  lour  o'clock  on  Monday  morning. 

The  i)lace  where  bei'r  is  exclusively  sold  is  called 
a  beer-house,  differing,  in  this  respect,  from  an  ale- 
house, which  means  a  place  where  other  liquors  as  well 
a.s  beer  are  retailctl.  Tlie  term  Public  House  applies 
to  both. 

The  sale  of  beers  or  ales  in  Scotland  is  regu- 
lated by  the  44  Geo.  III.  c.  55,  the  48  Geo.  IIL 
c.  143,  the  9  Geo.  IV.  c.  38,  and  the  It!  and  I'J 
Vict.  c.  67,  commonly  called  the  '  Forbes  Mackenzie 
Act,'  according  to  the  regulations  of  which  licences 
are  at  present  (I860)  granted.  By  the  form  of 
licence  thereby  prescribed,  no  liquors  of  any  kind 
can  be  sold  on  Sunday  in  any  inn,  hotel,  or 
other  public-house,  except  to  lodgers  and  bo7ia-Jide 
travellers — an  expression  that  has  caused  some  diffi- 
culty in  construction.  Various  devices  have  been 
attempted,  iu  order  to  evade  the  stringency  of  the 

811 


BEER— BEET. 


latter  piovision,  the  most  succfssful  of  which  has  been 
the  phin  of  forming  clubs  with  a  nominal  entrance- 
fee,  where  the  members  have  stores  of  their  own, 
from  which  they  can  be  sui)plied  in  the  club-house.* 
BEER,  J.  Meyer.  See  Meyerbeer. 
BEERBHOO'M,  or  BIRBHOO  M  a  district  in  the 
presidency  of  Bengal,  with  an  area  of  4S70 
square  miles,  and  a  population  of  l,()4o,870.  It 
extends  between  N.  lat.  23°  32'  and  24"  40',  and 
between  E.  long.  8G°  25'  and  88°  30'.  Though  part 
of  B.  is  within  80  miles  from  Calcutta,  yet  little  is 
known  concerning  it.  The  inliabitants  are  repre- 
sented as  generally  a  rude  race,  and  there  appear  to 
be  hardly  any  places  worthy  of  the  name  of  towns. 

BEER-ilONEY  is  a  peculiar  payment  to  private 
soldiers  in  the  English  army.  It  was  established  in 
the  year  18o0,  at  the  suggestion  of  the  Duke  of 
York,  and  consisted  of  one  penny  per  day  for  troops 
when  on  home-service,  as  a  substitute  for  an  issue 
of  beer  and  spirits.  It  still  continues  as  an  addition 
to  the  daily  pay  ;  and  something  in  the  mode  of  keep- 
ing military  accounts  induces  the  authorities  to 
allow  it  to  figure  as  a  separate  item,  insteail  of  being 
consolidated  with  the  other  elements  of  the  soldier's 
pay — for  which,  see  P.w. 

BEE'RSIIEBA,  or  BIR-ES-SEBA  ('well  of  the 
oath,'  or  'well  of  the  seven'),  so  called  because  here 
Abraham  entered  into  an  alliance  with  Abimelech, 
king  of  Gerar,  which  he  ratified  with  an  oath  and  a 
gift  of  seven  ewe  lambs.  B.  was  situated  on  the 
Southern  border  of  Palestine,  about  52  miles  south- 
west Ironi  Jerusalem,  and  i'ormed  the  limit  in  that 
direction  of  the  Israelitish  dondnion.  It  was  one 
of  the  most  ancient  as  well  as  one  of  the  most  interest- 
ing places  in  sacred  record.  While  Abraham  resided 
at  this  place,  he  received  the  command  to  sacrifice 
Isaac,  whose  residence  it  also  was.  Esau  was 
robbed  of  his  l)irthright  and  blessing  here,  and  here 
Jacob  sacrificed  to  God  before  departing  info  Egypt ; 
the  sons  of  Saimiel  were  made  judges  here,  and  it 
was  from  hence  that  Elijah  was  ibrced  to  flee  into 
the  desert  from  Jezebel's  wrath.  After  the  captivity 
E.  was  occupied  for  some  time  by  the  Jews,  and  in 
the  4th  c.  A.  n.  it  was  a  Roman  garrison.  After- 
wards, the  Crusaders  arc  said  to  have  fortified  it, 
and  to  have  regarded  it  as  a  place  of  importance. 
Two  circular  wells  of  fine  jiure  water — the  largest 
being  14  feet  deep  to  the  surfnce  of  tiie  water,  and 
12A  feet  in  diameter — and  a  heap  of  ruins  about 
half  a  mile  long  and  a  quarter  broad,  remain  to 
mark  the  place  where  B.  once  was. 

BEE  SUA,  a  genus  of  grasses  with  the  habit  and 
most  of  the  characters  of  bamboos,  but  remarkable 
for  the  fleshy  pericarp  which  encloses  the  seed, 
forming  a  sort  of  berry.  The  species  are  few,  na- 
tives of  the  East  Indies. 

BEES-WAX  is  principally  obtained  from  the 
ordinary  bee-hive,  where  it  is  elaborated  by  the 
workers.  See  Bee.  For  some  time,  it  was  matter 
of  dispute  w  hctlier  the  bees  really  manufactured  the 
wax  from  other  ingredients  in  their  food, 
or  if  they  performed  the  simple  task  of  carrying  tlie 
wax  ready  made  from  the  plant  to  the  hive. 
It  appears  tnow  to  be  definitely  settled,  that  while, 
in  ordinary  circumstances,  bees  may  derive  part 
of  the  wax  from  plants,  yet,  when  they  are  fed 
entirely  upon  pure  sugar,  they  contiime  to  elaborate 


*  It  is  reTuarkable  that  the  Forbes  Mackenzie  Act 
does  not  expressly  repeal,  and,  in  fact,  does  not  recite 
or  make  mention  of  the  11  and  12  Vict.  c.  40,  by  which 
spirits  and  other  liquors  may  be  sold  in  Scotland  on 
Sunday  after  half-past  twelve,  or  at  and  after  the  con- 
clusion of  mornin<r-service.  But  this  latter  act,  of 
course,  must  be  held  to  be  superseded  by  the  former. 
812 


wax,  and  to  build  u])  the  walls  and   j)artitions  of  the 
honey-comb.     The  wax  procured  from   British   hives 
is  considered  the  purest  and  best,  but  the  snudlness 
of  the  amount  necessitates  the  importation  of  com- 
))aratively    large    quantities    from    North    America, 
Hrazil,    Singapore,   Ceylon,   Gambia,   and  Jlogadore. 
British  B.  is  natuially  of  a  yellow  colour,  whilst   that 
piocured    from     foreign      countries     is    darker     in 
tint;  and  in  the  case  of  the  wax    from   Brazil,  which 
is  yielded   by  a  species    of  black  bee   hiving  under 
ground,    the    colour  is  a  dark  nudiogany,  and    the 
nuiterial  is  soft  and  tenacious.     In  the  separation  of 
the  honey  from  the  wax,  the  honeycomb  is  suljected 
to  pressure,  which  squeizes  out  most  of  the  honey  ; 
the   residual  comb  is  then  treated  with  water,    and 
heated,  with  constant    stirring,   till    the   wax    melts, 
when  the  whole  is  passed    thiough   hair-bags.     The 
wax  is  received  in  a  vessel  of  cold  water,  where  it  is 
at   the  same   time   washed,  and  cooled  down   till  it 
solidifies,  as  a  thick  cake,  on  the  surface  of  the  water. 
For  numy  purposes,  it  is  necessary  to  bleach  the  wax, 
and  the  common    method    is    to   obtain    it   in    thin 
sheets  or  riblions,  by  melting   it  under  wafer,  and 
pouring  it  iqion   lioiizontal  wooden   cylinders,  which 
are  kept  revolving  half  immersed  in  water  in   a   jer- 
forated  vessel.     The  sheets  or  ribbons  of  wax  so  ob- 
tained aie  laid  out   upon    a   field    with    a   southern 
aspect,  and  being  repeatedly  watered,  are  snlji'cted 
to  the  joint  action  of  the  sun's  rays,  the  ozone  of 
the  air,  and  moisture.    In  a  ^hort  time,  the  wax  loses 
its  yellow  tint,  and  becomes  white.     Attempts  have 
been  made  to  pciform  the  bleaching  more    expedi- 
tiously    by    en;]iloyiiig    chloiine,    bleaching-j  0"(ler, 
and  other  chemical  ;  gents.     The  only  process  which 
appears    not    to    injure    the    wax    is    to   nult    it, 
and  for   every    pound    add    two   ounces   of  pulver- 
ised nitrate  of  soda,  and    one  ounce  oil  of  vitriol, 
diluted    previously     vifh    eight    ounces    of    water. 
While    the    latter    is    gradually    poured    in,    heat    is 
applied,    and    the    whole    mixture  swells   up,   neces- 
sitating the  cniploynient  of  a  capacious  vessel.     On 
cooling,  the  wax  gathers   on  the   surface,  and  being 
repeatedly    treated    with    hot   water,  to  wash    away 
impurities,  is  finally  allowed  to  solidify  in  a  cake. 

Purified  B.  has  a  density  of  i!00  to  960,  and  is 
therefore  lighter  than  water,  which  is  taken  as  lono. 
In  thin  slices,  it  is  translucent,  and  is  tasteless, 
odourless,  and  colourless.  At  32°  F.,  it  is  hard, 
brittle,  and  solid.  When  heated  to  85° — 90° 
F.,  it  softens,  and  can  then  be  kneaded  between 
the  fingers  like  moist  dough  or  putty,  ;ind  at 
145°  F.  it  fuses,  and  becomes  a  true  liquid.  It  is 
insoluble  in  water,  and  is  partly  soluble  in  boiling 
alcohol,  and  partly  not.  The  alcoholic  solution, 
which  takes  up  about  SO  to  90  per  cent,  of  the  wax, 
contains  principally  a  substance  called  cerine,  which 
separates  in  crystals  as  the  solution  cools,  and 
ceroleine,  which  remains  dissolved  in  the  cold 
alcohol.  The  matter  which  resists  the  solvent 
action  of  the  alcohol  is  a  substance  called  myruine. 
B.  is  largely  u.scd  in  the  manufacture  of  wax-candles 
and  tapers;  and  though  it  has  recently  been  very 
much  excluded  from  the  manufacture  of  ordinary 
candles,  from  the  leadiness  with  which  first-class 
composite  candles  can  be  made  indirectly  from 
tallow,  yet  it  is  often  used  as  oi:e  of  the  ingiedients 
in  composite  candles  to  impart  hardness  to  the 
manufactured  article.  The  very  large  candles  used 
in  Roman  Catholic  countries  for  church-services,  are 
always  made  of  wax  alone. 

BEET  (Betfi),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Chenopodincece  (q.  v.),  distinguished  by  a 
5-cleft  perianth,  five  stamens  inserted  on  a  fleshy 
ring  surrouiuling  the  ovary,  and  the  fruit  adhering 
to  the  calyx,  and  collected  in  clusters  of  two  or 
three.     The    species   are   not   numerous ;     tliey   are 


BEET-FLY— BEETIIOVEX. 


mostly  biennials,  with  smooth,  ov.ite,  stalked  root- 
leaves,  and  tall,  lealy,  Howeiing  stems.  They  arc 
natives  of  the  temTierate  parts  of  the  Old  World. 
The  Common  B.  (JB.  vu.'i/aris)  is  a  native  of  the 
shores  of  the  Medite.i'anean,  but  is  now  in  very 
general  cultivation  botli  in  liehls  anil  gardens,  chietty 
for  the  sake  of  its  large,  succulent  and  generally 
carrot-shaped  roots,  wiiich  are  used  as  food  both  for 
man  and  for  cattle,  and  from  which  also  sugar  is 
largely  extracted  on  the  continent  of  Europe.  Beet- 
roots may  be  substituted  ibr  malt,  when  deprived 
of  the  greater  i)art  of  their  juice  by  pressure.  The 
variety  chiefly  cultivated  in  gardens  is  known  as 
Reu  B.,  from  the  colour  of  the  root,  which  also 
more  or  less  appears  in  the  leaves  and  leaf-stalks. 
The  siibvarieties  are  very  numerous.  In  some,  the 
root  is  rather  turnip-shaped  than  carrot-shaped,  and 
the  size  and  colour  also  vary  much,  some  being  of 
a  deep  blood-red,  or  even  almost  l)lackisli  colour, 
both  externally  and  internally  ;  and  otiiers  of  a  much 
lighter  red,  and,  internally,  even  white.  It  forms  a 
favourite  pickle,  and  is  also  very  agreeable  as  a 
boiled  vegetable  when  projierly  dressed.  The  seed 
is  sown  so  late  in  spring  that  the  plants  may  not 
pi'oduce  flowering-stems  the  first  year,  which,  wiien 
it  occurs,  renders  the  root  fibrous  and  useless. — 
Maxgold-vvuuzk.l  (q.  v.),  so  valuable  as  a  field-crop 
lor  food  of  cattle,  is,  in  general,  regarded  as  merely 
a  larger  and  coarser  variety  of  the  common  B  ,  in 
which  the  red  colour  is  comparatively  little  exhib- 
ited, although  some  botanists  have,  on  very  slender 
grounds,  endeavoured  to  erect  it  into  a  disiinct 
species. — The  Wiiitk  B,  of  our  gardens  (B.  cicla  of 
some  botanists)  is  now  also  generally  supposed  to 
be  a  mere  variety  of  the  common  B.,  witli  little  or 
no  red  in  its  roots  or  leaves,  and  a  comparatively 
slender  root.  It  is  cultivated  for  the  sake  of  its 
leaves,  which  are  used  in  the  same  maimer  as 
spinach,  and  form  an  excellent  substitute  for  it, 
especially  in  the  beginning  of  spring.  The  leaf- 
stalks and  nndrihs  (chardx)  of  the  leaves,  especial- 
ly of  a  variety  in  which  these  parts  are  unusu- 
ally developed,  are  also  dressed  for  the  table. 
— Sea-B.  {B.  inantima)  grows  wild  upon  the  shoies 
of  Britain,  and  differs  from  tlie  common  B.  in  its 
perennial  root,  its  partly  prostrate  stems,  and  other 
characters.  The  leaves  are  used  for  food  in  Ire- 
land, as  are  also  those  of  B.  Bcugalensis  in  the  East 
Indies. 

BEET-FLY  {Avflmmyin  Befcc),  an  insect  which 
infests  crops  of  nuingold-wurzel,  and  other  kinds 
of  beet,  depositing  its  eggs  on  the  leaves,  the  soft 
parts  of  which  the  larva'  devour,  causing  them  to  as- 
sume a  blistert'd  appearance,  and  when  numei-ous, 
injuring  the  health  of  the  plants.  It  is  a  two- 
winged  insect  (see  Dh'TKIia),  of  the  great  family 
Muscides,  of  which  the  conmion  house-fly  may  be 
regarded  as  the  type,  and  belongs  to  a  genus  of 
which  more  than  1(m»  British  species  are  known,  the 
larvaj  of  some  of  which  are  well  known  as  feeding 
upon  the  loots  of  cabbages,  turnif)s,  &c.  See  Cais- 
bage-Fly,  Tuunip-Flv,  and  Potato-Fly.  It  is  not 
80  large  as  the  common  house-fly. 

BEETHOVEN',  LunwiG  van,  the  unrivalled  com- 
poser, whose  works  have  made  a  new  epoch  in  the 
development  of  music,  was  born  at  Bonn,  December 
1*7,  1770,  and  died  in  Vieniur,  March  2(1,  1S27.  His 
father,  a  tenor-singer  in  the  Elector's  chapel  at 
Bonn,  began  to  cultivate  the  genius  of  his  son  when 
only  five  years  of  ago.  He  next  placed  him  muier 
the  court-organist,  Van  Eden,  and  shortly  after 
under  the  composer  Neefe.  In  his  eighth  year,  he 
created  astonishment  l)y  his  performance  on  the 
violin  ;  when  only  eleven,  he  played  the  music  in 
Bach's  Wohltemperirtes  Klavicr ;    and    in   his   tliir- 


teenth  year,  he  published  at  Manheim,  a  volume  of 
variations  on  a  march,  songs,  and  sonatas.  In  1792, 
he  was  sent  to  Vieniui,  by  his  patron,  the  Elector  of 
Cologne,  to  enjoy  tiie  instructions  of  Haydn,  who 
first  made  him  acijuaintid  with  the  works  of  Handel, 
lie  also  studied  coiiijiosition  under  Albrechtsberger. 
There  he  soon  atlraeted  notice  by  his  extraordinary 
ability  as  an  extempore  player  of  fantasias,  and  also 
by  some  com])0.-itions,  which,  however,  did  not 
escai)e  the  censure  of  critics.  He  became  so  nmdi 
attached  to  Vienna,  that,  after  his  patron's  death  in 
18u],  he  deternnncd  to  remain,  and  declined  an 
invitation  to  England.  In  18(i'.),  when  another  offer 
tempted  him  to  lea\e  Vienna,  several  friends  of 
nnisic,  with  the  Archduke  Rudolph  at  their  head, 
raised  a  subscription  to  provide  lor  the  composer  a 
pension  sufficient  to  retain  him.  At  Vienna,  there- 
fore, he  stayed  during  the  remainder  of  his  life, 
Secluded  from  the  world,  of  which  he  knew  as  little 
as  it  knew  of  him;  and  in  later  years,  still  more 
isolated  from  society  by  a  defect  of  hearing,  which 
gradually  became  confirmed  into  entire  deafness.  In 
this  sad  inviolable  solitude,  he  produced  his  new 
symphonies,  his  sublime  overtures,  his  quiutetts,  and 
(piartetts,  so  full  of  profound  conceptions  and  mys- 
terious revelations  of  the  highest  haiinonies,  and 
his  pianoforte  sonatas,  which  express,  sometimes,  a 
peculiar  train  of  feelings,  at  other  times  appear  to 
reiiresent  his  own  recluse  character.  Shut  out  in 
a  large  measure  from  the  ordinary  pleasures  of  life, 
ignorant  of  the  sweetness  of  married  life,  and  able 
to  enjoy  only  in  a  slender  measure  social  inter- 
course, he  retired  for  compensation  into  the  world 
of  his  own  inuigiiiation,  and  brought  forth  from  its 
deep  resources  those  treasures  of  harmony  which, 
though  at  first  received  Avith  a  shy  astonishment 
rather  than  a  cordial  admiration,  are  now  ranked 
among  the  works  of  art  which  cannot  die.  These 
new  forms  and  original  creations,  which  display  B.'s 
majestic  powers  in  music,  were  only  gradually  de- 
veloped ;  in  his  early  productions,  he  submitted  to 
establislied  forms  of  composition. 

The  works  of  B.  may  be  divided  into  three  classes, 
or  may  be  a.~signed  to  three  distinct  periods  of  his 
intellectual  development.  All  the  works  of  his  first 
period,  though  important,  show  the  influence  of  his 
teacher  Haydn,  or  of  his  more  highly  esteemed 
model,  Mozart.  This  period  of  composition  may  be 
said  to  extend  to  his  Idth  orchestral  work,  including, 
besides  several  pianoforte  sonatas,  trios  for  piano- 
forte, and  for  stringed  instrmnents.  All  these  early 
works  display  the  highest  cultivation  of  the  forms 
and  |)rinciples  of  art  previously  established  in  the 
Viennese  school  of  mussic. — The  second  period  of 
B.'s  artistic  life,  in  which  his  geidus  was  coni])lelely 
self-reliant,  extends  from  the  Itlth  to  the  Sdlli  work. 
This  was  certainly  the  most  productive  and  brilliant 
part  of  his  career.  To  it  belong  his  greatest  crea- 
tions, his  magniiicent  and  poweil'ul  orchestral  works 
— sym])honies,  overtures,  \:c., — all  of  whieh  display 
the  highest  cjualities  of  imagiiuitive  competition. 
Besides  the  great  orchestral  works,  it  includes  many 
sonatas  for  pianalbrte,  and  nuiny  coin])Ositions  of 
chamber-music — se[)tetts,  (piintetts,  quartetts,  trios, 
serenades,  &c.  In  di'anuitic  composition,  B.  pro- 
duced oidy  one  opera,  l)ut  this  was  Fidclio,  the  first 
ti'uly  German  nnisicat  work  of  a  dramatic  character. 
This  was  the  restdt  of  great  study,  and,  as  it  is  now 
given,  is  the  reconsi ruction  of  an  earlier  composi- 
tion. Other  dramatic  pieces  are — the  overture,  in- 
terludes, and  nu'lo-dramatic  music  in  Goethe's 
Eyniont,  and  the  instrumental  nuisic  and  choruses  in 
the  Ruins  of  Allienjt. — In  the  third  and  last  period  of 
B.'s  career,  we  find  those  two  gigantic  works,  the 
Mii<sit  Sofei/inix  in  D  Minor,  and  the  ninth  symplioiiy 
(D   minor)  with   chorus.      These    works    transcend 

813 


BEETLE— BEFFANA. 


all  coininon  laws  and  for:M.s,  and  belonj^  to  tlie 
higliest  sphere  of  art.  Thci""  deep  mysteries  can  be 
apprehended  only  hj  tliose  wlio  iiave  deep  emotions 
and  profound  teelmical  knowledge  of  nmsic.  Other 
works  of  this  last  class  approach  those  just  mentioned, 
though  they  do  not  reach  the  same  elevation.  But 
all  are  alike  in  passing  far  beyond  the  ordinary  tra- 
ditional forms  of  art.  All  are  pervaded  by  an  im- 
pulse as  of  inspiration.  Among  these  works  may 
be  mentioned  the  great  tpiartetts  for  bow  instru- 
ments (mostly  publisheii  after  the  death  of  B.),  the 
gnind  overtures — works  115  and  l'i4 — and  several 
sonatas  for  pianoforte,  especially  that  in  \i\)  major. 

The  life  of  B.  has  been  written  by  Schlosser, 
(Prag.  1828)  Ries,  Wegeier,  Sdiindler,  (Munster, 
184.5),  and  Moscheles  (2  vols..  Loud.  18-41.) 

BEETLE,  a  name  popularly  applied  to  many 
khids  of  coleopterous  insects.  It  is  never  extended 
to  insects  of  any  other  order,  and  it  is  sometimes 
used  in  works  on  natural  history  as  a  common  name 
for  all  coleopterous  insects ;  but  this  makes  it  to 
include  many  kinds  to  which  it  is  not  popularly 
applied,  as  iire-flies,  lady-birds,  weevils,  cantharides, 
&c.  It  is  also  employed  by  some  authors  in  a  more 
restricted  sense,  as  a  dt-s'gnation  of  the  insects  form- 
ing the  large  tribe  Si-arab  tides ;  but  the  restriction, 
eqr.ally  with  the  extension,  is  an  interference  with 
the  popular  use  of  the  English  word,  of  which,  how- 
ever, the  limits  are  very  uncertain.  To  frame  an 
article,  with  strict  regard  to  that  popular  use,  and  at 
the  same  time  to  science,  would  not  be  easy,  nor 
would  it  be  profitable,  as  the  assemblage  of  kinds 
would  be  not  only  large  but  very  miscellaneous. 
We  think  it  i)etter  to  roler  to  theaitiole  Coleoptkua, 
and  to  the  articles  Scauah.kidks,  BuMUAUniER  Bketlk, 
Stag  Bkktle,  BruviNO  Beeti.k,  (ioLi.VTii  Beetle, 
Rose  Bi;ErLH,  &c.  The  name  Black  15ketle  is 
often  given  to  the  Cockuoacu  (cj.  v.).  Sec  also 
Blaps. 

BEETLE  STOXES,  the  name  given  by  the  lapi- 
daries of  Edinburgh  to  hard  nodules  of  clay  iron- 
stone, found  abuu(lantly  in  a  low  clilf,  composed  of 
shale,  at  Newhaven,  or  strewed  upon  the  beach  in 
that  neighbourhood.  They  take  a  beautiful  polish, 
and  have  been  employed  to  make  letter-weights,  and 
other  ornamental  articles.  The  name  was  given  in 
consequence  of  the  supposed  origin  of  the  fossil 
which  is  of  most  frequent  occurrence  as  the  nucleus 
of  the  nodules,  which,  however,  is  not  a  fossil  beetle, 
but  a  coprolite  (q.  v.).  Some  of  the  nodules  contain 
fossil  fish,  and  some  a  fossil  of  vegetable  origin. 

BEETLING  is  a  finishing  mechanical  process 
applied  originally  to  linen  shining,  and  afterwards  to 
cotton  shirting,  in  imitation  of  linen,  to  give  the 
cloth  a  hard  and  wiry  look,  by  flattening  the  yarn 
irregularly  in  an  angled  manner.  This  is  done  by 
the  rising  and  falling  of  upi-ight  wooden  stampers, 
placed  close  together  in  a  row,  with  their  square 
buts  resting  on  a  roller  over  which  the  cloth  passes 
under  them,  doubled  in  a  particular  way  so  as  to 
give  the  yarn  an  angled  appearance  when  struck.  The 
stampers  are  worked  by  th.e  rotation  of  a  horizontal 
shaft,  acting  with  tapets,  like  the  cylinder  of  a  barrel- 
organ. 

Linen  weft  is  likewise  beetled,  but  by  hand-ham- 
mering, on  a  large  flat  stone,  with  a  wooden  mallet, 
to  soften  the  yarn  for  easiness  of  working  it,  or 
'  geting  it  on,'  in  the  language  of  the  craft,  in  weav- 
ing. Beetling  is  likewuse  a  process  in  flax-dressing, 
to  separate  the  woody  from  the  flexible  fibres  of  the 
plant.     See  Flax-dressing. 

BEET-ROOT   SUGAR.      See   Scgar.     The   sugar 
obtained    from   the    beet   is   similar  to  cane-sugar, 
but    inferior   in   sweetening  power.     Beet-root  con- 
tains on  an  average  about  10  per  cent,  of  saccharine 
814 


matter  (sugar-cane,  18  per  cent.);  of  the  varieties, 
the  white  Schleswic  beet  is  the  richest.  To  obtain 
the  sugar,  the  roots,  after  being  washed,  are  first 
rasped  down  by  machines,  so  as  to  tear  up  the  cells. 
The  i)ulp  is  then  jmt  into  bags,  and  the  juice  is 
sfiueezed  out  by  presses.  The  juice  is  next  treated 
with  lime,  or  sulphuric  acid,  to  clarify  it,  and  also 
filtered  till  no  deposit  is  formed  ;  after  which  it  is 
boiled  in  large  boilers  to  concentrate  it.  When  it 
has  attained  a  certain  density  (25'  Beaume),  it  is 
poured  thiough  flaund,  and  is  now  a  dark-coloured 
sirup,  which,  in  order  to  yield  pure  sugar,  must  be 
deprived  of  its  colouring-nuitter  and  mucilage.  This 
is  effected  by  filtering  it  thiough  animal  charcoal  or 
bone  black.  The  filtered  juice  is  now  treated  with 
lime-water  beat  up  with  a  little  white  of  egg  to  a 
lather,  till  it  is  slightly  alkaline,  and  is  then  further 
concentrated  by  boiling  in  copper  pans,  care  being 
taken  to  stir  and  scum  it  all  the  while.  When  sulli- 
ciently  concentrated,  it  is  put  into  vessels,  and  al- 
lowed to  stand  several  days  in  a  warm  room  to  crys- 
tallise ;  the  uncrystallised  part,  or  molasses,  is  then 
drained  off,  ami  what  remains  is  raw  sugar.  This  ia 
still  further  refined  by  again  dissolving  and  treating 
it  with  albumen  and  blood.  In  separating  the  crys- 
tallised fiom  the  uncrystallised  pait,  centrifugal  ma- 
chines are  now  nmch  used.  Another  inq)r()venieut 
is  the  vaeuum-paH,  which  allows  the  juice  to  be  boiled 
down  without  bin-ning.  The  molasses  drained  off 
from  beet-root  sugar  has  a  di.sagreeable  taste,  and 
cannot  be  used  for  sweetening,  like  cane  molasses. 

About  the  middle  of  the  18tli  c,  Marggraf,  an 
apothecary  in  Berlin,  drew  attention  to  the  sugar 
contained  in  beet-root  ;  but  Achard,  the  Prussian 
chemist,  was  the  fiist  who  was  tolerably  successful 
in  extracting  it.  Still,  as  only  2  or  3  per  cent  of 
sugar  was  obtained,  the  product  did  not  pay  the  cost, 
until  Napoleon's  continentid  system  raised  the 
price  of  sugar,  and  gave  rise  to  improved  methods 
of  numufacturing  it.  Even  after  the  fall  of  Napo- 
leon, protective  duties  kept  alive  tliis  manufacture 
in  France ;  and  w  hen  numerous  improvements  of 
method  had  raised  the  percentage  of  sugar  realised 
to  about  5  lb.  frou)  loo  lb.  of  beet,  it  took  a  fresh 
start  (about  1825)  in  France  and  Belgium,  was  re- 
vived in  Germany,  and  spread  even  to  Russia. 
The  falling  off  of  the  customs'  duties  on  the  import 
of  colonial  sugar  obliged  the  German  governments 
to  impose  a  small  duty  on  beet-sugar,  which  checked 
the  numufacture  for  a  time ;  but  owing  to  the  pro- 
tective measures  of  the  ZoUvcrein,  it  is  now  more 
flourishing  than  ever,  and  though  long  considered  n 
kind  of  exotic  industry,  it  will  probably  become  a 
well-established  industrial  pursuit,  llie  product  of 
beet-root  sugar  in  Europe  amounted  in  1868  to 
600,000  tons,  while  the  entire  Liuportation  of  tropical 
sugar  into  England  in  the  same  year  was  but  622,786 
tons. 

BEFFA'NA,  a  corruption  of  Epiphania  (Epiph- 
any), is  the  name  given  in  Italy  to  a  singular  cus- 
tom, prevailing  on  Three  Kings'  Day  (see  Bean  King's 
Festival),  or  Twelfth  Night  (q.  v.).  According  to 
tradition,  the  B.  w^as  an  old  woman  who,  being  busy 
cleaning  the  house  when  the  three  wise  men  of  the 
East  passed  by  on  their  way  to  offer  their  treasures 
to  the  infant  Saviour,  excused  herself  for  not  going 
out  to  see  them  on  the  ground  that  she  would  have 
an  opportunity  of  doing  so  when  they  returned. 
They,  however,  went  home  by  another  way ;  and 
the  B.,  not  knowing  this,  has  ever  since  been  watch- 
ing for  their  return.  She  is  supposed  to  take  a  great 
interest  in  children,  who  on  Twelfth  Night  are  put 
earlier  to  bed,  and  a  stocking  of  each  is  hung  before 
the  fire.  Shortly,  the  cry  '  Ecco  laB.''  is  raised  ;  and 
the  children,  who  have  not  gone  to  sleep,  dart  out  of 
bed,  and  seize  their  stockings,  in  which  each  finds  a 


BEFFROI— BEGAS. 


present  bearing  some  [noportion  in  value  to  liis 
conduct  during  the  year.  It'  any  one  lias  been  con- 
spicuously ill  behaved,  he  finds  his  stocking  full  of 
ashes — the  method  the  B.  takes  of  expressing  her 
disapprobation.  It  was  also  customary  in  Italy,  on 
Twelfth  Night,  to  carry  an  effigy  called  the  B.  in 
procession  through  the  streets  amid  great  rejoicings  ; 
but  this,  which  was  probably  the  relic  of  the 
celebration  of  a  middle  age  'mystery,'  has  fallen 
greatly  into  disuse.  The  word  is  also  used  to  awe 
naughty  children. 


BE'FFR<tI,  or  BELFRY,  was  the  name  of  a 
tower  used  in  the  military  sieges  of  ancient  and 
medieval  times.  When  a  town  was  to  be  besieged, 
a  movable  tower,  as  high  as  the  walls,  was  brought 
near  it  ;  and  this  tower  was  the  beflroi.  Its  use 
is  more  than  once  spoken  of  by  Ca;sar  in  his  account 
of  his  campaigns  in  Gaul.  Froissart  describes,  with 
his  usual  sj)irit,  a  B.  employed  at  the  siege  of  the 
castle  of  Brcteuil  in  135fi.  At  the  siege  of  .Teru- 
salem  by  the  Crusaders,  a  B.  was  carried  in  pieces, 
put  together  just  beyond  bow-shot,  and  then  pushed 


Beflfroi,  or  Breaching  Tower.- — From  Grose's  Military  Antiquities. 


on  wheels  to  a  proper  position.  The  object  of  such 
towers  was  to  cover  the  approach  of  troops.  Some- 
times they  were  pushed  on  by  pressure,  sometimes 
by  capstans  and  ropes.  The  highest  were  on 
six  or  eight  wheels,  and  had  as  many  as  twelve  or 
fifteen  stories  or  stages ;  but  it  was  usual  to  limit 
the  height  to  three  or  four  stages.  Tliey  were 
often  covered  with  raw  hides,  to  protect  them 
from  the  flames  of  boiling  grease  and  oil  directed 
against  them  by  the  besieged ;  and  there  was  a 
hinged  drawbridge  at  the  top,  to  let  down  upon 
the  parapet  of  the  wall,  to  aid  in  landing.  The  lower 
stage  frequently  had  a  ram  (see  Battkrino  Ram); 
while  the  others  were  crowded  with  archers,  arba- 
lestiers,  and  slingers ;  or  there  were  bowmen  on  all 
the  stages  except  the  top,  which  had  a  storming 
or  boarding  party.  During  the  wars  under  Ciiarles  I., 
the  royalists  m.ide  a  B.  to  aid  in  the  besieging  of 
a  town  or  castle  in  Herefordshire ;  it  was  higher 
than  the  defence-works,  and  was  provided  with 
loopholes,    a    bridge,    <S:c.  ;     but    the    Roundheads 


captured  it  before  it  could  be  applied  to  use. 
Ducange  thinks  that  the  name  of  belfry  ((j.  v.)  given 
to  a  bell-tower,  was  derived  from  the  warlike  ma- 
chine  called  the  befifroi  or  belfry. 

BEG,  or  BEY,  a  Turkish  title,  rather  vague  in  its 
import,  and  connnonly  given  to  superior  military 
officer's,  ship-captains,  and  distinguished  ibreigners. 
More  strictly,  it  applies  to  the  governor  of  a  small 
district,  who  bears  a  horse-tail  as  a  sign  of  his  rank. 
The  Governor  of  Tunis  has  this  title. — '  Beglerbeg,' 
or,  more  correctly,  Heilerbegi  ('lord  of  lords'),  is  the 
title  given  to  the  governor  of  a  province  who  bears 
three  horse-tails  as  his  badge  of  honour,  and  has 
authority  over  several  begs,  agas,  &c.  This  superior 
title  l)elongs  to  the  governors  of  Rumelia,  Anatolia, 
and  Syria. 

BEGAS,  Karl,  court-painter  to  the  King  of 
Prussia,  professor  and  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Art  in  Berlin,  was  born  there  in  1704.  He  had  been 
destined  for  the  law,  but  early  manifested  a  love  for 

815 


BEGGAR. 


art,  aid  wliile  at  Bonn,  received  his  first  lessons  in 
painting  from  Pliilippart.  In  1811,  lie  proceeded 
to  Paris,  and  tliore  spent  eighteen  months  in  the 
studio  of  the  celebrated  Gros.  InlSlo,  Frederick 
William  III.,  on  the  occasion  of  liis  visit  to  Paris, 
bought  a  large  original  painting  i)y  B.,  '  Job 
surrounded  by  his  Friends,'  and  gave  him  two  com- 
missions for  different  churches  in  Berlin.  This  led 
to  his  moving  thither  in  1818,  and  to  his  sub.se- 
quently  residing  in  Italy  at  the  King's  expense. 
On  his  return  to  Berlin  in  1825,  he  painted  a  great 
many  biblical  subjects  for  churches,  as  well  as  Other 
pictures.  lie  died  -l.Ul  November  1854.  There 
are  frescoes  of  colossal  size  l)y  him  in  the  new 
church  of  Sacrow,  near  Potsdam.  He  is  especially 
distinguished  for  the  animation  •  and  individuality 
of  his  portiaits,  and  has  painted  for  the  king 
a  gallery  of  celebrated  authors  and  artists,  in- 
cluding Humboldt,  Schelling,  &c.  Several  of  his 
ffctirc  paintings  have  been  rendered  familiar  by 
repeated  engravings  ;  and  his  works,  in  general,  are 
eminent  for  expression,  rich  colouring,  and  a 
peculiarly  clear  cliiaro  oscuro. 

BEGGAR,  a  person  who  solicits  charitable  aid 
from  the  public  at  large.  The  word  is  supposed  to 
have  some  connection  with  the  fraternity  known  as 
Beghard.s.  See  BEr.i'iN,  The  actual  begging  or  solici- 
tation of  temporal  aid  became,  however,  so  conspi- 
cuous a  feutm-c  among  these  mendicant  orders,  that 
the  term  originally  applied  to  their  sacred  duties 
seems  at  a  very  early  period  to  have  ac(iuired  its 
modern  vulgar  acceptation.  There  is  no  class  of 
men  who  have  had  their  lot  and  condition  so  varied 
by  ethnical  and  social  conditions  as  beggars.  In  a 
civilized  industrious  country,  the  B.,  to  have  any 
chance  of  relief,  must  manage  to  get  it  believed, 
whetiier  it  be  true  or  false,  that  he  is  on  the  verge 
of  want,  and  re({uires  the  solicited  alms  to  keep  him 
from  starvation.  Among  oriental  nations,  on  the 
other  hand,  beggars  have  often  been  a  potent  class, 
who  may  be  rather  considered  as  endowed  with  the 
privilege  of  taxing  their  fellow-creature.s,  than  as 
objects  of  compassion.  It  has  sometimes  been  sup- 
posed that  a  residue  of  tliis  feeling  of  superiority 
charaiterises  the  mental  physiology  even  of  the 
mendicant  of  civilisation,  and  that,  abject  as  he 
seems,  he  considers  himself  to  some  extent  a  privi- 
leged person,  entitled  to  support  from  ins  fellows, 
without  being  amenable  to  the  slavish  drudgery  by 
which  the  working  classes  live.  In  Europe,  during 
the  middle  ages,  those  doctrines  of  Christiaiuty 
which  are  intended  to  teach  us  to  abjure  selfishness 
and  worldly-nuiidedness,  were  exaggerated  into  a 
profession  of  total  abstraction  from  worldly  cares  and 
pursuits.  Hence  arose  the  large  body  of  religionists 
who,  as  hermits  or  membersof  the  mendicant  orders, 
lived  on  the  contributions  of  others.  In  litter  times, 
the  mendicant  orders  became  the  proudest  and  the 
richest  of  the  clergy  ;  but  while  the  chiefs  lived  in 
affluence,  the  practices  of  the  lower  adherents  fos- 
tered througiiout  Europe  a  system  of  mendicancy 
very  inimical  to  civilisation  and  industiial  progress. 
In  Great  Britain  its  evil  results  have  been  long  felt, 
in  the  inveterate  establishment  of  pi-actices  naturally 
out  of  harmony  with  the  independent,  industrious 
character  of  the  British  people.  Ever  since  the 
Reformation,  the  British  laws  have  had  a  death- 
strugiile  with  the  B  ;  but  neither  by  the  kind- 
ness of  liberal  poordaw,  nor  by  the  severity  of  a 
merciless  criminal  code,  have  they  been  able  to  sup- 
press hiin.  When  a  country  provides,  as  Britain  does, 
that  no  one  shall  be  perndrted  to  starve,  it  would  na- 
turally be  "xpected  that  the  springs  of  miscellaneous 
charity  would  be  dried.  But  it  is  not  so,  and 
it  is  indeed  often  plausibly  urged,  that  entirely  to 
supersede  all  acts  of  generosity  between  man  and  man 
816 


through  rigid  legal  provisions,  must  lower  the  stan- 
dard of  human  character,  by  de[)riviiig  it  of  all 
opportunity  for  the  exercise  of  the  generous  emo- 
tions. It  is  clear  that,  in  the  light  of  jiolitical  eco- 
nomy, promiscuous  charity  is  the  most  costly  and 
most  corrupting  way  of  administering  reliel'  to  indi- 
gence. No  one  will  maintain  that  the  idle  B.  on  the 
street  deserves  such  a  luxurious  tabic  as  the  indus- 
trious mechanic  cannot  afford  to  liimsclf.  But,  at 
the  same  time,  no  one  who  drops  a  coin  in  a  beggar's 
hat  can  say  how  many  others  may  be  deposited 
there  during  the  day,  and  whether  the  B.  is  merely 
drawing  a  wretched  pittance,  or  deiiviuj;  a  good 
income.  Begging  being  a  trade,  it  is  not  always 
those  who  are  the  poorest,  but  those  who  are  the 
most  expert,  who  will  practise  it  to  the  best  results. 
The  great  object  is  to  seize  on  and  appropriate  any 
characteristic  calculated,  whether  pemianenlly  or 
temporarily,  to  excite  compassion.  Hence  jieriods 
of  gineral  distress  are  olten  the  harvest  of  the  B., 
and  his  trade  rises  and  falls  in  an  inverse  ratio  with 
that  of  the  working  community.  Times  of  pros- 
perity are  not  favourable  to  him,  because  he  is  then 
told  that  there  is  plenty  of  work  for  him.  But 
when  workmen  are  dismissed  in  thousands,  and  their 
families  turned  on  the  road  to  seek  alms,  the 
profV'ssional  beggars,  by  their  su{)crior  skill  and 
exiierience,  will  be  sure  to  draw  the  prizes  in  the 
distribution.  Many  surprising  statements  have  been 
made  of  the  large  incomes  made  by  skilful  profes- 
sional beggars,  especially  in  London.  The  most 
remarkable  anecdotes  on  the  subject  will  be  found 
in  Grose's  Olio,  whence  they  have  often  been 
repeated.  Attempts  have  been  made,  but  with 
questionable  success,  to  set  forth  an  average  state- 
ment of  the  earnings  in  different  departments  of  the 
B.  trade.  A  good  deal  of  information  of  this  kind 
will  be  found  in  the  Rrport  of  the  Conxtabulary 
Force  Commission  of  ISSy  (see  p.  60,  et  se(|.).  It 
does  not  appear,  however,  that  this  trade  is,  like 
others,  dependent  on  the  law  of  supply  and  demand. 
The  B.  generally  is  so  constitutionally,  whether 
from  liereditary  or  other  physical  causes.  He  has  a 
a  loathing,  even  to  horror,  of  steady  systematic  labour, 
and  he  will  rather  submit  to  all  the  hardships  and 
privations  of  the  wanderer's  lot,  than  endure  this 
dreaded  evil. 

Beggaks,  The  Law  of  England  Relating  to, 
is  regulated  by  the  5  Geo.  IV.  c.  83  (amended 
in  regard  to  other  points  by  the  1  and  '2  Vict, 
c.  38).  By  the  third  .section  of  the  .5  Geo.  lY.  it  is 
enacted  that  every  person  wandering  abroad,  or 
placing  him  or  herself  in  any  public  place,  street, 
highway,  court,  or  passage,  to  beg  or  gather  alms, 
or  causing  or  procuring,  or  encouraging  anv  child 
or  children  so  to  do,  shall  be  deemed  an  id'e  and 
ilisorderhj  perso7i ;  and  it  shall  be  lawlid  for  any 
justice  of  the  j^eace  to  commit  such  ofier.der  to 
the  house  of  correction,  there  to  be  kept  for  any 
time  not  exceeding  one  calendar  month.  And  by 
section  4,  it  is  further  provided  that  any  pcr.-on  so 
convicted,  and  oft'ending  in  the  same  way  again, 
shall  be  deemed  a  rocjue  and  a  raf/abond,  and  may 
be  punished  by  being  comndtted  to  the  house  of 
correction  for  three  months,  with  hard  labour;  and 
by  the  same  section,  every  person  wandering  abroad 
and  endeavouring,  by  the  exposure  of  wouids  and 
deformities,  to  obtain  or  gather  alms,  and  every 
person  going  about  as  a  gatherer  or  collector  of 
alms,  or  endeavouring  to  procure  charitable  con- 
tributions of  any  nature  or  kind  imder  any  false  or 
fraudulent  pi  etence,  shall  be  deemed  a  rvrjue  and 
vagabond,  and  be  punishable  as  before  mentioned. 
By  section  15,  however,  of  the  same  act,  the  \isiting 
justices  of  any  county  jail,  house  of  correction, 
or  other  prison,    may  grant  certificates   to  persons 


BEGGAR-MY-NEIGIIBOUR~  BEGTASHL 


discharged,  to  receive  alms  on  their  route  to  their 
places  of  settlement;  but  if  such  persons  shall  act 
in  a  manner  contrary  to  the  directions  or  provisions 
of  their  certificates,  or  shall  loiter  upon  their  route, 
or  shall  deviate  therefrom  they  shall  be  deemed 
rogues  and  vagabonds,  and  punished  accordingly ; 
and  section  16  enacts  that  no  justice  of  the  peace, 
Tnayor,  or  other  magistrate,  shall  grant  such  a  certi- 
ficate, or  for  any  purpose  whatever,  to  persons  other 
than  those  entitled  thereto  under  the  43  Geo.  III. 
c.  61,  that  is,  by  sections  1,  2,  and  3  to  soldiers, 
sailors,  and  marines,  and  the  wives  of  soldiers ; 
and  by  section  4,  it  is  provided  that  certificates  or 
passes  from  the  Admiralty  or  War-ollice  to  dis- 
charged sailors,  soldiers,  or  marines,  or  to  the  fami- 
lies of  sailors,  soldiers,  or  marines  serving  abroad,  or 
lately  deceased,  to  carry  them  to  their  respective 
homes,  shall  have  the  same  effect  as  certificates 
allowed  by  sections  1,  2,  and  3. 

The  attempt  or  purpose  to  obtain  money  or  alms 
by  means  of  shows  or  entertainments  on  the 
streets  of  London,  is  also  an  offence  under  the  Me- 
tropolitan Police  Act,  2  and  3  Vict.  c.  47,  s.  54  (No. 
14),  and  punishable  by  a  fine  of  foity  shillings. 

In  the  Scotch  law,  there  are  many  severe  statutes 
of  the  Scotch  Parliament  against  beggars  and  vaga- 
bonds, all  of  which,  along  with  the  proclamations  of 
the  Scotch  Privy  Council  on  the  same  subject,  are 
renewed  and  ratified  by  the  act  169S,  c.  21,  which 
forms  the  existing  Scotch  law  in  regard  to  beggars. 
The  Scotch  Poor-law  Amendment  Act,  8  and  9  Vict. 
c.  83,  contains  no  provision  on  the  subject.  Ancient- 
ly, in  Scotland,  legal  permission  to  beg  was  given  to 
certain  sick  and  infirm  poor  persons,  and  in  the 
reign  of  James  V.,  a  system  of  tokens  for  the  same 
purpose  was  established. — See  Bum's  Justice  of  the 
Peace,  vol.  vi.  ;  Charnock's  Police  Guide,  Dunlop's 
Parochial  Law  of  Scotland,  Lorimer's  Hand  book  of 
the  Scotch  Law,  and  the  works  and  authorities  re- 
ferred to  in  these  publications. 

BEGGAR-MY-NEIGHROUR,  a  game  at  cards 
usually  played  by  two  persons,  between  whom  the 
cards  are  divided.  Holding  their  cards  with  the 
backs  upwards,  the  players  lay  down  a  card  alter- 
nately, until  an  honour  is  played,  which  is  paid  for 
by  the  adversary — four  cards  for  an  ace,  three  for  a 
king,  two  for  a  queen,  and  one  for  a  knave;  such 
payment  being  made,  the  winner  lifts  the  trick.  If, 
however,  an  honour  should  be  laid  down  during  the 
payment,  then  the  opposite  party  must  pay  for  that 
in  the  same  way ;  and  so  on,  till  a  payment  is  made 
■without  an  honour.  The  game  is  played  chiefly  by 
children. 

BEGIIA'RMI,  or  BAGI'RMI,  a  country  in  Cen- 
tral Africa,  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Lake  Tsad  ;  on 
the  W.  by  the  Shari,  or  Great  River,  which  divides 
it  from  the  kingdom  of  Bornou  ;  and  on  the  E.  by 
the  Waday  kingdom.  It  extends  southward  to 
about  lat.  10°  N.  Its  greatest  length  is  about  240 
miles,  and  its  breadth  1.5i>.  The  whole  of  B.  Proper 
is  fiat,  with  a  slight  inclination  towards  the  north — 
its  general  elevation  being  about  1000  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea.  The  outlying  provinces  in  the 
south-east  are  slightly  mountainous.  B.  has  three 
considerable  rivers  flowing  throvigh  and  along  its 
borders — the  Benuwe,  Logon,  and  Shari ;  the  last  of 
which,  augmented  by  the  Logon,  is  upwards  of  600 
yards  across  at  Mele.  There  is,  in  general,  however, 
the  utmost  scarcity  of  water  in  the  country,  and  the 
inhabitants  guard  their  wells  with  jealous  care.  The 
soil  is  partly  composed  of  sand,  and  partly  of  lime,  and 
produces  the  grain  and  fruit  common  to  countries 
of  Central  Africa.  Worms  and  ants  are  very  destruc- 
tive to  the  crops.  The  ants  appear  to  be  a  perfect 
nest.  Dr.  Barth  describes  them  as  eating  through 
52 


■his  matting  and  carpeting,  and  he  had  the  utmost 
difficulty  in  preserving  his  goods  from  entire 
destruction  by  them.  The  total  population  is 
about  a  million  and  a  half.  From  the  numerous 
deserted  villages  with  which  the  traveller  con- 
stantly meets,  the  population  would  appear  to  have 
been  much,  greater  at  one  time.  Mohammedanism 
has  been  introduced  among  them,  but  many  are  still 
pagans,  and  all  aie  grossly  superstitious.  The  only 
industrial  arts  are  weaving  and  dyeing.  Physically, 
they  are  a  fine  race  of  people,  superior  to  the  tribes 
around  them,  the  women  being  especially  handsome. 
The  men  are  subject  to  a  peculiar  disease  in  the 
little  toe,  called  '  mukardam.'  It  seems  to  be  caused 
by  a  worm,  which  eats  the  toe  away.  One  in  ten 
of  the  male  population  are  said  to  have  lost  their 
little  toes  through  this  cause.  The  sultan  is 
absolute  in  his  own  dominions,  and  several  smaller 
states  arc  triiiutary  to  him;  and  he,  in  his  turn,  is 
tributary  to  the  more  powerful  ruler  of  Bornou. 
The  fighting-force  of  the  kingdom  is  about  13,000 
men.  Masena  (q.  v.),  the  capital,  has  a  circum- 
ference of  about  7  miles. — Earth's  Travils  in  Central 
Africa. 

BE'GKOS,  orBEI'KOS,  a  large  village  of  Anatolia, 
on  the  Bosphorus,  8  miles  north-north-east  of  Scu- 
tari, said  to  be  the  locality  of  the  contest  between 
Pollux  and  Amycus,  in  which  the  latter  was  killed. 
See  Argonauts.  At  the  commencement  of  the 
Crimean  war,  the  Allied  fleets  anchored  in  B.  Bay, 
prior  to  their  entering  the  Black  Sea  in  Januarv 
1854. 

BE'GLERBEG.     See  Beg. 

BEGONIA'CEjE,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  the  place  of  which  in  the  system  is  doubtful, 
but  is  supposed  by  Lindley  to  be  near  Cucurbitacete 
(q.  v.).  The  B.  are  herbaceous  or  suffruticose  plants, 
with  alternate  leaves,  which  are  oblique  at  the  base, 
and  have  large  dry  stipules.  The  flowers  are  in 
cymes,  unisexual,  the  perianth  coloured,  with  four 
unequal  divisions  in  the  male  flowers,  and  five  or 
eight  in  the  female ;  the  stamens  are  numerous ; 
the  fruit  is  membranous,  winged,  3-celled,  bursting 
by  shts  at  the  base,  the  seeds  minute. — The  order 
contains  about  160  known  species,  all  of  which  have 
pink  flowers.  They  are  almost  all  tropical  plants, 
and  some  of  them  are  often  to  be  seen  in  British 
hot-houses;  but  a  small  species  of  i?c(7o?;ia  ascends 
the  Himalaya  to  at  least  11,500  feet,  often  growing 
on  the  trunks  of  trees.  The  leaves  of  the  Begonias 
have  a  reddish  tinge.  The  leaves  and  voung  stems 
are  succulent  and  acid,  and  those  of  B.  Malabarica, 
B.  tuberosa,  and  other  species,  are  used  as  pot-herbs, 
or  in  tarts.  The  juicy  stalks  of  a  large  species 
found  in  Sikkim,  at  an  elevation  of  five  or  six  thou- 
sand feet,  are  mentioned  by  Dr.  Hooker  as  employed 
to  make  a  pleasant  acid  sauce.  This,  and  the 
small  Himalayan  species  already  mentioned,  would 
probably  succeed  in  the  climate  of  Britain.  The 
roots  of  some  are  used  in  their  native  countries  as 
astringents,  and  some  of  the  Mexican  species  are 
used  as  drastic  purgatives. 

BEG-SHE'HR,  a  fresh-water  lake  of  Asia  Minor, 
Karamania,  44  miles  south-west  of  Koniyeh,  pre- 
sumed to  be  the  ancient  CaraWis.  It  is  about  20 
miles  long,  and  from  5  to  10  miles  broad. .  It  con- 
tains many  islands,  and  discharges  itself  by  a  river  of 
the  same  name  into  Lake  Soglah.  On  its  east  and 
north  shores  are  the  towns  of  Begshchr  and  Kereli. 
the  old  Caralio,  which  issued  imperial  coins,  and 
which  is  also  supposed  to  have  occupied  .the  site  of 
Pamphylia. 

BEGTA'SHI,  a  religious  order  in  the  Ottoman 
empire,  which  had  its  origin  in  the  14th  c.  .  The 
name   is   believed   to   be    derived    from   that  of  a 

817 


BEGUINES— BEHAIM. 


celebrated  dervise,  Hadji  Bepjtash,  to  whom  also  the 
order  appears  to  owe  its  institution.  The  members  use 
pecret  siffiis  and  pass-words  as  means  of  recognition, 
in  the  same  way  as.is  done  by  tlie  masonic  orders, 
some  of  them  indeed  appearing  to  be  identical  with 
those  of  freemasonry.  Altliough  numbering  many 
thousands  of  influential  persons  in  its  ranl<s,  the 
society  does  not  appear  to  exercise  any  material 
influence  in  the  religion  or  politics  of  Turkey. 

BEGUINES,  BEGUI'NyE,  or  BEGU'TTyE,  the 
name  of  the  earliest  of  all  lav  societies  of  women 
united  for  pious  purposes.  The  reason  of  their 
origin  is  not  quite  certain,  but  it  is  usually  attri- 
buted— in  part,  at  least — to  the  disproportion  in 
the  numbers  of  men  and  women  which  was  occa- 
sioned by  the  Crusades.  These  wars  had  robl)ed 
Christendom  of  tliousands  of  its  most  vigorous  sons, 
and  left;  multitudes  of  widows  and  maidens,  to 
whom  life  had  henceforth  something  of  a  solenm 
and  sorrowful  aspect,  and  who  therefore  betook 
themselves,  in  earnest  and  afl'ectionate  piety,  to 
the  charities  and  duties  of  religion.  The  origin  of 
the  word  is  doubtful.  The  popular  tradition  of 
Brabant  since  the  17th  c,  that  a  St.  Begga,  daughter 
of  Pepin,  and  sister  of  St.  Gertrude,  founded,  in  f>9(i, 
the  first  sisterhood  of  B.  at  Namur,  has  no  historical 
basis.  Ilallmann  has  also  shewn  that  the  supposed 
oldest  document  of  the  B.  (10G.5),  giving  an  account 
of  their  establishment  at  Vilvorde,  near  Brussels,  is 
unauthentic.  The  most  probable  account  is,  that 
a  priest  named  Lambert  le  B6gue,  orLe  Beghe,  i.  c., 
the  Stammerer,  about  the  year  1180,  founded,  in 
Liege,  a  society  of  pious  women,  who  were  called 
by  his  name.  The  B.  were  not  restricted  by  vows, 
nor  did  tlioy  follow  the  rules  of  any  order,  but  were 
tmited  under  a  xtipcrievre  for  the  exercise  of  piety 
and  benevolence,  and  lived  generally  in  separate 
small  cottages,  which,  collectively,  formed  the 
Ijeginaginm^  or  ^  vineyard,^  as  it  was  scripturally 
termed.  Their  establishments  were  often  enriched 
by  liberal  donations.  A  church,  a  hospital,  and  a 
liouse  of  reception  or  common  entertainment,  gener- 
ally belonged  to  every  community  of  Beguines.  Tlie 
sisters  were  distinguished  from  the  rest  of  the  laity 
only  by  their  diligence  and  devotedness,  piety, 
modesty,  and  zeal  for  the  purity  of  youthful  educa- 
tion. Societies  of  B.  flourished  greatly  during  the 
12th  and  13th  centuries,  when  they  spread  them- 
relves  over  France  and  Germany.  Among  the  most 
important  were  those  in  Hamburg,  Liibeck,  Regens- 
Inirg,  Magdeburg,  Leipsic,  Goslar,  Rochlitz,  and 
(xorlitz.  As  the  pietists  of  the  middle  ages,  the  B. 
were  often  subjected  to  persecution  by  the  mendi- 
cant orders  of  friars ;  but,  on  account  of  their 
practical  usefulness,  were  sheltered  by  the  pope  and 
councils  as  well  as  by  secular  authorities.  In  the 
13th  and  14th  centuries,  the  B.  became  united  with 
the  persecuted  spiritualists  among  the  Franciscans 
{ Frafricellcs),  and  with  the  sect  of  the  'Brethren 
and  Sisters  of  the  Free  Spiiit.'  Hence  arose  certain 
heresies,  which,  of  course,  occasioned  interference 
on  the  part  of  the  Inquisition  ;  and  on  account 
of  certain  immoralities,  a  synod  held  at  Fritzlar 
required  that  all  candidates  must  be  forty  years 
old  before  they  could  enter  a  society  of  Beguines. 
These  sisterlioods  maintained  their  position  in 
Germany  and  the  Netherlands  longer  than  in  other 
countries.  In  Holland,  they  existed  at  the  close  of 
the  18th  c. ;  and  in  the  present  day  we  find  here  and 
there  so-called  Bcfjuinen-hduscr  (Beguin-houses)  in 
Germany ;  but  they  are  now  nothing  more  than 
dlmshouses  for  poor  spinsters.  At  Ghent,  there 
is  still  a  celebrated  institution  of  B.,  numbering 
as  many  as  600  sisters,  besides  200  locataircs,  or 
ficcasional  inmates.  Their  houses  form  a  kind  of 
distinct  little  town,  called  the  Beguinage,  which, 
818 


though  environed  by  a  wall,  is  open  to  the  visits  of 
strangers.  Living  here  a  life  of  retirement  and 
piety,  the  B.,  in  their  simple  dark  dresses,  go 
out  as  nurses  to  the  hospital,  and  perform  other  acts 
of  kindness  among  the  poor.  As  above  stated,  they 
are  under  no  monastic  vow,  but  having  attached 
themselves  to  the  sisterhood,  it  is  their  boast  that 
none  is  known  to  have  quitted  it.  There  arc  houses 
of  B.  also  at  Antwerp,  Mechlin,  and  Bruges ;  and  in 
1854,  one  was  established  in  France,  at  Castelnaudry, 
in  the  department  of  Audc. 

Bkoiiakps  (tiler,  betiehren,  to  seek  with  impor- 
tunity). Societies  of  laymen  styling  themselves 
B.,  first  appeared  in  Germany,  the  Netherlands, 
and  the  south  of  France  in  the  beginning  of  the 
loth  c,  and  were  known  in  Italy  as  Bizachi  and 
Bocaxoti ;  but  they  never  obtained  the  reputation 
enjoyed  by  the  Beguine  sisterhood.  Towards  the 
end  of  the  13tli  c.,  they  were  commoidy  stigma- 
tised as  bonx  gnrgotis,  boni  pucri,  '  ministers'  men,' 
'bedesmen,'  'pietists,'  'vagabonds' — contemptuous 
titles,  which  expressed  the  low  estimation  in  which 
they  were  held.  On  account  of  heretics  of  all  sorts 
retreating  into  these  half-spiritual  communities,  they 
were  sulyected  to  severe  persecutions  after  1307, 
and  were  gradually  dispersed,  or  joined  the  orders 
of  Dominicans  and  Franciscans.  In  the  Netherlands, 
where  they  had  preserved  a  better  cliaracter  than 
elsewhere,  they  maintained  their  ground  longer,  and 
were  protected  by  Pope  Innocent  IV.  (1245),  in 
Brussels  by  Cardinal  Hugo  (1254),  and  in  Liege  by 
Pope  Urban  IV.  ^1201);  but  their  communities  dis- 
appeared in  the  11th  c. — Sec  Moi^ho'im,  I>c  Befihardis 
et  Beguinabus  (Leip.  17i>0),  and  Hallmann's  Ge- 
xchichte  des  I'ryjirtnif/s  da'  Bf/g.  Beghincn  (His- 
tory of  the  Origin  of  Beguines  in  Belgium),  Berlin, 
1843. 

BEHAIM,  Martin',  a  famotis  cosmographer,  de- 
scended from  a  Bohemian  family  which  settled 
in  Nuremberg  after  the  middle  of  the  13th  c,  and 
still  flourishes  there.  B.  was  born  in  Nuremberg 
in  1430  (or,  more  probably,  in  143G).  He  early 
entered  into  mercantile  life,  and  went  to  Venice 
(1457),  and  to  Mechlin,  Antwerp,  and  Vienna 
(1477_1479)^  in  pursuit  of  trade.  In  1480,  lie 
was  induced  to  go  to  Portugal,  where  he  soon  ac- 
quired a  reputation  as  a  skilful  maker  of  maps. 
From  1484  to  1485,  he  accompanied  the  Portuguese 
navigator,  Diego  Cam,  in  a  voyage  of  discovery 
along  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  and  sailed  as 
far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Zaire  or  Congo  river,  in 
hit.  22°  S.,  which  was  19^°  further  than  had  ever 
been  previously  reached.  In  1486,  B.  sailed  to 
Fayal,  one  of  the  Azore  islands,  where  a  Flemish 
colony  had  settled.  Here  he  married  the  daughter 
of  Jobst  von  Kiister,  governor  of  the  colony. 
In  1490  he  left  Fayal,  and  returned  to  his  native 
city,  Nuremberg,  where  he  resided  from  1491  to 
1493.  During  this  stay,  he  constructed  a  large 
globe,  principally  from  the  writings  of  Ptolemy, 
Pliny,  Strabo,  Marco  Polo,  and  Sir  John  Mandcville. 
It  IS  still  preserved  by  the  family  of  B.  in  Nurem- 
berg, and  is  a  valuable  record  of  the  progress  of 
discovery,  though  it  indicates  that  B.'s  geographical 
knowledge  did  not  at  that  period  extend  beyond 
Japan  on  the  east,  and  the  Cape  Verd  Islands  on 
the  west.  After  travelling  through  Flanders  and 
France,  B.  again  resided  in  Fayal  from  1494  to 
1506,  and  then  removed  to  Lisbon,  where  he  died, 
July  29,  1509.  The  services  rendered  by  B.  to 
geographical  discovery  and  the  science  of  navigation 
were  considerable,  though,  according  to  the  latest 
investigations,  there  is  no  support  for  the  theory 
that  B.  was  the  discoverer  of  America,  or  even  that 
Columbus  and  Magelhaen  were  indebted  to  B.  for 
guidance  with  regard  to  their  discoveries.     B.  left 


BEHEADIXG-BEHISTUN'. 


no  works  behind  him  except  his  maps  and  charts.— 
Murr's  Di.plomatische  GeschlcJUe  <les  RUters  von  B. 
(Niirn  1778  ;  2d  Aufl.,  1801) ;  and  A.  von  Humboldt  s 
Exainen  Critique  dc  VHistoire  dc  la  Geographie  du 
Nouveau  Continent,  vol.  i.  (Par.  1836). 

BEHEA'DING.     See  Capital  Punishment. 

BEHISTU'N,  or  BISUTU'N  (Lat.  Bagistamts ; 
Persian,  Ba(/hi.^tnn,  Place  of  Gardens),  a  ruined  town 
of  the  Persian  province  of  Irak-Ajcnii,  21  miles  east 
of  Kirmanshah,  lat.  34°  18'  N.,  long.  47"  30'  E.  B. 
is  chiefly  celebrated  for  a  remarkable  mountain, 
which  on  one  side  rises  almost  perpendiculnrly  to 
the  height  of  1700  feet,  and  which  was  in  ancient 
times  sacred  to  Jupiter  or  to  Ormuzd.  According  to 
Diodorus,  Scmiramis,  on  her  march  from  Babylon 
to  Ecbataiia,  in  Media  Magna,  encamped  near  this 
rock,  and  having  cut  away  and  polished  the  lower 
part  of  it,  had  her  own  likeness  and  those  of  a 
hundred  of  her  guards  engraved  on  it.  She  further, 
according  to  the  same  historian,  caused  the  following 
inscription  in  Assyrian  letters  to  be  cut  in  the  rock  : 
'  Semiramis  having  piled  up  one  upon  the  other  the 
trapping  of  the  beasts  of  burden  which  accompa- 
nied her,  ascended  by  these  means  from  the  plain  to 
the  top  of  the  rock.'     Ko  trace  of  these  inscriptions 


is  now  to  be  found,  and  Sir  Henry  Kawlinson 
accounts  for  their  absence  by  the  supposition  that 
they  were  destroyed  'by  Khusrau  Parviz  when  he 
was  preparing  to  "form  of  this  lOng  scarped  surface 
the  back  wall  of  his  palace.'  Diodorus  also  mentions 
that  Alexander  the  Great,  on  his  way  to  Ecbatana 
from  Susa,  visited  Behistun.  But  the  rock  is  espe- 
cially interesting  for  its  cuneiform  inscriptions  (q.  v.), 
which  within  recent  years  have  been  successfully 
deciphered  by  Sir  H.  Rawlinson.  The  principal 
inscription  of  B.,  executed  by  the  command  of 
Darius,  is  on  the  north  extremity  of  the  rock,  at 
an  elevation  of  300  feet  from  the  ground,  where  it 
could  not  have  been  engraved  without  the  aid  of 
scaftolding,  and  can  now  only  be  reached  by 
the  adventurous  antiquary  at  considerable  risk  to 
his  life.  The  labour  of  polishing  the  face  of  the 
rock,  so  as  to  fit  it  to  receive  the  inscriptions,  must 
have  been  very  great.  In  places  where  the  stone 
was  defective,'  pieces  were  fitted  in  and  fastened 
with  molten  lead  with  such  extreme  nicety,  that 
only  a  careful  scrutiny  can  detect  the  artifice. 
'  But  the  real  wonder  of  the  work,'  says  Sir  H. 
Rawlinson,  '  consists  in  the  inscriptions.  For  extent, 
for  beauty  of  execution,  for  uniformity  and  correct- 
ness, they  are  perhaps  unequalled  ia  the  world.   After 


■■■m,:.;:ii^ 


Rock  Inscriptions  at  Bohistun. 


the  engraving  of  the  rock  had  been  accomplished, 
a  coating  of  silicious  varnish  had  been  laid  on,  to 
give  a  clearness  of  outline  to  each  individual  letter, 
and  to  protect  the  surface  against  the  action  of  the 
elements.  This  varnish  is  of  infinitely  greater  hard- 
ness than  the  limestone  rock  beneath  it.'  Washed 
down  in  some  places  by  the  rain  of  twenty-three 
centuries,  it  lies  in  consistent  flakes  like  thin  layers 
of  lava  on  the  foot-ledge ;  in  others,  where  time  has 
honey-combed  the  rock  beneath,  it  adheres  to  the 
broken  surface,  still  shewing  with  sufficient  dis- 
tinctness the  forms  of  the  characters.  The  inscrip- 
tions  which  are  in  the    three  forms  of  cuneiform 

writing,  Persian,  Baliylonian,  and  Median — set 
forth  the  hereditary  right  of  Darius  to  the  throne 
of  Persia,  tracing  his  genealogy,  tlirough  eight  gene- 
rations, up  to  Achaemenes;  they  then  enumerate  the 
provinces  of  his  empire,  and  recount  his  triumphs 


over  the  various  rebels  who  rose  against -him  during 
the  first  four  years  of  his  reign.  The  monarch  him- 
self is  represented  on  the  tablet  with  a  bow  in  hand, 
and  his  foot  upon  the  prostrate  figure  of  a  man, 
while  nine  rebels,  chained  together  by  the  neck, 
stand  humbly  before  him ;  behind  him  are  two  of 
his  own  warriors,  and  above  him,  another  figure  [see 
cut].  The  Persian  inscriptions  which  Sir  H.  Raw- 
linson has  translated  are  contained  in  the  five  main 
columns  numbered  in  cut  1,  2,  3,  4,  5.  The  first 
column  contains  10  paragraphs,  and  96  lines.  Each 
paragraph  after  the  first,  which  commences,  'I  am 
Darius  the  (ireat  King,'  begins  with,  'Says  Darius 
the  Kintr.'  The  second  column  has  the  same  num- 
ber of  lines  in  16  paragraphs;  the  third,  92  lines 
and  14  paragraphs;  the  fourth  has  also  92  lines  and 
18  paragraphs;  and  the  fifth,  which  appears  to  be  a 
sunDlem"entarv  column,  35  lines.  With  the  exception 
*^  '  819 


BEUME— BEIRAM. 


of  the  first  paragraph  on  the  first  column,  all 
begin  with,  'Says  Darius  the  King.'  The  second, 
fourth,  and  fifth  columns  are  much  injured.  Sir  11, 
Rawlinson  fixes  the- epoch  of  the  sculpture  at  516 — 
515  B.  C.     See  Journal  of  Asiatic  Society,  vol.  x. 

BEHME,  Jacob,     See  Buiime. 

BEHN,  Aphara,  or  Aphra,  a  licentious  poetess 
and  novelist  of  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  the  date  of 
whose  birth  is  unknown,  was  the  daughter  of  Mr. 
Johnson,  a  gentleman  who,  through  his  aristocratic 
connections,  obtained  the  ay)pointment  of  governor 
of  Sin-inam.  He  died  on  his  passage  out,  but  the 
daughter  pursued  her  journey,  and  resided  at 
Surinam  for  some  considerable  time.  Here  slie  made 
the  acquaintance  of  the  ci'lebrated  slave  Oronoko, 
who  afterwards  became  the  subject  of  one  of  her 
novels,  and  of  a  tragedy  by  Southern.  Returning 
to  England,  she  married  Mr.  Behn,  a  merchant  of 
Dutch  extraction,  was  presented  at  court,  where  her 
personal  appearance  and  vivacious  freedom  of 
manners  pleased  the  '  Merry  Monarch,'  who  deputed 
her  to  watch  events  in  Flanders.  She  accordingly 
went  to  Antwerp,  where  she  succeeded  in  dis- 
covering the  intention  of  the  Dutch  to  sail  up  the 
Thames  and  Medvvay,  and  communicated  the  secret 
to  the  English  court ;  which,  however,  took  no  notice 
of  the  information,  a  slight  which  caused  the  fair 
agent  to  throw  up  state  politics  in  disgust.  On  her 
return  to  England,  she  became  intimate  with  all  the 
profligate  wits  as  well  as  the  more  staid  scholars 
and  poets  of  the  time,  and  devoted  herself  to  litera- 
ture. Her  n'mierous  plays,  poems,  tales,  letters, 
&c.,  are  disfigured  alike  by  general  impurity  of 
tone  and  indecency  of  language ;  and,  in  point  of 
intellectual  ability,  none  of  her  works  appear  de- 
serving of  the  high  praise  lavished  on  them  by 
Dryden,  Cotton,  Southern,  and  others.  She  died 
in  1689. 

BE'HRIXG,  Vitus,  the  discoverer  of  the  strait 
called  after  his  name,  was  a  native  of  Denmark,  and 
entered  as  captain  the  newly  formed  navy  of  Peter 
the  Great.  From  the  ability  and  daring  he  had 
displayed  in  the  wars  with  Sweden,  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  conduct  an  expedition  of  discovery 
in  the  Sea  of  Kamtchatka.  Sailing,  in  1728,  from 
a  port  on  the  east  of  Kamtchatka,  he  followed  the 
coast  northward  until  he  believed,  from  the  west- 
ward trending  of  the  land,  that  he  had  reached  the 
north-east  point  of  Asia.  It  is  now,  however, 
believed  that  the  cape  which  B.  rounded  was  to  the 
south  of  the  real  East  Cape  (in  lat.  66"),  and  that  he 
never  actually  reached  the  strait  to  which  he  has 
given  his  name.  After  some  years  spent  in  explora- 
tions on  the  coasts  of  Kamtchatka,  Okhotsk,  and 
the  north  of  Siberia,  he  sailed  in  1741  from  Okhotsk 
towards  the  American  continent,  and  sighting  land 
about  58^°  N.  lat.,  he  followed  the  coast  northward 
for  some  distance ;  but  sickness  and  storms  obliged 
him  to  return,  and  being  wrecked  on  the  desert 
island  of  Awatska,  since  called  Behring's  Island,  he 
died  there,  8th  December  1741.  The  previous  year, 
he  had  founded  the  present  settlement  of  Petropau- 
lovski,  in  the  Bay  of  Awatska. 

BE'HRING'S  STRAIT  separates  Asia  from 
America,  and  connects  the  Pacific  with  the  Arctic 
Ocean.  The  proof  that  the  two  continents  were 
not  connected  was  given  by  the  voyage  of  a  Cossack 
named  Deschnew,  who,  in  1648,  sailed  from  a 
harbour  in  Siberia,  in  the  Polar  Ocean,  into  the 
Sea  of  Kamtchatka.  But  the  whole  voyage  was 
long  regarded  by  Europeans  as  a  fable,  until 
Behring's  (q.  v.)  expedition  in  1728.  The  strait 
has  since  been  explored  by  Cook  and  Beechy. 
The  narrowest  part  is  near  66°  lat.,  between 
Fast  Cape  in  Asia,  and  Cape  Prince  of  Wales  in 
820 


America,  The  distance  between  the  two  Capes,  in 
a  direction  from  north-west  to  south-east,  is  nearly 
50  miles;  about  midway  are  three  uninhabited 
islands.  The  greatest  depth,  some  30  fathoms,  is 
towards  the  middle,  and  the  water  is  shallower 
towards  the  American  coast  than  the  Asiatic.  A 
very  old  Japanese  map  in  the  British  Museum  shews 
the  leading  features  of  this  strait  very  accurately. — 
Behrino's  Ska,  a  part  of  the  North  Pacific  Ocean, 
commonly  known  as  the  Sea  of  Kamtchatka, 
bounded  W.  by  the  Kamchatka,  E.  by  the  territory 
of  Alaska,  S.  by  the  Aleutian  Islands,  and  N.  by 
Behring's  Strait.  There  are  several  islands  in 
this  sea,  and  fogs  prevail  constantly ;  but  owing 
to  the  shallowness  of  the  strait,  there  are  no 
icebergs  of  magnitude  to  be  met  with. — Behring's 
LsLANP,  the  most  westerly  of  the  Aleutian  Islands  in 
lat.  55°  22'  N.,  long  166"  E.  It  has  an  area  of  30 
scpiare  miles,  and  is  noteworthy  as  the  place  where 
Behring,  the  discoverer,  was  wrecked  and  died  in 
1741. 

BEILA'X,  a  pass  and  town  in  the  northern  ex- 
tremity of  Syria,  on  the  east  shore  of  the  Gulf 
of  Iscanderoon.  The  pass  of  B.  runs  from  south-west 
to  north-cast,  between  the  mountain-ranges  of 
Rhosus  and  Amanus,  and  is  the  conmion  route  from 
Cilicia  into  Syria.  It  is  one  of  the  two  Amanian 
passes,  supposed  to  be  the  lower  one,  mentioned 
by  Cicero  as  capable  of  easy  ascent,  on  account 
of  their  narrowness.  There  seems  to  be  no  doubt 
that,  in  the  war  between  Darius  and  Alexander,  the 
B.  Pass  was  an  important  consideration  to  both 
commanders,  but  historians  and  geographers  appear 
to  be  at  variance  as  to  the  precise  advantage  taken 
of  it  in  the  struggle.  The  town  of  B.  is  situated 
near  the  summit-level  of  the  pass,  at  an  elevation 
of  1584  feet  above  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  It  has  a 
population  of  about  5000,  many  of  whom  arc  wealthy, 
and  is  much  esteemed  for  its  salubrity  and  fine 
water,  which  is  supplied  by  numerous  aqueducts. 
Between  the  north-western  loot  of  the  pass  and  the 
sea,  are  caves  and  springs,  supposed  to  be  the  site  of 
tlie  ancient  Myriandrus,  B.  was  the  scene  of  a 
battle  between  the  Egyptians  and  Turks  in  1832, 
when  the  latter  were  defeated. 

BE'IRA,  a  Portuguese  province,  bounded  N.  by 
the  provinces  of  Minho  and  Tras-os-Montes ;  S.  by 
Estremadura  and  Alemtejo  ;  E.  by  Spain ;  and  W. 
by  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  It  has  an  area  of  about 
9800  square  miles,  and  a  population  df  1,181,968. 
The  surface  is  mountainous,  and  the  soil  on  the 
plains  sandy,  and  generally  far  from  fertile.  The 
mountain-slopes  afford  good  pasturage  for  sheep 
and  cattle.  The  products  are  corn,  wine,  oil,  flax, 
and  various  kinds  of  fruit,  and  considerable  attention 
is  paid  to  the  rearing  of  bees.  Sea-salt  is  obtained 
at  the  coast.  The  river  Douro  waters  the  whole  of 
its  northern,  and  the  Tagus  a  portion  of  its  southern, 
boundary.  The  Mondego  and  Vouga  flow  through 
its  centre.  Iron,  coal,  and  marble  are  wrought  in 
small  quantity.  There  is  little  done  in  manufactures. 
The  inhabitants  are  an  industrious  race  of  people. 
In  1835,  the  province  was  divided  into  Upper  and 
Lower  Beira,  the  former  having  Viseu  and  the  latter 
Castel  Branco  for  its  capital. 

BEIRAM,  or  BAIRAM,  a  Mohammedan  festival, 
somewhat  analogous  to  Easter.  It  commences  imme- 
diately after  the  fast  of  Ramadan,  or  Ramazan, 
which  corresponds  to  Lent.  Being  one  of  the  only 
two  feasts  the  Moslems  have  in  the  year,  it  is  looked 
forward  to  with  great  interest,  the  zest  being 
enhanced  by  the  previous  abstinence.  Its  advent 
is  announced  at  Constantinople  by  the  discharge  of 
artillery,  the  beating  of  drums,  and  blowing  of 
trumpets.     Properly,  it  should  terminate  in  one  day. 


BEIT— BEKE. 


but  the  Moslems  in  the  capital  tliiiik  it  no  oftence  [  the  Peisluva  in  ISIS,  it  was  assigned  by  the  British 
to  their  abstemious  proi)het  to  caiiv  the  festivities  to  the  dependent  Kajah  of  Satara  ;  beiuf^  resumed, 
over  two  davs;   while   in  other   parts'of  Turkey  and    however,  by    the  donors  on    the    extinetion    of  the 

„  .  .  •  ...  1,1  1.     :,...:.,..    4°.. .nil..    St.       ICIC  \r«..r    ♦V..>^    n     tri-ofln.^l    fiai^flV 


Persia,  they  are  often  protracted  a  week  or  more 
Dances,  music,  processions,  &c.,  in  which  the  women 
are  permitted  greater  indulgence  than  usual,  form 
prominent  features  of  the  feast ;  and  at  this  time 
the  diB'erent  orders  of  the  empire  pay  homage  to  the 
sultan.  Seventy  days  after,  the  Mo.slems  celebrate 
their  only  olher  feast  ('  the  festival  of  the  sacrifices'), 
called  the  lessfr  B.,  which  is  the  day  appointed  by 
the  Mecca  pilgrims  for  slaying  the  victims,  and  was 
instituted  in  commemoration  of  the  otfering  up  of 
Isaac  by  Abraham.  The  lesser  B.  usually  lasts 
three  days,  but  it  is  not  celebrated  with  anything 
like  the  pomp  of  the  other.  During  the  continuance 
of  each  of  the  festivals,  only  one  religious  service 
takes  place.  The  Mohammedan  year  being  the 
lunar  one  of  354  days,  in  the  course  of  thirty-three 
years  the  festivals  run  through  all  the  seasons. 

BEIT  is  an  Arabic  word,  signifying  houpc,  abode, 
or  place,  the  equivalent  of  which  in  Hebrew  is,  Beth. 
Thus,  in  the  former  language,  we  have  Beit-al-I/archn, 
'  the  house  of  the  sanctuary,'  or  '  tlie  sacred  house  ;' 
and  in  the  latter,  Bcth-el,  '  house  of  God  ;'  Beth-any^ 
'  place  of  dates ;'  Bet/i-abara,  '  place  of  fords,'  &c. 

BEIT-EL-FA'KIH  (House  of  the  Saint),  a  town 
of  Teliama,  on  the  Red  Sea.  Being  the  frontier  town 
of  the  Egyptian  government,  it  has  a  considerable 
trade  in  coffee,  wax,  gum,  &c.,  which  articles  are 
exchanged  for  Indian  piece  goods  and  British  shawls. 
It  has  a  population  of  about  8000,  and  a  citadel  of 
some  strength.  The  houses  are  built  partly  of  mud 
and  partly  of  brick,  and  roofed  with  branches  of  the 
date-tree.  It  is  described  by  travellers  as  the  hottest 
town  in  Tehama. 

BEITU  LLAH  (Arab.,  House  of  God),  the  spa- 
cious building  or  temple  at  Mecca,  which  contains  the 
Kaaba.     See  Mecca  and  Kaaba. 

BE'JA  (the  Fax  JuUa  of  the  ancients),  a  town  in 
the  province  of  Alemtejo,  Portugal,  36  miles  south- 
south-west  of  Evora,  with  a  population  of  5500.  It 
is  fortified,  its  walls  being  flanked  by  40  towers, 
has  a  castle  and  a  cathedral,  and  manufactories  of 
leather  and  earthenwares. 

BE'JAN,  or  BA'JAN,  the  name  of  the  first  or 
'  freshman'  class  in  some  at  least  of  the  Scotch,  and 
of  old  in  many  continental  universities.  The  word 
is  believed  to  be  derived  from  the  French  bec-jaune, 
or  yellow  neb,  a  term  used  to  designate  a  nestling 
or  "unfledged  bird.  The  levying  of  bcjaunia,  or 
payments  for  'first-footing'  by  students  on  entering 
college,  was  forbidden  by  the  statutes  of  the  uni- 
versity of  Orleans  in  13B5,  and  of  the  university  of 
Toulouse  in  1401.  The  election  of  an  Abbas  Bejan- 
orum,  or  '  Abbot  of  the  Greenhorns,'  was  prohibited 
by  the  statutes  of  the  university  of  Paris  in  1493. 
In  the  university  of  Vienna,  the  bejan  was  called 
beanus,  a  word  of  the  same  meaning,  and  no  doubt 
of  the  same  origin. 

BEJAPU'll,  a  deserted  city  in  the  presidency 
of  Bombay,  lat.  l(i°  50'  N.,  and  long.  75"  48'  E.  It 
is  situated  to  the  south-east  of  Bombay,  Poonah,  and 
Satara,  at  the  respective  distances  of  245,  170,  and 
130  miles,  being  on  an  afllucnt  of  the  Kistna  or 
Krishna,  which  flows  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  and 
nearly  touching  the  west  border  of  the  Nizam's 
territories.  B.  was  for  centuries  the  flourishing 
capital  of  a  powerful  kingdom,  falling  therewith 
under  various  dynasties  in  succe.-^sion,  Hindu  and 
Mussulman,  till,"  in  1686,  it  was  captured  by 
Aurungzebe.  Thus  stripped  of  its  independence,  B. 
speedily  sank  into  the  shadow  of  a  mighty  name, 
passing",  during  the  early  part  of  the  18th  c,  into 
the  hands  of  the  Mahrattas.     On  the  overthrow  of 


reigning  family  in  1848.  Now  that  a  gradual  decay 
has  done  its  worst,  B.,  as  its  own  mausoleum,  pre- 
sents a  contrast  perhaps  uneciualled  in  the  world. 
Lofty  walls  of  hewn  stone,  still  entire,  with  an  im- 
posing background  of  cupolas  and  minarets,  enclose 
the  silent  and  desolate  fragments  of  a  city  which 
is  said  to  have  contained  lui>,0U(j  dwellings,  and 
to  have  been  divided  into  quarters  that  measured 
their  circuit  by  leagues.  With  the  exception  of 
an  ancient  temple,  the  sole  relic  of  aboriginal  do- 
mination, the  ruins  are  of  Mohammedan  origin, 
such  as  beautiful,  mosques,  colossal  tombs,  and  a 
fort  of  more  than  six  miles  in  circuit,  with  an  inner 
citadel.  In  addition  to  the  architectural  remains, 
one  of  the  wonders  of  the  place  is,  perhaps  the 
largest  piece  of  brass  ordnance  in  existence,  cast  at 
Ahmednuggur,  where  the  mould  may  still  be  seen. 
Latterly,  all  these  monuments  of  the  instabiUty  of 
human  grandeur  have  been  carefully  preserved,  both 
the  Rnjah  of  Satara  and  the  British  government 
having  done  everything  to  prevent  further  decay 
and  dilapidation. 

BEKAA,  the  Coele-Syria  of  the  ancients,  the 
'  Plain  of  Lebanon'  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  j;i 
Bekaa  (the  Valley)  of  the  natives  of  Syria,  is  en- 
clo.sed  between  the  parallel  ranges  of  Lebanon  and 
Anti-Lebanon,  which  mountains  it  divides,  and  ex- 
tends about  90  miles  from  north  to  south,  its  greatest 
width  being  about  12  miles.  It  is  the  most  rich 
and  beautiful  plain  in  Syria ;  but  although  the  soil 
is  good,  and  water  abundant  from  the  numerous 
mountain-springs,  a  very  small  portion  of  it  is  culti- 
vated. It  is  very  much  frequented  by  the  Arabs, 
who  bring  down  their  young  horses  in  the  spring- 
time to  graze  on  the  plain. 

BEKE,  Charles  Tilstone,  a  modern  English 
traveller  in  Abyssinia,  was  born  in  London,  October 
10,1800;  received  a  commercial  education  ;  after- 
wards studied  law  in  Lincoln's  Inn,  and  devoted  a 
great  part  of  his  attention  to  ancient  history, 
philology,  and  ethnography.  The  results  of  these 
studies  first  appeared  in  his  work,  Originea^  Bibliae 
or  researches  in  primeval  history,  vol.  i.,  Lond. 
1834.  His  historical  and  geographical  studies  of  the 
East,  led  B.  to  consider  the  great  importance  of 
Abyssinia  for  intercourse  with  Central  Africa ;  but 
his  proposals  to  undertake  an  exploring  journey  were 
declined  by  the  government  and  by  several  learned 
societies.  Supj)orted  only  by  private  individuals, 
he  determined  to  proceed  "to  Abyssinia  ;  and  joining 
there  the  party  led  by  Major  Harris,  he  distin- 
guished himselfby  the  exploration  of  Godshem  and 
the  countries  lying  to  the  south,  which  were  pre- 
viously almost  entirely  unknown  in  Europe.  The 
results  of  these  researches  appeared  partly  in  several 
journals,  and  in  Abyssinia,  a  Statement  of  Facts,  &c. 
(2d  ed.,  Lond.  1846).  Having  returned  to  Europe, 
he  excited  the  attention  of  geographers  by  his  pub- 
lications :  the  Fssay  on  the  Nile  and  its  IVibutaries, 
( Lond.  1 847 ) ;  On  the  Sources  of  the  Nile  in  the  Moun- 
tains of  the  Jifoon  {ISiS)  ;  On  the  Sources  of  the Mle 
(1849);  and  by  his  Mhnoire  Justificatif  en  Rehabi- 
litation des  Feres  Faez  et  Lobo  (Paris,  1848).  He 
became  involved  in  a  controversy  with  M.  d'Abbadic 
by  a  Letter  to  M.  ])aussy{\M^),  and  An  Enquiry  into 
A.  d'Abndie's  Jonrncy  to  Kaffa  (1850),  in  which  he 
attempted  to  shew  that  this  said  journey  for  dis- 
covery of  the  Nile's  sources  (1843 — 1844)  wasa  mere 
fiction.  Besides  many  essays  on  ethnography  and 
geography,  B.  has  published  a  treatise  On  the  Geo- 
graphical Distribution  of  Languaf,<es  in  Abyssinia 
(Edin.  1849). 

821 


BEKES— BELEMN'ITES. 


BEKES,  or  BEKESVAR,  a  town  of  Hungary, 
capital  of  the  eouuty  of  the  same  name,  and  situated 
at  the  confluence  of  tlie  black  and  White  Kuriis. 
Pop.  18,000,  who  do  a  trade  in  cattle,  corn,  and 
Loncy. 

BEKKER,  Immanuel,  a  German  philologist,  dis- 
tinguished by  his  recensions  of  the  texts  of  (Ircek 
and  Roman  classics,  was  born  in  Berlin,  1785 ; 
studied  in  Halle,  1803 — 1807,  and  was  the  most 
eminent  pupil  of  F.  A.  Wolf.  Afterwards,  he  was 
engaged  at  Paris  on  the  Corpus  Jnscripiionttrn  Grcc- 
canmi.  The  results  of  his  researches  in  the  libraries 
of  Italy  (1817 — 1819)  appear  in  his  Anrcdota  Grwca 
(3  vols.,  Berlin,  1814 — 1821),  and  his  numerous 
recensions  of  texts  derived  solely  from  MSS.,  and 
independently  of  printed  editions.  The  writers 
included  in  these  recensions  are  Plato,  the  Attic 
orators,  Aristotle,  Sextus  Empiricus,  Thucydides, 
Theognis,  Aristophanes,  Photius,  the  ycholia  on  the 
Jliad,  &c. 

BEL  AND  THE  DRAGOX,  an  apocryphal  book 
of  the  Old  Testament.  It  does  not  seem  to  have 
been  accepted  as  inspired  by  the  Jewish  Church, 
nor  is  there  any  proof  that  a  Hebrew  or  Chaldee 
version  of  the  story  ever  existed.  Jerome  considered 
it  a  '  fable,'  an  opinion  in  which  most  modern  readers 
will  coincide.  It  is,  nevertheless,  read  for  edifi- 
cation both  in  the  Roman  Catholic  and  Anglo- 
Catholic  churches :  in  the  former,  on  Ash  Wednes- 
day ;  in  the  latter,  on  the  23d  of  November.  Ac- 
cording to  Jahn,  the  aim  of  the  writer  was  '  to  warn 
against  the  sin  of  idolatry  some  of  his  brethren  who 
had  embraced  the  Egyptian  superstitions.' 

BIjLA,  the  name  of  four  Hungarian  kings  of  the 
family  of  Arpad. — B.  I.  (1061 — 1063)  energetically 
suppressed  the  last  attempt  to  restore  heathenism, 
and  by  the  introduction  of  a  fixed  standard  of 
measures,  weights,  and  coinage,  virtually  founded 
the  commerce  of  Hungary.  He  was  also  the  first  to 
introduce  the  representative  system  into  the  diet, 
by  appointing,  in  lieu  of  the  collective  nobility,  two 
nobles  only  from  each  of  the  different  counties. — B. 
II.,  surnamed  'the  Blind,'  1131 — 1141,  was  entirely 
under  the  guidance  of  his  bloodthirsty  spouse, 
Helena,  and  after  her  decease,  drank  himself  to 
death. — B.  III.,  1174 — 1196.  Educated  in  Constan- 
tinople, he  introduced  Byzantine  customs  and  culture 
into  his  own  country,  which  was  certainly  favour- 
able to  its  social  development,  though,  on  the  other 
hand,  his  evident  devotion  to  the  Greek  emperor 
Emanuel  threatened  its  political  independence. — B. 
IV.,  1236 — 1270,  son  of  that  Andreas  from  whom  the 
nobles  extorted  the  '  Golden  Bull,'  Hungary's  Magna 
Charta.  His  chief  aim  was  to  humble  the  nobility, 
and  restore  the  royal  power  to  its  former  propor- 
tions ;  and  he  thus  roused  a  spirit  of  universal  dis- 
content, which  led  to  a  party  among  the  nobles  call- 
ing in  the  Austrian  Duke,  Frederick  II.,  to  their 
aid ;  but,  in  the  year  1236,  he  was  conquered  by  B., 
and  forced  to  pay  tribute.  Before  long,  however, 
the  king  had  to  seek  a  refuge  with  his  discomfited 
foe  ;  for  the  Mongols,  who  invaded  Hungary  in  I'M, 
defeated  him  on  the  Sajo,  and  put  him  to  flight. 
It  was  only  after  robbing  him  of  all  the  treasure  he 
had  managed  to  save,  and  extorting  from  him  three 
of  his  counties,  that  Frederick  II.  granted  the  royal 
fugitive  a  shelter  in  Austria,  wdiere  he  remained  till 
the  Mongols,  having  heard  of  the  death  of  their 
khan,  left  the  country  they  had  devastated.  B. 
now  made  it  his  especial  care,  by  rebuilding  the 
destroyed  villages,  and  inviting  new  settlers  thither, 
to  do  away  with  the  tokens  of  that  terrible  invasion  ; 
and  he  so  far  succeeded  as  to  be  able  in  1246,  to 
repay  Frederick's  inhospitality  by  defeating  him 
at  Vinnna,  and  to  repulse  a  second  attempt  at 
822 


Mongolian  invasion.  He  died  in  1270,  his  last  yeara 
having  been  embittered  by  an  attempt  at  rebellion 
on  the  part  of  his  son  Stephen. 

BELAYING,  one  of  the  many  modes  of  fastening 
ropes  on  shipboaid.  It  is  efleeted  by  winding  a 
rope,  generally  a  part  of  the  running  rigging,  round 
a  piece  of  w-ood  called  a  kleat  or  a  kevel,  or  else 
round  a  belaying-pin,  which  is  au  ashen  stafi'froni 
twelve  to  sixteen  inches  in  length. 

BELBEY'S  (ancient  Biiba.ilis  Acfria),  a  town  of 
5000  inhabitants,  situated  on  the  east  arm  of  the 
Nile,  Lower  Egypt,  and  28  miles  north-north-east  of 
Cairo.  It  is  enclosed  by  earthen  ramparts,  has 
numerous  mosques,  and  is  one  of  the  stations  on  the 
route  from  Cairo  to  Suez,  and  from  Egypt  to  Syria. 

BELCHER,  Sir  Edw^vrd,  a  distinguished  English 
naval  officer,  born  in  1799,  entered  the  navy  in 
1812  as  a  first-class  volunteer,  was  soon  made  a 
midshipman,  and  in  1816  took  part  in  the  bombard' 
ment  of  Algiers.  In  1825,  B.  was  appointed  assis- 
tant-surveyor to  the  expedition  about  to  explore 
Behring's  Strait  under  Captain  Becchey  ,  in  1829, 
he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  commander.  1836 
saw  him  in  command  of  the  Sulphur,  conmiissioned 
to  explore  the  western  coasts  of  America  and  the 
Indies.  He  was  absent  six  years,  in  which  time  he 
had  sailed  round  the  world.  During  this  voyage 
he  rendered  important  services  in  the  Canton  river 
to  Lord  Gough,  whose  successes  over  the  Chinese 
were  greatly  due  to  B.'s  soundings  and  recon- 
naissances pushed  into  the  interior.  On  his  return, 
he  published  a  narrative  of  the  voyage ;  and  in 
1843,  in  consideration  of  his  services,  he  was  made 
a  post-captain,  and  knighted.  After  being  em- 
ployed on  surveying  service  in  the  East  Indies,  he 
was,  in  1852,  appointed  to  the  command  of  the 
expedition  sent  out  by  government  to  search  for 
Sir  John  Franklin.  B.  has  published  several  other 
works  besides  the  one  already  mentioned,  in- 
cluding The  Last  of  the  Arctic  ]'oi/ar;es  (Lond. 
1855);  Narrative  of  a  Vot/age  to  the  East  Jridies  in 
1843 — 1848;  and  'Horace  Edward  Brenton,&  novel 
(1856).     He  attained  flag  rank  in  1861. 

BELCHl'TE,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of 
Saragossa,  about  22  miles  south-south-east  of  the 
city  of  that  name,  celebrated  as  the  place  where,  in 
June  18,  1809,  the  French,  under  Suchet,  completely 
routed  the  Spanish  under  General  Blake,  capturing 
all  their  guns,  10  in  number,  with  a  loss  of  only  40 
men. 

BELE'M,  a  town  of  Portugal,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Tagus,  2  miles  south-west  of  Lisbon,  of 
which  it  may  be  said  to  form  a  fashionable  suburb. 
It  has  an  iron  foundry,  a  custom-house,  and  quaran- 
tine establishment,  a  tower  defending  the  entrance 
of  the  river.  It  is  historically  interesting  as  the 
place  from  whence  Vasco  dc  Gama  set  sail  on  his 
voyage  of  oriental  discovery.  It  was  taken  in 
November  1807  by  the  French,  the  royal  family  of 
Portugal  embarking  from  its  quay  for  Brazil  as  they 
entered.  la  1833  it  was  occupied  by  Don  Pedro's 
troops. 

BELE'M,  or  PARA',  a  city  of  Brazil,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Para,  the  most  southerly  arm  of  the 
estuary  of  the  Amazon.     See  Para. 

BE'LEMNITES  (Gr.  belemnon,  a  dart  or  arrow), 
an  interesting  genus  of  fossil  cephalopodous  Ifollusca, 
the  type  of  a  family  called  Bekiiinilidai,  to  the  whole 
of  winch  the  name  B.  is  very  generally  extended, 
closely  allied  to  the  Sepiadce,  or  Cuttle  (q.  v.)  family. 
No  recent  species  of  B.  is  known :  fossil  species  are 
very  numerous,  and  are  found  in  all  the  oolitic  and 
cretaceous  strata,  from  the  lowest  lias  to  the  upper 
chalk,  some  of  which  are  filled  with  myriads  of  their 


BELFAST— BELFRY. 


remains.  Tht-se  A-mains  arc  generally  those  of  the 
shell  alone,  which  is  now  known  to  have  been  an 
internal  sliell,  entirely  included  within  tlie  body  of 
the   animal,  like   that   of  the   cuttle.     The   shell,  as 


Bdomnitcs  jiistiliformis. 

seen  in  the  most  perfect  specimens,  is  double,  con- 
sisting of  a  conical  chambered  portion  (the  phracf- 
tnocone),  inserted  into  a  longer,  solid,  somewhat 
conical  or  ta[)ering,  and  pointed  sheath.  The  space 
between  the  phraginoconc  and  sheath  is  occupied 
either  with  radiating  libros  or  conic:il  layers.  Tiie 
chambers  of  the  shell  are  connected  by  a  tube 
(sip/iunclc),  so  that  the  animal  probably  had  the 
power  of  ascending  and  descending  rapidly  in  the 
water.  Its  arms  are  known,  from  some  singularly 
perfect  specimens,  to  have  been  furnished  witli 
liorny  hooks  ;  and  these  it  probably  fixed  upon  a 
fish,  and  descended  with  its  prey  to  the  bottom,  like 
the  hooked  calamarics  (q.  v.)  of  the  present  seas. 
Remains  of  an  ink-bag,  like  that  of  the  cuttle,  have 
been  found  in  the  last  and  largest  chambers  of  the 
B. ;  but  remains  of  this  chamber,  which  must  have 
contained  all  the  viscera  of  the  animal,  are  very 
rarely  preserved,  tlie  shell  having  been  very  thin 
at  this  part.  The  part  most  commonly  found,  and 
generally  know-n  by  the  name  of  belemnite,  is  the 
solid  mucro,  or  point  into  which  the  sheath  was  pro- 
longed behind  the  chambered  shell.  These  have 
received  such  popular  names  as  Arrowheads,  Petri- 
fied Fingers,  Spectre-candles,  Picks,  Thunder-stones, 
&c.,  from  their  form,  or  from  the  notions  entertained 
of  their  nature  and  origin.  B.  appear  to  have  been 
of  very  different  sizes ;  in  some  of  the  largest,  the 
mere  mucro  is  10  inciics  long,  and  the  entire  animai 
with  its  arms  outstretched,  must  have  been  several 
feet  in  length. 

BELFA'ST,  the  chief  town  of  the  county  of 
Antrim  and  province  of  Ulster  in  Ireland.  This 
great  seaport  stands  at  the  embouchure  of  the 
Lagan,  at  the  head  of  Belfast  Lough,  12  miles 
from  the  Irish  Sea,  101  north  of  Dublin,  36 
north-east  of  Armagh,  130  south-west  of  Glasgow, 
and  150  north-west  of  Liverpool.  The  site  is 
chiefly  on  an  alluvial  deposit,  not  more  than  6 
feet  above  the  sea-level,  and  reclaimed  from  the 
marshes  of  the  Lagan.  On  the  land-side,  it  is 
picturesquely  bounded  by  the  ridges  of  Divis  (15f)7 
feet  high),  and  Cave  Hill  (1185  feet).  The  general 
aspect  of  B.  is  indicative  of  life  and  prosperity, 
exhibiting  all  the  trade  and  manufacture  of  Glas- 
gow and  Miinchestcr,  with  far  less  of  their  smoke 
and  dirt.  Many  of  the  streets,  especially  in  the 
White  Linen  Hall  quarter,  are  well  built  and  spa- 
cious. The  mercantile  quarter  lies  chiefly  near  the 
extensive  and  well-built  quays.  The  manufactories 
are  mostly  on  the  rising-ground  oh  the  north  and 
west  of  the  town.  Numerous  villas  sprinkle  the 
northern  shores  of  the  bay,  as  well  as  the  elevated 
suburb  of  Maloiie  to  the  south.  The  chief  public 
buildings  are — Queen's  College,  a  beautiful  structure 
in  the  Tudor  style,  opened  in  1849,  with  a  revenue  of 
£70(1(1  from  the  consolidated  fund;  Royal  Academi- 
cal Institution,  incorporated  in  1810,  affiliated  to  the 
London  University,  and  comprising  an  elementary 
and  collegiate  dojiartment,  and  a  school  of  design  ; 
Museum,  Linen  Hall,  Commercial  and  Corn  Ex- 
changes, churches,  and  banks.  The  fine  Botanic 
Gardens  of  the  Natural  History  Society  occupy 
17  acres.  B.  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  trade  and 
manufactures    of    Ireland,    and   is    second    only  to 


Dublin  as  an  Irish  port.  The  staple  manufactures 
are  linen  and  cotton.  The  linen  manufacture  dates 
from  1637.  Cotton-spinning  by  machinery  dates  from 
1777,  and  linen  from  1S()6.  In  1858,  there  were  in 
the  town  and  suburbs  33  steam-spinning  mills,  em- 
ploying 32,000  hands,  while  the  number  of  such  mills 
in  all  Ireland  was  76.  There  is  a  Royal  Society  in 
B.  to  promote  the  growth  of  flax  in  Ireland.  The 
other  chief  branches  of  industry  are  linen  and 
cotton  weaving,  bleaching,  dyeing,  calico-printing, 
and  iron  founding.  There  are  many  flour  and 
oil  mills,  chemical  works,  breweries,  ship-building, 
rope  and  sail-cloth  yards.  The  inland  trade  is  car- 
ried on  by  the  Lagan,  a  canal,  and  three  railways. 
The  B.  harbour  improvements  have,  since  1831,  cost 
£450,000 ;  yet  vessels  drawing  much  above  15  feet 
of  water  have  to  discharge  part  of  their  cargoes  at 
Garmoyle  on  the  Lough,  4  miles  below  Belfast.  The 
chief  exports  are  linen  and  cotton  goods,  grain, 
yarn,  flax,  tow,  cattle,  and  provisions.  In  1850, 
the  imports  were  valued  at  £6,938,328,  having 
doubled  in  15  years,  and  the  exports  at  £4,633,062. 
The  registered  shipping,  in  1857,  was  490  vessels, 
85,377  tons.  In  1858,  8420  vessels,  of  1,293,399 
tons,  entered  and  cleared  the  port.  The  most 
important  branch  of  commerce  is  the  Channel 
trade,  about  40  steamers  plying  regularly  between 
B.  and  the  chief  ports  of  England  and  Scotland, 
besides  Dublin  and  Derry.  The  foreign  trade  is 
also  great.  Pop.,  1851, 100,300 ;  in  1861,  78,344.  B. 
is  governed  by  a  corporation  of  10  aldermen — one 
being  mayor — and  30  councillors.  It  returns  2 
members  to  parliament.  B.  was  destroyed  by 
Edward  Bruce  in  the  14th  c,  but  became  an  import- 
ant town  since  16(i4,  receiving  a  charter  in  1611.  In 
the  great  civil  war,  the  inhabitants  at  first  joined 
the  parliament,  but  afterwards  became  royalists.  In 
reward  of  their  loyalty  to  William  III.,  the  '  regium 
donum,'  at  first  £1200  a  year,  was  granted  to  the 
Presbyterian  Synod  of  Ulster. 

BELFtlRT,  or  BEFORT,  a  town  of  France,  in 
the  department  of  the  Haut  Rhin.  It  is  situated 
at  the  southern  base  of  the  A'osges,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Savoureuse,  and  is  a  fortress  of  the 
second  class,  having  been  fortified  by  the  cele- 
brated Yauban.  B.  has  a  superior  tribunal,  a 
commercial  court,  a  board  of  customs,  and  public 
library.  Population  in  1861,  8101.  Iron,  paper, 
hats,  printed  calicoes,  &c.,  are  manufactm-ed  at 
Belfort,  which  is  the  entrepot  of  a  great  part 
of  the  French  trade  with  Lorraine,  Germany,  and 
Switzerland.  B.  was  ceded  to  France  by  Austria  in 
1648.  Prior  to  that  time,  it  was  a  place  of  little 
strength.  B.  was  invested  by  the  allies  in  January 
1814. 

BE'LFRY  (Fr.  befroi),  a  word  of  doubtful  origin  ; 
a  bell-tower,  or  turret,  usually  forming  part  of 
a  church,  but  sometimes  detached  from  it — as  at 
Evesham  and  Berkeley,  in  England,  and  still  more 
frequently  in  Italy.  See  Campanile.  Where  a 
church  was  built  in  a  deep  glen,  the  belfry  was 
perched  on  a  neighbouring  height,  as  at  St.  Feve 
and  elsewhere  in  Cornwall,  and  at  Ardclaeh  and 
Aldbar  in  Scotland.  At  this  last  place,  the  bell  was 
hung  upon  a  tree,  as  was  common  enough  in  Scotland 
at  the  close  of  the  17th  c.  Where  the  B.  consists  of 
a  mere  turret,  it  is  often  called  a  bell-gable  or  bell- 
cote,  and  is  always  placed  on  the  west  end  of  the 
church;  a  smaller  one  being  sometimes  placed  at 
the  east  end,  which  is  for  the  sanctus  bell,  for  which 
reason  it  is  placed  over  the  altar.  Municipal  belfries 
are  more  common  on  the  continent  than  in  this 
country.  When  the  burghs  began  to  rise  into 
importance  after  the  12th  c,  they  asserted  their 
right  to  have  bells  to  call  the  burghers  together  for 

823 


BELG^— BELGIOJOSO. 


council  or  for  action.  Thus  detached  belfries  arose 
in  the  heart  of  towns.  At  a  later  date,  they  often 
became  part  of  the  maison  de  ville,  or  town-house,  as 


Belfry  or  Bell-gable,  Idbury,  Oxfordshire. 

at  Glasgow  and  Aberdeen,  in  this  country  ;  at  St. 
Qucntin  and  Douai,  in  France ;  and  at  Brussels,  in 
Belgium. 

BE'LG^E,  the  name  given  by  Csesar  to  the  war- 
like tribes  which  in  his  time  occupied  that  one  of 
the  great  divisions  of  Gallia  which  embraced  part  of 
the  basin  of  the  Seine,  the  basin  of  the  Sonime,  of 
the  Scheldt,  of  the  Maas,  and  of  the  Moselle,  which 
itself  belongs  to  the  basin  of  the  Rhi-ne.  Their 
country  was  level,  containing  no  mountains  of  any 
height,  except  the  Vosges  in  the  south.  The  name 
seems  to  have  originally  designated  several  power- 
ful tribes  inhabiting  the  basin  of  the  Seine,  and  to 
have  been  afterwards  used  by  Caesar  as  a  general 
824 


appellation  for  all  the  peopfes  north  of  that  n'ver. 
These  B.  were,  in  all  probability,  chiefly  of  Celtic 
origin,  but  within  their  territories  were  to  be  found 
both  pure  and  mixed  Germans. 

When  South  Britain  was  invaded  by  Caesar,  he 
found  that  B.  from  the  opposite  shores  of  Gaul 
had  preceded  him,  and  were  settled  in  Kent  and 
Sussex,  having  driven  the  altorigines  into  the  interior. 
The  B.  in  Britain  resisted  for  nearly  a  century  the 
Roman  power,  but  were  finally  forced  to  yield  to  it. 
Caesar  regarded  them  as  German,  but  they  rather 
seem  to  have  belonged  to  the  Celtic  portion  of  the 
Gallic  Belgic.  Certainly,  none  of  the  names  of  their 
three  chief  towns  are  Germanic.  Aqure  Soils  (Bath) 
is  Latin ;  Ischalis  and  Venta  (Ilchester  and  Win- 
chester), British. 

BELGAU'M,  the  chief  city  of  a  district  of  the 
same  name  in  the  presidency  of  Bombay,  situated 
to  the  east  of  the  dividing  ridge  of  the  West  Ghauts, 
at  a  height  of  about  25()U  feet  above  the  sea.  Its 
lat.  is  15°  50'  N.,  and  long.  74"  SO'  E.,  its  distance  to 
the  north-west  of  Dharwar  being  4'2  miles.  B.  pos- 
sesses a  fort,  which,  in  1818,  was  taken  from  the 
Pcishwa  by  the  British.  Under  its  new  masters, 
the  place  has  made  considerable  progress.  It  has  a 
superior  institution  for  the  education  of  native 
youths,  which  is  supported  at  once  by  the  neigh- 
bouring princes,  the  British  government,  and  private 
individuals.  This  seminary,  in  18,53,  was  attended 
by  more  than  50  pupils  of  all  grades.  In  1848,  the 
citizens  spontaneously  subscribed  a  considerable  sum 
for  the  complete  construction  of  their  roads  and 
lanes — a  liberality  which,  besides  drawing  forth  a 
supplementary  grant  of  public  money,  roused  the 
emulation  of  adjacent  towns  and  villages.  B.  is  one 
of  the  principal  miUtary  stations  of  the  presidency, 
and  as  such  it  was,  in  1857,  the  scene  of  plotting,  if 
not  of  mutiny  in  common  with  Kolapore,  Poonah, 
Satara,  &c.  The  district  of  B.  contains  5405  square 
miles,  and  1,025,882  inhabitants. 

BELGIOJO'SO,  a  town  of  Lombardy,  North  Italy, 
pleasantly  situated  in  a  fruitful  plain  between  the  Po 
and  the  Olona,  9  miles  east  of  Pavia.  It  has  a  fine 
aqueduct  and  castle,  in  which  Francis  I.  spent  the 
night  previous  to  the  disastrous  battle  of  Pavia,  in 
which  he  was  made  prisoner.  The  Austrian  general 
Gvulai  made  B.  his  head-quarters  after  hi.'j  defeat  at 
Magenta,  June  4—5,  1859.     Pop.  3000. 


END   OF   VOL.   I. 


For  Reference 


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